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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77173 ***
+
+
+
+
+ _EPOCHS of HISTORY_
+
+ EDITED BY
+ EDWARD E. MORRIS, M.A.
+
+ THE CRUSADES.
+
+ G. W. COX, M.A.
+
+
+
+
+EPOCHS OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+Edited by Rev. G. W. COX and CHARLES SANKEY, M. A. Eleven volumes, 16mo,
+with 41 Maps and Plans. Price per vol., $1.00. The set, Roxburgh style,
+gilt top, in box, $11.00.
+
+TROY—ITS LEGEND, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. By S. G. W. Benjamin.
+
+THE GREEKS AND THE PERSIANS. By G. W. Cox.
+
+THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE. By G. W. Cox.
+
+THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES. By Charles Sankey.
+
+THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. By A. M. Curteis.
+
+EARLY ROME. By W. Ihne.
+
+ROME AND CARTHAGE. By R. Bosworth Smith.
+
+THE GRACCHI, MARIUS, AND SULLA. By A. H. Beesley.
+
+THE ROMAN TRIUMVIRATES. By Charles Merivale.
+
+THE EARLY EMPIRE. By W. Wolfe Capes.
+
+THE AGE OF THE ANTONINES. By W. Wolfe Capes.
+
+
+
+
+EPOCHS OF MODERN HISTORY.
+
+
+Edited by EDWARD E. MORRIS. Eighteen volumes, 16mo, with 77 Maps, Plans,
+and Tables. Price per vol., $1.00. The set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in
+box, $18.00.
+
+THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES. By R. W. Church.
+
+THE NORMANS IN EUROPE. By A. H. Johnson.
+
+THE CRUSADES. By G. W. Cox.
+
+THE EARLY PLANTAGENETS. By Wm. Stubbs.
+
+EDWARD III. By W. Warburton.
+
+THE HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK. By James Gairdner.
+
+THE ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION. By Frederic Seebohm.
+
+THE EARLY TUDORS. By C. E. Moberly.
+
+THE AGE OF ELIZABETH. By M. Creighton.
+
+THE THIRTY YEARS WAR, 1618-1648. By S. R. Gardiner.
+
+THE PURITAN REVOLUTION. By S. R. Gardiner.
+
+THE FALL OF THE STUARTS. By Edward Hale.
+
+THE ENGLISH RESTORATION AND LOUIS XIV. By Osmond Airy.
+
+THE AGE OF ANNE. By Edward E. Morris.
+
+THE EARLY HANOVERIANS. By Edward E. Morris.
+
+FREDERICK THE GREAT. By F. W. Longman.
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND FIRST EMPIRE. By W. O’Connor Morris. Appendix
+by Andrew D. White.
+
+THE EPOCH OF REFORM, 1830-1850. By Justin Macarthy.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: General Map for the ERA OF THE CRUSADES]
+
+
+
+
+ THE CRUSADES
+
+ BY
+ GEORGE W. COX, M.A.
+ AUTHOR OF
+ ‘HISTORY OF GREECE’ ‘MYTHOLOGY OF THE ARYAN NATIONS’
+ ETC.
+
+ _WITH A MAP_
+
+ NEW YORK:
+ CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS,
+ 1890.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ A. D. PAGE
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+
+ CAUSES LEADING TO THE CRUSADES.
+
+ The crusades a series of popular wars 1
+
+ Distinction between the crusades and other wars of
+ the Middle Ages 2
+
+ Absence of local feeling in the earliest Christian
+ traditions 3
+
+ The Christianity of St. Paul 4
+
+ The Christianity of the Roman empire 4
+
+ Localism of heathen religions 6
+
+ Influence of these local religions on Christianity 6
+
+ Growth of local associations in Palestine 7
+
+ Growth of pilgrimage to the holy places of Palestine 8
+
+ Gradual decay of spiritual religion 9
+
+ Encouragement given to pilgrimages 9
+
+ Trade in relics 10
+
+ Stimulus given by pilgrimages to commerce with the East 10
+
+ The long struggle between Rome and Persia 10
+
+ 611 Capture of Jerusalem by the Persian king Khosru II. 11
+
+ Persian invasion of Egypt 11
+
+ 622-625 Campaigns of the emperor Heraclius 11
+
+ 627 Battle of Nineveh 11
+
+ 628 Restoration of the True Cross by the Persians 12
+
+ 629 Pilgrimage of Heraclius to Jerusalem 12
+
+ 637 Conquest of Palestine by Omar 12
+
+ Terms of the treaty made by Omar with the Christians
+ of Jerusalem 13
+
+ Omar and the patriarch Sophronios 13
+
+ Effects of Arabian conquest on pilgrimage to Jerusalem 14
+
+ Uninterrupted continuance of pilgrimage 14
+
+ 1010 Ravages of the Egyptian sultan Hakem in Jerusalem 14
+
+ Persecution of Jews in Europe 15
+
+ Tax levied on pilgrims at the gates of Jerusalem 15
+
+ Expectation of the end of the world A. D. 1000 15
+
+ 997 Conversion of Hungary under king Stephen 16
+
+ Advance of the Seljukian Turks 17
+
+ 1092 Division of the Seljukian empire 17
+
+ Appeal of the Greek emperor Alexios to Western
+ Christendom 17
+
+ 1076 Seljukian conquest of Jerusalem 18
+
+ Increased burdens of the Christian pilgrims 18
+
+ Decline of commerce with the East 18
+
+ Oppression of the Christians of Palestine 19
+
+ General indignation felt in Western Christendom 19
+
+ Need of a religious sanction to sustain and direct
+ this feeling 19
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT.
+
+ Influence of Roman imperialism on the early popes 20
+
+ Schemes and motives of Gregory VII. 22
+
+ 1074 His circular letter to the faithful 22
+
+ 1081 The Normans in Italy 23
+
+ 1095 Council of Piacenza 24
+
+ Council of Clermont 25
+
+ 1093 Pilgrimage of the hermit Peter to Jerusalem 26
+
+ 1094 The mission and preaching of the hermit 27
+
+ 1095 Decrees of the council of Clermont prohibiting private
+ wars and confirming the Truce of God 29
+
+ Speech of Urban II. before the people 30
+
+ The assent of the multitude 31
+
+ The cross and the vow of the crusaders 32
+
+ Motives of the crusaders 32
+
+ Financial effects of the crusades 34
+
+ Effects of the crusades on the power of the pope and
+ the clergy 35
+
+ Dispensing power of the pope 35
+
+ Tendency of the crusades to break up the feudal system 35
+
+ Increasing wealth of the pope and the clergy 36
+
+ Alienation, and pledging or mortgaging, of lands 36
+
+ The crusades not national enterprises 37
+
+ 1085 Condition of Europe in the time of Urban II. 38
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ THE FIRST CRUSADE.
+
+ 1096 Departure of the first rabble of crusaders under Peter
+ the Hermit and Walter the Penniless 39
+
+ Second rabble under Emico and Gotschalk 40
+
+ Bloody persecutions of the Jews 40
+
+ The Jews taken under the protection of the empire 41
+
+ March of Walter and his followers through Hungary and
+ Bulgaria 41
+
+ Passage of the pilgrims across the Bosporos 42
+
+ Their utter destruction by Kilidje Arslan 42
+
+ Rank and character of the leaders of the first crusade 43
+
+ Godfrey of Bouillon and his brothers Baldwin and
+ Eustace 43
+
+ Hugh of Vermandois 43
+
+ Robert of Normandy 44
+
+ Robert of Flanders, and Stephen of Chartres 44
+
+ Adhemar, bishop of Puy 44
+
+ Raymond of Toulouse 45
+
+ Bohemond 45
+
+ Tancred 45
+
+ Cause and effect of chivalry 46
+
+ Knighthood 47
+
+ Courtesy 48
+
+ August Departure of the main army of the crusaders under
+ Godfrey 49
+
+ Captivity of Hugh of Vermandois 49
+
+ Christmas Arrival of Godfrey before the walls of
+ Constantinople 50
+
+ Policy of the emperor Alexios 51
+
+ Compact between Alexios and the crusaders 51
+
+ Homage of the crusaders to Alexios 52
+
+ Disastrous march of Raymond of Toulouse to
+ Constantinople 53
+
+ Refusal of Raymond to do homage 53
+
+ 1097 Conduct of Alexios to the crusaders 54
+
+ March Passage of the crusaders across the Bosporos 55
+
+ Thorough antagonism between the crusaders and the
+ Greeks 55
+
+ Contrast between the Greek and Latin clergy 56
+
+ Numbers of the crusaders 56
+
+ June Siege and fall of Nice (Nikaia) 57
+
+ July 4 Battle of Dorylaion 58
+
+ March to Cogni and the Pisidian Antioch 58
+
+ Quarrel between Godfrey and Tancred at Tarsus 59
+
+ Conquest of Edessa by Baldwin 59
+
+ October Arrival of the crusaders before the Syrian Antioch 60
+
+ Siege of Antioch 60
+
+ Folly of the besiegers 61
+
+ Famine in the crusading camp 62
+
+ Arrival of envoys from the sultan of Egypt 62
+
+ Their terms rejected by the crusaders 63
+
+ 1098 Fierce warfare between the Christians and the Turks 63
+
+ March Plans of Bohemond for the reduction of Antioch 64
+
+ June Betrayal of Antioch to Bohemond 65
+
+ Arrival of the Persians under Kerboga 65
+
+ Desertion of Stephen of Chartres 66
+
+ Desperate straits of the crusaders in Antioch 66
+
+ Discovery of the Holy Lance 67
+
+ Fate of the discoverer 68
+
+ June 28 Battle of Antioch 68
+
+ Defeat of Kerboga 69
+
+ Antioch made a principality for Bohemond 69
+
+ Mission of Hugh of Vermandois to Constantinople 70
+
+ Death of Adhemar, bishop of Puy 70
+
+ Siege and capture of Marra 71
+
+ 1099, May March of the crusaders from Antioch 71
+
+ June Siege of Jerusalem 72
+
+ July Storming of the city 74
+
+ Adoration of the crusaders in the church of the
+ Sepulchre 74
+
+ Exaltation of Peter the Hermit 75
+
+ Second and deliberate massacre in Jerusalem 75
+
+ Comparison of Omar and Godfrey 76
+
+ Election of Godfrey to the sovereignty of Jerusalem 76
+
+ Battle of Ascalon 77
+
+ Return of the pilgrims to Europe 77
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ THE LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.
+
+ 1099-1100 Reign of Godfrey 77
+
+ Daimbert, patriarch of Jerusalem 78
+
+ Assize of Jerusalem 78
+
+ Judicial courts instituted by Godfrey 79
+
+ 1100-1118 Baldwin I. 80
+
+ 1101 Death of Stephen of Chartres 80
+
+ 1105 Death of Raymond of Toulouse 80
+
+ Sequel of the career of Bohemond 81
+
+ 1112 Death of Tancred 82
+
+ Effect of the crusades on the Byzantine empire 82
+
+ Fresh swarms of pilgrims 82
+
+ 1101 Death of Hugh of Vermandois 83
+
+ 1118 Death of the emperor Alexios 83
+
+ 1118-1131 Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem 84
+
+ 1115 Conquest of Sidon 84
+
+ 1124 Conquest of Tyre 84
+
+ 1131-1144 Fulk, king of Jerusalem 85
+
+ 1144-1162 Baldwin III. 85
+
+ 1145 Fall of Edessa 85
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ THE SECOND CRUSADE.
+
+ Bernard the apostle of the second crusade 86
+
+ Sources of Bernard’s influence 88
+
+ 1137 Death of Louis VI. of France 88
+
+ 1146 Council of Vezelai 89
+
+ Easter Speech of Bernard 89
+
+ The Knights Templars 90
+
+ Reluctance of Conrad, emperor of Germany, to join
+ the crusade 90
+
+ 1147 Meeting of Louis VII. and the pope at St Denys 91
+
+ Whitsuntide Persecution of the Jews stirred up by the monk Rodolph 91
+
+ Suppressed by Bernard 92
+
+ March of the crusaders under Conrad and Louis 92
+
+ Refusal of Conrad to meet the emperor Manuel at
+ Constantinople 92
+
+ Supposed treachery of Manuel 93
+
+ Disastrous march of Conrad and Louis 93
+
+ 1148 Visit of the French king to Jerusalem 94
+
+ March Resolution to attack Damascus 94
+
+ Siege of Damascus 95
+
+ Treachery of the barons of Palestine 95
+
+ Retreat of the army to Jerusalem 95
+
+ Failure of the crusade 95
+
+ Accusations against St Bernard 96
+
+ His answer 96
+
+ 1153 Death of St. Bernard 97
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ THE LOSS OF JERUSALEM.
+
+ Misuse of victory by the crusaders 97
+
+ 1151 Death of Joceline of Courtenay 97
+
+ 1153 Siege and fall of Ascalon 97
+
+ 1162 Death of Baldwin III. Almeric elected king of
+ Jerusalem 98
+
+ Relations of Almeric with the sultans of Egypt and
+ Aleppo 98
+
+ Mission of Shiracouh and Saladin to Egypt 99
+
+ Siege and surrender of Shiracouh in Pelusium 99
+
+ 1163 Defeat of the Latins by Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo 99
+
+ Alliance of Almeric with the Egyptian sultan 99
+
+ 1167 Operations of Almeric against Shiracouh 100
+
+ Real designs of Almeric 100
+
+ 1168 Expedition of Almeric to Pelusium 101
+
+ His ignominious retreat 101
+
+ Rise of Saladin to power in Egypt 102
+
+ 1169 Attempts to stir up a crusade 102
+
+ 1171 Suppression of the Fatimite caliphat by Saladin 102
+
+ Quarrel between Saladin and the sultan of Aleppo 103
+
+ 1173 Death of Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo 103
+
+ Character of Noureddin 103
+
+ Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem 104
+
+ 1186 Baldwin V., king of Jerusalem 104
+
+ Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem 104
+
+ Preparations of Saladin for the reconquest of
+ Jerusalem 105
+
+ 1187 Battle of Tiberias 105
+
+ July Capture of Guy of Lusignan 106
+
+ Loss of the True Cross 106
+
+ Fruits of the victory of Saladin 107
+
+ Siege and fall of Jerusalem 107
+
+ Terms of the capitulation 109
+
+ Departure of the Latins from the Holy City 109
+
+ Entry of Saladin into Jerusalem 110
+
+ Escape of Tyre under Conrad 110
+
+ Further conquests of Saladin 110
+
+ Causes of weakness in the kingdom of Jerusalem 111
+ (1) Bad faith in dealing with the Moslem 111
+ (2) Disregard of rights of property 111
+ (3) Lax military discipline 111
+ (4) Total lack of statesmanship 111
+ (5) General immorality 112
+ (6) Desultory character of the crusades 112
+ (7) Quarrels and feuds of the Latin chiefs 112
+ (8) Antagonistic jurisdictions of the civil power,
+ the church, and the military orders 113
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ THE THIRD CRUSADE.
+
+ Fictitious or romantic portraits of Richard I. of
+ England 114
+
+ Real character of the actors in the third crusade 115
+
+ Decay of the crusading spirit 115
+
+ Change in the character of the crusades 116
+
+ 1174 Henry II. of England and the patriarch of Jerusalem 117
+
+ 1187 Death of Urban III. 118
+
+ Pontificate of Gregory VIII. 118
+
+ 1188 Assumption of the cross by Henry II. and Philip
+ Augustus of France 119
+
+ Saladin tax or tenth 119
+
+ Feuds in the family of Henry II. 119
+
+ 1189 Death of Henry II. 121
+
+ July Preparations of Richard I. for the crusade 121
+
+ Modes of raising money 122
+
+ Persecution and massacre of Jews in England 122
+
+ Fearful tragedy in York castle 122
+
+ 1190 Meeting of Richard and Philip at Vezelai 124
+
+ Poetry and influence of the troubadours 124
+
+ March of Frederick I., Barbarossa, to Constantinople 124
+
+ The popes and the empire 125
+
+ Death of Frederick I. 125
+
+ Re-occupation of Antioch 126
+
+ 1189 Siege of Acre by the Latins of Palestine 126
+
+ Rise of the Teutonic order 127
+
+ 1190 Death of Sibylla, queen of Jerusalem 127
+
+ Conrad, titular king of Jerusalem 128
+
+ Sept 23 Voyage of the English fleet to Lisbon and Messina 128
+
+ Conduct of Richard I. in Sicily 128
+
+ Quarrel between Richard and Philip Augustus 129
+
+ 1191 March War between Richard and the Comnenian emperor of
+ Cyprus 130
+
+ Arrival of Richard and Philip at Acre 130
+
+ July 12 Surrender of Acre 131
+
+ Return of Philip to France 131
+
+ Massacre of five thousand Turkish hostages 131
+
+ Victory of Richard at Azotus 132
+
+ Abortive negotiations with Saladin 133
+
+ Feud between the English king and the duke of Austria 133
+
+ 1192 Henry of Champagne, titular king of Jerusalem 134
+
+ March of Richard towards Jerusalem 135
+
+ Retreat of the army from Bethlehem 135
+
+ Relief of Jaffa 135
+
+ Truce between the crusaders and Saladin 136
+
+ Pilgrimage to Jerusalem 136
+
+ Results of the third crusade 136
+
+ Captivity of Richard I. in Austria 137
+
+ 1193 Exertions made for the liberation of Richard 138
+
+ Richard before the diet at Hagenau 139
+
+ 1194 Release of Richard 140
+
+ His return to England 140
+
+ CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ THE FOURTH CRUSADE.
+
+ Motives of the chief promoters of the fourth crusade 140
+
+ 1193 Death of Saladin and its consequences 141
+
+ Encouragement given to the crusade by the emperor
+ Henry VI. 141
+
+ 1196 Death of Henry VI. 142
+
+ Arrival of his barons with their troops in the Holy
+ Land 142
+
+ Capture of Jaffa by Saphadin 142
+
+ Arrival of fresh crusaders under Conrad, bishop of
+ Hildesheim 142
+
+ 1197 Siege of the castle of Thoron 142
+
+ Complete defeat of the crusaders 143
+
+ Capture of Jaffa, and massacre of the crusaders 143
+
+ Almeric of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem and Cyprus 144
+
+ CHAPTER IX.
+
+ THE FIFTH CRUSADE.
+
+ 1198 Election of Innocent III. 144
+
+ Effect of the crusades in extending the jurisdiction
+ of the pope 145
+
+ Weakening of the imperial power 146
+
+ Growing mistrust of the court of Rome by the peoples
+ of Europe 146
+
+ Effects of Innocent to remove this mistrust 147
+
+ Fulk of Neuilly 148
+
+ The mission of Fulk sanctioned by the pope 149
+
+ Efforts of his eloquence 149
+
+ 1202 Death of Fulk 150
+
+ 1200 The chiefs of the fifth crusade 150
+
+ 1201 Mission from the French barons to Venice 150
+
+ Compact for the conveyance of the crusaders to
+ Palestine 151
+
+ 1202 Failure of the crusaders to make up the sum agreed
+ on with the Venetians 152
+
+ Proposal to commute the payment by an expedition
+ against Zara 153
+
+ 1195 Mission to Rome to ask aid for the dethroned
+ Byzantine emperor, Isaac Angelus 153
+
+ Determination of the Venetians to insist on the
+ expedition to Zara 154
+
+ 1202 Siege and conquest of Zara, Nov. 15 155
+
+ Proposal to direct the crusade to the restoration of
+ Alexios at Constantinople 155
+
+ Resolution to accept the terms proposed by Alexios 156
+
+ Negotiations with the pope for the removal of the
+ interdict 157
+
+ 1203 Vain attempts of Innocent to oppose the expedition 158
+
+ Easter Arrival of the fleet at Constantinople 158
+
+ Flight of the usurper Alexios 159
+
+ The crusaders are compelled to winter at
+ Constantinople 160
+
+ Efforts of Mourzoufle to detach Alexios from the
+ crusaders 160
+
+ Deposition and death of Alexios 161
+
+ Resolution to set up a Latin dynasty in Constantinople 161
+
+ 1204 Siege and conquest of Constantinople 162
+
+ April Horrible excesses of the crusaders 162
+
+ Election of Baldwin, count of Flanders, as emperor
+ of the East 163
+
+ Election of Thomas Morosini as patriarch of
+ Constantinople 164
+
+ Embassies from Baldwin and the Venetians to the pope 165
+
+ Answers of Innocent III. 166
+
+ Results of the crusade to the pope and to the
+ Venetians 167
+
+ CHAPTER X.
+
+ THE LATIN EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
+
+ Contrast between the Greeks and the Latins 168
+
+ Attempt to upset the civilization of the old empire 169
+
+ Conduct of the pope towards the Greek clergy 170
+
+ Opposition of the French clergy to the new patriarch 171
+
+ Partition of the empire among the crusading chiefs 172
+
+ 1204 Rise of new empires at Nice, Trebizond, and Durazzo 173
+
+ 1205 Massacre of the Latins in Thrace by order of the
+ Bulgarian Calo-John 173
+
+ April Captivity of the emperor Baldwin 174
+
+ Death of Baldwin 174
+
+ 1206-1216 Henry I., brother of Baldwin, emperor of
+ Constantinople 175
+
+ 1207 Assassination of Calo-John 175
+
+ Wise government of the emperor Henry 176
+
+ Death of Henry 176
+
+ Peter of Courtenay, emperor of Constantinople 176
+
+ 1218 Captivity and death of Peter of Courtenay 177
+
+ 1219 Robert, emperor of Constantinople 177
+
+ 1228 John of Brienne, emperor of Constantinople 178
+
+ 1235 Siege of Constantinople by Vataces 179
+
+ 1237-1261 Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople 179
+
+ Efforts to raise money 179
+
+ Sale of relics 179
+
+ 1255 Death of Vataces 180
+
+ 1259 The envoys of Baldwin repelled by Michael Paleologos 180
+
+ 1261 Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks 181
+
+ July Permanent alienation of the East from the West 181
+
+ CHAPTER XI.
+
+ THE SIXTH CRUSADE.
+
+ Chief features of the sixth crusade 182
+
+ Depression of the Latins in Palestine 183
+
+ 1204 Truce between Saphadin and the Christians 183
+
+ 1210 John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem 184
+
+ Zeal of Innocent III. in promoting a new crusade 184
+
+ Robert of Courcon 185
+
+ 1215 Fourth council of Lateran 185
+
+ 1216 Crusade of Andrew, king of Hungary 186
+
+ 1218 Siege of Damietta 186
+
+ Death of Saphadin 186
+
+ Terms of peace offered by Coradin 187
+
+ Mad rejection of the terms by the crusaders 187
+
+ 1219 Fall of Damietta, Nov. 5 187
+
+ 1220 March of the Christians for Cairo 187
+
+ The old terms again rejected 187
+
+ Ruin of the crusaders 188
+
+ 1212 Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa 188
+
+ The popes and the emperors 188
+
+ Otho of Brunswick 189
+
+ 1214 Battle of Bouvines 189
+
+ 1216 Honorius III., pope 189
+
+ 1221 Loss of Damietta 190
+
+ 1222 Treaty of Ferentino 190
+
+ 1225 Treaty of San Germano 191
+
+ Frederick, king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem 191
+
+ 1227 Gregory IX., pope 191
+
+ Excommunication of the emperor 193
+
+ 1228 Departure of Frederick from Brundusium 195
+
+ Landing of Frederick at Ptolemais 195
+
+ 1229 Treaty between Frederick and the sultan Kameel 196
+
+ Feb. 18 Frederick at Jerusalem 196
+
+ Moderation of the emperor 197
+
+ Condemnation of the treaty by Gregory IX. 198
+
+ Return of the emperor with the crusaders to Europe 198
+
+ Renewed excommunication of the emperor 199
+
+ CHAPTER XII.
+
+ THE SEVENTH CRUSADE.
+
+ Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans 199
+
+ Charges of peculation against the papal collectors 200
+
+ 1230 Opposition of the pope and the emperor to the new
+ crusade 200
+
+ 1239 Arrival of the French crusaders at Acre 201
+
+ Their complete failure 201
+
+ 1240 The English crusade 201
+
+ Treaty between Richard of Cornwall and the Egyptian
+ sultan 201
+
+ 1242 Invasion of the Korasmians 201
+
+ Alliance of the Templars with the Syrians 202
+
+ CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ THE EIGHTH CRUSADE.
+
+ 1245 Council of Lyons 202
+
+ 1226 Louis IX., king of France 203
+
+ Louis IX., the pope, and the emperor 205
+
+ 1245 Assumption of the cross by Louis IX. 207
+
+ 1248 Departure of Louis from France 208
+
+ 1249 Capture of Damietta 209
+
+ March of the army towards Cairo 209
+
+ Total defeat of the forces under the count of Artois 210
+
+ 1250 The king taken prisoner 211
+
+ Firmness of the king 211
+
+ Terms of ransom 211
+
+ Murder of Turan Shah 212
+
+ Release of Louis IX. 212
+
+ Pilgrimage of Louis to Nazareth 212
+
+ CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ THE NINTH CRUSADE.
+
+ Comparison of the earlier and later crusades 213
+
+ 1259 Battle between the Templars and Hospitallers 214
+
+ 1263 Invasion of Palestine by the Mameluke sultan Bibars 214
+
+ Loss of Antioch 214
+
+ 1270 Second crusade of Louis IX. 215
+
+ Death of the king 216
+
+ 1271 Capture of Nazareth by Edward, son of Henry III. of
+ England 216
+
+ 1272 Return of Edward to Europe 217
+
+ Vain efforts of Gregory X. to stir up a crusade 217
+
+ Claims to the titular kingdom of Jerusalem 217
+
+ 1291 Loss of Acre 218
+
+ CHAPTER XV.
+
+ THE SEQUEL OF THE RELIGIOUS WARS.
+
+ Gradual decay and extinction of the crusading spirit 219
+
+ Persecution and suppression of the Knights Templars 220
+
+ The Albigensian crusades 221
+
+ 1212 The Children’s crusades 222
+
+ Indirect results of the crusades 224
+
+ _MAP._
+
+ GENERAL MAP FOR THE HISTORY OF THE CRUSADES _To face title-page._
+
+
+
+
+THE CRUSADES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+CAUSES LEADING TO THE CRUSADES.
+
+
+[Sidenote: The crusades—a series of popular wars.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1095. Nov.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1066.]
+
+The Crusades were a series of wars, waged by men who wore on their
+garments the badge of the Cross as a pledge binding them to rescue the
+Holy Land and the Sepulchre of Christ from the grasp of the unbeliever.
+The dream of such an enterprise had long floated before the minds of
+keen-sighted popes and passionate enthusiasts: it was realized for the
+first time when, after listening to the burning eloquence of Urban II. at
+the council of Clermont, the assembled multitude with one voice welcomed
+the sacred war as the will of God. If we regard this undertaking as the
+simple expression of popular feeling stirred to its inmost depths, we
+may ascribe to the struggle to which they thus committed themselves a
+character wholly unlike that of any earlier wars waged in Christendom,
+or by the powers of Christendom against enemies who lay beyond its pale.
+Statesmen (whether popes, kings, or dukes) might have availed themselves
+eagerly of the overwhelming impulse imparted by the preaching of Peter
+the Hermit to passions long pent up; but no authority of pope, emperor,
+or king, could suffice of itself to open the floodgates for the waters
+which might sweep away the infidel. In this sense only were men stirred,
+whether at the council of Piacenza in 1094, or in that of Clermont, to
+a strife of a wholly new kind. If Urban II. gave his blessing to the
+missionaries who were to convert the Saracens at the point of the sword,
+the papal benediction had been given nearly thirty years before at the
+instigation of Hildebrand to the expedition by which the Norman William
+hoped to crush the free English people and usurp the throne of the king
+whom they had chosen.
+
+[Sidenote: Distinction between the crusades and other wars of the Middle
+Ages.]
+
+But the movement of the Norman duke against England was merely the
+work of a sovereign well awake to his own interest and confident in
+the methods by which he chose to promote it. Under the sacred standard
+sent to him by Pope Alexander II. he gathered, indeed, a motley host
+of adventurers; but the religious enthusiasm by which these may have
+fancied themselves to be animated had reference chiefly to the broad
+acres to which they looked forward as their recompense. The great gulf
+which separated such an undertaking from the crusade of the hermit Peter
+lay in the conviction, deep even to fanaticism, that the wearers of the
+Cross had before them an enterprise in which failure, disaster, and
+death were not less blessed, not less objects of envy and longing, than
+the most brilliant conquests and the most splendid triumphs. They were
+hastening to the land where their Divine Master had descended from his
+throne in heaven to take on Himself the form of man—where for years the
+everlasting Son of the Almighty Father had patiently toiled, healing the
+sick, comforting the afflicted, and raising the dead, until at length
+He carried, his own Cross up the height of Calvary, and having offered
+up his perfect sacrifice, put off the garments of his humiliation when
+the earthquake shattered the prison-house of his sepulchre. For them
+the whole land had been rendered holy by the tread of his sacred feet:
+and the pilgrim who had traced the scenes of his life from his cradle at
+Bethlehem to the spot of his ascent from Olivet, might sing the _Nunc
+dimittis_, as having with his own eyes seen the divine salvation.
+
+[Sidenote: Absence of local feeling in the earliest Christian traditions.]
+
+Thus the crusade preached by Peter the Hermit, and solemnly sanctioned by
+Pope Urban, was rendered possible by the combination of papal authority
+with an irresistible popular conviction. That papal authority was the
+necessary result of the old imperial tradition of Rome; the popular
+conviction was the growth of a tendency which had characterized every
+religion professed by Aryan or Semitic nations; and both these causes
+were wholly unconnected with the teaching of Christ and of his disciples,
+as it is set before us in the New Testament. Far from ascribing special
+sanctity to any one spot over another, the emphatic declaration that
+the hour was come in which men should worship the Father not merely in
+Jerusalem or on the Samaritan mountain, proclaimed a gospel which taught
+that all men in all places are alike near to God in whom they live, move,
+and have their being. If we turn to the narrative which relates the Acts
+of the Apostles, we shall find not a sign of the feeling which regards
+Bethlehem, Jerusalem, or Nazareth, the Sea of Galilee, or the banks of
+the Jordan, as places which of themselves should awaken any enthusiastic
+or passionate feeling. The thoughts of the disciples, if we confine
+ourselves to this record, were absorbed with more immediate and momentous
+concerns. Before their generation should pass away, the Son of Man would
+return to judgment, and the dead should be summoned from their graves to
+his awful tribunal. Hence any vehement longing for one spot of earth
+over another was wretchedly out of place for those who held that the time
+was short, and that it behooved those who had wives to be as though they
+had none, those that bought as though they possessed not, and those that
+wept and rejoiced as though they wept and rejoiced not. Nay, more, with
+a feeling almost approaching to impatience, the great apostle of the
+Gentiles could put aside the yearnings of a weaker sentiment and declare
+that although he had known Christ in the flesh, yet henceforth he would
+so know Him no more.
+
+[Sidenote: The Christianity of St. Paul.]
+
+The image, therefore, of the great founder of Christianity was for him
+purely spiritual. In the letters which he wrote to the churches formed
+by his converts there is not a sign that the thought or the sight of
+Bethlehem or Nazareth would awaken in him any deeper feeling than places
+wholly destitute of historical associations. If he speaks of Jerusalem,
+he never implies that it had for him any special sanctity. His mission
+was to preach a faith altogether independent of time and place, and not
+only not needing but even rejecting the sensuous aid afforded by visible
+memorials of the Master whom he loved.
+
+[Sidenote: The Christianity of the Roman Empire.]
+
+Such was the Christianity of St. Paul; and with such weapons it went
+forth to assail and throw down the strongholds of heathenism. Three
+centuries later we behold Christianity dominant as the religion of the
+Roman Empire; but in its outward aspect and in its practical working it
+has undergone a vast and significant change. It cannot be supposed that
+this change was wrought at once by the mere fact of its recognition by
+the temporal power. The endless debates, which fill the history of early
+Christianity, on the relations of the Persons of the Trinity and on the
+mystery of the Incarnation, may in some degree have helped to fix the
+minds of men on the land where the Saviour had lived, and on the several
+scenes of his ministry; but this alone would never have sufficed to work
+the revolution which Christianity has manifestly undergone, even before
+we reach the age of Constantine. The victory won over heathenism, if not
+merely nominal, was at best partial. The religion of the empire knew
+nothing of the One Eternal God, who demands from all men a spontaneous
+submission to his righteous law, and bids them find their highest good
+in his divine love. That religion rested on the might of the Capitoline
+Jupiter and the visible majesty of the Emperor; but the real influences
+which were at work from the first to modify the Christianity of St. Paul
+lay in the lower strata of society, in the modes of thought and feeling
+prevalent among the masses who furnished the converts of the first two
+or three centuries. In these converts we cannot doubt that there was
+wrought a real change,—a change manifest chiefly in the conviction that
+the divine law is binding on all, and that the state of things in the
+Roman world was unspeakably shameful. In the Jesus whom Paul preached
+they beheld the righteous teacher who condemned the iniquities of godless
+rulers and a corrupt people, the avenger of their unjust deeds, the
+loving Redeemer in whose arms the weary and heavy-laden might find rest,
+the awful Judge who should be seen at the end of the world on his great
+white throne, with all the kindreds of mankind awaiting their doom before
+Him. The personal human love thus kindled in them turned only into a
+different channel thoughts and feelings which it would need centuries to
+root out.
+
+[Sidenote: Localism of heathen religions.]
+
+These thoughts and feelings had been fed by that tendency to localize
+incidents in the supposed history of gods or heroes which is the most
+prominent characteristic of all heathen religions; and of the vast crowd
+of these heathen religions or superstitions there was, if we may trust
+the statements of Roman writers, scarcely one which had not its adherents
+and votaries at Rome. Here were gathered the priests and worshippers of
+the Egyptian Isis, the virgin mother of Osiris, the god who rose again
+after his crucifixion to gladden the earth with his splendour; here might
+be seen the adorers of the Persian sun-god Mithras, born at the winter
+solstice, and growing in strength until he wins his victory over the
+powers of darkness after the vernal equinox. But this idea of the death
+and resurrection of the lord of light was no new importation brought in
+by the theology of Egypt or Persia. The story of the Egyptian Osiris was
+repeated in the Greek stories of Sarpedon and Memnon, of Tithonos and
+Asklepios (Æsculapius), of the Teutonic Baldur and Woden (Odin). The
+birthplace of these deities, the scenes associated with their traditional
+exploits, became holy spots, each with its own consecrating legends, and
+not a few attracting to themselves vast gatherings of pilgrims.
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of these local religions on Christianity.]
+
+It was not wonderful therefore that the worshippers of these or other
+like gods should, on professing the faith of Christ, carry with them all
+that they could retain of their old belief without utterly contradicting
+the new; that his nativity should be celebrated at the time when the sun
+begins to rise in the heavens, and his resurrection when the victory of
+light over darkness is achieved in the spring. The worshipper of the
+Egyptian Amoun, the ram, carried his old associations with him when
+he became a follower of the Lamb of God; and the burst of light which
+heralded the return of the Maiden to the Mourning Mother in the Greek
+mysteries of Eleusis was reproduced in the miracle still repeated year by
+year by the patriarch of Jerusalem when he announces the descent of the
+sacred fire in the sepulchre of Christ.
+
+[Sidenote: Growth of local associations in Palestine.]
+
+Thus for the Christians of the third century, if not of the second,
+Judæa or Palestine became a holy land; and with the growth of devotion
+to the human person of Christ grew the feeling of reverence for every
+place which He had visited and every memorial which He had left behind
+Him. The impulse once given soon became irresistible. Every incident of
+the gospel narratives was associated with some particular spot, and the
+certainty of the verification was never questioned by the thousands who
+felt that the sight of these places brought them nearer to heaven and was
+in itself a purification of their souls. They could follow the Redeemer
+from the cave in which He was born and where the Wise Men of the East
+laid before Him their royal offerings, to the mount from which He uttered
+his blessings on the pure, the merciful, and the peacemakers, and thence
+to the other mount on which He offered his perfect sacrifice for the sins
+of the whole world. The spots associated with his passion, his burial,
+his resurrection, called forth emotions of passionate veneration which
+were intensified by the alleged discovery of the cross on which He had
+suffered, together with the two crosses on which the thieves had been
+condemned to die. If the presence of the tablet containing the title
+inscribed by Pontius Pilate still left it uncertain to which of the
+crosses that tablet belonged, and to which therefore the homage of the
+faithful should be paid, all doubt was removed when a woman at the point
+of death on whom the touch of two of these crosses had no effect was
+restored to strength and youth by the touch of the third.
+
+[Sidenote: Growth of pilgrimage to the holy places of Palestine.]
+
+[Sidenote: Gradual decay of spiritual religion.]
+
+The splendid churches raised by the devout zeal of Constantine and his
+mother Helena over the cave at Bethlehem and the sepulchre at Jerusalem
+became for the Christians that which the sacred stone at Mecca and
+the tomb of the prophet at Medina became afterwards for the followers
+of Islam; nor can we be surprised if the emperor whose previous life
+had been marked by special devotion to the Greek and Roman sun-god
+transferred the characteristics of Apollon (Apollo) to the meek and
+merciful Jesus whose teaching to the last he utterly misapprehended. The
+purpose which drew to Palestine the long lines of pilgrims, which each
+year increased in numbers, was not the mere aimless love of wandering
+which is supposed to furnish the motive for Tartar pilgrimages in our
+own as in former ages. The Aryan, so far as we know, was never a nomadic
+race; but we can understand the eagerness even of a stationary population
+to undertake a long and dangerous journey, if the mere making of it
+should insure the remission of their sins. Nothing less than this was
+the pilgrim led to expect, who had traversed land and sea to bathe in
+the Jordan and offer up his prayers at the birthplace and tomb of his
+Master. A few men, of keener discernment and wider culture, might see the
+mischiefs lurking in this belief, and protest against the superstition.
+Augustine, the great doctor whose ‘Confessions’ have made his name
+familiar to thousands who know nothing of his life or teaching, might bid
+Christians remember that righteousness was not to be sought in the East
+nor mercy in the West, and that voyages are useless to carry us to Him
+with whom a hearty faith makes us immediately present. In these protests
+he might be upheld by men like Gregory of Nyssa and Jerome; but Jerome,
+while he dwelt on the uselessness of pilgrimage and the absurdity of
+supposing that prayers offered in one place could be more acceptable
+than the same prayers offered in another, took up his abode in a cave
+at Bethlehem, and there discoursed to Roman ladies, who had crossed the
+sea to listen to his splendid eloquence. Heaven, he insisted, was as
+accessible from Britain as from Palestine: but his actions contradicted
+his words, and his example exercised a more potent influence than his
+precept. The purely spiritual faith on which Jerome laid stress was
+as much beyond the spirit of the age as the moral feelings of a later
+age were behind those of the woman who in the crusade of St. Louis was
+seen carrying in her right hand a porringer of fire, and in her left a
+bottle of water. With the fire she wished, as Joinville tells us, to
+burn paradise, with the water to drown hell, so that none might do good
+for the reward of the one, nor avoid evil from fear of the other, since
+every good ought to be done from the perfect and sincere love which man
+owes to his Creator, who is the supreme good. Such a tone of thought
+was in ludicrous discord with the temper which brought Jerome himself
+to Bethlehem, and which soon began to fill the land with those who had
+nothing of Jerome’s culture and the sobriety which in whatever degree
+must spring from it.
+
+[Sidenote: Encouragement given to pilgrimages.]
+
+[Sidenote: Trade in relics.]
+
+[Sidenote: Stimulus given by pilgrimages to commerce with the East.]
+
+The contagion spread. From almost every country of Europe wanderers
+took their way to Palestine, under the conviction that the shirt which
+they wore when they entered the holy city would, if laid by to be used
+as their winding-sheet, convey them (like the carpet of Solomon in
+the Arabian tale) at once to heaven. An enterprise so laudable roused
+the sympathy and quickened the charity of the faithful. The pilgrim
+seldom lacked food and shelter, and houses of repose or entertainment
+were raised for his comfort on the stages of his journey as well as in
+the city which was the goal of his pilgrimage. Here he was welcomed
+in the costly house which had been raised for his reception by the
+munificence of Pope Gregory the Great. If he died during his absence,
+his kinsfolk envied rather than bewailed his lot: if he returned, he
+had their reverence as one who had washed away his sins, and still more
+perhaps as one who had brought away in his wallet relics of value so
+vast and of virtue so great that the touch of them made the journey to
+Palestine almost a superfluous ceremony. Wherever these pilgrims went,
+these fragments of the true cross might be found; and the happy faith
+of those who gave in exchange for them more than their weight in gold
+never stopped to think that the barren log which was supposed to have
+produced them must in truth have spread abroad its branches wider than
+the most magnificent cedar in Libanus. Nor probably, even in the earliest
+ages, was the traffic consequent on these pilgrimages confined to holy
+things. The East was not only the cradle of Christianity, but a land rich
+in spices and silks, in gold and jewels: and the keen-sighted merchant,
+looking to solid profits on earth, followed closely on the steps of the
+devotee who sought his reward in heaven.
+
+[Sidenote: The long struggle between Rome and Persia.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 611. Capture of Jerusalem by the Persian king, Khosru
+II.]
+
+[Sidenote: Persian invasion of Egypt.]
+
+The first interruption to the peaceful and prosperous fortunes of
+pilgrims and merchants was caused by one of the periodical ebbs and
+flows which for nearly seven hundred years had marked the struggle
+between the powers of Persia and of Rome. The kings of the restored
+Persian kingdom had striven to avenge on the West the wrongs committed
+by Alexander the Great, if not those even of earlier invaders; and the
+enterprise which Khosru Nushirvan had taken in hand was carried on forty
+years later by his grandson Khosru (Chosroes) II. Almost at the outset
+of his irresistible course Jerusalem fell, nor was it the fault of the
+Persians that the great churches of Helena and Constantine were not
+destroyed utterly by fire. Ninety thousand Christians, it is said, were
+put to death: but, according to the feeling of the age, a greater loss
+was sustained in the carrying off of the true cross into Persia. From
+Palestine the wave of Persian conquest spread southward into Egypt, and
+the greatness of Khosru seemed to be unbounded, when from an unknown
+citizen of Mecca he received the bidding to acknowledge the unity of the
+Godhead and to own Mahomed as the prophet of God. The Persian king tore
+the letter to pieces, and the man of Mecca, whose successors were to
+carry the crescent to Jerusalem and Damascus, to the banks of the Nile
+and the mountains of Spain, warned him that his kingdom should be treated
+as he had treated his letter.
+
+[Sidenote: Campaigns of the Emperor Heraclius.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 622-625.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 627. Battle of Nineveh.]
+
+For the present the signs of this catastrophe were not to be seen. The
+Roman emperor was compelled to sign an ignominious peace and to pay a
+yearly tribute to the sovereign of Persia. But Heraclius (Herakleios)
+woke suddenly from the sluggishness which marked the earlier years
+of his reign. The Persians were defeated among the defiles of Mount
+Taurus, and the destruction of the birthplace of Zoroaster offered
+some compensation for the mischief done to the churches of Helena and
+Constantine. Two years later the Roman emperor carried his arms into the
+heart of the enemy’s land; and during the battle of Nineveh, in which he
+won a splendid victory, he slew with his own hands the Persian general
+Rhazates. Khosru fled across the Tigris; but he could not escape from the
+plots of his son, and his death in a dungeon ended the glories of the
+Sassanid dynasty, under whom the Persian power had, in the third century
+of our era, revived from the death sleep into which it had sunk after the
+conquests of Alexander.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 628.]
+
+[Sidenote: Restoration of the true cross by the Persians.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 629. Pilgrimage of Heraclius to Jerusalem.]
+
+With Siroes, the son and murderer of Khosru, the Roman emperor concluded
+a peace which not merely delivered all his subjects from captivity, but
+repaired the loss which the church of the Holy Sepulchre had sustained
+by the theft of the true cross. The great object of pilgrimage was thus
+restored to Jerusalem, and thither Heraclius (Herakleios) during the
+following year betook himself to pay his vows of thanksgiving. With
+the pageant which marked this ceremony the splendour of his reign was
+closed. Before his death the followers of Mahomed had deprived him of the
+provinces which he had wrested from the Persians.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 637. Conquest of Palestine by Omar.]
+
+Eight years only had passed after the visit of Heraclius (Herakleios) to
+Jerusalem, when the armies which had already seized Damascus advanced
+to the siege of the Holy City. A blockade of four months convinced the
+patriarch Sophronios that there was no hope of withstanding the force
+of Islam: but he demanded the presence of the caliph himself at the
+ratification of the treaty which was to secure a second sacred capital to
+the disciples of the Prophet. After some debate his request was granted;
+and Omar, who on the death of Abubekr had been chosen as the vicegerent
+of Mahomed, set out from Medina on a camel, which carried for him his
+leathern water-bottle, his bags of corn and dates, and his wooden dish.
+
+[Sidenote: Terms of the treaty made by Omar with the Christians of
+Jerusalem.]
+
+The terms imposed by the caliph sufficiently marked the subjection of
+the Christians, but they imposed no severe hardships and perhaps showed
+a large toleration. The Christians were to build no new churches, and
+they were to admit Mahomedans into those which they already had, whether
+by day or by night. The cross was no longer to be seen on the exterior
+of their buildings or to be paraded in the streets. The church-bells
+should be tolled only, not rung. The use of saddles and of weapons was
+altogether interdicted, and the Christians, distinguished from their
+conquerors by their attire, were to show their respect for the latter
+by rising up to them if they were sitting. On these conditions the
+Christians were not only to be safe in their persons and fortunes, but
+undisturbed in the exercise of their religion and in the use of their
+churches.
+
+[Sidenote: Omar and the patriarch Sophronios.]
+
+For the observance of this last stipulation the rugged and uncouth
+conqueror showed a greater care than the patriarch who regarded his
+presence in the church of the Resurrection as the abomination of
+desolation in the holy place. The hour of prayer came, and Omar asked
+Sophronios where he might offer his devotions. ‘Here,’ answered the
+patriarch; but Omar positively refused, and repeated his refusal when he
+was led away into the church of Constantine. At last he knelt down on the
+steps outside that church, and afterwards told the patriarch that had
+he worshipped within the building, the document securing its use to the
+Christians would have been worthless. His words were verified by the zeal
+of his followers, who insisted on inclosing within a mosque the steps on
+which he had prayed: but the mosque which bears Omar’s name rose over the
+great sacrificial altar of the temple, which passed for Jacob’s stone.
+
+[Sidenote: Effects of Arabian conquest on pilgrimage to Jerusalem.]
+
+This second conquest may have again checked the rush of pilgrims to the
+Holy Land; but the difficulties which it placed in their way only added
+to the glory and the benefits of the enterprise: and, after all, the
+victory of Omar did little more than share the holy city between two
+races each of which acknowledged its sanctity and reverenced the relics
+of the righteous men whose bodies reposed beneath its sacred soil. Nor
+had the Christians any stronger ground of complaint than that the Saviour
+whom they worshipped was regarded by their conquerors as a prophet only
+inferior, if not equal, to the founder of Islam.
+
+[Sidenote: Uninterrupted continuance of pilgrimage.]
+
+Nearly four centuries had passed away after the submission of Sophronios
+to Omar; and during this long series of generations the West had without
+let or hindrance sent forth its troops of pilgrims, in whose train
+merchants may have found sources of profit for more worldly callings.
+If the palmy days during which the wanderers might regard themselves as
+practically lords of the land through which they travelled had passed
+away, they underwent at the worst nothing which could greatly excite
+their anger or rouse the indignation of Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1010. Ravages of the Egyptian Sultan Hakem in Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Persecution of Jews in Europe.]
+
+Nor was this state of things materially changed by the furious
+onslaught of Hakem, the mad Fatimite sultan of Egypt, when, spurred on
+by a bigotry unknown to his predecessors, he resolved to destroy the
+Christian sanctuary in Jerusalem. The rule of these earlier sovereigns
+of Egypt had been more beneficial to the Christians than that of the
+Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad. But Hakem cared nothing for the worldly
+interests of his kingdom or of the profits to be derived from trade with
+the unbeliever; and his soldiers were busied on the dignified task of
+demolishing the church of the Resurrection, and in attempts to destroy
+with their hammers the very cave in which, as it was supposed, the body
+of the Saviour had been laid. In this task they had but a very partial
+success, and to Hakem probably the suspension for a single year of the
+descent of the sacred fire scarcely outweighed the risks of a combined
+attack from the maritime powers of Christendom. For the present no such
+alliance was threatened; but a cruel persecution of the Jews in many
+Christian cities was a symptom of the temper which was placing a great
+gulf between men who professed nevertheless to worship the same Almighty
+Father.
+
+[Sidenote: Tax levied on pilgrims at the gates of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1000. Expectation of the end of the world.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 997. Conversion of Hungary under King Stephen.]
+
+After this violent but transient storm the condition of the pilgrims
+became much what it had been before, except that a toll was now
+levied on each pilgrim before he was suffered to enter the gates of
+Jerusalem; but this impost may have been rather welcomed than resented
+by the Christians, as it gave to the richer among them an opportunity
+of discharging it for their poorer brethren, and so of securing for
+themselves a higher degree of merit. The world, too, seemed to have taken
+a new lease of existence, and everything appeared to promise a long
+continuance of comparative peace. Ten years before, all Christendom was
+fluttering with the expectation of immediate judgment. At the close of
+the millennium, which came to an end with the year 1000, a belief almost
+universal looked forward to the summons which would call the dead from
+their graves and cut short the course of a weary and sin-laden world. But
+the tale of years had been completed, the sun continued to rise and set
+as it had risen and set before, and the flood of pilgrims soon began to
+stream towards the East in greater volume than ever. Men of all ranks and
+classes left their homes to offer up their prayers at the tomb of Christ:
+bishops abandoned their dioceses, princes their dominions, to visit the
+scenes where the Redeemer had suffered and where He had achieved his
+triumph. More numerous, more earnest, more zealous than all, were the
+Franks or the Frenchmen, whose name became henceforth in the East the
+common designation of all Europeans. For the weak and inexperienced,
+for the women and the youths, who pledged themselves to the enterprise,
+there might be special and grave dangers; nor were the strongest assured
+against serious, if not fatal, disasters. With thirty horsemen fully
+equipped, Ingulf, a secretary of William the Conqueror, set out on his
+journey to the Holy Land. Of these twenty returned on foot, with no other
+possessions than their wallet and their staff. But their losses had been
+caused probably by no human enemies, and the men who had died could
+claim the credit of martyrdom only in the sense in which it is accorded
+to the Holy Innocents massacred by the decree of Herod. On the whole,
+the difficulties of the enterprise were as much smoothed down as in a
+rude and ill-governed age they could well be. The conversion of Hungary
+opened a safe highway across the heart of Europe, and the pilgrims had a
+defender, as well as a friend, in St. Stephen, the apostle of his kingdom.
+
+[Sidenote: Advance of the Seljukian Turks.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1092. Division of the Seljukian empire.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 325.]
+
+[Sidenote: Appeal of the Greek Emperor Alexios to Western Christendom.]
+
+But a change far greater than that which had been wrought by Omar was to
+be effected by a power which had been working its way from the distant
+East and menacing the existence of the Empire itself. From the deserts
+of Central Asia the Seljukian Turks had advanced westwards, overrunning
+the kingdoms of the Persian empire, and subjugating Asia Minor, the
+inheritance of the Cæsars of Rome. In this task they received no slight
+help from the neutrality of a great part of the Christian population,
+in whom financial exactions and ecclesiastical tyranny had awakened
+feelings of strong discontent, if not of burning indignation. The rulers
+of Byzantium had, indeed, done all that they could to make the way smooth
+for the invaders. The accumulation of land in the hands of a few owners
+had dangerously diminished the number of inhabitants; nor was it long
+before the Turks were in a majority throughout Cappadocia, Phrygia and
+Galatia, and were enabled successfully to resist the crusading hosts
+in countries which they had conquered but as yesterday. The Seljukian
+sovereigns who had advanced thus far on the road to Constantinople, chose
+as their abode that city of Nice (Nikaia, Nicæa) in which the first
+general council of Christendom had defined the Catholic faith on the
+doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. Here these fierce invaders proclaimed
+the mission of Mahomet as the prophet of God, and issued the decrees
+which assigned Christian churches to profanation or destruction, and
+Christian youths and maidens to a disgraceful and shameful slavery.
+Mountains visible from the dome of Sancta Sophia were already within the
+borders of Turkish territory. The danger seemed imminent, and Alexios,
+the Emperor of the East, invoked the aid of Latin Christendom: but the
+fire was not yet kindled, and for the time his appeal was made in vain.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1076. Seljukian conquest of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Increased burdens and sufferings of the Christian pilgrims.]
+
+[Sidenote: Decline of commerce with the East.]
+
+[Sidenote: Oppression of the Christians of Palestine.]
+
+[Sidenote: General indignation felt in Western Christendom.]
+
+[Sidenote: Need of a religious sanction to sustain and direct this
+feeling.]
+
+No long time, however, had passed before the Seljukian Toucush was master
+of Jerusalem; and the Christians learnt to their cost that servitude to
+the fierce wanderers from the northern deserts was very different from
+submission to the rugged and uncultured Omar. The lawful toll levied on
+the pilgrims gave way before a system of extortion and violent robbery
+carried out in every part of the land; and the mere journey to Jerusalem
+involved dangers from which the bravest might well shrink. Insults to
+the persons of the pilgrims were accompanied by insults, harder to be
+borne, offered to the holy places and to those who ministered in them.
+The sacred offices were savagely interrupted, and the patriarch, dragged
+by his hair along the pavement, was thrown into a dungeon, pending the
+payment of an exorbitant ransom. For the pilgrims themselves there
+might be dangers as they made their way through Europe: but these were
+increased tenfold on the eastern side of the Hellespont. Thus far they
+had journeyed in comparative security, and the merchants who sought to
+combine profit with devotion added to that security by their numbers and
+their prudence. The Easter fair of Jerusalem had drawn to the ports of
+Palestine the fleets of Genoa and Pisa, and had sufficiently rewarded the
+munificence of the merchants of Amalfi, the founders of the hospital of
+St. John. But commerce has no liking for perils of flood and field: and
+with the risk of disaster these fleets disappeared and the caravans were
+confined to those for whom the sanctuary of Jerusalem was a goal to be
+reached at all costs. These went forth still by hundreds; they returned
+by tens or units to recount the miseries and wanton cruelties which
+they had undergone, and to draw fearful pictures of the savage tyranny
+exercised over the Christians of Jerusalem and of the East generally. The
+church of Christ was in the iron grasp of the infidel, and the blood of
+his martyrs cried aloud for vengeance. Throughout the length and breadth
+of Christendom a fierce indignation was stirring the hearts of men, and
+the pent-up waters needed only guidance to rush forth as a flood over the
+lands defiled by the unbeliever. But unless the enterprise was to run to
+waste in random efforts, it must have the solemn sanction of religion.
+The people might be ready, but popular fury acting by itself will soon
+spend its strength like the hurrying tempest. Princes might be willing
+for a time to abandon their dominions: but the pressure of difficulties
+abroad and at home would soon make them grow weary of the task. There
+must be a constraining power to keep them to their vows by sanctions
+which stretched beyond the present life to the life after death; and
+these sanctions could come only from him who held the keys of the kingdom
+of heaven, and whose seat was the rock of Peter, Prince of the Apostles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Influence of Roman imperialism on the early popes.]
+
+The Pope is the bishop of Rome, and the traditions of the papacy delight
+in recalling the humble origin of his vast monarchy, at once spiritual
+and temporal, ecclesiastical and secular. If the poor Galilæan fisherman
+ever entered the Eternal City, it was as a stranger who had come to
+be the guide and friend of a small knot of men who saw and hated and
+wished to keep themselves aloof from the abominable corruption of Roman
+society. But if Christianity itself, as we have seen (p. 6), was, when
+it had once taken root in the West, modified by the popular feelings and
+old associations of the converts, the constitution of the church was in
+like manner insensibly modified by the political forms of the state with
+which it had at first to wage a terrible conflict. Rome was not as other
+cities: and the bishop of Rome could not long remain like the presidents
+of other churches. He was dealing with the subjects, and he lived in
+the heart, of the empire. It was inevitable that the imperial tradition
+should fasten on the object of their worship; nor was it long before the
+exulting cry went up to heaven, Christ lives, Christ rules, Christ is
+emperor (Christus vivit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat).
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 587-604.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1073-1085.]
+
+As the vicars of this invisible emperor, the popes acquired gradually
+a power which overshadowed that of the mightiest sovereigns. It was
+exercised with monastic austerity by Gregory the Great; it was wielded
+with the ability of a consummate general by Gregory VII., Hildebrand.
+The first Gregory was a monk, therefore also a Manichean; in other
+words, one who believed in the essential impurity of all matter; but
+this philosophy, if it had any attractions for Gregory VII., was wholly
+subordinate to the one absorbing passion of ecclesiastical dominion. His
+aim was to subdue the world by a spiritual army: but the issue of his
+conquest was not to be confined to spiritual influence. It was to give
+him power over kingdoms, dictation over princes, the command of their
+weapons and their wealth. It was to humble civil polity under priestly
+autocracy; it was to prove, what Hildebrand scrupled not to assert, that
+the civil rule was in itself the mere development and working of the
+evil principle. The foundations had long been laid; but Hildebrand left
+to his successors not much to do towards completing the fabric of papal
+empire. His predecessors had learnt to avail themselves dexterously
+of popular feeling or the ambition of princes, to direct wide-spread
+movements, if not to create them. It was the papal sanction which had
+aided to depose the degenerate Merovingian; it was the papal chrism which
+had anointed the first Carolingian king. It was the diadem of the ancient
+Cæsars, bestowed by the hand of Leo III., which rested on the head of
+Charles the Great. It was Hildebrand himself, who, by the hands of his
+instrument, Alexander II., had transferred the crown of England from
+the son of Godwine to William the Bastard of Normandy. It has been well
+remarked, that although the name had not yet been heard, yet in truth it
+was now that the first crusade was preached, and it was preached by the
+voice of Rome against the liberties of England. We may note further that
+the preacher was a pontiff, who, when he found it convenient to thank
+the Sultan of Morocco for some indulgences granted to Christians in his
+territories, could assure that infidel ruler that both worshipped the
+same God and held the same faith, though their modes of worship and their
+expressions of devotion might be different.
+
+[Sidenote: Schemes and motives of Gregory VII.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1074. His circular letter to the faithful.]
+
+The popes had become capable of setting vast armies in motion, and of
+raising to a white heat the fire of a popular sentiment which had already
+been kindled. These two conditions were needed before the power of
+Europe could be precipitated on the infidel conquerors of Syria; and the
+inability of the popes to accomplish this end if they were not in accord
+with the prevalent feeling of the people is strikingly shown in the
+history of Gregory VII. Eight years after he had helped to slay Harold
+at Hastings, Hildebrand addressed a letter to all who loved and cared
+to defend the Catholic faith, beseeching them to put aside all other
+tasks in favour of the great work of chasing the hordes of the Seljukian
+Turks beyond the bounds of the Eastern empire. Constantinople, the new
+city of the Seven Hills, was even now threatened by these barbarians;
+nor could any say how soon the danger might not menace Rome itself. It
+could not be doubted that the faith, the energy, the warlike skill of
+Christendom would sweep away these undisciplined unbelievers; and the
+victory of the faithful would be followed by very solid gain to the
+popes. The price to be paid by the emperor for his deliverance from
+the Turks was his submission as a vassal to the see of Rome; in other
+words, the pope was to become absolute lord both of East and West, and
+the claims of the Byzantine patriarch to a co-ordinate dignity with
+the successor of St. Peter should no longer be made with impunity. But
+although the scheme thus carefully drawn out was to promote the interests
+of a spiritual power, for the great mass of Latin Christians it was
+purely a political enterprise. The fears and distresses of the Eastern
+emperor could excite no sympathy; the Cæsar of Constantinople was not a
+being who had exhibited the image of superhuman love or shed his blood
+for those who had taken delight in torturing him; and the excommunication
+which Hildebrand had imprudently hurled against the emperor Nicephorus
+(Nikephoros) III., had left behind it in the East a feeling not
+favourable to the designs of the Roman pontiff. The letter of Hildebrand
+appealed to no religious associations; it said nothing of abominations
+committed in the holy places, of terrible crimes wrought on the persons
+of faithful pilgrims; it was silent about the eternal reward which the
+bare act of pilgrimage would win for the believer. It was of little use
+to say in passing that more than 50,000 warriors longed to rise up under
+his guidance against the enemies of God and reach the sepulchre of their
+Lord. He had not struck the right chord, and Hildebrand failed to see the
+West gird itself for the great conflict with the enemies of the faith.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1081. The Normans in Italy.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1082.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1083.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1085.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1087.]
+
+For a time he may have supposed that the great fire was already kindled,
+when with a fleet of 150 ships and an army of 30,000 men Robert Guiscard
+set sail from Brundusium (Brindisi). But the conqueror who had done so
+much in Italy was to do but little to the east of the Adriatic. While
+his army put forth its whole strength before the walls of Dyrrhachium
+(Durazzo), his fleet under the command of his son Bohemond was miserably
+defeated; and nothing but the wretched jealousy felt by the emperor
+Alexios for his general Paleologos saved the army of Guiscard from ruin
+and turned the threatened disaster into victory. When, being compelled to
+return to Italy, he left Bohemond to carry on his enterprise, the latter
+overran Epeiros and had well nigh succeeded in reducing the Thessalian
+Larissa, when he too was compelled to hasten to Italy for reinforcements
+both in men and money. In his absence his deputy, Brienne, the constable
+of Apulia, was constrained to abandon the siege of Kastoria and to bind
+himself not to invade again the territories of the Byzantine emperor.
+Not many months later Robert Guiscard gathered another armament for the
+conquest of the East. He raised the siege of Corfu (Korkyra), and had
+reached Cefalonia (Kephallenia), when his career was cut short by death
+and his scheme for the time seemed utterly brought to naught. The war
+which Hildebrand sought to stir up against the Mahomedan powers was not
+less vigorously preached by his successor Victor III., who promised
+remission of sins to all who might engage in it; but his words called
+forth no bands of warriors for the recovery of Jerusalem. The fleets of
+Genoa and Pisa swept the African coasts, and gained in the shape of booty
+a harvest which was to fall to the lot of few among the myriads who were
+soon to leave their homes for the Holy Land.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1095. Council of Piacenza.]
+
+Ten years after the death of Hildebrand three or four thousand of the
+clergy and thirty thousand laymen were gathered to meet pope Urban II.
+at the council of Piacenza (Placentia). So vast a throng could find
+standing ground in no building, and the business of the council was
+transacted in the plain outside the city. The envoys of the Eastern
+emperor, Alexios Comnenos, were there to plead his distresses and
+beseech the strenuous aid of the faithful. The policy of checking the
+progress of the Turks while they were still at a good distance from
+Italy may have influenced the more statesmanlike of their hearers; the
+more vehement and enthusiastic among them were moved to tears by the
+pathetic recital of the Byzantine ambassadors, and demanded loudly to
+be led against the enemy. But Urban, with his heart more determinately
+set upon the enterprise than any man present, felt that the hour for
+the supreme decision had not yet come. He was in a country torn by
+intestine divisions, where his own claim to the papacy was disputed by
+an anti-pope whom with his adherents it was here his especial business
+to excommunicate. He had to deal with other matters also. Some of the
+clergy still refused to abandon their wives; and the wife of the emperor
+Henry IV. was present to complain of treatment unimaginably monstrous on
+the part of her husband. Both emperor and clergy must be condemned, and
+brought into obedience; and Urban felt that after such business as this
+it would be well to reserve his eloquence for another scene. He therefore
+dismissed the envoys of Alexios with the assurance that when the hosts
+of Western Christendom advanced to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre they
+would not forget that they had work to do near Constantinople.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 799.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1095. The council of Clermont.]
+
+From Piacenza Urban made his way across the Alps to the realm of the
+great Charles, whose intercourse with the ambassadors of the Caliph
+Harun-al-Reschid may have laid the foundation for the myth, expanded
+into a systematic fiction in the lying Chronicle of Turpin, that he had
+himself smitten down the unbelievers under the shadow of the Church of
+Constantine. On the northern side of the Alps Urban could breathe more
+freely. The sentence of excommunication was impending, it is true, over
+Philip the First, who called himself or was called King of France; but
+the great-grandson of Hugh Capet, powerful though he might be within his
+own dominion of Paris and Orleans, was little more than nominal lord of
+the vast throng of feudal chiefs who lay beyond its borders. From his
+old home in the great monastery of Clugny, Urban set off in the autumn
+for Clermont in the territories of the Count of Auvergne. Before he
+could reach the city, thousands of tents were pitched without the walls
+for those who could find no shelter within them; and the eight days
+during which the council held its sessions were spent in regulating
+the enterprise about which the pope had spoken with so much reserve at
+Piacenza, and in prescribing the measures to be taken for the safety
+of those who might remain at home during the absence of their natural
+protectors.
+
+[Sidenote: Pilgrimage of the hermit Peter to Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1093.]
+
+There was now no more need for hesitation. Popular feeling to the north
+of the Alps was far more deeply moved by the woes of the pilgrims and
+the conquests of the infidels than on the southern side of the great
+mountain barriers; and the wrath of the people had been fanned into an
+ungovernable flame by the preaching of the hermit Peter. This man, born
+at Amiens in Picardy, had forsaken his wife and laid aside the sword
+which he wielded in the service of the Counts of Boulogne, to follow
+the council of perfection in silence and solitude. Like others, he felt
+himself drawn by an irresistible attraction to the Holy Land; but if his
+passionate yearnings were rewarded by the privilege of offering up his
+prayers before the tomb of the Redeemer, his very heart was stirred by
+the sight of things, the mere recital of which had awakened his wrath at
+a distance. The Sanctuary was in the hands of the infidels; the patriarch
+was reduced practically to the state of a slave, and the pilgrim was
+happy who returned from the Holy City without undergoing humiliations
+and buffetings scarcely deserved by the worst of criminals. The murder
+of many Christian men, the deadly wrongs done to many Christian women,
+called aloud for vengeance, and the hermit made his vow that, with the
+help of God, these things should cease. His conversations with the
+patriarch Simeon brought out only confessions of the incapacity of the
+Greek Emperor and the weakness of his empire. ‘The nations of the
+West shall take up arms in your cause,’ said the hermit; and with the
+patriarchal benediction Peter hastened to obtain for the mission which he
+now saw before him the sanction of the man who claimed to be at the head
+of Eastern and Western Christendom alike.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1094. The mission and preaching of the hermit.]
+
+Before the Roman pontiff Peter poured forth his story of the wrongs which
+called for immediate redress; but no eloquence was needed to stir the
+heart of Urban. The zeal of the pope was probably as sincere as that of
+any others who engaged in the enterprise; but it could not fail to derive
+strength from the consciousness that, whatever might be the result to the
+warriors of the cross, his own power would rest henceforth on more solid
+foundations. His blessing was therefore eagerly bestowed on the fervent
+enthusiast who undertook to go through the length and breadth of the
+land, stirring up the people to the great work for the love of God and
+of their own souls. His eloquence may have been as rude as it was ready;
+but its deficiencies were more than made up by the earnestness which gave
+even to the glance of his eye a force more powerful than speech. Dwarfish
+in stature and mean in person, he was yet filled with a fire which would
+not stay, and the horrors which were burnt in upon his soul were those
+which would most surely stir the conscience and rouse the wrath of his
+hearers. His fiery appeals carried everything before them. Wherever he
+went, rich and poor, aged and young, the knight and the peasant, thronged
+round the emaciated stranger, who with his head and feet bare rode on
+his ass, carrying a huge crucifix. That form, of which they beheld the
+bleeding sign, he had himself seen; nay, he had received from the Saviour
+a letter which had fallen down from heaven. He appealed to every feeling
+which may stir the heart of mankind generally, to every motive which
+should have special power with all faithful Christians. He called upon
+them for the deliverance of the land which was the cradle of their faith,
+for the punishment of the barbarian who had dared to defile it, for the
+rescue of the brethren who were the victims of his tyranny. The vehemence
+which choked his own utterance became contagious: his sobs and groans
+called forth the tears and cries of the vast crowds who hung upon his
+words, and who greedily devoured the harrowing accounts of the pilgrims
+whom Peter brought forward as witnesses to the truth of his picture.
+Motives more earthly may have mingled with his austere call in the minds
+of some who heard him. Of these motives the hermit said nothing: but
+there is no doubt that he made his last and most constraining appeal to
+that notion of mechanical religion which the prophet Micah puts into
+the mouth of Balak the king of Moab. The consciences of some amongst
+his hearers might be weighed down by the burden of sins too grievous
+almost for forgiveness. He besought them to remember that such fears were
+altogether misplaced, if only they made up their minds to take part in
+the redemption of the Holy Land. If they chose to become the soldiers
+of the cross, their salvation was at once achieved. There was no sin,
+however fearful, which would not be cancelled by the mere taking of the
+vow; no sinful habits which would not be condoned in those who might
+fall in battle with the unbelievers. The excitement of the moment, the
+frenzy which, having first unsettled the mind of the hermit, was by him
+communicated to his hearers, threw, we cannot doubt, a specious colouring
+over a degrading morality and a hopelessly corrupting religion; but as
+little can we doubt that the whole temper which stirred up and kept
+alive the enterprise left behind it a poisoned atmosphere which could be
+cleared only by the storms and tempests of the reformation.
+
+[Sidenote: Decrees of the council of Clermont, prohibiting private wars,
+and confirming the Truce of God.]
+
+The preaching of the hermit predetermined the results of the council
+of Clermont; but Urban and the throng of bishops and abbots who were
+gathered round him were well aware that something more was needed than
+the enlisting of an army of zealots for distant warfare. With our settled
+laws and orderly government it is almost impossible for us to realize
+the condition even of the most advanced states of Christian Europe in
+an age when the power of the king over his vassals meant simply that
+which the strength or the weakness of the vassals made it, and when the
+vassal, if he owed allegiance to his lord, was bound by no ties to his
+fellow vassals. The system of feudalism could not fail to feed the worst
+passions of human nature; and the absence of an authority capable of
+constraining all alike involved for those who felt or fancied themselves
+aggrieved an irresistible temptation to take the law into their own
+hands. But the practice of private war thus set up would sooner or later
+assume the form of a trade, and in the words of William of Malmesbury
+things had now come to so wretched a pass that feudal chiefs would
+take each other captive on little or no pretence, and would set their
+prisoners free only on the payment of an enormous ransom. This military
+violence of the laity was accompanied by corruption on the part of the
+clergy, showing itself in a shameless traffic of benefices and dignities
+which, in brief phrase, fell to the lot of the highest bidder. In such
+a condition of things to drain off to distant lands a large proportion
+of the men who at home might do something to check, if not to repress,
+the mischief, would be to leave those who remained behind defenceless.
+Decrees were therefore passed condemning private wars, confirming the
+Truce of God which suspended all hostilities during four days of each
+week, and placing the women and the clergy under the protection of
+the Church, which in an especial manner was extended to merchants and
+husbandmen for three years.
+
+[Sidenote: Speech of Urban II. before the people.]
+
+When, the business of the council being ended, Urban ascended a lofty
+scaffold and began his address to the people, he spoke to hearers for
+whom arguments were no longer needed, but who were well pleased to hear
+from the chief of Christendom words which carried with them comfort
+and encouragement. Three forms or versions of this speech have been
+preserved to us; one in the pages of William of Tyre, a second in those
+of William of Malmesbury, a third from a manuscript in the Vatican. It
+is possible that they may represent three different speeches: but the
+substance of all is the same, and we are left in no doubt of the general
+tenor of his words. With some inconsistency he dwelt on the cowardice
+of the barbarians who had contrived to conquer Syria and whose tyranny
+called forth the appeal which he now made to them. The Turk, shrinking
+from close encounters, trusted to his bow and arrow; and the venom of
+his poisoned shaft, not the bravery of a valiant warrior, inflicted
+death on the man whom it struck. Their fears, he added, were justified,
+for the blood which ran in the veins of men born in countries scorched
+with the heat of the sun was scanty in stream and poor in quality as
+compared with that which coursed through the bodies of men belonging to
+more temperate regions. ‘In these temperate regions you were born,’ he
+pleaded, ‘and you have therefore a title to victory which your enemies
+can never acquire. You have prudence, you have discipline, you have
+skill and valour, and you will go forth, through the gift of God and the
+privilege of St. Peter, absolved from all your sins. The consciousness
+of this freedom shall soothe the toil of your journey, and death will
+bring to you the benefits of a blessed martyrdom. Sufferings and torments
+may perhaps await you. You may picture them to yourselves as the most
+exquisite tortures, and the picture may perhaps fall short of the agony
+which you may have to undergo; but your sufferings will redeem your souls
+at the expense of your bodies. Go then on your errand of love, of love
+for the faithful who in the lands overcome by the infidel cannot defend
+themselves, of love which will put out of sight all the ties that bind
+you to the spots which you have called your homes. Your homes, in truth,
+they are not. For the Christian all the world is exile, and all the world
+is at the same time his country. If you leave a rich patrimony here, a
+better patrimony is promised to you in the Holy Land. They who die will
+enter the mansions of heaven, while the living shall behold the sepulchre
+of their Lord. Blessed are they who, taking this vow upon them, shall
+inherit such a recompense: happy they who are led to such a conflict,
+that they may share in such rewards.’
+
+[Sidenote: The assent of the multitude.]
+
+It was no wonder that words thus striking chords of feeling already
+stretched to intensity should be interrupted with the passionate cry
+‘It is the will of God! It is the will of God!’ which broke from the
+assembled multitude. ‘It is, in truth, his will,’ added the pontiff, ‘and
+let these words be your war-cry when you unsheath your swords against the
+enemy. You are soldiers of the cross: wear, then, on your breasts or on
+your shoulders the blood-red sign of Him who died for the salvation of
+your souls. Wear it as a token that his help will never fail you: wear it
+as the pledge of a vow which can never be recalled.’
+
+[Sidenote: The cross and the vow of the crusaders.]
+
+By these words the war now proclaimed against the Turks received the name
+which has become a general title for all wars or hostile undertakings
+carried on in the name of religion. Thousands hastened at once to put on
+the badge and so to take their place among the ranks of the crusaders.
+The rival claims of the anti-pope withheld Urban himself from taking the
+pledge to which he was clamorously invited; and worldly prudence alone
+may have suggested the wisdom of standing aloof from a conflict in which
+disaster to a Roman pontiff would certainly be regarded as a visible sign
+of the divine displeasure. Of the clergy, the first to assume the cross
+was Adhemar (Aymer), bishop of Puy, and as his reward he received the
+powers and dignity of papal legate. At the head of the laity Raymond,
+count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne and marquis of Provence, promised
+through his ambassadors to be ready by the Feast of the Assumption,
+August 15, next following the council, the day fixed for the departure of
+the crusading hosts for Constantinople.
+
+[Sidenote: Motives of the crusaders.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1058-9.]
+
+[Sidenote: Financial effect of the crusade.]
+
+Thus was the die cast for a venture which in the eye of a keen-sighted
+general or a far-seeing statesman should have boded little good, but
+which held out irresistible attractions for the great mass of the
+people,—attractions which continued to draw hundreds and thousands still
+to the unknown and mysterious East, when a long series of disasters had
+proved that the journey to Jerusalem was in all likelihood a journey to
+the grave. For the really sincere and devout, whose lives had been passed
+without reproach and who could await the future with a clear conscience,
+there was the deep sense of binding duty, the yearning to be brought
+nearer whether on earth or in heaven to the Master whom they loved. For
+the feudal chieftain there was the fierce pastime of war which formed the
+main occupation and perhaps the only delight of his life, with the wild
+excitement produced by the thought that the indulgence of his passions
+had now become a solemn act of religion. There was also the prospect
+of vast and permanent conquest; and the duke or count who left a fair
+domain behind him might look forward to the chance of winning a realm as
+splendid as that which Robert Guiscard and his Normans had won in Apulia
+and Sicily. For the common herd and those whom gross living had rendered
+moral cowards, there was the offer of a method by which they might wipe
+away their guilt without changing their character and disposition. Not a
+few might be caught by the philosophy of the abbot Guibert, who boldly
+drew a parallel between the crusades and holy orders or monachism. That
+height of perfection which ecclesiastics might reach in their own sphere
+was now attainable by laymen through an enterprise in which their usual
+license and habits of life would win them the favour of God not less
+than the most unsparing austerity of the monk or the priest. It was, in
+short, a new mode of salvation, and they who were hurrying along the
+broad road to destruction now found that the taking of a vow converted
+it into the narrow and rugged path to heaven. Nor was the number few
+of those for whom this convenient arrangement was combined with some
+solid temporal advantages. The cross on the breast or shoulder set
+free from the clutches of his lord the burgher or the peasant attached
+to the soil, opened the prison doors for malefactors of every kind,
+released the debtor from the obligation of paying interest on his debts
+while he wore the sacred badge, and placed him beyond the reach of his
+creditors. Lastly, the episode of a crusade might be for the priest a
+pleasant interruption to the dull routine of parochial work, to the monk
+an agreeable change from the wearisome monotony of his conventual life.
+The usurer and the creditor might fancy himself to be somewhat hardly
+treated. Yet they were amongst the few to whom the crazy enterprise
+(crazy not from the impracticability of its objects, but from the way
+in which these were followed,) brought a solid benefit. The unthinking
+throng might rush off to Palestine without making the least preparation
+for their journey or their maintenance, in the blind faith that they
+would be fed and clothed like the fowls of the air or the lilies of the
+field. But for those who could judge more soberly, and for those who were
+not willing to forego their luxuries or their pleasures, there was the
+need of providing a store of the precious metals by means of which alone
+their wishes could be gratified. The duke, who had to maintain a vast and
+brilliant retinue, was compelled to mortgage his dominions; and thus for
+the sum of ten thousand marks, wrung from the lower orders in the English
+state, William Rufus obtained from his brother Robert the government of
+his dukedom for five years, and took care that the prize so won should
+not slip again from his grasp. Nobles and knights, setting off on the
+crusade, all wished to sell land, all wished to buy arms and horses. The
+arms and horses therefore became ruinously dear, the lands ridiculously
+cheap. It is easy to see that the prudent trader, the cautious merchant,
+the landowner whose eye was fixed on the main chance, would stand at an
+enormous advantage.
+
+[Sidenote: Effects of the crusades on the power of the pope and the
+clergy.]
+
+[Sidenote: Dispensing power of the pope.]
+
+But if these were gainers, the gains of the pope and the sacerdotal army
+of which he was the chief were greater still. If the proclamation of the
+crusader rendered all private warfare a treason against Christendom,
+if it set free even the noble from the power of the overlord, and made
+the latter incapable of summoning his vassal to his standard, if the
+crusader, as the soldier of the Church, was released from every other
+obligation, these tremendous changes had been wrought wholly by the power
+of the pope and his hierarchy. In placing the dominions of all crusading
+princes under the protection of the Church, the council of Clermont may
+have provided for those chiefs a most inadequate defence; but it placed
+the pope on a level above all earthly princes, and the power which
+withheld the arm of the creditor from falling upon his debtor became a
+vast dispensing authority, the possession of which would have delighted
+the heart and realized the highest longings of Hildebrand. Urban did
+not go to Palestine: but even there he was present in the person of
+his legate Adhemar, and thus claimed the guidance of a war sanctified
+by his blessing and undertaken in the cause of the Church. The vows of
+the crusader were taken, again, by many who had no present intention of
+fulfilling them. Sickness, or misfortune, or qualms of conscience might
+lead them to assume the fatal sign; but from that moment until they set
+off on their journey they put themselves in the power of the pope, who
+sometimes used with cruel effect the hold thus obtained over emperors and
+kings.
+
+[Sidenote: Tendency of the crusades to break up the feudal system.]
+
+Kings, it is true, reaped no small benefit from the impulse which drove
+their vassals to the Holy Sepulchre; and the absorption of the smaller
+into larger fiefs and of these again into royal domain, tended to that
+extension of the sovereign power which ultimately broke up the feudal
+system. But these results were far distant: the immediate harvest was
+gathered by the pope.
+
+[Sidenote: Increasing wealth of the pope and the clergy.]
+
+Thus far he had appeared by his representatives in general or local
+councils; by these he had interfered in the settlement of disputes,
+through these he had negotiated with princes. But the preaching of the
+crusades furnished a reason or a pretext for sending his legates into
+every land. Their primary business was to stir up the hearts of the
+faithful or to keep them up to fever heat: but scarcely less important
+was the task of collecting money for the support of the crusading armies.
+On the clergy, whether secular or regular, and on the monastic orders,
+the pope had a claim which they dared not to call into question, and the
+subsidies exacted or enjoined for this purpose were paid with a real or a
+feigned cheerfulness. To the laity the prayer for voluntary alms assumed
+practically the form of a demand. Refusal would imply lukewarmness in the
+faith, if not positive heresy; and the imputation could not be incurred
+without peril of temporal and even of eternal ruin. Both for the clergy
+and the laity the charge for a special and temporary purpose became
+a permanent tax, the proceeds of which the pope might expend on any
+objects, and in the theory of the time he could spend them on none which
+were not good.
+
+[Sidenote: Alienation and pledging or mortgaging of lands.]
+
+But for the impost thus laid upon them the clergy had a compensation
+which by the nature of the case could not be enjoyed by the laity. If
+a bishop put on the cross he might lay a burden on his estates, but he
+could not alienate them, as his right over them ceased with his death;
+but in point of fact it was chiefly the prelates and the monastic
+houses that became guardians or mortgagees of lands belonging to men who
+had betaken themselves to the Holy Land. The Jews, who amassed immense
+profits on their loans to needy crusaders, had nothing to do with the
+cultivation of the soil, and in most countries could not be owners of it.
+But the Church was everywhere ready with its protection and its money;
+nor were there wanting enthusiasts who, as they fixed the blood-red
+cross on their garment, gave up all their lands and worldly goods to the
+spiritual body whose prayers they regarded as a more than sufficient
+recompense. Even they who left the Church merely the guardian of their
+estates in their absence might die in the East; and if they died without
+heirs the guardians became absolute owners. If they came back, toil and
+disappointment had often so worn them down that they took refuge in a
+cloister and handed over to the fraternity whatever of their property
+might still remain to them. The vast gains thus accruing were all over
+and beyond the accumulations amassed from the bequests of ordinary or
+extraordinary penitents on their death-beds or the gifts of enthusiastic
+devotees during their lifetime; and all the land so gained to the Church
+was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the sovereign who professed
+to rule the country, and thus formed a kingdom within a kingdom, the
+spiritual domain threatening constantly to absorb that of the secular
+monarch. A collision, followed by violent and iniquitous spoliation,
+became inevitable; and when the time was come the great fabric of
+ecclesiastical wealth was plundered and demolished.
+
+[Sidenote: The crusades not national enterprises.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1085. Condition of Europe in the time of Urban II.]
+
+In the enterprise to which Latin Christendom thus stood committed, the
+several nations or countries of Europe took very equal parts; or,
+rather, no nation, as such, took any part in it at all; and in this fact
+we have the explanation of that want of coherent action, and even decent
+or average generalship, which is commonly seen in national undertakings.
+For the crusade there was no attempt at a commissariat, no care for a
+base of supplies; and the crusading hosts were a collection of individual
+adventurers who either went without making any provisions for their
+journey or provided for their own needs and those of their followers
+from their own resources. The number of these adventurers were naturally
+determined by the political conditions of the country from which they
+came. In Italy the struggle between the pope and the anti-pope went far
+towards chilling enthusiasm; and the recruits for the crusading army
+came chiefly from the Normans who had followed Robert Guiscard to the
+sunny southern lands. The Spaniards were busied with a crusade nearer
+home, and were already pushing back to the south the Mahomedan dominion
+which had once threatened to pass the barriers of the Pyrenees and carry
+the Crescent to the shores of the Baltic Sea. About ten years before
+the council of Clermont the Moslem dynasty of Toledo had been expelled
+by Alfonso, king of Gallicia: the kingdom of Cordova had fallen twenty
+years earlier (1065), and while Peter the Hermit was hurrying hither
+and thither through the countries of northern Europe, the Christians of
+Spain were winning victories in Murcia, and the land was ringing with
+the exploits of the dauntless Cid, Ruy Diaz de Bivar. By the Germans the
+summons to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre was received with comparative
+coldness; the partisans of emperors, who had been humbled to the dust
+by the predecessors of Urban, if not by himself, were not vehemently
+eager to obey it. The bishops of Salzburg, Passau, and Strasburg, the
+aged duke Guelf of Bavaria, had undertaken the toilsome and perilous
+journey: not one of them saw their homes again, and their death in the
+distant East was not regarded by their countrymen as an encouragement
+to follow their example. In England the English were too much weighed
+down by the miseries of the Conquest, the Normans too much occupied in
+strengthening their position, and the king, William the Red, more ready
+to take advantage of the needs of his brother Robert than to incur any
+risks of his own. The great movement came from the lands extending from
+the Scheldt to the Pyrenees. Franks and Normans alike made ready with
+impetuous haste for the great adventure; and tens of thousands, who could
+not wait for the formation of something like a regular army, hurried
+away, under leaders as frantic as themselves, to their inevitable doom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE FIRST CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1096. Departure of the first rabble of crusaders under
+Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless.]
+
+Little more than half the time allowed for the gathering of the crusaders
+had passed away, when a crowd of some sixty thousand men and women,
+neither caring nor thinking about the means by which their ends could be
+attained, insisted that the hermit Peter should lead them at once to the
+holy city. Mere charity may justify the belief that some even amongst
+these may have been folk of decent lives moved by the earnest conviction
+that their going to Jerusalem would do some good; that the vast majority
+looked upon their vow as a license for the commission of any sin,
+there can be no moral doubt; that they exhibited not a single quality
+needed for the successful prosecution of their enterprise, is absolutely
+certain. With a foolhardiness equal to his ignorance, Peter undertook
+the task, in which he was aided by Walter the Penniless, a man with some
+pretensions to the soldier-like character. But the utter disorder of this
+motley host made it impossible for them to journey long together. At
+Cologne they parted company; and 15,000 under the penniless Walter made
+their way to the frontiers of Hungary, while Peter led onwards a host
+which swelled gradually on the march to about 40,000.
+
+[Sidenote: Second rabble under Emico and Gotschalk.]
+
+Another army or horde of perhaps 20,000 marched under the guidance of
+Emico, count of Leiningen, a third under that of the monk Gotschalk, a
+man not notorious for the purity or disinterestedness of his motives.
+Behind these came a rabble, it is said, of 200,000 men, women, and
+children, preceded by a goose and a goat, or, as some have supposed, by
+banners on which, as symbols of the mysterious faith of Gnostics and
+Paulicians, the likeness of these animals was painted. In this vile horde
+no pretence was kept up of order or of decency. Sinning freely, it would
+seem, that grace might abound, they plundered and harried the lands
+through which they marched, while 3,000 horsemen, headed by some counts
+and gentlemen, were not too dignified to act as their attendants and to
+share their spoil.
+
+[Sidenote: Bloody persecutions of the Jews.]
+
+[Sidenote: The Jews taken under the protection of the empire.]
+
+But if they had no scruple in robbing Christians, their delight was
+to prove the reality of their mission as soldiers of the cross by
+plundering, torturing, and slaying Jews. The crusade against the Turk
+was interpreted as a crusade directed not less explicitly against the
+descendants of those who had crucified the Redeemer. The streets of
+Verdun and Treves, and of the great cities on the Rhine, ran red with
+the blood of their victims; and if some saved their lives by pretended
+conversions, many more cheated their persecutors by throwing their
+property and their persons either into the rivers or into the consuming
+fires. Thus auspiciously began the mighty enterprise on which pope
+Urban had insisted as the first duty of all Christians; and thus early
+did the result of his preaching tend to revive the waning power of the
+emperor, who interposed his authority to this merciless onslaught on a
+peaceable and useful class of his subjects. The Jews were taken under the
+protection of the empire, and for the time the change was a real relief.
+Their posterity found to their cost that their guardian might in his turn
+become their plunderer and tormentor.
+
+[Sidenote: March of Walter and his followers through Hungary and
+Bulgaria.]
+
+A space of six hundred miles lay between the Austrian frontier and
+Constantinople; and across the dreary waste the followers of Walter the
+Penniless struggled on, destitute of money, and rousing the hostility of
+the inhabitants whom they robbed and ill-used. In Bulgaria their misdeeds
+provoked reprisals which threatened their destruction; and none perhaps
+would have reached Constantinople, if the imperial commander at Naissos
+had not rescued them from their enemies, supplied them with food, and
+guarded them through the remainder of their journey. These succours
+involved some costs; and the costs were paid by the sale of unarmed men
+amongst the pilgrims, and especially of the women and children, who were
+seized to provide the necessary funds. Of those who formed the train of
+the hermit Peter, seven thousand only, it is said, reached Constantinople.
+
+[Sidenote: Passage of the pilgrims across the Bosporos.]
+
+Of such a rabble rout the Emperor Alexios needed not to be afraid. He
+had already seen and encountered far larger armies of Normans, Turks,
+and Romans; and he now extended to this vanguard of the hosts of Latin
+Christendom a hospitality which was almost immediately abused. They had
+refused to comply with his request that they should quietly await the
+arrival of their fellow crusaders; and consulting the safety of his
+people not less than his own, he induced them to cross the Bosporos, and
+pitch their camp on Asiatic soil, the land which they had come to wrest
+from the unbelievers.
+
+[Sidenote: Their utter destruction by Kilidje Arslan.]
+
+Alexios wished simply to be rid of their presence: they had to deal with
+an enemy still more crafty and formidable in the Seljukian Sultan David,
+whose surname Kilidje Arslan marked him out as the Sword of the Lion.
+The vagrants whom Peter and Walter had brought thus far on the road to
+Jerusalem were scattered about the land in search of food; and it was
+no hard task for David to cheat the main body with the false tidings
+that their companions had carried the walls of Nice (Nikaia), and were
+revelling in the pleasures and spoils of his capital. The doomed horde
+rushed into the plain which fronts the city; and a vast heap of bones
+alone remained to tell the story of the great catastrophe, when the
+forces which might more legitimately claim the name of an army passed
+the spot where the Seljukian had entrapped and crushed his victims. In
+this wild expedition not less, it is said, than 300,000 human beings had
+already paid the penalty of their lives.
+
+[Sidenote: Rank and character of the leaders of the first crusade.]
+
+Still the first crusade was destined to accomplish more than any of the
+seven or eight crusades which followed it; and this measure of success
+it achieved probably because none of the great European sovereigns took
+part in it. The Western emperor, Henry IV., the representative of Charles
+the Great was the enemy of the pope; Philip I., king of France, had been
+excommunicated by Urban in the council of Clermont; the sovereigns of
+Denmark, Scotland, Sweden and Poland were as yet scarcely brought within
+the community of European monarchs; the Spanish kings had their crusades
+ready made at home; and we have already seen that the English William
+II., was more intent on acquiring dukedoms than on running the risk of
+a blessed martyrdom at the gates of Jerusalem. The task of setting up a
+Latin kingdom in Palestine was to be achieved by princes of the second
+order.
+
+[Sidenote: Godfrey of Bouillon and his brothers Baldwin and Eustace.]
+
+Of these the foremost and the most deservedly illustrious was Godfrey,
+of Bouillon in the Ardennes, a kinsman of the counts of Boulogne, and
+duke of Lothringen (Lorraine). In the service of the emperor Henry IV.,
+the enemy or the victim of Hildebrand, he had been the first to mount
+the walls of Rome and cleave his way into the city; he might hope that
+his crusading vow would be accepted as an atonement for his sacrilege.
+Speaking the Frank and Teutonic dialects with equal ease, he exercised by
+his bravery, his wisdom, and the uprightness of his life, an influence
+which brought to his standard, it is said, not less than 80,000 infantry
+and 10,000 horsemen, together with his brothers Baldwin and Eustace,
+count of Boulogne.
+
+[Sidenote: Hugh of Vermandois.]
+
+[Sidenote: Robert of Normandy.]
+
+Among the most conspicuous of Godfrey’s colleagues was Hugh, count of
+Vermandois, whose surname the Great has been ascribed by some to his
+birth as the brother of Philip I., the French king, by others merely to
+his stature as ‘Hugh the long.’ With him may be placed the Norman duke
+Robert, whose carelessness had lost him the crown of England, and who
+had now pawned his duchy for a pittance scarcely less paltry than that
+for which Esau bartered away his birthright. The picture drawn of him is
+indeed not unlike that of the forefather of the Edomite tribes. Careless
+of the future, open in his friendship or his enmity, free from duplicity
+in himself and unsuspicious of treachery in others, charming others
+and injuring himself by his light-hearted cheerfulness and his lavish
+generosity, Robert was a man whom the total lack of the qualities which
+marked his iron-hearted father brought to a horrible captivity and death
+in the dungeons of Cardiff Castle.
+
+[Sidenote: Robert of Flanders and Stephen of Chartres.]
+
+The number of the great chiefs who led the pilgrims from northern
+Europe is completed with the names of Robert, count of Flanders, whom
+his followers lauded as the Sword and Lance of the Christians, and of
+Stephen, count of Chartres, Troyes, and Blois, the possessor, if we
+choose to believe the tale, of 365 castles, and as rich in his eloquence
+as in his fortresses. The same arithmetic would have us think that the
+minor chiefs were more numerous than the champions whom Agamemnon led to
+the Trojan war; and the assertion is perhaps as much and as little to be
+credited as the catalogue of Greek warriors in the Iliad.
+
+[Sidenote: Adhemar bishop of Puy.]
+
+[Sidenote: Raymond of Toulouse.]
+
+Foremost, by virtue of his title and office, among the leaders of the
+southern bands, was the papal legate Adhemar (Aymer) bishop of Puy—a
+leader rather as guiding the counsels of the army than as gathering
+soldiers under his banner. A hundred thousand horse and foot attested, we
+are told, the greatness, the wealth, and the zeal of Raymond, count of
+Toulouse, lord of Auvergne and Languedoc, who had grown old in warfare,
+and won for himself a mingled reputation for wisdom and haughtiness,
+obstinacy and greed.
+
+[Sidenote: Bohemond.]
+
+Less tinged with the fanatical enthusiasm of his comrades, and certainly
+more cool and deliberate in his ambition, Bohemond, son of Robert
+Guiscard, whom we have seen fighting at Dyrrhachium and victorious at
+Larissa (p. 23), looked to the crusade as a means by which he might
+regain the vast regions extending from the Dalmatian coast to the
+northern shores of the Egean. Nay, if we are to believe William of
+Malmesbury, he urged Urban to set forward the enterprise for the very
+purpose, partly, of thus recovering what he was pleased to regard as
+his inheritance, and in part of enabling the pontiff to suppress all
+opposition in Rome. Guiscard had left his Apulian domains to a younger
+son, and Bohemond was resolved, it would seem, to add to his principality
+of Tarentum a kingdom which would make him a formidable rival of the
+Eastern emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: Tancred.]
+
+Far above his companion Bohemond, rises his cousin Tancred, the son of
+the marquis Odo, surnamed the Good, and of Emma, the sister of Robert
+Guiscard; and his reputation comes not from his wealth or the greatness
+of his following, but from the qualities of mind and person which raised
+him indefinitely nearer than his fellows to the standard of the ‘very
+gentle perfect knight’ of Chaucer. In Tancred was seen the embodiment of
+those peculiar sentiments and modes of thought which gave birth to the
+crusades, and to which the crusades in their turn imparted marvellous
+strength and splendour.
+
+[Sidenote: Cause and effect of chivalry.]
+
+[Sidenote: Knighthood.]
+
+[Sidenote: Courtesy.]
+
+When in the council of Clermont pope Urban dwelt on the cowardice and
+ignoble fears of the Turks, he probably touched a chord which grated on
+the more generous and enthusiastic amongst his hearers, and was in fact
+speaking as a priest when with greater wisdom he should have used the
+language of a general. There can be little doubt that the finer spirits
+of the age were moved by the eager desire of rescuing a crowd of helpless
+Christians from conquerors whose might it was impossible for them to
+resist, and who were worthy antagonists even for the noblest knights
+of Latin and Teutonic Christendom. The rescue of this feeble multitude
+could be effected only at the cost of a great sacrifice,—the sacrifice
+of houses and lands, of luxuries and pleasures: and the consciousness of
+large sacrifices, cheerfully made for the weak and suffering, is amongst
+the highest feelings which may be awakened in the human heart. Thus
+in the most noble-minded and disinterested of the crusading champions
+there was distinctly a combination of two ideas, seemingly discordant,
+yet working together to produce one definite moral result. These were
+the indignation with which they regarded the tyranny exercised over the
+Christians of the East, and the involuntary respect and even admiration
+which they felt for the conquerors as the most redoubtable warriors of
+the age next to the foremost knights of Christendom. The former feeling
+would impel them to the most desperate efforts for the recovery of the
+Holy Land and the Holy Sepulchre; the latter would place checks dimly
+recognized and not always heeded on the ferocious warfare with which
+they would without scruple seek to sweep away all meaner or more savage
+enemies. So far as he was actuated by such motives, the crusader was
+cultivating in himself the germs of forbearance and toleration which
+must at once to whatever extent soften the horrors of war and which
+would in the end yield more solid and satisfying fruits. In this same
+direction the influence of the Church was felt with constantly increasing
+power. It had been her aim to curb, when she could not repress, the
+violence of her children, and to establish by a solemn sanction that
+Truce of God which prevented the practice of private war from becoming
+a burden too heavy for the earth to bear. But in the expedition for the
+delivery of the Holy Land war itself was sanctified; and the knight,
+initiated even in past years by rites, which, heathen in their origin,
+had been made sacred by the Church, was raised almost to the level of
+the priest and the monk. Henceforth the young aspirant for the knightly
+dignity and office was treated much as the catechumens had been treated
+in the first Christian centuries. He must enter on his work with clean
+thoughts and pure conscience, and the spotless garment of the catechumen,
+purified by his long fast, was reproduced in the white robe which the
+young squire put on after cleansing his body in the bath, while the
+profession of baptism was repeated in the knightly vow which (after a
+special confession of sin followed by absolution) pledged the young
+man to deal justly, truly, and generously, defending the oppressed,
+succouring the needy and helpless, and everywhere showing himself the
+unsparing antagonist of all tyrants and evil-doers. In an especial degree
+he was to be the champion of women, the protector of children; and he
+rose from his knees before the assembled clergy, dubbed a knight by the
+sword of his godfather in the names of God, of our Lady, and of St.
+Michael, or St. George. The nearest to the heart of those who uttered
+this formula, as to that of the young knight, was the name of the Virgin
+Mother, whose name, it would seem, has fascinated multitudes without
+curing them of savage treachery and bloodthirsty ferocity. In feudal
+phrase she was his Lady (Notre Dame), as the crucified Jesus was his Lord
+(Notre Seigneur); and the adoring and humble love which he bore for her
+was held to sanctify and to be reflected in the devotion which he felt
+for every noble lady and more especially for the one favoured dame who
+became the idol of his heart, a star to be worshipped at a distance,
+if not a queen at whose feet he might throw himself in an ecstacy of
+passion. This being whom he delighted to picture to himself as the
+peerless ideal of womanhood might be the wife of another man; and these
+extravagant fancies produced not unfrequently the most lamentable and
+ruinous results. But the knightly or chivalrous spirit, thus sometimes
+led astray, tended nevertheless to impose moral checks on rude and savage
+minds which had never felt them before; and the growth of this spirit was
+ensured chiefly by the crusaders. The iniquities wrought by the soldiers
+of the Cross were fearful indeed; but the horrors of the warfare were in
+some small measure softened by the honour which the foremost warriors
+on both sides paid each to the bravery and good faith of the other; and
+this feeling expressed itself in a word which even now has by no means
+lost its meaning. The quality of courtesy so named displayed itself in
+the readiness to give place to another where strength and power might
+have refused all concessions. It was closely allied to the Christian
+qualities of meekness and mercy, and any approach to this heavenly
+temper was a gain indeed in a brutalized and ferocious age. The highest
+glory of the crusading knight was to be a mirror of courtesy: and this
+glory is especially associated with the name of Tancred. Tancred lived,
+fought, and conquered: the Rinaldo whom Tasso paints in his epic poem
+on the deliverance of Jerusalem is a being of cloudland like the Greek
+Achilleus, the Trojan Hektor, and the Persian Rustam.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1096. August. Departure of the main army of the
+crusaders under Godfrey.]
+
+The miserable remnant of 3,000 men who escaped from the field of blood
+before the city of the Seljukian Sultan (p. 41), found a refuge in
+Byzantine territory about the time when the better appointed armies
+of the crusaders were setting off on their eastward journey. The most
+disciplined of these troops set out with a vast following from the banks
+of the Meuse and the Moselle under Godfrey of Bouillon who led them
+safely and without opposition to the Hungarian border. Here the armies
+of Hungary barred the way against the advance of a host at whose hands
+they dreaded a repetition of the havoc wrought by the lawless bands of
+Peter the Hermit and his self-chosen colleagues. Three weeks passed away
+in vain attempts to get over the difficulty. The Hungarian king demanded
+as a hostage Baldwin, the brother of the general: the demand was refused,
+and Godfrey put him to shame by surrendering himself. He asked only for
+a free passage and a free market; but although these were granted, it
+was not in his power to prevent some disorder and some depredations as
+his army or horde passed through the country. The mischief might have
+been much worse, had not the Hungarian cavalry, acting professedly as
+a friendly escort but really as cautious warders kept close to the
+crusading hosts.
+
+[Sidenote: Captivity of Hugh of Vermandois.]
+
+At length they reached the gates of Philippopolis, and here Godfrey
+learnt that Hugh of Vermandois, whose coming had been announced to the
+Greek emperor Alexios by four-and-twenty knights in golden armour, and
+who styled himself the brother of the king of kings and lord of all the
+Frankish hosts, was a prisoner within the walls of Constantinople. With
+Robert of Normandy and Robert of Flanders, with Stephen of Chartres and
+some lesser chiefs, Hugh had chosen to make his way through Italy; and
+the charms of that voluptuous land had a greater effect, it seems, in
+breaking up and corrupting their forces than the delights of Capua had
+in weakening the soldiers of Hannibal. With little regard to order the
+chiefs determined to cross the sea as best they might. Hugh embarked
+at Bari; and if we may believe Anna Comnena, the historian and the
+worshipper of her father Alexios, his fleet was broken by a tempest
+which shattered his own ship on the coast between Palos and Dyrrhachium
+(Durazzo), of which John Comnenos, the nephew of the emperor, was at
+this time the governor. The Frank chief was here detained until the good
+pleasure of Alexios should be known. That wary and cunning prince saw
+at once how much might be made of his prisoner, who was by his orders
+conducted with careful respect and ceremony to the capital. Kept here
+really as a hostage, but welcomed to outward seeming as a friend, Hugh
+was so completely won by the charm of manner which Alexios well knew
+how and when to put on, that, paying him homage and declaring himself
+his man, he promised to do what he could to induce others to follow his
+example.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1096. Christmas. Arrival of Godfrey before the walls of
+Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: Policy of the emperor Alexios.]
+
+From Philippopolis Godfrey sent ambassadors to Alexios, demanding the
+immediate surrender of Hugh. The request was refused, and Godfrey resumed
+his march, treating the land through which he passed as an enemy’s
+country, until by way of Adrianople he at length appeared before the
+walls of the capital at Christmastide, 1096. The fears of Alexios were
+aroused by the sight of a host so vast and so formidable: they quickened
+into terror as he thought of the armies which were still on their way
+under the command of Bohemond and Tancred. Of Godfrey, beyond the fact of
+his mission as a crusader, he knew little or nothing: but in Bohemond he
+saw one who claimed as his inheritance no small portion of his empire.
+This gathering of myriads, whom a false step on his part might convert
+into open enemies, was the result of his own entreaties urged through
+his envoys before Urban II. in the council of Piacenza; and his mind was
+divided between a feverish anxiety to hurry them on to their destination
+and so to rid himself of their hateful presence, and the desire to retain
+a hold not only on the crusading chiefs but on any conquests which they
+might make in Syria.
+
+[Sidenote: Compact between Alexios and the crusaders.]
+
+Hugh was sent back to Godfrey’s camp; but the quarrel was patched up,
+rather than ended. It was easier to rouse suspicion and jealousy than
+to restore friendship. But it was of the first importance for Alexios
+that he should secure the homage of the princes already gathered round
+his capital before the arrival of his ancient enemy Bohemond. In this he
+succeeded, and a compact was made by which Alexios pledged them his word
+that he would supply them with food and aid them in their eastward march,
+and would protect all pilgrims passing through his dominions. On the
+other hand the crusading chiefs, as already subjects of other sovereigns,
+gave their fealty to the emperor as their liege lord only for the time
+during which they might remain within his borders, and undertook to
+restore to him such of their conquests as had been recently wrested from
+the empire. In order to secure this treaty Alexios had been compelled
+to go through the fatigue of interminable audiences with the Western
+warriors and to put up with not a little insolence. The effrontery of
+a crusader, who flinging himself on the imperial throne declared that
+he saw no reason for standing while one rustic remained seated, was
+denounced as intolerable rudeness even by his companions; but Robert,
+count of Paris, if indeed it was he, closed a brief career not many weeks
+later, and is more conspicuous in modern romance than in the pages of
+mediæval historians.
+
+[Sidenote: Homage of the crusaders to Alexios.]
+
+The spirit of Bohemond was stirred deeply within him when on reaching
+Constantinople he found that his colleagues, instead of remaining
+independent chiefs, had made themselves vassals of the Byzantine
+monarch. But Alexios was vigorously aided by Robert of Flanders, whose
+friendly offices were the result of an alliance made with his father
+eight years before; and Bohemond soon saw that he must in appearance
+follow the example of his comrades, whatever course it might suit him
+to take hereafter. He became the guest of the emperor, listened with
+complacency to his flatteries, accepted a magnificent gift or bribe,
+and accompanied his submission with a request for the office of Grand
+Domestic, or general of the East. The emperor put him off with the
+promise of an independent principality, and turned with more genuine
+warmth to the honest simplicity of Godfrey. This disinterested crusader
+was anxious only to fulfill his vows; and Alexios felt that he was making
+no sacrifice and entering into no inconvenient engagements by adopting
+him as his son.
+
+[Sidenote: Disastrous march of Raymond of Toulouse to Constantinople.]
+
+The policy and the bribes of Alexios had overcome the opposition of
+Bohemond. He was to experience a stouter resistance from Raymond of
+Toulouse, who, though he had been the first to enlist, was the last to
+set out on his crusade. He should never make another journey, he said,
+and he was determined to be well prepared. Wishing to avoid, so far
+as he could, the lines of march chosen by the chiefs who had preceded
+him, he took the road through Lombardy. Thus far his march was easily
+accomplished: but things wore a different look when he reached the savage
+mountains and desolate valleys of Dalmatia and Slavonia. The people had
+driven their cattle (and their cattle formed practically their whole
+property) into inaccessible glens: and instead of plundering others the
+crusaders found themselves harassed and their stragglers cut off by
+thieves and murderers. Raymond retaliated by cutting off the hands and
+noses of all who were taken prisoners and putting out their eyes; and the
+wrath of the natives was roused to desperate resistance. At Scodra he
+entered into some sort of agreement with the Servian chief Bodin; but the
+country could yield little for the support of this vast army, which was
+compelled to struggle onwards under dire difficulties. It is astonishing
+to hear that Raymond could still speak of himself as the leader of a
+hundred thousand warriors, when he refused flatly to do homage to the
+Greek emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: Refusal of Raymond to do homage.]
+
+The count of Toulouse scarcely regarded himself as the vassal even of the
+French king. He was ready, he said, to be the friend of Alexios on equal
+terms; but he would not declare himself to be his man. On this point he
+was immovable, although Bohemond tried the effect of a threat, which was
+never forgiven, that if the quarrel came to blows, he should be found
+on the side of the emperor. But Alexios soon saw that in Raymond he had
+to deal with an enthusiast as sincere and persistent as Godfrey. He
+took his measures accordingly, and winning the heart of the old warrior,
+although he failed to compel his obedience, he confessed to him his
+dislike of the rude and noisy habits of the Franks and his deep-seated
+fears of Bohemond. The admiration of Anna Comnena was as great as the
+esteem professed for him by her father. Raymond in her fervent language
+shone among the barbarians as the sun among the stars of heaven.
+
+[Sidenote: Conduct of Alexios to the crusaders.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1097. March.]
+
+While Alexios was thus busied in dealing with Godfrey and Raymond,
+Bohemond and Tancred, he was not less anxiously occupied with the task of
+sending across the Bosporos the swarms which might soon become an army
+of devouring locusts round his own capital. It was easier to give them
+a welcome than to get rid of them: and more than two months had passed
+since Christmas, when the followers of Godfrey found themselves on the
+soil of Asia. It was well to place even a narrow strait of sea between
+himself and these dangerous friends, who had threatened him at first with
+all the horrors of savage war. The rumour had got abroad that Alexios
+meant to hem them in among marshes, and leave them there to starve; and
+an assault of the crusaders on the suburbs showed the emperor what he
+might expect, if these suspicions were not quieted. Probably he had not
+intended to entrap them to their death: but he had felt less scruple
+in submitting them to cheatings with debased coin and to extortions
+which carried with them no sense of novelty for his own people. Even
+these he found it politic to abandon, and so zealously did he employ an
+opposite method that for the time the crusaders seemed to have become his
+mercenaries.
+
+[Sidenote: Passage of the crusaders across the Bosporos.]
+
+Godfrey’s men had no sooner been landed on the eastern side of the
+Bosporos, than all the vessels which had transported them were brought
+back to the western shore. With great astuteness, and at the cost of
+large gifts, Alexios in like manner freed the neighbourhood of his
+capital from the invading multitudes. As fast as they came, they were
+hurried across, and the emperor breathed more freely when, on the feast
+of Pentecost, not a single Latin pilgrim remained on the European shore.
+
+[Sidenote: Thorough antagonism between the crusaders and the Greeks.]
+
+[Sidenote: Contrast between the Greek and Latin clergy.]
+
+The danger of conflict had throughout been imminent; and the danger
+arose, not so much from the fact that the crusaders were armed men,
+marching through the country of professed allies, but from the thorough
+antagonism between Greeks and Latins in modes of thought and habits of
+life, in the first notions of civilization, law, and duty. For the Greeks
+feudalism was a thing of the remote past; in other words, was a thing
+unknown. To get at a state resembling that of Western Europe they would
+have had to go back for nearly twenty centuries—to the days of Solon and
+of the Thessalian and Theban nobility, who were among the most efficient
+allies of Xerxes. For the crusading armies or rather for their chiefs
+(of the common herd there was no need to take any account), nothing was
+so hateful as a central authority which pressed on all orders in the
+state alike: nothing was so precious as local tyranny and the right
+of private war, which respected neither person nor property. For the
+subjects of the Eastern empire the protection of person and property was
+everything, and in order to secure this they were willing to put up with
+a large amount of oppression and of corruption in their governors. In a
+sense not so high perhaps as that which the words bore in the days of
+Herodotos, law was still their king; and of public law the Latins could
+scarcely be said to have any conception. Nor must we forget the vast gulf
+which separated the Eastern from the Western clergy. The latter were now
+becoming well broken into the yoke of celibacy which had been finally
+thrust upon them by Damiani and Hildebrand; for the former marriage was
+a condition for the very reception of their orders. The Latin clergy had
+by this change been converted into a close order or caste, which looked
+up to the Roman pontiff as their head and hated the thought of allegiance
+to any temporal ruler. This empire within an empire was an idea which had
+not dawned on the Greek or the Eastern mind; and the clergy of the West
+despised their brethren of the East for their cowardly submission to the
+secular arm. These, in their turn, shrunk with horror from the sight of
+bishops, priests, and monks riding with blood-stained weapons over fields
+of battle, and exhibiting at other times an ignorance equal to their
+ferocity. Harmony between nations and races under such conditions is as
+hopeless as the voluntary mingling of oil and water; and the result of
+contact was an exasperation of the suspicion, jealousy, and hatred which
+the one side felt instinctively for the supposed treachery, lying, and
+violence of the other.
+
+[Sidenote: Numbers of the crusaders.]
+
+Thus was gathered on the eastern shores of the Hellespont and the
+Bosporos a host, we may well believe more vast than that which Xerxes
+drove before him for the invasion of Europe, and leaving behind it in
+utter insignificance the scanty force with which Alexander attempted and
+achieved the conquest of Asia. When tribes or a nation pour out their
+whole population, men, women, and children alike, there is practically no
+limit to the numbers which may be set in motion; nor is it any tax on
+our credulity to believe that a hundred thousand horsemen, fully armed
+in the light coats of mail worn during the first crusading age, were
+marshalled on the Bithynian plains, even if we put aside as an absurd
+exaggeration the notion of the chaplain of Count Baldwin, that the whole
+body of the crusaders amounted to not less than six millions.
+
+[Sidenote: June. Siege and fall of Nice (Nikaia).]
+
+[Sidenote: July 4. Battle of Dorylaion.]
+
+Their strength and valour were soon to be tested. They were now face
+to face with the Turks on whose cowardice Urban II. had enlarged with
+so much complacency before the council of Clermont. The Sultan David,
+or Kilidje Arslan (p. 41), placed his family and treasures in his
+capital city of Nice (Nikaia), and retreated with 50,000 horsemen to the
+mountains, whence he swooped down from time to time on the outposts of
+the Christians. By these his city was formally invested; and for seven
+weeks it was assailed to little purpose by the old instruments of Roman
+warfare, while some of the besiegers shot their weapons from the hill on
+which were mouldering the bones of the fanatic followers of Peter. It was
+protected to the west by the Askanian lake, and so long as the Turks had
+command of this lake they felt themselves safe. But Alexios sent thither
+on sledges a large number of boats, and the city, subjected to a double
+blockade, submitted to the emperor, who was in no way anxious to see the
+crusaders masters of the place. The crusaders were making ready for the
+last assault, when they saw the imperial banner floating on the walls.
+Their disappointment at the escape of the miscreants, or unbelievers,
+for so they delighted to speak of them, was vented in threats which
+seemed to bode a renewal of the old troubles: but Alexios, with gifts,
+which added force to his words, professed that his only desire now, as
+it had been, was to forward them safely on their journey. Nor had they
+to go many stages before they found themselves again confronted with
+their adversary. The conflict took place near the Phrygian Dorylaion,
+and seemed at first to portend dire defeat to the crusaders. More than
+once the issue of the day seemed to be turned by the indomitable personal
+bravery of the Norman Robert, of Tancred, and of Bohemond; and when even
+those seemed likely to be borne down, they received timely succours from
+Godfrey, and Hugh of Vermandois, from bishop Adhemar of Puy and from
+Raymond, count of Toulouse. Still the Turks held out, and it seemed
+likely that they would long hold out, when the appearance of the last
+division of Raymond’s army filled them with the fear that a new host was
+upon them.
+
+[Sidenote: March to Cogni and the Pisidian Antioch.]
+
+[Sidenote: Quarrel between Baldwin and Tancred at Tarsus.]
+
+The crusaders had won a considerable victory. Three thousand knights
+belonging to the enemy had been slain, and Kilidje Arslan was hurrying
+away to enlist the services of his kinsmen. Meanwhile the Latin hosts
+were sweeping onwards, passing Cogni (Ikonion, Iconium), Erekli
+(Herakleia), and the Pisidian Antioch. Their dangers were great; their
+sufferings terrible. The son of Kilidje Arslan had hurried on before them
+with ten thousand horsemen, and declared before the gates of each city
+that they came as conquerors, not as fugitives. They had ravaged the
+lands as they came along; in the town they sacked the churches, plundered
+the houses, emptied the granaries; and the crusaders who followed them
+had to journey over a naked soil under the burning Phrygian sun. Hundreds
+died from the heat: and dogs or goats took the place of the baggage
+horses which had perished. At length Tancred with his troop found
+himself before Tarsus, the birthplace and the home of that single-hearted
+apostle who long ago had preached a gospel strangely unlike the creed
+of the crusaders. Following rapidly behind him, Baldwin saw with keen
+jealousy the banner of the Italian chief floating on its towers, and
+insisted on taking the precedence. Tancred pleaded the choice of the
+people and his own promise to protect them; but the intrigues of Baldwin
+changed their humour, and the rejection of Tancred by the men of Tarsus
+was followed by an attempt at private war between Tancred and Baldwin,
+in which the troops of Tancred were overborne. So early was the first
+harvest of murderous discord reaped among the holy warriors of the cross.
+It was ruin, however, to stay where they were; and the main army again
+began its march, to undergo once more the old monotony of hardship and
+peril.
+
+[Sidenote: Conquest of Edessa by Baldwin.]
+
+A very small force would have sufficed to disorganize and rout them as
+they clambered over the defiles of Mount Taurus; nor could Raymond,
+recovering from a terrible illness, or Godfrey, suffering from wounds
+inflicted by a bear, have done much to help them. But for the present
+their enemies were dismayed; and Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, hastened
+with eagerness to obey a summons which besought him to aid the Greek or
+Armenian tyrant of Edessa. As Alexios had done to his brother, so this
+chief welcomed Baldwin as his son; but Baldwin, having once entered into
+the city, cared nothing for the means which had brought him thither,
+and the death of his adoptive father was followed by the establishment
+at Edessa of a Latin principality which lasted for fifty-four, or,
+as some have thought, forty-seven years. Baldwin had anticipated the
+unconditional surrender of Samosata; but the Turkish governor had some of
+the Edessenes in his power, and he refused to give up the city except on
+the payment of ten thousand gold pieces. The Turk shortly afterwards fell
+into Baldwin’s hands, and was put to death.
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of the crusaders before the Syrian Antioch.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1097. Oct.]
+
+Meanwhile the main army of the crusaders was advancing towards the Syrian
+capital, that ancient and luxurious city whose fame had gone over the
+whole Roman world for its magnificence, its unbounded wealth, its soft
+delights, and its unholy pleasures. The days of its greatest splendour
+had passed away. Its walls were partially in ruins; its buildings were in
+some parts crumbling away or had already fallen; but against assailants
+utterly ignorant and awkward in all that relates to the blockade of
+cities it was still a formidable position. Nor could they invest it until
+they had passed the iron bridge (so called from its iron-plated gates) of
+nine stone arches, which spanned the stream of the Ifrin at a distance of
+nine miles from the city. This bridge was carried by the impetuous charge
+of Robert of Normandy, aided by the more steady efforts of Godfrey; and
+in the language of an age which delighted in round numbers, a hundred
+thousand warriors hurried across to seize the splendid prize which now
+seemed almost within their grasp.
+
+[Sidenote: Siege of Antioch.]
+
+But the city was in the hands of men who had been long accustomed to
+despise the Greeks, and who had not yet learnt to respect the valour
+of the Latins. Preparing himself for a resolute defence, the Seljukian
+governor Baghasian had sent away, as useless, if not mischievous, most
+of the Christians within the town; and the crusading chiefs had begun
+to discuss the prudence of postponing all operations till the spring,
+when Raymond of Toulouse with some other chiefs insisted that delay
+would imply fear, and that the imputation of cowardice would ensure the
+paralysis of their enterprise. The city was therefore at once invested,
+so far as the forces of the crusaders could suffice to encircle it;
+and a siege began which in the eyes of the military historian must be
+absolutely without interest, and of which the issue was decided by
+paroxysms of fanatical vehemence on the one side, and by lack not of
+bravery but of generalship on the other. Of the eastern and northern
+walls the blockade was complete; of the west it was partial; and the
+failure to invest a portion of the western wall, with two out of the five
+gates of the city, left the movements of the Turks in this direction free.
+
+[Sidenote: Folly of the besiegers.]
+
+But the besiegers were in no hurry to begin the work of death. The wealth
+of the harvest and the vintage spread before them its irresistible
+temptations, and the herds feeding in the rich pastures seemed to promise
+an endless feast. The cattle, the corn, and the wine were alike wasted
+with besotted folly, while the Turks within the walls received tidings,
+it is said, of all that passed in the crusading camp from some Greek and
+Armenian Christians to whom they allowed free egress and ingress. Of this
+knowledge they availed themselves in planning the sallies by which they
+caused great distress to the besiegers, whose clumsy engines and devices
+seemed to produce no result beyond the waste of time, and who felt
+perhaps that they had done something when they blocked up the gate of the
+bridge with huge stones dug from the neighbouring quarries.
+
+[Sidenote: Famine in the crusading camp.]
+
+Three months passed away; and the crusaders found themselves not
+conquerors but in desperate straits from famine. The winter rains had
+turned the land round their camp into a swamp, and lack of food left
+them more and more unable to resist the pestilential diseases which were
+rapidly thinning their numbers. A foraging expedition under Bohemond and
+Tancred filled the camp with food: it was again recklessly wasted. The
+second famine scared away Tatikios, the lieutenant of the Greek emperor
+Alexios; but the crusading chiefs were perhaps still more disgusted
+by the desertion of William of Melun, called the Carpenter, from the
+sledge-hammer blows which he dealt out in battle. Hunger obtained a
+victory even over the hermit Peter, who was stealing away with William of
+Melun, when he with his companion was caught by Tancred and brought back
+to the tent of Bohemond.
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of envoys from the Fatimite sultan of Egypt.]
+
+For a moment the look of things was changed by the arrival of ambassadors
+from Egypt. To the Fatimite caliph of that country the progress of the
+crusading arms had thus far brought with it but little dissatisfaction.
+The humiliation of the Seljukian Turks could not fail to bring gain to
+himself, if the flood of Latin conquests could be checked and turned back
+in time. His generals besieged Jerusalem and Tyre; and when the Fatimite
+once more ruled in Palestine, his envoys hastened to the crusaders’
+camp to announce the deliverance of the Holy Land from its oppressors,
+to assure to all unarmed and peaceable pilgrims a month’s unmolested
+sojourn in Jerusalem, and to promise them his aid during their march, on
+condition that they should acknowledge his supremacy within the limits of
+his Syrian empire.
+
+[Sidenote: Their terms rejected by the crusaders.]
+
+The arguments and threats of the caliph were alike thrown away. The
+Latin chiefs disclaimed all interest in the feuds and quarrels of rival
+sultans and in the fortunes of Mahomedan sects. God Himself had destined
+Jerusalem for the Christians, and if any held it who were not Christians,
+these were usurpers whose resistance must be punished by their expulsion
+or their death. The envoys departed not encouraged by this answer, and
+still more perplexed by the appearance of plenty and by the magnificence
+of a camp in which they had expected to see a terrible spectacle of
+disorder and misery.
+
+[Sidenote: Fierce warfare between the Christians and the Turks.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1098. March.]
+
+The resolute persistence of the besiegers convinced Baghasian of the need
+of reinforcements. These were hastening to him from Cæsarea, Aleppo, and
+other places, when they were cut off by Bohemond and Raymond, who sent a
+multitude of heads to the envoys of the Fatimite caliph, and discharged
+many hundreds from their engines into the city of Antioch. The Turks
+had their opportunity for reprisals when the arrival of some Pisan and
+Genoese ships at the mouth of the Orontes drew off the greater part of
+the besieging army. The crusaders were returning with provisions and
+arms, when their enemies started upon them from an ambuscade. The battle
+was fierce: but the defeat of Raymond which threatened dire disaster was
+changed into victory on the arrival of Godfrey and the Norman Robert,
+whose exploits equalled or surpassed, if we are to believe the story,
+even those of Arthur, Lancelot, or Tristram. Hundreds, if not thousands,
+of Turks fell. Their bodies were buried by their comrades in the cemetery
+without the walls: the Christians dug them up, severed the heads from the
+trunks, and paraded the ghastly trophies on their pikes, not forgetting
+to send a goodly number to the Egyptian caliph, by way of showing how his
+Seljukian friends or enemies had fared. The picture is disgusting; but if
+we shut our eyes to these loathsome details, the truth of the history is
+gone. We are dealing with the wars of savages, and it is right that we
+should know this.
+
+[Sidenote: Plan of Bohemond for the reduction of Antioch.]
+
+The next scene exhibits Godfrey and Bohemond in fierce quarrel about a
+splendid tent, which, being intended as a gift for the former, had been
+seized by an Armenian chief and sent to the latter. But there was now
+more serious business on hand. Rumour spoke of the near approach of a
+Persian army, and the besieged under the plea of wishing to arrange terms
+of capitulation obtained a truce which they sought probably only for the
+sake of gaining time. The days passed by, but no offers were made; and
+their disposition was shown by seizing a crusading knight in the groves
+near the city, and tearing his body in pieces. The Latins returned with
+increased fury to the siege: but the defence, although more feeble,
+was still protracted, and Bohemond began to feel not only that fraud
+might succeed where force had failed, but that from fraud he might reap
+not safety merely but wealth and greatness. His plans were laid with a
+renegade Christian named Phirouz (high in the favour of the governor),
+with whom he had come into contact either during the truce or in some
+other way. By splendid promises he ensured the zealous aid of his new
+ally, and then came forward in the council with the assurance that he
+could place the city in their hands, but that he could do this only on
+condition that he should rule in Antioch as Baldwin ruled in Edessa. His
+claim was angrily opposed by the Provençal Raymond: but this opposition
+was overruled, and it was resolved that the plan should be carried out at
+once.
+
+[Sidenote: June. Betrayal of Antioch to Bohemond.]
+
+There was need for so doing. Rumours spread within the city that some
+attempt was to be made to betray the place to the besiegers, and hints or
+open accusations pointed out Phirouz as the traitor. Like other traitors,
+the renegade thought it best to anticipate the charge by urging that the
+guards of the towers should on the very next day be changed. His proposal
+was received as indubitable proof of his innocence and his faithfulness;
+but he had made up his mind that Antioch should fall that night, and
+that night by means of a rope ladder Bohemond with about sixty followers
+(the ropes broke before more could ascend) climbed up the wall. Seizing
+ten towers of which all the guards were killed, they opened a gate, and
+the Christian host rushed in. The banner of Bohemond rose on one of the
+towers; the trumpets sounded for the onset, and a carnage began in which
+at first the assailants took no heed to distinguish between the Christian
+and the Turk. In the awful confusion of the moment some of the besieged
+made their way to the citadel, and there shut themselves in, ready
+to resist to the death. Of the rest few escaped: ten thousand, it is
+said, were massacred. Baghasian with some friends passed out beyond the
+besiegers’ lines; but fainting from loss of blood he fell from his horse,
+and his companions hurried on. A Syrian Christian heard his groans, and
+striking off his head, carried the prize to the camp of the conquerors.
+Phirouz lived to be a second time a renegade, and to close his career as
+a thief.
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of the Persians under Kerboga.]
+
+The victory was for the crusaders a change from famine to abundance; and
+their feasting was accompanied by the wildest riot and the most filthy
+debauchery. But if heedless waste may have been one of the most venial
+of their sins, it was the greatest of their blunders. The reports which
+spoke of the approach of the Persians were not false. The Turks within
+the citadel suddenly found that they were rather besiegers than besieged,
+and that the Christians were hemmed in by the myriads of Kerboga prince
+of Mosul and the warriors of Kilidje Arslan. The old horrors of famine
+were now repeated, but in greater intensity; and the doom of the Latin
+host seemed to be sealed.
+
+[Sidenote: Desertion of Stephen of Chartres.]
+
+Stephen count of Chartres had deserted his companions before the fall of
+the city; others now followed his example, and with him set out on their
+return to Europe. In Phrygia Stephen encountered the emperor Alexios, who
+was marching to the aid of the crusaders, not only with a Greek army, but
+with a force of well appointed pilgrims who had reached Constantinople
+after the departure of Godfrey and his fellows. The story told by Stephen
+drove out of his head every thought except that of his own safety. The
+order for retreat was given; and the pilgrim warriors not less than
+the Greeks were compelled to turn their faces westwards. In vain Guy,
+a brother of Bohemond, pleaded his duty and his vow. His words were
+unheeded; and his indignation wrung from him the desperate assertion that
+if the Divine Being were omnipotent, He would not suffer such things to
+be done.
+
+[Sidenote: Desperate straits of the crusaders in Antioch.]
+
+[Sidenote: The discovery of the Holy Lance.]
+
+In Antioch the crusading soldiers were fast sinking into utter despair.
+Discipline had well nigh come to an end, and so obstinate was their
+refusal to bear arms any longer, that Bohemond resolved to burn them out
+of their quarters. These were consumed by the flames, which spread so
+rapidly as to fill him with fear that he had destroyed not only their
+dwellings but his whole principality. His experiment brought the men
+back to their duty: but so despondingly was their work done that but
+for some signal succour the end, it was manifest, must soon come. In a
+credulous age such succour at the darkest hour, if obtained at all, will
+generally be obtained through miracle. A Lombard priest came forward, to
+whom St. Ambrose of Milan had declared in a vision that the third year
+of the crusade should see the conquest of Jerusalem; another had seen
+the Saviour Himself, attended by his Virgin-Mother and the Prince of
+the Apostles, had heard from his lips a stern rebuke of the crusaders
+for yielding to the seductions of pagan women (as if the profession of
+Christianity altered the colour and the guilt of a vice), and lastly had
+received the distinct assurance that in five days they should have the
+help which they needed. The hopes of the crusaders were roused; with
+hope came a return of vigorous energy; and Peter Barthelemy, chaplain to
+Raymond of Toulouse, seized the opportunity for recounting a vision which
+was to be something more than a dream. To him St. Andrew had revealed
+the fact that in the church of St. Peter lay hidden the steel head of
+the spear which had pierced the side of the Redeemer as He hung upon the
+cross; and that Holy Lance should win them victory over all their enemies
+as surely as the spear which imparted irresistible power to the Knight
+of the Sangreal. After two days of special devotion they were to search
+for the long-lost weapon: on the third day the workmen began to dig; but
+until the sun had set they toiled in vain. The darkness of night made it
+easier for the chaplain to play the part which Sir Walter Scott, in the
+‘Antiquary,’ assigns to Herman Dousterswivel in the ruins of St. Ruth.
+Barefooted and with a single garment the priest went down into the pit.
+For a time the strokes of his spade were heard, and then the sacred
+relic was found, carefully wrapped in a veil of silk and gold. The priest
+proclaimed his discovery; the people rushed into the church; and from the
+church throughout the city spread the flame of a fierce enthusiasm.
+
+[Sidenote: Fate of the discoverer.]
+
+Nine or ten months later Peter Barthelemy paid the penalty of his life
+for his fraud or his superstition. A bribe taken by his master Raymond
+brought that chief into ill odour with his comrades, and let loose
+against his chaplain the tongue of Arnold, the chaplain of Bohemond.
+Raymond had traded on fresh visions of his clerk; and Arnold boldly
+attacked him in his citadel by denying the genuineness of the Holy Lance.
+Peter appealed to the ordeal of fire. He passed through the flames,
+as it seemed, unhurt. The bystanders pressed to feel his flesh, and
+were vehement in their rejoicings at the result which vindicated his
+integrity. He had really received fatal injuries. Twelve days afterwards
+he died, and Raymond suffered greatly in his dignity and his influence.
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Antioch.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1098. June 28.]
+
+[Sidenote: Defeat of Kerboga.]
+
+[Sidenote: Antioch made a principality for Bohemond.]
+
+The infidel was doomed; but the crusaders resolved to give him one chance
+of escape. Peter the Hermit was sent as their envoy to Kerboga to offer
+the alternative of departure from a land which St. Peter had bestowed on
+the faithful, or of baptism which should leave him master of the city
+and territory of Antioch. The reply was short and decisive. The Turk
+would not embrace an idolatry which he hated and despised, nor would he
+give up soil which belonged to him by right of conquest. The report of
+the hermit raised the spirit of the crusaders to fever heat; and on the
+feast of St. Peter and St. Paul they marched out in twelve divisions,
+in remembrance of the mission of the twelve apostles, while Raymond of
+Toulouse remained to prevent the escape of the Turks shut up in the
+citadel. The Holy Lance was borne by the papal legate, Adhemar, bishop of
+Puy; and the morning air laden with the perfume of roses was now regarded
+as a sign assuring them of the divine favour. They were prepared to see
+good omens in everything; and they went in full confidence that departed
+saints would, as they had been told, take part in the battle and smite
+down the infidel. The fight (one of brute force on the Christian side, of
+some little skill as well as strength on the other) had gone on for some
+time when such help seemed to become needful. Tancred had hurried to the
+aid of Bohemond who was grievously pressed by Kilidje Arslan; and Kerboga
+was bearing heavily on Godfrey and Hugh of Vermandois, when, clothed in
+white armour and riding on white horses, some human forms were seen on
+the neighbouring heights. ‘The saints are coming to your aid,’ shouted
+the bishop of Puy, and the people saw in these radiant strangers the
+martyrs St. George, St. Maurice, and St. Theodore. Without awaiting their
+nearer approach the crusaders turned on the enemy with a force and fury
+which were now irresistible. Their cavalry could do little. Two hundred
+horses only remained of the sixty thousand which had filled the plain a
+few months before. But the hedge of spears advanced like a wall of iron,
+and the Turks gave way, broke, and fled. It was rout, not retreat; and
+with the crusaders victory was followed by the massacre of men, women,
+and children. The garrison in the citadel at once surrendered. Some
+declared themselves Christians and were baptized; those who refused to
+abandon Islam were taken to the nearest Mohamedan territory. The city was
+the prize of Bohemond; and in his keeping it remained, although Raymond
+of Toulouse had made an effort to seize it by hoisting his banner on
+the walls. The work of pillage being ended, the churches were cleansed
+and repaired, and their altars blazed with golden spoils taken from the
+infidel. The Greek patriarch was again seated on his throne: but he held
+his office at the good pleasure of the Latins, and two years later he was
+made to give place to Bernard, a chaplain of the bishop of Puy.
+
+[Sidenote: Mission of Hugh of Vermandois to Constantinople.]
+
+Ten months had passed away after the conquest of Antioch when the main
+body of the crusading army set out on its march to Jerusalem. They had
+wished to depart at once, but their chiefs dreaded to encounter waterless
+wastes at the end of a Syrian summer, and for the present they were
+content to send Hugh of Vermandois and Baldwin of Hainault as envoys
+to the Greek emperor, to reproach him with his remissness or his want
+of faith. But the miseries endured by Christians and Turks were the
+pleasantest tidings in the ears of Alexios, for in the weakening of both
+lay his own strength; and he saw with satisfaction the departure of Hugh,
+not for Antioch, but for Europe, whither Stephen of Chartres had preceded
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Adhemar, bishop of Puy.]
+
+[Sidenote: Siege and capture of Marra.]
+
+Winter came; but the chiefs still lingered at Antioch. Some were
+occupied in expeditions against neighbouring cities: but a more pressing
+care was the plague which punished the foulness and disorder of the
+pilgrims. A band of 1,500 Germans, recently landed in strong health and
+full equipments, were all, it is said, cut off; and among the victims
+the most lamented perhaps was the papal legate Adhemar. A feeling of
+discouragement was again spreading through the army generally. The chiefs
+vainly entreated the pope to visit the city where the disciples of St.
+Peter first received the Christian name; the people were disheartened
+by the animosities and the selfish or crooked policy of their chiefs.
+Raymond still hankered after the principality of Antioch, and insisted
+that Bohemond and his people, like the men of the three trans-jordanic
+tribes in the days of Joshua, should share in the last great enterprise
+of the crusade. More disgraceful than these feuds were the scenes
+witnessed during the siege and after the conquest of Marra. Heedlessness
+and waste soon brought the assailants to devour the flesh of dogs and of
+human beings. The bodies of Turks were torn from their sepulchres, ripped
+up for the gold which they were supposed to have swallowed, and the
+fragments cooked and eaten. Of the besieged many slew themselves to avoid
+falling into the hands of the Christians; to some Bohemond, tempted by a
+large bribe, gave an assurance of safety. When the massacre had begun, he
+ordered these to be brought forward. The weak and old he slaughtered; the
+rest he sent to the slave-markets of Antioch.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1099. May march of the crusaders from Antioch.]
+
+A weak attempt made by Alexios to detain the crusaders only spurred them
+to more vigorous efforts. They had already left Antioch, and Laodicea
+was in their hands, when he desired them to await his coming in June.
+The chiefs, remembering the departure of Tatikios (p. 62) with his
+Byzantine troops for Cyprus, retorted that he had broken his compact,
+and had therefore no further claims on their obedience. Hastening on
+their way, they crossed the plain of Berytos (Beyrout), overlooked by
+the eternal snows of Lebanon, along the narrow strip of land whence the
+great Phenician cities had sent their seamen and their colonists, with
+all the wealth of the East, to the shores of the Adriatic and the gates
+of the Mediterranean. Having reached Jaffa, they turned inland to Ramlah,
+a town sixteen miles only from Jerusalem. Two days later the crusaders
+came in sight of the Holy City, the object of their long pilgrimage, the
+cause of wretchedness and death to millions. As their eyes rested on the
+scene hallowed to them through all the associations of their faith, the
+crusaders passed in an instant from fierce enthusiasm to a humiliation
+which showed itself in sighs and tears. All fell on their knees, to kiss
+the sacred earth and to pour forth thanksgivings that they had been
+suffered to look upon the desire of their eyes. Putting aside their
+armour and their weapons, they advanced in pilgrim’s garb and with bare
+feet towards the spot which the Saviour had trodden in the hours of his
+agony and his passion.
+
+[Sidenote: June. Siege of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: July. Storming of the city.]
+
+But before their feelings of devotion could be indulged, there was other
+work to be done. The chiefs took up their posts on those sides from
+which the nature of the ground gave most hope of a successful assault.
+On the northern side were Godfrey and Tancred, Robert of Flanders, and
+Robert of Normandy; on the west Raymond with his Provencals. On the
+fifth day, without siege instruments, with only one ladder, and trusting
+to mere weight, the crusaders made a desperate assault upon the walls.
+Some succeeded in reaching the summit, and the very rashness of their
+attack struck terror for a moment into their enemies. But the garrison
+soon rallied, and the invaders were all driven back or hurled from
+the ramparts. The task, it was manifest, must be undertaken in a more
+formal manner. Siege engines must be made, and the palm and olive of
+the immediate neighbourhood would not supply fit materials for their
+construction. These were obtained from the woods of Shechem, a distance
+of thirty miles; and the work of preparation was carried on under the
+guidance of Gaston of Bearn by the crews of some Genoese vessels which
+had recently anchored at Jaffa. So passed away more than thirty days,
+days of intense suffering to the besiegers. At Antioch they had been
+distressed chiefly by famine: in place of this wretchedness they had here
+the greater miseries of thirst. The enemy had carefully destroyed every
+place which might serve as a receptacle of water; and in seeking for it
+over miles of desolate country they were exposed to the harassing attacks
+of Moslem horsemen. Nor had visions and miracles improved the morals
+or discipline of the camp; and the ghost of Adhemar of Puy appeared to
+rebuke the horrible sins which were drawing down upon them the judgments
+of the Almighty. Better service was done by the generosity of Tancred,
+who made up his quarrel with Raymond; and the enthusiasm of the crusaders
+was again roused by the preaching of Arnold (p. 68) and the hermit Peter.
+The narrative of the siege of Jericho in the book of Joshua suggested
+probably the procession in which the clergy singing hymns preceded
+the laity round the walls of the city. The Saracens on the ramparts
+mocked their devotions by throwing dirt upon crucifixes: but they paid
+a terrible price for these insults. On the next day the final assault
+began, and was carried on through the day with the same monotony of brute
+force and carnage which marked all the operations of this merciless war.
+The darkness of night brought no rest. The actual combat was suspended,
+but the besieged were incessantly occupied in repairing the breaches made
+by the assailants, while these were busied in making their dispositions
+for the last mortal conflict. In the midst of that deadly struggle, when
+it seemed that the Cross must after all go down before the Crescent, a
+knight was seen on Mount Olivet, waving his glistening shield to rouse
+the champions of the Holy Sepulchre to the supreme effort. ‘It is St.
+George the Martyr who has come again to help us,’ cried Godfrey, and
+at his words the crusaders started up without a feeling of fatigue and
+carried everything before them. The day, we are told, was Friday, the
+hour was three in the afternoon (the moment at which the last cry from
+the cross announced the accomplishment of the Saviour’s passion), when
+Letold of Tournay stood, the first victorious champion of the cross,
+on the walls of Jerusalem. Next to him came, we are told, his brother
+Engelbert: the third was Godfrey. Tancred with the two Roberts stormed
+the gate of St. Stephen; the Provencals climbed the ramparts by ladders,
+and the conquest of Jerusalem was achieved. The insults offered a little
+while ago to the crucifixes were avenged by Godfrey’s orders in the
+massacre of hundreds; the carnage in the mosque of Omar swept away the
+bodies of thousands in a deluge of human blood. The Jews were all burnt
+alive in their synagogues. The horses of the crusaders, who rode up to
+the porch of the temple, were (so the story goes) up to the knees in the
+loathsome stream; and the forms of Christian knights hacking and hewing
+the bodies of the living and the dead furnished a pleasant commentary on
+the sermon of Urban at Clermont.
+
+[Sidenote: Adoration of the crusaders in the church of the Sepulchre.]
+
+[Sidenote: Exaltation of Peter the Hermit.]
+
+From the duties of slaughter these disciples of the Lamb of God passed
+to those of devotion. Bareheaded and barefooted, clad in a robe of
+pure white linen, in an ecstasy of joy and thankfulness mingled with
+profound contrition, Godfrey entered the church of the Holy Sepulchre
+and knelt at the tomb of his Lord. With groans and tears his followers
+came, each in his turn, to offer his praises for the divine mercy which
+had vouchsafed this triumph to the armies of Christendom. With feverish
+earnestness they poured forth the vows which bound them to sin no more,
+and the excitement of prayer and slaughter, perhaps of both combined,
+led them to see everything which might be needed to give effect to the
+closing scene of this appalling tragedy. As the saints had arisen from
+their graves when the Son of Man gave up the ghost on Calvary, so the
+spirits of the pilgrims who had died on the terrible journey came to
+take part in the great thanksgiving. Foremost among them was Adhemar
+of Puy, rejoicing in the prayers for forgiveness and the resolutions
+of repentance which promised a new era of peace upon earth and of good
+will towards all men. With departed saints were mingled living men who
+deserved all the honour which might be paid to them. The backsliding of
+the hermit Peter was blotted out of the memory of those who remembered
+only the fiery eloquence which had first called them to their now
+triumphant pilgrimage, and the zeal which had stirred the heart of
+Christendom to cut short the tyranny of the Unbeliever in the birth-land
+of Christianity. The assembled throng fell down at his feet, and gave
+thanks to God who had vouchsafed to them such a teacher. His task was
+done, and in the annals of the time Peter is heard of no more.
+
+[Sidenote: Second and deliberate massacre in Jerusalem.]
+
+On this dreadful day Tancred had spared three hundred captives to whom
+he had given a standard as a pledge of his protection and a guarantee
+of their safety. Such misplaced mercy was a crime in the eyes of the
+crusaders. The massacre of the first day may have been aggravated by the
+ungovernable excitement of victory: but it was resolved that on the next
+day there should be offered up a more solemn and deliberate sacrifice.
+The men whom Tancred had spared were all murdered; and the wrath of
+Tancred was roused not by their fate but by an act which called his
+honour into question. The butchery went on with impartial completeness,
+old and young, decrepit men and women, mothers with their infants, boys
+and girls, young men and maidens in the bloom of their vigour, all were
+mowed down, and their bodies mangled until heads and limbs were tossed
+together in awful chaos. A few were hidden away by Raymond of Toulouse;
+his motive, however, was not mercy, but the prospects of gain in the
+slave-market. After this great act of faith and devotion the streets
+of the Holy City were washed by Saracen prisoners; but whether these
+(like the women servants whom Odysseus strung up like sparrows after the
+slaughter of the suitors) were butchered when their work was ended we are
+not told.
+
+[Sidenote: Compassion of Omar and Godfrey.]
+
+Four centuries and a half had passed away, when these things were done,
+since Omar had entered Jerusalem as a conqueror and knelt outside the
+church of Constantine, that his followers might not trespass within it on
+the privileges of the Christians (p. 13). The contrast is at the least
+marked between the caliph of the Prophet and the children of the Holy
+Catholic Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Election of Godfrey to the sovereignty of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Battle of Ascalon.]
+
+[Sidenote: Return of the pilgrims to Europe.]
+
+When, the business of the slaughter being ended, the chiefs met to choose
+a king for the realm which they had won with their swords, one man only
+appeared to whom the crown could fitly be offered. Baldwin was lord
+of Edessa; Bohemond ruled at Antioch; Hugh of Vermandois and Stephen
+of Chartres had returned to Europe; Robert of Flanders cared not to
+stay; the Norman Robert had no mind to forfeit the duchy which he had
+mortgaged; and Raymond was discredited by his avarice, and in part also
+by his traffic in the visions of Peter Barthelemy. But in the city where
+his Lord had worn the thorny crown, the veteran leader who had looked on
+ruthless slaughter without blanching and had borne his share in swelling
+the stream of blood would wear no earthly diadem, nor take the title of
+king. He would watch over his Master’s grave and the interests of his
+worshippers under the humble guise of Baron and Defender of the Holy
+Sepulchre; and as such, a fortnight after his election, Godfrey departed
+to do battle with the hosts of the Fatimite caliph of Egypt, who now felt
+that the loss of Jerusalem was too high a price for the humiliation of
+his rivals. The conflict took place at Ascalon, and the Fatimite army
+was miserably routed. Godfrey returned to Jerusalem, to hang the sword
+and standard of the sultan before the Holy Sepulchre and to bid farewell
+to the pilgrims who were now to set out on their homeward journey. He
+retained, with 300 knights under Tancred, only 2,000 foot soldiers for
+the defence of his kingdom; and so ended the first act in the great drama
+of the crusades.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Reign of Godfrey.]
+
+[Sidenote: Daimbert, patriarch of Jerusalem.]
+
+The reign of Godfrey fell short by five days even of the brief period
+of a single year; but it sufficed not only for the discomfiture of
+the Egyptian sultan, but for the foundation of a kingdom resting on
+an elaborate system of carefully defined laws. His conflict with the
+Fatimite caliph was followed by a conflict with Daimbert, bishop of Pisa,
+the new Latin patriarch of Jerusalem. As legate of the pope Pascal II.,
+(Urban had died a fortnight after the fall of the Holy City, in other
+words, before he could hear of the victory of the crusaders,) Daimbert
+had invested Godfrey and Bohemond with their feudal possessions, and
+he lost no time in asserting the papal claim by demanding immediate
+recognition as the lord of Jerusalem and Jaffa. In each of these cities a
+quarter was at once assigned to him, and the whole was to pass into his
+hands if Godfrey should die without children. Such was the compact made
+by the Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulchre; but it was not to pass
+unchallenged.
+
+[Sidenote: Assize of Jerusalem.]
+
+We have seen Godfrey in the siege and conquest of Jerusalem wading with
+exultation through a sea of human blood, seizing infants by their feet
+and dashing them against the walls or whirling them over the battlements,
+or aiding and abetting those who did so. But a few days or a few weeks
+later this man was to be seen seated as an impartial judge among men
+whom he, the king and sovereign, regarded as his equals, setting about
+the grave task of compiling a code of laws on the only basis which can
+serve as the foundation of true constitutional government,—the sanction,
+namely, of the laws by the men who are to obey them. There was little
+enough of freedom in the feudal system; and the system embodied in the
+code popularly known as the Assize of Jerusalem was but a reflection of
+the general body of law in force throughout Western Christendom. Still
+the legislation of Godfrey and his successors is full of instruction,
+not merely as showing with what success the system of one country may
+be transferred to another, but even as throwing a clearer light on the
+working of feudalism in Western Europe. The story went that the code thus
+drawn up with the advice of the Latin pilgrims was deposited in the Holy
+Sepulchre and was lost with the fall of the city. The tale lies open to
+grave suspicion. The whole code would form no heavy weight for a beast
+of burden, while it would be an object utterly valueless in the eyes
+of the Mahomedan conquerors. It is of more importance to remark that
+the traditions which this lost record was supposed to have preserved
+continued to guide the Latin principalities of the East, until in A. D.
+1369, having undergone a final revision, they became the laws of the
+Latin kingdom of Cyprus.
+
+[Sidenote: Judicial courts instituted by Godfrey.]
+
+The legislation of this code on the relation of vassals to their
+overlords, on the subject of wardship, of judicial combats, of
+villenage and slavery, may have been more minute and definite than the
+laws of Western Europe; but it laid down no new principles. A more
+important feature is to be found in the judicial courts which owed
+their institution to the first Latin king of Jerusalem. In the court
+of the barons or peers the king himself was the president; in that of
+the burgesses he was represented by the viscount, and it is in this
+court that we find the popular element which was hereafter to give a
+new character to the history of Europe. It consisted of a number of the
+citizens chosen for their trustworthiness and their wisdom. Popular
+election, indeed was wanting; but an assembly of burgesses sworn to
+judge according to the laws in all the concerns of their equals was a
+germ from which good fruit might have been looked for, if the seed had
+been sown in fitting soil. Not less wise was the institution of a third
+court which dealt with Syrian Christians through the Syrians themselves.
+But although the legislative work of Godfrey and his successors was
+not wholly in vain, it was an exotic which could live only with the
+ascendency of the Latins. It was sown in blood, nursed amid storms, and
+uprooted by the tempest which swept the Western Christians from Palestine.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1100. July 18. Baldwin I.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1100-1118.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1101. Death of Stephen of Chartres.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1105. Death of Raymond of Toulouse.]
+
+The death of Godfrey raised in the patriarch Daimbert hopes which were
+to be disappointed. The subjects of Godfrey had no mind to be governed
+by a priest, and Tancred offered the throne to Bohemond. But Raymond
+was now a captive, and popular favour inclined to Baldwin, Godfrey’s
+brother, the lord of the Mesopotamian Edessa. Resigning his principality
+to his kinsman of the same name, Baldwin hastened to Jerusalem, and was
+there chosen king. At first Daimbert held aloof in sullen displeasure;
+but his opposition was at length overcome, and the patriarch poured the
+anointing oil over the sovereign. Baldwin reigned for eighteen years,
+and long before those years had come to an end, the great chiefs of the
+first crusade had all passed away. In his second year he was compelled to
+resist an Egyptian invasion; but his army was defeated in a battle near
+Ramlah, in which Stephen earl of Chartres was taken prisoner and slain.
+He had been driven back from Europe by the reproaches of his wife Adela,
+a daughter of the Norman conqueror of England, and in her judgment at
+least he thus redeemed his fame. Four years later Raymond of Toulouse
+died in old age on the sea-coast, having satisfied probably neither his
+ambition nor his avarice. He had conquered Tortosa and there founded a
+principality: but the possession of Tripolis which he had coveted was
+reserved for his son Bertrand. Bertrand enjoyed his new fief for two
+years only, and was succeeded by his son Pontius, to whom Tancred left
+his widow as a bride.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1103. Sequel of the career of Bohemond.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1106.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1107.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1109.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1112. Death of Tancred.]
+
+The return of Bohemond to Antioch was soon followed by his capture in a
+petty expedition for the enlargement of his principality; but his place
+was well filled by Tancred; and when after two years of imprisonment
+Bohemond came back in spite of all the efforts of Alexios to get
+possession of his person, he found himself master not only of Antioch
+but of Laodicea and Apameia. In the open war which followed with the
+Byzantine emperor, Bohemond was defeated by land, but with the aid of
+the Pisans was victorious at sea. His thoughts were running probably on
+another crusade when his help was invoked by Daimbert the patriarch of
+Jerusalem, who took refuge at his court from what he chose to call the
+tyranny of Baldwin. With the prelate, Bohemond sailed for Italy, leaving
+Tancred to rule at Antioch. His name had gone before him, and Philip I.
+the French king hastened to invite to his court the most redoubtable of
+the champions of Christendom. Bohemond became the son-in-law of Philip,
+and sailed again for the land of his old exploits with 5,000 horse and
+40,000 foot. Once more he attacked Durazzo; but the bribes of Alexios
+foiled his enterprise, and Bohemond was constrained to content himself
+with a treaty which admitted him to the imperial presence as the peer of
+the Byzantine sovereign. He went back to Italy and was making ready the
+next year for his return to Antioch when death cut short his vehement and
+stormy career. Tancred remained lord of his principality. He was still in
+the prime of his manhood, and a disposition which, as compared with that
+of his fellows, was generous and merciful, might promise a long time of
+righteous government for his people. But before three years had passed
+Tancred died childless, of a wound received in battle, and left his power
+to his kinsman Roger.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect of the crusades on the Byzantine empire.]
+
+[Sidenote: Fresh swarms of pilgrims.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1101. Death of Hugh of Vermandois.]
+
+The only man who had derived permanent benefit from these crusading
+expeditions was the man to whom it might be supposed that they had caused
+the greatest mischief and annoyance. It was of the first importance to
+the safety of the Byzantine empire that the Turks should be drawn away
+from the nearer countries of Bithynia and Phrygia. This great result
+the crusade fully achieved. The capital of the Turkish sultan of Roum
+was transferred from Nice to the remote and obscure city of Cogni
+(Iconium, Ikonion;) the authority of the Greek emperor was re-established
+over all the maritime regions of Asia Minor; and the existence of his
+empire prolonged for nearly 350 years. But Alexios, with his crafty
+and scheming temper to which incessant occupation in tasks serious or
+trifling brought a sense of self-importance, was pre-eminently a man to
+think more of annoyances than of grave disasters. For him accordingly
+it was grief of spirit that Latin chiefs should fail to do him homage
+for distant conquests, the possession of which could bring him no good;
+and he had a standing ground of quarrel and complaint in the trouble
+given or the alarm caused by the hosts of pilgrims which Europe poured
+out upon the East as soon as the tidings were brought that Jerusalem was
+in the hands of the Christians. It certainly cannot be said that the
+pilgrims left Alexios much time for idleness. A rabble more disorderly
+than that of Walter the Penniless followed the armies of Godfrey and his
+confederates. These were Lombards headed by the archbishop of Milan; and
+when Alexios insisted on their crossing the Bosporos before more should
+come, they broke out into open war and attempted to storm the quarter of
+Blachernai. These were followed by a better appointed force under the
+count of Blois and the constable of the emperor of Germany, who spoke
+with confidence of attacking Bagdad and destroying the caliphat. But the
+dress of the Greek clergy in some Phrygian town excited their wrath.
+Priests and others were massacred; and the sequel of the expedition was
+as disastrous as that of the hordes cut off by Kilidje Arslan at the hill
+of bones (p. 42). No better success attended the companies gathered under
+the standards of the count of Nevers, the count of Poitiers, and Hugh of
+Vermandois. With the last of these chiefs came hundreds of ladies who
+looked for nothing less than a triumphal march from Constantinople to
+Jerusalem: for almost all of these a journey of unspeakable misery came
+to an end in the slave-markets of Bagdad and other great cities of the
+East. The counts of Nevers and of Poitiers reached Antioch on foot with a
+few followers: Hugh of Vermandois managed to escape to Tarsus, and there
+he died.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of the emperor Alexios.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1118.]
+
+An endless series of wars, some of which were forced upon him while
+others were mere blunders, was to occupy the life of Alexios to its
+close. Throughout it may be said that successful dissimulation and
+even successful treachery brought him greater delight than the most
+decisive victory in the field. Some of his worst faults are recorded as
+constituting his greatest merits in the turgid pages of his daughter
+Anna: but she and her mother Irene were to learn, as he lay almost at
+the last gasp, that they too could be sufferers by his astuteness. He
+allowed his son John to frustrate at the last moment their most cherished
+scheme, and his wife bade him farewell with the plain-spoken phrase, ‘You
+die, as you have lived,—a hypocrite.’
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1118-1131. Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem.]
+
+While the days of Alexios were drawing to an end at Constantinople,
+Baldwin king of Jerusalem was dying in Egypt, whither he had gone in
+the hope of crippling the power of the Fatimite sultan. His body was
+embalmed, brought back to Jerusalem, and laid in the sepulchre of
+Godfrey. On the day of his funeral the great council met to elect his
+successor. His brother Eustace was absent in Europe; and the crown was
+offered to his kinsman, Baldwin du Bourg, who had been recommended
+for the post by the first king, and whose claim was urged by Joceline
+of Courtenay. In his gratitude Baldwin invested Joceline with the
+principality of Edessa.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1115. Conquest of Sidon.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1124. Conquest of Tyre.]
+
+It may be enough to say of this king that during his reign, as in that
+of his predecessor, the limits of the Latin power were being gradually
+extended, the new acquisitions being bestowed on princes who held them
+as fiefs of the kingdom of Jerusalem. After a siege of six weeks Sidon
+had fallen, in the days of the first Baldwin. In this blockade the Latins
+were aided to good purpose by the fleet and army of the Norwegian Siward.
+Nine years later the Venetian doge Michael came to worship at the Holy
+Sepulchre, and offered the help of his fleet for the reduction of Ascalon
+or Tyre. The choice fell upon Tyre, and the doge stipulated that one half
+of that city should remain to himself in absolute sovereignty, while
+the Venetians should also have a church, a street, and other privileges
+in Jerusalem. The siege lasted five months, when the still great, and
+once peerless, Phenician city was compelled to yield and become the seat
+of a Christian archbishopric. But if the crusading dominions were thus
+enlarged, it is perhaps of little use to speak of the greatest extent
+reached by a kingdom almost as restless and as changeful as the sea.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1131-1144. Fulk, king of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1144-1162. Baldwin III.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1145. Fall of Edessa.]
+
+The third successor of Godfrey on the throne of Jerusalem was Fulk
+of Anjou, whose lot on the whole was more tranquil than that of his
+predecessors, although in attempting to aid Raymond count of Tripoli
+against Zenghis, sultan of Aleppo, he was shut up in the castle of Barin
+or Montferrat, and compelled to purchase his safety with gold. He was
+succeeded by his son Baldwin, a boy thirteen years of age, who was soon
+to see what the prowess of the West could do in a second crusade. The
+feuds of the Christian princes of Antioch and Edessa gave to Zenghis an
+opportunity of attacking the principalities of Joceline of Courtenay.
+For eighteen days the inhabitants of Edessa awaited in terrible suspense
+the result of a siege in which for them surrender meant death. The deeds
+of Godfrey and his fellows on the fall of Jerusalem were still fresh in
+the memory of their enemies, and the heralds of Zenghis were not slack
+in teaching his men that conquest brought with it the right of pillage.
+The Turks learnt the lesson in spirit as well as in letter; and on the
+fall of Edessa the deeds of blood and cruelty showed that Moslems might
+be apt pupils in the horrible school in which the Christians had attained
+a standard of ideal excellence. The story told once needs not to be told
+again. The murder of Zenghis awakened in Joceline of Edessa the hope
+that the lost city might be recovered. The attempt issued in a second
+disaster; and nothing remained but an appeal to the religious enthusiasm
+of Western Christendom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE SECOND CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Bernard the apostle of the second crusade.]
+
+What Peter the Hermit had been for the first crusade, that St. Bernard
+was for the second; and on Peter, Bernard looked down with undisguised
+contempt. The failure of that first great enterprise he ascribes to the
+wretched councils of the fanatical guide whose name he supposes that his
+hearers or correspondents have sometimes heard. To the holy war which
+he felt himself called upon to kindle, he looked forward without the
+least misgiving, and the proud confidence which he feels and everywhere
+expresses may be taken as a special characteristic of Western monachism
+in its palmiest days. While the monks of the East were losing themselves
+more and more in the mists of dreamy or useless speculation, the cell of
+the Western monk became an imperial chamber from which went forth the
+letters which were to cheer or counsel the Vicar of Christ, to rebuke
+kings and statesmen, to warn and guide the faithful, to recall the
+wanderer to the fold, and to confound the unbeliever. For these high
+offices he had a commission higher than that of any earthly authority.
+They fell within the range of his duty as the member of a society, the
+soldier of an army, which was to fight the battles of the King of kings.
+He was the knight sheathed in the impenetrable armour of the Spirit, and
+he bore in his hand the invincible sword of faith. He had learnt the
+language, and transferred to his monastic life the images and terms, of
+feudalism. For him action was everything; solitude with its essential
+idea of rest was in comparison of this as nothing. He fled from his home
+to the cloister, because he could there fight better against material and
+spiritual corruption. He chose the most severe schools which he could
+find for the exercise of his self-discipline. He withdrew from these into
+wilder deserts, if they failed to meet his ideal of self-mortification.
+He established what he called a reform, if existing rules appeared to him
+too indulgent to human weakness. Such was the life of St. Bernard. He was
+from first to last a crusader, and the most pertinacious and successful
+of his crusades was against the peace and quiet of his own family. His
+mother had made a secret vow to devote all her children to God; and
+Bernard held it among the first of his duties to see that her vow should
+be fulfilled. Power, wealth, and dignity in the world were within his
+grasp: he threw them all aside. The holy house of Molesme had sent forth
+some of its most austere members under an Englishman named Stephen
+Harding, and these found a ruder and more savage home on the borders of
+Champagne and Burgundy, at Citeaux, the cradle of the great Cistercian
+order. Thither came Bernard in his early manhood, and there he remained
+until he in his turn went forth to found a new house in the gloomy and
+ill-famed valley to which he gave a name associated for ever with his
+memory. Here at Clairvaux his father took the habit of a monk, and died
+in his arms. His brothers and his sisters had made their profession
+before him,—not all without a struggle; but who should resist the Divine
+Will? The wife of one of his brothers refused to make the sacrifice of
+her husband’s love: but a sudden illness convinced her of the perils of
+disobedience, and like her husband she found her home in a convent.
+
+[Sidenote: Sources of Bernard’s influence.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1130.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1140.]
+
+This was the man whom the tidings of the fall of Edessa filled with
+profound emotion. He could no more doubt the duty of ridding the Holy
+Land of unbelievers than he could call into question his own mission
+against all ungodliness and sin. But if it had been right to rush to
+the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre when it was still in the hands of the
+infidel, it was still more right, it was indispensably necessary, to
+keep that sacred place and the land in which it lay from falling again
+under the old despotism. For Bernard, when his mind was once fixed on any
+enterprise, there could be no rest, as there could also be no measure
+in the vehemence of his eloquence. The energy with which he espoused
+the cause of Innocent II. against a rival pope had invested him with an
+influence second to that of no other man of his age; and he had wielded
+this power with tremendous effect against Abelard, the keenest and most
+daring thinker of Latin Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Louis VI. of France.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1137.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1142.]
+
+Three years before the council of Sens, which under the direction of
+Bernard condemned the propositions or heresies of Abelard, died the
+French king Louis VI., surnamed the Fat, the monarch (if so he might
+be called) of a scanty kingdom the enlargement of which would best be
+promoted by advantageous marriages. Of such an opportunity Louis the Fat
+eagerly availed himself when William, lord of Poitou and Guienne, the
+wide region lying between the Loire and the Adour, offered his daughter
+and heiress Eleanor as the wife of the heir to the French crown. By right
+of this marriage Louis VII. found himself on the death of his father
+and of his father-in-law possessed of a far larger kingdom and greater
+resources than he had expected to inherit; and he might have made it
+the business of his life to guard and extend his dominions at home, had
+he not felt himself suddenly called to take up his cross and follow the
+example of his great-uncle, Hugh of Vermandois. In a war with Theobald,
+count of Champagne, he had stormed and set fire to the castle of Vitry.
+To escape from his soldiers the people had taken refuge in a neighbouring
+church. To this building the flames spread, and all within it, men,
+women, and children, 1,300, it is said, in number, were burnt. The sight
+of the scorched and charred bodies filled the king with horror and
+grief: sickness followed, and he determined to work out his repentance
+by leading his armies to the Holy Land. His remorse was quickened by the
+eloquence of Bernard, and Louis put on the blood-red cross in the council
+of Vezelay.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1146. Easter. Council of Vezelay.]
+
+[Sidenote: Speech of Bernard.]
+
+[Sidenote: The Knights Templars.]
+
+From this council the pope, Eugenius III., was absent. His place was more
+than supplied by his friend and adviser, whose voice stirred the depths
+of every heart. The letter of Eugenius held out to the crusaders all the
+promises which had been assured to them by Urban at Clermont, and warned
+them against the vices which had brought disaster and disgrace on the
+arms of Christendom. But for the moment every other feeling than that
+of fierce yearning for conflict was swept away by the furious torrent
+of Bernard’s oratory. He preached to the Knights Templars, the members
+of that splendid order which was already astonishing the world with
+its valour and its haughtiness. Associated at first for the protection
+of pilgrims on the road to Jerusalem, they had established themselves
+in the Holy City itself, and received from Baldwin II. some ground
+to the east of the Temple; and the mosque of Omar, purified from its
+defilements, became the church of the order. The fiery warriors who
+professed themselves the humble guardians of the Holy Sepulchre needed
+no stimulus of rhetoric to spur them on: and the rhetoric of Bernard was
+fierce enough to stir even the most peaceable. In this new philosophy
+butchery was the surest means of grace, and carnage imparted indelible
+sanctity. ‘The Christian who slays the unbeliever in the Holy War is sure
+of his reward, more sure if he is slain. The Christian glories in the
+death of the Pagan, because by it Christ is glorified; by his own death
+both he himself and Christ are still more glorified.’ The floodgates of
+enthusiasm were once again opened wide; and the scenes of the council of
+Clermont were reproduced with little change. Accompanied by the French
+king who wore the cross conspicuously on his dress, Bernard mounted a
+wooden platform and addressed the impassioned multitude. His speech was
+scarcely ended when all with one voice cried aloud for the cross. The
+saint gave or scattered the badges which had been provided. When these
+were exhausted, he tore up his own dress to furnish more.
+
+[Sidenote: Reluctance of Conrad emperor of Germany to join the crusade.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1147. Whitsuntide. Meeting of Louis VII. and the pope at
+St. Denys.]
+
+But if Louis was eager to depart, Conrad of Germany hung back. The
+Emperor felt more anxious about the reduction of refractory princes than
+for the slaughter of unknown infidels. Christmas came; and at Spires
+first, afterwards at Ratisbon, Bernard strove to impress on him the
+paramount duty of the crusade. Conrad promised to give his answer on the
+following day; and on that day Bernard preached a sermon, painting in
+awful colours the terrors of the Great Assize when all the kindreds of
+the nations should be gathered before the judgment-seat of the Son of
+Man. He implored the emperor to think of the account which he would then
+have to give, and of the infinite shame and endless agony which would be
+his portion, if he should then stand convicted of unjust stewardship.
+Conrad was melted to tears, and promised to take the cross. Bernard was
+prepared for him and for all, and fastened the badge on their shoulders
+at once. Taking from the altar the consecrated banner, he delivered it
+to the emperor, and the hand of God was seen in the crowd of thieves and
+ruffians who thronged to enlist themselves as champions of the cross.
+Four months later Louis welcomed the pope at St. Denys, and received
+from Eugenius at the altar the wallet and staff of the pilgrim, with the
+banner which was to lead him to victory. The wishes of the devout turned
+naturally to Bernard rather than to others of whose earnestness they
+could not have equal assurance; but to their prayers that he would head
+the enterprise he replied that he was no general and that they must find
+some one to lead them who was skilled in the handling of earthly armies.
+
+[Sidenote: Persecution of the Jews stirred up by the monk Rodolph.]
+
+[Sidenote: Suppressed by Bernard.]
+
+When the followers of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless began
+their march along the Rhinelands, their crusading zeal vented itself
+first in horrible cruelties practised on the Jews (p. 40). That vile
+example was followed by the bands now gathered round the standard of the
+emperor. The appetite for blood was whetted by the wolfish howlings of
+the monk Rodolph; and the spell of bigotry enlisted on his side a man
+otherwise well deserving the reverence of all ages, Peter the Venerable,
+abbot of Clugny. But the fanaticism of Bernard could not fasten itself
+on men against whom not even a semblance of wrong could be charged; and
+he refused to punish them now for the crimes of their forefathers in the
+days of Pontius Pilate. ‘God has punished the Jews,’ he said, ‘by their
+dispersion; it is not for man to punish them by murder.’ Rodolph was sent
+back to his monastery: but it was no easy task to repress the fury of a
+multitude already drunk with the blood of hundreds of victims in all the
+great Rhine cities.
+
+[Sidenote: March of the crusaders under Conrad and Louis.]
+
+[Sidenote: Refusal of Conrad to meet the emperor Manuel at
+Constantinople.]
+
+Conrad and Louis had met at Mainz. With Louis came his wife Eleanor;
+and here he was joined by the counts of Toulouse, Nevers, Flanders and
+other chiefs of the crusade, among these being, it is said, Robert de
+Mowbray and the earl of Warren and Surrey from England. The story of the
+enterprise is soon told. The numbers of the host were vast, but numbers,
+never easily ascertained, are least of all to be depended upon in such
+expeditions as these. The order of disciplined armies may have lessened
+the perils and lightened the hardships of the passage across Europe; and
+the troop of women who with spear and shield, headed by the Golden-footed
+Dame, marched on, as they thought, to conquest, may have congratulated
+themselves on the pleasantness of their task. The real danger began when
+they had passed from Europe into Asia. The suspicions of Conrad had been
+soon and vehemently excited against the Greek emperor Manuel, grandson
+of Alexios. These suspicions were so much strengthened before he reached
+Constantinople that he refused all interviews with him and crossed the
+Bosporus without coming into his presence.
+
+[Sidenote: Supposed treachery of Manuel.]
+
+The French king was more complaisant; but if he was satisfied with the
+welcome given to him by Manuel in person, he was alarmed and indignant at
+the news that the Byzantine sovereign was in secret correspondence with
+the Turkish sultan of Cogni (Iconium, Ikonion). His indignation was fully
+shared by his army; and while some held that the paramount duty which
+called them to Palestine should overbear the avenging of all private
+wrongs, others insisted that a power which had allowed the Holy Sepulchre
+and the Holy Land itself to slip from its grasp, and had only placed
+hindrances in the way of the pilgrims and champions of the cross, should
+be swept utterly away.
+
+[Sidenote: Disastrous march of Conrad and Louis.]
+
+For the present the storm was lulled; and the crusaders went on their
+way, to find that the guides with which Manuel had furnished them led
+them into arid deserts or betrayed them directly to the enemy. Conrad had
+already lost thousands or tens of thousands in Lykaonia, when the French
+king, who had been cheated with false tidings of his triumphant progress,
+received on the shores of the Askanian lake (p. 57) the news of his great
+disaster. Conrad himself soon followed the miserable fugitives who had
+told his dismal story, and the two sovereigns resolved to strike off
+from the beaten path and make their way through the lands bordering the
+eastern shores of the Egean Sea. They had advanced as far as the Lydian
+Philadelphia, when the threatening appearance of things impelled many
+to return to Constantinople, and Conrad himself embarked near Ephesus.
+Louis with his people pressed on to the banks of the Meander, where the
+Turks who hastened to attack them were signally defeated. This defeat was
+more than avenged in the mountain passes beyond Laodicea whence after
+fearful slaughter the French reached the Pamphylian Attaleia. From this
+seaport it was proposed that all, whether soldiers or pilgrims, should
+go by sea to Antioch. It was decided that the latter only should take
+ship, as Louis urged that the warriors ought to follow in the steps of
+the conquerors of Jerusalem. But the ships promised by the governor of
+Attaleia proved to be wholly insufficient for this purpose. The king
+embarked with his army, and the pilgrims with the sick were left in
+charge of the count of Flanders. The guard was inadequate; the sick
+were murdered by the people of Attaleia; the Turks bore down hardly on
+the pilgrims. The count of Flanders escaped by sea, and seven thousand
+miserable wanderers struggled onwards on the road by which they hoped
+to reach Jerusalem. Their journey was soon ended by the martyrdom which
+according to the promise of Urban and Eugenius was to ensure their
+salvation.
+
+[Sidenote: Visit of the French king to Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1148. March.]
+
+[Sidenote: Resolution to attack Damascus.]
+
+The arrival of the French king with his forces at Antioch caused no
+slight alarm to the Turks of Cæsarea and Aleppo. But although he was
+earnestly pressed to take advantage of their dismay by striking a sudden
+blow, nothing could dissuade him to put off his journey to Jerusalem;
+and the entreaties of Eleanor, who was well content to stay where she
+was, excited in him mingled feelings of resentment and suspicion. After
+disasters so terrible his entrance into Jerusalem bore too much likeness
+to a triumph; and after a council with Conrad, who had reached Ptolemais,
+the project of rescuing Edessa, which had been the very purpose of the
+crusade, was for the time abandoned for the siege, and, as it was hoped,
+the conquest, of the more important and nearer city of Damascus.
+
+[Sidenote: Siege of Damascus.]
+
+[Sidenote: Treachery of the barons of Palestine.]
+
+[Sidenote: Retreat of the army to Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Failure of the crusade.]
+
+With the aid of the Knights of the Temple and of St. John, the siege of
+this city was prosecuted with a skill and vigour which seemed to leave no
+doubt of the result. The Damascenes were in despair, and not a few turned
+their thoughts to flight as the only means of safety: but with incredible
+infatuation the king of the French and the German emperor took counsel
+not for the completion of the enterprise but for the disposal of the city
+when it should have been conquered. The decision that it should be given
+to Thierry, count of Flanders, roused the indignation of the barons of
+Palestine, who now scrupled not to add treachery to the long catalogue of
+their crimes. Bribed by the Turks, they assured the sovereigns that they
+would have better success by attacking the city from another quarter than
+from that on which their toil had been all but rewarded by its capture.
+Abandoning their former position in the rich gardens before the town,
+they soon found themselves on barren soil, with scanty supplies or none,
+and with a hopeless task before them. It was easier to suspect than to
+punish the treachery of their advisers; and possibly on account of this
+treachery the proposal that they should attack Ascalon was rejected. The
+army retreated to Jerusalem. Conrad went back with the remnant of his
+troops to Europe. A year later his example was followed by the French
+king and his wife, of whose conduct Louis had formed suspicions fully
+justified by certain judgments pronounced by her in Provençal Courts of
+Love. Only a few months more had passed before he obtained a divorce on
+the plea of consanguinity, and Eleanor transferred her vast inheritance
+to her second husband the Norman duke Henry, afterwards Henry II. of
+England.
+
+[Sidenote: Accusations against St. Bernard.]
+
+[Sidenote: His answer.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1153. Death of Bernard.]
+
+So ended in utter shame and ignominy the second crusade. The event seemed
+to give the lie to the glowing promises and prophecies of St. Bernard.
+So vast had been the drain of population to feed this holy war that, in
+the phrase of an eye-witness, the cities and castles were empty, and
+scarcely one man was left to seven women; and now it was known that the
+fathers, the husbands, the sons, or the brothers of these miserable women
+would see their earthly homes no more. The cry of anguish charged Bernard
+with the crime of sending them forth on an errand in which they had done
+absolutely nothing and had reaped only wretchedness and disgrace. For
+a time Bernard himself was struck dumb: but he soon remembered that he
+had spoken with the authority of God and of his vicegerent, and that the
+guilt or failure must lie at the door of the pilgrims. Like those who
+had gone before them, these men had given loose to their passions and
+filled their camps with debauchery and confusion; and such abominations
+the Divine Righteousness could never tolerate. Nay, Bernard could even
+see now the folly, if not the iniquity, of allowing thieves and murderers
+to take part in an enterprise in which only the devout and faithful
+were worthy to share. But such considerations were too cold to satisfy
+permanently the temper of the age. The thoughts of the many, if not of
+the few, went back into the old channel, when the monk John declared that
+the slaughtered pilgrims had died with the exulting joy of martyrs at
+the thought of their deliverance from a wicked world; and that from the
+lips of St. Peter and St. John themselves he had the assurance that the
+ranks of fallen angels had been filled up with the spirits of those who
+had died as champions and pilgrims of the cross whether in the Holy Land
+or on the journey across the intervening countries. For Bernard also the
+saints and angels, he said, were impatiently waiting. Five years later it
+was in his power to add that their desires and his had been fulfilled.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE LOSS OF JERUSALEM.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Misuse of victory by the crusaders.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1151. Death of Joceline of Courtenay.]
+
+The second crusade not only failed in its purpose: it did nothing towards
+the maintenance of the waning ascendency of the Latins. Even victories
+brought with them no solid result, and in not a few instances victory was
+misused with a folly closely allied to madness. The success of Joceline
+of Courtenay in a battle with Noureddin, son of Zenghis and sultan of
+Aleppo, might have recovered for him his lost city of Edessa: he chose
+rather to indulge in the dangerous luxury of insult, and the renewed
+efforts of the enemy were rewarded by the capture of Joceline, his
+imprisonment and death. His widow, by the advice of Baldwin III., king
+of Jerusalem, surrendered to the Greek emperor for a stipulated sum such
+places as still remained in her possession; and the dangers gathering
+round the Latin kingdom were seen in an inroad of Turcomans who reached
+the Mount of Olives.
+
+[Sidenote: Siege and fall of Ascalon.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1153. July.]
+
+This inroad was, it is true, severely punished. The king was absent with
+his army: but the knights of the military orders who were in Jerusalem
+led out such of the people as could be got under arms and set fire to the
+camp of the enemy. These on their retreat were intercepted by Baldwin,
+and in the conflict 5,000 of their number, it is said, were slain. The
+tide seemed to have turned again in favour of the Christians, when, after
+an obstinate siege which at one moment was all but abandoned, the city of
+Ascalon fell into their hands.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1162. Almeric, king of Jerusalem.]
+
+But the change was one of appearance only. The interminable series
+of wars, or rather of forays and reprisals, went on; and amidst such
+contests the life of Baldwin closed in early manhood. He was thirty-three
+years of age: but in that short time he had won such love as his subjects
+had to bestow, together with the admiration of his enemies. He died
+childless, and although some opposition was made to the choice, his
+brother Almeric was elected to fill his place.
+
+[Sidenote: Relations of Almeric with the sultans of Egypt and Aleppo.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 741-771.]
+
+Almost at the beginning of his reign the affairs of the Latin kingdom
+became complicated with those of Egypt; and the Christians are seen
+fighting by the side of one Mahomedan race, tribe, or faction against
+another. The divisions of Islam may have turned less on points of
+theology, but they were scarcely less bitter than those of Christendom;
+and Noureddin, the sultan of Aleppo, eagerly embraced the opportunity
+which gave him a hold on the Fatimite caliph of Egypt, when Shawer the
+grand vizier of that caliph came into his presence as a fugitive. A
+soldier named Dargham had risen up and deposed him, and the deposition of
+the vizier was the deposition of the real ruler, for the Fatimite caliphs
+themselves were now merely the puppets which the Merovingian kings had
+been in the days of Charles Martel and Pepin.
+
+[Sidenote: Mission of Shiracouh and Saladin into Egypt.]
+
+[Sidenote: Siege and surrender of Shiracouh in Pelusium.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1163. Defeat of the Latins by Noureddin, sultan of
+Aleppo.]
+
+Among the generals of Noureddin were Shiracouh and his nephew Saladin
+(Salah-ud-deen) of the shepherd tribe of the Koords. These Noureddin
+despatched into Egypt to effect the restoration of Shawer. His enemy
+Dargham had sought by lavish offers to buy the aid of the Latins: but the
+terms were still unsettled when he was worsted in a battle by Shiracouh
+and slain. Shawer again sat in his old seat; but with success came the
+fear that his supporters might prove not less dangerous than his enemies.
+He refused to fulfil his compact with Noureddin and ordered his generals
+to quit the country. Shiracouh replied by the capture of Pelusium, and
+Shawer, more successful than Dargham in obtaining aid from Jerusalem,
+besieged Shiracouh in his newly conquered city with the help of the army
+of Almeric. The Latin king after a fruitless blockade of some months
+found himself called away to meet dangers nearer home; and the besieged
+general, not knowing the cause, accepted an offer of capitulation binding
+him to leave Egypt after the surrender of his prisoners. But the Latin
+armies were transferred from Egypt only to undergo a desperate defeat at
+the hands of Noureddin in the territory of Antioch, and thus to leave
+Antioch itself at the mercy of the enemy.
+
+[Sidenote: Alliance of Almeric with the Egyptian sultan.]
+
+[Sidenote: Operations of Almeric against Shiracouh.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1167.]
+
+Noureddin may have hesitated to attack Antioch from the fear that such
+an enterprise might bring upon him the arms of the Greek emperor. He was
+more anxious to extinguish the Fatimite power in Egypt,—in other words,
+to become lord of countries hemming in the Latin kingdom to the south
+as well as to the north; and it was precisely this danger which king
+Almeric knew that he had most reason to fear. To put the best colour on
+his design, Noureddin obtained from Mostadhi, the caliph of Bagdad, the
+sanction which converted his enterprise into a war as holy as that which
+the Norman conqueror waged against Harold of England. The story of the
+war attests the valour of both sides, under the alternations of disaster
+and success. The Latin king had already entered Cairo, when a large
+part of the force of Shiracouh was overwhelmed by a terrific sandstorm.
+But the retreat of Shiracouh across the Nile failed to reassure the
+Egyptians. Almeric received 200,000 gold pieces for the continuance of
+his help, with the promise that 200,000 more should be paid to him on the
+complete destruction of their enemies; and the treaty was ratified in the
+presence of the powerless sovereign whose consent was never asked for the
+alliances or treaties of the minister who was his master. The remaining
+events of the campaign were a battle in which a part of the army of
+Almeric was defeated by Shiracouh and his nephew Saladin; the surrender
+of Alexandria on the summons of Shiracouh; and the blockade of that city
+by Almeric, who at length obtained from the Turk the pledge that after an
+exchange of prisoners he would lead his forces away from Egypt, on the
+condition that the road to Syria should be left open to him.
+
+[Sidenote: Real designs of Almeric.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1168.]
+
+[Sidenote: Expedition of Almeric to Pelusium.]
+
+[Sidenote: His ignominious retreat.]
+
+The banners of Almeric and the Fatimite caliph waved together on the
+walls of Alexandria; but on either side the peace or truce was a mere
+makeshift for the purpose of gaining time. Neither the Latin king nor the
+sultan of Aleppo had given up the thought of the conquest of Egypt; and
+Almeric found a ready cause of quarrel in the plea that since his own
+return to Palestine the Egyptians had entered into communication with
+their enemy and his. The king of Jerusalem had lately married the niece
+of the Greek emperor, and the latter promised to aid the expedition with
+his fleet. The help of the Knights Hospitallers was easily obtained,
+while (some said, on this account) that of the Knights Templars was
+refused. At length with a large and powerful army Almeric left Jerusalem,
+pretending that his destination was the Syrian town of Hems: but after
+a while his march was suddenly turned. In ten days he reached Pelusium;
+and the storm and capture of that city were followed by a wanton carnage
+which served to increase, if anything could increase, the reputation of
+the Christians for merciless cruelty. The prayers of the vizir Shawer
+for help were now directed as earnestly to the Turkish sultan as they
+had once been to the Latin king of Jerusalem; but his envoys were also
+sent to Almeric offering him a million pieces of gold, of which a tenth
+part was produced on the spot. Almeric took the bribe; and when his army
+looked for nothing less than the immediate sack of Cairo, they were
+told that they must remain idle while the rest of the money was being
+collected. The vizir took care that the gathering should not be ended
+before the soldiers of Noureddin had reached the frontier; and Almeric
+found too late that he was caught in the trap which his own greed had
+laid for him. He could himself do nothing but retreat, and his retreat
+was as disastrous as it was ignominious. The Greek fleet had shown itself
+off the mouths of the Nile, and had sailed away again. The Greek emperor
+could not be punished; but a scapegoat for the failure of the enterprise
+was found in the grand-master of the Hospitallers, who was deprived of
+his dignity by his knights.
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of Saladin to power in Egypt.]
+
+The triumph of Shiracouh brought with it the fall of the vizir Shawer,
+who was seized and put to death, while the man whose aid he had invoked,
+was chosen to fill his place. But Shiracouh himself lived only two
+months; and then, by way of choosing one whose love of pleasure and
+lack of influence seemed to promise a career of useful insignificance,
+the Fatimite caliph made the young Saladin his minister. The caliph was
+mistaken. Saladin brought back his Koords, and so used the treasures
+which his office placed at his command, that the new yoke became stronger
+than the old one.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1169. Attempts to stir up a crusade.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1171.]
+
+[Sidenote: Suppression of the Fatimite caliphat by Saladin.]
+
+To the Latins the exaltation of Saladin signified the formation of a
+really formidable power on their southern frontier. Their alarm prompted
+embassies to the court of the Eastern emperor and the princes of Western
+Christendom. But the time was not yet come for a third crusade; and
+only from Manuel was any help obtained. His fleet aided the Latins in a
+fruitless siege of Damietta; and a terrible earthquake which laid Aleppo
+in ruins and shattered the walls of Antioch saved them from attack by the
+army of Noureddin which was approaching from the north. Still, in spite
+of conspiracies or revolutions of the old nobility, the power of Saladin
+was growing, and at length he dealt with the mock sovereignty of the
+Fatimites as Pepin dealt with that of the Merovingians. The last Fatimite
+sultan, then prostrate in his last illness, never knew that the public
+prayer had been offered in the name of the caliph of Bagdad; but Saladin
+had the glory of ending a schism which had lasted two hundred years, and
+from Mostadhi, the vicar of the Prophet, he received the gift of a linen
+robe and two swords.
+
+[Sidenote: Quarrel between Saladin and the sultan of Aleppo.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1178. Death of Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo.]
+
+But the healing of one schism led only to the opening of another. Saladin
+was the servant of the sultan of Aleppo, and he had been recognized
+and confirmed in office by Mostadhi strictly on the score of this
+lieutenancy. But the new vizir of Egypt had no mind to obey any longer
+the summons of his old master; and to his threat of chastisement Saladin
+in his council of emirs retorted by a threat of war. His vehemence was
+cooled when his own father declared before the assembly that, were he so
+commissioned by Noureddin, he would strike his son’s head off from his
+shoulders. In private, he let Saladin know that his mistake lay not in
+thinking of resistance, but in speaking of it; and a letter sent by his
+advice sufficed for the present to smooth matters over. But the time of
+quietness could not last long. The designs of Saladin became continually
+more manifest, and Noureddin was on his way to Egypt when he was struck
+down by illness and died at Damascus.
+
+[Sidenote: Character of Noureddin.]
+
+In the sultan of Aleppo, as in the general who had risen to greatness
+through his favour, we have a man to whom the chronicles of the time
+and of later ages delighted to ascribe the magnanimity and simplicity
+of Omar. It must at the least be admitted that the ideal of Moslem
+courtesy and chivalry is more refined and generous than that of Western
+Christendom, and that the truth of the picture drawn of Noureddin
+receives some support from the enthusiastic eulogies of William,
+archbishop of Tyre. ‘I fear God,’ he replied to his queen who complained
+that she had not enough even for her wants; ‘I am but the treasurer
+of the people. But I have three shops in Hems; these you may take,
+and this is all that I have to give.’ He made it his business to
+provide everywhere mosques, hospitals, schools, and resting-places for
+travellers; and justice, it is said, was as impartially administered in
+his time as in the days of the English Alfred.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1173. Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1183.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1186. Baldwin V. king of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1186. Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem.]
+
+The widow of Noureddin held the fortress of Paneas; and her husband’s
+death encouraged Almeric to undertake the siege. A bribe to abandon it
+was at first refused. A fortnight later it was accepted: but Almeric
+returned to Jerusalem only to die. His life had lasted only five years
+longer than that of his predecessor Baldwin; but it had been long enough
+to win for him a reputation for consummate avarice and meanness. His son
+and successor, Baldwin IV., was a leper; and his disease made such rapid
+strides as to make it necessary to delegate his authority to another. His
+first choice fell on Guy of Lusignan, the husband of his sister Sibylla;
+but either the weakness of Guy or the quarrels of the barons brought
+everything into confusion, and Baldwin, foiled in his wish to annul his
+marriage, devised his crown to Baldwin, the infant son of Sibylla by her
+first marriage, Raymond II., count of Tripoli, being nominated regent and
+Joceline of Courtenay the guardian of the child. But within three years
+the leper king died, followed soon after by the infant Baldwin V.; and
+in the renewed strife consequent on these events Guy of Lusignan managed
+to establish himself by right of his wife king of Jerusalem. He was
+still quite a young man, but he had earned for himself an evil name. The
+murderer of Patric, earl of Salisbury, he had been banished by Henry II.,
+from his dominions in France: and the opinion of those who knew him found
+expression in the words of his brother Geoffrey, ‘Had they known me, the
+men who made my brother king would have made me a god.’
+
+[Sidenote: Preparations of Saladin for the reconquest of Jerusalem.]
+
+Guy was king: but Raymond of Tripoli refused him his allegiance. Guy
+besieged him in Tiberias, and Raymond made a treaty with Saladin. But
+Saladin was now minded to seize a higher prey. He was master of Syria
+and Egypt: he was resolved that the Crescent should once more displace
+the Cross on the mosque of Omar. Pretexts for the war were almost
+superfluous; but he had an abundance of them in the ravages committed by
+barons of the Latin kingdom on the lands and the property of Moslems.
+Fifty thousand horsemen and a vast army on foot gathered under his
+standard, when he declared his intention of attacking Jerusalem: but
+their first assault was on the castle of Tiberias. On hearing these
+ominous tidings Raymond of Tripoli at once laid aside all thought of
+private quarrels. Hastening to Jerusalem he said that the safety of his
+own city was a very secondary matter, and earnestly besought Guy to
+confine himself to a strictly defensive war, which would soon reduce the
+invader to the extremity of distress. The advice was wise and good; but
+the grand-master of the Templars fastened on the very nobleness of his
+self-sacrifice and the disinterestedness of his counsel as proof of some
+sinister design which they were intended to hide.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1187. July. Battle of Tiberias.]
+
+[Sidenote: Capture of Guy of Lusignan.]
+
+[Sidenote: Loss of the true cross.]
+
+Had it been Baldwin III. to whom he was speaking, the insinuation would
+have been thrust aside with scorn and disgust. To the mean mind of Guy
+it carried with it its own evidence; and it was resolved to meet the
+Saracen on ground of his own choosing. The troops of Saladin were already
+distressed by heat and thirst when they encountered the Latin army from
+Jerusalem. The issue of the first day’s fighting was undecided; but
+the heat of a Syrian summer night was for the Christians rendered more
+terrible by the stifling smoke of woods set on fire by the orders of
+Saladin. Parched with thirst, and well knowing that on the event of that
+day depended the preservation of the Holy Sepulchre, the crusaders at
+sunrise rushed with their fierce war-cries on the enemy. Before them the
+golden glory of morning lit up the radiant shores of the tranquil sea
+where the Galilæan fisherman had heard from the lips of Jesus of Nazareth
+the word of life. But nearer still was a memorial yet more holy, a pledge
+of divine favour yet more assuring. On a hillock hard by was raised the
+relic of the true cross, and this hillock was many times a rallying
+point during this bloody day. There was little of generalship perhaps on
+either side; and where men are left to mere hard fighting, numbers must
+determine the issue. The hosts of Saladin far outnumbered those of the
+Latin chiefs; and for these retreat ended in massacre. The king and the
+grand-master of the Templars were taken prisoners; the holy relic which
+had spurred them on to desperate exertion fell into the hands of the
+infidels.
+
+[Sidenote: Fruits of the victory of Saladin.]
+
+The victory of Saladin was rich in its fruits. Tiberias was taken.
+Berytos, Acre, Cæsarea, Jaffa opened their gates; Tyre alone was saved
+by the heroism of Conrad of Montferrat, brother of the first husband of
+queen Sibylla. Not caring to undertake a regular siege, Saladin marched
+to Ascalon, and offered its defenders an honourable peace, which after
+some hesitation was accepted.
+
+[Sidenote: Siege and fall of Jerusalem.]
+
+The rejection of Raymond’s advice had left Jerusalem practically at the
+mercy of Saladin. It was crowded with people: but the garrison was
+scanty, and the armies which should have defended it were gone. Their
+presence would not, probably, have availed to give a different issue to
+the siege; but it must have added fearfully to its horrors. Saladin had
+made up his mind that the Latin kingdom must fall, and he would have
+fought on until either he or his enemies could fight no longer. Numbers,
+wealth, resources, military skill, instruments of war, all combined to
+give him advantages before which mere bravery must sooner or later go
+down; and protracted resistance meant nothing more than the infliction
+of useless misery. Saladin may have been neither a saint nor a hero; but
+it cannot be denied that his temper was less fierce and his language
+more generous than that of the Christians who under Godfrey had deluged
+the city with blood. He had no wish, he said, so to defile a place
+hallowed by its associations for Moslems as well as Christians, and if
+the city were surrendered, he pledged himself not merely to furnish the
+inhabitants with the money which they might need, but even to provide
+them with new homes in Syria. But superstition and obstinacy are to all
+intents and purposes words of the same meaning. The offer, honourable
+to him who made and carrying no ignominy to those who might accept it,
+was rejected, and Saladin made a vow that entering the city as an armed
+conqueror he would offer up within it a sacrifice as awful as that
+by which the crusaders had celebrated their loathsome triumph. Most
+happily for others, most nobly for himself, he failed to keep this vow
+to the letter. Fourteen days sufficed to bring the siege to an end. The
+Christians had done what they could to destroy the military engines of
+their enemies; the golden ornaments of the churches had been melted down
+and turned into money; but no solid advantage was gained by all their
+efforts. The conviction of the Christian that death brought salvation to
+the champions of the cross, the assurance of the Moslem that to those
+who fell fighting for the creed of Islam the gates of paradise were at
+once opened, only added to the desperation of the combatants and to the
+fearfulness of the carnage. At length the besieged discovered that the
+walls near the gate of St. Stephen had been undermined, and at once
+they abandoned all hope of safety except from miraculous intervention.
+Clergy and laity crowded into the churches, their fears quickened by the
+knowledge that the Greeks within the city were treating with the enemy.
+The remembrance of Saladin’s offer now came back with more persuasive
+power; but to the envoys whom they sent the stern answer was returned
+that he was under a vow to deal with the Christians as Godfrey and his
+fellows had dealt with the Saracens. Yet, conscious or unconscious of
+the inconsistency of his words with the oath which he professed to have
+sworn, he promised them his mercy if they would at once surrender the
+city. The besieged resolved to trust the word of the conqueror, as they
+could not resist his power. The agreement was made that the nobles and
+fighting men should be taken to Tyre which still held out under Conrad;
+that the Latin inhabitants should be redeemed at the rate of ten crowns
+of gold for each man, five for each woman, one for each child; and that,
+failing this ransom, they should remain slaves. On the sick and the
+helpless he waged no war; and although the Knights of the Hospital were
+among the most determined of his enemies, he would allow their brethren
+to remain for a year in their attendance on the sufferers who could not
+be moved away.
+
+[Sidenote: Terms of the capitulation.]
+
+In the exasperation of a religious warfare now extended over nearly a
+century these terms were very merciful. It may be said that this mercy
+was the right of a people who submitted to the invader, and that in the
+days of Godfrey and Peter the Hermit the defenders had resisted to the
+last. It is enough to answer that the capitulation of the Latins was a
+superfluous ceremony and that Saladin knew it to be so, while, if the
+same submission had been offered to the first crusaders, it would have
+been sternly and fiercely refused.
+
+[Sidenote: Departure of the Latins from the Holy City.]
+
+Four days were allowed to the people to prepare for their departure. On
+the fifth they passed through the camp of the enemy, the women carrying
+or leading their children, the men bearing such of their household
+goods as they were able to move. On the approach of the queen and her
+ladies in the garb and with the gestures of suppliants Saladin himself
+came forward, and with genuine courtesy addressed to them words of
+encouragement and consolation. Cheered by his generous language, they
+told him that for their lands, their houses, and their goods they cared
+nothing. Their prayer was that he would restore to them their fathers,
+their husbands, and their brothers. Saladin granted their request, added
+his alms for those who had been left orphans or destitute by the war, and
+remitted a portion of the ransom appointed for the poor. In this way the
+number of those who remained unredeemed was reduced to eleven or twelve
+thousand; and Saracenic slavery, although degrading, was seldom as cruel
+as the slavery which has but as yesterday been extinguished by the most
+fearful of recent wars.
+
+[Sidenote: Entry of Saladin into Jerusalem.]
+
+The entry of Saladin into Jerusalem was accompanied by the usual signs of
+triumph. Amidst the waving of banners and the clash of martial music he
+advanced to the mosque of Omar on the summit of which the Christian cross
+still flashed in the clear air. A wail of agony burst from the Christians
+who were present as this emblem was hurled down to the earth and dragged
+through the mire. For two days it underwent this indignity, while the
+mosque was purified from its defilements by streams of rosewater, and
+dedicated afresh to the worship of the One God adored by Islam. The
+crosses, the relics, the sacred vessels of the Christian sanctuaries,
+which had been carefully stowed away in four chests, had fallen into the
+hands of the conquerors, and it was the wish of Saladin to send them to
+the caliph of the Prophet as the proudest trophies of his victory. Even
+this wish he generously consented to forego. The chests were left in the
+keeping of the patriarch, and the price put upon them, 52,000 golden
+byzants, was paid by Richard of England.
+
+[Sidenote: Escape of Tyre under Conrad.]
+
+[Sidenote: Further conquests of Saladin.]
+
+Conrad still held out in Tyre, nor was he induced to surrender even when
+Saladin himself assailed its walls. The siege was raised: and the next
+personage to appear before its gates was Guy of Lusignan, who, having
+regained his freedom, insisted on being admitted as lord of the city. The
+grand-master of the Templars seconded his demand. The reply was short and
+decisive. The people would own no other master than the gallant knight
+who had so nobly defended them. But the escape of Tyre had no effect
+on the general issue of the war. Town after town submitted to Saladin;
+and the long series of his triumphs closed when he entered the gates of
+Antioch.
+
+[Sidenote: Causes of weakness in the kingdom of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: (1) Bad faith in dealing with the Moslem.]
+
+[Sidenote: (2) Disregard of rights of property.]
+
+[Sidenote: (3) Lax military discipline.]
+
+[Sidenote: (4) Lack of statesmanship.]
+
+[Sidenote: (5) General immorality.]
+
+[Sidenote: (6) Desultory character of the crusades.]
+
+[Sidenote: (7) Quarrels and feuds of the Latin chiefs.]
+
+[Sidenote: (8) Antagonistic jurisdictions of the civil power, the Church,
+and the military orders.]
+
+Eighty-eight years had passed away since the crusaders of Godfrey and
+Tancred had stood triumphant on the walls of the Holy City; and during
+all those years the Latin kingdom had seldom rested from wars and forays,
+from feuds and dissensions of every kind. From the first it displayed
+no characteristics which could give it any stability; from the first it
+exhibited signs which foreboded its certain downfall. (1) It sanctified
+treachery, for it rested on the principle that no faith was to be kept
+with the unbeliever; and the sowing of wind by the constant breach of
+solemn compact made them reap the whirlwind. A right of pasturage round
+Paneas had been granted to the Mahomedans by Baldwin III. When the ground
+was covered with their sheep, the Christian troops burst in, murdered the
+shepherds, and drove away their flocks,—not with the sanction, we may
+hope, of the most high-minded of the Latin kings of Jerusalem. (2) It
+recognized no title to property except in those who professed the faith
+of Christ, and the power to commit injustice with practical impunity
+tended still further to demoralize the people. (3) It gave full play to
+the passions of men in random wars and petty forays, while it did nothing
+to keep up or to promote either military science or the discipline
+without which that science becomes useless. (4) It was marked by an
+almost total lack of statesmanship. In a country so circumstanced a wise
+ruler would strain every nerve to conciliate the conquered people, to
+strengthen himself by alliances which should be firmly maintained and by
+treaties which should be scrupulously kept, to weaken such states as he
+might fail to win over to his friendship by anticipating combinations
+which might bring with them fatal dangers for his power. That the history
+of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem presents a mournful and even ludicrous
+contrast to this picture, it must surely be unnecessary to say. In the
+case of Egypt alone did the Latin kings show some sense of the course
+which prudence called upon them to take; and even here this course was
+followed with miserable indecision, and at last disgracefully abandoned
+through mere lust of gold. (5) It had to deal with an immorality not of
+its own creating, but which in mere regard to its own safety it should
+have striven to keep well in check. No such efforts were made, and the
+words of William of Tyre (even if taken with a qualification), when he
+speaks of the Latin women, point to a state of things which must involve
+grave and imminent peril. (6) It was the misfortune of this kingdom that
+it was called into being by troops of adventurers banded together (it
+cannot be said, confederated) for a religious rather than a political
+purpose; in other words, for personal rather than for public ends. It
+started therefore without any principle of cohesion. The warriors who
+engaged in the enterprise might abandon it when they thought that they
+had fulfilled the conditions of their vow, and although the continuance
+of their efforts was indispensably needed for the military and political
+success of the undertaking. (7) The private and personal character
+of these enterprises led to the perpetuation and multiplication of
+private and personal interests, and thus to the endless divisions and
+feuds between the barons of the kingdom, which were a constant scandal
+and menace and which led frequently to deliberate treachery. (8) It
+encouraged, or permitted, or was compelled to tolerate the growth of
+societies which arrogated to themselves an independent jurisdiction,
+and thus rendered impossible a central authority of sufficient coercive
+power. The origin of the military orders may have been in the highest
+degree edifying. The Knights Templars might begin as the humble guardians
+of the Holy Places: the Knights Hospitallers may have been the poor
+brothers of St. John bound to the service of the sick and helpless
+among the pilgrims of the cross. But in a land where they might at any
+time encounter a merciless or at the least a detested enemy, they were
+justified in bearing arms; the necessity of bearing arms involved the
+need of discipline; and the discipline of an enthusiastic fraternity
+cut off from the world and centred upon itself cannot fail to become
+formidable. The natural strength of these orders was increased by
+immunities and privileges granted partly by the Latin kings of Jerusalem,
+but in greater part by the popes. The Hospitallers, as bestowing their
+goods to feed the poor and to entertain pilgrims, were freed from the
+obligation of paying tithe, or of giving heed to interdicts even if these
+were laid upon the whole country while it was expressly asserted that no
+patriarch or prelate should dare to pass any sentence of excommunication
+against them. In other words, a society was called into existence
+directly antagonistic to the clergy, and an irreconcilable conflict of
+claims was the inevitable consequence. Nor can we be surprised to find
+the clergy complaining that the knights, not content with the immunities
+secured to themselves, gave shelter to persons who, not belonging to
+their order but lying under sentence of excommunication, sought to place
+themselves under their protection. But if the Knights of the Hospital
+had thus their feuds with the clergy, they had feuds still more bitter
+with the rival order of the Templars. With different interests and
+different aims, the one sought to promote enterprises against which the
+other protested, or stickled about points of precedence when common
+decency called for harmonious action, or withheld its aid when that aid
+was indispensable for the very safety of the state. Thus we have the
+triple discord of the king and his barons struggling against the claims
+of the clergy, and the military orders in conflict with the barons and
+the clergy alike. Of a state so circumstanced the words are emphatically
+true that a house divided against itself shall not stand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE THIRD CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Fictitious or romantic portraits of Richard I. of England.]
+
+A halo of false glory surrounds the third crusade from the associations
+which connect it with the lion-hearted king of England. The exploits of
+Richard I. have stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of chroniclers, have
+furnished themes for jubilant eulogies, and have shed over his life that
+glamour which cheats even sober-minded men as they read the story of
+his prototype Achilleus in the tale of Troy. They have done even more,
+for, if we may believe the narrative, they excited the same vehement
+admiration in his most redoubtable enemy; and the romance of youth or
+even of maturer age fastens on the picture which exhibits the brother
+of Saladin in the thick of mortal fight as sending to him two Arabian
+chargers by way of lauding the hero for dealing wounds and death on a
+multitude of his people.
+
+[Sidenote: Real character of the actors in the third crusade.]
+
+When we turn from the picture to the reality, we shall see in this third
+crusade an enterprise in which the fiery zeal which does something
+towards redeeming the savage brutalities of Godfrey and the first
+crusaders is displaced by base and sordid greed, by intrigues utterly of
+the earth earthy, by wanton crimes from which we might well suppose that
+the sun would hide away its face; and in the leaders of this enterprise
+we shall see men in whom, morally, there is scarcely a single quality to
+relieve the monotonous blackness of their infamy, in whom, strategically,
+a very little generalship comes to the aid of a blind brute force, and
+in some of whom, personally, an animal courage or ferocity, which fears
+no danger and knows no fatigue, surmounts a thousand difficulties and
+charms the vast multitudes who find their highest delight in the worship
+or idolatry of mere power. As a military leader Richard I. of England is
+beneath contempt when compared with the first Napoleon; but he may fairly
+compete with him as a criminal. Alaric the Goth and Attila the Hun never
+professed to be sovereigns of a civilized people; but in no sense have
+they a better title to be regarded as scourges of mankind.
+
+[Sidenote: Decay of the crusading spirit.]
+
+Undertakings which depend on the temper and resources of individual
+men are not likely to be carried out with unswerving persistence; and
+this ebb and flow of purpose and energy is especially manifest in the
+history of the crusades. With any marked success comes a feeling of
+self-complacency in the thought that a vow has been strictly fulfilled
+or a duty thoroughly discharged; and the result is either slackness or
+total indifference to matters which thus far seemed in their importance
+to leave everything else in the shade. Assuredly there was little indeed
+in the lives of the later Latin kings of Jerusalem to keep alive the
+enthusiasm which had been roused by the preaching of the hermit Peter;
+and for the time a change seems to pass over the spirit of the dream
+which for nearly a hundred years had been beguiling Western Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1179.]
+
+[Sidenote: Change in the character of the crusades.]
+
+The impulse (it can scarcely be dignified with the name of policy) which
+led Almeric (p. 100) to fix his thoughts on the conquest of Egypt, is
+the nearest approach to the temper of the true statesman and general
+exhibited in the history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. It aimed
+not only at preventing a combination of hostile powers to the north and
+south fraught with fatal dangers for any dominion which might lie between
+them, but it seemed to promise the possession of a country of immense
+importance to the merchant and the trader. This advantage was clearly
+seen and eagerly aimed at by the third Lateran council, which insisted
+that the conquest of Damietta should be the first object of every
+crusade, the maintenance of the kingdom of Jerusalem at best only the
+second. In short, these expeditions had in strictness of speech ceased to
+be crusades, unless an exception is to be made in the case of the sainted
+Louis IX. of France. With him, as with Godfrey and the first crusaders,
+the religious motive absorbed every other. In the rest the professed
+object of the scheme is made an excuse for roving forays or political
+conquests, or is feebly carried out as an irksome or even repulsive task,
+while the harmony indispensable for success is sacrificed for quarrels
+and deadly feuds which would do credit to the society of savages.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry II. of England and the patriarch of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1174.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1177.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1180.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1185.]
+
+But until the Cross had been thrust aside for the Crescent on the mosque
+of Omar, the task of stirring up the Western princes for another crusade
+was neither easy nor successful. The crusading spirit was never strong
+in Henry II. of England, and even after the quarrel with Becket had come
+to an end with his death, he had a convenient excuse for staying at home
+in the dangers which menaced his dominions from the north. But with the
+captivity of his enemy William this pretext vanished. The Scottish king
+swore to hold his kingdom as a fief of the English crown; and Henry,
+unable any longer to resist the arguments or entreaties of the French
+king, Louis VII., promised to combine his forces as duke of Normandy
+with those of his liege lord for the succour of the Christians in the
+Holy Land. The death of Louis, which cut short this design, brought
+no bitter disappointment to Henry; but when, some five years later,
+Heraclius (Herakleios), patriarch of Jerusalem, kneeling before him with
+the count of Tripoli and the grand-master of the Hospitallers, placed in
+his hands the sceptre of his kinsman Fulk of Anjou and of the kings who
+had succeeded him, with the keys of the Holy City and the Holy Sepulchre,
+the English monarch was careful to address them in words which conveyed
+encouragement while they committed him to nothing. He would ask the
+advice of his council; and his question was so put as to show clearly
+what he would wish the answer to be. He desired to know whether his duty
+called him to govern and guard his subjects at home or to break lances
+with Saracens to prop up the tottering sway of a distant sovereign. There
+was no doubt in the mind of his barons and prelates that the nearer work
+had a paramount call on him; and the promise of Henry to contribute
+50,000 marks for the needs of the Latin kingdom in Palestine was received
+by the patriarch with a dissatisfaction which manifestly excited the
+king’s anger. Not a whit abashed, Heraclius bade him deal with himself as
+he had dealt with the martyr Thomas of Canterbury, and expressed himself
+as not less ready to die by his hands than by those of the less cruel
+Saracens. This ridiculous taunt was allowed to pass without rebuke, and
+Heraclius departed unhurt after consecrating the church of the Knights
+Templars in the city of London.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1187. Death of Urban III.]
+
+[Sidenote: Pontificate of Gregory VIII.]
+
+But the fall of Jerusalem cast a new colour over questions of policy and
+duty. A few days after that event, and in all likelihood before he could
+have heard of it, pope Urban III. died at Verona, oppressed with grief
+not for a disaster of which he was ignorant, but for the death struggle
+which seemed imminent between the papal and the imperial power. His
+successor Gregory VIII., whose short pontificate was ended in less than
+two months, bewailed the event as a catastrophe affecting the whole of
+Christendom; but he was probably not unconscious that for the papacy it
+might create a diversion which might rescue it from dire peril, if not
+destruction. The few days of life which remained to him were spent in
+writing letters to reawaken the spirit which had been roused successively
+by the hermit Peter and the sainted Bernard. The divine wrath was to be
+appeased by a fast of five years, and the consciousness of shameless
+corruption and venality inspired the cardinals to promise that they
+would take no more bribes for the furtherance or perversion of justice,
+and that they would never mount again on horseback until the land once
+trodden by the Saviour should have ceased to be polluted by the feet of
+the unbeliever.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1188. Assumption of the cross by Henry II. and Philip
+Augustus of France.]
+
+[Sidenote: Saladin tax or tenth.]
+
+Pope Gregory died on a journey undertaken for the purpose of making peace
+between the republics of Genoa and Pisa, whose fleets were of the first
+importance for the carrying out of the scheme which he had at heart. A
+few weeks later the broad plain between Gisors and Trie witnessed the
+meeting of Henry of England and Philip Augustus, the young French king,
+to hear the cause of the Christians in Palestine pleaded by William,
+archbishop of Tyre, the historian of the first and second crusades. The
+two sovereigns assumed the cross, and their example was followed by the
+count of Champagne, the count of Flanders, and a crowd of barons and
+knights. It was agreed that the English cross should be white, and the
+Flemish green, the French retaining the red. Henry hastened to England,
+and obtained from a council held at Geddington in Northamptonshire the
+imposition of a tax called the Saladin tithe. Every one who refused
+to join the crusade was to pay a tenth of all his goods movable or
+immovable. The sum thus raised was 70,000_l._; but it is astonishing
+to learn that a sum almost as large, 60,000_l._, was extorted from the
+scanty company of Jews settled in England. Whether the burden pressed
+heavily upon them, we cannot tell. Worse things were in store for them
+before many months should pass away.
+
+[Sidenote: Feuds in the family of Henry II.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1183.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1188.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1189.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1186. July. Death of Henry II.]
+
+It is possible that Henry may now have really intended to fulfil a
+promise with which thus far he had only dallied. He sent messengers to
+the Hungarian king Bela, and Isaac Angelus, the Eastern emperor, to
+request a safe transit and free market for his followers. The demand was
+granted: but Henry now had other concerns to occupy him. The wretched
+quarrels which were the inevitable consequence of petty principalities
+and the complicated tenures of feudalism had assumed their most hateful
+form among the princes of the house of Anjou. Of the legitimate sons of
+Henry II., Henry, Richard, and John, it is hard to say which led the most
+disgraceful life and earned the most shameful reputation. The tyranny
+of Richard in Aquitaine was monstrous even in an age notorious for its
+cruelty and its treachery; but it was probably no disinterested sympathy
+for his victims which brought against him the forces of his elder brother
+Henry, and of his half-brother Geoffrey, the son of that Rosamond
+Clifford into whose history the popular talk of that or of a later day
+introduced a tale common to the folklore of many lands. The strife
+was for the time appeased by their father, against whom these dutiful
+children now turned their arms. The day fixed for the battle was drawing
+nigh when the young prince or king Henry (he had been crowned A. D. 1169
+by the bishops excommunicated by Thomas of Canterbury shortly before his
+martyrdom) was cut off by a sudden attack of fever; and Richard, as the
+eldest surviving son, looked on himself as heir to the crown of England.
+But it soon became plain that the affections of his father were fixed
+on his younger son John, one of the most despicable of cowards and most
+contemptible of traitors. The discovery led Richard to renew his intimacy
+with the French king, Philip Augustus, to whose sister Adelais or Alix he
+had long since been betrothed. That princess had passed into the custody
+of the English king, and had, it was said, borne him a child; but of this
+Richard for the present took no count, as backed by Philip Augustus, he
+insisted on her surrender and on receiving the fealty of the barons as
+his father’s heir-apparent. On this second point the king’s answer was
+ambiguous; and Richard, exclaiming indignantly that he now believed what
+before he had thought impossible, knelt down at the feet of Philip, and,
+demanding from him protection in his just rights, did homage to him for
+all his father’s dominions in France. In the war which followed Henry
+was driven from the castles of Mans, Amboise, and Tours. His body was
+wasted with disease, and he was induced to meet his son and the French
+king on a plain near Tours. A thunderstorm, in which the lightning twice
+fell near them, unnerved him still more. He agreed to pay 20,000 marks to
+Philip, to surrender Adelais, and to allow his vassals to swear fealty
+to Richard, and asked only to see the list of the names of barons who
+had joined the confederacy of the French king. At the head was the name
+of his own son John. He read no further. A raging fever came on, during
+which he heaped curses on his unnatural children; and in a week he died.
+
+[Sidenote: Preparations of Richard I. for the crusade.]
+
+[Sidenote: Modes of raising money.]
+
+Richard was now king of England; but he was not the man to fix his
+thoughts on the wilder schemes which had filled the mind of his father.
+The power and wealth of his kingdom were things to be used for spreading
+his own renown, and this renown could be won and extended nowhere so well
+as in the Holy Land, and in no other way so gloriously as in cleaving the
+bodies of unbelievers with his deadly broadsword. It was the ambition of
+a ruffian, gilded over with a thin varnish borrowed from the chivalry
+of Tancred (p. 45); and he proceeded to gratify it at the expense of
+the real interests whether of the kingdom or of himself. The sum which
+he needed for his enterprise far exceeded the 100,000 marks which his
+father’s greed or economy had amassed in the treasury at Salisbury.
+Richard sold the earldom of Northumberland for 1,000_l._ to the bishop of
+Durham for the term of his life: for 3,000_l._ he received into favour
+his brother Geoffrey, now archbishop of York: for 10,000_l._ he resigned
+to William the Scottish king all the rights over Scotland which the
+latter had conceded to Henry, together with the castles of Roxburgh and
+Berwick; and then departed for Normandy on the same errand of plunder and
+exaction.
+
+[Sidenote: Persecution and massacre of Jews in England.]
+
+[Sidenote: Fearful tragedy in York castle.]
+
+Both the first and the second crusade had been marked at their outset
+by persecutions and massacres of the Jews. The third was to furnish no
+exception. The Jews of England felt probably that a storm was gathering,
+and they hastened to conciliate the king with costly presents. Their
+eagerness unhappily outran their discretion. Richard, knowing the feeling
+of the people, had ordered that no Jews should appear before him on the
+coronation day. Disregarding this command, some of them, mingling with
+the crowd, entered the palace, were thrust out by the mob, and murdered.
+The fire, thus kindled, spread furiously. Every Jew in the streets was
+cut down: every house belonging to a Jew was plundered and burnt. Some
+attempt was made to check the slaughter. Three men were hanged; but
+they were charged, not with murdering Jews, but with robbing Christians
+under pretence that they were Jews, or with setting houses on fire to
+the danger or hurt of the property of Christians. The iniquity was not
+confined to London. The same things were done in all the great cities. At
+York, as at Lincoln, the wealthy Jews hurried with their goods into the
+castle. At Lincoln they found safety: at York they unhappily interpreted
+the departure of the governor from the castle as a sign that he was
+plotting against them with the Christians of the town, and closed the
+gates against him on his return. In his anger he induced the sheriff of
+the county to order his armed bands to the assault: and these were joined
+by the populace whose fury showed at once that they meant much more than
+the mere recovery of the castle. The besieged could hear the fierce cry
+of a canon regular, of the Premonstratensian order, who hounded on the
+mob to ‘destroy the enemies of Christ.’ They knew that their doom was
+sealed; but if they must die, they might still choose the mode of their
+death. In a council summoned to debate the matter, the rabbi urged that
+they should avoid frightful insults and barbarous torments for their
+wives and children as well as for themselves by voluntarily rendering up
+their souls to the Creator, and falling by their own hands. The deed,
+he urged, was both reasonable and sanctioned by their law, as well as
+made famous by the men who in the deadly struggle between Jerusalem and
+Rome had slain themselves at Massada. To some his counsel seemed wise,
+to others a hard saying. The rabbi cut the discussion short by bidding
+all to depart in peace who could not approve his counsel. A few only
+left the chamber. In a few hours the work of death was done, and the
+castle was left in flames. The few, who could not summon courage to
+follow the example of their brethren, offered from the walls to open
+the gates and submit to baptism, if their lives should be spared. The
+terms were granted and the surrender was made; and by way of keeping
+faith the Christians rushing in slaughtered every living thing within
+the walls. These were venial offences; but the men of York added to them
+an act which was a real crime, and one of the deepest dye, in the eyes
+of king Richard. They hastened to the cathedral, and seizing on all the
+bonds and obligations which had been laid up in the archives burnt them
+in the nave. These bonds on the death of those who held them would all
+have escheated to the king; and the bishop of Ely, the chancellor, was
+commissioned to search out and punish the offenders. But the ringleaders
+had made their escape across the Scottish border; and justice even in the
+matter of robbery was baffled.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1190. Meeting of Richard and Philip at Vezelai.]
+
+[Sidenote: Poetry and influence of the troubadours.]
+
+Richard, having filled his coffers so far as he could, met Philip
+Augustus at Vezelai where, forty-four years before, the pleadings of St.
+Bernard had seemed to stir the heart of Christendom to efforts which
+must be successful. The voice which now had most power was not that of
+the priest, the hermit, or the saint. It was that of the troubadour; and
+if for the present his harp might be attuned to lofty measures, and his
+words might convey lessons almost as austere as those of pope Urban II.,
+there was at least the danger that a very moderate measure of success
+might lead the minstrel to arouse emotions of a less devout sort and
+tempt his hearers to less exalted delights than those of prayer and
+meditation. The forces of the two kings amounted, it is said, to 100,000
+men. The discipline which kept them together may be pictured from the
+rules which enacted that murderers should be tied to the bodies of their
+victims and hurled into the sea, that they who drew their swords in anger
+should lose their hands, and that thieves should be tarred and feathered
+and in that plight put on shore.
+
+[Sidenote: March of Frederick I. Barbarossa to Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: The popes and the empire.]
+
+While Philip and Richard were on their way to Sicily, Frederick I.,
+emperor of the West, commonly known as Barbarossa or Red Beard, was on
+his way to Constantinople. He had fought a long battle with the pope or
+the man who called himself pope. He had himself set up an anti-pope,
+as the imperialist popes were called; and with the sanction of this
+anti-pope, who styled himself Pascal III., he had attacked Rome, beaten
+down the gates of St. Peter’s with hatchets and axes, and seen his
+troops advance filling the church with blood as they fought their way
+to the high altar. In the midst of this carnage Pascal III. had placed
+the crown on the head of the empress Beatrice, and had blessed again the
+diadem of Frederick. He had had to contend with a mightier enemy than
+the pope in the fearful pestilence which broke out within his camp; and
+his flight from Rome had ensured the victory of pope Alexander III., the
+somewhat hesitating friend of Thomas of Canterbury. But although the
+warfare of previous years was succeeded by an apparent peace, Frederick
+lost no opportunity of strengthening himself against the papacy; and in
+the days of Urban III. he had gained much by securing for his son Henry
+the hand of Constantia, heiress of the kingdom of Sicily. The old strife
+might have been renewed; but the heart of Barbarossa was stirred by the
+tidings from the Holy Land or the letters of Gregory VIII., and his
+armies advanced under his standard through Hungary towards the capital of
+the Eastern empire. That capital Barbarossa, like his predecessor Conrad
+(p. 93), refused to enter. The Byzantine Cæsar had with scant courtesy
+allowed him the privilege of buying food for his men; he had studiously
+withheld from him the titles which implied a divided empire.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Frederick I.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1190.]
+
+[Sidenote: Re-occupation of Antioch.]
+
+The steadier discipline, the more decent order which marked the army of
+Barbarossa seemed to promise a better result to his enterprise. They
+had defeated the Turks in a general battle, and had taken the Seljukian
+capital of Cogni (Iconium), (p. 82); but a great disaster, nothing
+less than the loss of their leader himself, awaited them. Frederick was
+drowned in a Pisidian river, as some said while he was crossing it; as
+others had it, from the effects of bathing. The misery and suffering
+which had fallen to the lot of the earlier crusaders now weighed heavily
+upon them: and the wretched story is sufficiently told, if it be true
+that not a tenth of the number which crossed the Bosporos lived to enter
+Antioch. The few who made their way thus far found a city almost deserted
+by the Turkish soldiers, and Antioch once more had a Christian government.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1189. Siege of Acre.]
+
+But while the sovereigns of the West were thus preparing for another
+great effort on their behalf, the Latins of Palestine were struggling
+hard to win back their lost supremacy, and were aided by crowds of armed
+pilgrims, whose immense numbers have to be taken into account if we wish
+to realize the extent of the drain to which the population of Europe was
+thus subjected. Too impatient to wait, these wanderers hurried, with
+whatever motives, to the scenes where, as they supposed, honour could not
+fail to be won, even if wealth and happiness should not be their portion.
+The conflict now turned on the possession of Acre, the key of the whole
+region lying to the west of the Jordan. It had opened its gates to
+Saladin soon after the battle of Tiberias; and before Richard of England
+and Philip Augustus set foot on the Holy Land it had been besieged for
+nearly two years by Guy of Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem, with an
+army which the influx of pilgrims from Europe had raised, it is said, to
+100,000 men. But the besiegers had little generalship, and the mischief
+done to their effectiveness by vice and debauchery was completed by a
+fearful pestilence which swept them away by thousands.
+
+[Sidenote: Rise of the Teutonic order.]
+
+In the midst of this misery a few German merchants, from the coast of the
+Baltic, sought to mitigate suffering by running up the sails of their
+ships as tents for the sick and dying. The happy results which followed
+their work led to an organization similar to that of the orders of the
+Temple and the Hospital. Like those orders, the Teutonic knights rose to
+power and distinction, and in the history of the crusade of Frederick
+II., we shall find their grand-master, Herman of Salza, in high favour
+both with the emperor and with the pope, his implacable antagonist.
+With the failure of the crusades in the East the order was transferred
+to the more forbidding regions which had sent forth its founders, and
+their crusade was turned against the heathen of the Lithuanian, Prussian,
+Esthonian, and other tribes. They preached the gospel with the sword, and
+their efforts were followed at least by military success. Their grasp on
+the lands which they overran was never relaxed, and the last grand-master
+became the sovereign of a state which has grown into the modern kingdom
+of Prussia.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1190. Death of Sibylla, queen of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Conrad, titular king of Jerusalem.]
+
+The sickness and vice which wasted the forces of the crusaders before
+Acre were powerfully aided by feuds among the chiefs. Sibylla, the sister
+of Baldwin IV., and wife of Guy of Lusignan, was carried off by the
+plague. Her two children died with her, and her husband found himself
+stripped of the privilege which had made him at least the shadow of a
+king. Isabel, the sister of his wife, still lived, and having got rid of
+her first husband Humphry, lord of Thoron, was now married to Conrad,
+marquis of Tyre. As thus wedded to the heiress of Almeric, Conrad
+claimed the sovereignty of Jerusalem, and the decision of the point was
+reserved for the kings of England and France.
+
+[Sidenote: Voyage of the English fleet to Lisbon and Messina.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1190. Sept. 23.]
+
+These kings were now on their way to the East. Richard had journeyed
+by land to Genoa, while his fleet, having crossed the bay of Biscay,
+anchored at Lisbon, where his forces found a crusade ready to their
+hands. The town of Santarem, forty miles above Lisbon, was blockaded by
+the Saracen emir. With the aid of the English the Portuguese raised the
+siege and then found themselves compelled to fight with their deliverers
+in the streets of Lisbon. The crusaders thought that they carried with
+them a license for universal plunder and insult; and it was not without
+difficulty and much bloodshed that they were persuaded by their leaders
+to reserve the application of their theory for more distant lands. The
+summer was coming to an end when Richard, having joined his fleet on the
+Italian coast, entered Messina almost in the guise of a conqueror, to the
+terror of the Sicilians and the disgust of the French king Philip.
+
+[Sidenote: Conduct of Richard I. in Sicily.]
+
+Then, as through almost the whole of its chequered history, Sicily was a
+prize for which contending kings and adventurers intrigued, or fought. It
+was now held by Tancred, an illegitimate son of the Apulian duke Roger.
+His sister Constantia, the legitimate daughter of Roger, was the wife
+of Henry, son of Frederick Barbarossa, who wished to make the island a
+portion of his own imperial realm (p. 125). He was foiled by Tancred,
+who took the further precaution of imprisoning Joanna, the widow of
+his predecessor William called the Good. Joanna was the sister of the
+English Richard, who was not slow in demanding her freedom, her dower,
+and the legacies which William the Good had left to his father Henry II.
+His demands were accompanied by robbery and violence, and his followers
+hastened to imitate his example. They came to open strife with the people
+in the streets of Messina; and the battle was followed by the plundering
+of the town. But the raising of the English standard on the walls was
+interpreted as an insult by Philip Augustus, and Richard was constrained
+to appease his wrath by placing the city in the charge of the Knights
+Templars and Hospitallers.
+
+[Sidenote: Quarrel between Richard and Philip Augustus.]
+
+The dispute with Tancred was made up by the betrothal of his infant
+daughter to Arthur, duke of Brittany, that luckless victim of the cruelty
+of John whom Shakespeare has made famous. But the quarrels of these
+champions of the cross are tangled like links in a twisted chain. By
+way of showing his friendly feeling, Tancred placed in Richard’s hand a
+letter bearing the signature of the French king and inviting Tancred to a
+private alliance against Richard. The latter charged Philip Augustus with
+the treachery, and was charged in turn with producing forged letters by
+way of devising an escape from his engagement with his sister Adelais.
+Richard had offered to marry Berengaria, daughter of Sancho, king of
+Navarre, and with studied coarseness he told Philip that he could have
+nothing to do with the mother of his father’s child. So was changed into
+mortal hatred that alliance which in its early days had led them to eat
+at the same table and rest in the same bed.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1191. March. War between Richard and the Comnenian
+emperor of Cyprus.]
+
+Thus passed away the winter in disgraceful quarrels and in lavish outlays
+of money scarcely less disgraceful. In the spring the French king sailed
+for Acre. Richard went to Rhodes, and while he remained there sick, he
+heard that some of his people had been wrecked on the coast of Cyprus,
+robbed of their goods, and imprisoned by Isaac the Comnenian prince who
+called himself emperor of the island. His demand for compensation was
+unheeded. The English fleet appeared before Limasol, the southernmost
+town of the island: and the English troops were soon masters of the city.
+Isaac entered into a treaty which bound him to serve with 500 knights in
+the crusade, and in the event of good behaviour Richard promised him the
+restoration of his kingdom. But fear got the better of his prudence. He
+made his escape, and again met the English king in battle. The fight was
+followed by his surrender, and Richard ordered him to be kept in a castle
+on the coast of Palestine.
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of Richard and Philip at Acre.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1191. July 12.]
+
+[Sidenote: Surrender of Acre.]
+
+[Sidenote: Return of Philip to France.]
+
+Here, in the town which under the name of Paphos had won for itself a
+pre-eminence in vice and folly, Richard was married to Berengaria of
+Navarre. Here also he received and promised to take up the cause of Guy
+of Lusignan, the weightiest argument for so doing being found in the fact
+that Philip Augustus had taken up that of Conrad. Thus the two kings
+reached Acre only to complicate old feuds with new strifes. The siege
+had lasted nearly two years. In the plain was gathered the crusading
+host, still magnificent in its appointments; on the heights were
+assembled the Turkish armies under the black banner of Saladin. Richard
+had loitered on the road as long as it suited his fancy or his ambition
+to do so; and he had overwhelmed with a torrent of reproach and abuse
+the envoys from the chiefs before Acre who dared to confront him at the
+Cyprian Famagosta with the reproof that his business was not to dethrone
+Comnenian princes and take their kingdoms, but to do battle with the
+Turk for the sacred heritage of Christendom. He reached Acre, prostrated
+with intermittent fever; but indifference to the enterprise had given way
+to a fiery zeal. He had himself carried out on a mattress to point the
+balistæ which by discharging stones served in some measures the purposes
+of modern artillery. But at first the two kings would not act together,
+and this division of forces enabled the besieged to stand out. Their
+reconciliation, whether real or seeming, led to a combined action which
+was soon rewarded by the offer of surrender. The terms now proposed were
+rejected, and Saladin cheered the besieged with the hope of succours to
+be received from Egypt. The help came not, and Saladin was compelled to
+assent to a harder compact. The piece of the true cross was to be given
+up, the Christian prisoners set free, and some thousands of hostages were
+to be detained for the payment, within forty days, of 200,000 pieces of
+gold. The surrender was made. Richard took up his abode in the palace,
+Philip went to the house of the Templars, and the flags of the two kings
+floated from the ramparts. Philip now regarded himself as absolved from
+his vow, and he announced his determination to return to France. Richard
+parted from his ally with undissembled anger and contempt, and Philip,
+sailing to Tyre, gave to Conrad that half of the city of Acre which had
+been reserved for himself.
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of 5,000 Turkish hostages.]
+
+The forty days wore on. Saladin would not or could not restore the relics
+of the true cross or make up the 200,000 pieces. Richard warned him
+what the consequences of neglect would be; and he kept his word. On the
+fortieth day two thousand seven hundred hostages were led to the top of
+a hill from which all that passed might be seen in the camp of Saladin;
+and at a signal from the king these two thousand seven hundred infidels
+were all cut down. The soldiers hacked open their bodies to search for
+the jewels and gold which they were supposed to have swallowed, and
+to obtain the gall which they kept as medicine. In such praiseworthy
+deeds as these the Christians could act with admirable concert. At the
+same hour hostages almost equalling in number the victims of Richard
+were slaughtered on the walls of the city by the duke of Burgundy, the
+representative of Philip Augustus.
+
+[Sidenote: Victory of Richard at Azotus.]
+
+The recovery of Acre was for these merciful and devout champions of
+the cross a sufficient reason for plunging into beastly debauchery and
+excess, from which it was no easy task to tear them away. At length the
+army of Richard moved southwards, marching in compact array along the
+coast, while the fleet, generally in sight, advanced along the shore.
+On their left hung the hosts of Saladin, whose policy it was to wear
+out his enemy, in a country the fortresses of which he had dismantled,
+without fighting any pitched battles. In this way the crusaders and
+their enemies had reached the neighbourhood of Azotus (Ashdod), when
+Richard resolved to face his adversary. The right wing was under Jacob
+of Avesnes; the left was held by the Duke of Burgundy; the English king
+was in the centre. The disposition of the battle showed some approach to
+generalship on his part; and his coolness was seen in the steadiness with
+which he reserved for the decisive moment the charge of his horsemen.
+Their tremendous onset broke the Turkish ranks. The victory was decisive:
+but it was purchased with the death of Jacob of Avesnes, which Richard
+mourned as a costly sacrifice.
+
+[Sidenote: Abortive negotiations with Saladin.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1191. November.]
+
+[Sidenote: Feud between the English king and the duke of Austria.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1192. April 27.]
+
+[Sidenote: Henry of Champagne titular king of Jerusalem.]
+
+His next move was to Jaffa, although he had wished to go on to Ascalon.
+The French barons insisted on the necessity of rebuilding the walls
+of Jaffa; and in spite of the sluggishness which with the crusaders
+almost always followed strenuous exertion, the task was at length
+completed. Richard resolved to renew the war with vigour, and announced
+to Saladin that nothing less would content him than the surrender of
+all the territory which had been included in the kingdom of Jerusalem
+under Baldwin the leper, (p. 104). Saladin replied by an offer to yield
+up all lands lying between the Jordan and the sea; but it soon became
+clear that the negotiations were a mere pretext for gaining time, and
+Richard determined to advance upon Jerusalem. The army reached Ramlah,
+encountering some hardships from rain and tempests. Still it seemed
+that they might soon win the prize to which they had looked forward as
+the adequate recompense of all human toil. It was not to be so, and the
+hindrance came from the military orders and from the men of Pisa. These
+asserted that the reconquest of Jerusalem would be the dissolution of
+the enterprise. The army would never be kept together, so soon as they
+had once paid their vows before the tomb of the Redeemer. The crusaders
+fell back to Ascalon, and there the winter was spent partly in restoring
+the fortifications, but for the more part in incessant feuds. The duke
+of Austria had learnt during the siege of Acre to look on Richard as an
+enemy. The cause, it was said, was an insult done to the Austrian banner,
+which Richard, on seeing it raised upon the ramparts, seized and flung
+into the ditch. The hatred thus excited was embittered, we are told, by
+the injunction or desire for the personal help of all in the camp for
+the rebuilding of the walls of Ascalon. The duke replied that he was
+neither a mason nor a carpenter; and the lion-hearted king retorted by
+a kick which threw him down. This may be romance or fiction; but the
+disorganization of the force is sufficiently shown by the facts that the
+claim of Conrad to the throne of Jerusalem was urged by the Genoese, that
+of Guy by the men of Pisa; that the French abandoned the camp because
+Richard was no longer able to pay them; and that the jealousy of Conrad
+could be satisfied with nothing less than an alliance with Saladin.
+The end had almost come. Richard knew that his presence in England was
+a matter of life and death, and he now in his offers to the Turkish
+sultan abated his claim to the mere possession of the holy city and the
+restoration of the true cross. To this last surrender Saladin had in the
+previous negotiations made no objection. He had now become more orthodox
+or more scrupulous, and he could not give even indirect encouragement
+to the idolatry which would worship a piece of wood. Nor was a treaty
+set on foot for the marriage of Richard’s sister Joanna to Saphadin the
+sultan’s brother more successful. The English king even consented to give
+up the cause of Guy and sanction the choice of Conrad of Tyre for the
+Latin crown. The murder of Conrad by two of the fraternity known as the
+Assassins drew on Richard a storm of indignation; but evidence for the
+crime there was none. A more popular claimant appeared in Henry, count of
+Champagne, whose election to the throne of Godfrey was followed by his
+marriage to the widow of Conrad. The grief of Guy was consoled by the
+sovereignty of Cyprus which was still in the hands of his descendants
+when the Crescent in 1453 displaced the Cross on Justinian’s church in
+Constantinople.
+
+[Sidenote: March of Richard towards Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Retreat of the army from Bethlehem.]
+
+[Sidenote: Relief of Jaffa.]
+
+[Sidenote: Truce between the crusaders and Saladin.]
+
+Disunion and bad generalship had practically sealed the doom of the
+crusade; but for Richard the capture of Jerusalem still had greater
+charms than the punishment of his brother John. In June, accordingly,
+the army once more began its march to the Holy City. The tidings of
+his approach caused almost panic terror among the Turks; but when they
+had reached Bethlehem the crusaders discovered that their forces were
+insufficient for the investment of the city; that to a commissariat
+they could scarcely make a pretence; that they ran an imminent risk of
+being cut off from their base of supplies; and, lastly, that the Turks
+had destroyed the wells and cisterns for miles round. It was impossible
+to resist the logic of these facts; and Richard made a last desperate
+effort to divert their joint forces to an invasion of Egypt and the
+attack of Cairo. He was led up a hill from which he was told that he
+might see Jerusalem; he held up his shield before his face as being
+unworthy to behold the city which he had failed to wrest from the power
+of the infidel. The army was broken up. Some went to Jaffa, more to
+Acre; and Saladin, advancing with rapid marches to the former city, so
+pressed it that the besieged pledged themselves to surrender if within
+twenty-four hours they should not be effectually succoured. Within that
+time Richard appeared upon the scene. His onset was more fierce, his
+valour and exploits more astonishing than ever. The besiegers retreated
+in confusion, to learn presently with greater shame that they had been
+scared by a mere handful of Christian horsemen. But if the splendid
+bravery of the English king struck terror into the multitude, there
+were not lacking some, it is said, in which it excited a chivalrous
+admiration. Richard was dismounted, we are told, in the thick of the
+fight, and Saladin’s brother Saphadin, whose son Richard had at his
+request knighted, sent him two horses to enable him to renew the
+struggle. The crusaders were victorious: but Richard had no wish to use
+the advantage thus gained except for the purpose of gaining the best
+terms from the enemy. The compact ultimately made pledged them to a
+truce of three years and eight months. Ascalon was to be dismantled: but
+the Christians were to remain in possession of Jaffa and Tyre with the
+country between them; and all pilgrims were to have the right of entering
+Jerusalem untaxed.
+
+[Sidenote: Pilgrimage to Jerusalem.]
+
+Of this privilege the French at Acre desired to avail themselves. Richard
+indignantly refused their request. They had done nothing to secure the
+peace or to deserve it; and their allies only should be suffered to enter
+the Sacred City. Among these pilgrims was the bishop of Salisbury, who
+became the guest of Saladin and heard from his lips praises of the valour
+of Richard which were not extended to his generalship. The thrust was
+rather evaded than parried by the reply that the earth could not produce
+two warriors who could be put into comparison with the Syrian sultan and
+the English king.
+
+[Sidenote: Results of the third crusade.]
+
+So ended the third crusade, with its work barely more than begun, or
+rather marred by the infatuated waste of splendid opportunities; yet not
+with an extremity of humiliation which would convince even devotees of
+the absurdity of further efforts. A large strip of coast bounded by two
+important cities still remained as a base of operations in any renewed
+contest, and much had been done to neutralize the effects which without
+doubt Saladin had anticipated from his victory at Tiberias and his
+conquest of Jerusalem.
+
+[Sidenote: Captivity of Richard I. in Austria.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1192. Dec. 21.]
+
+On the morning after his embarkation at Acre, Richard turned to take
+a last look on the fading shores of Palestine. ‘Most holy land,’ he
+exclaimed with outstretched arms, ‘I commend thee to the care of the
+Almighty! May He grant me life to return and deliver thee from the yoke
+of the infidels!’ His fleet, carrying his wife and sister, had preceded
+him and reached Sicily in safety. He himself followed in a single ship,
+and at the end of a month of baffling winds found himself at Corfu, where
+he hired some trading vessels to take him to Ragusa and Zara. Sailing
+on, he was thrown by a storm on the Istrian coast between Aquileia
+and Venice, when the perils of his situation must have begun to force
+themselves upon him. The kinsfolk of Conrad of Tyre bore no love for his
+supposed murderer; the French king was in treaty with his brother John;
+and Henry VI., the emperor of Germany, and son of Barbarossa, owed him a
+grudge for his alliance with Tancred of Sicily (p. 128). Still Richard
+thought, it seems, that a pilgrim’s disguise and an unshorn beard would
+carry him through all dangers. Having reached the fortress of Goritz,
+which was held by Maynard, a nephew of Conrad, he sent his companion,
+Baldwin of Bethune, with the gift of a ruby ring, to ask a passport
+for himself and Hugh the merchant, pilgrims going home from Jerusalem.
+Maynard looked long at the ruby, and at length said, ‘This jewel can
+come only from a king; that king must be Richard of England. Tell him he
+may come to me in peace.’ Not trusting his promise, Richard fled during
+the night. Baldwin and seven others who remained with him were seized
+and kept as hostages. At Freisach six more of his companions were taken,
+although Richard himself escaped with one knight and a boy who knew the
+language of the country. This boy, sent to the market at Erperg, near
+Vienna, showed his money too freely, was caught, put to the torture, and
+revealed the name of his master. Surrounded in his house by troops of
+armed men, Richard refused to yield except to their chief; and that chief
+hastened to take charge of him. It was Leopold, who may have felt that
+he could now taste the sweets of revenge for the insults (whatever these
+may have been) which Richard had put upon him in Palestine. But Leopold
+was induced to compound with his feelings by a bribe of 60,000_l._; and
+Richard, as the prisoner of Henry VI., was closely guarded in a Tyrolese
+castle.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1193. Exertions made for the liberation of Richard.]
+
+The tidings of his captivity were received with sorrow by his subjects
+generally, with undissembled joy by his brother John and Philip Augustus
+of France. Of these two princes the former prepared to fight for the
+crown, and after the first reverse accepted an armistice: the latter,
+having sent to Richard to renounce his allegiance, invaded Normandy, and
+met with a complete repulse at Rouen. At length the place of Richard’s
+imprisonment was discovered by William Longchamp, bishop of Ely, the
+English chancellor; or, as the romance would have it, by his faithful
+minstrel Blondel. The pope was at once assailed with entreaties to come
+forward for his rescue. Peter of Blois, archdeacon of Bath, reminded
+Cælestine III. of his debt of gratitude to so faithful a son of the
+Church. His mother Eleanor wrote to him in less measured terms. Where,
+she asked, was the zeal of Elijah against Ahab, of John the Baptist
+against Herod, of Alexander III. against the father of the emperor who
+had wrought this iniquity in Christendom? ‘For trifling reasons your
+cardinals are sent in all their power to the most savage lands; in this
+great cause you have appointed not even a subdeacon or an acolyth. You
+would not have much debased the dignity of the holy see had you set out
+in person to rescue him. Restore to me my son, O man of God, if thou art
+indeed a man of God and not a man of blood. If you remain lukewarm, the
+Most High may require his blood at your hands.’ In later letters she
+asks him if he thinks that his soul can be safe while he is thus slack
+in rescuing the sheep of his fold, and tells him that he ought to be
+willing to lay down his life for one in whose behalf he was unwilling to
+speak or write a single word. The truth is that Cælestine was full of
+zeal for Richard’s cause: he was only waiting with true papal caution for
+Richard’s deliverance to express his zeal emphatically.
+
+[Sidenote: Richard before the diet at Hagenau.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1194. Feb. 4. Release of Richard.]
+
+[Sidenote: His return to England.]
+
+At length, after nearly four months, Richard was brought before the
+diet at Hagenau. The captive might have pleaded the incompetence of
+the tribunal; he chose to answer the charges brought against him with
+arguments which convinced his judges of his innocence and made the
+emperor willing to treat about his ransom. This ransom was raised by
+new taxes laid on his subjects, whose resources, even when taxed to the
+uttermost, seemed unlikely to satisfy imperial avarice; and there was the
+further danger that whatever might be the sum raised, John might outbid
+them. This upright and honourable prince had offered to pay to Henry
+VI. the sum of 20,000_l._ for every month during which the imprisonment
+of Richard might be prolonged; but there was a limit to the patience
+of the German barons, and their words convinced Henry that this limit
+had been reached. Richard was released, hostages being given for that
+portion of his ransom which was not paid on the spot. His deliverance set
+free the tongue of pope Cælestine, who now wrote to the Austrian duke as
+well as to the emperor, insisting that the ransom should be given back
+and the hostages restored. The emperor paid no heed to the command, but
+Leopold was brought to obedience by the discipline of excommunication and
+sickness, and Richard after four years’ absence landed in his own kingdom
+to impoverish his people by fresh exactions for quarrels as useless as
+the enterprise which had taken him across the seas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE FOURTH CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Motives of the chief promoters of the fourth crusade.]
+
+The story of the fourth crusade is soon told. It was an effort prompted
+by the policy of a pope to whom the diversion of forces which the German
+emperor might turn against himself was of supreme importance,—of an
+emperor whose consciousness of ill desert made him catch eagerly at an
+opportunity for winning the favour of his German subjects—and of chiefs
+who hoped to take advantage of the weakened condition of the Turks for
+the promotion of their personal interests against the wishes and even
+against the warning and protests of the Latin Christians in Palestine.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1193. Death of Saladin and its consequences.]
+
+Saladin, the chivalrous antagonist of the lion-hearted Richard, was
+dead; and the fabric of his empire soon showed signs of decay. His
+brother Saphadin, upheld by Saladin’s soldiers, maintained his ground
+against the competition of Saladin’s children who ruled in Egypt,
+Damascus, and Aleppo. But although Christians and Mahomedans were alike
+weighed down by the pressure of a terrible famine, the Knights of St.
+John longed to strike a blow by which they thought that they could surely
+crush their enemies. Their efforts to stir up a crusade in England and
+in Europe were seconded by pope Cælestine III., who promised all the
+spiritual rewards which had called forth the heroism or the brutality
+of the earlier pilgrim warriors. On Philip Augustus all entreaties were
+thrown away. Richard of England, it is said, was nursing dreams of
+conquests which were to place him in the seat of the Byzantine Cæsars:
+but for the time he was busied with the less pleasing task of wringing
+money from impoverished subjects.
+
+[Sidenote: Encouragement given to the crusade by the emperor Henry VI.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1196. Death of Henry VI.]
+
+But if pope Cælestine hoped that by urging this crusade he should rid
+himself of his mortal enemy, he was doomed to disappointment. The death
+of Tancred, king of Sicily, and of his heir enabled the emperor Henry
+VI., the son of Barbarossa to claim the island by right of his wife
+Constantia (p. 128); and the force which Germany might bring together for
+the reconquest of the Holy Land could be made available for strengthening
+the imperial power in Southern Europe. Thus the enterprise received
+his strongest approval, and his encouragement stirred up a throng of
+barons, knights and prelates to assume the cross. But he had no intention
+of journeying to Palestine in person. Money and men he was ready to
+contribute; but his own task lay nearer home. He had levelled the walls
+of Capua and Naples, and was besieging a Sicilian castle, when his own
+imprudence brought on a fever which cut short at the age of thirty a
+career shameful for its merciless and wholesale tyranny.
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of his barons with their troops in the Holy Land.]
+
+[Sidenote: Capture of Jaffa by Saphadin.]
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of fresh crusaders under Conrad, bishop of Hildesheim.]
+
+His barons with their followers reached the Holy Land at a time when,
+although the truce made with Saladin (p. 135) had expired, the Latin
+Christians were not disposed to renew hostilities. But the Germans had
+come to fight, not to debate; and their energy was to be tested by
+Saphadin, who resolved to be first in striking a blow. Jaffa was taken
+before any succour could reach it from Acre, its inhabitants slaughtered
+by hundreds or by thousands, and its fortifications, the work on which
+Richard and his soldiers had toiled so hard (p. 132), utterly demolished.
+The arrival of a second body of German crusaders seemed to justify a
+fresh movement which was directed against Berytos. Saphadin compelled
+them to fight between Tyre and Sidon: but he did so to his grievous
+cost. His army was for the time broken, and Jaffa with Sidon and other
+cities came again into the possession of the Christians. In the town of
+Berytos they found, it is said, provisions stored up for three years,
+and the power and confidence of the conquerors were largely increased by
+the arrival of a third body of armed pilgrims led by Conrad, bishop of
+Hildesheim, chancellor of the empire.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1197. Siege of the castle of Thoron.]
+
+[Sidenote: Complete defeat of the Crusaders.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1197. Capture of Jaffa, and massacre of the crusaders.]
+
+The crusaders were, in all seeming, in the full career of victory; but
+the advantages which they had gained were lost almost in a moment by
+their own infatuated bloodthirstiness. They had besieged the castle
+of Thoron, and so undermined the rocks on which it rested, that the
+garrison, foreseeing the inevitable end, agreed to surrender on the
+single stipulation that they should be allowed a free passage into Moslem
+territory. The terms were accepted; but so loud were still the threats of
+vengeance, so persistent, it is said, the assurances which the Frenchmen
+gave to the besieged of the deadly intentions of the Germans, that the
+miserable garrison resolved to fight to the death rather than fall into
+their hands. They lined the passages which the besiegers had scooped
+out in the rock, and their desperate resistance filled with dismay the
+savages who but a little while ago had been crying out for their blood.
+The disorganization which had not once or twice disgraced the armies
+of the earlier crusaders was seen again in even greater degree. The
+chiefs fled from the camp in the night, and their followers woke to find
+themselves deserted. A confusion ensued so utter and helpless that an
+enemy might have won a victory almost without striking a blow; but the
+Saracens were scarcely less exhausted than the Christians, and these on
+being gathered after their dispersion were able to accuse each the other
+of obstinacy, cowardice, or treachery. Conrad of Hildesheim, hastening to
+Jaffa with the purpose of restoring its walls, had won a battle fought
+against Saphadin at a cost fully equal to any profit which might accrue
+from it. The tidings of the death of Henry VI. dealt the final blow to
+the enterprise, by recalling to Germany those princes who had an interest
+in the election of the emperor. Those who remained behind took refuge in
+Jaffa, only, however to meet their doom a few months later at the hands
+of a Moslem host which suddenly attacked and stormed the city, while the
+Germans were showing their devotion to St. Martin by drinking themselves
+into a state of helpless stupidity.
+
+[Sidenote: Almeric of Lusignan king of Jerusalem and Cyprus.]
+
+In spite of these disasters the mockery of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem
+was still carried on. On the death of Henry of Champagne (p. 134), his
+widow Isabella was advised by the grand-master of the Hospitallers to
+marry Almeric of Lusignan who had recently succeeded his brother Guy as
+king of Cyprus. Isabella showed no unwillingness to follow this counsel,
+and with her fourth husband she added the title of queen of Cyprus to
+that of queen of Jerusalem. If the politics of the time represented
+Cyprus as a convenient retreat in cases of emergency, such considerations
+have little interest or none. The only valid plea for keeping up
+the fiction of the Latin kingdom in Palestine would be found in the
+likelihood that the abandonment of the title would be regarded throughout
+Europe as a confession of defeat, and would be followed by the complete
+extinction of the crusading impulse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE FIFTH CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1198. Election of Innocent III.]
+
+At its outset, if not in its results, the fifth crusade exhibits
+something like a return to the spirit of the age which gave so vast a
+force to the preaching of the hermit Peter and the eloquence of Urban II.
+In the chair of St. Peter there was now seated a man of far greater power
+than the pope who stirred the Western world to a fever of enthusiasm
+at the council of Clermont. At the age of thirty-seven—an age without
+example, perhaps, in the annals of the papacy—Lothair, of the house of
+Conti, cardinal of St. Mark, had been chosen pope by the unanimous voice
+of all the cardinals who were present, at a time when every other power
+seemed to be tottering, if not in the very throes of dissolution. The
+Byzantine empire was in its decrepitude; the Latin kingdom of Palestine
+was reduced to a mere strip of coast; an infant was king of Naples; the
+French king Philip Augustus was paying in whatever measure the penalties
+of an evil life; the man who was hoping to wear the English crown was the
+vindictive and despicable John, whose treachery had slain his father.
+Everywhere was disunion, faction, and deadly hatred: and in the midst of
+this chaos appeared the one man whose serene tranquillity, based on the
+consciousness of a superhuman commission and on the sanction of a divine
+law, was undisturbed by the storms raging around him. The influence,
+righteously acquired by Leo and Gregory the Great, and vastly extended
+(not altogether by the most righteous means) by Gregory VII. (p. 20)
+was wielded with even greater effect by the youthful pontiff whose eye
+surveyed with calm yet exhaustive scrutiny the troubled scene of European
+politics.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect of the crusades in extending the jurisdiction of the
+pope.]
+
+To this exalted position the undefined claims of previous popes would
+probably never have raised Innocent III., had it not been for the
+crusades. In these enterprises the popes had a pretext ready to hand for
+interfering with the affairs of every nation and country, for suspending
+or annulling civil jurisdiction, for levying taxes under the name of
+alms, for releasing barons from the allegiance due to their sovereigns,
+inferior tenants from their chiefs, debtors from their creditors. The
+crusade became a task which the popes might impose for their souls’
+health on refractory emperors and kings. All whose hearts were filled
+with the love of Christ must long to take part in the holy work of
+rescuing his sepulchre from the hands of the unbelievers. If any were
+careless or indifferent to a duty thus constraining, it must be because
+their lives were not as pure, their faith not so sound as it should
+be, and by such men the divine power for rebuke and even chastisement
+committed to the vicars of Christ and of the prince of the apostles must
+make itself felt. If kings and great feudal chiefs would prove themselves
+to be good Christians, they must put on the cross: and the assumption of
+the badge imposed an obligation from which, if the popes were bent on
+keeping them to it, it would be almost, if not altogether, hopeless for
+them to escape. If they resisted, their sentence was excommunication; and
+excommunication, not removed, meant death here and hereafter.
+
+[Sidenote: Weakening of the Imperial power.]
+
+The effect of this policy (for such, however sincere some of the popes
+may have been, it assuredly must be called) showed itself especially in
+the weakening of the imperial power, without which such a supremacy as
+that of Innocent III. over the sovereigns of his age would have been an
+impossibility. The emperor Conrad had been driven to take the cross by
+the awful pictures which Bernard drew of the judgment day (p. 90): he
+came back shorn practically of all his power. Barbarossa had obeyed the
+papal bidding, only to die in a distant land; and the struggle was to be
+renewed in a later crusade with a sovereign who was only in his cradle
+when the cardinal Lothair began his career as pope.
+
+[Sidenote: Growing mistrust of the court of Rome by the peoples of
+Europe.]
+
+But if the crusades and the undefined powers which they brought to the
+popes carried to its utmost height the fabric of their supremacy, they
+began at the same time to undermine it. At no time had the Roman court
+possessed a high reputation for pecuniary probity; more commonly it had
+been known as the seed-bed in which venality, jobbery, and corruption
+flourished with rank luxuriance. All at once, owing to the new impulse
+given to the energies of Christendom, the popes became the possessors or
+administrators of revenues more vast than any of which in earlier ages
+they could have ventured to dream. Then as in these enterprises failure
+followed on failure, and the results attained seemed wholly inadequate to
+the outlay, the suspicion was awakened that the funds obtained for the
+crusades were sometimes diverted to other purposes. The suspicion might
+be unjust, and the popes might appoint barons and bishops not belonging
+to their court to be trustees of revenues which were not even to be
+kept in Italy. Still in spite of these precautions the old sayings were
+repeated, and they came not unfrequently with chilling force just when
+the crusading enthusiasm had been fanned into the fiercest flame.
+
+[Sidenote: Efforts of Innocent to remove this mistrust.]
+
+This suspicion threatened to be fatal to the new enterprise which
+Innocent sought to promote for the salvation of the Holy Land,—nay,
+for that of all Christians whether of the East or the West. Not even
+Urban II. had been more fervent in his exhortations, more lavish in his
+promises of eternal happiness, more stern in his threatenings of endless
+perdition. Still from these loftier regions he had to descend to defences
+against charges of personal corruption, and to appoint for the management
+of the crusading revenues committees to which it was supposed that
+suspicion could not possibly attach itself. More than this, the pope and
+his cardinals must show themselves ready to bear to the full the burdens
+which they sought to lay upon others. A tenth of all their revenues
+would be devoted to the rescue of the Holy Land from the power of the
+infidel. The clergy in all other countries were to contribute at least a
+fortieth part, and the laity should be everywhere urged to contribute to
+the utmost of their power. The funds so raised were to be put into a safe
+place, the amount only being notified at Rome: and hard-hearted indeed
+must he be who would hold aloof from such a work of love and mercy.
+
+[Sidenote: Fulk of Neuilly.]
+
+But the indifference with which his words were everywhere received
+furnishes a fresh proof that the work of a genuine crusade can be set in
+motion only by the combination of authority with the enthusiasm of the
+demagogue. So it had been in the days of the hermit Peter (p. 26), and of
+the saint who had tried to cover the hermit with contempt. So, happily
+for Innocent, it was now, when Fulk, a parish priest of Neuilly near
+Paris, was smitten with the crusading fever. Even as a priest he had for
+a time led a life of miserable slackness, if not of gross vice; but his
+heart was touched with the penitence which was kindled in Mary Magdalene
+or Mary of Egypt. He had striven to atone for his sins by the severest
+asceticism, and to remedy his deplorable ignorance by attending the
+lectures of Peter the Chanter, in whom Innocent hoped to find the most
+eloquent preacher of his crusade. This hope was not to be realized. Peter
+was seized by a fatal illness, but his last words bequeathed to Fulk the
+mission which he had himself received from the pope.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1189.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1198. The mission of Fulk sanctioned by the pope.]
+
+Even before the death of Peter, Fulk had preached in the streets and
+lanes of the great city, and his words had melted the most obdurate and
+evil-lived sinners to tears. Still the spell of his oratory seemed to be
+losing its power, and he had gone back to his parish work at Neuilly when
+the last charge of Peter the Chanter animated him with an irresistible
+impulse. He came forward now not merely as the preacher of a crusade, but
+as the stern reprover of vice and of spiritual wickedness in high places.
+Like Urban and Eugenius, Innocent saw his opportunity. He wrote to Fulk,
+expressing his hearty approbation of his work, and bidding him, in
+concert with some of the Black and White monks, and with the sanction of
+the legate Peter of Capua, go up and down the land calling on all men to
+repent and to give proof of penitence by hastening to the land of promise.
+
+[Sidenote: Effects of his eloquence.]
+
+Soon the tidings spread from city to city that a preacher had appeared
+whose powers were not inferior to those of St. Bernard. His miracles
+were not indeed so numerous, nor, for the most part, of the sort which
+ascribed to Bernard the excommunication of troublesome flies, who under
+this potent sentence fell dead from the ceiling, and were swept up
+from the floor by shovelfuls. His humour was not less ready than his
+eloquence. His hearers strove for pieces of his clothing to be kept as
+sacred relics. One noisy bystander had caused him special annoyance. He
+turned to his audience, and told them that he had not blessed his own
+garments, but that he would bless those of this man. In a moment the
+man’s clothes were in tatters, and the fragments carried off in triumph
+as relics endowed with miraculous power.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1202. Death of Fulk.]
+
+Yet, taken at its best, the effect of Fulk’s preaching was not equal
+to that of Bernard or of Peter the Hermit. His words might enjoin high
+austerities: his appearance might not belie his words, but it did not
+convey indisputable evidence of their truth. He looked and lived much
+like other men; and, what was worse, he had to do battle with the fatal
+suspicion which Innocent had striven with the utmost earnestness to shake
+off. He became the receiver of vast sums of money; and murmurs would
+make themselves heard which asserted that all these moneys were not used
+as they ought to be. His influence was on the whole waning: but he was
+not to see the beginning of the enterprise which he had so strenuously
+promoted. Fulk died of a fever at Neuilly, while the crusaders were still
+at Venice, and his mantle seemed to fall on the Cistercian abbot Martin.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1200. The chiefs of the fifth crusade.]
+
+Other preachers also girded up their loins for the great work, and
+their words told especially on some of the younger men among the French
+princes. Foremost among these was Theobald, count of Champagne, who had
+seen only twenty summers, and whose goal was well nigh reached already.
+With him Louis, count of Blois and Chartres, cast in his lot, followed by
+Simon of Montfort, the infamous leader of the yet future Holy War against
+the Albigensians, Walter of Brienne, and with many others, last but not
+least Geoffrey of Villehardouin, marshal of Champagne, the historian of
+the crusade. Some months later the badge was assumed by Baldwin, count of
+Flanders, by Hugh of St. Pol, by the count of Perche, and many more.
+
+[Sidenote: Mission from the French barons to Venice.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1201.]
+
+[Sidenote: Compact for the conveyance of the crusaders to Palestine.]
+
+The followers of these chiefs amounted already to a formidable army. But
+the leaders had no adequate navy at their command, and the history of
+all the preceding expeditions had convinced men at last of the desperate
+risks to be encountered in the land journey across Europe and the Lesser
+Asia. One state alone there was which was fully equal to all demands
+that might be made upon it for ships; and of the crusades this state
+at least had no just reason to complain. These armed pilgrimages had
+vastly increased its commerce and its profits, and had produced in Europe
+a general desire for eastern products which insured the continuance of
+this wide-spread trade. To Venice accordingly the eyes of the crusading
+chiefs were turned, and the envoys of the counts of Blois, Flanders, and
+Champagne appeared there in the first week of Lent before the doge, or
+duke, Henry Dandolo, venerable in his age of more than ninety years, and
+the victim of that Byzantine cruelty which had almost, if not wholly,
+deprived him of his sight. ‘Sire,’ said Villehardouin, the ambassador
+from the count of Champagne, ‘we are come in the name of the great barons
+of France, who are pledged to avenge by the conquest of Jerusalem the
+insults offered to our Lord Jesus Christ. From no other state can they
+obtain the help which they desire, and they implore you for the sake of
+the Holy Cross and the Holy Sepulchre to furnish them with ships and all
+other things necessary for conveying their men across the sea.’ ‘On what
+terms?’ asked the doge. ‘On any that you may name,’ was the reply, ‘so
+long as we may be able to bear them.’ The doge promised an answer at the
+end of eight days; and when these were passed, the envoys were told that
+for four marks of silver for each horse and two for each man the republic
+would furnish ships, provisioned for nine months, for the conveyance of
+4,500 knights with their horses, 9,000 squires, and 20,000 infantry.
+The total cost would be 85,000 marks of silver; but the republic would
+further join the expedition with 50 galleys of its own. The terms were
+not unreasonable, and the envoys departed, some homewards, some to
+seek further aid from Genoa and Pisa. Here they fared but ill; and
+Villehardouin reached Troyes only to find Theobald the count of Champagne
+prostrate with hopeless sickness. In his joy at seeing him, the young man
+mounted his horse: but it was for the last time. In a few days he died,
+and the count of Perche soon followed him to the grave.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1202. Failure of the crusaders to make up the sum agreed
+on with the Venetians.]
+
+The count of Champagne was to have been the chief of the enterprise.
+The offer of the command was now refused by the duke of Burgundy as by
+many others: it was accepted at last by Boniface, marquis of Montferrat.
+But it was not until the following year that the crusading forces were
+fairly in motion; and their lack of cohesion was at once seen in all
+its mischievous effects. Venice may have driven—there is no just ground
+for thinking that she had driven—a hard bargain; but as it was certain
+that from her terms she would make no abatement, it was clear that
+the interests of the crusaders should lead them to adhere to or give
+up the compact in a body. To divide their forces was merely to lay a
+heavier burden on those who should still seek the aid of Venice. But of
+two courses the crusaders were well nigh sure to choose the worse, and
+while some sailed across the bay of Biscay and through the straits of
+Gibraltar, others embarked at Marseilles. Others again found their way to
+ports in Southern Italy, leaving Villehardouin to deplore at Venice the
+wretched mischief wrought by these desertions. It seemed at first that
+they had dealt a death-blow to the enterprise. The Venetian fleet was
+ready, in perfect order and magnificently equipped: but the price, the
+85,000 silver marks, must be paid in advance, and the counts of Flanders
+and St. Pol and the marquis of Montferrat could only make up 51,000 after
+selling all their plate and putting the utmost strain upon their credit.
+
+[Sidenote: Proposal to commute the payment by an expedition against Zara.]
+
+Of this dilemma the doge proposed a solution which at first excited the
+astonishment, the dismay, and even the disgust of the crusaders. The
+war which pope Innocent had striven to kindle was strictly a holy war,
+directed only against the infidel for the rescue of lands, which formed
+the inalienable heritage of Christendom. But the Venetian doge now
+announced that the 34,000 marks might be discharged by conquering for
+the republic the town of Zara, which had been, so he averred, unjustly
+seized by the king of Hungary. The summer wore on. The feast of the
+Nativity of the Virgin had come round, when Dandolo, ascending the pulpit
+in the church of St. Mark, declared his readiness to live or die with
+the pilgrims of the cross, and then, going to the high altar, fixed the
+blood-red badge on his high cotton cap. The sight called forth the tears
+and wakened the enthusiasm of all who were present. The less pleasant
+features of the compact lost their repulsive aspect; and the interests of
+Venice were further consulted by the agreement that she should have one
+half of all conquests that might be made.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1195. Mission to Rome to seek aid for the dethroned
+Byzantine emperor, Isaac Angelus.]
+
+A new actor now appeared upon the scene. For some years past the palace
+of the Byzantine Cæsars had been defiled by a series of bloody murders
+or of mutilations still more cruel. Emperor after emperor had been put
+to death or blinded and thrust into a dungeon. The latter penalty was
+the doom of Isaac Angelus when his throne was usurped by his brother
+Alexios, a tyrant not wise in his generation. Isaac, laxly guarded, was
+able to communicate with his partisans; his son Alexios, having contrived
+to make his escape in a Pisan vessel to Ancona, appeared to plead his
+cause before Innocent at Rome. He received no genial welcome. The pope
+had perhaps a better hope of bringing about the submission of the Eastern
+to the Western church through the possessor of a throne than through
+claimants or pretenders. He was better received at the court of his
+brother-in-law, the Swabian chief Philip; and his messengers now appeared
+in Venice to implore the help of the commercial republic and the high
+chivalry of Western Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: Determination of the Venetians to insist on the expedition to
+Zara.]
+
+Not impossibly the vision which this crusade was destined for time to
+realize may have floated before the mind of Dandolo, as he listened to
+their earnest pleadings; but for the present he confined himself to
+words of encouragement and sympathy. The task immediately before them
+was the conquest of Zara; and Venice stuck to her bond with inflexible
+pertinacity. In vain the abbot Martin, who with his followers had
+crossed the Tyrolese Alps, protested against the invasion of territories
+belonging to the Hungarian king who had himself assumed the cross.
+They were told that the scheme might be given up on the payment of the
+34,000 silver marks. In vain Innocent sent his cardinal legate Peter of
+Capua with orders to interdict the Venetians from assailing Zara even
+with their own forces, and to lead the army of the pilgrims himself to
+Palestine. The legate was told that he might embark in their fleet if he
+pleased, but that he must not dare to exercise his legatine authority
+when he had done so. The indignant cardinal hastened to Rome. Some few
+drew back from the enterprise: and the marquis of Montferrat pleaded
+pressing engagements which withheld him at present from taking the
+command.
+
+[Sidenote: Siege and conquest of Zara.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1202. Nov. 15.]
+
+But with the main body of the crusaders the Venetian fleet set sail, in
+a magnificent order and with a display of power which seemed capable of
+sweeping everything before it. The people of Zara, dismayed at the sight
+of the armament, offered at once to surrender on the best terms which
+they could get. The doge promised to consider the matter with the barons:
+but while they were thus in council, Simon of Montfort, the destined hero
+of a bloody crusade against heretical Christians, upbraided the Zarans
+with their cowardice, and assured them that the conquest of Zara was no
+part of the crusading plan. When the summons for the envoys came from the
+doge’s tent, they were nowhere to be found. They had hastened back into
+the city, and the walls had been manned for a siege. In the camp Guido,
+the abbot of Vaux Cernay, warned the army that they were pilgrims of the
+cross, under oath not to make war against Christians in communion with
+the Holy See. In high wrath Dandolo insisted that the barons should keep
+to their engagements. Few dared, perhaps few wished, to gainsay him.
+For five days Zara was besieged; on the sixth it fell. The doge took
+possession, but he divided the spoil with his allies.
+
+[Sidenote: Proposal to divert the crusade to the restoration of Alexios
+at Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: December.]
+
+The reduction of Zara raised hopes which were to be speedily
+disappointed. The crusaders wished to sail at once for the Holy Land.
+The doge was determined to guard his conquest against attacks from the
+Hungarian king. Winter was coming on; the countries of Western Asia
+were suffering grievously from famine, and a voyage then undertaken
+would bring with it the miseries of starvation. The only course was to
+make Zara their winter quarters. The proposal called forth vehement
+opposition, which was not suppressed without bloodshed. The arrival
+of the marquis of Montferrat to take the chief command gave promise of
+more harmonious action; but the crusade was to be a second time diverted
+from its original purpose. Envoys came from the Byzantine Alexios and
+the Swabian Philip urging that the purposes of the expedition would be
+better achieved by placing Alexios on the throne of Constantinople than
+by attempts, which would certainly be in vain, to wrest Palestine from
+the Saracens. They insisted that the crusader’s vow was really a vow to
+promote in every way the cause of God, of right, and of justice; and
+in no way would this cause be more surely furthered than by restoring
+the disinherited prince to the throne of which he had been robbed by an
+usurper. They pleaded that in this instance interest and duty went hand
+in hand. It would be the first business of Alexios after his restoration
+to bring the Eastern church into submission to the Roman church and see;
+his next task would be to aid the crusaders to the best of his power in
+the work which they had most at heart. He would not only feed the whole
+army and give them 400,000 silver marks: but he would also join them in
+person, or send 10,000 men at his own charge.
+
+[Sidenote: Resolution to accept the terms proposed by Alexios.]
+
+[Sidenote: Negotiations with the pope for the removal of the interdict.]
+
+The announcement of this proposal drew from the abbot of Vaux Cernay
+the passionate rejoinder that they were in arms only against Saracens,
+and that to Syria only would they go. But though he was firmly seconded
+by his partisans, there was practically no reply to the retort that in
+Syria they could do nothing, and that Jerusalem could be won only through
+Constantinople or Egypt. Words and tempers ran high: but the treaty
+with Alexios was accepted by the marquis of Montferrat and the count of
+Flanders, and the destination of the army was fixed. The numbers of that
+army were slowly diminished through the weeks of winter. The terrors
+of the papal interdict hung like a cloud over the host, and the barons
+resolved to send envoys who should assure Innocent that the diversion
+to Zara, which they and he alike lamented, was to be laid wholly to the
+charge of those faithless knights who by departing from other ports
+left their comrades without the means of paying the money due to the
+Venetians. Of the new compact made with Alexios they prudently said
+nothing: and Innocent, while he agreed to suspend the interdict till
+the arrival of his legate Peter of Capua, insisted that the barons must
+still make atonement for their offence. Against the Venetians he took a
+higher tone. The envoys must carry with them a letter excommunicating
+these marauders. The marquis Boniface received the brief, but, instead of
+publishing it, he wrote to Innocent, sending the submission of the barons
+and saying that the Venetians were about to entreat his forgiveness
+for the conquest of Zara. No such entreaties came: and Innocent issued
+fresh orders that his brief should be placed in the hands of the doge.
+If this was done, it produced no result: and Innocent was startled, if
+not dismayed, when he learnt that the spoilers of Zara were making ready
+to sin on a larger scale. He denounced the whole scheme with seemingly
+vehement indignation. The emperor of Constantinople may have been guilty
+of blinding his brother and usurping his throne; but his empire, he
+insisted, was under the special protection of the Holy See. It was no
+part of their business or their vow to avenge the wrongs of the prince
+Alexios; it was their first and paramount duty to avenge the wrongs
+done to their Redeemer, the sign of whose cross they bore upon their
+shoulders. Nay, more, the Byzantine emperor had, at the special request
+of the pope, promised to furnish provisions for the crusaders: and the
+promise of the Eastern Cæsar might be trusted. If it should fail, then
+they might forcibly take what they wanted, at the same time paying or
+promising to pay the value in money.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1203. Easter.]
+
+[Sidenote: Vain attempts of Innocent to oppose the expedition.]
+
+Dandolo was in no mood to have his course checked by either papal
+pleadings or papal threats. The day of embarkation had arrived, and
+Simon of Montfort, impenetrable in his gloomy bigotry, hastened away to
+join the king of Hungary, the faithful servant of the pope. The other
+chiefs went on board the Venetian fleet, with perhaps a shrewd suspicion
+that their success would be followed by a marked change in the tone
+and language of the pope. But whatever might be his desire to keep on
+good terms with the reigning monarch, his longing to see the Byzantine
+church brought back to Roman subjection was altogether more intense. This
+submission would be the immediate result of the enthronement of Alexios,
+and the crusaders would depart for the Holy Land, (the vision of a Latin
+empire at Byzantium had not yet dawned upon their minds,) rich not only
+in the blessing of the pope, but in a wealth of sacred relics which, now
+stored up in the churches of the capital, ought to pass into the hands of
+the faithful children of the Roman obedience.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1203. Arrival of the fleet at Constantinople.]
+
+About the time of the summer solstice, the Venetian fleet anchored in the
+Propontis nine miles to the west of the Imperial city. A few days later
+the army was at Scutari, where they received a message from the reigning
+emperor Alexios promising them aid in their passage through Asia Minor,
+on the condition that during their stay on the shores of the Bosporos
+they should do his subjects no harm. The reply was a summons to the
+usurper to descend from his throne, with a promise that on this condition
+they would obtain for him the pardon of his nephew, the rightful
+sovereign.
+
+[Sidenote: Flight of the usurper Alexios.]
+
+This young prince was paraded by the Venetian fleet in front of the
+walls; but the proclamation which called upon the people to acknowledge
+him as their sovereign was received with contemptuous silence or with
+showers of arrows, and no alternative remained but that of open war. The
+struggle presents few features of real interest: as a series of military
+operations it has little value or none. The imperial fleet consisted, it
+is said, of only twenty ships, and these useless, the anchors, cables,
+and sails having been sold by the admiral, a brother of the empress.
+The army exhibited all the pageantry of war, and lacked almost every
+soldierly quality. The port of Constantinople and the town of Galata
+were soon in the possession of the invaders, and the siege of the city
+was begun, so far as the efforts of a force which could assail but an
+insignificant extent of wall deserves the name. The first flag planted
+on one of the towers was placed there by the men of Dandolo’s ship; and
+Dandolo himself, setting fire to the surrounding houses, kept off the
+imperial troops while his crew fortified themselves in their position.
+The Latins and the Greeks were now face to face. The splendid ranks
+of the Byzantine army stood, as it might seem, ready for battle, when
+Alexios gave the signal for retreat and sealed his own downfall. That
+night he fled from the city. The blind Isaac Angelus, drawn from his
+dungeon, was again clad in the imperial robes, and his son Alexios was
+admitted to share his imperial dignity.
+
+[Sidenote: The crusaders are compelled to spend the winter at
+Constantinople.]
+
+The task of the crusaders in Europe seemed to be now done. Their
+heralds announced to the Egyptian sultan that they would soon take
+summary vengeance unless he surrendered the Holy Land. The Pisans who
+had aided the usurping Alexios made up their quarrel with Venice. The
+French barons asked the forgiveness of the pope for the attack made
+upon Constantinople, and Innocent replied that it must depend on the
+fulfilment of the promises made by Alexios. This prince, having paid part
+of the money which he had sworn to give them, bade them remember how
+dear must be to himself the cost of alliance with them, and how greatly
+he must need their help to stem the tide of unpopularity. In short, he
+let them know that in or near Constantinople they must find their winter
+quarters. It was absurd to think of encountering the risk of a voyage
+during the winter: and even if they went, they could do nothing against
+the Turks until spring. He would then see that nothing should be left
+undone towards furthering the success of the crusade.
+
+[Sidenote: Efforts of Mourzoufle to detach Alexios from the crusaders.]
+
+The northern pilgrims received these proposals with murmurs of anger. But
+the decision lay really with Dandolo, and Dandolo declared that at this
+season of the year the ships of the republic should not be exposed to
+useless dangers. The army remained where it was: but new troubles came
+thick and fast. Religious antagonism ran out into brawls and fights.
+An accidental conflagration preyed for eight days on the streets and
+houses of the city. The rage excited by these losses was increased by
+the exactions to which the young Alexios was driven in order to meet his
+engagements with the crusaders, and was lashed into madness when his
+officers stripped the churches of their gold and silver ornaments. The
+indignation of the people found utterance in the vehement eloquence of
+Alexios Ducas, called Mourzoufle from his dark and shaggy eyebrows; and
+his protests so far swayed the youthful emperor as to make him remiss in
+carrying out his compact with his allies. These told him plainly that to
+that compact he must strictly adhere, or, failing in this, must prepare
+himself for war.
+
+[Sidenote: Deposition and death of Alexios.]
+
+During the night following the day in which he received this warning
+Alexios sent a squadron of fire-ships against the Venetian fleet. The
+danger was great; but the Venetian sailors were as prompt as they were
+brave. The deadly ships were turned aside into open water, and a Pisan
+merchant ship was the only vessel set on fire and destroyed. It was
+the last exploit of Alexios. Another revolution hurled him from the
+throne, which after one or two more emperors had been set up and put
+down passed to Mourzoufle. The new Cæsar showed some aptitude for war,
+but he preferred to try the effect of negotiations with Dandolo. The old
+doge retorted that with an usurper he could have no dealings, and that,
+if he sought peace, he should replace his master Alexios on the throne.
+Mourzoufle resolved that this demand should not be made a second time:
+and that night Alexios was slain in prison.
+
+[Sidenote: Resolution to set up a Latin dynasty in Constantinople.]
+
+For the fate of their former ally the crusaders professed to feel a
+profound sympathy; and their grief prompted the resolution of cutting
+the evil at its root by placing a Latin emperor on the seat of the
+Eastern Cæsars. The compact was accordingly drawn up. The booty to be
+obtained within the city was to be shared equally between the French and
+the Venetians; and a committee of twelve, half French, half Venetian,
+should elect the new sovereign, who was to have one-fourth part of the
+city with the palaces of Blachernai and Boukoleon, the rest of the city
+being shared by the two allied powers. Venice, freed from all feudal
+obligations to the Greek empire, should be equally free from all feudal
+dependence on the Latin sovereign, while the Latin patriarch should be
+chosen from the nation to which the emperor might not belong.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1204. April. Siege and conquest of Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: Horrible excesses of the crusaders.]
+
+The second siege of Constantinople is as devoid of interest as the
+first. The success of the Greeks on the first day was followed by a
+series of disasters which on the fourth day enabled the Latins to force
+their way through the gates. Mourzoufle shut himself up in his palace.
+A third conflagration desolated the city. In the morning the conquerors
+learnt that the usurper had fled with many of the inhabitants. The Latin
+conquest was accomplished. The Byzantine clergy alone urged continued
+resistance; but when they presented Theodore Lascaris to the people
+as their emperor, their silence showed that the appeal was made in
+vain. Then, seeing that nothing more could be done, the patriarch John
+Kamateros fled from the sight of the awful scenes which disgraced the
+triumph of the Latins. The three Western bishops had strictly charged
+the crusaders to respect the churches and the persons of the clergy,
+the monks, and the nuns. They were talking to the winds. In the frantic
+excitement of victory all restraint was flung aside, and the warriors of
+the cross abandoned themselves with ferocious greed to their insatiable
+and filthy lewdness. With disgusting gestures and in shameless attire an
+abandoned woman screamed out a drunken song from the patriarchal chair
+in the church of Sancta Sophia, the magnificent work of Justinian.
+Wretches blind with fury drained off draughts of wine from the vessels
+of the altar: the table of oblation, famed for its exquisite and costly
+workmanship, was shattered: the splendid pulpit with its silver ornaments
+utterly defaced. Mules and horses were driven into the churches to bear
+away the sacred treasures; if they fell, they were lashed and goaded till
+their blood streamed upon the pavement. While the savages were employed
+on these appropriate tasks, the more devout were busy in ransacking
+the receptacles of holy relics, and laying up a goodly store of
+wonder-working bones or teeth to be carried away to the churches of the
+great cities on the Rhine, the Loire, or the Seine. ‘How,’ asks the pope,
+‘shall the Greek Church return to ecclesiastical unity and to respect for
+the Apostolic See, when they have seen in the Latins only examples of
+wickedness and works of darkness, for which they might justly loathe them
+worse than dogs?’ The question might well be asked: and we may be well
+assured that Innocent would not be likely to over-colour the picture in
+favour of the Greeks, and that his informers would not care to put before
+him in their naked hideousness iniquities which it would be a sin to
+describe.
+
+[Sidenote: Election of Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor of the East.]
+
+The first task of the conquerors was to elect a chief and share the
+spoil. The committee of twelve met in the chapel of the palace and
+invoked the aid of the Holy Spirit. The six French electors were all
+ecclesiastics,—the abbot of Loces, the bishops of Troyes, Soissons,
+Halberstadt, and Bethlehem, and the archbishop-elect of Acre. Their first
+choice fell on Dandolo. His wisdom, his energy, his undaunted courage,
+seemed to point him out as the best man fitted to rule the empire in the
+winning of which he had played the chief part. But the old man cared
+little for the office, and to the Venetians the combination of the powers
+of emperor and doge in the same person probably boded ill for the best
+interests of the commercial republic. There remained only two who could
+well be placed in competition for the prize. The marquis of Montferrat,
+the lord of a petty principality at the foot of the Alps, could be no
+object of Venetian jealousy, while his age and character well qualified
+him for the office. But Baldwin of Flanders, at the age of thirty-two,
+was in the first flush of vigorous manhood; he was come of the race of
+Charles the Great, and the French king was his cousin. He was also the
+feudal sovereign of a wealthy territory and the leader of a powerful army
+raised among his own people. The electors came to an unanimous decision,
+and this decision announced to the barons, who were waiting outside, that
+the count of Flanders was the Eastern Cæsar. Boniface of Montferrat at
+once did homage to him as his lord; and the old doge was the only man not
+called upon to make this act of submission. Borne on the shields of his
+comrades Baldwin was carried to the church of Sancta Sophia and there was
+invested with the purple buskins. Three weeks later he was crowned by the
+papal legate, the new patriarch not having been yet elected.
+
+[Sidenote: Election of Thomas Morosini as patriarch of Constantinople.]
+
+This election was to the Venetians a subject of greater anxiety than
+the choice of a temporal sovereign. There was no room here for the fear
+that Venice might become an insignificant dependency of a vast empire;
+and they set to work with their usual promptitude and coolness. The
+canonical regularity of the election was, as they supposed, ensured by
+the appointment of Venetian priests to be canons of Sancta Sophia; and
+these canons were placed under oath to elect none but a Venetian. Their
+choice fell on Thomas Morosini, a member of one of their noblest houses
+and a man highly esteemed by Innocent III.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassies from Baldwin and the Venetians to the pope.]
+
+The Roman pontiff played his part with consummate skill. While the
+usurping Alexios was on the throne, he had striven to secure through
+his help the submission of the Eastern church. No sooner had he fled,
+than Innocent reminded his nephew Alexios of the promises of obedience
+which he had personally made, and urged the crusaders to insist on
+the immediate fulfilment of this promise. In no other way could they
+justify themselves for diverting to other purposes the forces which had
+been enrolled solely for the redemption of the Holy Land. He had now to
+deal with a new order of things. The emperor Baldwin had prayed him to
+ratify the compact made with the Venetians, to stir up afresh the zeal
+of Western Europe for the maintenance of the Latin empire in the East,
+to send forth new armies who in the countries now brought under Latin
+sway would assuredly reap an abundant harvest, and to reinforce the
+Latin clergy by a multitude of new recruits. The Venetians had besought
+his forgiveness for attacking Zara, his sanction of the conquest of
+Constantinople. They could not bring themselves to believe that the
+people of Zara were really under his protection, and hence they had
+determined to bear with the excommunication in patient silence until the
+pontiff should learn the truth. For what they had done at Byzantium the
+young Alexios was chargeable, not they. He had tried to send fire-ships
+among their fleet, and it was indispensable for their own safety and that
+of their allies to deprive him of the power of doing further mischief.
+
+[Sidenote: Answers of Innocent III.]
+
+The satisfaction which Innocent felt, and avowed that he felt, was
+expressed in carefully guarded terms. He was rejoiced to be able to
+revoke the excommunication of the Venetians, and so high was his
+admiration of the valour and wisdom of Dandolo that he could not comply
+with the prayer of the venerable doge to be relieved from further
+obligation under his vow. The hero who could bear so lightly the burden
+of ninety winters must not deprive the crusade of services which would
+ensure success to the enterprise and a glorious reward for himself.
+To the delicate praise which thus took the form of a command he added
+the assurance that he had taken the Latin empire under his special
+protection, and had prayed the sovereigns and prelates of the West to
+exert themselves to the utmost in its behalf. He had felt himself bound
+to pass a stern condemnation on the deeds of horrible violence and
+lewdness committed by the crusaders in the sacking of a Christian city;
+but he could not withhold the admission that the history of the conquest
+was a memorable commentary on the parables of the talents and the
+vineyard. The Greeks had done nothing with the good things committed to
+their trust: far from aiding, they had seriously hindered, the warriors
+of the cross and even done their best to destroy them. They had kept up
+a causeless schism; they had turned a deaf ear to all entreaties which
+called upon them to come back to the unity of the Church; and they had
+now paid the penalty by seeing their inheritance in the hands of better
+husbandmen who would bring forth fruit in due season. But if Innocent
+was thus complaisant with the secular empire, he laid a heavy hand on
+the spiritual power which the Venetians hoped to secure as their special
+portion. The pope had a stern censure for the conduct both of the
+Venetians and the French in daring to seize on the temporalities of the
+Eastern church and to portion out along with other lands and property
+all that might remain over and above the amount deemed sufficient for
+the maintenance of the Latin clergy. Nor could he allow the validity of
+Morosini’s election, whether by a self-constituted chapter or by priests
+chosen by a purely secular authority. The election, in short, was null
+and void; but so great was his regard for the Venetians, so high his
+esteem for Morosini, that he would himself appoint to the Byzantine
+patriarchate the man whom they had chosen, and invest him with singular
+privileges. These privileges involved a reservation of certain appeals to
+the pope; and the very plenitude of the powers thus bestowed served only
+to show with the greater clearness the paramount sovereignty of the Roman
+pontiff to whom he owed his dignity and his jurisdiction.
+
+[Sidenote: Results of the crusades to the pope and to the Venetians.]
+
+The great crusade promoted by Innocent had thus produced results very
+different from those which he had looked for. It had not touched the
+power of the Syrian sultans; it had not struck a blow on the soil of
+Palestine. But on the whole he had no cause to complain. It had widely
+extended the limits of his supremacy, and had subdued a spiritual
+rebellion which had rent asunder the seamless robe of Christ. But if the
+pope was a gainer, Venice had secured to herself advantages, more solid
+perhaps, certainly more enduring. By the conquest of Zara she had laid
+the foundations of her vast commercial empire; and her factories at Pera
+needed only the defence of her fleets, while the Latins in Byzantium had
+to guard themselves against attacks by land. She had her settlements in
+the richest islands of the Egean, and in every harbour was seen the flag
+of the maritime republic. This growth of her commerce was, moreover,
+fostering in her a spirit of antagonism to ecclesiastical authority, of
+which Innocent seems to have foreseen the issue, and which he sought with
+all his power to crush. The abbot of St. Felix in Venice was consecrated,
+by the command of Ziani, the successor of Henry Dandolo, to the
+archbishopric of Zara, the sanction of the pope not being first asked.
+The wrath of Innocent blazed forth at once. He reviewed in the harshest
+terms the general policy of the Venetians in the conduct of the crusade.
+It was true that they had taken Zara, and even that they had overthrown
+the Byzantine empire: but what would not an army, which had won such
+victories, have achieved in the Holy Land? Had the crusaders fulfilled
+their vows, not only must Egypt have been subdued, and the cross replaced
+on the dome of Omar, but Syria itself must have been swept clear of all
+Saracen dominion. That this glorious result had not been brought about
+already, was the fault of the Venetians and of them alone. He could not
+therefore recognize their archbishop, and he insisted on their submission
+under pain of the censures which were ready to fall upon them. There is
+no evidence to show that the Venetians took the reproof to heart, or that
+they vouchsafed any reply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE LATIN EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Contrast between the Greeks and the Latins.]
+
+We have already (p. 55) marked the broad contrast between the character
+of the Greeks and that of the Latin and Teutonic nations of Western
+Europe; between the centralized and legal government of the one and the
+feudalism of the other; between the restlessness and ambition which in
+the West ran out into constant private war, and the habit of almost
+unreflecting obedience which had left the subjects of the Eastern Cæsars
+unable to cope with rougher and ruder spirits except with the weapons
+supplied by cunning, fraud, and treachery. The crusaders had come to
+a people which to a large extent might be described as in a state of
+decrepitude, but to a land nevertheless which was not less Christian
+than Italy or France, nay, which boasted churches of an antiquity more
+venerable than those of Milan, Ravenna, and Rome itself,—to a land ruled
+by a system of law which has affected the legislation of every nation
+in Europe,—to a land where Antony and Basil had reared the fabric of
+monachism long before the days of the Nursian Benedict or the Scottish
+Columba,—to a land where the ritual of the Church had taken root while
+Christianity was in its cradle, and had moulded the life, the thoughts,
+the very being of all its members.
+
+[Sidenote: Attempt to upset the civilization of the old empire.]
+
+This time-honoured civilization the Western champions of the cross now
+fancied that they could crush or sweep away. Not one of them cared to
+think that he was dealing with Christians or with the subjects of the
+ancient empire of Octavius or of Constantine. For them the land, not
+less than Syria and Egypt, was a part of heathendom; the people savages
+to be brought under a yoke as heavy as that of the Western serfs; their
+patriarchs, their bishops, their priests, and their monks were ministers
+of a false faith beyond the pale of charity or mercy. Wiser conquerors
+might have mingled with the people, and through intermarriage might have
+infused new vigour into the feeble mass. By Baldwin and his allies a
+rigid line was drawn separating the present from the past. All dignities,
+offices, and lands were forfeited; all were shared exclusively among
+the conquerors. If they were still under an emperor, this emperor was
+not the autocrat who represented the majesty of Rome, but a mere feudal
+chief whose barons, although owing him homage, regarded themselves as
+practically his peers. In short, Baldwin and his comrades held that
+they might do at Constantinople what Godfrey and his allies had done in
+Palestine. The code of Justinian gave place to the Assize of Jerusalem
+(p. 78), and not a single Greek was permitted to take part in the
+administration of this law.
+
+[Sidenote: Conduct of the pope towards the Greek clergy.]
+
+As it was with the secular order of things, so was it with the spiritual.
+The pope annulled without scruple the election of Morosini by self-chosen
+or state-appointed canons: but he did so only because his own authority
+was imperilled, not at all because they were invading the jurisdiction
+of a patriarch whose throne was as ancient as that of Innocent himself.
+Just as though they had been mere priests of Baal or Mahomedan Imams,
+the Greek clergy were all driven from their churches (p. 163), and
+the people compelled to abandon their venerable liturgy for that of
+the Church of Rome. The emperor besought the pope to send out bands
+of priests as though for the conversion of a heathen country, and to
+furnish Dominican and Cistercian monks for the purposes of reforming
+the stereotyped monachism of the East. Innocent was indeed full of
+exultation. His letters everywhere called on the faithful to succour the
+devoted missionaries who were preaching the Gospel in the churches of
+Constantinople and bringing home to the people the enormity of the heresy
+which denied the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son as well as
+from the Father. ‘Samaria,’ he said, ‘had now returned to Jerusalem; God
+had transferred the empire of the Greeks from the proud to the lowly,
+from the superstitious to the religious, from the schismatics to the
+Catholics, from the disobedient to the devoted servants of God.’ He was
+impressed with the needfulness of sending young men from the schools
+of Paris to strengthen themselves by the learning of the East: Philip
+Augustus summoned young Greeks to Paris to receive instruction in the
+creed and ritual of the West. Both were playing with edged tools. The
+pope and the king were both encouraging that intercourse of thought which
+was in the end to scatter to the winds the theory of the divine right of
+temporal despots and the infallibility of spiritual rulers.
+
+[Sidenote: Opposition of the French clergy to the new patriarch.]
+
+The order of things so set up lasted a little longer than the Latin
+principality of Edessa (p. 59). It was essentially the piece of new cloth
+patched into the old garment, the new wine poured into old leathern
+bottles only to burst them. In its relation to the conquered race it had
+no more stability than the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem (p. 111); and in
+itself gave play to all the jealousies and quarrels which disgraced the
+feudal states of Western Europe. The strife began before the landing
+of Morosini. While yet at Rome, he had been warned by the pope to have
+nothing to do with the schemes of Venetian statesmen, and to show no
+preference in his new home for men of Venetian birth. In Venice he was
+compelled to abjure this promise, to swear that Venetians alone should be
+canons of Sancta Sophia, and that, so far as his power might extend, he
+would strive to secure to a Venetian the succession to his patriarchate.
+Nothing more would be needed beyond the rumours of these intrigues to
+rouse the suspicions of the French clergy; and accordingly, when Morosini
+approached the shore, not one obeyed his summons. To the Greeks the sleek
+and beardless prelate and his coarse-looking and beardless priests were
+alike repulsive. Morosini was left almost alone. He threatened with
+excommunication the clergy who would not admit his authority; his menaces
+were treated with indifference or contempt.
+
+[Sidenote: Partition of the empire among the crusading chiefs.]
+
+The conquerors had indeed won for themselves a domain almost appalling
+in its extent; and the sharing of the prize was soon followed by the
+quarrelling of robbers over their booty. Not three months after the fall
+of Constantinople the emperor led his forces against his vassal Boniface
+of Montferrat, now the lord of Thessalonica: and the quarrel which was
+for the time made up was a significant token of the future history of
+his empire. The time was come for carrying out the compact made before
+the conquest. The aged Dandolo became despot of Romania, and in his new
+sovereignty he died, leaving to his countrymen the task of strengthening
+and extending their commercial empire by means of a chain of factories
+along the mainland and in the islands of the Adriatic and the
+Archipelago. The task was too costly even for the resources of Venice:
+and the commercial republic was constrained to govern her possessions by
+that feudal system to which her constitution was utterly opposed. For
+Boniface, the chivalrous rival of Baldwin, the lordship of Crete had
+less attractions than the kingdom of the Macedonian Thessalonica: but
+his wanderings did not end here. Thebes, Athens, Argos, received his
+followers within their gates; and the resistance of Corinth and Napoli
+was speedily overpowered. The count of Blois received the dukedom of
+Nicæa (Nikaia, Nice), the count of St. Pol the lordship of Demetria, a
+city about twenty miles to the south of Adrianople, while Geoffrey of
+Villehardouin, now marshal of Romania as well as of Champagne, found a
+splendid home on the banks of the Hebros.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1204. Rise of new empires at Nice, Trebizond, and
+Durazzo.]
+
+But the power of the old Byzantine Cæsars was rather divided than
+crushed by the Latin crusaders. The wretched Mourzoufle, caught by the
+Latins, was hurled from the Theodosian column; but Theodore Lascaris,
+the son-in-law of the Alexios who dethroned Isaac Angelus, established
+himself at Nicæa first as despot then as emperor, and in no long time had
+extended his power from the Bosporos to the banks of the Meander. Other
+parts of the empire were likewise in revolt against the new Cæsars. The
+governors of Trebizond, without changing their titles at first, became
+sovereigns of their province, and laid the foundations of their later
+empire. A power not less formidable sprung up in Epirus (Epeiros) and had
+its centre within the walls of that city of Durazzo which is especially
+associated with the history of Bohemond. The conquerors were now to feel
+the effects of feudal subordination, which was only another name for real
+anarchy. The terror which they had inspired when their combined forces
+assailed the walls of Constantinople was rapidly lessened when their
+dispersal betrayed their scanty powers of cohesion, and when encounters
+in the field proved to be not always irresistible.
+
+[Sidenote: Massacre of the Latins in Thrace by order of the Bulgarian
+Calo-John.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1205. April. Captivity of the emperor Baldwin.]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Baldwin.]
+
+The storm burst on the Latins from a quarter in which they had not looked
+for it. The chief of the Bulgarians, John or Calo-John, had at first
+greeted Baldwin with the freedom of an equal as well as the heartiness of
+a friend; but the retort that in the count of Flanders he must recognize
+his emperor roused a resentment which led him to make common cause with
+the insurgent Greeks. Waiting until Baldwin’s brother Henry had with a
+large force crossed the Hellespont, he gave the signal for slaughter, and
+the Latins were forthwith cut down in the towns and villages of Thrace.
+Baldwin at once sent a messenger to recall his brother; but before he
+could return, he set out with 140 knights and their retinues, followed
+by the aged Dandolo. The force was perilously small; but good order
+and discipline might have more than compensated this disadvantage. All
+desultory action was forbidden; the order was disregarded by the count
+of Blois who was himself surprised and slain, while the emperor Baldwin
+became a prisoner. The army was saved by the wisdom, fortitude, and
+heroism of Villehardouin, whose masterly retreat is perhaps the only
+piece of true generalship in the whole military history of the crusades.
+But the empire was already little more than the shadow of its former
+self. A few fortresses on the shore of the Propontis now formed with the
+capital the imperial domain of the Latins. Calo-John was in the full tide
+of success. The pope, for whom he had but a little while ago professed a
+deep devotion, entreated him to have mercy on his enemies and to release
+the emperor. This last request was, he said, beyond mortal power to
+grant. Baldwin had already died in prison. How, no one ever knew. Stories
+grew up which told of horrible barbarities practised on the defenceless
+captive; and the common belief that great men cannot die brought forward
+twenty years later in Flanders a man who gave himself out as the true
+sovereign of the country, and won from thousands a faith not to be
+shaken by the discovery of his imposture and the ignominious death which
+followed it.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry, (brother of Baldwin,) emperor of Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1205.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1207.]
+
+The career of Alexander the Great and of Baldwin was cut short at the
+same early age. The reign of Baldwin’s younger brother Henry was extended
+over ten years, and closed when he was forty-four years old. It began in
+darkness and gloom, it was followed by a time of overwhelming disasters:
+but in itself it is the only period in the history of the Latin empire on
+which our thoughts may rest with anything approaching to satisfaction.
+Twelve months had passed while he acted as regent for his brother before
+he could be brought to believe that Baldwin no longer lived, and to
+assume the imperial title. Dandolo had already ended his long life at
+Constantinople. Boniface of Montferrat was soon to follow him, after his
+disputes with the emperor on points of homage had been settled by the
+marriage of Henry to his daughter Agnes. Boniface died in a war with
+Calo-John; and with him his friend Geoffrey of Villehardouin disappears
+from history.
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of Calo-John.]
+
+[Sidenote: Wise government of the emperor Henry.]
+
+But the tide was now to turn against the Bulgarian chief. The Greeks, who
+had looked to Calo-John as to one who would restore to them their freedom
+and their laws, found that they were dealing with a savage whose mind
+ran on massacre and on those wholesale deportations of conquered tribes
+which have in all ages delighted the hearts of Eastern despots. The
+cruelties of the tyrant taught them that in the Latin emperor they might
+perhaps find a friend. At their prayer for help Henry took the field with
+a dangerously scanty force; and the retreat of Calo-John was probably
+caused less through fear of the Latin army than by the desertion of his
+Comans. Not long afterwards the Bulgarian chief was killed in his tent,
+while besieging Thessalonica. With his successor Vorylas Henry made an
+honourable peace; a treaty with the Greek sovereigns of Nice and Epirus
+(Epeiros) left to him undisturbed possession of an ample territory; and
+the rest of his life was spent in conscientious efforts for its just and
+orderly government. Clearly seeing the fatal folly of that exclusive
+system which was so dear to the hearts of crusaders generally, Henry
+resolved to govern Greeks through Greeks. The great offices of the state
+were thrown open to them, in great part filled by them. To the tyranny
+which repressed the use of the Eastern liturgy and thrust on the people a
+theological dogma he opposed a passive resistance: to the theory of papal
+supremacy he gave a significant answer by having his throne placed on the
+right hand of the patriarch’s chair in the church of Sancta Sophia. His
+presumption was rebuked by Innocent III.; but Henry was none the more
+deterred from prohibiting the alienation of fiefs which was adding only
+to the wealth and power of the clergy.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1207. Death of Henry.]
+
+[Sidenote: Peter of Courtenay emperor of Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1218. Captivity and death of Peter of Courtenay.]
+
+Henry died at Thessalonica; and with him the male line of the counts of
+Flanders came to an end. But the daughter of Henry’s sister Yolande was
+married to Andrew, king of Hungary; and to the Latins it seemed that the
+choice of a powerful sovereign as their emperor might be the salvation
+of their dynasty. The prize had no attractions for Andrew: and the offer
+of the crown was in a fatal hour accepted by Peter of Courtenay, count
+of Auxerre, the husband of Yolande herself, who had won his spurs in a
+crusade, not against Turks and Saracens, but against the Albigensian
+heretics of Provence. To raise a decent force which might guard him on
+the march to his capital Peter was compelled to sell or mortgage the best
+part of his territories; and when he reached Rome, the pope, Honorius
+III., careful to avoid anything which might seem to recognize his
+authority over the old imperial city, crowned him in a church without the
+walls. The means of transport across the sea he had been obliged to seek
+from the Venetians. They were granted, but under conditions similar to
+those which had been imposed on Baldwin and his allies. He must recover
+Durazzo for the republic, as for her they had conquered Zara. His success
+was not greater than that of Bohemond, and his miserable march from
+Durazzo led him into trackless mountains, amongst which he fell into the
+hands of his enemies. With him the papal legate became a captive.
+
+At once the pope threatened to place the Epirot sovereign under his ban;
+but it soon became evident that his anxiety was for the legate, not for
+the emperor. The former was released; the latter was probably murdered in
+prison; and the successor of Henry died without seeing the city of which
+he was the Cæsar.
+
+[Sidenote: Robert, emperor of Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1219.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1224.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1228.]
+
+While Peter of Courtenay pined in his dungeon, his wife Yolande, in the
+midst of her grief, anxiety, and apprehension, gave birth to Baldwin, the
+luckless child with whom the Latin dynasty was to reach its close. Death
+soon brought relief from her sorrows; and the barons had again before
+them the task of choosing an emperor. Namur, the inheritance of Yolande,
+had passed to her eldest son Philip, who was too prudent to change the
+substance of his principality for the shadow of an empire. The crown was
+offered to her second son Robert, who set out on his journey, by way of
+Germany and the Danube, through the territories of his brother-in-law,
+the king of Hungary. He was crowned by the patriarch in Justinian’s
+church; but the pageant preceded an endless line of disasters. Demetrius,
+the son and successor of the marquis Boniface, was expelled from his
+kingdom of Thessalonica: and the remains of Asiatic territory still in
+the hands of the Latins were seized by the Nicæan emperor, John Vataces,
+the son-in-law of Theodore Lascaris. Still more ominous was the fact
+that these conquests were achieved by the aid of French mercenaries. The
+house was indeed divided against itself; and the champions of the cross
+had learnt the art of turning their arms to profit in the service of the
+highest bidder or the most successful general. To disaster in the field
+was added vice, with its issue crime, in the palace: and Robert, in an
+agony of grief and rage at the mutilation of a woman for whom he had
+wished to thrust aside his wife, the daughter of Vataces, sought comfort
+and redress at the feet of the Roman pontiff. He was told to go back to
+his capital and there do his duty. The weight of his humiliation was a
+burden beyond his strength. Death relieved him from the duty of obedience
+to the papal order.
+
+[Sidenote: John of Brienne, emperor of Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1235. Siege of Constantinople by Vataces.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1237-1261. Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople.]
+
+[Sidenote: Efforts to raise money.]
+
+[Sidenote: Sale of relics.]
+
+Baldwin, the youngest son of Yolande, was a child only seven years old
+when Robert died; and the barons of the Latin empire felt that the
+imperial power, shadowy though it had become, could not yet be entrusted
+to his hands. They resolved to offer it in the mean season to John of
+Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem, by right of his wife Mary, daughter
+of Isabella (p. 144) and Conrad of Montferrat, and grand-daughter of king
+Almeric. This veteran warrior, now more than eighty years of age, whom
+in his earlier years we shall meet in the crusade of Frederick II., was
+induced to accept the title of emperor on condition that Baldwin should
+marry his second daughter and succeed him on the throne. But his energy
+was impaired, whether by age or by desire for rest. He did not reach
+Constantinople till 1231, two years after his election: and the Greek
+traditions are silent about the exploits which he is said by the Latins
+to have performed during a siege of the city by the forces of Vataces
+and the Bulgarian chief Azan. On his death began the ignominious reign
+of the second Baldwin, a reign of twenty-five years, most of which were
+spent in foreign lands for the purpose of exciting pity for his sorrows
+and raising alms to relieve his needs. His success was not equal to his
+importunities. If at the council of Lyons which excommunicated Frederick
+II. he was placed on the right hand of the pope, at Dover he was asked
+how he could presume without leave to enter an independent territory.
+In England he received 700 marks: at Rome the pontiff loaded him with
+indulgences and proclaimed a crusade in his favour. The sainted Louis
+of France was moved to tears of sympathy by the story of his wrongs:
+but his arms were directed to Egypt, not to Constantinople. Still, by
+alienating his marquisate of Namur and his lordship of Courtenay, he
+contrived to return to the East with an army of 30,000 men. But the next
+scene of his history exhibits him as the ally of the sultan of Iconium,
+on whom he bestowed his niece, and of the Comans, in whose pagan rites
+he did not hesitate to take part. His needs became more pressing, and he
+bethought him of the sacred relics which still remained in the churches
+of Constantinople. Of these the most precious was the crown of thorns
+which had circled the brow of the Redeemer, and for which he received
+from Louis IX. 10,000 marks of silver. At smaller prices he disposed
+of the baby linen used by the Virgin Mary in the cave of Bethlehem, the
+lance and sponge used in the Passion on Calvary, and the rod of Moses,
+all of which, with some others, were transferred to the exquisite chapel
+in Paris which still attests the munificence and perfect taste of the
+sainted king of France.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1255. Death of Vataces.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1259. The envoys of Baldwin repelled by Michael
+Paleologos.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1261. July. Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks.]
+
+Meanwhile the power of Vataces was being extended on every side: and
+only his submission to the Roman doctrine respecting the procession of
+the Holy Spirit was needed to secure a papal declaration in his favour.
+That submission was not made; and his death brought a respite to the
+Latin emperor. But when Baldwin sent his envoys to see what territorial
+concessions could be obtained from Michael Paleologos, the colleague
+and guardian of John, the grandson of Vataces, they were curtly told
+that he would yield them not a foot of land. By the payment of an
+annual tribute amounting to the whole sum received from the customs
+and excise of Constantinople the Latin Cæsar might secure peace: if he
+refused these terms, he must prepare for war. The great quarrel was soon
+decided. Michael had bestowed the title of Cæsar on his general Alexios
+Strategopoulos; and by his orders this general went to keep close watch
+on the capital, under the pledge that he would run no dangerous risks.
+He failed to keep his promise, and when with a scanty band of followers
+he clambered over the unguarded walls, he began to tremble at his own
+rashness. But his volunteers (for so they were termed) would listen to
+no arguments for retreat. The die was cast, and the result was victory.
+The Greeks rose on all hands at the cry which called them to the rescue
+of their ancient empire; the Genoese were not unwilling to take revenge
+upon their Venetian enemies; and the Latin emperor with his chief
+vassals, embarking on board the Venetian fleet, sailed first to Euboia
+and thence to Italy. The capital of the Eastern empire was freed from
+the presence and the yoke of its Western conquerors; but for thirteen
+years longer Baldwin bore about with him an empty title which won for him
+the commiseration or the contempt of thousands who could not be brought
+to stir hand or foot in his service. His pretensions were maintained by
+his son Philip, and through his grand-daughter Catharine passed to her
+husband Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair of France.
+
+[Sidenote: Permanent alienation of the East from the West.]
+
+Next after, perhaps even before, the deliverance of the Holy Land and
+the restoration of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, the wish dearest to
+the heart of Innocent III. was the recovery of the Greek communion to
+the unity of the Church. He was also statesman enough to see that his
+wishes would best be realized by a closer union between the subjects of
+the Eastern and the Western empires. The death-blow to these hopes and
+yearnings was dealt by his own crusade. In itself, and in the events
+which followed it, not a single thing was lacking which could exaggerate
+suspicion into vehement jealousy, and intensify dislike into burning
+hatred. There was the merciless intolerance which regarded Christian
+patriarchs with their clergy and their laity as heathens because they
+questioned the supremacy of the pope and refused to add one word to one
+proposition in the Nicene creed. There was the cruelty which intruded
+strangers into the places of those who had taught and ministered to the
+people, and which suppressed a ritual hallowed by the associations of
+ages. There was the gross injustice which thrust Greeks out of every
+high, or responsible, or lucrative office, and which imposed on them a
+system of law utterly alien to their wishes, thoughts, and habits. There
+was the savage fury which had made the streets of the capital run with
+blood, and defiled its sanctuaries with blasphemy and massacre. Last, but
+perhaps not least, was the brutality which had shattered or committed to
+the flames all that was beautiful in art, costly in materials, exquisite
+in workmanship, precious from its rarity or the absolute impossibility of
+restoring it. The tombs of the emperors were burst open and rifled: the
+masterpieces of ancient sculptors were thrown down and shattered. In the
+Venetians alone the impulse to destroy was weaker than the temptation to
+theft, and the horses of Lysippos, borne across the sea to Venice, still
+stand above the gorgeous portals of the basilica of St. Mark. The Greeks
+were left with a bitter hatred of the laws, the customs, the government
+of Latin Christendom; and an impassable gulf remained yawning between the
+churches of the East and the West, which no efforts have thus far been
+able to close or to bridge over.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE SIXTH CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Chief features of the sixth crusade.]
+
+The infatuation by which in every instance the champions of the cross
+had nullified or thrown away the advantages gained by their victories
+was to be shown not less persistently in the sixth crusade. But the
+short-sighted obstinacy of the mass was to be brought out in more
+prominent relief by its contrast with the moderation and sagacity of
+the great sovereign whose name is especially associated with this
+enterprise. In the career of this remarkable man we have a picture in
+which we see running together or side by side the lines which belong to
+the old order of things with others which seem to belong exclusively to
+the modern civilization of Europe. The struggle between Frederick II. and
+Gregory II. anticipated in more than one of its features the struggle
+between Leo X. and Luther.
+
+[Sidenote: Depression of the Latins in Palestine.]
+
+The famine which Dandolo urged on the leaders of the fifth crusade (p.
+153) as a reason for delaying their voyage to Palestine till the spring
+which followed the conquest of Zara, pressed less heavily on the Latin
+Christians in the Holy Land than the destruction wrought by an earthquake
+which laid many cities in ruins and which was regarded as a presage of
+the last judgment. In spite of this belief much money and labour was
+spent in repairing the shattered walls of Acre; and amongst the captives
+impressed for the work was, it is said, the Persian poet Saadi.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1204. Truce between Saphadin and the Christians.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1206.]
+
+Both sides in fact were greatly weakened and depressed: and the tidings
+that Constantinople was in the hands of Boniface, Dandolo, and Baldwin
+carried with them for Saphadin a conclusive reason for concluding a peace
+of six years with the Christians. But before the six years had come to an
+end the death of Almeric and his wife had left to Mary, the daughter of
+Isabella and Conrad of Tyre, the titular sovereignty of Jerusalem. Unable
+to find on the spot a man of sufficient energy and ability to share
+with her the shadowy dignity, the barons invoked the aid of the French
+king, Philip Augustus, to find her a husband. His choice fell on John of
+Brienne, who promised to lead a powerful army to Palestine within two
+years. The prospect of this formidable increase to the strength of his
+enemies led Saphadin to propose a renewal of the peace, and to give as
+guarantees of his good faith any ten castles which they might choose to
+name. As we might expect, the approval of the Teutonic knights and the
+Hospitallers called forth the angry protests of the Templars and the
+clergy: and the decision was given for war.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1210. John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem.]
+
+Three hundred knights only accompanied John of Brienne when he set out
+for Palestine. In England the wretched John was defying the pope while
+the kingdom for his sake lay under the papal interdict; the French king
+was more anxious to turn that interdict to his own advantage than to
+face once more the perils of a distant enterprise; and for the time even
+Innocent III. felt that the chastisement of Christian heretics was a
+more pressing duty than the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre. Hence the
+marriage of John of Brienne to Mary, and their coronation as king and
+queen of Jerusalem, were soon followed by the sterner business of war.
+In his encounters with Saphadin his exploits may have equalled those of
+Tancred; but he was compelled to write and tell the pope that the Latin
+kingdom was attenuated to the shadow of a shade.
+
+[Sidenote: Zeal of Innocent III. in promoting a new crusade.]
+
+His entreaties roused in the pope the old crusading spirit. Innocent
+revoked the indulgences which had made the crusade against the Albigenses
+as attractive as the crusade against the Saracens; and in his encyclical
+letter he declared that the Moslem power was tottering and ready to
+vanish away. It had lasted 666 years, the mystic number which showed it
+to be the Beast of the Apocalypse. A little while ago he had written to
+the sultan of Aleppo to thank him for his moderation to the Christians
+and his respect for their religion. He now demanded of Saphadin the
+peaceable and immediate surrender of all Palestine, as a country from
+which he was deriving far more of annoyance than of profit.
+
+[Sidenote: Robert of Courcon.]
+
+The crusade which Innocent now wished to set in motion was preached in
+France by Robert of Courcon, an Englishman whom he had made his legate.
+This pupil of Fulk of Neuilly had inherited all his earnestness with
+some portion of his eloquence; nor, if the numbers whom he enrolled
+as pilgrims be taken as a test, was his success much less splendid.
+But in truth the barons and knights who engaged in these expeditions
+were getting tired of the zeal which invited the maimed, the halt, the
+blind, and the leper to take the kingdom of heaven by violence; and the
+same charge which had been heard in the days of Fulk was now urged with
+greater force against his disciple. Robert was convicted of diverting
+to other purposes money given solely for the recovery of the Holy Land;
+but he had a firm friend in Innocent who, in 1218, appointed him the
+colleague of Pelagius, bishop of Albano, in his legatine commission.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1215. Fourth council of Lateran.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1216.]
+
+[Sidenote: Crusade of Andrew, king of Hungary.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1217.]
+
+A few months sufficed after the council of Clermont to get together and
+send forth the armies of the first crusade: for these latter enterprises
+the time of preparation was extending to years. In his sermons preached
+before the fourth council of Lateran Innocent declared his intention
+of accompanying the champions of the cross to the scene of their
+exploits; and the troubadours in their songs extolled him as their
+firm and courageous guide. But another year had passed before the king
+of a people who had done what they could to bar the way of the first
+crusaders was prepared to set forth on his eastward journey. The ships
+of Venice conveyed Andrew, king of Hungary, first to Cyprus, and thence
+to Palestine, where an unsuccessful attack on a tower or castle on Mount
+Thabor seems to have disgusted him with the undertaking. He determined
+to return to Hungary, and he reached home with scant glory, but rich in
+relics gathered in Armenia and Greece.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1218. Siege of Damietta.]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Saphadin.]
+
+[Sidenote: Terms of peace offered by Coradin.]
+
+In the following year another force, which had been brought together
+at Cologne and on its way had done some work in Portugal by taking
+Alcazar from the Moors, joined the Templars and Teutonic knights who
+had fortified a post on mount Carmel. These warriors now inclined to
+the policy of Almeric I. which had aimed at attacking and recovering
+Palestine through Egypt. The siege of Damietta was begun; the castle was
+soon taken; and the Christians were still further aided by the disorders
+which in Egypt followed the death of Saphadin, and which drove his son,
+the Egyptian sultan Kameel, to take refuge in Arabia. In the crusaders’
+camp success, as usual, produced arrogance and sloth. Their strength
+was increased by the arrival of new bands from France under the counts
+of Nevers and la Marche, from England under William Longsword, earl
+of Salisbury, and from Italy under the bishop of Albano and Robert of
+Courcon. The latter landed only to be cut off by sickness; and while
+the other chiefs lay idle, Kameel was brought back to his throne by his
+brother the Syrian sultan Coradin. At length the siege was resumed with
+some vigour and good fortune: and Coradin, knowing the consequences
+which the fall of Damietta would bring with it, dismantled the walls
+of Jerusalem and then offered peace to the besiegers, pledging himself
+to rebuild the walls which he had just thrown down, and to surrender
+not only the piece of the true cross but the whole of Palestine, with
+the exceptions of the castles of Karac and Montreal for the purpose of
+protecting the pilgrims for Mecca.
+
+[Sidenote: Mad rejection of the terms by the crusaders.]
+
+[Sidenote: 1219. Nov. 5. Fall of Damietta.]
+
+All that the crusaders could even hope to accomplish was thus within
+their grasp. But the eagerness of king John of Brienne, with the Teutonic
+knights and the French, to seize the prize was for the Templars and
+Hospitallers, with the Italians and the papal legate, a sufficient reason
+for rejecting the proffers of the sultan with indignant contempt. Folly
+carried the day. Damietta was taken, and the Christians hurried in to
+plunder and to slay. The pillage was abundant enough; but in the work of
+slaughter pestilence had been beforehand with them. Three thousand only
+remained, it is said, of the 70,000 who were shut up in the city at the
+beginning of the siege, and to these plague-stricken wretches life was
+promised on condition that they should clear the streets and houses of
+the dead bodies of their kinsfolk.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1220. March of the Christians for Cairo.]
+
+[Sidenote: The old terms again rejected.]
+
+[Sidenote: Ruin of the crusaders.]
+
+The crusades had everything once more in their hands; but the winter was
+allowed to pass by without further action. When spring came round the
+legate, in opposition to the remonstrance of John of Brienne, insisted on
+attempting the conquest of Egypt. On their march to Cairo they received
+from the Sultan Kameel the same offers which they had rejected during
+the siege of Damietta; and they rejected them again. But the Nile was
+fast rising. The Egyptians opened the sluices; the camp of the crusaders
+was inundated; their tents and baggage swept away. It was now the turn
+of the legate to sue for peace, and he offered to surrender Damietta. In
+the Saracen camp it was no easy task for the Sultan Kameel to repress
+the stern indignation with which many of the chiefs demanded the utter
+destruction of the enemy. He urged the vast importance of doing nothing
+which should excite fresh crusades in Europe, while Syria was menaced and
+ravaged by Tartar invasions, and of recovering Damietta without a blow
+from a garrison strong enough to sustain a siege as long as that which
+had come to an end a few months ago.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1212.]
+
+[Sidenote: The popes and the emperors.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1200.]
+
+[Sidenote: Otho of Brunswick.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1214. Battle of Bouvines.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1216. Honorius III. pope.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1220.]
+
+[Sidenote: Nov. 22.]
+
+The triumph of the Egyptian sultan seemed to be complete; but he had now
+to encounter an enemy of a very different temper. At the age of eighteen
+Frederick, the son of the infamous Henry VI. and grandson of Frederick
+Barbarossa, had been summoned by the pope to assume the imperial crown
+which Otho of Brunswick, the son of Henry the Lion, was pronounced to
+have forfeited by his misdeeds. It was the old story. The strife between
+pope and anti-pope was but a reflection of the almost fiercer strife
+of rival emperors; and in this struggle the pope naturally inclined to
+that side from which the church was likely to reap the most advantage.
+Otho, the nephew of Richard Cœur de Lion, came of a house which had been
+generally loyal and faithful to the Roman pontiffs; his rival belonged
+to the Swabian house of Hohenstaufen, at whose hands the popes had
+experienced more of enmity than of friendship. The remembrance of the
+days of Frederick Barbarossa was vivid in the mind of Innocent III., to
+whom the two emperors appealed after their coronation. The deliberation
+was grave and long; but the issue was not doubtful. Otho’s rival Philip
+was ‘an obstinate persecutor of the Church’, and he was even then
+scheming to deprive the pontiff of his kingdom of Sicily. He must be put
+down before he could reach his full strength; and therefore the pope
+declared himself for Otho, himself devoted to the Church, by his mother’s
+side from the royal house of England, by his father from the duke of
+Saxony, all loyal sons of the Church. ‘Him, therefore, we proclaim king;
+him we summon to take on himself the imperial crown.’ Innocent, like the
+frogs in the fable, was only exchanging king Log for king Stork. The
+reign of Otho was a period of desperate strife and anarchy in Germany,
+of desperate struggles on his part to throw off the papal yoke. The pope
+turned his eye on the youthful Frederick, then basking in the sunshine
+of his Sicilian paradise and giving promise of the brilliant qualities
+of his nature which were afterwards to be sullied by darker lines of
+angry passion. In 1212 Frederick was chosen emperor at Frankfort. In
+1214 his victory at Bouvines shattered the power of Otho. The gratitude
+of Frederick for the favour of the pope had been shown by taking the
+crusader’s vow and pledging himself to lead an army for the recovery of
+the Holy Land. While his rival Otho lived, it was impossible for him to
+fulfil his promise. Two years before his death Innocent III. had passed
+away from the scene of proud dominion and unceasing toil, and the more
+moderate and kindly Honorius III. sat in his seat. In courteous language
+which might pass for that of friendship, the pope besought him to march
+to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre; but the dark shadows were already
+stealing across the clear sky. Without asking the sanction of the pope
+Frederick by a compact made with his vassals and prelates at the Diet of
+Frankfort procured the election of his son Henry to the crown of Germany.
+Honorius expressed his displeasure at a step which seemed designed
+to unite permanently the Sicilian kingdom with the empire. Frederick
+hastened to say that he had no such wish, and that Sicily should revert
+to the pope if he should die without lawful heirs. When, a little while
+later, he was crowned with his queen by the pope in the church of St.
+Peter’s, Frederick promised that part of his army should be ready for the
+crusade in March of the following year, while he himself would follow in
+August with the rest.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1221. Loss of Damietta.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1222. April.]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty of Ferentino.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1225. July. Treaty of San Germano.]
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick, king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem.]
+
+But Frederick had enough, and more than enough, to do in dealing with the
+turbulent barons of Apulia and in guarding against Saracen insurrection
+in Sicily. A fleet of forty ships was sent to no purpose: and the tidings
+of the loss of Damietta were construed as an expression of divine
+displeasure for his slackness. It was clear that only a vast army under a
+skilful general could turn the scale in favour of the Latin Christians of
+Palestine: but nothing was said of the besotted folly which had more than
+once flung aside all the advantages which could possibly be gained by the
+most successful crusade. Such an army could not, however, be got together
+in a month or in a year. The decision was postponed from a meeting at
+Veroli to a meeting at Verona which never took place. When next the pope
+and emperor met at Ferentino (March 1223), it was agreed that two years
+more should be spent in preparations, and that Frederick, now a widower,
+should marry Iolante, the daughter of the titular king of Jerusalem, and
+thus as his heir go forth to the maintenance of his own rights. King John
+of Brienne, who was present at the debate, started at once on a mission
+in which he hoped to achieve a success not unlike that of the hermit
+Peter, of Bernard, or Fulk of Neuilly. But the times were changed, and
+king John could only report to the pope the impossibility of moving at
+the time named in the treaty of Ferentino. A new agreement was made at
+San Germano, postponing the departure of the army for two years longer.
+Four months later Frederick married Iolante, and proceeded at once to
+deprive his father-in-law of his shadowy royalty. John of Brienne, he
+insisted, was king only by right of his wife: by her death the title had
+passed to his daughter, and to him as her husband, and he, Frederick,
+was thus king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem. John was furious, but
+he could revenge himself only by accusations, whether true or false, of
+gross and habitual profligacy on the part of the young emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1227. Gregory IX. pope.]
+
+‘Never did pope love emperor as he loved his son Frederick.’ Such were
+the words of Honorius when he parted from him after his coronation at
+Rome. Before the close of his pontificate in 1227 the gentle pontiff had
+to address not a few stern remonstrances to his loving son. The real
+struggle was reserved for the papacy of the cardinal Ugolino, a kinsman
+of Innocent III., who assumed the triple crown at the age of eighty
+years. To an eloquence unrivalled in his own day, to a profound knowledge
+of the canon law and the decretals, Gregory IX. united the monastic
+severity of Gregory the Great and the inexorable will of Gregory VII.
+The sovereign with whom he had to deal was still a young man of only
+thirty-three, a young man with whose wishes and dreams, with whose tastes
+and accomplishments, Gregory had nothing whatever in common. Frederick
+had been born and bred in Sicily; and in the voluptuous splendours of
+that beautiful island, in the luxury of its sunshine, in the gorgeous
+profusion and glory of its vegetation, his youth passed in a passion
+of delight, fed by the charms of music, poetry, painting, and a rich
+literature which laid at his feet the treasures of ancient knowledge.
+From the lays of the troubadour and the company of noble knights and fair
+women, Frederick could turn to men learned in the lore of the East and in
+the philosophy of Alexandria and Athens. His life was far from faultless.
+With more truth it may be described as one of license which cast to the
+winds, at least for himself, the moral code of priests and monks, but
+a license to which all grossness and coarse rioting, all unrefined and
+boorish vices, were altogether abhorrent. Here in his southern paradise
+Frederick could say, with a freedom horrifying to the sacerdotal spirit
+of the age, that if God had seen his beautiful home he would never have
+chosen the barren land of Judæa for the abode of his own people. Here
+too he was subjected to influences which were likely to cultivate a
+temper far more disliked and dreaded by popes and their followers than
+irreverence or even blasphemous profanity. Around him were gathered
+populations brought from many lands, all softened by the genial and
+delicious climate. The Norman had here laid aside some of his northern
+roughness, and become an apt disciple of the gay science in which
+Frederick had won a foremost place. Even the Germans were toned down
+to something like decency of demeanour and language: and in contrast
+to these were numbers of Jews, who surpassed the Christians as much in
+refinement and learning as in their wealth, and of Saracens not less
+polished, not less cultivated, who delighted to call themselves subjects
+of Frederick and to submit themselves peaceably to his rule. Frederick
+was, in short, learning the dangerous lessons of toleration, and his eyes
+were being gradually opened to the perilous views which have become the
+orthodox creed of modern statesmen. As a ruler, he could survey without
+dislike the mingling of different religions, and see that an empire
+surpassing the wildest dreams of feudal grandeur could be achieved by
+the extension and freedom of a commerce spread over all portions of
+the earth. As a man of learning he could promote the cultivation of a
+philosophy which, whatever might be its merit, could not fail to set
+the mind working and accustom it to regard all questions as matters to
+be settled by reason and evidence, not by authority. A picture more
+repulsive to the mind of a man like Gregory IX. cannot well be imagined.
+The light-hearted enjoyment and the liberal government of the one were
+hopelessly opposed to the monastic gloom and ingrained despotism of the
+other.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1227. Excommunication of the emperor.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1228.]
+
+[Sidenote: Departure of Frederick from Brundusium.]
+
+Frederick may have been slow in fulfilling his promise: there is no
+evidence that he ever deliberately intended to break it. But he had no
+intention of wading through a sea of blood if he could obtain his ends
+without striking a blow. He had already had some friendly intercourse
+with the Egyptian sultan: and from these relations he was hereafter to
+reap good fruit. For the present they served only to excite the anger of
+Gregory, whose patience was exhausted when at length Frederick gathered
+his forces at Brundusium (Brindisi) only to see them decimated by fever,
+and when he himself, having set out with his fleet, was compelled to
+return after three days to the harbour of Otranto. On St. Michael’s day
+the pope excommunicated Frederick with bell, book, and candle. In his
+discourse to the Apulian bishops, the subjects of Frederick, he spoke
+of the tender care with which the Church had nursed him in his infancy
+and childhood in order that he might fight the serpents and basilisks
+whom she had unwittingly fostered in her bosom. She had borne him on
+her shoulders; she had rescued him from those who would have slain him;
+she had hoped to find in him a protecting staff and support. These
+hopes had been cheated. Frederick had purposely exposed his army at
+Brundusium to pestilence, and after pretending to set off on his voyage
+for Palestine had returned under a false plea of illness to the luxuries
+of the baths of Puteoli. On St. Martin’s day and again on Christmas day
+the excommunication was repeated with all its appalling ceremonies. The
+sentence was by the pope’s orders to lie published in all churches of his
+obedience. By one of the clergy of Paris, who professed to know merely
+the fact of the quarrel and nothing of the merits of the case, it was
+published as a sentence of condemnation against the one who might be in
+the wrong. ‘I excommunicate the aggressor, and I absolve the sufferer.’
+Frederick appealed not to the pope, but to the sovereigns of Christendom.
+His illness had been real, the accusations of the pope wanton and cruel.
+‘The Christian charity which should hold all things together is dried
+up at its source, in its stem, not in its branches. What had the pope
+done in England but stir up the barons against John, and then abandon
+them to death or ruin? The whole world paid tribute to his avarice. His
+legates were everywhere, gathering where they had not sown, and reaping
+where they had not strawed.’ But although he thus dealt in language as
+furious as that of the pope, the thought of breaking definitely with
+him and of casting aside his crusading vow as a worthless mockery never
+seems to have entered his mind. He undertook to bring his armies together
+again with all speed, and to set off on his expedition. His promise only
+brought him into fresh trouble with the pope, who in the Holy Week next
+following laid under interdict every place in which Frederick might
+happen to be. If this censure should be treated with contempt, his
+subjects were at once absolved from their allegiance. The emperor went
+on steadily with his preparations, and then went to Brundusium. He was
+met by papal messengers who strictly forbade him to leave Italy until he
+had offered satisfaction for his offences against the Church. In his turn
+Frederick, having sailed to Otranto, sent his own envoys to the pope to
+demand the removal of the interdict; and these, of course, were dismissed
+with contempt.
+
+[Sidenote: Landing of Frederick at Ptolemais.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1229. Feb. 13. Treaty between Frederick and the sultan
+Kameel.]
+
+In September the emperor landed at Ptolemais; but the emissaries of the
+pope had preceded him, and he found himself under the ban of the clergy
+and shunned by their partisans. The patriarch and the masters of the
+military orders were to see that none served under his polluted banners.
+The charge was given to willing servants: but Frederick found friends in
+the Teutonic knights under their grand-master Herman of Salza, as well as
+with the body of pilgrims generally. He determined to possess himself of
+Joppa, and summoned all the crusaders to his aid. The Templars refused to
+stir, if any orders were to be issued in his name; and Frederick agreed
+that they should run in the name of God and Christendom. But while the
+enemy was aided greatly by the divisions among the Christians, the death
+of the Damascene sultan Moadhin was of little use to Frederick. The
+Egyptian sultan Kameel was now in a position of greater independence, and
+his eagerness for an alliance with the emperor had rapidly cooled down.
+Frederick on his side still resolved to try the effect of negotiation.
+His demands extended at first, it is said, to the complete restoration of
+the Latin kingdom, and ended, if we are to believe Arabian chroniclers,
+in almost abject supplications. At length the treaty was signed. It
+surrendered to the emperor the whole of Jerusalem except the Temple or
+mosque of Omar, the keys of which were to be retained by the Saracens;
+but Christians under certain conditions might be allowed to enter it for
+the purpose of prayer. It further restored to the Christians the towns of
+Jaffa, Bethlehem, and Nazareth.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick at Jerusalem.]
+
+To Frederick the conclusion of this treaty was a reason for legitimate
+satisfaction. It enabled him to hasten back to his own dominions, where
+a papal army was ravaging Apulia and threatening Sicily. One task only
+remained for him in the East. He must pay his vows at the Holy Sepulchre.
+But here also the hand of the pope lay heavy upon him. Not merely
+Jerusalem but the Sepulchre itself passed under the interdict as he
+entered the gates of the city, and the infidel Moslem saw the churches
+closed and all worship suspended at the approach of the Christian
+emperor. On Sunday, in his imperial robes, and attended by a magnificent
+retinue, Frederick went to his coronation as king of Jerusalem in the
+church of the Sepulchre. Not a single ecclesiastic was there to take
+part in the ceremony. The archbishops of Capua and Palermo stood aloof,
+while Frederick, taking the crown from the high altar, placed it on his
+head. By his orders his friend Herman of Salza read an address in which
+the emperor acquitted the pope for his hard judgment of him and for his
+excommunication, and added that a real knowledge of the facts would have
+led him to speak not against him, but in his favour. He confessed his
+desire to put to shame the false friends of Christ, his accusers and
+slanderers, by the restoration of peace and unity, and to humble himself
+before God and before his Vicar upon earth.
+
+[Sidenote: Moderation of the emperor.]
+
+From the Saracens he won golden opinions. The kadi silenced a muezzin who
+had to proclaim the hour of prayer from a minaret near the house in which
+the emperor lodged, because he added to his call the question, ‘How is
+it possible that God had for his son Jesus the son of Mary?’ Frederick
+marked the silence of the crier when the hour of prayer came round. On
+learning the cause he rebuked the kadi for neglecting on his account
+his duty and his religion, and warned him that if he should visit him
+in his kingdom he would find no such ill-judged deference. He showed no
+dissatisfaction, it is said, with the inscription which declared that
+Saladin had purified the city from those who worshipped many gods, or any
+displeasure when the Mahomedans in his train fell on their knees at the
+times for prayer. His thoughts about the Christians were shown, it was
+supposed, when, seeing the windows of the Holy Chapel barred to keep out
+the birds which might defile it, he asked, ‘You may keep out the birds;
+but how will you keep out the swine?’
+
+[Sidenote: Condemnation of the treaty by Gregory IX.]
+
+In glowing terms Frederick wrote to the sovereigns of Europe, announcing
+the splendid success which he had achieved rather by the pen than by the
+sword. He scarcely knew what a rock of offence he had raised up amongst
+Christian and Moslem alike. By a few words on a sheet of parchment the
+Christian emperor had deprived his people of the hope of getting their
+sins forgiven by murdering unbelievers: by the same words the Moslem
+sultan had prevented his subjects from ensuring an entrance to the
+delights of paradise by the slaughter of the Nazarenes. From Gerold,
+patriarch of Jerusalem, a letter went to the pope, full of virulent abuse
+of the emperor as a traitor, an apostate, and a robber; but even before
+he received this letter Gregory had condemned what he chose to consider
+as a monstrous attempt to reconcile Christ and Belial, and to set up
+Mahomed as an object of worship in the temple of God. ‘The antagonist
+of the cross,’ he wrote, ‘the enemy of the faith and of all chastity,
+the wretch doomed to hell, is lifted up for adoration, by a perverse
+judgment, and by an intolerable insult to the Saviour, to the lasting
+disgrace of the Christian name and the contempt of all the martyrs who
+have laid down their lives to purify the Holy Land from the defilements
+of the Saracens.’
+
+[Sidenote: Return of the emperor with the crusaders to Europe.]
+
+[Sidenote: Renewed excommunication of the emperor.]
+
+But Frederick in his turn could be firm and unyielding. He returned from
+Jerusalem to Joppa, from Joppa to Ptolemais; and there learning that a
+proposal had been made to establish a new order of knights, he declared
+that no one should without his consent levy soldiers within his dominion.
+Summoning all the Christians within the city to the broad plain without
+the gates, he spoke his mind freely about the conduct of the patriarch
+and the Templars, with all who aided and abetted them, and insisted that
+all the pilgrims, having now paid their vows, should return at once to
+Europe. On this point he was inexorable. His archers took possession
+of the churches; two friars who denounced him from the pulpit were
+scourged through the streets; the patriarch was shut up in his palace;
+and the commands of the emperor were carried out. Frederick returned to
+Europe, to find that the pope had been stirring up Albert of Austria to
+rebel against him, and that the papal forces were in command of John of
+Brienne, who may have been the author of the false news of Frederick’s
+death, and who certainly proclaimed himself as the only emperor. To the
+pope Frederick sent his envoys, Herman of Salza at their head. They were
+dismissed with contempt; and their master was again placed under the
+greater excommunication with the Albigensians, the Poor Men of Lyons, the
+Arnoldists, and other heretics who in the eyes of the faithful were the
+worst enemies of the Christian church. Such was the reward of the man
+who had done more towards the re-establishment of the Latin kingdom in
+Palestine than had been done by the lion-hearted Richard, and who, it may
+fairly be said, had done it without shedding a drop of blood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SEVENTH CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans.]
+
+The number of the crusades might be largely extended if we gave the name
+to all the minor expeditions to the Holy Land in the intervals between
+the greater enterprises to which the term has been commonly applied. Yet
+the expedition led by Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans and
+brother of Henry III. of England, as being scarcely less remarkable than
+that of Frederick II., and for the same reason, may fairly be reckoned as
+the seventh of these extravagant and ill-starred enterprises.
+
+[Sidenote: Charges of peculation against the papal collectors.]
+
+Time had softened in some degree the spirit which had animated the first
+crusaders; but in the events which follow the return of Frederick we see
+something like an honest reaction against the diversion to other purposes
+of money contributed for the deliverance of Palestine. These diversions
+had become so frequent that the papal collectors regarded it as an
+annoyance or an insult if any refused to commute by money payments their
+engagements as crusaders.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1230. Opposition of the pope and the emperor to the new
+crusade.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1236-1239.]
+
+[Sidenote: Arrival of the French crusaders at Acre.]
+
+[Sidenote: Their complete failure.]
+
+The peace which the Egyptian sultan Kameel had made with Frederick was
+little more than a truce. It was to last for ten years; but even during
+that term the compact was kept with no rigid strictness perhaps on
+either side. Thousands of Christians were slain, it is said, on their
+passage from Acre to Jerusalem, and envoys were sent to Gregory IX. and
+to Frederick, with whom he had been reconciled at Anagni, to entreat the
+equipment of another crusade. The crusade was enjoined, accordingly, but,
+as it seemed, with little sincerity; and when the French barons, headed
+by Theobald, count of Champagne and king of Navarre, and Hugh, duke of
+Burgundy, met in council at Lyons, they were commanded by the papal
+legate to adjourn their discussions and to return home. The request was
+peremptorily refused; but when their plans seemed to be in all respects
+matured, the ambassadors of Frederick himself besought them to wait until
+he could give them effectual help. Even to this appeal they turned a
+deaf ear: and although Frederick charged his officers to withhold all aid
+from the crusaders, these barons still insisted on carrying out their
+design and found their way to Acre. Before they reached it, Kameel had
+seized Jerusalem and dismantled the tower of David; and the crusaders had
+before them a task not less arduous than that which Godfrey of Bouillon
+and his followers had to encounter. Their failure was complete; it can
+scarcely be said that they even attempted to grapple with it.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1240. The English crusade.]
+
+[Sidenote: Treaty between Richard of Cornwall and the Egyptian sultan.]
+
+The English crusade which under Richard of Cornwall and William Longsword
+(son of the earl of Salisbury, but not earl of Salisbury himself)
+embarked at Dover for France, and having journeyed across France set
+sail from Marseilles in spite of a papal prohibition, was followed by
+results far more solid. On reaching Acre, they found the affairs both of
+Christians and Moslems in a state of strange confusion through treaties
+which neither side was able strictly to carry out. But the quarrel
+which had broken out afresh between the sultans of Egypt and Damascus
+told greatly in their favor. The march of Richard to Jaffa led to
+negotiations, and by the treaty which followed them the Egyptian sultan
+granted him terms even more favourable than those which had been conceded
+to Frederick II.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1242. Invasion of the Korasmians.]
+
+[Sidenote: Alliance of the Templars and the Syrians.]
+
+Palestine was once more virtually in the hands of the Christians, and
+in their hands it virtually remained, until, two years later, the Latin
+kingdom was again swept away by a foe more merciless than any which the
+crusaders had yet encountered. The brutal hordes, which Genghis Khan
+had set in motion from the remote wilds of Tartary, drove out from
+the Korasmian territories myriads of myriads scarcely less brutal than
+themselves. The fugitive Korasmians burst into Palestine. Jerusalem was
+deserted by its garrison, and the savages hastened to glut themselves
+with blood. The living were cut down, the dead torn from their graves,
+and thousands of pilgrims, decoyed back to the city by the display
+of crusading banners from the walls, furnished fresh victims for the
+awful sacrifice. In this desperate strait the Templars made common
+cause with the Syrians. A battle was fought in which the grand-masters
+of the Templars and Hospitallers were slain, the only survivors being
+thirty-three Templars, sixteen Hospitallers, and three Teutonic knights.
+The Korasmians were for the present in league with the Egyptian
+sovereign; but this harmony was soon followed by enmity. The Korasmians
+were defeated and scattered, and the tempest of barbarian invasion came
+to an end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE EIGHTH CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1245. Council of Lyons.]
+
+The havoc wrought by the Korasmian inroad was alleged by pope Innocent
+IV. as a reason for sending forth another crusade. In a council held
+at Lyons, the bishop of Berytos dwelt on the miserable state of the
+Christians in the Holy Land, and it was resolved that another effort
+should be made for its deliverance. Honorius wrote to Henry III. of
+England to impress upon him the duty of taking up the cross like his
+lion-hearted predecessor; but Henry had in Simon of Montfort, earl of
+Leicester, a more pressing antagonist than Egyptian sultans or Korasmian
+savages. The pope found fuel more easily kindled in the heart of Louis
+IX., king of France.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1226. Louis IX., king of France.]
+
+This saint, the very type of royal monks and devotees, was ten years old
+when on the death of his father Louis VIII. he succeeded to the throne.
+By his mother, Blanche of Castile, the regent of the kingdom, the child
+was brought up with a strictness to which he answered with unbounded
+docility. In his early youth the beauty of some fair maidens drew from
+him a glance expressive of some admiration: his mother told him that she
+would rather see him dead than that he should entertain even a sinful
+thought. His own will would have led him to assume the obligations of
+the cloister; but the interests of the state demanded his marriage,
+and his wife, Margaret of Provence, passed with her husband under the
+rigid discipline of the queen-mother. His severity to himself grew with
+his years. At night he would rise from his bed and pace his chamber in
+the coldest season. A shift of the coarsest haircloth worn next to his
+skin furnished a desirable torture. Fruit he tasted only once in the
+year. On Fridays he never changed his dress, and never laughed. The iron
+chain scourges which he carried at his waist in an ivory case drew blood
+from his shoulders once every week of the year and thrice in every week
+during Lent. He would walk for miles to distant churches wearing shoes
+without soles. He would scarcely content himself with two, three, and
+even four masses a day; and if he made a journey, his chaplain recited
+the offices on the road. Even monks tried to check an asceticism almost
+exceeding that which was demanded by the rules of Benedict, Dominic, or
+Francis; the king asked whether he would have incurred the same rebuke
+had he spent twice as much time in hawking and dicing. No reproach, no
+sarcasm, no insult, could disturb the serenity of his humble soul. ‘You
+are not a king of France,’ exclaimed a woman who was pleading her cause
+before him; ‘you are a king only of priests and monks. It is a pity that
+you are king of France. You ought to be turned out.’ ‘You speak truly,’
+answered Louis. ‘It has pleased God to make me king: it had been well
+had He chosen some one better able to govern this kingdom rightly.’ The
+woman was sent away with a gift of money: and money was a thing on which
+the king set little store, and which he seldom needed except for the
+purchase of relics. Here his avarice was unbounded; and we have seen him
+paying the enormous sum of 10,000 silver marks for the ‘genuine crown
+of thorns’ preserved in the church of Sancta Sophia (p. 173). To such a
+man absolute obedience and implicit trust not only in God but in every
+article or proposition set forth as forming part of the Christian faith
+were the first, the most indispensable of all virtues. Not one point in
+all the theology of the Church was to be called into question; there was
+not one which was not to be received as absolutely true. ‘Do you know the
+name of your father?’ he asked his seneschal, the lord of Joinville, who
+accompanied him to Palestine, and whose inimitable memoirs bring the man
+and his age before us in living reality. ‘Yes,’ answered the seneschal;
+‘his name was Simon.’ ‘How do you know that?’ again asked Louis. ‘Because
+my mother has told me so many times.’ ‘Then,’ answered the king, ‘you
+ought perfectly to believe the articles of the faith which the apostles
+of our Lord have testified to you, as you have heard the Credo chanted
+every Sunday.’ For questioning and argument his system had no place.
+Under no circumstances could there ever be need of any. He related to
+Joinville with hearty approval the conduct of a knight, who, during a
+disputation between some Jews and the monks of the abbey of Clugny, asked
+leave of the abbot to say a few words. With some difficulty his request
+was granted. Raising himself on his crutches, the old warrior beckoned
+the rabbi to draw near, and then put to him one question. ‘Do you believe
+in the Virgin Mary, who bore our Saviour Jesus Christ, and that she was
+a virgin when she was the mother of God?’ The Jew answered promptly that
+he believed not one word of it. ‘Fool that thou art,’ replied the knight,
+‘for daring to enter a Christian monastery when thou disbelievest these
+things. For this madness thou shalt now pay.’ Lifting up his crutch,
+he struck the man a blow on the ear which smote him to the ground. His
+comrades fled away from the scene of controversy, while the abbot came
+forward to reprove the knight for his folly. ‘Thou art the greater fool,’
+was the retort, ‘in permitting an assembly from which good Christians
+might by listening to their arguments have gone away unbelievers.’
+The king, Joinville tells us, clinched the moral of the story in the
+following words: ‘No one, however learned or perfect a theologian he
+may be, ought to dispute with Jews. The layman, whenever he hears the
+Christian faith impugned, should defend it with a sharp-edged sword which
+he should drive up to the hilt into the bodies of the unbelievers.’
+
+[Sidenote: Louis IX., the pope and the emperor.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1239.]
+
+We cannot really know the history of an age, if we do not really know
+some at least of the men who lived in it: and this fact gives in the
+case of Louis IX. an importance to details which we might be tempted
+to pass with a sigh, perhaps, or a smile. ‘Do you wash the feet of the
+poor on Holy Thursday?’ he asked the lord of Joinville. ‘Oh, fie!’ was
+the answer; ‘no, never will I wash the feet of such fellows.’ ‘It is
+ill said, indeed,’ answered the king, ‘for you should never hold in
+disdain what God did for our instruction; for He who is Lord and Master
+of the universe did on that day, Holy Thursday, wash the feet of all His
+apostles, telling them that He who was their Master had thus done, that
+they in like manner might do the same to each other. I therefore beg of
+you, out of love to Him first, and then from regard to me, that you will
+accustom yourself to do so.’ Another sermon, the gentleness of which
+makes us forget its tedious prosing, rebuked Joinville’s impetuosity
+in saying that he would rather have committed thirty deadly sins than
+be a leper. Louis was, in short, a man who would have loved all men,
+had he not been taught to believe that unbelief, heresy, or even doubt
+(honest doubt was for him, of course, a thing inconceivable), put the
+unbeliever or doubter beyond the pale of Christian charity. For Jews,
+then, or infidels he avowed the most burning hatred, although probably
+this hatred would have vanished like morning mist before the sight of Jew
+or infidel in dire distress or agony. But in spite of his bigotry and
+narrowness, his stern asceticism, his incessant sermonizing, there was in
+him a depth of sweetness and gentleness, a genuine goodness of heart and
+life, which won for him the love of thousands who made little attempt to
+follow his example. In an age infamous for its foulness of speech and the
+profanity of its oaths the purity of his language was never tarnished.
+In his quaint phrases Joinville says of him, ‘I never heard him, at any
+time, utter an indecent word nor make use of the devil’s name, which
+is now very commonly uttered by every one—a practice which, I firmly
+believe, far from being agreeable to God, is highly displeasing to Him.’
+Nay, more, these qualities were in him combined with a sound sense and
+a firmness of will which made him in all cases of right and duty hard as
+adamant, and effectually crushed the contempt which some might have been
+tempted to feel for his superstitions. He could bear rebuke patiently:
+but they who thought that they might take advantage of his devotion to
+encroach on his rights as king or even on the rights of his neighbours
+found themselves speedily undeceived. When Gregory IX., after his second
+and final rupture with Frederick II., deposed him from his imperial
+throne and offered the dignity to Louis’s brother Robert, the meek and
+gentle king replied to the pope in the following words:—Whence is this
+pride and daring of the pope, which thus disinherits a king who has no
+superior, nor even an equal, among Christians,—a king not convicted of
+the crimes laid to his charge? Even if these crimes were proved, no power
+could depose him but that of a general council. On his transgressions
+the judgment of his enemies is of no weight, and his deadliest enemy
+is the pope. To us he has not only thus far appeared guiltless, he has
+been a good neighbour: we see no cause for suspicion either of his
+worldly loyalty or of his Catholic faith. This we know, that he has
+fought valiantly for our Lord Jesus Christ both by sea and land. So much
+religion we have not found in the pope, who endeavoured to confound and
+wickedly supplant him in his absence, while he was engaged in the cause
+of God.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1245. Assumption of the cross by Louis IX.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1244. Dec. 10.]
+
+In this cause, as interpreted by the religion of the time, this guiltless
+but stout-hearted champion of justice and right was now to peril limb and
+life without a shade of fear and with as complete a lack of every quality
+needed in a general and leader of armies. A more thorough contrast to
+Frederick whom he thus valiantly defended it would be impossible to
+imagine. To him the learning, the grace, the refinement of heathen
+philosophers and poets, the music and the songs of all poets of all ages,
+were beyond expression horrible. Of an intercommunion of nations founded
+on commerce, learning, and art, he could have not the faintest notion.
+To the best of his power he would administer justice in his own land
+so long as he remained in it; when his duty as a champion of the cross
+called him elsewhere, he would leave it with fifty thousand men in his
+train, having formed no military plans, but under a profound conviction
+that God whom he sought to serve would fight his battles, and that, if
+it should not be so, the result would be due only to his own sins and
+sinfulness. To the remonstrances of his mother, who sought to dissuade
+him from the enterprise, his ear was utterly deaf. He was seized with
+illness: life seemed to be gone; an attendant, thinking that it had gone,
+drew a covering over his face. It was withdrawn by another, and the king
+was heard to say, ‘God has raised me from the dead: give me the cross.’
+The die was cast. Nine months later, he assumed the badge publicly in the
+parliament of Paris; and at Christmas in the same year he distributed to
+his courtiers his usual gift of a new robe to each. By his orders a red
+cross had been embroidered on these garments between the shoulders, and
+the nobles owned themselves fairly entrapped. They must accompany the
+king.
+
+[Sidenote: Departure of Louis from France.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1249.]
+
+Two years more were spent in preparations. On the 12th of June 1248 Louis
+received from the papal legate at the abbey of St. Denis his purse and
+pilgrim’s staff with the Oriflamme or sacred banner of the saint. At the
+end of August he sailed from France. Eight months were spent in Cyprus,
+where his people were fed in great part by the emperor Frederick. The
+kindness called forth a warm letter to the pope, pleading for the
+absolution of a man who had thus befriended the soldiers of the cross.
+His letter was treated with contempt. In the spring of the next year he
+sailed for Egypt; and as soon as his fleet was off Damietta, his envoys
+hastened to the sultan with alarming pictures of their master’s power,
+and with a summons for immediate submission. The sultan replied that
+his cause was just; that those who made war without just cause should
+perish; and that mighty armaments had often been destroyed by a handful
+of soldiers.
+
+[Sidenote: Capture of Damietta.]
+
+[Sidenote: June.]
+
+The campaign began with a signal success. The garrison of Damietta,
+struck with something like panic fear, fled at the sight of the fifty
+thousand crusaders landing in the pomp of military parade. The place was
+taken; but the people had hurried away to Cairo, having first set fire
+to that quarter of the city in which they had stored their merchandise
+and their most valuable property. This victory had its usual result
+on the crusaders. The tenor of Louis’s saintly life was unbroken; but
+within a stone’s throw of his tent his people were indulging in unbounded
+debauchery.
+
+[Sidenote: March of the army towards Cairo.]
+
+[Sidenote: Total defeat of the forces under the count of Artois.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1250. The king taken prisoner.]
+
+Later in the season an addition to their force was made by 200 English
+knights under William Longsword (p. 194) now bishop of Salisbury; and in
+November the army began its march towards Cairo. Their progress, never
+easy, owing to the assaults of the enemy, was effectually checked at
+the canal of Ashmoun. The causeways which they attempted to construct
+were destroyed, and their machines burnt with Greek fire. At length
+a Bedoween, for a large bribe, showed them a ford. The passage was
+effected, and the enemy fled before them on the other side. With good
+order and discipline the crusaders might now have achieved some solid
+success. But the count of Artois, brother of the king, could not wait
+to be joined by the main army. He must press on at once against the
+fugitives. In vain the grand-master of the Templars reminded him of the
+folly of trusting to a feeling of passing fear. The count deliberately
+imputed his advice to systematic treachery. ‘Do you suppose,’ replied
+the Templar with calm dignity, ‘that we have left our homes and our
+substance, and taken the religious habit in a strange land, only to
+betray the cause of God and to forfeit our salvation?’ The bishop of
+Salisbury offered his mediation: it was rejected with a biting insult.
+In thorough disorder the crusaders rushed into Mansourah; and seeing
+their condition at a glance the Mamelukes rushed upon their prey. A
+sufficient force was sent to cut off all communication between the men
+with the count of Artois and the main army under the king. Boiling water,
+stones, blazing wood, were hurled upon them from the houses. The count
+of Artois was killed before he could see the full effects of his folly;
+and his death was soon followed by that of William Longsword. The utter
+destruction of his force was prevented only by succour from the king who,
+feeble though he may have been as a general, showed in the hour of danger
+a dauntless and unselfish bravery. Both sides had suffered fearfully;
+but the king was cut off from Damietta, and sickness of a singularly
+malignant kind began to waste his camp. Louis offered the enemy a treaty
+based on the exchange of Damietta for the lordship of Jerusalem. The
+negotiation failed, and retreat became inevitable; but at the river and
+before the canal they had to fight at desperate disadvantage. The courage
+of the king was unbroken; but his strength was gone. He sank down in a
+state of exhaustion after exertions worthy of the English Richard, and
+awoke to find himself a prisoner. Some there were, says Joinville, to
+whom the idea of retreat was intolerable; and the thought of the age is
+vividly marked in the story which tells us how James du Chastel, bishop
+of Soissons, preferred to live with God to returning to the land of his
+birth, how he made a charge on the Turks, as if he alone meant to fight
+their whole army, and how they soon sent him to God and placed him in the
+company of martyrs by forthwith cutting him down.
+
+[Sidenote: Firmness of the king.]
+
+[Sidenote: Terms of ransom.]
+
+The crusade seemed to be closing in hopeless disaster. The queen at
+Damietta was about to become a mother, when she heard the tidings of
+her husband’s captivity. A premature birth followed. She called her
+babe Tristan, the child of sorrow. Louis himself had to undergo greater
+misery. Of 10,000 Christian prisoners in Mansourah those only who
+embraced the faith of Islam were allowed to live. Some recanted, and
+Louis had the bitterness of witnessing their apostasy: the vast majority
+stood firm, and he had the agony of seeing them die. But at no time was
+he known to exhibit a more unclouded trust in God, a more cool bravery
+towards his enemy. Peace was offered to him if he would surrender all
+the Christian fortresses in Syria. He answered that they were not his
+to surrender, and that he could not dispose of that which belonged to
+Frederick II. as king of Jerusalem. He was threatened with torture to
+his limbs, with the degradation of being carried from city to city and
+exposed for the gratification of sight-seers. He replied quietly, ‘I am
+your prisoner. You may do with me as you will.’ At last it was arranged
+that Damietta should be given up, that the king should pay one million
+byzants for his own ransom, and half a million French livres for his
+barons. He demurred to the amount for himself, but agreed at once to the
+other. ‘The king of France,’ he said, ‘must not haggle about the freedom
+of his subjects.’ Not to be outdone by his unselfishness, the sultan
+Turan Shah struck off one fifth from his ransom.
+
+[Sidenote: Murder of Turan Shah.]
+
+[Sidenote: Release of Louis IX.]
+
+It was almost the last act of the sultan’s life. His murder heightened
+the dangers of the Christian captives; the firmness of Louis in refusing
+to take an oath couched in what he pronounced to be blasphemous language
+increased them still more. The difficulty was at length got over; and
+after enduring sufferings for which the Saracens said (if we may believe
+Joinville) that if they had had to undergo them they would have renounced
+Mahomed, the king was free.
+
+[Sidenote: Pilgrimage of Louis to Nazareth.]
+
+Still Louis, with the bare relics of his army, could not bring himself
+to return home. He had written again and again to urge on Henry of
+England the duty of coming himself with instant and effectual succour;
+he could not think that Henry would disregard his entreaties, especially
+when these were backed by offers of the surrender of Normandy. He still
+fancied that the Vicar of Christ himself, having made up his long quarrel
+with Frederick, would hasten to join his faithful children and lead them
+in a supreme effort which could not fail of success. He was abandoned
+by his brothers the counts of Anjou and Poitou; but with his faithful
+seneschal he made a pilgrimage in sackcloth to Nazareth. The sight of
+the Holy Sepulchre, the dearest longing of his heart, he firmly denied
+himself. The permission to visit it was freely offered by the sultan
+of Damascus: but Louis would not leave behind for future sovereigns a
+precedent by which they might reap the fruits of an enterprise in which
+they had failed. He returned to Europe like Richard of England, humbled
+but not dishonoured;—rather, to speak more strictly, having won that
+serene renown which was soon to place his name in the long catalogue of
+the saints.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE NINTH CRUSADE.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Comparison of the earlier and later crusades.]
+
+Throughout the history of the crusades the wisdom of the general or the
+statesman is conspicuous by its absence; and we may fairly compare the
+long series of these wild enterprises with the erratic course and fitful
+splendour of a comet which at the moment of its greatest brilliancy
+rushes off into an ocean of darkness. They carried with them, as we
+have seen (p. 107), not one of the elements of permanent success, while
+they lasted long enough to impoverish myriads and carry misery and
+grief to the homes of millions. But the qualities which had won for the
+earlier crusaders whatever renown they may have acquired, were exhibited
+in full measure to the end. Their absolute fearlessness, their firm
+persistence in the faith which alone they could allow to be true, their
+heroic endurance of the suffering which in hours of triumph they seldom
+hesitated to inflict on others, are beyond question; but all these are
+virtues which apart from the sagacity of the wise ruler may be brilliant
+but must be eminently useless.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1259. Battle between the Templars and Hospitallers.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1263. Invasion of Palestine by the Mameluke Sultan
+Bibars.]
+
+This wisdom the Latin Christians of Palestine were destined never to
+learn. Disunion ran perpetually into quarrels,—quarrel sometimes into
+open warfare. Between the Venetians and the men of Pisa and Genoa there
+was but at best but a hollow truce. The side which the Templars might
+take in a dispute was not that which would be taken by the Hospitallers
+or the Teutonic knights; and the schism of the two former of these orders
+led in 1259 to a pitched battle from which scarcely a Templar escaped
+alive. From slaughtering each other the champions of the cross passed
+to the slaughter-houses of Saracen executioners. The savage warriors of
+the Mameluke sultan Bibars seized Nazareth and Acre, torturing to death
+those who had not been happy enough to fall on the battle-field. Ninety
+Hospitallers held the fortress of Azotus! the last of them died when
+at length their enemies stormed the walls. The castle of Saphouri was
+surrendered by the Templars on the condition that the garrison, numbering
+600 men in all, should be safely conveyed to the next Christian town. The
+sultan flung the treaty to the winds, and gave them a few hours to make
+their choice between death and apostasy. The prior and two Franciscan
+monks besought their companions to stand fast in their faith; and when
+the sultan demanded their answer, not a man shrunk from the penalty of
+refusal. All were slaughtered, the prior with the two monks being flayed
+alive.
+
+[Sidenote: Loss of Antioch.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1268.]
+
+At length the tidings reached Europe that Bohemond VI. had been
+driven from Antioch and that his city had passed into the hands of
+the unbelievers. The saintly Louis still yearned for the rescue of
+the holy places; but the memory of his past disasters led him to fear
+that his sinfulness or his bad generalship might again bring disgrace
+on the Christian arms. His diffidence called forth the encouragement
+of pope Clement IV., who with greater importunity urged Henry III. of
+England to do his duty by taking the cross. Three years had passed
+since the fatal defeat of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester, at
+Evesham: but the country, although not in actual war, was by no means
+in a state of repose, and we might wonder why at such a time the prince
+who was afterwards to reign as Edward I. should pledge himself to the
+new crusade, were it not clear that the enterprise was one which might
+be used for the purpose of drawing away from England men who might be
+troublesome or dangerous to his father or to himself. Edward took good
+care that the earl of Gloucester whom he feared the most should share his
+perils, if not his glory, in the East.
+
+[Sidenote: Second crusade of Louis IX.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1270.]
+
+[Sidenote: Death of the king.]
+
+With sixty thousand men, Louis IX., accompanied by the counts of
+Flanders, Brittany, Champagne, and other barons, left France to return to
+it no more. A storm drove the fleet to Sardinia; and there it was decided
+that the crusaders should in the first instance go to Tunis. Charles of
+Anjou, the sovereign of Sicily, was anxious to maintain the rights of
+Christendom by exacting a tribute paid formerly to his predecessors:
+the devout Louis remembered, it is said, the messages by which the king
+of Tunis had expressed his wish to embrace Christianity, and thought
+that the presence of a large army would give him courage to make open
+confession of the true faith. The army landed and had encamped, we are
+told, on the site of Carthage, when a plague broke out, and amongst its
+crowd of victims struck the king. His whole life had been a prayer: it
+remained to the last a prayer for others rather than for himself. With
+serene submission to the divine counsels he stretched himself on his
+couch of ashes, and as he uttered the words, ‘I will enter Thy house, O
+Lord, I will worship in Thy sanctuary,’ he died.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1271. Capture of Nazareth by Edward, son of Henry III.
+of England.]
+
+When the English Edward at last arrived in the camp, he saw that the
+idea of reaching Palestine before the winter was impracticable, and made
+up his mind to return to Sicily until the spring. When at length he
+reached Acre, he found that his name carried with it much of the terror
+associated with that of Richard Plantagenet. The Christians hastened to
+his standard, and with 7,000 men he attacked and took Nazareth, slaying
+the people with a massacre as pitiless as any which had sullied the
+chronicles of the crusades. It was his first and his last victory in
+Palestine. His campaign was cut short by sickness, and the dagger of an
+assassin sent by the emir of Joppa as a bearer of letters touching his
+conversion to Christianity well nigh cut short his life. Edward hurled
+the murderer to the floor and stabbed him to the heart. But the dagger
+was undoubtedly poisoned; and it needed more than ordinary skill on the
+part of the surgeons to arrest the progress of the venom. The sides of
+the wound were carefully pared away; and the strength of youth with the
+tender nursing of his wife Eleanor did the rest. The romancers of a later
+age framed the tale that he must have died, had she not with her lips
+sucked the poison from the wound.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1272. Return of Edward to Europe.]
+
+[Sidenote: Vain efforts of Gregory X. to stir up a crusade.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1274.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1276.]
+
+It was clear that nothing more could be done in the Holy Land, and Edward
+knew not how soon his presence might become indispensable in England.
+A peace was made for ten years, and the English crusaders set out on
+their homeward voyage. For a long series of years Europe had been making
+vigorous efforts, and the result of these efforts had been nothing more
+substantial or permanent than the lines left on the sea sand by an ebbing
+tide. For one moment it seemed that the spirit of the dream might be
+changed, when Theobald, archdeacon of Liege, the friend of the English
+Edward, was summoned from Acre to fill the chair of St. Peter as Gregory
+X. Theobald had been an eye-witness of the desperate calamities which
+were crushing the Latins of Palestine, and he called the princes of
+Europe to the rescue with a zeal worthy of Innocent III. or of Urban II.
+A council held at Lyons decreed a new crusade. Rodolph of Hapsburg, not
+yet firm in his imperial dignity, pledged himself to join it; and his
+example was followed by Michael Paleologos who thirteen years earlier
+(1287) had put down the Latin dynasty in Constantinople. But Gregory died
+in less than two years after the assembly at Lyons, and his visions of
+renewed conquests in Palestine died with him.
+
+[Sidenote: Claims to the titular kingdom of Jerusalem.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1289.]
+
+In the Holy Land itself the miserable Christian remnant adhered to its
+old tradition of fighting about shadows when the substance had been
+already lost. Hugh III. of Cyprus had had himself crowned at Tyre as king
+of Jerusalem. The Templars urged the claims of Charles of Anjou; the
+Hospitallers insisted with more sense that the dispute might be postponed
+until they had recovered the kingdom the title to which they were
+debating. A few years later, when Henry II. of Cyprus held this shadowy
+dignity, the grand-master of the Templars pleaded before Nicholas IV.
+the wrongs of the Latins which could be avenged only by the blood of the
+Saracens. But the power of the ancient spell was broken. Nicholas was
+ready to furnish some men, but these were ruffians and criminals, the
+very offscourings of the people: money he obstinately refused to give.
+The grand-master was not more successful elsewhere; and the Italian
+robbers formed the whole force with which he returned to Palestine.
+
+[Sidenote: Loss of Acre.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1291.]
+
+The last forlorn struggle was made at Acre. Here, as elsewhere, the
+valour of the Templars shone conspicuous. The grand-master rejected the
+bribes of the sultan; but the latter cared little whether he could work
+on the venality of his enemies or whether he could not. His Mamelukes
+were not less courageous than the Templars, and their numbers were
+overwhelming. The assault began; the titular king of Jerusalem, Henry II.
+of Cyprus, besought the Teutonic knights to occupy his post, promising to
+return the next morning. His request was granted: but before the morning
+came, Henry was on his way to Cyprus. The attack was renewed with greater
+fury; but the Christians had lost all heart. The master of the Templars
+had been killed by a poisoned arrow, and seven Knights Hospitallers
+sailed away, the last remnant of the magnificent order which had braved
+successfully a thousand dangers. The city was lost: but the horrors of
+the siege were not ended. The people had hurried to the shore; a storm
+prevented them from embarking; and the very sea was reddened by the blood
+of the last victims of a wild and fanatical superstition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE SEQUEL OF THE RELIGIOUS WARS.
+
+
+[Sidenote: Gradual decay and extinction of the crusading spirit.]
+
+The crusades had come to an end. The embers smouldered on: but it was
+to the last degree unlikely that they would be rekindled. The great
+military orders withdrew to seek a field for their energies elsewhere;
+the Teutonic knights to the dreary regions of Lithuania and Poland,—the
+knights of the Hospital first to Cyprus, then to Rhodes where, after many
+a hard fight with Greeks and Saracens, they achieved the conquest of the
+whole island and settled down to repose in their earthly paradise. The
+dream of returning to Palestine still haunted the mind of Edward I.,
+who by his will left 30,000_l._ for the equipment and maintenance of
+the knights who were to bear his heart to the Holy Land; but probably
+the last reflection of the old fire is seen in the words by which Henry
+V. in his dying moments asserted the bounden duty of princes to build
+the walls of Jerusalem, and declared that, had he been spared for a
+longer life, or had he lived in quieter times, he would have undertaken
+this task of restoration. Even now, perhaps, the task was one of no
+insuperable difficulty. Its practicability had been shown more than
+once by its accomplishment; but it was one which must be taken in hand
+in the spirit of that wise and tolerant statesmanship which seeks to
+further the interests of the subject population, and to make one people
+of the conquerors and the conquered. This idea was, as we have seen,
+deliberately rejected by the first crusaders, and, with the single
+exception of the emperor Henry at Constantinople (p. 170), by all who
+followed them. There is no reason to suppose that the English Henry V.
+would have been animated by a wiser spirit and a larger charity than the
+companions of Godfrey and Tancred.
+
+[Sidenote: Persecution and suppression of the Knights Templars.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1309.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1314.]
+
+The soil of Palestine had been watered abundantly with the blood both of
+Christians and of infidels. The soil of Europe, chiefly that of France,
+was to drink the blood of that haughty but valiant order which had done
+as much to destroy as to maintain the hold of Latin Christendom on
+Palestine. Among all the monstrous iniquities which perjured kings and
+godless statesmen have ever perpetrated, the lies and cruelties, the
+persistent and diabolical injustice which attended the suppression of the
+Knights Templars must hold very nearly the first place. These men may
+have, nay undoubtedly they had, committed enormous crimes themselves;
+but these were crimes done in the sight of the sun and shared by all
+crusaders of every generation, the saintly Louis of France forming, it
+would seem, the solitary exception. Now, when their services were no
+longer needed or could no more be of use in Palestine, the benefits to be
+derived from a confiscation of their properties became patent to Philip
+the Fair, the brutal tyrant, the profligate murderer, the unscrupulous
+thief, who bullied the pope, Clement V., into a recognition of charges
+which at first he had rightly cast aside as absurd, extravagant, and
+impossible. False witness, tortures, hunger, thirst, darkness, filth,
+and disease in sunless dungeons, were all used with consummate skill and
+pertinacity to subdue the warriors who in the field had never quailed.
+Taken one by one, some made confessions which were drawn from them
+by excruciating agonies, and which, when these agonies ceased, were
+indignantly withdrawn. With his remaining comrades the last grand-master
+died, solemnly asserting the innocence of his order—an innocence
+unquestionably real, if we confine ourselves to the charges brought
+against them by Philip and his myrmidons; and the kings of France, made
+wealthier by their iniquities, laid up another count for the great
+indictment to be brought against their luckless representative in the
+French revolution. In England the proceedings against the Templars,
+shameful though they were, fell infinitely short of the disgrace which
+covered the king and the judges of France: but in both countries it was
+seen what might be done by malignant lies uttered boldly under the plea
+of maintaining the truth and the righteousness of God.
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1208-1249. The Albigensian crusades.]
+
+In this process we see, in fact, the legitimate result of the crusades.
+The unbelief of the Saracen was a sufficient reason for wresting from him
+a country which was regarded as the inalienable heritage of Christendom:
+the alleged unbelief or profanity of Templars was a sufficient reason
+for hounding on judges to their destruction; and the heresies truly
+or falsely alleged against any persons whatsoever would be a thorough
+warrant for carrying fire and sword through their land, if gentler means
+failed to extort submission. The lesson had been soon learnt; and while
+Dandolo and Baldwin were laying the foundations of the short-lived Latin
+empire at Constantinople, Innocent was preaching a crusade against
+the peaceable, although perhaps not strictly orthodox, subjects of
+count Raymond of Toulouse. The attempt to put down error by force was
+producing its natural fruits; and men like Bernard and Innocent were
+brought to consider every means lawful, every weapon hallowed, against
+the wretched enemies of Christ and of his Church. Horrible miscreants,
+like the inquisitors Fulk of Marseilles and Arnold of Amaury, could
+without a pang of remorse involve in one common slaughter the aged and
+the young, the mother and the infant; and Simon of Montfort, cased in
+the triple armour of a heart harder than the nether millstone, could
+exult with savage joy over the massacres of his sword and the torments
+of the Inquisition. In this awful chaos Frederick II., the enemy of the
+pope, the friends of Saracenic philosophers, of Moslem women, joined
+furiously in the fray. Near in its ideal, and similar in some points of
+its development, as was the careless society of the troubadour to his own
+luxurious civilization in Sicily, yet not a sign is there to show that
+he regarded with the least emotion its rapid and terrible catastrophe.
+His appreciation of their Gay Science, of their art, their refinement,
+and their luxury, was chilled and quenched by the thought of the vile
+crowd of Petrobrussians and other vulgar heretics, by whom these careless
+voluptuaries were surrounded. Well may it be said that never in any
+history were the principles of justice, the faith of treaties, common
+humanity so trampled under foot as in the Albigensian crusade, ‘Slay
+on; God will know his own,’ was the cry of the papal legate before the
+walls of Beziers; and this easy method of settling a long controversy was
+the moral logically drawn from the preaching of the hermit Peter and of
+Bernard of Clairvaux.
+
+[Sidenote: The children’s crusades.]
+
+[Sidenote: A. D. 1212.]
+
+It is possible that the historian who seeks to account for all the
+characteristics which mark the era of the crusades may connect these
+expeditions with some events which should be traced to other causes. The
+impulses which bring vast crowds together for any purpose are always more
+or less contagious: and the middle ages exhibit, throughout, a series of
+enthusiastic risings. The outbreak of the Pastoureaux, or Shepherds (so
+called from their supposed simplicity), which for a time led astray even
+Blanche of Castile (p. 196), took place, perhaps only by an accidental
+coincidence, while Louis IX. was a captive in Egypt: but it was only
+one of a thousand instances of what has well been termed superstition
+set in motion. To this class belong probably the expeditions known as
+the Children’s crusades, although these were started with the idea of
+recovering the Holy Cross from the infidel. A few words may suffice to
+tell the miserable story how in France under the boy Stephen 30,000
+children encamped around Vendome; how 10,000 were lost or had strayed
+away before they reached Marseilles a month later; how there they waited
+under a conviction that the waters of the Mediterranean would be cloven
+asunder to give them a passage on dry land; how at length two merchants
+offered ‘for the cause of God and without charge’ to convey them in ships
+to Palestine; and how the 5,000 children, who sailed from the harbour
+chanting the hymn _Veni Creator Spiritus_, found themselves at the end of
+their voyage in the slave markets of Alexandria and Algiers. A pendant
+to this woful tale is found in the sufferings of the 20,000 German boys
+and girls who set out in the same year from Cologne under the peasant lad
+Nicholas 20,000 strong, and of whom 5,000 only reached Genoa. Of the rest
+some had returned home: some marched to Brindisi, and, setting sail for
+Palestine, were never heard of more. The fortune of those who found their
+way to Genoa was more happy. Invited to settle there by the senate, many
+became wealthy, and not a few, rising to distinction, founded some of the
+noblest families in the state.
+
+[Sidenote: Indirect results of the crusades.]
+
+But as the motives which led to the crusades were complex, so their
+results were complex also. The picture must not be presented only in its
+darker aspects. We have seen the effect which they produced on the growth
+of the temporal power of the popes. We must not forget that by rolling
+back the tide of Mahomedan conquest from Constantinople for upwards
+of four centuries they probably saved Europe from horrors the recital
+of which might even now make our ears tingle; that by weakening the
+resources and the power of the barons they strengthened the authority of
+the kings acting in alliance with the citizens of the great towns; that
+this alliance broke up the feudal system, gradually abolished serfdom,
+and substituted the authority of a common law for the arbitrary will
+of chiefs who for real or supposed affronts rushed to the arbitrament
+of private war. Worthless in themselves, and wholly useless as means
+for founding any permanent dominion in Palestine or elsewhere, these
+enterprises have affected the commonwealths of Europe in ways of which
+the promoters never dreamed. They left a wider gulf between the Greek
+and the Latin churches, between the subjects of the Eastern empire and
+the nations of Western Europe; but by the mere fact of throwing East and
+West together they led gradually to that interchange of thought and that
+awakening of the human intellect to which we owe all that distinguishes
+our modern civilization from the religious and political systems of the
+middle ages.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+ Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad, 15
+
+ Abelard, 88
+
+ Abubekr, 13
+
+ Acre, siege of, 127;
+ surrender of, 133
+
+ Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, 80
+
+ Adelais, 120
+
+ Adhemar, bishop of Puy, 44, 58, 69, 70
+
+ Albigensians, crusades against the, 222
+
+ Alexander II., pope, 2, 21
+
+ Alexandria, surrender of, to Almeric, 100
+
+ Alexios, brother of Isaac Angelus, 153, 159
+
+ Alexios emperor of the East, 17, 24, 51;
+ extorts the homage of the crusaders, 53;
+ his conduct to the crusaders, 54;
+ fails to aid them, 71;
+ benefited by the crusaders, 81;
+ death of, 83
+
+ Alexios, son of Isaac Angelus, 153, 156, 161
+
+ Alexios Strategopoulos, 180
+
+ Alfonso, king of Gallicia, 38
+
+ Almeric, king of Jerusalem, 98
+
+ Almeric of Lusignan, king of Cyprus and titular king of Jerusalem,
+ 144, 183
+
+ Amalfi, merchants of, 18
+
+ Andrew, king of Hungary, 176, 186
+
+ Anna Comnena, 50, 54
+
+ Antioch, siege of, 60;
+ betrayed to Bohemond, 65;
+ fall of, 69
+
+ Arnold, chaplain of Bohemond, 68, 73
+
+ Arnold of Amaury, 221
+
+ Arthur of Brittany, 129
+
+ Artois, count of, 210
+
+ Ascalon, Battle of, 77;
+ fall of, 98
+
+ Assize of Jerusalem, 78, 170
+
+ Augustine, St., 8
+
+ Austria, Leopold, duke of, 133
+
+ Azan the Bulgarian, 179
+
+ Azotus, battle of, 132
+
+
+ Baghasian, 60, 63, 65
+
+ Baldwin I., brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, 43, 59
+
+ Baldwin II., emperor of the East, 175
+
+ Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, 84
+
+ Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, 85
+
+ Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, 104
+
+ Baldwin V., king of Jerusalem, 104
+
+ Baldwin du Bourg, 84
+
+ Baldwin, lord of Edessa, 59;
+ king of Jerusalem, 80, 84
+
+ Baldwin of Flanders, emperor of the East, 163, 173
+
+ Baldwin of Hainault, 70
+
+ Barbarossa [Frederick I.]
+
+ Bela, king of Hungary, 121
+
+ Berengaria, 129, 130
+
+ Bernard, patriarch of Antioch, 70
+
+ Bernard, St., 86 _et seq._
+
+ Bertrand of Toulouse, 81
+
+ Blanche of Castile, 203, 223
+
+ Blondel, 138
+
+ Bodin, 53
+
+ Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, 23, 45, 52, 81
+
+ Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 152, 172, 175
+
+ Bouvines, battle of, 189
+
+ Brienne, constable of Apulia, 23
+
+ Brienne, John of, 184, 199
+
+ Bulgarians, 173
+
+
+ Calo John, 173, 175
+
+ Charles of Anjou, 217
+
+ Charles the Great, 21
+
+ Chivalry, cause and effect of, 46
+
+ Chosroes [Khosru]
+
+ Christianity, the, of the first century, 3;
+ influence of paganism upon, 5;
+ modified by the Roman imperial tradition, 20
+
+ Cid, the, 38
+
+ Clement IV., pope, 215
+
+ Clement V., pope, 220
+
+ Cogni [Iconium]
+
+ Conrad, bishop of Hildesheim, 142
+
+ Conrad, emperor of Germany, 90, 92, 142
+
+ Conrad of Tyre, 110, 127, 134
+
+ Constantia, heiress of Sicily, 125, 128
+
+ Constantine, church of, at Jerusalem, 8
+
+ Constantinople, first siege of, by the Latins, 158;
+ second siege and conquest of, 162;
+ Latin emperors of, 168;
+ Baldwin I., 163, 174;
+ Henry, brother of Baldwin, 175;
+ Peter of Courtenay, 176;
+ Robert, 177;
+ John of Brienne, 178;
+ Baldwin II., 179;
+ Latin empire of, 168;
+ recovery of, by the Greeks, 181
+
+ Coradin, sultan of Syria, 186
+
+ Council of Clermont, 29
+
+ Council of Lyons, 217
+
+ Council of Nice, 17
+
+ Council of Piacenza, 24
+
+ Councils of Lateran, 116, 185
+
+ Courtenay, Joceline of, 84, 97
+
+ Courtenay, Peter of, 176, 177
+
+ Courtesy, 48
+
+ Courts of Love, 95
+
+ Cross, discovery of the true, 7;
+ recovery of, 12
+
+ Crusaders, numbers of the, 56;
+ ferocity of the, 75
+
+ Crusades, causes tending to, 1 _et seq._;
+ financial effects of, 34;
+ effects of, on the power of the pope and the clergy, 35;
+ on the feudal system, 36;
+ not national enterprises, 37;
+ against the Albigensians, 222;
+ the Children’s, 222;
+ indirect results of the, 224
+
+
+ Daimbert, patriarch of Jerusalem, 78
+
+ Damascus, siege of, 95
+
+ Damietta, 116, 186, 209
+
+ Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 163, 168, 172
+
+ Dargham, 98
+
+ David [Kilidje Arslan]
+
+ Demetrius, lord of Thessalonica, 178
+
+ Dorylaion, battle of, 58
+
+ Durazzo, 23, 81, 173
+
+
+ Edessa, conquest of, by Baldwin, 59;
+ by Zenghis, 85
+
+ Edward I., of England, 216, 217, 218, 219
+
+ Eleanor of Poitou, wife of Louis VII., 88, 92, 95;
+ marries Henry of Normandy, afterwards Henry II. of England, 95;
+ writes to Cælestine III., 138
+
+ Eleanor, wife of Edward I., 216
+
+ Emico, count of Leiningen, 40
+
+ Engelbert of Tournay, 74
+
+ Eugenius III., pope, 89
+
+ Eustace, count of Boulogne, 43
+
+
+ Fatimite sultans of Egypt, 14, 62, 98, 99, 102
+
+ Ferentino, treaty of, 190
+
+ Frederick I., Barbarossa, 124, 125
+
+ Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa, 183 _et seq._, 207, 222
+
+ Fulk of Anjou, king of Jerusalem, 85, 117
+
+ Fulk of Marseilles, 221
+
+ Fulk of Neuilly, 148
+
+
+ Genghis Khan, 201
+
+ Geoffrey, archbishop of York, 120
+
+ Geoffrey of Villehardouin, 150, 172, 175
+
+ Gerold, patriarch of Jerusalem, 198
+
+ Godfrey of Bouillon, 43, 49, 66, 72;
+ baron and defender of the Holy Sepulchre, 77;
+ reign and death of, 80
+
+ Gotschalk, the monk, 40
+
+ Greeks and Latins, antagonism between, 56, 168, 180
+
+ Gregory I., the Great, 10, 20
+
+ Gregory VII., pope [Hildebrand]
+
+ Gregory VIII., pope, 118
+
+ Gregory IX., pope, 191, 193, 200
+
+ Gregory X., pope, 217
+
+ Guelf, duke of Bavaria, 39
+
+ Guibert, abbot, 33
+
+ Guido, abbot of Vaux Cernay, 155
+
+ Guiscard, Robert, 24
+
+ Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, 104;
+ of Cyprus, 134
+
+
+ Hakem, 15
+
+ Harun-al-Reschid, 25
+
+ Helena, church of, at Bethlehem, 8
+
+ Henry II., king of Cyprus, 218
+
+ Henry II. of England, 117, 119, 120, 121
+
+ Henry IV., emperor, 25, 43
+
+ Henry V. of England, 219
+
+ Henry VI., emperor, 134, 138, 139, 140
+
+ Henry, Latin emperor of the East, 175, 176, 219
+
+ Henry of Champagne, titular king of Jerusalem, 134
+
+ Heraclius, emperor of the East, 11, 12
+
+ Heraclius, patriarch of Jerusalem, 117
+
+ Herakleios [Heraclius]
+
+ Herman of Salza, 127, 195, 197
+
+ Hildebrand [Gregory VII.], 2, 21 _et seq._
+
+ Hohenstaufen, house of, 188
+
+ Holy Land, growth of local traditions in the, 7
+
+ Honorius III., pope, 177, 189, 202
+
+ Hospitallers, or knights of St. John, 101, 108, 113, 141, 214, 217
+
+ Hugh III., king of Cyprus, 217
+
+ Hugh of Vermandois, 43, 49, 69, 83
+
+ Hungary, conversion of, 16
+
+
+ Iconium, sultan of, 58, 82
+
+ Ingulf, 16
+
+ Innocent II., pope, 88
+
+ Innocent III., pope, 145, 165, 189
+
+ Innocent IV., pope, 202
+
+ Isaac Angelus, emperor of the East, 119, 153
+
+ Isaac of Cyprus, 130
+
+ Isabella, sister of Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, 127, 178, 183
+
+
+ James du Chastel, 211
+
+ Jerome, St., at Bethlehem, 9
+
+ Jerusalem, Assize of, 78, 170;
+ Latin kingdom of, 77;
+ Latin kings of, 77;
+ Godfrey, 77;
+ Baldwin I., 80;
+ Baldwin II., 84;
+ Fulk of Anjou, 85;
+ Baldwin III., 85;
+ Almeric, 98;
+ Baldwin IV., 104;
+ Baldwin V., 104;
+ Guy of Lusignan, 104;
+ Henry of Champagne (titular), 134;
+ Almeric of Lusignan (titular), 144
+
+ Jerusalem, captured by the Persians, 10;
+ by Omar, 12;
+ by Hakem, 15;
+ by the Seljukian Toucush, 17;
+ by the first crusaders, 72;
+ by Saladin, 105;
+ by Kameel, 196
+
+ Jews, persecution of the, 40, 91, 122
+
+ Jews, plunder of the, 119
+
+ Joanna, sister of Richard I., 128, 134
+
+ Joceline of Courtenay, 84, 97
+
+ John Comnenos, 50
+
+ John of Brienne, 178
+
+ John of England, 135
+
+ John, St., Hospital of, 18
+
+ John the monk, 96
+
+ Joinville, 206 _et seq._
+
+
+ Kameel, sultan of Egypt, 186;
+ treaty of, with Frederick II., 196, 200;
+ takes Jerusalem, 201
+
+ Kerboga, 66, 68, 69
+
+ Khosru II., 10
+
+ Khosru Nushirvan, 11
+
+ Kilidje Arslan, 42, 58, 66, 69
+
+ Knighthood, 47
+
+ Knights Hospitallers, 101, 108, 113, 141, 214, 218
+
+ Knights Templars, 90, 113, 214
+
+ Knights, Teutonic, 127, 214, 218
+
+ Korasmians, 202
+
+
+ Lance, discovery of the holy, 67
+
+ Lateran, councils of, 116, 185
+
+ Latin empire of Constantinople, 168;
+ kingdom of Jerusalem, 77;
+ emperors of Constantinople, 169;
+ kings of Jerusalem, 77, 144
+
+ Latins and Greeks, antagonism between, 55, 168, 181
+
+ Leo III., pope, 21
+
+ Letold of Tournay, 74
+
+ Lothair, cardinal [Innocent III.]
+
+ Louis VI., the Fat, 88
+
+ Louis VII., king of France, 92, 117
+
+ Louis IX., king of France, 203 _et seq._;
+ death of, 215
+
+ Lusignan, Almeric of, 144, 183;
+ Guy of, 104, 134
+
+ Lyons, council of, 217
+
+
+ Mahomed, embassy from, to Khosru II., 11
+
+ Mamelukes, 218
+
+ Manuel, emperor of the East, 93, 102
+
+ Marra, siege of, 71
+
+ Mary, niece of Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, 184
+
+ Maynard, nephew of Conrad of Tyre, 137
+
+ Merovingian kings of France, 98
+
+ Moadhin, sultan of Damascus, 196
+
+ Montferrat, marquis of, 152
+
+ Montfort, Simon of, 150, 155, 158
+
+ Montfort, Simon of, earl of Leicester, 203
+
+ Morosini, Thomas, patriarch of Constantinople, 165, 167, 171
+
+ Mostadhi, caliph of Bagdad, 100
+
+ Mourzoufle, 161, 162, 173
+
+
+ Nicæa, Nikaia [Nice]
+
+ Nice, Seljukian sovereigns of, 17;
+ siege of, 57
+
+ Nicephorus III., emperor, 23
+
+ Nicolas IV., pope, 218
+
+ Nicolas, the child crusader, 223
+
+ Nineveh, battle of, 11
+
+ Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo, 98, 99, 103
+
+
+ Omar, the caliph, 12
+
+ Oriflamme, the, 208
+
+ Otho of Brunswick, emperor, 188
+
+
+ Pascal II., pope, 78
+
+ Pastoureaux, 222
+
+ Pelagius, bishop of Albano, 185
+
+ Peter Barthelemy, 68
+
+ Peter of Blois, 138
+
+ Peter of Capua, 154, 157
+
+ Peter the Chanter, 148
+
+ Peter of Courtenay, Latin emperor of the East, 176
+
+ Peter the Hermit, 26 _et seq._, 38, 62, 68, 73, 75
+
+ Philip Augustus, king of France, 119, 138, 171
+
+ Philip I., king of France, 25, 43, 81
+
+ Philip IV., the Fair, king of France, 220
+
+ Philip of Namur, 177
+
+ Philip of Swabia, 154, 156
+
+ Philip [titular], Latin emperor of the East, 181
+
+ Piacenza, council of, 24
+
+ Pilgrimage, growth of, 8
+
+ Pilgrims, tax on, at Jerusalem, 15
+
+ Phirouz, the renegade, 63
+
+ Placentia, council of, 24
+
+ Pontius, son of Bertrand of Toulouse, 81
+
+
+ Raymond, count of Toulouse, 45, 53
+
+ Raymond of Tripoli, 104
+
+ Rhazates, 12
+
+ Richard, earl of Cornwall, 197, 201
+
+ Richard I’st of England, 114, 117;
+ at Messina, 128;
+ at Rhodes, 130;
+ at Acre, 130;
+ retreats from Bethlehem, 135;
+ at Jaffa, 136;
+ imprisonment, 137;
+ return of, to England, 140
+
+ Robert, count of Flanders, 44
+
+ Robert, count of Paris, 52
+
+ Robert duke of Normandy, 44, 60, 63
+
+ Robert, Latin emperor of the East, 177
+
+ Robert of Courcon, 185, 186
+
+ Rodolph of Hapsburg, 217
+
+ Rodolph the Monk, 91
+
+ Roger, successor of Tancred, 82
+
+
+ Saadi, 183
+
+ Saladin tax or tithe, 119
+
+ Saladin, 99, 102;
+ enters Jerusalem, 110;
+ death of, 141
+
+ Samosata, 60
+
+ San Germano, treaty of, 191
+
+ Saphadin, 136, 141;
+ takes Jaffa, 143;
+ offers peace, 183;
+ death of, 186
+
+ Seljukian Turks, 17
+
+ Shawer, 98, 102
+
+ Shepherds of Pastoureaux, 222
+
+ Shiracouh, 98, 102
+
+ Sibylla, 104, 127
+
+ Sidon, conquest of, 84
+
+ Simon of Montfort, 150, 155, 158
+
+ Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester, 203
+
+ Siroes, 12
+
+ Siward, 84
+
+ Sophronios, patriarch of Jerusalem, 12
+
+ Stephen, apostle of Hungary, 16
+
+ Stephen, count of Chartres, 44, 66, 80
+
+ Stephen Harding, 87
+
+ Stephen, the child crusader, 223
+
+
+ Tancred, 45, 59, 69, 75, 81
+
+ Tancred, son of Roger of Apulia, 129, 141
+
+ Tatikios, 62, 71
+
+ Templars, knights, 90, 113, 214, 218, 221
+
+ Teutonic knights, 127, 214, 218
+
+ Theobald, archdeacon of Liege, 218
+
+ Theobald, count of Champagne, 89, 150
+
+ Theodore Lascaris, 173
+
+ Thierry, count of Flanders, 95
+
+ Thoron, siege of, 142
+
+ Tiberias, battle of, 105
+
+ Toucush, 18
+
+ Trebizond, empire of, 173
+
+ Tristan, 211
+
+ Truce of God, 30, 47
+
+ Turan Shah, 212
+
+ Tyre, conquest of, 84
+
+
+ Ugolino [Gregory IX.]
+
+ Urban II., pope, at Piacenza, 24;
+ at Clermont, 25, 30;
+ death of, 78
+
+ Urban III., pope, 118
+
+
+ Vataces, John, emperor of Nicæa, 178, 179
+
+ Venice, growth of the power of, 164
+
+ Victor III., pope, 24
+
+ Villehardouin, Geoffrey of, 150, 174, 175
+
+ Vorylas, 175
+
+
+ Walter of Brienne, 150
+
+ Walter the Penniless, 40, 42
+
+ William Longchamp, bishop of Ely, 138
+
+ William Longsword, bishop of Salisbury, 201, 209
+
+ William Longsword, earl of Salisbury, 186
+
+ William of Melun, 62
+
+ William of Scotland, 117, 122
+
+ William of Tyre, 119
+
+ William the Conqueror, 2, 21
+
+ William Rufus, 39
+
+
+ Zara, expedition to, 153, 155
+
+ Zenghis, sultan of Aleppo, 85
+
+ Ziani, doge of Venice, 168
+
+
+
+
+“_The volumes contain the ripe results of the studies of men who are
+authorities in their respective fields._”—THE NATION.
+
+EPOCHS OF HISTORY
+
+
+ =EPOCHS OF ANCIENT HISTORY= =EPOCHS OF MODERN HISTORY=
+
+ Eleven volumes, 16mo, each $1.00. Eighteen volumes, 16mo, each $1.00.
+
+The Epoch volumes have most successfully borne the test of experience,
+and are universally acknowledged to be the best series of historical
+manuals in existence. They are admirably adapted in form and matter to
+the needs of colleges, schools, reading circles, and private classes.
+Attention is called to them as giving the utmost satisfaction as class
+hand-books.
+
+ NOAH PORTER, _President of Yale College_.
+
+ “The ‘Epochs of History’ have been prepared with knowledge and
+ artistic skill to meet the wants of a large number of readers.
+ To the young they furnish an outline or compendium. To those
+ who are older they present a convenient sketch of the heads of
+ the knowledge which they have already acquired. The outlines
+ are by no means destitute of spirit, and may be used with great
+ profit for family reading, and in select classes or reading
+ clubs.”
+
+ CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, _President of Cornell University_.
+
+ “A series of concise and carefully prepared volumes on special
+ eras of history. Each is also complete in itself, and has no
+ especial connection with the other members of the series. The
+ works are all written by authors selected by the editor on
+ account of some especial qualifications for a portrayal of
+ the period they respectively describe. The volumes form an
+ excellent collection, especially adapted to the wants of a
+ general reader.”
+
+_The Publishers will supply these volumes to teachers at SPECIAL NET
+RATES, and would solicit correspondence concerning terms for examination
+and introduction copies._
+
+ CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS, Publishers
+ 743-745 Broadway, New York
+
+
+THE GREAT SUCCESS OF THE SERIES
+
+is the best proof of its general popularity, and the excellence of
+the various volumes is further attested by their having been adopted
+as text-books in many of our leading educational institutions. The
+publishers beg to call attention to the following list comprising some of
+the most prominent institutions using volumes of the series:
+
+ Smith College, Northampton, Mass.
+ Univ. of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.
+ Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.
+ Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
+ Bellewood Sem., Anchorage, Ky.
+ Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tenn.
+ State Univ., Minneapolis, Minn.
+ Christian Coll., Columbia, Mo.
+ Adelphi Acad., Brooklyn, N. Y.
+ Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind.
+ Granger Place School, Canandaigua, N. Y.
+ Salt Lake Acad., Salt Lake City, Utah.
+ Beloit Col., Beloit, Wis.
+ Logan Female Coll., Russellville, Ky.
+ No. West Univ., Evanston, Ill.
+ State Normal School, Baltimore, Md.
+ Hamilton Coll., Clinton, N. Y.
+ Doane Coll., Crete, Neb.
+ Princeton College, Princeton, N. J.
+ Williams Coll., Williamstown, Mass.
+ Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.
+ Illinois Coll., Jacksonville, Ill.
+ Univ. of South, Sewaunee, Tenn.
+ Wesleyan Univ., Mt. Pleasant, Ia.
+ Univ. of Cal., Berkeley, Cal.
+ So. Car. Coll., Columbia, S. C.
+ Amsterdam Acad., Amsterdam, N. Y.
+ Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn.
+ Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Mass.
+ Albion Coll., Albion, Mich.
+ Dartmouth Coll., Hanover, N. H.
+ Wilmington Coll., Wilmington, O.
+ Madison Univ., Hamilton, N. Y.
+ Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, N. Y.
+ Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis.
+ Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y.
+ Norwich Free Acad., Norwich, Conn.
+ Greenwich Acad., Greenwich, Conn.
+ Univ. of Neb., Lincoln, Neb.
+ Kalamazoo Coll., Kalamazoo, Mich.
+ Olivet Coll., Olivet, Mich.
+ Amherst Coll., Amherst, Mass.
+ Ohio State Univ., Columbus, O.
+ Free Schools, Oswego, N. Y.
+
+Bishop J. F. HURST, _ex-President of Drew Theol. Sem._
+
+“It appears to me that the idea of Morris in his Epochs is strictly in
+harmony with the philosophy of history—namely, that great movements
+should be treated not according to narrow geographical and national
+limits and distinction, but universally, according to their place in the
+general life of the world. The historical Maps and the copious Indices
+are welcome additions to the volumes.”
+
+
+EPOCHS OF ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+_A SERIES OF BOOKS NARRATING THE HISTORY OF GREECE AND ROME, AND OF THEIR
+RELATIONS TO OTHER COUNTRIES AT SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS._
+
+_Edited by_
+
+Rev. G. W. COX and CHARLES SANKEY, M.A.
+
+Eleven volumes, 16mo, with 41 Maps and Plans.
+
+Sold separately. Price per vol., $1.00.
+
+The Set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in box, $11.00.
+
+=TROY—ITS LEGEND, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE.= By S. G. W. BENJAMIN.
+
+“The task of the author has been to gather into a clear and very readable
+narrative all that is known of legendary, historical, and geographical
+Troy, and to tell the story of Homer, and weigh and compare the
+different theories in the Homeric controversy. The work is well done.
+His book is altogether candid, and is a very valuable and entertaining
+compendium.”—_Hartford Courant._
+
+“As a monograph on Troy, covering all sides of the question, it is of
+great value, and supplies a long vacant place in our fund of classical
+knowledge.”—_N. Y. Christian Advocate._
+
+=THE GREEKS AND THE PERSIANS.= By Rev. G. W. COX.
+
+“It covers the ground in a perfectly satisfactory way. The work is clear,
+succinct, and readable.”—_New York Independent._
+
+“Marked by thorough and comprehensive scholarship and by a skillful
+style.”—_Congregationalist._
+
+“It would be hard to find a more creditable book. The author’s prefatory
+remarks upon the origin and growth of Greek civilization are alone worth
+the price of the volume.”—_Christian Union._
+
+=THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE—From the Flight of Xerxes to the Fall of Athens.= By
+Rev. G. W. COX.
+
+“Mr. Cox writes in such a way as to bring before the reader everything
+which is important to be known or learned; and his narrative cannot
+fail to give a good idea of the men and deeds with which he is
+concerned.”—_The Churchman._
+
+“Mr. Cox has done his work with the honesty of a true student. It shows
+persevering scholarship and a desire to get at the truth.”—_New York
+Herald._
+
+=THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES.= By CHARLES SANKEY, M.A.
+
+“This volume covers the period between the disasters of Athens at the
+close of the Pelopenesian war and the rise of Macedon. It is a very
+striking and instructive picture of the political life of the Grecian
+commonwealth at that time.”—_The Churchman._
+
+“It is singularly interesting to read, and in respect to arrangement,
+maps, etc., is all that can be desired.”—_Boston Congregationalist._
+
+=THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE—Its Rise and Culmination to Death of Alexander the
+Great.= By A. M. CURTEIS, M.A.
+
+“A good and satisfactory history of a very important period. The maps are
+excellent, and the story is lucidly and vigorously told.”—_The Nation._
+
+“The same compressive style and yet completeness of detail that have
+characterized the previous issues in this delightful series, are found
+in this volume. Certainly the art of conciseness in writing was never
+carried to a higher or more effective point.”—_Boston Saturday Evening
+Gazette._
+
+⁂ _The above five volumes give a connected and complete history of Greece
+from the earliest times to the death of Alexander._
+
+=EARLY ROME—From the Foundation of the City to its Destruction by the
+Gauls.= By W. IHNE, Ph.D.
+
+“Those who want to know the truth instead of the traditions that used to
+be learned of our fathers, will find in the work entertainment, careful
+scholarship, and sound sense.”—_Cincinnati Times._
+
+“The book is excellently well done. The views are those of a learned and
+able man, and they are presented in this volume with great force and
+clearness.”—_The Nation._
+
+=ROME AND CARTHAGE—The Punic Wars.= By R. BOSWORTH SMITH.
+
+“By blending the account of Rome and Carthage the accomplished author
+presents a succinct and vivid picture of two great cities and people
+which leaves a deep impression. The story is full of intrinsic interest,
+and was never better told.”—_Christian Union._
+
+“The volume is one of rare interest and value.”—_Chicago Interior._
+
+“An admirably condensed history of Carthage, from its establishment by
+the adventurous Phœnician traders to its sad and disastrous fall.”—_New
+York Herald._
+
+=THE GRACCHI, MARIUS, AND SULLA.= By A. H. BEESLEY.
+
+“A concise and scholarly historical sketch, descriptive of the decay of
+the Roman Republic, and the events which paved the way for the advent
+of the conquering Cæsar. It is an excellent account of the leaders and
+legislation of the republic.”—_Boston Post._
+
+“It is prepared in succinct but comprehensive style, and is an excellent
+book for reading and reference.”—_New York Observer._
+
+“No better condensed account of the two Gracchi and the turbulent careers
+of Marius and Sulla has yet appeared.”—_New York Independent._
+
+=THE ROMAN TRIUMVIRATES.= By the Very Rev. CHARLES MERIVALE, D.D.
+
+“In brevity, clear and scholarly treatment of the subject, and the
+convenience of map, index, and side notes, the volume is a model.”—_New
+York Tribune._
+
+“An admirable presentation, and in style vigorous and
+picturesque.”—_Hartford Courant._
+
+=THE EARLY EMPIRE—From the Assassination of Julius Cæsar to the
+Assassination of Domitian.= By Rev. W. WOLFE CAPES, M.A.
+
+“It is written with great clearness and simplicity of style, and is as
+attractive an account as has ever been given in brief of one of the most
+interesting periods of Roman History.”—_Boston Saturday Evening Gazette._
+
+“It is a clear, well-proportioned, and trustworthy performance, and well
+deserves to be studied.”—_Christian at Work._
+
+=THE AGE OF THE ANTONINES—The Roman Empire of the Second Century.= By
+Rev. W. WOLFE CAPES, M.A.
+
+“The Roman Empire during the second century is the broad
+subject discussed in this book, and discussed with learning and
+intelligence.”—_New York Independent._
+
+“The writer’s diction is clear and elegant, and his narration is free
+from any touch of pedantry. In the treatment of its prolific and
+interesting theme, and in its general plan, the book is a model of works
+of its class.”—_New York Herald._
+
+“We are glad to commend it. It is written clearly, and with care and
+accuracy. It is also in such neat and compact form as to be the more
+attractive.”—_Congregationalist._
+
+⁂ _The above six volumes give the History of Rome from the founding of
+the City to the death of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus._
+
+
+EPOCHS OF MODERN HISTORY.
+
+_A SERIES OF BOOKS NARRATING THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND EUROPE AT
+SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS SUBSEQUENT TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA._
+
+_Edited by_
+
+EDWARD E. MORRIS.
+
+Eighteen volumes, 16mo, with 74 Maps, Plans, and Tables.
+
+Sold separately. Price per vol., $1.00.
+
+The Set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in box, $18.00.
+
+=THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES—England and Europe in the Ninth
+Century.= By the Very Rev. R. W. CHURCH, M.A.
+
+“A remarkably thoughtful and satisfactory discussion of the causes and
+results of the vast changes which came upon Europe during the period
+discussed. The book is adapted to be exceedingly serviceable.”—_Chicago
+Standard._
+
+“At once readable and valuable. It is comprehensive and yet gives the
+details of a period most interesting to the student of history.”—_Herald
+and Presbyter._
+
+“It is written with a clearness and vividness of statement which make it
+the pleasantest reading. It represents a great deal of patient research,
+and is careful and scholarly.”—_Boston Journal._
+
+=THE NORMANS IN EUROPE—The Feudal System and England under the Norman
+Kings.= By Rev. A. H. JOHNSON, M.A.
+
+“Its pictures of the Normans in their home, of the Scandinavian exodus,
+the conquest of England, and Norman administration, are full of vigor and
+cannot fail of holding the reader’s attention.”—_Episcopal Register._
+
+“The style of the author is vigorous and animated, and he has given a
+valuable sketch of the origin and progress of the great Northern movement
+that has shaped the history of modern Europe.”—_Boston Transcript._
+
+=THE CRUSADES.= By Rev. G. W. COX.
+
+“To be warmly commended for important qualities. The author shows
+conscientious fidelity to the materials, and such skill in the use of
+them, that, as a result, the reader has before him a narrative related in
+a style that makes it truly fascinating.”—_Congregationalist._
+
+“It is written in a pure and flowing style, and its arrangement and
+treatment of subject are exceptional.”—_Christian Intelligencer._
+
+=THE EARLY PLANTAGENETS—Their Relation to the History of Europe; The
+Foundation and Growth of Constitutional Government.= By Rev. W. STUBBS,
+M.A.
+
+“Nothing could be desired more dear, succinct, and well arranged.
+All parts of the book are well done. It may be pronounced the best
+existing brief history of the constitution for this, its most important
+period.”—_The Nation._
+
+“Prof. Stubbs has presented leading events with such fairness and wisdom
+as are seldom found. He is remarkably clear and satisfactory.”—_The
+Churchman._
+
+=EDWARD III.= By Rev. W. WARBURTON, M.A.
+
+“The author has done his work well, and we commend it as containing in
+small space all essential matter.”—_New York Independent._
+
+“Events and movements are admirably condensed by the author, and
+presented in such attractive form as to entertain as well as
+instruct.”—_Chicago Interior._
+
+=THE HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK—The Conquest and Loss of France.= By
+JAMES GAIRDNER.
+
+“Prepared in a most careful and thorough manner, and ought to be read by
+every student.”—_New York Times._
+
+“It leaves nothing to be desired as regards compactness, accuracy, and
+excellence of literary execution.”—_Boston Journal._
+
+=THE ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION.= By FREDERIC SEEBOHM. With Notes,
+on Books in English relating to the Reformation, by Prof. GEORGE P.
+FISHER, D.D.
+
+“For an impartial record of the civil and ecclesiastical changes
+about four hundred years ago, we cannot commend a better
+manual.”—_Sunday-School Times._
+
+“All that could be desired, as well in execution as in plan. The
+narrative is animated, and the selection and grouping of events skillful
+and effective.”—_The Nation._
+
+=THE EARLY TUDORS—Henry VII., Henry VIII.= By Rev. C. E. MOBERLEY, M.A.,
+late Master in Rugby School.
+
+“Is concise, scholarly, and accurate. On the epoch of which it treats, we
+know of no work which equals it.”—_N. Y. Observer._
+
+“A marvel of clear and succinct brevity and good historical judgment.
+There is hardly a better book of its kind to be named.”—_New York
+Independent._
+
+=THE AGE OF ELIZABETH.= By Rev. M. CREIGHTON, M.A.
+
+“Clear and compact in style; careful in their facts, and just
+in interpretation of them. It sheds much light on the progress
+of the Reformation and the origin of the Popish reaction during
+Queen Elizabeth’s reign; also, the relation of Jesuitism to the
+latter.”—_Presbyterian Review._
+
+“A clear, concise, and just story of an era crowded with events of
+interest and importance.”—_New York World._
+
+=THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.= By SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER.
+
+“As a manual it will prove of the greatest practical value, while to
+the general reader it will afford a clear and interesting account of
+events. We know of no more spirited and attractive recital of the great
+era.”—_Boston Saturday Evening Gazette._
+
+“The thrilling story of those times has never been told so vividly or
+succinctly as in this volume.”—_Episcopal Register._
+
+=THE PURITAN REVOLUTION; and the First Two Stuarts, 1603-1660.= By SAMUEL
+RAWSON GARDINER.
+
+“The narrative is condensed and brief, yet sufficiently comprehensive to
+give an adequate view of the events related.”—_Chicago Standard._
+
+“Mr. Gardiner uses his researches in an admirably clear and fair
+way.”—_Congregationalist._
+
+“The sketch is concise, but clear and perfectly intelligible.”—_Hartford
+Courant._
+
+=THE ENGLISH RESTORATION AND LOUIS XIV., from the Peace of Westphalia to
+the Peace of Nimwegen.= By OSMUND AIRY, M.A.
+
+“It is crisply and admirably written. An immense amount of information
+is conveyed and with great clearness, the arrangement of the subjects
+showing great skill and a thorough command of the complicated
+theme.”—_Boston Saturday Evening Gazette._
+
+“The author writes with fairness and discrimination, and has given a
+clear and intelligible presentation of the time.”—_New York Evangelist._
+
+=THE FALL OF THE STUARTS; and Western Europe.= By Rev. EDWARD HALE, M.A.
+
+“A valuable compend to the general reader and scholar.”—_Providence
+Journal._
+
+“It will be found of great value. It is a very graphic account of the
+history of Europe during the 17th century, and is admirably adapted for
+the use of students.”—_Boston Saturday Evening Gazette._
+
+“An admirable handbook for the student.”—_The Churchman._
+
+=THE AGE OF ANNE.= By EDWARD E. MORRIS, M.A.
+
+“The author’s arrangement of the material is remarkably clear, his
+selection and adjustment of the facts judicious, his historical judgment
+fair and candid, while the style wins by its simple elegance.”—_Chicago
+Standard._
+
+“An excellent compendium of the history of an important period.”—_The
+Watchman._
+
+=THE EARLY HANOVERIANS—Europe from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle.= By EDWARD E. MORRIS, M.A.
+
+“Masterly, condensed, and vigorous, this is one of the books which it is
+a delight to read at odd moments; which are broad and suggestive, and at
+the same time condensed in treatment.”—_Christian Advocate._
+
+“A remarkably clear and readable summary of the salient points of
+interest. The maps and tables, no less than the author’s style and
+treatment of the subject, entitle the volume to the highest claims of
+recognition.”—_Boston Daily Advertiser._
+
+=FREDERICK THE GREAT, AND THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR.= By F. W. LONGMAN.
+
+“The subject is most important, and the author has treated it in a way
+which is both scholarly and entertaining.”—_The Churchman._
+
+“Admirably adapted to interest school boys, and older heads will find it
+pleasant reading.”—_New York Tribune._
+
+=THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, AND FIRST EMPIRE.= By WILLIAM O’CONNOR MORRIS.
+With Appendix by ANDREW D. WHITE, LL.D., ex-President of Cornell
+University.
+
+“We have long needed a simple compendium of this period, and we have
+here one which is brief enough to be easily run through with, and yet
+particular enough to make entertaining reading.”—_New York Evening Post._
+
+“The author has well accomplished his difficult task of sketching in
+miniature the grand and crowded drama of the French Revolution and the
+Napoleonic Empire, showing himself to be no servile compiler, but capable
+of judicious and independent criticism.”—_Springfield Republican._
+
+=THE EPOCH OF REFORM—1830-1850.= By JUSTIN MCCARTHY.
+
+“Mr. McCarthy knows the period of which he writes thoroughly, and the
+result is a narrative that is at once entertaining and trustworthy.”—_New
+York Examiner._
+
+“The narrative is clear and comprehensive, and told with abundant
+knowledge and grasp of the subject.”—_Boston Courier._
+
+
+IMPORTANT HISTORICAL WORKS.
+
+=THE DAWN OF HISTORY. An Introduction to Pre-Historic Study.= New and
+Enlarged Edition. Edited by C. F. KEARY. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.
+
+This work treats successively of the earliest traces of man; of language,
+its growth, and the story it tells of the pre-historic users of it; of
+early social life, the religions, mythologies, and folk-tales, and of the
+history of writing. The present edition contains about one hundred pages
+of new matter, embodying the results of the latest researches.
+
+“A fascinating manual. In its way, the work is a model of what a popular
+scientific work should be.”—_Boston Sat. Eve. Gazette._
+
+=THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS.= By Professor GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A. 12mo, with
+maps, $1.00.
+
+The first part of this book discusses the antiquity of civilization in
+Egypt and the other early nations of the East. The second part is an
+examination of the ethnology of Genesis, showing its accordance with the
+latest results of modern ethnographical science.
+
+“A work of genuine scholarly excellence, and a useful offset
+to a great deal of the superficial current literature on such
+subjects.”—_Congregationalist._
+
+=MANUAL OF MYTHOLOGY. For the Use of Schools, Art Students, and General
+Readers. Founded on the Works of Petiscus, Preller, and Welcker.= By
+ALEXANDER S. MURRAY, Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British
+Museum. With 45 Plates. Reprinted from the Second Revised London Edition.
+Crown 8vo, $1.75.
+
+“It has been acknowledged the best work on the subject to be found in a
+concise form, and as it embodies the results of the latest researches
+and discoveries in ancient mythologies, it is superior for school
+and general purposes as a handbook to any of the so-called standard
+works.”—_Cleveland Herald._
+
+“Whether as a manual for reference, a text-book for school use, or
+for the general reader, the book will be found very valuable and
+interesting.”—_Boston Journal._
+
+=THE HISTORY OF ROME, from the Earliest Time to the Period of Its
+Decline.= By Dr. THEODOR MOMMSEN. Translated by W. P. DICKSON, D.D.,
+LL.D. Reprinted from the Revised London Edition. Four volumes, crown 8vo.
+Price per set, $8.00.
+
+“A work of the very highest merit; its learning is exact and profound;
+its narrative full of genius and skill; its descriptions of men are
+admirably vivid.”—_London Times._
+
+“Since the days of Niebuhr, no work on Roman History has appeared that
+combines so much to attract, instruct, and charm the reader. Its style—a
+rare quality in a German author—is vigorous, spirited, and animated.”—Dr.
+SCHMITZ.
+
+=THE PROVINCES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. From Cæsar to Diocletian.= By THEODOR
+MOMMSEN. Translated by WILLIAM P. DICKSON, D.D., LL.D. With maps. Two
+vols., 8vo, $6.00.
+
+“The author draws the wonderfully rich and varied picture of the
+conquest and administration of that great circle of peoples and lands
+which formed the empire of Rome outside of Italy, their agriculture,
+trade, and manufactures, their artistic and scientific life, through all
+degrees of civilization, with such detail and completeness as could have
+come from no other hand than that of this great master of historical
+research.”—Prof. W. A. PACKARD, Princeton College.
+
+=THE HISTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.= Abridged from the History by
+Professor THEODOR MOMMSEN, by C. BRYANS and F. J. R. HENDY. 12mo, $1.75.
+
+“It is a genuine boon that the essential parts of Mommsen’s Rome are thus
+brought within the easy reach of all, and the abridgment seems to me to
+preserve unusually well the glow and movement of the original.”—Prof.
+TRACY PECK, Yale University.
+
+“The condensation has been accurately and judiciously effected. I
+heartily commend the volume as the most adequate embodiment, in a single
+volume, of the main results of modern historical research in the field of
+Roman affairs.”—Prof. HENRY M. BAIRD, University of City of New York.
+
+=THE HISTORY OF GREECE.= By Prof. Dr. ERNST CURTIUS. Translated by
+Adolphus William Ward, M.A., Fellow of St. Peter’s College, Cambridge,
+Prof. of History in Owen’s College, Manchester. Five volumes, crown 8vo.
+Price per set, $10.00.
+
+“We cannot express our opinion of Dr. Curtius’ book better than by saying
+that it may be fitly ranked with Theodor Mommsen’s great work.”—_London
+Spectator._
+
+“As an introduction to the study of Grecian history, no previous work
+is comparable to the present for vivacity and picturesque beauty, while
+in sound learning and accuracy of statement it is not inferior to the
+elaborate productions which enrich the literature of the age.”—_N. Y.
+Daily Tribune._
+
+=CÆSAR: a Sketch.= By JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE, M.A. 12mo, gilt top, $1.50.
+
+“This book is a most fascinating biography and is by far the best account
+of Julius Cæsar to be found in the English language.”—_The London
+Standard._
+
+“He combines into a compact and nervous narrative all that is known of
+the personal, social, political, and military life of Cæsar; and with his
+sketch of Cæsar includes other brilliant sketches of the great man, his
+friends, or rivals, who contemporaneously with him formed the principal
+figures in the Roman world.”—_Harper’s Monthly._
+
+=CICERO. Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero.= By WILLIAM FORSYTH, M.A., Q.C.
+20 Engravings. New Edition. 2 vols., crown 8vo, in one, gilt top, $2.50.
+
+The author has not only given us the most complete and well-balanced
+account of the life of Cicero ever published; he has drawn an accurate
+and graphic picture of domestic life among the best classes of the
+Romans, one which the reader of general literature, as well as the
+student, may peruse with pleasure and profit.
+
+“A scholar without pedantry, and a Christian without cant, Mr. Forsyth
+seems to have seized with praiseworthy tact the precise attitude which it
+behooves a biographer to take when narrating the life, the personal life
+of Cicero. Mr. Forsyth produces what we venture to say will become one
+of the classics of English biographical literature, and will be welcomed
+by readers of all ages and both sexes, of all professions and of no
+profession at all.”—_London Quarterly._
+
+
+VALUABLE WORKS ON CLASSICAL LITERATURE.
+
+=THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. From the Earliest Period to the Death
+of Marcus Aurelius.= With Chronological Tables, etc., for the use of
+Students. By C. T. CRUTTWELL, M.A. Crown 8vo, $2.50.
+
+Mr. Cruttwell’s book is written throughout from a purely literary point
+of view, and the aim has been to avoid tedious and trivial details.
+The result is a volume not only suited for the student, but remarkably
+readable for all who possess any interest in the subject.
+
+“Mr. Cruttwell has given us a genuine history of Roman literature,
+not merely a descriptive list of authors and their productions, but a
+well elaborated portrayal of the successive stages in the intellectual
+development of the Romans and the various forms of expression which these
+took in literature.”—_N. Y. Nation._
+
+=A HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE. From the Earliest Period of Demosthenes.=
+By FRANK BYRON JEVONS, M.A., Tutor in the University of Durham. Crown
+8vo, $2.50.
+
+_UNIFORM WITH THE ABOVE._
+
+The author goes into detail with sufficient fullness to make the history
+complete, but he never loses sight of the commanding lines along which
+the Greek mind moved, and a clear understanding of which is necessary to
+every intelligent student of universal literature.
+
+“It is beyond all question the best history of Greek literature that has
+hitherto been published.”—_London Spectator._
+
+“With such a book as this within reach there is no reason why any
+intelligent English reader may not get a thorough and comprehensive
+insight into the spirit of Greek literature, of its historic development,
+and of its successive and chief masterpieces, which are here so finely
+characterized, analyzed, and criticised.”—_Chicago Advance._
+
+
+TRANSLATIONS OF PLATO.
+
+=THE DIALOGUES OF PLATO. Translated into English, with Analysis and
+Introductions.= By B. JOWETT, M.A., Master of Balliol College, Oxford. A
+new and cheaper edition. Four vols., crown 8vo, per set, $8.00.
+
+“The present work of Professor Jowett will be welcomed with profound
+interest, as the only adequate endeavor to transport the most precious
+monument of Grecian thought among the familiar treasures of English
+literature. The noble reputation of Professor Jowett, both as a
+thinker and a scholar, is a valid guaranty for the excellence of his
+performance.”—_New York Tribune._
+
+=SOCRATES. A Translation of the Apology, Crito, and parts of the Phædo of
+Plato.= Containing the Defence of Socrates at his Trial, his Conversation
+in Prison, with his Thoughts on the Future Life, and an Account of his
+Death. With an Introduction by Professor W. W. Goodwin, of Harvard
+College. 12mo, cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents.
+
+=TALKS WITH SOCRATES ABOUT LIFE. Translations from the Gorgias and the
+Republic of Plato.= 12mo, cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents.
+
+=A DAY IN ATHENS WITH SOCRATES. Translations from the Protagoras and the
+Republic of Plato.= Being conversations between Socrates and other Greeks
+on Virtue and Justice. 12mo, cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents.
+
+“Eminent scholars, men of much Latin and more Greek, attest the skill and
+truth with which the versions are made; we can confidently speak of their
+English grace and clearness. They seem a ‘model of style,’ because they
+are without manner and perfectly simple.”—W. D. HOWELLS.
+
+“We do not remember any translation of a Greek author which is a better
+specimen of idiomatic English than this, or a more faithful rendering of
+the real spirit of the original into English as good and as simple as the
+Greek.”—_New York Evening Post._
+
+
+ CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS,
+ 743 and 745 Broadway, New York.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77173 ***
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+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77173 ***</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger"><i><span class="smcap">Epochs</span> of <span class="smcap">History</span></i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smaller">EDITED BY</span><br>
+EDWARD E. MORRIS, M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">THE CRUSADES.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">G. W. COX, M.A.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="max40">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center larger sans">EPOCHS OF ANCIENT HISTORY.</p>
+
+<p>Edited by Rev. <span class="smcap">G. W. Cox</span> and <span class="smcap">Charles Sankey</span>, M. A.
+Eleven volumes, 16mo, with 41 Maps and Plans. Price per
+vol., $1.00. The set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in box, $11.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">Troy—Its Legend, History, and Literature.</span> By S. G. W.
+Benjamin.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Greeks and the Persians.</span> By G. W. Cox.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Athenian Empire.</span> By G. W. Cox.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Spartan and Theban Supremacies.</span> By Charles Sankey.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Macedonian Empire.</span> By A. M. Curteis.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">Early Rome.</span> By W. Ihne.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">Rome and Carthage.</span> By R. Bosworth Smith.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla.</span> By A. H. Beesley.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Roman Triumvirates.</span> By Charles Merivale.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Early Empire.</span> By W. Wolfe Capes.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Age of the Antonines.</span> By W. Wolfe Capes.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p class="center larger sans">EPOCHS OF MODERN HISTORY.</p>
+
+<p>Edited by <span class="smcap">Edward E. Morris</span>. Eighteen volumes, 16mo,
+with 77 Maps, Plans, and Tables. Price per vol., $1.00.
+The set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in box, $18.00.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Beginning of the Middle Ages.</span> By R. W. Church.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Normans in Europe.</span> By A. H. Johnson.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Crusades.</span> By G. W. Cox.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Early Plantagenets.</span> By Wm. Stubbs.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">Edward III.</span> By W. Warburton.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Houses of Lancaster and York.</span> By James Gairdner.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Era of the Protestant Revolution.</span> By Frederic Seebohm.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Early Tudors.</span> By C. E. Moberly.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Age of Elizabeth.</span> By M. Creighton.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Thirty Years War, 1618-1648.</span> By S. R. Gardiner.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Puritan Revolution.</span> By S. R. Gardiner.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Fall of the Stuarts.</span> By Edward Hale.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The English Restoration and Louis XIV.</span> By Osmond Airy.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Age of Anne.</span> By Edward E. Morris.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Early Hanoverians.</span> By Edward E. Morris.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">Frederick the Great.</span> By F. W. Longman.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The French Revolution and First Empire.</span> By W. O’Connor
+Morris. Appendix by Andrew D. White.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><span class="smcap sans">The Epoch of Reform, 1830-1850.</span> By Justin Macarthy.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="map" style="max-width: 121.875em;">
+ <img class="w100" src="images/map.jpg" alt="">
+ <figcaption>
+ <p>General Map for the ERA OF THE CRUSADES</p>
+ </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">THE CRUSADES</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br>
+GEORGE W. COX, M.A.<br>
+<span class="smaller">AUTHOR OF<br>
+‘HISTORY OF GREECE’ ‘MYTHOLOGY OF THE ARYAN NATIONS’<br>
+ETC.</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>WITH A MAP</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">NEW YORK:<br>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS,<br>
+1890.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table>
+ <tr>
+ <td><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span></td>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><span class="allsmcap">PAGE</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.<br>CAUSES LEADING TO THE CRUSADES.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The crusades a series of popular wars</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Distinction between the crusades and other wars of the Middle Ages</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Absence of local feeling in the earliest Christian traditions</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The Christianity of St. Paul</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The Christianity of the Roman empire</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Localism of heathen religions</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Influence of these local religions on Christianity</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Growth of local associations in Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Growth of pilgrimage to the holy places of Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Gradual decay of spiritual religion</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Encouragement given to pilgrimages</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Trade in relics</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Stimulus given by pilgrimages to commerce with the East</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The long struggle between Rome and Persia</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>611</td>
+ <td> Capture of Jerusalem by the Persian king Khosru II.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Persian invasion of Egypt</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>622-625</td>
+ <td>Campaigns of the emperor Heraclius</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>627</td>
+ <td>Battle of Nineveh</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>628</td>
+ <td>Restoration of the True Cross by the Persians</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>629</td>
+ <td>Pilgrimage of Heraclius to Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>637</td>
+ <td>Conquest of Palestine by Omar</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Terms of the treaty made by Omar with the Christians of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Omar and the patriarch Sophronios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Effects of Arabian conquest on pilgrimage to Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_14">14</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Uninterrupted continuance of pilgrimage</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1010</td>
+ <td>Ravages of the Egyptian sultan Hakem in Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Persecution of Jews in Europe</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Tax levied on pilgrims at the gates of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Expectation of the end of the world <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1000</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>997</td>
+ <td>Conversion of Hungary under king Stephen</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Advance of the Seljukian Turks</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1092</td>
+ <td>Division of the Seljukian empire</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Appeal of the Greek emperor Alexios to Western Christendom</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1076</td>
+ <td>Seljukian conquest of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Increased burdens of the Christian pilgrims</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Decline of commerce with the East</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Oppression of the Christians of Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>General indignation felt in Western Christendom</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Need of a religious sanction to sustain and direct this feeling</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II.<br>THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Influence of Roman imperialism on the early popes</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Schemes and motives of Gregory VII.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1074</td>
+ <td>His circular letter to the faithful</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1081</td>
+ <td>The Normans in Italy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1095</td>
+ <td>Council of Piacenza</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Council of Clermont</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1093</td>
+ <td>Pilgrimage of the hermit Peter to Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1094</td>
+ <td>The mission and preaching of the hermit</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1095</td>
+ <td>Decrees of the council of Clermont prohibiting private wars and confirming the Truce of God</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Speech of Urban II. before the people</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The assent of the multitude</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The cross and the vow of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Motives of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Financial effects of the crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Effects of the crusades on the power of the pope and the clergy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Dispensing power of the pope</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Tendency of the crusades to break up the feudal system</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Increasing wealth of the pope and the clergy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Alienation, and pledging or mortgaging, of lands</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The crusades not national enterprises</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1085</td>
+ <td>Condition of Europe in the time of Urban II.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III.<br>THE FIRST CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1096</td>
+ <td>Departure of the first rabble of crusaders under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Second rabble under Emico and Gotschalk</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Bloody persecutions of the Jews</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The Jews taken under the protection of the empire</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>March of Walter and his followers through Hungary and Bulgaria</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Passage of the pilgrims across the Bosporos</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Their utter destruction by Kilidje Arslan</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Rank and character of the leaders of the first crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Godfrey of Bouillon and his brothers Baldwin and Eustace</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Hugh of Vermandois</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Robert of Normandy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Robert of Flanders, and Stephen of Chartres</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Adhemar, bishop of Puy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Raymond of Toulouse</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Bohemond</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Tancred</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Cause and effect of chivalry</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Knighthood</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Courtesy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>August</td>
+ <td>Departure of the main army of the crusaders under Godfrey</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_49">49</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Captivity of Hugh of Vermandois</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Christmas Arrival of Godfrey before the walls of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Policy of the emperor Alexios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Compact between Alexios and the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Homage of the crusaders to Alexios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Disastrous march of Raymond of Toulouse to Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Refusal of Raymond to do homage</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1097</td>
+ <td>Conduct of Alexios to the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>March</td>
+ <td>Passage of the crusaders across the Bosporos</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Thorough antagonism between the crusaders and the Greeks</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Contrast between the Greek and Latin clergy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Numbers of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>June</td>
+ <td>Siege and fall of Nice (Nikaia)</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>July 4</td>
+ <td>Battle of Dorylaion</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>March to Cogni and the Pisidian Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Quarrel between Godfrey and Tancred at Tarsus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Conquest of Edessa by Baldwin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>October</td>
+ <td>Arrival of the crusaders before the Syrian Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Siege of Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Folly of the besiegers</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Famine in the crusading camp</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Arrival of envoys from the sultan of Egypt</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Their terms rejected by the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1098</td>
+ <td>Fierce warfare between the Christians and the Turks</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>March</td>
+ <td>Plans of Bohemond for the reduction of Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>June</td>
+ <td>Betrayal of Antioch to Bohemond</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Arrival of the Persians under Kerboga</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Desertion of Stephen of Chartres</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Desperate straits of the crusaders in Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Discovery of the Holy Lance</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Fate of the discoverer</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>June 28</td>
+ <td>Battle of Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Defeat of Kerboga</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Antioch made a principality for Bohemond</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Mission of Hugh of Vermandois to Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Death of Adhemar, bishop of Puy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Siege and capture of Marra</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1099, May</td>
+ <td>March of the crusaders from Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>June</td>
+ <td>Siege of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>July</td>
+ <td>Storming of the city</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Adoration of the crusaders in the church of the Sepulchre</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Exaltation of Peter the Hermit</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Second and deliberate massacre in Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Comparison of Omar and Godfrey</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Election of Godfrey to the sovereignty of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Battle of Ascalon</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Return of the pilgrims to Europe</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV.<br>THE LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1099-1100</td>
+ <td>Reign of Godfrey</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Daimbert, patriarch of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Assize of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Judicial courts instituted by Godfrey</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1100-1118</td>
+ <td>Baldwin I.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1101</td>
+ <td>Death of Stephen of Chartres</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1105</td>
+ <td>Death of Raymond of Toulouse</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Sequel of the career of Bohemond</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1112</td>
+ <td>Death of Tancred</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Effect of the crusades on the Byzantine empire</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Fresh swarms of pilgrims</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1101</td>
+ <td>Death of Hugh of Vermandois</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1118</td>
+ <td>Death of the emperor Alexios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1118-1131</td>
+ <td>Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1115</td>
+ <td>Conquest of Sidon</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1124</td>
+ <td>Conquest of Tyre</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1131-1144</td>
+ <td>Fulk, king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1144-1162</td>
+ <td>Baldwin III.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1145</td>
+ <td>Fall of Edessa</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_85">85</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V.<br>THE SECOND CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Bernard the apostle of the second crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Sources of Bernard’s influence</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1137</td>
+ <td>Death of Louis VI. of France</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1146</td>
+ <td>Council of Vezelai</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Easter</td>
+ <td>Speech of Bernard</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The Knights Templars</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Reluctance of Conrad, emperor of Germany, to join the crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1147</td>
+ <td>Meeting of Louis VII. and the pope at St Denys</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Whitsuntide</td>
+ <td>Persecution of the Jews stirred up by the monk Rodolph</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Suppressed by Bernard</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>March of the crusaders under Conrad and Louis</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Refusal of Conrad to meet the emperor Manuel at Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Supposed treachery of Manuel</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Disastrous march of Conrad and Louis</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1148</td>
+ <td>Visit of the French king to Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>March</td>
+ <td>Resolution to attack Damascus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Siege of Damascus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Treachery of the barons of Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Retreat of the army to Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Failure of the crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Accusations against St Bernard</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>His answer</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1153</td>
+ <td>Death of St. Bernard</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI.<br>THE LOSS OF JERUSALEM.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Misuse of victory by the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1151</td>
+ <td>Death of Joceline of Courtenay</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1153</td>
+ <td>Siege and fall of Ascalon</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1162</td>
+ <td>Death of Baldwin III. Almeric elected king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_98">98</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Relations of Almeric with the sultans of Egypt and Aleppo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Mission of Shiracouh and Saladin to Egypt</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Siege and surrender of Shiracouh in Pelusium</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1163</td>
+ <td>Defeat of the Latins by Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Alliance of Almeric with the Egyptian sultan</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1167</td>
+ <td>Operations of Almeric against Shiracouh</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Real designs of Almeric</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1168</td>
+ <td>Expedition of Almeric to Pelusium</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>His ignominious retreat</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Rise of Saladin to power in Egypt</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1169</td>
+ <td>Attempts to stir up a crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1171</td>
+ <td>Suppression of the Fatimite caliphat by Saladin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Quarrel between Saladin and the sultan of Aleppo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1173</td>
+ <td>Death of Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Character of Noureddin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1186</td>
+ <td>Baldwin V., king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Preparations of Saladin for the reconquest of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1187</td>
+ <td>Battle of Tiberias</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>July</td>
+ <td>Capture of Guy of Lusignan</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Loss of the True Cross</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Fruits of the victory of Saladin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Siege and fall of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Terms of the capitulation</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Departure of the Latins from the Holy City</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Entry of Saladin into Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Escape of Tyre under Conrad</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Further conquests of Saladin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Causes of weakness in the kingdom of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(1) Bad faith in dealing with the Moslem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(2) Disregard of rights of property</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(3) Lax military discipline</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(4) Total lack of statesmanship</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(5) General immorality</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(6) Desultory character of the crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_112">112</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(7) Quarrels and feuds of the Latin chiefs</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="in1">(8) Antagonistic jurisdictions of the civil power, the church, and the military orders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII.<br>THE THIRD CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Fictitious or romantic portraits of Richard I. of England</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Real character of the actors in the third crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Decay of the crusading spirit</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Change in the character of the crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1174</td>
+ <td>Henry II. of England and the patriarch of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1187</td>
+ <td>Death of Urban III.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Pontificate of Gregory VIII.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1188</td>
+ <td>Assumption of the cross by Henry II. and Philip Augustus of France</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Saladin tax or tenth</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Feuds in the family of Henry II.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1189</td>
+ <td>Death of Henry II.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>July</td>
+ <td>Preparations of Richard I. for the crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Modes of raising money</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Persecution and massacre of Jews in England</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Fearful tragedy in York castle</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1190</td>
+ <td>Meeting of Richard and Philip at Vezelai</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Poetry and influence of the troubadours</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>March of Frederick I., Barbarossa, to Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The popes and the empire</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Death of Frederick I.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Re-occupation of Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1189</td>
+ <td>Siege of Acre by the Latins of Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Rise of the Teutonic order</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1190</td>
+ <td>Death of Sibylla, queen of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Conrad, titular king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Sept 23</td>
+ <td>Voyage of the English fleet to Lisbon and Messina</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Conduct of Richard I. in Sicily</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Quarrel between Richard and Philip Augustus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1191 March</td>
+ <td>War between Richard and the Comnenian emperor of Cyprus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_130">130</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[xv]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Arrival of Richard and Philip at Acre</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>July 12</td>
+ <td>Surrender of Acre</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Return of Philip to France</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Massacre of five thousand Turkish hostages</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Victory of Richard at Azotus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Abortive negotiations with Saladin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Feud between the English king and the duke of Austria</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1192</td>
+ <td>Henry of Champagne, titular king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>March of Richard towards Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Retreat of the army from Bethlehem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Relief of Jaffa</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Truce between the crusaders and Saladin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Pilgrimage to Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Results of the third crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Captivity of Richard I. in Austria</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1193</td>
+ <td>Exertions made for the liberation of Richard</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Richard before the diet at Hagenau</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1194</td>
+ <td>Release of Richard</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>His return to England</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII.<br>THE FOURTH CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Motives of the chief promoters of the fourth crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1193</td>
+ <td>Death of Saladin and its consequences</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Encouragement given to the crusade by the emperor Henry VI.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1196</td>
+ <td>Death of Henry VI.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Arrival of his barons with their troops in the Holy Land</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Capture of Jaffa by Saphadin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Arrival of fresh crusaders under Conrad, bishop of Hildesheim</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1197</td>
+ <td>Siege of the castle of Thoron</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Complete defeat of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Capture of Jaffa, and massacre of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Almeric of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem and Cyprus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX.<br>THE FIFTH CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1198</td>
+ <td>Election of Innocent III.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Effect of the crusades in extending the jurisdiction of the pope</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Weakening of the imperial power</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Growing mistrust of the court of Rome by the peoples of Europe</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Effects of Innocent to remove this mistrust</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Fulk of Neuilly</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The mission of Fulk sanctioned by the pope</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Efforts of his eloquence</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1202</td>
+ <td>Death of Fulk</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1200</td>
+ <td>The chiefs of the fifth crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1201</td>
+ <td>Mission from the French barons to Venice</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Compact for the conveyance of the crusaders to Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1202</td>
+ <td>Failure of the crusaders to make up the sum agreed on with the Venetians</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Proposal to commute the payment by an expedition against Zara</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1195</td>
+ <td>Mission to Rome to ask aid for the dethroned Byzantine emperor, Isaac Angelus</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Determination of the Venetians to insist on the expedition to Zara</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1202</td>
+ <td>Siege and conquest of Zara, Nov. 15</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Proposal to direct the crusade to the restoration of Alexios at Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Resolution to accept the terms proposed by Alexios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Negotiations with the pope for the removal of the interdict</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1203</td>
+ <td>Vain attempts of Innocent to oppose the expedition</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Easter</td>
+ <td>Arrival of the fleet at Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Flight of the usurper Alexios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The crusaders are compelled to winter at Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Efforts of Mourzoufle to detach Alexios from the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_160">160</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Deposition and death of Alexios</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Resolution to set up a Latin dynasty in Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1204</td>
+ <td>Siege and conquest of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>April</td>
+ <td>Horrible excesses of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Election of Baldwin, count of Flanders, as emperor of the East</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Election of Thomas Morosini as patriarch of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Embassies from Baldwin and the Venetians to the pope</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Answers of Innocent III.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Results of the crusade to the pope and to the Venetians</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X.<br>THE LATIN EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Contrast between the Greeks and the Latins</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Attempt to upset the civilization of the old empire</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Conduct of the pope towards the Greek clergy</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Opposition of the French clergy to the new patriarch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Partition of the empire among the crusading chiefs</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1204</td>
+ <td>Rise of new empires at Nice, Trebizond, and Durazzo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1205</td>
+ <td>Massacre of the Latins in Thrace by order of the Bulgarian Calo-John</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>April</td>
+ <td>Captivity of the emperor Baldwin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Death of Baldwin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1206-1216</td>
+ <td>Henry I., brother of Baldwin, emperor of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1207</td>
+ <td>Assassination of Calo-John</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Wise government of the emperor Henry</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Death of Henry</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Peter of Courtenay, emperor of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1218</td>
+ <td>Captivity and death of Peter of Courtenay</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1219</td>
+ <td>Robert, emperor of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1228</td>
+ <td>John of Brienne, emperor of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_178">178</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1235</td>
+ <td>Siege of Constantinople by Vataces</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1237-1261</td>
+ <td>Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Efforts to raise money</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Sale of relics</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1255</td>
+ <td>Death of Vataces</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1259</td>
+ <td>The envoys of Baldwin repelled by Michael Paleologos</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1261</td>
+ <td>Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>July</td>
+ <td>Permanent alienation of the East from the West</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI.<br>THE SIXTH CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Chief features of the sixth crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Depression of the Latins in Palestine</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1204</td>
+ <td>Truce between Saphadin and the Christians</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1210</td>
+ <td>John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Zeal of Innocent III. in promoting a new crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Robert of Courcon</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1215</td>
+ <td>Fourth council of Lateran</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1216</td>
+ <td>Crusade of Andrew, king of Hungary</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1218</td>
+ <td>Siege of Damietta</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Death of Saphadin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Terms of peace offered by Coradin</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Mad rejection of the terms by the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1219</td>
+ <td>Fall of Damietta, Nov. 5</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1220</td>
+ <td>March of the Christians for Cairo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The old terms again rejected</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Ruin of the crusaders</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1212</td>
+ <td>Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The popes and the emperors</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Otho of Brunswick</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1214</td>
+ <td>Battle of Bouvines</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1216</td>
+ <td>Honorius III., pope</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1221</td>
+ <td>Loss of Damietta</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1222</td>
+ <td>Treaty of Ferentino</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1225</td>
+ <td>Treaty of San Germano</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Frederick, king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_191">191</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[xix]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1227</td>
+ <td>Gregory IX., pope</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Excommunication of the emperor</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1228</td>
+ <td>Departure of Frederick from Brundusium</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Landing of Frederick at Ptolemais</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1229</td>
+ <td>Treaty between Frederick and the sultan Kameel</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>Feb. 18</td>
+ <td>Frederick at Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Moderation of the emperor</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Condemnation of the treaty by Gregory IX.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Return of the emperor with the crusaders to Europe</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Renewed excommunication of the emperor</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XII.<br>THE SEVENTH CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Charges of peculation against the papal collectors</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1230</td>
+ <td>Opposition of the pope and the emperor to the new crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1239</td>
+ <td>Arrival of the French crusaders at Acre</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Their complete failure</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1240</td>
+ <td>The English crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Treaty between Richard of Cornwall and the Egyptian sultan</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1242</td>
+ <td>Invasion of the Korasmians</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Alliance of the Templars with the Syrians</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIII.<br>THE EIGHTH CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1245</td>
+ <td>Council of Lyons</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1226</td>
+ <td>Louis IX., king of France</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Louis IX., the pope, and the emperor</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1245</td>
+ <td>Assumption of the cross by Louis IX.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1248</td>
+ <td>Departure of Louis from France</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1249</td>
+ <td>Capture of Damietta</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>March of the army towards Cairo</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Total defeat of the forces under the count of Artois</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_210">210</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[xx]</span></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1250</td>
+ <td>The king taken prisoner</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Firmness of the king</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Terms of ransom</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Murder of Turan Shah</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Release of Louis IX.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Pilgrimage of Louis to Nazareth</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIV.<br>THE NINTH CRUSADE.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Comparison of the earlier and later crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1259</td>
+ <td>Battle between the Templars and Hospitallers</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1263</td>
+ <td>Invasion of Palestine by the Mameluke sultan Bibars</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Loss of Antioch</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1270</td>
+ <td>Second crusade of Louis IX.</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Death of the king</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1271</td>
+ <td>Capture of Nazareth by Edward, son of Henry III. of England</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1272</td>
+ <td>Return of Edward to Europe</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Vain efforts of Gregory X. to stir up a crusade</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Claims to the titular kingdom of Jerusalem</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1291</td>
+ <td>Loss of Acre</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XV.<br>THE SEQUEL OF THE RELIGIOUS WARS.</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Gradual decay and extinction of the crusading spirit</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Persecution and suppression of the Knights Templars</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>The Albigensian crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td>1212</td>
+ <td>The Children’s crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td>Indirect results of the crusades</td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table>
+ <tr>
+ <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><i>MAP.</i></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><span class="smcap">General Map for the History of the Crusades</span></td>
+ <td><span style="padding-left: 7.5em;">&nbsp;</span></td>
+ <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map"><i>To face title-page.</i></a></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+<h1>THE CRUSADES.</h1>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br>
+<span class="smaller">CAUSES LEADING TO THE CRUSADES.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The crusades—a series of popular wars.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1095. Nov.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1066.</div>
+
+<p>The Crusades were a series of wars, waged by men who
+wore on their garments the badge of the Cross as a
+pledge binding them to rescue the Holy Land
+and the Sepulchre of Christ from the grasp of
+the unbeliever. The dream of such an enterprise
+had long floated before the minds of
+keen-sighted popes and passionate enthusiasts: it was
+realized for the first time when, after listening to the
+burning eloquence of Urban II. at the council
+of Clermont, the assembled multitude with
+one voice welcomed the sacred war as the will of God.
+If we regard this undertaking as the simple expression
+of popular feeling stirred to its inmost depths, we may
+ascribe to the struggle to which they thus committed
+themselves a character wholly unlike that of any earlier
+wars waged in Christendom, or by the powers of Christendom
+against enemies who lay beyond its pale. Statesmen
+(whether popes, kings, or dukes) might have availed
+themselves eagerly of the overwhelming impulse imparted
+by the preaching of Peter the Hermit to passions long
+pent up; but no authority of pope, emperor, or king,
+could suffice of itself to open the floodgates for the
+waters which might sweep away the infidel. In this
+sense only were men stirred, whether at the council of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>Piacenza in 1094, or in that of Clermont, to a strife of a
+wholly new kind. If Urban II. gave his blessing to the
+missionaries who were to convert the Saracens at the
+point of the sword, the papal benediction
+had been given nearly thirty years before at
+the instigation of Hildebrand to the expedition by which
+the Norman William hoped to crush the free English
+people and usurp the throne of the king whom they had
+chosen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Distinction between the crusades and other wars of the Middle Ages.</div>
+
+<p>But the movement of the Norman duke against England
+was merely the work of a sovereign well awake to
+his own interest and confident in the methods
+by which he chose to promote it. Under the
+sacred standard sent to him by Pope Alexander
+II. he gathered, indeed, a motley host
+of adventurers; but the religious enthusiasm
+by which these may have fancied themselves to be animated
+had reference chiefly to the broad acres to which
+they looked forward as their recompense. The great
+gulf which separated such an undertaking from the crusade
+of the hermit Peter lay in the conviction, deep even
+to fanaticism, that the wearers of the Cross had before
+them an enterprise in which failure, disaster, and death
+were not less blessed, not less objects of envy and longing,
+than the most brilliant conquests and the most splendid
+triumphs. They were hastening to the land where
+their Divine Master had descended from his throne in
+heaven to take on Himself the form of man—where for
+years the everlasting Son of the Almighty Father had
+patiently toiled, healing the sick, comforting the afflicted,
+and raising the dead, until at length He carried, his own
+Cross up the height of Calvary, and having offered up
+his perfect sacrifice, put off the garments of his humiliation
+when the earthquake shattered the prison-house
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>of his sepulchre. For them the whole land had been
+rendered holy by the tread of his sacred feet: and the
+pilgrim who had traced the scenes of his life from his
+cradle at Bethlehem to the spot of his ascent from Olivet,
+might sing the <i>Nunc dimittis</i>, as having with his own eyes
+seen the divine salvation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Absence of local feeling in the earliest Christian traditions.</div>
+
+<p>Thus the crusade preached by Peter the Hermit, and
+solemnly sanctioned by Pope Urban, was rendered possible
+by the combination of papal authority
+with an irresistible popular conviction. That
+papal authority was the necessary result of
+the old imperial tradition of Rome; the
+popular conviction was the growth of a tendency which
+had characterized every religion professed by Aryan or
+Semitic nations; and both these causes were wholly unconnected
+with the teaching of Christ and of his disciples,
+as it is set before us in the New Testament. Far
+from ascribing special sanctity to any one spot over
+another, the emphatic declaration that the hour was
+come in which men should worship the Father not
+merely in Jerusalem or on the Samaritan mountain,
+proclaimed a gospel which taught that all men in all
+places are alike near to God in whom they live, move,
+and have their being. If we turn to the narrative which
+relates the Acts of the Apostles, we shall find not a sign
+of the feeling which regards Bethlehem, Jerusalem, or
+Nazareth, the Sea of Galilee, or the banks of the Jordan,
+as places which of themselves should awaken any enthusiastic
+or passionate feeling. The thoughts of the disciples,
+if we confine ourselves to this record, were absorbed with
+more immediate and momentous concerns. Before their
+generation should pass away, the Son of Man would return
+to judgment, and the dead should be summoned
+from their graves to his awful tribunal. Hence any
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>vehement longing for one spot of earth over another
+was wretchedly out of place for those who held that the
+time was short, and that it behooved those who had wives
+to be as though they had none, those that bought as
+though they possessed not, and those that wept and rejoiced
+as though they wept and rejoiced not. Nay,
+more, with a feeling almost approaching to impatience,
+the great apostle of the Gentiles could put aside the
+yearnings of a weaker sentiment and declare that
+although he had known Christ in the flesh, yet henceforth
+he would so know Him no more.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Christianity of St. Paul.</div>
+
+<p>The image, therefore, of the great founder of Christianity
+was for him purely spiritual. In the letters which
+he wrote to the churches formed by his converts
+there is not a sign that the thought or
+the sight of Bethlehem or Nazareth would
+awaken in him any deeper feeling than places wholly
+destitute of historical associations. If he speaks of Jerusalem,
+he never implies that it had for him any special
+sanctity. His mission was to preach a faith altogether
+independent of time and place, and not only not needing
+but even rejecting the sensuous aid afforded by visible
+memorials of the Master whom he loved.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Christianity of the Roman Empire.</div>
+
+<p>Such was the Christianity of St. Paul; and with such
+weapons it went forth to assail and throw down the
+strongholds of heathenism. Three centuries
+later we behold Christianity dominant as the
+religion of the Roman Empire; but in its
+outward aspect and in its practical working it has undergone
+a vast and significant change. It cannot be supposed
+that this change was wrought at once by the mere
+fact of its recognition by the temporal power. The
+endless debates, which fill the history of early Christianity,
+on the relations of the Persons of the Trinity and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>on the mystery of the Incarnation, may in some degree
+have helped to fix the minds of men on the land where
+the Saviour had lived, and on the several scenes of his
+ministry; but this alone would never have sufficed to
+work the revolution which Christianity has manifestly
+undergone, even before we reach the age of Constantine.
+The victory won over heathenism, if not merely
+nominal, was at best partial. The religion of the empire
+knew nothing of the One Eternal God, who demands
+from all men a spontaneous submission to his righteous
+law, and bids them find their highest good in his divine
+love. That religion rested on the might of the Capitoline
+Jupiter and the visible majesty of the Emperor; but the
+real influences which were at work from the first to
+modify the Christianity of St. Paul lay in the lower strata
+of society, in the modes of thought and feeling prevalent
+among the masses who furnished the converts of the first
+two or three centuries. In these converts we cannot
+doubt that there was wrought a real change,—a change
+manifest chiefly in the conviction that the divine law is
+binding on all, and that the state of things in the Roman
+world was unspeakably shameful. In the Jesus whom
+Paul preached they beheld the righteous teacher who
+condemned the iniquities of godless rulers and a corrupt
+people, the avenger of their unjust deeds, the loving
+Redeemer in whose arms the weary and heavy-laden
+might find rest, the awful Judge who should be seen at
+the end of the world on his great white throne, with all
+the kindreds of mankind awaiting their doom before
+Him. The personal human love thus kindled in them
+turned only into a different channel thoughts and feelings
+which it would need centuries to root out.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Localism of heathen religions.</div>
+
+<p>These thoughts and feelings had been fed by that tendency
+to localize incidents in the supposed history of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>gods or heroes which is the most prominent
+characteristic of all heathen religions; and
+of the vast crowd of these heathen religions
+or superstitions there was, if we may trust the statements
+of Roman writers, scarcely one which had not its adherents
+and votaries at Rome. Here were gathered the
+priests and worshippers of the Egyptian Isis, the virgin
+mother of Osiris, the god who rose again after his crucifixion
+to gladden the earth with his splendour; here
+might be seen the adorers of the Persian sun-god Mithras,
+born at the winter solstice, and growing in strength
+until he wins his victory over the powers of darkness
+after the vernal equinox. But this idea of the death and
+resurrection of the lord of light was no new importation
+brought in by the theology of Egypt or Persia. The
+story of the Egyptian Osiris was repeated in the Greek
+stories of Sarpedon and Memnon, of Tithonos and Asklepios
+(Æsculapius), of the Teutonic Baldur and Woden
+(Odin). The birthplace of these deities, the scenes associated
+with their traditional exploits, became holy
+spots, each with its own consecrating legends, and not a
+few attracting to themselves vast gatherings of pilgrims.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of these local religions on Christianity.</div>
+
+<p>It was not wonderful therefore that the worshippers of
+these or other like gods should, on professing the faith
+of Christ, carry with them all that they could
+retain of their old belief without utterly contradicting
+the new; that his nativity should
+be celebrated at the time when the sun
+begins to rise in the heavens, and his resurrection when
+the victory of light over darkness is achieved in the
+spring. The worshipper of the Egyptian Amoun, the
+ram, carried his old associations with him when he became
+a follower of the Lamb of God; and the burst of
+light which heralded the return of the Maiden to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>Mourning Mother in the Greek mysteries of Eleusis was
+reproduced in the miracle still repeated year by year by
+the patriarch of Jerusalem when he announces the descent
+of the sacred fire in the sepulchre of Christ.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growth of local associations in Palestine.</div>
+
+<p>Thus for the Christians of the third century, if not of
+the second, Judæa or Palestine became a holy land; and
+with the growth of devotion to the human
+person of Christ grew the feeling of reverence
+for every place which He had visited
+and every memorial which He had left behind Him.
+The impulse once given soon became irresistible. Every
+incident of the gospel narratives was associated with
+some particular spot, and the certainty of the verification
+was never questioned by the thousands who felt that the
+sight of these places brought them nearer to heaven and
+was in itself a purification of their souls. They could
+follow the Redeemer from the cave in which He was
+born and where the Wise Men of the East laid before
+Him their royal offerings, to the mount from which He
+uttered his blessings on the pure, the merciful, and the
+peacemakers, and thence to the other mount on which
+He offered his perfect sacrifice for the sins of the whole
+world. The spots associated with his passion, his burial,
+his resurrection, called forth emotions of passionate veneration
+which were intensified by the alleged discovery
+of the cross on which He had suffered, together with the
+two crosses on which the thieves had been condemned
+to die. If the presence of the tablet containing the title
+inscribed by Pontius Pilate still left it uncertain to which
+of the crosses that tablet belonged, and to which therefore
+the homage of the faithful should be paid, all doubt
+was removed when a woman at the point of death on
+whom the touch of two of these crosses had no effect was
+restored to strength and youth by the touch of the third.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growth of pilgrimage to the holy places of Palestine.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gradual decay of spiritual religion.</div>
+
+<p>The splendid churches raised by the devout zeal of
+Constantine and his mother Helena over the
+cave at Bethlehem and the sepulchre at
+Jerusalem became for the Christians that
+which the sacred stone at Mecca and the
+tomb of the prophet at Medina became afterwards for
+the followers of Islam; nor can we be surprised if the
+emperor whose previous life had been marked by special
+devotion to the Greek and Roman sun-god transferred
+the characteristics of Apollon (Apollo) to the meek and
+merciful Jesus whose teaching to the last he utterly misapprehended.
+The purpose which drew to Palestine the
+long lines of pilgrims, which each year increased in
+numbers, was not the mere aimless love of wandering
+which is supposed to furnish the motive for Tartar pilgrimages
+in our own as in former ages. The Aryan, so
+far as we know, was never a nomadic race; but we can
+understand the eagerness even of a stationary population
+to undertake a long and dangerous journey, if the mere
+making of it should insure the remission of their sins.
+Nothing less than this was the pilgrim led to expect, who
+had traversed land and sea to bathe in the Jordan and
+offer up his prayers at the birthplace and tomb of his
+Master. A few men, of keener discernment and wider
+culture, might see the mischiefs lurking in this belief,
+and protest against the superstition. Augustine, the
+great doctor whose ‘Confessions’ have made his name
+familiar to thousands who know nothing of his life or
+teaching, might bid Christians remember that righteousness
+was not to be sought in the East nor mercy in the
+West, and that voyages are useless to carry us to Him
+with whom a hearty faith makes us immediately present.
+In these protests he might be upheld by men like Gregory
+of Nyssa and Jerome; but Jerome, while he dwelt
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>on the uselessness of pilgrimage and the absurdity of
+supposing that prayers offered in one place could be
+more acceptable than the same prayers offered in another,
+took up his abode in a cave at Bethlehem, and
+there discoursed to Roman ladies, who had crossed the
+sea to listen to his splendid eloquence. Heaven, he insisted,
+was as accessible from Britain as from Palestine:
+but his actions contradicted his words, and his example
+exercised a more potent influence than his precept. The
+purely spiritual faith on which Jerome laid stress was as
+much beyond the spirit of the age as the
+moral feelings of a later age were behind
+those of the woman who in the crusade of
+St. Louis was seen carrying in her right hand a porringer
+of fire, and in her left a bottle of water. With the fire
+she wished, as Joinville tells us, to burn paradise, with
+the water to drown hell, so that none might do good for
+the reward of the one, nor avoid evil from fear of the
+other, since every good ought to be done from the perfect
+and sincere love which man owes to his Creator,
+who is the supreme good. Such a tone of thought was
+in ludicrous discord with the temper which brought
+Jerome himself to Bethlehem, and which soon began to
+fill the land with those who had nothing of Jerome’s
+culture and the sobriety which in whatever degree must
+spring from it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Encouragement given to pilgrimages.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Trade in relics.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Stimulus given by pilgrimages to commerce with the East.</div>
+
+<p>The contagion spread. From almost every country
+of Europe wanderers took their way to Palestine, under
+the conviction that the shirt which they
+wore when they entered the holy city would,
+if laid by to be used as their winding-sheet,
+convey them (like the carpet of Solomon in the Arabian
+tale) at once to heaven. An enterprise so laudable
+roused the sympathy and quickened the charity of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>faithful. The pilgrim seldom lacked food and shelter,
+and houses of repose or entertainment were raised for
+his comfort on the stages of his journey as well as in the
+city which was the goal of his pilgrimage. Here he
+was welcomed in the costly house which had been raised
+for his reception by the munificence of Pope Gregory
+the Great. If he died during his absence, his kinsfolk
+envied rather than bewailed his lot: if he returned, he
+had their reverence as one who had washed away his sins,
+and still more perhaps as one who had brought away in
+his wallet relics of value so vast and of virtue so great
+that the touch of them made the journey to Palestine
+almost a superfluous ceremony. Wherever these pilgrims
+went, these fragments of the true cross
+might be found; and the happy faith of
+those who gave in exchange for them more than their
+weight in gold never stopped to think that the barren
+log which was supposed to have produced them must in
+truth have spread abroad its branches wider than the
+most magnificent cedar in Libanus. Nor probably,
+even in the earliest ages, was the traffic consequent on
+these pilgrimages confined to holy things. The East
+was not only the cradle of Christianity, but
+a land rich in spices and silks, in gold and
+jewels: and the keen-sighted merchant,
+looking to solid profits on earth, followed
+closely on the steps of the devotee who sought his reward
+in heaven.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The long struggle between Rome and Persia.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 611. Capture of Jerusalem by the Persian king, Khosru II.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persian invasion of Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>The first interruption to the peaceful and prosperous
+fortunes of pilgrims and merchants was caused by one
+of the periodical ebbs and flows which for nearly seven
+hundred years had marked the struggle between
+the powers of Persia and of Rome.
+The kings of the restored Persian kingdom
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>had striven to avenge on the West the wrongs committed
+by Alexander the Great, if not those even of
+earlier invaders; and the enterprise which Khosru
+Nushirvan had taken in hand was carried
+on forty years later by his grandson Khosru
+(Chosroes) II. Almost at the outset of his
+irresistible course Jerusalem fell, nor was it
+the fault of the Persians that the great churches of
+Helena and Constantine were not destroyed utterly by
+fire. Ninety thousand Christians, it is said, were put to
+death: but, according to the feeling of the age, a greater
+loss was sustained in the carrying off of the true cross
+into Persia. From Palestine the wave of Persian conquest
+spread southward into Egypt, and the greatness
+of Khosru seemed to be unbounded,
+when from an unknown citizen of Mecca he
+received the bidding to acknowledge the unity of the
+Godhead and to own Mahomed as the prophet of God.
+The Persian king tore the letter to pieces, and the man
+of Mecca, whose successors were to carry the crescent to
+Jerusalem and Damascus, to the banks of the Nile and
+the mountains of Spain, warned him that his kingdom
+should be treated as he had treated his letter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Campaigns of the Emperor Heraclius.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 622-625.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 627. Battle of Nineveh.</div>
+
+<p>For the present the signs of this catastrophe were not
+to be seen. The Roman emperor was compelled to sign
+an ignominious peace and to pay a yearly
+tribute to the sovereign of Persia. But Heraclius
+(Herakleios) woke suddenly from the
+sluggishness which marked the earlier years of his reign.
+The Persians were defeated among the defiles
+of Mount Taurus, and the destruction of the
+birthplace of Zoroaster offered some compensation
+for the mischief done to the
+churches of Helena and Constantine. Two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>years later the Roman emperor carried his arms into the
+heart of the enemy’s land; and during the battle of Nineveh,
+in which he won a splendid victory, he slew with his
+own hands the Persian general Rhazates. Khosru fled
+across the Tigris; but he could not escape from the plots
+of his son, and his death in a dungeon ended the glories
+of the Sassanid dynasty, under whom the Persian power
+had, in the third century of our era, revived from the death
+sleep into which it had sunk after the conquests of Alexander.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 628.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Restoration of the true cross by the Persians.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 629. Pilgrimage of Heraclius to Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>With Siroes, the son and murderer of Khosru, the
+Roman emperor concluded a peace which not merely
+delivered all his subjects from captivity, but
+repaired the loss which the church of the
+Holy Sepulchre had sustained by the theft of the true
+cross. The great object of pilgrimage was
+thus restored to Jerusalem, and thither Heraclius
+(Herakleios) during the following year
+betook himself to pay his vows of thanksgiving.
+With the pageant which marked this
+ceremony the splendour of his reign was
+closed. Before his death the followers of
+Mahomed had deprived him of the provinces which he
+had wrested from the Persians.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 637. Conquest of Palestine by Omar.</div>
+
+<p>Eight years only had passed after the visit of Heraclius
+(Herakleios) to Jerusalem, when the armies which
+had already seized Damascus advanced to
+the siege of the Holy City. A blockade of
+four months convinced the patriarch Sophronios
+that there was no hope of withstanding the force of
+Islam: but he demanded the presence of the caliph himself
+at the ratification of the treaty which was to secure a
+second sacred capital to the disciples of the Prophet.
+After some debate his request was granted; and Omar,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>who on the death of Abubekr had been chosen as the
+vicegerent of Mahomed, set out from Medina on a camel,
+which carried for him his leathern water-bottle, his bags
+of corn and dates, and his wooden dish.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Terms of the treaty made by Omar with the Christians of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>The terms imposed by the caliph sufficiently marked
+the subjection of the Christians, but they imposed no
+severe hardships and perhaps showed a large
+toleration. The Christians were to build no
+new churches, and they were to admit Mahomedans
+into those which they already had,
+whether by day or by night. The cross was no longer to
+be seen on the exterior of their buildings or to be paraded
+in the streets. The church-bells should be tolled only,
+not rung. The use of saddles and of weapons was altogether
+interdicted, and the Christians, distinguished from
+their conquerors by their attire, were to show their respect
+for the latter by rising up to them if they were sitting.
+On these conditions the Christians were not only to be
+safe in their persons and fortunes, but undisturbed in the
+exercise of their religion and in the use of their churches.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Omar and the patriarch Sophronios.</div>
+
+<p>For the observance of this last stipulation the rugged
+and uncouth conqueror showed a greater care than the
+patriarch who regarded his presence in the
+church of the Resurrection as the abomination
+of desolation in the holy place. The
+hour of prayer came, and Omar asked Sophronios where
+he might offer his devotions. ‘Here,’ answered the patriarch;
+but Omar positively refused, and repeated his
+refusal when he was led away into the church of Constantine.
+At last he knelt down on the steps outside
+that church, and afterwards told the patriarch that had
+he worshipped within the building, the document securing
+its use to the Christians would have been worthless.
+His words were verified by the zeal of his followers, who
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>insisted on inclosing within a mosque the steps on which
+he had prayed: but the mosque which bears Omar’s
+name rose over the great sacrificial altar of the temple,
+which passed for Jacob’s stone.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of Arabian conquest on pilgrimage to Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>This second conquest may have again checked the
+rush of pilgrims to the Holy Land; but the difficulties
+which it placed in their way only added to
+the glory and the benefits of the enterprise:
+and, after all, the victory of Omar did little
+more than share the holy city between two
+races each of which acknowledged its sanctity and reverenced
+the relics of the righteous men whose bodies reposed
+beneath its sacred soil. Nor had the Christians
+any stronger ground of complaint than that the Saviour
+whom they worshipped was regarded by their conquerors
+as a prophet only inferior, if not equal, to the founder
+of Islam.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Uninterrupted continuance of pilgrimage.</div>
+
+<p>Nearly four centuries had passed away after the submission
+of Sophronios to Omar; and during this long
+series of generations the West had without
+let or hindrance sent forth its troops of pilgrims,
+in whose train merchants may have
+found sources of profit for more worldly callings. If the
+palmy days during which the wanderers might regard
+themselves as practically lords of the land through which
+they travelled had passed away, they underwent at the
+worst nothing which could greatly excite their anger or
+rouse the indignation of Christendom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1010. Ravages of the Egyptian Sultan Hakem in Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution of Jews in Europe.</div>
+
+<p>Nor was this state of things materially
+changed by the furious onslaught of Hakem,
+the mad Fatimite sultan of Egypt, when,
+spurred on by a bigotry unknown to his
+predecessors, he resolved to destroy the Christian sanctuary
+in Jerusalem. The rule of these earlier sovereigns
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>of Egypt had been more beneficial to the Christians than
+that of the Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad. But Hakem
+cared nothing for the worldly interests of his kingdom or
+of the profits to be derived from trade with the unbeliever;
+and his soldiers were busied on the dignified task
+of demolishing the church of the Resurrection, and in
+attempts to destroy with their hammers the very cave in
+which, as it was supposed, the body of the Saviour had
+been laid. In this task they had but a very partial success,
+and to Hakem probably the suspension for a single
+year of the descent of the sacred fire scarcely outweighed
+the risks of a combined attack from the maritime powers
+of Christendom. For the present no such alliance was
+threatened; but a cruel persecution of the
+Jews in many Christian cities was a symptom
+of the temper which was placing a great
+gulf between men who professed nevertheless to worship
+the same Almighty Father.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tax levied on pilgrims at the gates of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1000. Expectation of the end of the world.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 997. Conversion of Hungary under King Stephen.</div>
+
+<p>After this violent but transient storm the condition of
+the pilgrims became much what it had been before, except
+that a toll was now levied on each pilgrim before
+he was suffered to enter the gates of Jerusalem;
+but this impost may have been rather
+welcomed than resented by the Christians,
+as it gave to the richer among them an opportunity of
+discharging it for their poorer brethren, and so of securing
+for themselves a higher degree of merit. The world,
+too, seemed to have taken a new lease of existence, and
+everything appeared to promise a long continuance of
+comparative peace. Ten years before, all
+Christendom was fluttering with the expectation
+of immediate judgment. At the close
+of the millennium, which came to an end with the year
+1000, a belief almost universal looked forward to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>summons which would call the dead from their graves
+and cut short the course of a weary and sin-laden world.
+But the tale of years had been completed, the sun continued
+to rise and set as it had risen and set before, and
+the flood of pilgrims soon began to stream towards the
+East in greater volume than ever. Men of all ranks
+and classes left their homes to offer up their prayers at
+the tomb of Christ: bishops abandoned their dioceses,
+princes their dominions, to visit the scenes where the
+Redeemer had suffered and where He had achieved his
+triumph. More numerous, more earnest, more zealous
+than all, were the Franks or the Frenchmen, whose name
+became henceforth in the East the common designation
+of all Europeans. For the weak and inexperienced,
+for the women and the youths, who pledged themselves
+to the enterprise, there might be special and grave
+dangers; nor were the strongest assured against serious,
+if not fatal, disasters. With thirty horsemen fully
+equipped, Ingulf, a secretary of William the Conqueror,
+set out on his journey to the Holy Land. Of these
+twenty returned on foot, with no other possessions than
+their wallet and their staff. But their losses had been
+caused probably by no human enemies, and the men
+who had died could claim the credit of martyrdom only
+in the sense in which it is accorded to the Holy Innocents
+massacred by the decree of Herod. On the whole,
+the difficulties of the enterprise were as much smoothed
+down as in a rude and ill-governed age they
+could well be. The conversion of Hungary
+opened a safe highway across the heart of
+Europe, and the pilgrims had a defender, as
+well as a friend, in St. Stephen, the apostle of his kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Advance of the Seljukian Turks.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1092. Division of the Seljukian empire.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 325.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Appeal of the Greek Emperor Alexios to Western Christendom.</div>
+
+<p>But a change far greater than that which had been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>wrought by Omar was to be effected by a power which
+had been working its way from the distant East and
+menacing the existence of the Empire itself.
+From the deserts of Central Asia the Seljukian
+Turks had advanced westwards, overrunning
+the kingdoms of the Persian empire, and subjugating
+Asia Minor, the inheritance of the
+Cæsars of Rome. In this task they received
+no slight help from the neutrality of a great
+part of the Christian population, in whom financial
+exactions and ecclesiastical tyranny had awakened feelings
+of strong discontent, if not of burning indignation.
+The rulers of Byzantium had, indeed, done all that they
+could to make the way smooth for the invaders. The
+accumulation of land in the hands of a few owners had
+dangerously diminished the number of inhabitants; nor
+was it long before the Turks were in a majority throughout
+Cappadocia, Phrygia and Galatia, and were enabled
+successfully to resist the crusading hosts in countries
+which they had conquered but as yesterday. The Seljukian
+sovereigns who had advanced thus far on the road
+to Constantinople, chose as their abode that city of Nice
+(Nikaia, Nicæa) in which the first general
+council of Christendom had defined the
+Catholic faith on the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity.
+Here these fierce invaders proclaimed the mission of
+Mahomet as the prophet of God, and issued the decrees
+which assigned Christian churches to profanation or destruction,
+and Christian youths and maidens to a disgraceful
+and shameful slavery. Mountains visible from
+the dome of Sancta Sophia were already
+within the borders of Turkish territory. The
+danger seemed imminent, and Alexios, the
+Emperor of the East, invoked the aid of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>Latin Christendom: but the fire was not yet kindled,
+and for the time his appeal was made in vain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1076. Seljukian conquest of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Increased burdens and sufferings of the Christian pilgrims.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decline of commerce with the East.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Oppression of the Christians of Palestine.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">General indignation felt in Western Christendom.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Need of a religious sanction to sustain and direct this feeling.</div>
+
+<p>No long time, however, had passed before the Seljukian
+Toucush was master of Jerusalem; and the Christians
+learnt to their cost that servitude to
+the fierce wanderers from the northern deserts
+was very different from submission to
+the rugged and uncultured Omar. The lawful
+toll levied on the pilgrims gave way before a system
+of extortion and violent robbery carried out
+in every part of the land; and the mere
+journey to Jerusalem involved dangers from
+which the bravest might well shrink. Insults
+to the persons of the pilgrims were accompanied by
+insults, harder to be borne, offered to the holy places and
+to those who ministered in them. The sacred offices
+were savagely interrupted, and the patriarch, dragged
+by his hair along the pavement, was thrown into a dungeon,
+pending the payment of an exorbitant ransom.
+For the pilgrims themselves there might be dangers as
+they made their way through Europe: but these were
+increased tenfold on the eastern side of the Hellespont.
+Thus far they had journeyed in comparative
+security, and the merchants who sought
+to combine profit with devotion added to
+that security by their numbers and their prudence. The
+Easter fair of Jerusalem had drawn to the ports of Palestine
+the fleets of Genoa and Pisa, and had sufficiently
+rewarded the munificence of the merchants of Amalfi,
+the founders of the hospital of St. John. But commerce
+has no liking for perils of flood and field: and with the
+risk of disaster these fleets disappeared and the caravans
+were confined to those for whom the sanctuary of Jerusalem
+was a goal to be reached at all costs. These went
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>forth still by hundreds; they returned by tens or units to
+recount the miseries and wanton cruelties
+which they had undergone, and to draw
+fearful pictures of the savage tyranny exercised
+over the Christians of Jerusalem and of the East
+generally. The church of Christ was in the iron grasp
+of the infidel, and the blood of his martyrs cried aloud
+for vengeance. Throughout the length and breadth of
+Christendom a fierce indignation was stirring
+the hearts of men, and the pent-up waters
+needed only guidance to rush forth as a
+flood over the lands defiled by the unbeliever.
+But unless the enterprise was to run to waste in
+random efforts, it must have the solemn sanction of religion.
+The people might be ready, but popular fury acting
+by itself will soon spend its strength like the hurrying
+tempest. Princes might be willing for a time to
+abandon their dominions: but the pressure of difficulties
+abroad and at home would soon make them grow weary
+of the task. There must be a constraining power to
+keep them to their vows by sanctions which
+stretched beyond the present life to the life
+after death; and these sanctions could come
+only from him who held the keys of the
+kingdom of heaven, and whose seat was the rock of
+Peter, Prince of the Apostles.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Influence of Roman imperialism on the early popes.</div>
+
+<p>The Pope is the bishop of Rome, and the traditions of
+the papacy delight in recalling the humble origin of his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>vast monarchy, at once spiritual and temporal,
+ecclesiastical and secular. If the poor
+Galilæan fisherman ever entered the Eternal
+City, it was as a stranger who had come
+to be the guide and friend of a small knot of men who
+saw and hated and wished to keep themselves aloof
+from the abominable corruption of Roman society. But
+if Christianity itself, as we have seen (<a href="#Page_6">p. 6</a>), was, when
+it had once taken root in the West, modified by the
+popular feelings and old associations of the converts, the
+constitution of the church was in like manner insensibly
+modified by the political forms of the state with which it
+had at first to wage a terrible conflict. Rome was not as
+other cities: and the bishop of Rome could not long
+remain like the presidents of other churches. He was
+dealing with the subjects, and he lived in the heart, of
+the empire. It was inevitable that the imperial tradition
+should fasten on the object of their worship; nor was it
+long before the exulting cry went up to heaven, Christ
+lives, Christ rules, Christ is emperor (Christus vivit,
+Christus regnat, Christus imperat).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 587-604.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1073-1085.</div>
+
+<p>As the vicars of this invisible emperor, the popes
+acquired gradually a power which overshadowed that of
+the mightiest sovereigns. It was exercised
+with monastic austerity by Gregory the
+Great; it was wielded with the ability of a consummate
+general by Gregory VII., Hildebrand. The
+first Gregory was a monk, therefore also a
+Manichean; in other words, one who believed in the
+essential impurity of all matter; but this philosophy, if
+it had any attractions for Gregory VII., was wholly subordinate
+to the one absorbing passion of ecclesiastical
+dominion. His aim was to subdue the world by a
+spiritual army: but the issue of his conquest was not to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>be confined to spiritual influence. It was to give him
+power over kingdoms, dictation over princes, the command
+of their weapons and their wealth. It was to
+humble civil polity under priestly autocracy; it was to
+prove, what Hildebrand scrupled not to assert, that the
+civil rule was in itself the mere development and working
+of the evil principle. The foundations had long
+been laid; but Hildebrand left to his successors not
+much to do towards completing the fabric of papal
+empire. His predecessors had learnt to avail themselves
+dexterously of popular feeling or the ambition of princes,
+to direct wide-spread movements, if not to create them.
+It was the papal sanction which had aided to depose the
+degenerate Merovingian; it was the papal chrism which
+had anointed the first Carolingian king. It was the diadem
+of the ancient Cæsars, bestowed by the hand of
+Leo III., which rested on the head of Charles the Great.
+It was Hildebrand himself, who, by the hands of his
+instrument, Alexander II., had transferred the crown of
+England from the son of Godwine to William the Bastard
+of Normandy. It has been well remarked, that although
+the name had not yet been heard, yet in truth it was
+now that the first crusade was preached, and it was
+preached by the voice of Rome against the liberties of
+England. We may note further that the preacher was a
+pontiff, who, when he found it convenient to thank the
+Sultan of Morocco for some indulgences granted to
+Christians in his territories, could assure that infidel
+ruler that both worshipped the same God and held the
+same faith, though their modes of worship and their
+expressions of devotion might be different.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Schemes and motives of Gregory VII.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1074. His circular letter to the faithful.</div>
+
+<p>The popes had become capable of setting vast armies
+in motion, and of raising to a white heat the fire of a
+popular sentiment which had already been kindled.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>These two conditions were needed before the
+power of Europe could be precipitated on
+the infidel conquerors of Syria; and the inability
+of the popes to accomplish this end if they were
+not in accord with the prevalent feeling of the people is
+strikingly shown in the history of Gregory VII. Eight
+years after he had helped to slay Harold at Hastings,
+Hildebrand addressed a letter to all who
+loved and cared to defend the Catholic faith,
+beseeching them to put aside all other tasks
+in favour of the great work of chasing the hordes of the
+Seljukian Turks beyond the bounds of the Eastern empire.
+Constantinople, the new city of the Seven Hills,
+was even now threatened by these barbarians; nor could
+any say how soon the danger might not menace Rome
+itself. It could not be doubted that the faith, the energy,
+the warlike skill of Christendom would sweep away these
+undisciplined unbelievers; and the victory of the faithful
+would be followed by very solid gain to the popes. The
+price to be paid by the emperor for his deliverance from
+the Turks was his submission as a vassal to the see of
+Rome; in other words, the pope was to become absolute
+lord both of East and West, and the claims of the Byzantine
+patriarch to a co-ordinate dignity with the successor
+of St. Peter should no longer be made with impunity.
+But although the scheme thus carefully drawn out was
+to promote the interests of a spiritual power, for the great
+mass of Latin Christians it was purely a political enterprise.
+The fears and distresses of the Eastern emperor
+could excite no sympathy; the Cæsar of Constantinople
+was not a being who had exhibited the image of superhuman
+love or shed his blood for those who had taken
+delight in torturing him; and the excommunication which
+Hildebrand had imprudently hurled against the emperor
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>Nicephorus (Nikephoros) III., had left behind it in the
+East a feeling not favourable to the designs of the Roman
+pontiff. The letter of Hildebrand appealed to no religious
+associations; it said nothing of abominations committed
+in the holy places, of terrible crimes wrought on the persons
+of faithful pilgrims; it was silent about the eternal
+reward which the bare act of pilgrimage would win for
+the believer. It was of little use to say in passing that
+more than 50,000 warriors longed to rise up under his
+guidance against the enemies of God and reach the sepulchre
+of their Lord. He had not struck the right chord,
+and Hildebrand failed to see the West gird itself for the
+great conflict with the enemies of the faith.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1081. The Normans in Italy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1082.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1083.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1085.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1087.</div>
+
+<p>For a time he may have supposed that the great fire
+was already kindled, when with a fleet of 150 ships and
+an army of 30,000 men Robert Guiscard set
+sail from Brundusium (Brindisi). But the
+conqueror who had done so much in Italy
+was to do but little to the east of the Adriatic. While
+his army put forth its whole strength before the walls of
+Dyrrhachium (Durazzo), his fleet under the command of
+his son Bohemond was miserably defeated; and nothing
+but the wretched jealousy felt by the emperor Alexios for
+his general Paleologos saved the army of Guiscard from
+ruin and turned the threatened disaster into victory.
+When, being compelled to return to Italy, he
+left Bohemond to carry on his enterprise, the
+latter overran Epeiros and had well nigh succeeded in
+reducing the Thessalian Larissa, when he
+too was compelled to hasten to Italy for
+reinforcements both in men and money. In his absence
+his deputy, Brienne, the constable of Apulia, was constrained
+to abandon the siege of Kastoria and
+to bind himself not to invade again the territories
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>of the Byzantine emperor. Not many months later
+Robert Guiscard gathered another armament for the conquest
+of the East. He raised the siege of Corfu (Korkyra),
+and had reached Cefalonia (Kephallenia), when
+his career was cut short by death and his scheme for the
+time seemed utterly brought to naught. The war which
+Hildebrand sought to stir up against the Mahomedan
+powers was not less vigorously preached by his successor
+Victor III., who promised remission of sins
+to all who might engage in it; but his words
+called forth no bands of warriors for the recovery of Jerusalem.
+The fleets of Genoa and Pisa swept the African
+coasts, and gained in the shape of booty a harvest which
+was to fall to the lot of few among the myriads who were
+soon to leave their homes for the Holy Land.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1095. Council of Piacenza.</div>
+
+<p>Ten years after the death of Hildebrand three or four
+thousand of the clergy and thirty thousand laymen were
+gathered to meet pope Urban II. at the
+council of Piacenza (Placentia). So vast a
+throng could find standing ground in no
+building, and the business of the council was transacted
+in the plain outside the city. The envoys of the Eastern
+emperor, Alexios Comnenos, were there to plead his distresses
+and beseech the strenuous aid of the faithful.
+The policy of checking the progress of the Turks while
+they were still at a good distance from Italy may have
+influenced the more statesmanlike of their hearers; the
+more vehement and enthusiastic among them were
+moved to tears by the pathetic recital of the Byzantine
+ambassadors, and demanded loudly to be led against the
+enemy. But Urban, with his heart more determinately
+set upon the enterprise than any man present, felt that
+the hour for the supreme decision had not yet come.
+He was in a country torn by intestine divisions, where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>his own claim to the papacy was disputed by an anti-pope
+whom with his adherents it was here his especial business
+to excommunicate. He had to deal with other
+matters also. Some of the clergy still refused to abandon
+their wives; and the wife of the emperor Henry IV.
+was present to complain of treatment unimaginably monstrous
+on the part of her husband. Both emperor and
+clergy must be condemned, and brought into obedience;
+and Urban felt that after such business as this it would
+be well to reserve his eloquence for another scene. He
+therefore dismissed the envoys of Alexios with the assurance
+that when the hosts of Western Christendom advanced
+to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre they would
+not forget that they had work to do near Constantinople.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 799.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1095. The council of Clermont.</div>
+
+<p>From Piacenza Urban made his way across the Alps
+to the realm of the great Charles, whose intercourse with
+the ambassadors of the Caliph Harun-al-Reschid
+may have laid the foundation for
+the myth, expanded into a systematic fiction in the lying
+Chronicle of Turpin, that he had himself smitten down
+the unbelievers under the shadow of the Church of Constantine.
+On the northern side of the Alps Urban could
+breathe more freely. The sentence of excommunication
+was impending, it is true, over Philip the First, who called
+himself or was called King of France; but the great-grandson
+of Hugh Capet, powerful though he might be
+within his own dominion of Paris and Orleans, was little
+more than nominal lord of the vast throng
+of feudal chiefs who lay beyond its borders.
+From his old home in the great monastery
+of Clugny, Urban set off in the autumn for Clermont in
+the territories of the Count of Auvergne. Before he
+could reach the city, thousands of tents were pitched
+without the walls for those who could find no shelter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>within them; and the eight days during which the
+council held its sessions were spent in regulating the enterprise
+about which the pope had spoken with so much
+reserve at Piacenza, and in prescribing the measures to
+be taken for the safety of those who might remain at
+home during the absence of their natural protectors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pilgrimage of the hermit Peter to Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1093.</div>
+
+<p>There was now no more need for hesitation. Popular
+feeling to the north of the Alps was far more deeply
+moved by the woes of the pilgrims and the
+conquests of the infidels than on the southern
+side of the great mountain barriers; and the
+wrath of the people had been fanned into an ungovernable
+flame by the preaching of the hermit Peter. This
+man, born at Amiens in Picardy, had forsaken his wife
+and laid aside the sword which he wielded in the service
+of the Counts of Boulogne, to follow the council of perfection
+in silence and solitude. Like others, he felt himself
+drawn by an irresistible attraction to
+the Holy Land; but if his passionate yearnings
+were rewarded by the privilege of offering up his
+prayers before the tomb of the Redeemer, his very heart
+was stirred by the sight of things, the mere recital of
+which had awakened his wrath at a distance. The
+Sanctuary was in the hands of the infidels; the patriarch
+was reduced practically to the state of a slave, and the
+pilgrim was happy who returned from the Holy City
+without undergoing humiliations and buffetings scarcely
+deserved by the worst of criminals. The murder of
+many Christian men, the deadly wrongs done to many
+Christian women, called aloud for vengeance, and the
+hermit made his vow that, with the help of God, these
+things should cease. His conversations with the patriarch
+Simeon brought out only confessions of the incapacity
+of the Greek Emperor and the weakness of his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>empire. ‘The nations of the West shall take up arms
+in your cause,’ said the hermit; and with the patriarchal
+benediction Peter hastened to obtain for the mission
+which he now saw before him the sanction of the man
+who claimed to be at the head of Eastern and Western
+Christendom alike.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1094. The mission and preaching of the hermit.</div>
+
+<p>Before the Roman pontiff Peter poured forth his story
+of the wrongs which called for immediate redress; but
+no eloquence was needed to stir the heart of
+Urban. The zeal of the pope was probably
+as sincere as that of any others who engaged
+in the enterprise; but it could not fail to
+derive strength from the consciousness that, whatever
+might be the result to the warriors of the cross, his own
+power would rest henceforth on more solid foundations.
+His blessing was therefore eagerly bestowed on the fervent
+enthusiast who undertook to go through the length
+and breadth of the land, stirring up the people to the
+great work for the love of God and of their own souls.
+His eloquence may have been as rude as it was ready;
+but its deficiencies were more than made up by the
+earnestness which gave even to the glance of his eye a
+force more powerful than speech. Dwarfish in stature
+and mean in person, he was yet filled with a fire which
+would not stay, and the horrors which were burnt in
+upon his soul were those which would most surely stir
+the conscience and rouse the wrath of his hearers. His
+fiery appeals carried everything before them. Wherever
+he went, rich and poor, aged and young, the knight and
+the peasant, thronged round the emaciated stranger,
+who with his head and feet bare rode on his ass, carrying
+a huge crucifix. That form, of which they beheld
+the bleeding sign, he had himself seen; nay, he had received
+from the Saviour a letter which had fallen down
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>from heaven. He appealed to every feeling which may
+stir the heart of mankind generally, to every motive
+which should have special power with all faithful Christians.
+He called upon them for the deliverance of the
+land which was the cradle of their faith, for the punishment
+of the barbarian who had dared to defile it, for the
+rescue of the brethren who were the victims of his
+tyranny. The vehemence which choked his own utterance
+became contagious: his sobs and groans called
+forth the tears and cries of the vast crowds who hung
+upon his words, and who greedily devoured the harrowing
+accounts of the pilgrims whom Peter brought forward
+as witnesses to the truth of his picture. Motives more
+earthly may have mingled with his austere call in the
+minds of some who heard him. Of these motives the
+hermit said nothing: but there is no doubt that he made
+his last and most constraining appeal to that notion of
+mechanical religion which the prophet Micah puts into
+the mouth of Balak the king of Moab. The consciences
+of some amongst his hearers might be weighed down by
+the burden of sins too grievous almost for forgiveness.
+He besought them to remember that such fears were
+altogether misplaced, if only they made up their minds
+to take part in the redemption of the Holy Land. If
+they chose to become the soldiers of the cross, their salvation
+was at once achieved. There was no sin, however
+fearful, which would not be cancelled by the mere taking
+of the vow; no sinful habits which would not be condoned
+in those who might fall in battle with the unbelievers.
+The excitement of the moment, the frenzy which, having
+first unsettled the mind of the hermit, was by him communicated
+to his hearers, threw, we cannot doubt, a
+specious colouring over a degrading morality and a
+hopelessly corrupting religion; but as little can we doubt
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>that the whole temper which stirred up and kept alive
+the enterprise left behind it a poisoned atmosphere
+which could be cleared only by the storms and tempests
+of the reformation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decrees of the council of Clermont, prohibiting private wars, and confirming the Truce of God.</div>
+
+<p>The preaching of the hermit predetermined the results
+of the council of Clermont; but Urban and the throng
+of bishops and abbots who were gathered
+round him were well aware that something
+more was needed than the enlisting of an
+army of zealots for distant warfare. With
+our settled laws and orderly government it
+is almost impossible for us to realize the condition even
+of the most advanced states of Christian Europe in an
+age when the power of the king over his vassals meant
+simply that which the strength or the weakness of the
+vassals made it, and when the vassal, if he owed allegiance
+to his lord, was bound by no ties to his fellow
+vassals. The system of feudalism could not fail to feed
+the worst passions of human nature; and the absence
+of an authority capable of constraining all alike involved
+for those who felt or fancied themselves aggrieved an
+irresistible temptation to take the law into their own
+hands. But the practice of private war thus set up
+would sooner or later assume the form of a trade, and in
+the words of William of Malmesbury things had now
+come to so wretched a pass that feudal chiefs would take
+each other captive on little or no pretence, and would
+set their prisoners free only on the payment of an enormous
+ransom. This military violence of the laity was
+accompanied by corruption on the part of the clergy,
+showing itself in a shameless traffic of benefices and
+dignities which, in brief phrase, fell to the lot of the
+highest bidder. In such a condition of things to drain
+off to distant lands a large proportion of the men who at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>home might do something to check, if not to repress, the
+mischief, would be to leave those who remained behind
+defenceless. Decrees were therefore passed condemning
+private wars, confirming the Truce of God which suspended
+all hostilities during four days of each week, and
+placing the women and the clergy under the protection
+of the Church, which in an especial manner was extended
+to merchants and husbandmen for three years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Speech of Urban II. before the people.</div>
+
+<p>When, the business of the council being ended, Urban
+ascended a lofty scaffold and began his address to the
+people, he spoke to hearers for whom arguments
+were no longer needed, but who were
+well pleased to hear from the chief of Christendom
+words which carried with them comfort and encouragement.
+Three forms or versions of this speech
+have been preserved to us; one in the pages of William
+of Tyre, a second in those of William of Malmesbury, a
+third from a manuscript in the Vatican. It is possible
+that they may represent three different speeches: but the
+substance of all is the same, and we are left in no doubt
+of the general tenor of his words. With some inconsistency
+he dwelt on the cowardice of the barbarians who
+had contrived to conquer Syria and whose tyranny called
+forth the appeal which he now made to them. The Turk,
+shrinking from close encounters, trusted to his bow and
+arrow; and the venom of his poisoned shaft, not the
+bravery of a valiant warrior, inflicted death on the man
+whom it struck. Their fears, he added, were justified,
+for the blood which ran in the veins of men born in
+countries scorched with the heat of the sun was scanty
+in stream and poor in quality as compared with that
+which coursed through the bodies of men belonging to
+more temperate regions. ‘In these temperate regions
+you were born,’ he pleaded, ‘and you have therefore a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>title to victory which your enemies can never acquire.
+You have prudence, you have discipline, you have skill
+and valour, and you will go forth, through the gift of God
+and the privilege of St. Peter, absolved from all your
+sins. The consciousness of this freedom shall soothe
+the toil of your journey, and death will bring to you the
+benefits of a blessed martyrdom. Sufferings and torments
+may perhaps await you. You may picture them
+to yourselves as the most exquisite tortures, and the picture
+may perhaps fall short of the agony which you may
+have to undergo; but your sufferings will redeem your
+souls at the expense of your bodies. Go then on your
+errand of love, of love for the faithful who in the lands
+overcome by the infidel cannot defend themselves, of
+love which will put out of sight all the ties that bind you
+to the spots which you have called your homes. Your
+homes, in truth, they are not. For the Christian all the
+world is exile, and all the world is at the same time his
+country. If you leave a rich patrimony here, a better
+patrimony is promised to you in the Holy Land. They
+who die will enter the mansions of heaven, while the living
+shall behold the sepulchre of their Lord. Blessed
+are they who, taking this vow upon them, shall inherit
+such a recompense: happy they who are led to such a
+conflict, that they may share in such rewards.’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The assent of the multitude.</div>
+
+<p>It was no wonder that words thus striking chords of
+feeling already stretched to intensity should be interrupted
+with the passionate cry ‘It is the will
+of God! It is the will of God!’ which broke
+from the assembled multitude. ‘It is, in
+truth, his will,’ added the pontiff, ‘and let these words
+be your war-cry when you unsheath your swords against
+the enemy. You are soldiers of the cross: wear, then,
+on your breasts or on your shoulders the blood-red sign
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>of Him who died for the salvation of your souls. Wear
+it as a token that his help will never fail you: wear it as
+the pledge of a vow which can never be recalled.’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The cross and the vow of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>By these words the war now proclaimed against the
+Turks received the name which has become a general
+title for all wars or hostile undertakings carried
+on in the name of religion. Thousands
+hastened at once to put on the badge and so
+to take their place among the ranks of the crusaders.
+The rival claims of the anti-pope withheld Urban himself
+from taking the pledge to which he was clamorously
+invited; and worldly prudence alone may have suggested
+the wisdom of standing aloof from a conflict in which
+disaster to a Roman pontiff would certainly be regarded
+as a visible sign of the divine displeasure. Of the clergy,
+the first to assume the cross was Adhemar (Aymer),
+bishop of Puy, and as his reward he received the powers
+and dignity of papal legate. At the head of the laity
+Raymond, count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne and
+marquis of Provence, promised through his ambassadors
+to be ready by the Feast of the Assumption, August 15,
+next following the council, the day fixed for the departure
+of the crusading hosts for Constantinople.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Motives of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1058-9.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Financial effect of the crusade.</div>
+
+<p>Thus was the die cast for a venture which in the eye
+of a keen-sighted general or a far-seeing statesman
+should have boded little good, but which
+held out irresistible attractions for the great
+mass of the people,—attractions which continued to
+draw hundreds and thousands still to the unknown and
+mysterious East, when a long series of disasters had
+proved that the journey to Jerusalem was in all likelihood
+a journey to the grave. For the really sincere and
+devout, whose lives had been passed without reproach
+and who could await the future with a clear conscience,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>there was the deep sense of binding duty, the yearning
+to be brought nearer whether on earth or in heaven to
+the Master whom they loved. For the feudal chieftain
+there was the fierce pastime of war which formed the
+main occupation and perhaps the only delight of his life,
+with the wild excitement produced by the thought that
+the indulgence of his passions had now become a solemn
+act of religion. There was also the prospect of vast and
+permanent conquest; and the duke or count who left a
+fair domain behind him might look forward to the
+chance of winning a realm as splendid as
+that which Robert Guiscard and his Normans
+had won in Apulia and Sicily. For the common
+herd and those whom gross living had rendered moral
+cowards, there was the offer of a method by which they
+might wipe away their guilt without changing their character
+and disposition. Not a few might be caught by
+the philosophy of the abbot Guibert, who boldly drew a
+parallel between the crusades and holy orders or monachism.
+That height of perfection which ecclesiastics
+might reach in their own sphere was now attainable by
+laymen through an enterprise in which their usual license
+and habits of life would win them the favour of God
+not less than the most unsparing austerity of the monk
+or the priest. It was, in short, a new mode of salvation,
+and they who were hurrying along the broad road to
+destruction now found that the taking of a vow converted
+it into the narrow and rugged path to heaven. Nor was
+the number few of those for whom this convenient
+arrangement was combined with some solid temporal
+advantages. The cross on the breast or shoulder set
+free from the clutches of his lord the burgher or the peasant
+attached to the soil, opened the prison doors for
+malefactors of every kind, released the debtor from the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>obligation of paying interest on his debts while he wore
+the sacred badge, and placed him beyond the reach of
+his creditors. Lastly, the episode of a crusade might be
+for the priest a pleasant interruption to the dull routine
+of parochial work, to the monk an agreeable change
+from the wearisome monotony of his conventual life.
+The usurer and the creditor might fancy himself to be
+somewhat hardly treated. Yet they were
+amongst the few to whom the crazy enterprise
+(crazy not from the impracticability of
+its objects, but from the way in which these were followed,)
+brought a solid benefit. The unthinking throng
+might rush off to Palestine without making the least preparation
+for their journey or their maintenance, in the
+blind faith that they would be fed and clothed like the
+fowls of the air or the lilies of the field. But for those
+who could judge more soberly, and for those who were
+not willing to forego their luxuries or their pleasures,
+there was the need of providing a store of the precious
+metals by means of which alone their wishes could be
+gratified. The duke, who had to maintain a vast and
+brilliant retinue, was compelled to mortgage his dominions;
+and thus for the sum of ten thousand marks,
+wrung from the lower orders in the English state, William
+Rufus obtained from his brother Robert the government
+of his dukedom for five years, and took care that
+the prize so won should not slip again from his grasp.
+Nobles and knights, setting off on the crusade, all
+wished to sell land, all wished to buy arms and horses.
+The arms and horses therefore became ruinously dear,
+the lands ridiculously cheap. It is easy to see that the
+prudent trader, the cautious merchant, the landowner
+whose eye was fixed on the main chance, would stand
+at an enormous advantage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of the crusades on the power of the pope and the clergy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Dispensing power of the pope.</div>
+
+<p>But if these were gainers, the gains of the pope and
+the sacerdotal army of which he was the chief were
+greater still. If the proclamation of the crusader rendered
+all private warfare a treason against Christendom, if it set
+free even the noble from the power of the
+overlord, and made the latter incapable of
+summoning his vassal to his standard, if the
+crusader, as the soldier of the Church, was
+released from every other obligation, these tremendous
+changes had been wrought wholly by the power of the
+pope and his hierarchy. In placing the dominions of all
+crusading princes under the protection of the Church, the
+council of Clermont may have provided for those chiefs
+a most inadequate defence; but it placed the pope on a
+level above all earthly princes, and the power which withheld
+the arm of the creditor from falling upon
+his debtor became a vast dispensing authority,
+the possession of which would have delighted
+the heart and realized the highest longings of
+Hildebrand. Urban did not go to Palestine: but even
+there he was present in the person of his legate Adhemar,
+and thus claimed the guidance of a war sanctified by his
+blessing and undertaken in the cause of the Church. The
+vows of the crusader were taken, again, by many who
+had no present intention of fulfilling them. Sickness, or
+misfortune, or qualms of conscience might lead them to
+assume the fatal sign; but from that moment until they
+set off on their journey they put themselves in the power
+of the pope, who sometimes used with cruel effect the
+hold thus obtained over emperors and kings.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tendency of the crusades to break up the feudal system.</div>
+
+<p>Kings, it is true, reaped no small benefit from the impulse
+which drove their vassals to the Holy Sepulchre;
+and the absorption of the smaller into larger
+fiefs and of these again into royal domain,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>tended to that extension of the sovereign
+power which ultimately broke up the feudal
+system. But these results were far distant:
+the immediate harvest was gathered by the pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Increasing wealth of the pope and the clergy.</div>
+
+<p>Thus far he had appeared by his representatives in
+general or local councils; by these he had interfered in
+the settlement of disputes, through these he
+had negotiated with princes. But the preaching
+of the crusades furnished a reason or a
+pretext for sending his legates into every
+land. Their primary business was to stir up the hearts
+of the faithful or to keep them up to fever heat: but
+scarcely less important was the task of collecting money
+for the support of the crusading armies. On the clergy,
+whether secular or regular, and on the monastic orders,
+the pope had a claim which they dared not to call into
+question, and the subsidies exacted or enjoined for this
+purpose were paid with a real or a feigned cheerfulness.
+To the laity the prayer for voluntary alms assumed
+practically the form of a demand. Refusal would imply
+lukewarmness in the faith, if not positive heresy; and
+the imputation could not be incurred without peril of
+temporal and even of eternal ruin. Both for the clergy
+and the laity the charge for a special and temporary
+purpose became a permanent tax, the proceeds of which
+the pope might expend on any objects, and in the theory
+of the time he could spend them on none which were
+not good.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alienation and pledging or mortgaging of lands.</div>
+
+<p>But for the impost thus laid upon them the clergy had
+a compensation which by the nature of the case could
+not be enjoyed by the laity. If a bishop
+put on the cross he might lay a burden on
+his estates, but he could not alienate them,
+as his right over them ceased with his death;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>but in point of fact it was chiefly the prelates and the
+monastic houses that became guardians or mortgagees
+of lands belonging to men who had betaken themselves
+to the Holy Land. The Jews, who amassed immense
+profits on their loans to needy crusaders, had nothing to
+do with the cultivation of the soil, and in most countries
+could not be owners of it. But the Church was everywhere
+ready with its protection and its money; nor were
+there wanting enthusiasts who, as they fixed the blood-red
+cross on their garment, gave up all their lands and
+worldly goods to the spiritual body whose prayers they
+regarded as a more than sufficient recompense. Even
+they who left the Church merely the guardian of their
+estates in their absence might die in the East; and if
+they died without heirs the guardians became absolute
+owners. If they came back, toil and disappointment
+had often so worn them down that they took refuge in a
+cloister and handed over to the fraternity whatever of
+their property might still remain to them. The vast
+gains thus accruing were all over and beyond the accumulations
+amassed from the bequests of ordinary or
+extraordinary penitents on their death-beds or the gifts
+of enthusiastic devotees during their lifetime; and all
+the land so gained to the Church was withdrawn from
+the jurisdiction of the sovereign who professed to rule
+the country, and thus formed a kingdom within a kingdom,
+the spiritual domain threatening constantly to absorb
+that of the secular monarch. A collision, followed
+by violent and iniquitous spoliation, became inevitable;
+and when the time was come the great fabric of ecclesiastical
+wealth was plundered and demolished.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The crusades not national enterprises.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1085. Condition of Europe in the time of Urban II.</div>
+
+<p>In the enterprise to which Latin Christendom
+thus stood committed, the several
+nations or countries of Europe took very
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>equal parts; or, rather, no nation, as such, took any part
+in it at all; and in this fact we have the explanation of
+that want of coherent action, and even decent or average
+generalship, which is commonly seen in national undertakings.
+For the crusade there was no attempt at a commissariat,
+no care for a base of supplies; and the crusading
+hosts were a collection of individual adventurers
+who either went without making any provisions for their
+journey or provided for their own needs and those of
+their followers from their own resources. The number
+of these adventurers were naturally determined by the
+political conditions of the country from which they came.
+In Italy the struggle between the pope and the anti-pope
+went far towards chilling enthusiasm; and the recruits
+for the crusading army came chiefly from the Normans
+who had followed Robert Guiscard to the sunny southern
+lands. The Spaniards were busied with a crusade nearer
+home, and were already pushing back to the south the
+Mahomedan dominion which had once
+threatened to pass the barriers of the Pyrenees
+and carry the Crescent to the shores
+of the Baltic Sea. About ten years before
+the council of Clermont the Moslem dynasty
+of Toledo had been expelled by Alfonso, king of Gallicia:
+the kingdom of Cordova had fallen twenty years earlier
+(1065), and while Peter the Hermit was hurrying hither
+and thither through the countries of northern Europe,
+the Christians of Spain were winning victories in Murcia,
+and the land was ringing with the exploits of the
+dauntless Cid, Ruy Diaz de Bivar. By the Germans the
+summons to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre was received
+with comparative coldness; the partisans of emperors,
+who had been humbled to the dust by the predecessors
+of Urban, if not by himself, were not vehemently
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>eager to obey it. The bishops of Salzburg,
+Passau, and Strasburg, the aged duke Guelf of Bavaria,
+had undertaken the toilsome and perilous journey: not
+one of them saw their homes again, and their death in
+the distant East was not regarded by their countrymen
+as an encouragement to follow their example. In England
+the English were too much weighed down by the
+miseries of the Conquest, the Normans too much occupied
+in strengthening their position, and the king,
+William the Red, more ready to take advantage of the
+needs of his brother Robert than to incur any risks of
+his own. The great movement came from the lands extending
+from the Scheldt to the Pyrenees. Franks and
+Normans alike made ready with impetuous haste for the
+great adventure; and tens of thousands, who could not
+wait for the formation of something like a regular army,
+hurried away, under leaders as frantic as themselves, to
+their inevitable doom.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE FIRST CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1096. Departure of the first rabble of crusaders under Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless.</div>
+
+<p>Little more than half the time allowed for the gathering
+of the crusaders had passed away, when a crowd
+of some sixty thousand men and women,
+neither caring nor thinking about the means
+by which their ends could be attained, insisted
+that the hermit Peter should lead them
+at once to the holy city. Mere charity may
+justify the belief that some even amongst
+these may have been folk of decent lives moved by the
+earnest conviction that their going to Jerusalem would do
+some good; that the vast majority looked upon their vow
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>as a license for the commission of any sin, there can be
+no moral doubt; that they exhibited not a single quality
+needed for the successful prosecution of their enterprise,
+is absolutely certain. With a foolhardiness equal to his
+ignorance, Peter undertook the task, in which he was
+aided by Walter the Penniless, a man with some pretensions
+to the soldier-like character. But the utter disorder
+of this motley host made it impossible for them to journey
+long together. At Cologne they parted company; and
+15,000 under the penniless Walter made their way to the
+frontiers of Hungary, while Peter led onwards a host
+which swelled gradually on the march to about 40,000.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second rabble under Emico and Gotschalk.</div>
+
+<p>Another army or horde of perhaps 20,000 marched under
+the guidance of Emico, count of Leiningen, a third
+under that of the monk Gotschalk, a man
+not notorious for the purity or disinterestedness
+of his motives. Behind these came a
+rabble, it is said, of 200,000 men, women, and children,
+preceded by a goose and a goat, or, as some have supposed,
+by banners on which, as symbols of the mysterious
+faith of Gnostics and Paulicians, the likeness of these
+animals was painted. In this vile horde no pretence was
+kept up of order or of decency. Sinning freely, it would
+seem, that grace might abound, they plundered and
+harried the lands through which they marched, while
+3,000 horsemen, headed by some counts and gentlemen,
+were not too dignified to act as their attendants and to
+share their spoil.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bloody persecutions of the Jews.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Jews taken under the protection of the empire.</div>
+
+<p>But if they had no scruple in robbing Christians, their
+delight was to prove the reality of their mission as soldiers
+of the cross by plundering, torturing, and
+slaying Jews. The crusade against the Turk
+was interpreted as a crusade directed not
+less explicitly against the descendants of those who had
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>crucified the Redeemer. The streets of Verdun and
+Treves, and of the great cities on the Rhine, ran red with
+the blood of their victims; and if some saved their lives
+by pretended conversions, many more cheated their persecutors
+by throwing their property and their persons
+either into the rivers or into the consuming fires. Thus
+auspiciously began the mighty enterprise on which pope
+Urban had insisted as the first duty of all Christians; and
+thus early did the result of his preaching tend to revive
+the waning power of the emperor, who interposed his
+authority to this merciless onslaught on a
+peaceable and useful class of his subjects.
+The Jews were taken under the protection
+of the empire, and for the time the change
+was a real relief. Their posterity found to their cost that
+their guardian might in his turn become their plunderer
+and tormentor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">March of Walter and his followers through Hungary and Bulgaria.</div>
+
+<p>A space of six hundred miles lay between the Austrian
+frontier and Constantinople; and across the dreary waste
+the followers of Walter the Penniless struggled
+on, destitute of money, and rousing
+the hostility of the inhabitants whom they
+robbed and ill-used. In Bulgaria their misdeeds
+provoked reprisals which threatened
+their destruction; and none perhaps would have reached
+Constantinople, if the imperial commander at Naissos
+had not rescued them from their enemies, supplied them
+with food, and guarded them through the remainder of
+their journey. These succours involved some costs;
+and the costs were paid by the sale of unarmed men
+amongst the pilgrims, and especially of the women and
+children, who were seized to provide the necessary funds.
+Of those who formed the train of the hermit Peter, seven
+thousand only, it is said, reached Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Passage of the pilgrims across the Bosporos.</div>
+
+<p>Of such a rabble rout the Emperor Alexios needed
+not to be afraid. He had already seen and encountered
+far larger armies of Normans, Turks, and
+Romans; and he now extended to this vanguard
+of the hosts of Latin Christendom a
+hospitality which was almost immediately abused. They
+had refused to comply with his request that they should
+quietly await the arrival of their fellow crusaders; and
+consulting the safety of his people not less than his own,
+he induced them to cross the Bosporos, and pitch their
+camp on Asiatic soil, the land which they had come to
+wrest from the unbelievers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their utter destruction by Kilidje Arslan.</div>
+
+<p>Alexios wished simply to be rid of their presence:
+they had to deal with an enemy still more crafty and
+formidable in the Seljukian Sultan David, whose surname
+Kilidje Arslan marked him out as the Sword of
+the Lion. The vagrants whom Peter and
+Walter had brought thus far on the road to
+Jerusalem were scattered about the land in
+search of food; and it was no hard task for David to
+cheat the main body with the false tidings that their
+companions had carried the walls of Nice (Nikaia), and
+were revelling in the pleasures and spoils of his capital.
+The doomed horde rushed into the plain which fronts the
+city; and a vast heap of bones alone remained to tell
+the story of the great catastrophe, when the forces which
+might more legitimately claim the name of an army
+passed the spot where the Seljukian had entrapped and
+crushed his victims. In this wild expedition not less, it
+is said, than 300,000 human beings had already paid the
+penalty of their lives.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rank and character of the leaders of the first crusade.</div>
+
+<p>Still the first crusade was destined to accomplish more
+than any of the seven or eight crusades which followed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>it; and this measure of success it achieved
+probably because none of the great European
+sovereigns took part in it. The Western
+emperor, Henry IV., the representative of
+Charles the Great was the enemy of the pope; Philip I.,
+king of France, had been excommunicated by Urban in
+the council of Clermont; the sovereigns of Denmark,
+Scotland, Sweden and Poland were as yet scarcely
+brought within the community of European monarchs;
+the Spanish kings had their crusades ready made at home;
+and we have already seen that the English William II.,
+was more intent on acquiring dukedoms than on running
+the risk of a blessed martyrdom at the gates of Jerusalem.
+The task of setting up a Latin kingdom in Palestine
+was to be achieved by princes of the second order.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Godfrey of Bouillon and his brothers Baldwin and Eustace.</div>
+
+<p>Of these the foremost and the most deservedly illustrious
+was Godfrey, of Bouillon in the Ardennes, a kinsman
+of the counts of Boulogne, and duke of
+Lothringen (Lorraine). In the service of the
+emperor Henry IV., the enemy or the victim
+of Hildebrand, he had been the first to
+mount the walls of Rome and cleave his way into the
+city; he might hope that his crusading vow would be
+accepted as an atonement for his sacrilege. Speaking
+the Frank and Teutonic dialects with equal ease, he exercised
+by his bravery, his wisdom, and the uprightness
+of his life, an influence which brought to his standard,
+it is said, not less than 80,000 infantry and 10,000 horsemen,
+together with his brothers Baldwin and Eustace,
+count of Boulogne.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Hugh of Vermandois.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Robert of Normandy.</div>
+
+<p>Among the most conspicuous of Godfrey’s colleagues
+was Hugh, count of Vermandois, whose surname the
+Great has been ascribed by some to his birth
+as the brother of Philip I., the French king,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>by others merely to his stature as ‘Hugh the long.’
+With him may be placed the Norman duke Robert,
+whose carelessness had lost him the crown
+of England, and who had now pawned his
+duchy for a pittance scarcely less paltry than that for
+which Esau bartered away his birthright. The picture
+drawn of him is indeed not unlike that of the forefather of
+the Edomite tribes. Careless of the future, open in his
+friendship or his enmity, free from duplicity in himself
+and unsuspicious of treachery in others, charming others
+and injuring himself by his light-hearted cheerfulness
+and his lavish generosity, Robert was a man whom the
+total lack of the qualities which marked his iron-hearted
+father brought to a horrible captivity and death in the
+dungeons of Cardiff Castle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Robert of Flanders and Stephen of Chartres.</div>
+
+<p>The number of the great chiefs who led the pilgrims
+from northern Europe is completed with the names of
+Robert, count of Flanders, whom his followers
+lauded as the Sword and Lance of
+the Christians, and of Stephen, count of
+Chartres, Troyes, and Blois, the possessor, if we choose
+to believe the tale, of 365 castles, and as rich in his eloquence
+as in his fortresses. The same arithmetic would
+have us think that the minor chiefs were more numerous
+than the champions whom Agamemnon led to the Trojan
+war; and the assertion is perhaps as much and as
+little to be credited as the catalogue of Greek warriors in
+the Iliad.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Adhemar bishop of Puy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Raymond of Toulouse.</div>
+
+<p>Foremost, by virtue of his title and office, among the
+leaders of the southern bands, was the papal legate
+Adhemar (Aymer) bishop of Puy—a leader
+rather as guiding the counsels of the army
+than as gathering soldiers under his banner. A hundred
+thousand horse and foot attested, we are told, the greatness,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>the wealth, and the zeal of Raymond,
+count of Toulouse, lord of Auvergne and
+Languedoc, who had grown old in warfare, and won for
+himself a mingled reputation for wisdom and haughtiness,
+obstinacy and greed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bohemond.</div>
+
+<p>Less tinged with the fanatical enthusiasm of his comrades,
+and certainly more cool and deliberate in his
+ambition, Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard,
+whom we have seen fighting at Dyrrhachium
+and victorious at Larissa (<a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>), looked to the
+crusade as a means by which he might regain the vast
+regions extending from the Dalmatian coast to the
+northern shores of the Egean. Nay, if we are to believe
+William of Malmesbury, he urged Urban to set forward
+the enterprise for the very purpose, partly, of thus recovering
+what he was pleased to regard as his inheritance,
+and in part of enabling the pontiff to suppress all opposition
+in Rome. Guiscard had left his Apulian domains
+to a younger son, and Bohemond was resolved, it would
+seem, to add to his principality of Tarentum a kingdom
+which would make him a formidable rival of the Eastern
+emperor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Tancred.</div>
+
+<p>Far above his companion Bohemond, rises his cousin
+Tancred, the son of the marquis Odo, surnamed the
+Good, and of Emma, the sister of Robert
+Guiscard; and his reputation comes not
+from his wealth or the greatness of his following, but
+from the qualities of mind and person which raised him
+indefinitely nearer than his fellows to the standard of the
+‘very gentle perfect knight’ of Chaucer. In Tancred
+was seen the embodiment of those peculiar sentiments
+and modes of thought which gave birth to the crusades,
+and to which the crusades in their turn imparted marvellous
+strength and splendour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Cause and effect of chivalry.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Knighthood.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Courtesy.</div>
+
+<p>When in the council of Clermont pope Urban dwelt
+on the cowardice and ignoble fears of the Turks, he
+probably touched a chord which grated on
+the more generous and enthusiastic amongst
+his hearers, and was in fact speaking as a
+priest when with greater wisdom he should have used the
+language of a general. There can be little doubt that
+the finer spirits of the age were moved by the eager
+desire of rescuing a crowd of helpless Christians from
+conquerors whose might it was impossible for them to
+resist, and who were worthy antagonists even for the
+noblest knights of Latin and Teutonic Christendom.
+The rescue of this feeble multitude could be effected only
+at the cost of a great sacrifice,—the sacrifice of houses
+and lands, of luxuries and pleasures: and the consciousness
+of large sacrifices, cheerfully made for the weak and
+suffering, is amongst the highest feelings which may be
+awakened in the human heart. Thus in the most noble-minded
+and disinterested of the crusading champions
+there was distinctly a combination of two ideas, seemingly
+discordant, yet working together to produce one definite
+moral result. These were the indignation with which
+they regarded the tyranny exercised over the Christians
+of the East, and the involuntary respect and even admiration
+which they felt for the conquerors as the most redoubtable
+warriors of the age next to the foremost knights
+of Christendom. The former feeling would impel them
+to the most desperate efforts for the recovery of the Holy
+Land and the Holy Sepulchre; the latter would place
+checks dimly recognized and not always heeded on the
+ferocious warfare with which they would without scruple
+seek to sweep away all meaner or more savage enemies.
+So far as he was actuated by such motives, the crusader
+was cultivating in himself the germs of forbearance and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>toleration which must at once to whatever extent soften
+the horrors of war and which would in the end yield
+more solid and satisfying fruits. In this same direction
+the influence of the Church was felt with constantly increasing
+power. It had been her aim to curb, when she
+could not repress, the violence of her children, and to
+establish by a solemn sanction that Truce of God which
+prevented the practice of private war from becoming a
+burden too heavy for the earth to bear. But in the expedition
+for the delivery of the Holy Land war itself was
+sanctified; and the knight, initiated even in past years
+by rites, which, heathen in their origin, had been made
+sacred by the Church, was raised almost to the level of
+the priest and the monk. Henceforth the young aspirant
+for the knightly dignity and office was treated much as
+the catechumens had been treated in the first
+Christian centuries. He must enter on his
+work with clean thoughts and pure conscience, and the
+spotless garment of the catechumen, purified by his long
+fast, was reproduced in the white robe which the young
+squire put on after cleansing his body in the bath, while
+the profession of baptism was repeated in the knightly
+vow which (after a special confession of sin followed by
+absolution) pledged the young man to deal justly, truly,
+and generously, defending the oppressed, succouring the
+needy and helpless, and everywhere showing himself the
+unsparing antagonist of all tyrants and evil-doers. In an
+especial degree he was to be the champion of women,
+the protector of children; and he rose from his knees
+before the assembled clergy, dubbed a knight by the
+sword of his godfather in the names of God, of our Lady,
+and of St. Michael, or St. George. The nearest to the
+heart of those who uttered this formula, as to that of
+the young knight, was the name of the Virgin Mother,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>whose name, it would seem, has fascinated multitudes
+without curing them of savage treachery and bloodthirsty
+ferocity. In feudal phrase she was his Lady
+(Notre Dame), as the crucified Jesus was his Lord (Notre
+Seigneur); and the adoring and humble love which he
+bore for her was held to sanctify and to be reflected in
+the devotion which he felt for every noble lady and more
+especially for the one favoured dame who became the
+idol of his heart, a star to be worshipped at a distance,
+if not a queen at whose feet he might throw himself in
+an ecstacy of passion. This being whom he delighted
+to picture to himself as the peerless ideal of womanhood
+might be the wife of another man; and these extravagant
+fancies produced not unfrequently the most lamentable
+and ruinous results. But the knightly or chivalrous
+spirit, thus sometimes led astray, tended nevertheless to
+impose moral checks on rude and savage minds which
+had never felt them before; and the growth of this spirit
+was ensured chiefly by the crusaders. The iniquities
+wrought by the soldiers of the Cross were fearful indeed;
+but the horrors of the warfare were in some small measure
+softened by the honour which the foremost warriors on
+both sides paid each to the bravery and good faith of the
+other; and this feeling expressed itself in a word which
+even now has by no means lost its meaning. The quality
+of courtesy so named displayed itself in the
+readiness to give place to another where
+strength and power might have refused all concessions.
+It was closely allied to the Christian qualities of meekness
+and mercy, and any approach to this heavenly temper
+was a gain indeed in a brutalized and ferocious age. The
+highest glory of the crusading knight was to be a mirror
+of courtesy: and this glory is especially associated with
+the name of Tancred. Tancred lived, fought, and conquered:
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>the Rinaldo whom Tasso paints in his epic
+poem on the deliverance of Jerusalem is a being of
+cloudland like the Greek Achilleus, the Trojan Hektor,
+and the Persian Rustam.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1096. August. Departure of the main army of the crusaders under Godfrey.</div>
+
+<p>The miserable remnant of 3,000 men who escaped
+from the field of blood before the city of the Seljukian
+Sultan (<a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>), found a refuge in Byzantine
+territory about the time when the better appointed
+armies of the crusaders were setting
+off on their eastward journey. The most
+disciplined of these troops set out with a
+vast following from the banks of the Meuse and the
+Moselle under Godfrey of Bouillon who led them safely
+and without opposition to the Hungarian border. Here
+the armies of Hungary barred the way against the advance
+of a host at whose hands they dreaded a repetition
+of the havoc wrought by the lawless bands of Peter
+the Hermit and his self-chosen colleagues. Three weeks
+passed away in vain attempts to get over the difficulty.
+The Hungarian king demanded as a hostage Baldwin,
+the brother of the general: the demand was refused, and
+Godfrey put him to shame by surrendering himself. He
+asked only for a free passage and a free market; but
+although these were granted, it was not in his power to
+prevent some disorder and some depredations as his
+army or horde passed through the country. The mischief
+might have been much worse, had not the Hungarian
+cavalry, acting professedly as a friendly escort but
+really as cautious warders kept close to the crusading hosts.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Captivity of Hugh of Vermandois.</div>
+
+<p>At length they reached the gates of Philippopolis, and
+here Godfrey learnt that Hugh of Vermandois, whose
+coming had been announced to the Greek
+emperor Alexios by four-and-twenty knights
+in golden armour, and who styled himself
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>the brother of the king of kings and lord of all the Frankish
+hosts, was a prisoner within the walls of Constantinople.
+With Robert of Normandy and Robert of Flanders,
+with Stephen of Chartres and some lesser chiefs,
+Hugh had chosen to make his way through Italy; and
+the charms of that voluptuous land had a greater effect,
+it seems, in breaking up and corrupting their forces than
+the delights of Capua had in weakening the soldiers of
+Hannibal. With little regard to order the chiefs determined
+to cross the sea as best they might. Hugh embarked
+at Bari; and if we may believe Anna Comnena,
+the historian and the worshipper of her father Alexios,
+his fleet was broken by a tempest which shattered his
+own ship on the coast between Palos and Dyrrhachium
+(Durazzo), of which John Comnenos, the nephew of the
+emperor, was at this time the governor. The Frank
+chief was here detained until the good pleasure of Alexios
+should be known. That wary and cunning prince saw
+at once how much might be made of his prisoner, who
+was by his orders conducted with careful respect and
+ceremony to the capital. Kept here really as a hostage,
+but welcomed to outward seeming as a friend, Hugh was
+so completely won by the charm of manner which Alexios
+well knew how and when to put on, that, paying him
+homage and declaring himself his man, he promised to
+do what he could to induce others to follow his example.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1096. Christmas. Arrival of Godfrey before the walls of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Policy of the emperor Alexios.</div>
+
+<p>From Philippopolis Godfrey sent ambassadors to
+Alexios, demanding the immediate surrender of Hugh.
+The request was refused, and Godfrey resumed
+his march, treating the land through
+which he passed as an enemy’s country,
+until by way of Adrianople he at length appeared
+before the walls of the capital at
+Christmastide, 1096. The fears of Alexios were aroused
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>by the sight of a host so vast and so formidable: they
+quickened into terror as he thought of the armies which
+were still on their way under the command of Bohemond
+and Tancred. Of Godfrey, beyond the fact
+of his mission as a crusader, he knew little
+or nothing: but in Bohemond he saw one
+who claimed as his inheritance no small portion of his
+empire. This gathering of myriads, whom a false step
+on his part might convert into open enemies, was the result
+of his own entreaties urged through his envoys before
+Urban II. in the council of Piacenza; and his mind
+was divided between a feverish anxiety to hurry them on
+to their destination and so to rid himself of their hateful
+presence, and the desire to retain a hold not only on the
+crusading chiefs but on any conquests which they might
+make in Syria.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Compact between Alexios and the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>Hugh was sent back to Godfrey’s camp; but the
+quarrel was patched up, rather than ended. It was
+easier to rouse suspicion and jealousy than to restore
+friendship. But it was of the first importance
+for Alexios that he should secure the
+homage of the princes already gathered
+round his capital before the arrival of his ancient enemy
+Bohemond. In this he succeeded, and a compact was
+made by which Alexios pledged them his word that he
+would supply them with food and aid them in their eastward
+march, and would protect all pilgrims passing
+through his dominions. On the other hand the crusading
+chiefs, as already subjects of other sovereigns, gave
+their fealty to the emperor as their liege lord only for the
+time during which they might remain within his borders,
+and undertook to restore to him such of their conquests
+as had been recently wrested from the empire. In order
+to secure this treaty Alexios had been compelled to go
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>through the fatigue of interminable audiences with the
+Western warriors and to put up with not a little insolence.
+The effrontery of a crusader, who flinging himself
+on the imperial throne declared that he saw no
+reason for standing while one rustic remained seated,
+was denounced as intolerable rudeness even by his companions;
+but Robert, count of Paris, if indeed it was he,
+closed a brief career not many weeks later, and is more
+conspicuous in modern romance than in the pages of
+mediæval historians.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Homage of the crusaders to Alexios.</div>
+
+<p>The spirit of Bohemond was stirred deeply within
+him when on reaching Constantinople he found that his
+colleagues, instead of remaining independent
+chiefs, had made themselves vassals of
+the Byzantine monarch. But Alexios was
+vigorously aided by Robert of Flanders, whose friendly
+offices were the result of an alliance made with his
+father eight years before; and Bohemond soon saw that
+he must in appearance follow the example of his comrades,
+whatever course it might suit him to take hereafter.
+He became the guest of the emperor, listened
+with complacency to his flatteries, accepted a magnificent
+gift or bribe, and accompanied his submission with a request
+for the office of Grand Domestic, or general of the
+East. The emperor put him off with the promise of an
+independent principality, and turned with more genuine
+warmth to the honest simplicity of Godfrey. This disinterested
+crusader was anxious only to fulfill his vows;
+and Alexios felt that he was making no sacrifice and entering
+into no inconvenient engagements by adopting
+him as his son.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disastrous march of Raymond of Toulouse to Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>The policy and the bribes of Alexios had overcome
+the opposition of Bohemond. He was to experience a
+stouter resistance from Raymond of Toulouse, who,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>though he had been the first to enlist, was
+the last to set out on his crusade. He should
+never make another journey, he said, and he
+was determined to be well prepared. Wishing
+to avoid, so far as he could, the lines of
+march chosen by the chiefs who had preceded him, he
+took the road through Lombardy. Thus far his march
+was easily accomplished: but things wore a different look
+when he reached the savage mountains and desolate
+valleys of Dalmatia and Slavonia. The people had
+driven their cattle (and their cattle formed practically
+their whole property) into inaccessible glens: and instead
+of plundering others the crusaders found themselves harassed
+and their stragglers cut off by thieves and murderers.
+Raymond retaliated by cutting off the hands and
+noses of all who were taken prisoners and putting out
+their eyes; and the wrath of the natives was roused to
+desperate resistance. At Scodra he entered into some
+sort of agreement with the Servian chief Bodin; but the
+country could yield little for the support of this vast
+army, which was compelled to struggle onwards under
+dire difficulties. It is astonishing to hear that Raymond
+could still speak of himself as the leader of a hundred
+thousand warriors, when he refused flatly to do homage
+to the Greek emperor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Refusal of Raymond to do homage.</div>
+
+<p>The count of Toulouse scarcely regarded himself as
+the vassal even of the French king. He was ready, he
+said, to be the friend of Alexios on equal
+terms; but he would not declare himself to
+be his man. On this point he was immovable,
+although Bohemond tried the effect of a threat,
+which was never forgiven, that if the quarrel came to
+blows, he should be found on the side of the emperor.
+But Alexios soon saw that in Raymond he had to deal
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>with an enthusiast as sincere and persistent as Godfrey.
+He took his measures accordingly, and winning the heart
+of the old warrior, although he failed to compel his obedience,
+he confessed to him his dislike of the rude and
+noisy habits of the Franks and his deep-seated fears of
+Bohemond. The admiration of Anna Comnena was as
+great as the esteem professed for him by her father. Raymond
+in her fervent language shone among the barbarians
+as the sun among the stars of heaven.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conduct of Alexios to the crusaders.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1097. March.</div>
+
+<p>While Alexios was thus busied in dealing with Godfrey
+and Raymond, Bohemond and Tancred, he was not less
+anxiously occupied with the task of sending
+across the Bosporos the swarms which might
+soon become an army of devouring locusts
+round his own capital. It was easier to give them a welcome
+than to get rid of them: and more than two months
+had passed since Christmas, when the followers
+of Godfrey found themselves on the soil
+of Asia. It was well to place even a narrow strait of sea
+between himself and these dangerous friends, who had
+threatened him at first with all the horrors of savage war.
+The rumour had got abroad that Alexios meant to hem
+them in among marshes, and leave them there to starve;
+and an assault of the crusaders on the suburbs showed
+the emperor what he might expect, if these suspicions
+were not quieted. Probably he had not intended to entrap
+them to their death: but he had felt less scruple in
+submitting them to cheatings with debased coin and to
+extortions which carried with them no sense of novelty
+for his own people. Even these he found it politic to
+abandon, and so zealously did he employ an opposite
+method that for the time the crusaders seemed to have
+become his mercenaries.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Passage of the crusaders across the Bosporos.</div>
+
+<p>Godfrey’s men had no sooner been landed on the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>eastern side of the Bosporos, than all the vessels which
+had transported them were brought back
+to the western shore. With great astuteness,
+and at the cost of large gifts, Alexios
+in like manner freed the neighbourhood of his capital
+from the invading multitudes. As fast as they came,
+they were hurried across, and the emperor breathed
+more freely when, on the feast of Pentecost, not a single
+Latin pilgrim remained on the European shore.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Thorough antagonism between the crusaders and the Greeks.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between the Greek and Latin clergy.</div>
+
+<p>The danger of conflict had throughout been imminent;
+and the danger arose, not so much from the fact
+that the crusaders were armed men, marching
+through the country of professed allies,
+but from the thorough antagonism between
+Greeks and Latins in modes of thought and
+habits of life, in the first notions of civilization, law, and
+duty. For the Greeks feudalism was a thing of the remote
+past; in other words, was a thing unknown. To
+get at a state resembling that of Western Europe they
+would have had to go back for nearly twenty centuries—to
+the days of Solon and of the Thessalian and Theban
+nobility, who were among the most efficient allies of
+Xerxes. For the crusading armies or rather for their
+chiefs (of the common herd there was no need to take
+any account), nothing was so hateful as a central authority
+which pressed on all orders in the state alike:
+nothing was so precious as local tyranny and the right
+of private war, which respected neither person nor property.
+For the subjects of the Eastern empire the protection
+of person and property was everything, and in
+order to secure this they were willing to put up with a
+large amount of oppression and of corruption in their
+governors. In a sense not so high perhaps as that which
+the words bore in the days of Herodotos, law was still
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>their king; and of public law the Latins could scarcely
+be said to have any conception. Nor must
+we forget the vast gulf which separated the
+Eastern from the Western clergy. The
+latter were now becoming well broken into
+the yoke of celibacy which had been finally thrust upon
+them by Damiani and Hildebrand; for the former marriage
+was a condition for the very reception of their
+orders. The Latin clergy had by this change been converted
+into a close order or caste, which looked up to the
+Roman pontiff as their head and hated the thought of
+allegiance to any temporal ruler. This empire within
+an empire was an idea which had not dawned on the
+Greek or the Eastern mind; and the clergy of the West
+despised their brethren of the East for their cowardly
+submission to the secular arm. These, in their turn,
+shrunk with horror from the sight of bishops, priests,
+and monks riding with blood-stained weapons over fields
+of battle, and exhibiting at other times an ignorance
+equal to their ferocity. Harmony between nations and
+races under such conditions is as hopeless as the voluntary
+mingling of oil and water; and the result of contact
+was an exasperation of the suspicion, jealousy, and
+hatred which the one side felt instinctively for the supposed
+treachery, lying, and violence of the other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Numbers of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>Thus was gathered on the eastern shores of the
+Hellespont and the Bosporos a host, we may well believe
+more vast than that which Xerxes drove
+before him for the invasion of Europe, and
+leaving behind it in utter insignificance the
+scanty force with which Alexander attempted and
+achieved the conquest of Asia. When tribes or a nation
+pour out their whole population, men, women, and children
+alike, there is practically no limit to the numbers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>which may be set in motion; nor is it any tax on our
+credulity to believe that a hundred thousand horsemen,
+fully armed in the light coats of mail worn during the
+first crusading age, were marshalled on the Bithynian
+plains, even if we put aside as an absurd exaggeration
+the notion of the chaplain of Count Baldwin, that the
+whole body of the crusaders amounted to not less than
+six millions.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">June. Siege and fall of Nice (Nikaia).</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">July 4. Battle of Dorylaion.</div>
+
+<p>Their strength and valour were soon to be tested.
+They were now face to face with the Turks on whose
+cowardice Urban II. had enlarged with so
+much complacency before the council of
+Clermont. The Sultan David, or Kilidje
+Arslan (<a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>), placed his family and treasures in his
+capital city of Nice (Nikaia), and retreated with 50,000
+horsemen to the mountains, whence he swooped down
+from time to time on the outposts of the Christians. By
+these his city was formally invested; and for seven weeks
+it was assailed to little purpose by the old instruments
+of Roman warfare, while some of the besiegers shot
+their weapons from the hill on which were mouldering
+the bones of the fanatic followers of Peter. It was protected
+to the west by the Askanian lake, and so long as
+the Turks had command of this lake they felt themselves
+safe. But Alexios sent thither on sledges a large
+number of boats, and the city, subjected to a double
+blockade, submitted to the emperor, who was in no way
+anxious to see the crusaders masters of the place. The
+crusaders were making ready for the last assault, when
+they saw the imperial banner floating on the walls. Their
+disappointment at the escape of the miscreants, or unbelievers,
+for so they delighted to speak of them, was
+vented in threats which seemed to bode a renewal of
+the old troubles: but Alexios, with gifts, which added
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>force to his words, professed that his only desire now,
+as it had been, was to forward them safely on their
+journey. Nor had they to go many stages before they
+found themselves again confronted with their adversary.
+The conflict took place near the Phrygian
+Dorylaion, and seemed at first to portend
+dire defeat to the crusaders. More than once
+the issue of the day seemed to be turned by the indomitable
+personal bravery of the Norman Robert, of
+Tancred, and of Bohemond; and when even those
+seemed likely to be borne down, they received timely
+succours from Godfrey, and Hugh of Vermandois, from
+bishop Adhemar of Puy and from Raymond, count of
+Toulouse. Still the Turks held out, and it seemed likely
+that they would long hold out, when the appearance
+of the last division of Raymond’s army filled them with
+the fear that a new host was upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">March to Cogni and the Pisidian Antioch.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Quarrel between Baldwin and Tancred at Tarsus.</div>
+
+<p>The crusaders had won a considerable victory. Three
+thousand knights belonging to the enemy had been slain,
+and Kilidje Arslan was hurrying away to
+enlist the services of his kinsmen. Meanwhile
+the Latin hosts were sweeping onwards,
+passing Cogni (Ikonion, Iconium), Erekli (Herakleia),
+and the Pisidian Antioch. Their dangers were
+great; their sufferings terrible. The son of Kilidje
+Arslan had hurried on before them with ten thousand
+horsemen, and declared before the gates of each city
+that they came as conquerors, not as fugitives. They
+had ravaged the lands as they came along; in the town
+they sacked the churches, plundered the houses, emptied
+the granaries; and the crusaders who followed them
+had to journey over a naked soil under the burning
+Phrygian sun. Hundreds died from the heat: and dogs
+or goats took the place of the baggage horses which had
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>perished. At length Tancred with his troop found himself
+before Tarsus, the birthplace and the home of that
+single-hearted apostle who long ago had preached a
+gospel strangely unlike the creed of the crusaders. Following
+rapidly behind him, Baldwin saw
+with keen jealousy the banner of the Italian
+chief floating on its towers, and insisted on
+taking the precedence. Tancred pleaded
+the choice of the people and his own promise to protect
+them; but the intrigues of Baldwin changed their
+humour, and the rejection of Tancred by the men of
+Tarsus was followed by an attempt at private war between
+Tancred and Baldwin, in which the troops of
+Tancred were overborne. So early was the first harvest
+of murderous discord reaped among the holy warriors
+of the cross. It was ruin, however, to stay where they
+were; and the main army again began its march, to
+undergo once more the old monotony of hardship and
+peril.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conquest of Edessa by Baldwin.</div>
+
+<p>A very small force would have sufficed to disorganize
+and rout them as they clambered over the defiles of
+Mount Taurus; nor could Raymond, recovering
+from a terrible illness, or Godfrey,
+suffering from wounds inflicted by a bear,
+have done much to help them. But for the present
+their enemies were dismayed; and Baldwin, brother of
+Godfrey, hastened with eagerness to obey a summons
+which besought him to aid the Greek or Armenian tyrant
+of Edessa. As Alexios had done to his brother, so this
+chief welcomed Baldwin as his son; but Baldwin, having
+once entered into the city, cared nothing for the means
+which had brought him thither, and the death of his
+adoptive father was followed by the establishment at
+Edessa of a Latin principality which lasted for fifty-four,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>or, as some have thought, forty-seven years. Baldwin
+had anticipated the unconditional surrender of Samosata;
+but the Turkish governor had some of the Edessenes
+in his power, and he refused to give up the city
+except on the payment of ten thousand gold pieces.
+The Turk shortly afterwards fell into Baldwin’s hands,
+and was put to death.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of the crusaders before the Syrian Antioch.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1097. Oct.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the main army of the crusaders was advancing
+towards the Syrian capital, that ancient and
+luxurious city whose fame had gone over the
+whole Roman world for its magnificence, its
+unbounded wealth, its soft delights, and its
+unholy pleasures. The days of its greatest splendour
+had passed away. Its walls were partially in ruins; its
+buildings were in some parts crumbling away or had
+already fallen; but against assailants utterly ignorant
+and awkward in all that relates to the blockade of cities
+it was still a formidable position. Nor could they invest
+it until they had passed the iron bridge (so called from
+its iron-plated gates) of nine stone arches, which spanned
+the stream of the Ifrin at a distance of nine miles from the
+city. This bridge was carried by the impetuous charge
+of Robert of Normandy, aided by the more steady efforts
+of Godfrey; and in the language of an age which delighted
+in round numbers, a hundred thousand
+warriors hurried across to seize the
+splendid prize which now seemed almost within their
+grasp.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege of Antioch.</div>
+
+<p>But the city was in the hands of men who had been
+long accustomed to despise the Greeks, and who had
+not yet learnt to respect the valour of the
+Latins. Preparing himself for a resolute
+defence, the Seljukian governor Baghasian had sent
+away, as useless, if not mischievous, most of the Christians
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>within the town; and the crusading chiefs had
+begun to discuss the prudence of postponing all operations
+till the spring, when Raymond of Toulouse with
+some other chiefs insisted that delay would imply fear,
+and that the imputation of cowardice would ensure the
+paralysis of their enterprise. The city was therefore at
+once invested, so far as the forces of the crusaders could
+suffice to encircle it; and a siege began which in the
+eyes of the military historian must be absolutely without
+interest, and of which the issue was decided by paroxysms
+of fanatical vehemence on the one side, and by
+lack not of bravery but of generalship on the other. Of
+the eastern and northern walls the blockade was complete;
+of the west it was partial; and the failure to invest
+a portion of the western wall, with two out of the five
+gates of the city, left the movements of the Turks in this
+direction free.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Folly of the besiegers.</div>
+
+<p>But the besiegers were in no hurry to begin the work
+of death. The wealth of the harvest and the vintage
+spread before them its irresistible temptations,
+and the herds feeding in the rich pastures
+seemed to promise an endless feast.
+The cattle, the corn, and the wine were alike wasted
+with besotted folly, while the Turks within the walls received
+tidings, it is said, of all that passed in the crusading
+camp from some Greek and Armenian Christians to
+whom they allowed free egress and ingress. Of this
+knowledge they availed themselves in planning the sallies
+by which they caused great distress to the besiegers,
+whose clumsy engines and devices seemed to produce no
+result beyond the waste of time, and who felt perhaps
+that they had done something when they blocked up the
+gate of the bridge with huge stones dug from the neighbouring
+quarries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Famine in the crusading camp.</div>
+
+<p>Three months passed away; and the crusaders found
+themselves not conquerors but in desperate straits from
+famine. The winter rains had turned the land round
+their camp into a swamp, and lack of food left them
+more and more unable to resist the pestilential
+diseases which were rapidly thinning
+their numbers. A foraging expedition under
+Bohemond and Tancred filled the camp with food: it
+was again recklessly wasted. The second famine scared
+away Tatikios, the lieutenant of the Greek emperor
+Alexios; but the crusading chiefs were perhaps still more
+disgusted by the desertion of William of Melun, called
+the Carpenter, from the sledge-hammer blows which he
+dealt out in battle. Hunger obtained a victory even
+over the hermit Peter, who was stealing away with
+William of Melun, when he with his companion was
+caught by Tancred and brought back to the tent of Bohemond.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of envoys from the Fatimite sultan of Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>For a moment the look of things was changed by the
+arrival of ambassadors from Egypt. To the Fatimite
+caliph of that country the progress of the
+crusading arms had thus far brought with it
+but little dissatisfaction. The humiliation
+of the Seljukian Turks could not fail to bring
+gain to himself, if the flood of Latin conquests could be
+checked and turned back in time. His generals besieged
+Jerusalem and Tyre; and when the Fatimite once more
+ruled in Palestine, his envoys hastened to the crusaders’
+camp to announce the deliverance of the Holy Land
+from its oppressors, to assure to all unarmed and peaceable
+pilgrims a month’s unmolested sojourn in Jerusalem,
+and to promise them his aid during their march, on condition
+that they should acknowledge his supremacy
+within the limits of his Syrian empire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their terms rejected by the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The arguments and threats of the caliph were alike
+thrown away. The Latin chiefs disclaimed
+all interest in the feuds and quarrels of rival
+sultans and in the fortunes of Mahomedan
+sects. God Himself had destined Jerusalem for the
+Christians, and if any held it who were not Christians,
+these were usurpers whose resistance must be punished
+by their expulsion or their death. The envoys departed
+not encouraged by this answer, and still more perplexed
+by the appearance of plenty and by the magnificence
+of a camp in which they had expected to see a terrible
+spectacle of disorder and misery.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fierce warfare between the Christians and the Turks.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1098. March.</div>
+
+<p>The resolute persistence of the besiegers convinced
+Baghasian of the need of reinforcements. These were
+hastening to him from Cæsarea, Aleppo, and
+other places, when they were cut off by Bohemond
+and Raymond, who sent a multitude
+of heads to the envoys of the Fatimite
+caliph, and discharged many hundreds from their
+engines into the city of Antioch. The Turks had their
+opportunity for reprisals when the arrival of some Pisan
+and Genoese ships at the mouth of the Orontes
+drew off the greater part of the besieging
+army. The crusaders were returning with provisions and
+arms, when their enemies started upon them from an
+ambuscade. The battle was fierce: but the defeat of Raymond
+which threatened dire disaster was changed into
+victory on the arrival of Godfrey and the Norman Robert,
+whose exploits equalled or surpassed, if we are to believe
+the story, even those of Arthur, Lancelot, or Tristram.
+Hundreds, if not thousands, of Turks fell. Their bodies
+were buried by their comrades in the cemetery without
+the walls: the Christians dug them up, severed the heads
+from the trunks, and paraded the ghastly trophies on their
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>pikes, not forgetting to send a goodly number to the
+Egyptian caliph, by way of showing how his Seljukian
+friends or enemies had fared. The picture is disgusting;
+but if we shut our eyes to these loathsome details, the
+truth of the history is gone. We are dealing with the
+wars of savages, and it is right that we should know this.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Plan of Bohemond for the reduction of Antioch.</div>
+
+<p>The next scene exhibits Godfrey and Bohemond in
+fierce quarrel about a splendid tent, which, being intended
+as a gift for the former, had been seized by an Armenian
+chief and sent to the latter. But there was now more
+serious business on hand. Rumour spoke of the near
+approach of a Persian army, and the besieged
+under the plea of wishing to arrange terms
+of capitulation obtained a truce which they
+sought probably only for the sake of gaining time. The
+days passed by, but no offers were made; and their disposition
+was shown by seizing a crusading knight in the
+groves near the city, and tearing his body in pieces. The
+Latins returned with increased fury to the siege: but the
+defence, although more feeble, was still protracted, and
+Bohemond began to feel not only that fraud might succeed
+where force had failed, but that from fraud he might
+reap not safety merely but wealth and greatness. His
+plans were laid with a renegade Christian named Phirouz
+(high in the favour of the governor), with whom he had
+come into contact either during the truce or in some
+other way. By splendid promises he ensured the zealous
+aid of his new ally, and then came forward in the
+council with the assurance that he could place the city
+in their hands, but that he could do this only on condition
+that he should rule in Antioch as Baldwin ruled in Edessa.
+His claim was angrily opposed by the Provençal Raymond:
+but this opposition was overruled, and it was
+resolved that the plan should be carried out at once.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">June. Betrayal of Antioch to Bohemond.</div>
+
+<p>There was need for so doing. Rumours spread within
+the city that some attempt was to be made to betray
+the place to the besiegers, and hints or open
+accusations pointed out Phirouz as the traitor.
+Like other traitors, the renegade thought
+it best to anticipate the charge by urging that the guards
+of the towers should on the very next day be changed.
+His proposal was received as indubitable proof of his
+innocence and his faithfulness; but he had made up his
+mind that Antioch should fall that night, and that night
+by means of a rope ladder Bohemond with about sixty
+followers (the ropes broke before more could ascend)
+climbed up the wall. Seizing ten towers of which all the
+guards were killed, they opened a gate, and the Christian
+host rushed in. The banner of Bohemond rose on one
+of the towers; the trumpets sounded for the onset, and a
+carnage began in which at first the assailants took no
+heed to distinguish between the Christian and the Turk.
+In the awful confusion of the moment some of the besieged
+made their way to the citadel, and there shut
+themselves in, ready to resist to the death. Of the rest
+few escaped: ten thousand, it is said, were massacred.
+Baghasian with some friends passed out beyond the besiegers’
+lines; but fainting from loss of blood he fell from
+his horse, and his companions hurried on. A Syrian
+Christian heard his groans, and striking off his head, carried
+the prize to the camp of the conquerors. Phirouz
+lived to be a second time a renegade, and to close his
+career as a thief.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of the Persians under Kerboga.</div>
+
+<p>The victory was for the crusaders a change from
+famine to abundance; and their feasting was accompanied
+by the wildest riot and the most filthy
+debauchery. But if heedless waste may have
+been one of the most venial of their sins,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>it was the greatest of their blunders. The reports which
+spoke of the approach of the Persians were not false.
+The Turks within the citadel suddenly found that they
+were rather besiegers than besieged, and that the Christians
+were hemmed in by the myriads of Kerboga
+prince of Mosul and the warriors of Kilidje Arslan.
+The old horrors of famine were now repeated, but in
+greater intensity; and the doom of the Latin host seemed
+to be sealed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Desertion of Stephen of Chartres.</div>
+
+<p>Stephen count of Chartres had deserted his companions
+before the fall of the city; others now followed
+his example, and with him set out on their
+return to Europe. In Phrygia Stephen encountered
+the emperor Alexios, who was
+marching to the aid of the crusaders, not only with a
+Greek army, but with a force of well appointed pilgrims
+who had reached Constantinople after the departure of
+Godfrey and his fellows. The story told by Stephen
+drove out of his head every thought except that of his
+own safety. The order for retreat was given; and the
+pilgrim warriors not less than the Greeks were compelled
+to turn their faces westwards. In vain Guy, a brother
+of Bohemond, pleaded his duty and his vow. His words
+were unheeded; and his indignation wrung from him the
+desperate assertion that if the Divine Being were omnipotent,
+He would not suffer such things to be done.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Desperate straits of the crusaders in Antioch.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The discovery of the Holy Lance.</div>
+
+<p>In Antioch the crusading soldiers were fast sinking
+into utter despair. Discipline had well nigh come to an
+end, and so obstinate was their refusal to
+bear arms any longer, that Bohemond resolved
+to burn them out of their quarters.
+These were consumed by the flames, which spread so
+rapidly as to fill him with fear that he had destroyed not
+only their dwellings but his whole principality. His experiment
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>brought the men back to their duty: but so despondingly
+was their work done that but for some signal
+succour the end, it was manifest, must soon come. In
+a credulous age such succour at the darkest hour, if obtained
+at all, will generally be obtained through miracle.
+A Lombard priest came forward, to whom St. Ambrose
+of Milan had declared in a vision that the third year of
+the crusade should see the conquest of Jerusalem; another
+had seen the Saviour Himself, attended by his
+Virgin-Mother and the Prince of the Apostles, had heard
+from his lips a stern rebuke of the crusaders for yielding
+to the seductions of pagan women (as if the profession
+of Christianity altered the colour and the guilt of a vice),
+and lastly had received the distinct assurance that in five
+days they should have the help which they needed. The
+hopes of the crusaders were roused; with hope came a
+return of vigorous energy; and Peter Barthelemy, chaplain
+to Raymond of Toulouse, seized the opportunity for
+recounting a vision which was to be something more than
+a dream. To him St. Andrew had revealed
+the fact that in the church of St. Peter lay
+hidden the steel head of the spear which had
+pierced the side of the Redeemer as He hung upon the
+cross; and that Holy Lance should win them victory
+over all their enemies as surely as the spear which imparted
+irresistible power to the Knight of the Sangreal.
+After two days of special devotion they were to search
+for the long-lost weapon: on the third day the workmen
+began to dig; but until the sun had set they toiled in
+vain. The darkness of night made it easier for the
+chaplain to play the part which Sir Walter Scott, in the
+‘Antiquary,’ assigns to Herman Dousterswivel in the ruins
+of St. Ruth. Barefooted and with a single garment the
+priest went down into the pit. For a time the strokes of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>his spade were heard, and then the sacred relic was
+found, carefully wrapped in a veil of silk and gold. The
+priest proclaimed his discovery; the people rushed into
+the church; and from the church throughout the city
+spread the flame of a fierce enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fate of the discoverer.</div>
+
+<p>Nine or ten months later Peter Barthelemy paid the
+penalty of his life for his fraud or his superstition. A
+bribe taken by his master Raymond brought
+that chief into ill odour with his comrades,
+and let loose against his chaplain the tongue of Arnold,
+the chaplain of Bohemond. Raymond had traded on
+fresh visions of his clerk; and Arnold boldly attacked
+him in his citadel by denying the genuineness of the
+Holy Lance. Peter appealed to the ordeal of fire. He
+passed through the flames, as it seemed, unhurt. The
+bystanders pressed to feel his flesh, and were vehement
+in their rejoicings at the result which vindicated his integrity.
+He had really received fatal injuries. Twelve
+days afterwards he died, and Raymond suffered greatly
+in his dignity and his influence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Antioch.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1098. June 28.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Defeat of Kerboga.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Antioch made a principality for Bohemond.</div>
+
+<p>The infidel was doomed; but the crusaders resolved
+to give him one chance of escape. Peter the Hermit was
+sent as their envoy to Kerboga to offer the
+alternative of departure from a land which
+St. Peter had bestowed on the faithful, or of baptism
+which should leave him master of the city and territory
+of Antioch. The reply was short and decisive. The
+Turk would not embrace an idolatry which he hated and
+despised, nor would he give up soil which belonged to
+him by right of conquest. The report of the hermit
+raised the spirit of the crusaders to fever
+heat; and on the feast of St. Peter and St.
+Paul they marched out in twelve divisions, in remembrance
+of the mission of the twelve apostles, while Raymond
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>of Toulouse remained to prevent the escape of the
+Turks shut up in the citadel. The Holy Lance was
+borne by the papal legate, Adhemar, bishop of Puy; and
+the morning air laden with the perfume of roses was now
+regarded as a sign assuring them of the divine favour.
+They were prepared to see good omens in everything;
+and they went in full confidence that departed saints
+would, as they had been told, take part in the battle and
+smite down the infidel. The fight (one of brute force on
+the Christian side, of some little skill as well as strength
+on the other) had gone on for some time when such help
+seemed to become needful. Tancred had hurried to the
+aid of Bohemond who was grievously pressed by Kilidje
+Arslan; and Kerboga was bearing heavily on Godfrey
+and Hugh of Vermandois, when, clothed in white armour
+and riding on white horses, some human forms were seen
+on the neighbouring heights. ‘The saints are coming to
+your aid,’ shouted the bishop of Puy, and the people saw
+in these radiant strangers the martyrs St. George, St.
+Maurice, and St. Theodore. Without awaiting their
+nearer approach the crusaders turned on the enemy with
+a force and fury which were now irresistible. Their
+cavalry could do little. Two hundred horses only remained
+of the sixty thousand which had filled the plain a
+few months before. But the hedge of spears advanced
+like a wall of iron, and the Turks gave way,
+broke, and fled. It was rout, not retreat;
+and with the crusaders victory was followed by the
+massacre of men, women, and children. The garrison
+in the citadel at once surrendered. Some declared themselves
+Christians and were baptized; those who refused
+to abandon Islam were taken to the nearest
+Mohamedan territory. The city was the
+prize of Bohemond; and in his keeping
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>it remained, although Raymond of Toulouse had made
+an effort to seize it by hoisting his banner on the walls.
+The work of pillage being ended, the churches were
+cleansed and repaired, and their altars blazed with
+golden spoils taken from the infidel. The Greek patriarch
+was again seated on his throne: but he held his
+office at the good pleasure of the Latins, and two years
+later he was made to give place to Bernard, a chaplain
+of the bishop of Puy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mission of Hugh of Vermandois to Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>Ten months had passed away after the conquest of
+Antioch when the main body of the crusading army set
+out on its march to Jerusalem. They had wished to
+depart at once, but their chiefs dreaded to encounter
+waterless wastes at the end of a Syrian summer,
+and for the present they were content
+to send Hugh of Vermandois and Baldwin
+of Hainault as envoys to the Greek emperor,
+to reproach him with his remissness or his want
+of faith. But the miseries endured by Christians and
+Turks were the pleasantest tidings in the ears of Alexios,
+for in the weakening of both lay his own strength; and
+he saw with satisfaction the departure of Hugh, not for
+Antioch, but for Europe, whither Stephen of Chartres
+had preceded him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Adhemar, bishop of Puy.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege and capture of Marra.</div>
+
+<p>Winter came; but the chiefs still lingered at Antioch.
+Some were occupied in expeditions against neighbouring
+cities: but a more pressing care was the
+plague which punished the foulness and disorder
+of the pilgrims. A band of 1,500 Germans,
+recently landed in strong health and full equipments,
+were all, it is said, cut off; and among the victims
+the most lamented perhaps was the papal legate
+Adhemar. A feeling of discouragement was again
+spreading through the army generally. The chiefs
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>vainly entreated the pope to visit the city where the disciples
+of St. Peter first received the Christian name; the
+people were disheartened by the animosities and the selfish
+or crooked policy of their chiefs. Raymond still
+hankered after the principality of Antioch, and insisted
+that Bohemond and his people, like the men of the
+three trans-jordanic tribes in the days of Joshua, should
+share in the last great enterprise of the crusade. More
+disgraceful than these feuds were the scenes
+witnessed during the siege and after the
+conquest of Marra. Heedlessness and waste
+soon brought the assailants to devour the flesh of dogs
+and of human beings. The bodies of Turks were torn
+from their sepulchres, ripped up for the gold which they
+were supposed to have swallowed, and the fragments
+cooked and eaten. Of the besieged many slew themselves
+to avoid falling into the hands of the Christians; to some
+Bohemond, tempted by a large bribe, gave an assurance
+of safety. When the massacre had begun, he ordered
+these to be brought forward. The weak and old he slaughtered;
+the rest he sent to the slave-markets of Antioch.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1099. May march of the crusaders from Antioch.</div>
+
+<p>A weak attempt made by Alexios to detain
+the crusaders only spurred them to more
+vigorous efforts. They had already left Antioch,
+and Laodicea was in their hands,
+when he desired them to await his coming in June.
+The chiefs, remembering the departure of Tatikios
+(<a href="#Page_62">p. 62</a>) with his Byzantine troops for Cyprus, retorted
+that he had broken his compact, and had therefore
+no further claims on their obedience. Hastening
+on their way, they crossed the plain of Berytos (Beyrout),
+overlooked by the eternal snows of Lebanon,
+along the narrow strip of land whence the great Phenician
+cities had sent their seamen and their colonists,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>with all the wealth of the East, to the shores of the Adriatic
+and the gates of the Mediterranean. Having reached
+Jaffa, they turned inland to Ramlah, a town sixteen miles
+only from Jerusalem. Two days later the crusaders
+came in sight of the Holy City, the object of their long
+pilgrimage, the cause of wretchedness and death to
+millions. As their eyes rested on the scene hallowed to
+them through all the associations of their faith, the crusaders
+passed in an instant from fierce enthusiasm to a
+humiliation which showed itself in sighs and tears. All
+fell on their knees, to kiss the sacred earth and to pour
+forth thanksgivings that they had been suffered to look
+upon the desire of their eyes. Putting aside their armour
+and their weapons, they advanced in pilgrim’s garb and
+with bare feet towards the spot which the Saviour had
+trodden in the hours of his agony and his passion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">June. Siege of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">July. Storming of the city.</div>
+
+<p>But before their feelings of devotion could be indulged,
+there was other work to be done. The chiefs took up
+their posts on those sides from which the
+nature of the ground gave most hope of a
+successful assault. On the northern side
+were Godfrey and Tancred, Robert of Flanders, and
+Robert of Normandy; on the west Raymond with his
+Provencals. On the fifth day, without siege instruments,
+with only one ladder, and trusting to mere weight, the
+crusaders made a desperate assault upon the walls.
+Some succeeded in reaching the summit, and the very
+rashness of their attack struck terror for a moment into
+their enemies. But the garrison soon rallied, and the
+invaders were all driven back or hurled from the ramparts.
+The task, it was manifest, must be undertaken
+in a more formal manner. Siege engines must be made,
+and the palm and olive of the immediate neighbourhood
+would not supply fit materials for their construction.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>These were obtained from the woods of Shechem, a distance
+of thirty miles; and the work of preparation was
+carried on under the guidance of Gaston of Bearn by
+the crews of some Genoese vessels which had recently
+anchored at Jaffa. So passed away more than thirty
+days, days of intense suffering to the besiegers. At Antioch
+they had been distressed chiefly by famine: in
+place of this wretchedness they had here the greater
+miseries of thirst. The enemy had carefully destroyed
+every place which might serve as a receptacle of water;
+and in seeking for it over miles of desolate country they
+were exposed to the harassing attacks of Moslem horsemen.
+Nor had visions and miracles improved the
+morals or discipline of the camp; and the ghost of Adhemar
+of Puy appeared to rebuke the horrible sins which
+were drawing down upon them the judgments of the
+Almighty. Better service was done by the generosity
+of Tancred, who made up his quarrel with Raymond;
+and the enthusiasm of the crusaders was again roused
+by the preaching of Arnold (<a href="#Page_68">p. 68</a>) and the hermit Peter.
+The narrative of the siege of Jericho in the book of
+Joshua suggested probably the procession in which the
+clergy singing hymns preceded the laity round the walls
+of the city. The Saracens on the ramparts mocked their
+devotions by throwing dirt upon crucifixes: but they
+paid a terrible price for these insults. On the next day
+the final assault began, and was carried on through the
+day with the same monotony of brute force and carnage
+which marked all the operations of this merciless war.
+The darkness of night brought no rest. The actual
+combat was suspended, but the besieged were incessantly
+occupied in repairing the breaches made by the assailants,
+while these were busied in making their dispositions
+for the last mortal conflict. In the midst of that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>deadly struggle, when it seemed that the Cross must
+after all go down before the Crescent, a knight was seen
+on Mount Olivet, waving his glistening shield to rouse
+the champions of the Holy Sepulchre to the supreme
+effort. ‘It is St. George the Martyr who has come again
+to help us,’ cried Godfrey, and at his words the crusaders
+started up without a feeling of fatigue and carried everything
+before them. The day, we are told, was Friday,
+the hour was three in the afternoon (the moment at
+which the last cry from the cross announced the accomplishment
+of the Saviour’s passion), when Letold of
+Tournay stood, the first victorious champion of the cross,
+on the walls of Jerusalem. Next to him came, we are
+told, his brother Engelbert: the third was Godfrey.
+Tancred with the two Roberts stormed the gate of St.
+Stephen; the Provencals climbed the ramparts by ladders,
+and the conquest of Jerusalem was achieved. The
+insults offered a little while ago to the crucifixes
+were avenged by Godfrey’s orders in
+the massacre of hundreds; the carnage in
+the mosque of Omar swept away the bodies of thousands
+in a deluge of human blood. The Jews were all burnt
+alive in their synagogues. The horses of the crusaders,
+who rode up to the porch of the temple, were (so the
+story goes) up to the knees in the loathsome stream; and
+the forms of Christian knights hacking and hewing the
+bodies of the living and the dead furnished a pleasant
+commentary on the sermon of Urban at Clermont.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Adoration of the crusaders in the church of the Sepulchre.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Exaltation of Peter the Hermit.</div>
+
+<p>From the duties of slaughter these disciples
+of the Lamb of God passed to those of
+devotion. Bareheaded and barefooted, clad
+in a robe of pure white linen, in an ecstasy
+of joy and thankfulness mingled with profound
+contrition, Godfrey entered the church of the Holy
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>Sepulchre and knelt at the tomb of his Lord. With
+groans and tears his followers came, each in his turn, to
+offer his praises for the divine mercy which had vouchsafed
+this triumph to the armies of Christendom. With
+feverish earnestness they poured forth the vows which
+bound them to sin no more, and the excitement of prayer
+and slaughter, perhaps of both combined, led them to
+see everything which might be needed to give effect to
+the closing scene of this appalling tragedy. As the saints
+had arisen from their graves when the Son of Man gave
+up the ghost on Calvary, so the spirits of the pilgrims
+who had died on the terrible journey came to take part
+in the great thanksgiving. Foremost among them was
+Adhemar of Puy, rejoicing in the prayers for forgiveness
+and the resolutions of repentance which promised a new
+era of peace upon earth and of good will towards all men.
+With departed saints were mingled living men who deserved
+all the honour which might be paid to them. The
+backsliding of the hermit Peter was blotted out of the
+memory of those who remembered only the fiery eloquence
+which had first called them to their now triumphant
+pilgrimage, and the zeal which had
+stirred the heart of Christendom to cut short
+the tyranny of the Unbeliever in the birth-land
+of Christianity. The assembled throng fell down
+at his feet, and gave thanks to God who had vouchsafed
+to them such a teacher. His task was done, and in the
+annals of the time Peter is heard of no more.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second and deliberate massacre in Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>On this dreadful day Tancred had spared three hundred
+captives to whom he had given a standard as a
+pledge of his protection and a guarantee of
+their safety. Such misplaced mercy was a
+crime in the eyes of the crusaders. The
+massacre of the first day may have been aggravated by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>the ungovernable excitement of victory: but it was resolved
+that on the next day there should be offered up
+a more solemn and deliberate sacrifice. The men whom
+Tancred had spared were all murdered; and the wrath
+of Tancred was roused not by their fate but by an act
+which called his honour into question. The butchery
+went on with impartial completeness, old and young,
+decrepit men and women, mothers with their infants,
+boys and girls, young men and maidens in the bloom of
+their vigour, all were mowed down, and their bodies
+mangled until heads and limbs were tossed together in
+awful chaos. A few were hidden away by Raymond of
+Toulouse; his motive, however, was not mercy, but the
+prospects of gain in the slave-market. After this great
+act of faith and devotion the streets of the Holy City
+were washed by Saracen prisoners; but whether these
+(like the women servants whom Odysseus strung up like
+sparrows after the slaughter of the suitors) were butchered
+when their work was ended we are not told.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Compassion of Omar and Godfrey.</div>
+
+<p>Four centuries and a half had passed away, when these
+things were done, since Omar had entered Jerusalem as
+a conqueror and knelt outside the church of
+Constantine, that his followers might not
+trespass within it on the privileges of the
+Christians (<a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>). The contrast is at the least marked
+between the caliph of the Prophet and the children of
+the Holy Catholic Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of Godfrey to the sovereignty of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Battle of Ascalon.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Return of the pilgrims to Europe.</div>
+
+<p>When, the business of the slaughter being ended, the
+chiefs met to choose a king for the realm which they had
+won with their swords, one man only appeared
+to whom the crown could fitly be
+offered. Baldwin was lord of Edessa; Bohemond
+ruled at Antioch; Hugh of Vermandois
+and Stephen of Chartres had returned to Europe;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>Robert of Flanders cared not to stay; the Norman
+Robert had no mind to forfeit the duchy which he had
+mortgaged; and Raymond was discredited by his
+avarice, and in part also by his traffic in the visions of
+Peter Barthelemy. But in the city where his Lord had
+worn the thorny crown, the veteran leader who had looked
+on ruthless slaughter without blanching and had borne
+his share in swelling the stream of blood would wear no
+earthly diadem, nor take the title of king. He would
+watch over his Master’s grave and the interests of his
+worshippers under the humble guise of Baron and Defender
+of the Holy Sepulchre; and as such, a fortnight
+after his election, Godfrey departed to do
+battle with the hosts of the Fatimite caliph
+of Egypt, who now felt that the loss of Jerusalem was
+too high a price for the humiliation of his rivals. The
+conflict took place at Ascalon, and the Fatimite army
+was miserably routed. Godfrey returned to Jerusalem, to
+hang the sword and standard of the sultan before the Holy
+Sepulchre and to bid farewell to the pilgrims who were
+now to set out on their homeward journey.
+He retained, with 300 knights under Tancred,
+only 2,000 foot soldiers for the defence
+of his kingdom; and so ended the first act in the great
+drama of the crusades.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reign of Godfrey.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Daimbert, patriarch of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>The reign of Godfrey fell short by five days even of the
+brief period of a single year; but it sufficed not only for
+the discomfiture of the Egyptian sultan,
+but for the foundation of a kingdom resting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>on an elaborate system of carefully defined laws. His
+conflict with the Fatimite caliph was followed by a conflict
+with Daimbert, bishop of Pisa, the new Latin patriarch
+of Jerusalem. As legate of the pope Pascal II.,
+(Urban had died a fortnight after the fall of the Holy
+City, in other words, before he could hear of
+the victory of the crusaders,) Daimbert had
+invested Godfrey and Bohemond with their
+feudal possessions, and he lost no time in asserting the
+papal claim by demanding immediate recognition as the
+lord of Jerusalem and Jaffa. In each of these cities a
+quarter was at once assigned to him, and the whole was
+to pass into his hands if Godfrey should die without
+children. Such was the compact made by the Baron and
+Defender of the Holy Sepulchre; but it was not to pass
+unchallenged.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Assize of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>We have seen Godfrey in the siege and conquest of
+Jerusalem wading with exultation through a sea of human
+blood, seizing infants by their feet and dashing them
+against the walls or whirling them over the battlements,
+or aiding and abetting those who did so. But a few days
+or a few weeks later this man was to be seen seated as an
+impartial judge among men whom he, the king and sovereign,
+regarded as his equals, setting about the grave task
+of compiling a code of laws on the only basis which can
+serve as the foundation of true constitutional government,—the
+sanction, namely, of the laws by the men who are
+to obey them. There was little enough of freedom in
+the feudal system; and the system embodied in the code
+popularly known as the Assize of Jerusalem
+was but a reflection of the general body of
+law in force throughout Western Christendom. Still the
+legislation of Godfrey and his successors is full of instruction,
+not merely as showing with what success the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>system of one country may be transferred to another,
+but even as throwing a clearer light on the working of
+feudalism in Western Europe. The story went that the
+code thus drawn up with the advice of the Latin pilgrims
+was deposited in the Holy Sepulchre and was lost with
+the fall of the city. The tale lies open to grave suspicion.
+The whole code would form no heavy weight for a beast
+of burden, while it would be an object utterly valueless
+in the eyes of the Mahomedan conquerors. It is of more
+importance to remark that the traditions which this lost
+record was supposed to have preserved continued to
+guide the Latin principalities of the East, until in <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span>
+1369, having undergone a final revision, they became the
+laws of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Judicial courts instituted by Godfrey.</div>
+
+<p>The legislation of this code on the relation of vassals
+to their overlords, on the subject of wardship,
+of judicial combats, of villenage and slavery,
+may have been more minute and definite
+than the laws of Western Europe; but it laid down no
+new principles. A more important feature is to be found
+in the judicial courts which owed their institution to the
+first Latin king of Jerusalem. In the court of the barons
+or peers the king himself was the president; in that of
+the burgesses he was represented by the viscount, and it
+is in this court that we find the popular element which
+was hereafter to give a new character to the history of
+Europe. It consisted of a number of the citizens chosen
+for their trustworthiness and their wisdom. Popular
+election, indeed was wanting; but an assembly of burgesses
+sworn to judge according to the laws in all the
+concerns of their equals was a germ from which good
+fruit might have been looked for, if the seed had been
+sown in fitting soil. Not less wise was the institution of
+a third court which dealt with Syrian Christians through
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>the Syrians themselves. But although the legislative
+work of Godfrey and his successors was not wholly in
+vain, it was an exotic which could live only with the
+ascendency of the Latins. It was sown in blood, nursed
+amid storms, and uprooted by the tempest which swept
+the Western Christians from Palestine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1100. July 18. Baldwin I.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1100-1118.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1101. Death of Stephen of Chartres.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1105. Death of Raymond of Toulouse.</div>
+
+<p>The death of Godfrey raised in the patriarch Daimbert
+hopes which were to be disappointed. The subjects of
+Godfrey had no mind to be governed by a
+priest, and Tancred offered the throne to
+Bohemond. But Raymond was now a captive,
+and popular favour inclined to Baldwin, Godfrey’s
+brother, the lord of the Mesopotamian Edessa. Resigning
+his principality to his kinsman of the same name,
+Baldwin hastened to Jerusalem, and was there chosen
+king. At first Daimbert held aloof in sullen displeasure;
+but his opposition was at length overcome, and the
+patriarch poured the anointing oil over the
+sovereign. Baldwin reigned for eighteen
+years, and long before those years had come to an end,
+the great chiefs of the first crusade had all passed away.
+In his second year he was compelled to resist an Egyptian
+invasion; but his army was defeated in a battle near
+Ramlah, in which Stephen earl of Chartres
+was taken prisoner and slain. He had been
+driven back from Europe by the reproaches
+of his wife Adela, a daughter of the Norman conqueror
+of England, and in her judgment at least he thus redeemed
+his fame. Four years later Raymond
+of Toulouse died in old age on the sea-coast,
+having satisfied probably neither his ambition
+nor his avarice. He had conquered Tortosa and
+there founded a principality: but the possession of Tripolis
+which he had coveted was reserved for his son
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>Bertrand. Bertrand enjoyed his new fief for two years
+only, and was succeeded by his son Pontius, to whom
+Tancred left his widow as a bride.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1103. Sequel of the career of Bohemond.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1106.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1107.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1109.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1112. Death of Tancred.</div>
+
+<p>The return of Bohemond to Antioch was soon followed
+by his capture in a petty expedition for the enlargement
+of his principality; but his place was well
+filled by Tancred; and when after two years
+of imprisonment Bohemond came back in
+spite of all the efforts of Alexios to get possession of his
+person, he found himself master not only of Antioch but
+of Laodicea and Apameia. In the open war which followed
+with the Byzantine emperor, Bohemond was defeated
+by land, but with the aid of the Pisans was victorious
+at sea. His thoughts were running probably on
+another crusade when his help was invoked by Daimbert
+the patriarch of Jerusalem, who took refuge at his court
+from what he chose to call the tyranny of Baldwin.
+With the prelate, Bohemond sailed for Italy,
+leaving Tancred to rule at Antioch. His
+name had gone before him, and Philip I. the French
+king hastened to invite to his court the most redoubtable
+of the champions of Christendom. Bohemond became
+the son-in-law of Philip, and sailed again for
+the land of his old exploits with 5,000 horse
+and 40,000 foot. Once more he attacked Durazzo; but
+the bribes of Alexios foiled his enterprise,
+and Bohemond was constrained to content
+himself with a treaty which admitted him to the imperial
+presence as the peer of the Byzantine sovereign. He went
+back to Italy and was making ready the next
+year for his return to Antioch when death
+cut short his vehement and stormy career. Tancred remained
+lord of his principality. He was still in the prime
+of his manhood, and a disposition which, as compared
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>with that of his fellows, was generous and
+merciful, might promise a long time of
+righteous government for his people. But
+before three years had passed Tancred died childless, of a
+wound received in battle, and left his power to his kinsman
+Roger.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effect of the crusades on the Byzantine empire.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fresh swarms of pilgrims.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1101. Death of Hugh of Vermandois.</div>
+
+<p>The only man who had derived permanent benefit
+from these crusading expeditions was the man to whom
+it might be supposed that they had caused
+the greatest mischief and annoyance. It was
+of the first importance to the safety of the
+Byzantine empire that the Turks should be drawn away
+from the nearer countries of Bithynia and Phrygia. This
+great result the crusade fully achieved. The capital of
+the Turkish sultan of Roum was transferred from Nice to
+the remote and obscure city of Cogni (Iconium, Ikonion;)
+the authority of the Greek emperor was re-established
+over all the maritime regions of Asia Minor; and the
+existence of his empire prolonged for nearly 350 years.
+But Alexios, with his crafty and scheming temper to
+which incessant occupation in tasks serious or trifling
+brought a sense of self-importance, was pre-eminently a
+man to think more of annoyances than of grave disasters.
+For him accordingly it was grief of spirit that Latin chiefs
+should fail to do him homage for distant conquests, the
+possession of which could bring him no good; and he
+had a standing ground of quarrel and complaint in the
+trouble given or the alarm caused by the hosts of pilgrims
+which Europe poured out upon the East as soon as the
+tidings were brought that Jerusalem was in the hands of
+the Christians. It certainly cannot be said
+that the pilgrims left Alexios much time for
+idleness. A rabble more disorderly than that of Walter
+the Penniless followed the armies of Godfrey and his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>confederates. These were Lombards headed by the
+archbishop of Milan; and when Alexios insisted on their
+crossing the Bosporos before more should come, they
+broke out into open war and attempted to storm the
+quarter of Blachernai. These were followed by a better
+appointed force under the count of Blois and the constable
+of the emperor of Germany, who spoke with confidence
+of attacking Bagdad and destroying the caliphat.
+But the dress of the Greek clergy in some Phrygian town
+excited their wrath. Priests and others were massacred;
+and the sequel of the expedition was as disastrous as
+that of the hordes cut off by Kilidje Arslan at the hill of
+bones (<a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>). No better success attended the companies
+gathered under the standards of the count of Nevers,
+the count of Poitiers, and Hugh of Vermandois. With
+the last of these chiefs came hundreds of ladies who
+looked for nothing less than a triumphal march from
+Constantinople to Jerusalem: for almost all of these a
+journey of unspeakable misery came to an
+end in the slave-markets of Bagdad and
+other great cities of the East. The counts
+of Nevers and of Poitiers reached Antioch on foot with a
+few followers: Hugh of Vermandois managed to escape
+to Tarsus, and there he died.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of the emperor Alexios.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1118.</div>
+
+<p>An endless series of wars, some of which were forced
+upon him while others were mere blunders, was to occupy
+the life of Alexios to its close. Throughout
+it may be said that successful dissimulation
+and even successful treachery brought him
+greater delight than the most decisive victory in the
+field. Some of his worst faults are recorded as constituting
+his greatest merits in the turgid pages of his
+daughter Anna: but she and her mother Irene were to
+learn, as he lay almost at the last gasp, that they too
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>could be sufferers by his astuteness. He allowed
+his son John to frustrate at the last
+moment their most cherished scheme, and his wife bade
+him farewell with the plain-spoken phrase, ‘You die, as
+you have lived,—a hypocrite.’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1118-1131. Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>While the days of Alexios were drawing to an end at
+Constantinople, Baldwin king of Jerusalem was dying in
+Egypt, whither he had gone in the hope of crippling the
+power of the Fatimite sultan. His body was embalmed,
+brought back to Jerusalem, and laid in the sepulchre of
+Godfrey. On the day of his funeral the great council
+met to elect his successor. His brother
+Eustace was absent in Europe; and the
+crown was offered to his kinsman, Baldwin
+du Bourg, who had been recommended for
+the post by the first king, and whose claim was urged by
+Joceline of Courtenay. In his gratitude Baldwin invested
+Joceline with the principality of Edessa.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1115. Conquest of Sidon.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1124. Conquest of Tyre.</div>
+
+<p>It may be enough to say of this king that during his
+reign, as in that of his predecessor, the limits of the
+Latin power were being gradually extended, the new
+acquisitions being bestowed on princes who held them
+as fiefs of the kingdom of Jerusalem. After a siege of
+six weeks Sidon had fallen, in the days of the first Baldwin.
+In this blockade the Latins were aided
+to good purpose by the fleet and army of the
+Norwegian Siward. Nine years later the
+Venetian doge Michael came to worship at the Holy
+Sepulchre, and offered the help of his fleet for the reduction
+of Ascalon or Tyre. The choice fell upon Tyre, and
+the doge stipulated that one half of that city should
+remain to himself in absolute sovereignty,
+while the Venetians should also have a
+church, a street, and other privileges in Jerusalem.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span>The siege lasted five months, when the still
+great, and once peerless, Phenician city was compelled
+to yield and become the seat of a Christian archbishopric.
+But if the crusading dominions were thus enlarged,
+it is perhaps of little use to speak of the greatest extent
+reached by a kingdom almost as restless and as changeful
+as the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1131-1144. Fulk, king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1144-1162. Baldwin III.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1145. Fall of Edessa.</div>
+
+<p>The third successor of Godfrey on the throne of Jerusalem
+was Fulk of Anjou, whose lot on the whole was
+more tranquil than that of his predecessors,
+although in attempting to aid Raymond
+count of Tripoli against Zenghis, sultan of
+Aleppo, he was shut up in the castle of Barin
+or Montferrat, and compelled to purchase his safety with
+gold. He was succeeded by his son Baldwin,
+a boy thirteen years of age, who was
+soon to see what the prowess of the West
+could do in a second crusade. The feuds of the Christian
+princes of Antioch and Edessa gave to Zenghis an
+opportunity of attacking the principalities of Joceline of
+Courtenay. For eighteen days the inhabitants of Edessa
+awaited in terrible suspense the result of a siege in which
+for them surrender meant death. The deeds of Godfrey
+and his fellows on the fall of Jerusalem were still fresh
+in the memory of their enemies, and the heralds of
+Zenghis were not slack in teaching his men that conquest
+brought with it the right of pillage. The Turks
+learnt the lesson in spirit as well as in letter;
+and on the fall of Edessa the deeds of blood
+and cruelty showed that Moslems might be
+apt pupils in the horrible school in which the Christians
+had attained a standard of ideal excellence. The story
+told once needs not to be told again. The murder of
+Zenghis awakened in Joceline of Edessa the hope that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>the lost city might be recovered. The attempt issued in
+a second disaster; and nothing remained but an appeal
+to the religious enthusiasm of Western Christendom.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SECOND CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Bernard the apostle of the second crusade.</div>
+
+<p>What Peter the Hermit had been for the first crusade,
+that St. Bernard was for the second; and on Peter,
+Bernard looked down with undisguised contempt.
+The failure of that first great enterprise
+he ascribes to the wretched councils of
+the fanatical guide whose name he supposes that his
+hearers or correspondents have sometimes heard. To
+the holy war which he felt himself called upon to kindle,
+he looked forward without the least misgiving, and the
+proud confidence which he feels and everywhere expresses
+may be taken as a special characteristic of Western
+monachism in its palmiest days. While the monks
+of the East were losing themselves more and more in the
+mists of dreamy or useless speculation, the cell of the
+Western monk became an imperial chamber from which
+went forth the letters which were to cheer or counsel the
+Vicar of Christ, to rebuke kings and statesmen, to warn
+and guide the faithful, to recall the wanderer to the fold,
+and to confound the unbeliever. For these high offices
+he had a commission higher than that of any earthly
+authority. They fell within the range of his duty as the
+member of a society, the soldier of an army, which was
+to fight the battles of the King of kings. He was the
+knight sheathed in the impenetrable armour of the Spirit,
+and he bore in his hand the invincible sword of faith.
+He had learnt the language, and transferred to his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>monastic life the images and terms, of feudalism. For
+him action was everything; solitude with its essential
+idea of rest was in comparison of this as nothing. He
+fled from his home to the cloister, because he could there
+fight better against material and spiritual corruption.
+He chose the most severe schools which he could find
+for the exercise of his self-discipline. He withdrew from
+these into wilder deserts, if they failed to meet his ideal
+of self-mortification. He established what he called a
+reform, if existing rules appeared to him too indulgent
+to human weakness. Such was the life of St. Bernard.
+He was from first to last a crusader, and the most pertinacious
+and successful of his crusades was against the
+peace and quiet of his own family. His mother had
+made a secret vow to devote all her children to God;
+and Bernard held it among the first of his duties to see
+that her vow should be fulfilled. Power, wealth, and
+dignity in the world were within his grasp: he threw
+them all aside. The holy house of Molesme had sent
+forth some of its most austere members under an
+Englishman named Stephen Harding, and these found
+a ruder and more savage home on the borders of Champagne
+and Burgundy, at Citeaux, the cradle of the great
+Cistercian order. Thither came Bernard in his early
+manhood, and there he remained until he in his turn
+went forth to found a new house in the gloomy and ill-famed
+valley to which he gave a name associated for
+ever with his memory. Here at Clairvaux his father
+took the habit of a monk, and died in his arms. His
+brothers and his sisters had made their profession before
+him,—not all without a struggle; but who should resist
+the Divine Will? The wife of one of his brothers refused
+to make the sacrifice of her husband’s love: but a
+sudden illness convinced her of the perils of disobedience,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>and like her husband she found her home in a
+convent.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sources of Bernard’s influence.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1130.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1140.</div>
+
+<p>This was the man whom the tidings of the fall of
+Edessa filled with profound emotion. He could no more
+doubt the duty of ridding the Holy Land of
+unbelievers than he could call into question
+his own mission against all ungodliness and
+sin. But if it had been right to rush to the rescue of the
+Holy Sepulchre when it was still in the hands of the
+infidel, it was still more right, it was indispensably necessary,
+to keep that sacred place and the land in which
+it lay from falling again under the old despotism. For
+Bernard, when his mind was once fixed on any enterprise,
+there could be no rest, as there could also be no
+measure in the vehemence of his eloquence. The
+energy with which he espoused the cause of
+Innocent II. against a rival pope had invested
+him with an influence second to that of no other
+man of his age; and he had wielded this power
+with tremendous effect against Abelard,
+the keenest and most daring thinker of Latin Christendom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Louis VI. of France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1137.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1142.</div>
+
+<p>Three years before the council of Sens, which under
+the direction of Bernard condemned the propositions or
+heresies of Abelard, died the French king
+Louis VI., surnamed the Fat, the monarch
+(if so he might be called) of a scanty kingdom
+the enlargement of which would best be promoted
+by advantageous marriages. Of such an opportunity
+Louis the Fat eagerly availed himself when William,
+lord of Poitou and Guienne, the wide region lying between
+the Loire and the Adour, offered his daughter and
+heiress Eleanor as the wife of the heir to the French
+crown. By right of this marriage Louis VII.
+found himself on the death of his father and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>of his father-in-law possessed of a far larger kingdom
+and greater resources than he had expected to inherit;
+and he might have made it the business of his life to
+guard and extend his dominions at home, had he not
+felt himself suddenly called to take up his cross and
+follow the example of his great-uncle, Hugh of Vermandois.
+In a war with Theobald, count of Champagne, he
+had stormed and set fire to the castle of
+Vitry. To escape from his soldiers the people
+had taken refuge in a neighbouring church. To this
+building the flames spread, and all within it, men,
+women, and children, 1,300, it is said, in number, were
+burnt. The sight of the scorched and charred bodies
+filled the king with horror and grief: sickness followed,
+and he determined to work out his repentance by leading
+his armies to the Holy Land. His remorse was
+quickened by the eloquence of Bernard, and Louis put
+on the blood-red cross in the council of Vezelay.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1146. Easter. Council of Vezelay.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Speech of Bernard.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Knights Templars.</div>
+
+<p>From this council the pope, Eugenius III., was absent.
+His place was more than supplied by his friend and
+adviser, whose voice stirred the depths of
+every heart. The letter of Eugenius held out
+to the crusaders all the promises which had
+been assured to them by Urban at Clermont, and warned
+them against the vices which had brought disaster and
+disgrace on the arms of Christendom. But for the moment
+every other feeling than that of fierce yearning for
+conflict was swept away by the furious torrent of Bernard’s
+oratory. He preached to the Knights Templars, the
+members of that splendid order which was already
+astonishing the world with its valour and its
+haughtiness. Associated at first for the protection
+of pilgrims on the road to Jerusalem, they had
+established themselves in the Holy City itself, and received
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>from Baldwin II. some ground to
+the east of the Temple; and the mosque of
+Omar, purified from its defilements, became the church
+of the order. The fiery warriors who professed themselves
+the humble guardians of the Holy Sepulchre
+needed no stimulus of rhetoric to spur them on: and the
+rhetoric of Bernard was fierce enough to stir even the
+most peaceable. In this new philosophy butchery was
+the surest means of grace, and carnage imparted indelible
+sanctity. ‘The Christian who slays the unbeliever
+in the Holy War is sure of his reward, more sure if he is
+slain. The Christian glories in the death of the Pagan,
+because by it Christ is glorified; by his own death both
+he himself and Christ are still more glorified.’ The floodgates
+of enthusiasm were once again opened wide; and
+the scenes of the council of Clermont were reproduced
+with little change. Accompanied by the French king
+who wore the cross conspicuously on his dress, Bernard
+mounted a wooden platform and addressed the impassioned
+multitude. His speech was scarcely ended when
+all with one voice cried aloud for the cross. The saint
+gave or scattered the badges which had been provided.
+When these were exhausted, he tore up his own dress to
+furnish more.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Reluctance of Conrad emperor of Germany to join the crusade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1147. Whitsuntide. Meeting of Louis VII. and the pope at St. Denys.</div>
+
+<p>But if Louis was eager to depart, Conrad
+of Germany hung back. The Emperor felt
+more anxious about the reduction of refractory
+princes than for the slaughter of unknown
+infidels. Christmas came; and at
+Spires first, afterwards at Ratisbon, Bernard strove to
+impress on him the paramount duty of the crusade.
+Conrad promised to give his answer on the following
+day; and on that day Bernard preached a sermon,
+painting in awful colours the terrors of the Great Assize
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>when all the kindreds of the nations should be gathered
+before the judgment-seat of the Son of Man. He implored
+the emperor to think of the account which he
+would then have to give, and of the infinite shame and
+endless agony which would be his portion, if he should
+then stand convicted of unjust stewardship. Conrad
+was melted to tears, and promised to take the cross.
+Bernard was prepared for him and for all, and fastened
+the badge on their shoulders at once. Taking from the
+altar the consecrated banner, he delivered it to the emperor,
+and the hand of God was seen in the crowd of
+thieves and ruffians who thronged to enlist themselves as
+champions of the cross. Four months later
+Louis welcomed the pope at St. Denys, and
+received from Eugenius at the altar the
+wallet and staff of the pilgrim, with the
+banner which was to lead him to victory.
+The wishes of the devout turned naturally to Bernard
+rather than to others of whose earnestness they could not
+have equal assurance; but to their prayers that he would
+head the enterprise he replied that he was no general
+and that they must find some one to lead them who was
+skilled in the handling of earthly armies.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution of the Jews stirred up by the monk Rodolph.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Suppressed by Bernard.</div>
+
+<p>When the followers of Peter the Hermit and Walter
+the Penniless began their march along the Rhinelands,
+their crusading zeal vented itself first in
+horrible cruelties practised on the Jews (<a href="#Page_40">p.
+40</a>). That vile example was followed by
+the bands now gathered round the standard
+of the emperor. The appetite for blood was whetted by
+the wolfish howlings of the monk Rodolph; and the
+spell of bigotry enlisted on his side a man otherwise
+well deserving the reverence of all ages, Peter the Venerable,
+abbot of Clugny. But the fanaticism of Bernard
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>could not fasten itself on men against whom
+not even a semblance of wrong could be
+charged; and he refused to punish them
+now for the crimes of their forefathers in the days of
+Pontius Pilate. ‘God has punished the Jews,’ he said,
+‘by their dispersion; it is not for man to punish them by
+murder.’ Rodolph was sent back to his monastery:
+but it was no easy task to repress the fury of a multitude
+already drunk with the blood of hundreds of victims in
+all the great Rhine cities.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">March of the crusaders under Conrad and Louis.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Refusal of Conrad to meet the emperor Manuel at Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>Conrad and Louis had met at Mainz. With Louis
+came his wife Eleanor; and here he was joined by the
+counts of Toulouse, Nevers, Flanders and
+other chiefs of the crusade, among these
+being, it is said, Robert de Mowbray and the
+earl of Warren and Surrey from England.
+The story of the enterprise is soon told. The numbers
+of the host were vast, but numbers, never easily ascertained,
+are least of all to be depended upon in such expeditions
+as these. The order of disciplined armies may
+have lessened the perils and lightened the hardships of
+the passage across Europe; and the troop of women who
+with spear and shield, headed by the Golden-footed Dame,
+marched on, as they thought, to conquest, may have
+congratulated themselves on the pleasantness of their
+task. The real danger began when they had passed from
+Europe into Asia. The suspicions of Conrad
+had been soon and vehemently excited
+against the Greek emperor Manuel, grandson
+of Alexios. These suspicions were so
+much strengthened before he reached Constantinople
+that he refused all interviews with him and
+crossed the Bosporus without coming into his presence.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Supposed treachery of Manuel.</div>
+
+<p>The French king was more complaisant; but if he was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>satisfied with the welcome given to him by Manuel in
+person, he was alarmed and indignant at the
+news that the Byzantine sovereign was in
+secret correspondence with the Turkish sultan
+of Cogni (Iconium, Ikonion). His indignation was
+fully shared by his army; and while some held that the
+paramount duty which called them to Palestine should
+overbear the avenging of all private wrongs, others insisted
+that a power which had allowed the Holy Sepulchre
+and the Holy Land itself to slip from its grasp, and had
+only placed hindrances in the way of the pilgrims and
+champions of the cross, should be swept utterly away.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Disastrous march of Conrad and Louis.</div>
+
+<p>For the present the storm was lulled; and the crusaders
+went on their way, to find that the guides with which
+Manuel had furnished them led them into
+arid deserts or betrayed them directly to the
+enemy. Conrad had already lost thousands
+or tens of thousands in Lykaonia, when the French king,
+who had been cheated with false tidings of his triumphant
+progress, received on the shores of the Askanian
+lake (<a href="#Page_57">p. 57</a>) the news of his great disaster. Conrad
+himself soon followed the miserable fugitives who had
+told his dismal story, and the two sovereigns resolved to
+strike off from the beaten path and make their way
+through the lands bordering the eastern shores of the
+Egean Sea. They had advanced as far as the Lydian
+Philadelphia, when the threatening appearance of things
+impelled many to return to Constantinople, and Conrad
+himself embarked near Ephesus. Louis with his people
+pressed on to the banks of the Meander, where the Turks
+who hastened to attack them were signally defeated.
+This defeat was more than avenged in the mountain
+passes beyond Laodicea whence after fearful slaughter
+the French reached the Pamphylian Attaleia. From this
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>seaport it was proposed that all, whether soldiers or
+pilgrims, should go by sea to Antioch. It was decided
+that the latter only should take ship, as Louis urged
+that the warriors ought to follow in the steps of the conquerors
+of Jerusalem. But the ships promised by the
+governor of Attaleia proved to be wholly insufficient for
+this purpose. The king embarked with his army, and
+the pilgrims with the sick were left in charge of the count
+of Flanders. The guard was inadequate; the sick were
+murdered by the people of Attaleia; the Turks bore
+down hardly on the pilgrims. The count of Flanders
+escaped by sea, and seven thousand miserable wanderers
+struggled onwards on the road by which they hoped to
+reach Jerusalem. Their journey was soon ended by the
+martyrdom which according to the promise of Urban and
+Eugenius was to ensure their salvation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Visit of the French king to Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1148. March.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resolution to attack Damascus.</div>
+
+<p>The arrival of the French king with his forces at Antioch
+caused no slight alarm to the Turks of Cæsarea
+and Aleppo. But although he was earnestly
+pressed to take advantage of their dismay by
+striking a sudden blow, nothing could dissuade
+him to put off his journey to Jerusalem; and the
+entreaties of Eleanor, who was well content
+to stay where she was, excited in him mingled
+feelings of resentment and suspicion.
+After disasters so terrible his entrance into Jerusalem
+bore too much likeness to a triumph; and after a council
+with Conrad, who had reached Ptolemais, the project of
+rescuing Edessa, which had been the very
+purpose of the crusade, was for the time
+abandoned for the siege, and, as it was
+hoped, the conquest, of the more important and nearer
+city of Damascus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege of Damascus.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treachery of the barons of Palestine.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Retreat of the army to Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Failure of the crusade.</div>
+
+<p>With the aid of the Knights of the Temple and of St.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>John, the siege of this city was prosecuted
+with a skill and vigour which seemed to
+leave no doubt of the result. The Damascenes
+were in despair, and not a few turned their
+thoughts to flight as the only means of safety: but with
+incredible infatuation the king of the French and the
+German emperor took counsel not for the completion of
+the enterprise but for the disposal of the city when it
+should have been conquered. The decision that it
+should be given to Thierry, count of Flanders, roused
+the indignation of the barons of Palestine, who now
+scrupled not to add treachery to the long catalogue of
+their crimes. Bribed by the Turks, they assured
+the sovereigns that they would have
+better success by attacking the city from another
+quarter than from that on which their toil had been
+all but rewarded by its capture. Abandoning their former
+position in the rich gardens before the town, they
+soon found themselves on barren soil, with scanty supplies
+or none, and with a hopeless task before them. It
+was easier to suspect than to punish the treachery of their
+advisers; and possibly on account of this treachery the
+proposal that they should attack Ascalon
+was rejected. The army retreated to Jerusalem.
+Conrad went back with the remnant
+of his troops to Europe. A year later his example was
+followed by the French king and his wife, of whose conduct
+Louis had formed suspicions fully
+justified by certain judgments pronounced
+by her in Provençal Courts of Love. Only
+a few months more had passed before he obtained a
+divorce on the plea of consanguinity, and Eleanor transferred
+her vast inheritance to her second husband the
+Norman duke Henry, afterwards Henry II. of England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Accusations against St. Bernard.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His answer.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1153. Death of Bernard.</div>
+
+<p>So ended in utter shame and ignominy the second
+crusade. The event seemed to give the lie
+to the glowing promises and prophecies of
+St. Bernard. So vast had been the drain
+of population to feed this holy war that, in the phrase of
+an eye-witness, the cities and castles were empty, and
+scarcely one man was left to seven women; and now it
+was known that the fathers, the husbands, the sons, or
+the brothers of these miserable women would see their
+earthly homes no more. The cry of anguish charged
+Bernard with the crime of sending them forth on an
+errand in which they had done absolutely nothing and
+had reaped only wretchedness and disgrace. For a
+time Bernard himself was struck dumb: but
+he soon remembered that he had spoken with
+the authority of God and of his vicegerent, and that the
+guilt or failure must lie at the door of the pilgrims.
+Like those who had gone before them, these men had
+given loose to their passions and filled their camps with
+debauchery and confusion; and such abominations the
+Divine Righteousness could never tolerate. Nay, Bernard
+could even see now the folly, if not the iniquity, of
+allowing thieves and murderers to take part in an enterprise
+in which only the devout and faithful were worthy
+to share. But such considerations were too cold to
+satisfy permanently the temper of the age. The thoughts
+of the many, if not of the few, went back into the old
+channel, when the monk John declared that the slaughtered
+pilgrims had died with the exulting joy of martyrs
+at the thought of their deliverance from a wicked world;
+and that from the lips of St. Peter and St. John themselves
+he had the assurance that the ranks of fallen
+angels had been filled up with the spirits of those who
+had died as champions and pilgrims of the cross whether
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>in the Holy Land or on the journey across
+the intervening countries. For Bernard
+also the saints and angels, he said, were
+impatiently waiting. Five years later it was in his
+power to add that their desires and his had been fulfilled.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE LOSS OF JERUSALEM.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Misuse of victory by the crusaders.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1151. Death of Joceline of Courtenay.</div>
+
+<p>The second crusade not only failed in its purpose: it did
+nothing towards the maintenance of the waning ascendency
+of the Latins. Even victories brought
+with them no solid result, and in not a few
+instances victory was misused with a folly
+closely allied to madness. The success of Joceline of
+Courtenay in a battle with Noureddin, son of Zenghis
+and sultan of Aleppo, might have recovered for him his
+lost city of Edessa: he chose rather to indulge in the
+dangerous luxury of insult, and the renewed
+efforts of the enemy were rewarded by the
+capture of Joceline, his imprisonment and
+death. His widow, by the advice of Baldwin
+III., king of Jerusalem, surrendered to the Greek
+emperor for a stipulated sum such places as still remained
+in her possession; and the dangers gathering
+round the Latin kingdom were seen in an inroad of
+Turcomans who reached the Mount of Olives.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege and fall of Ascalon.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1153. July.</div>
+
+<p>This inroad was, it is true, severely punished. The
+king was absent with his army: but the knights of the
+military orders who were in Jerusalem led
+out such of the people as could be got under
+arms and set fire to the camp of the enemy.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>These on their retreat were intercepted by Baldwin, and
+in the conflict 5,000 of their number, it is said, were slain.
+The tide seemed to have turned again in
+favour of the Christians, when, after an obstinate
+siege which at one moment was all
+but abandoned, the city of Ascalon fell into their hands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1162. Almeric, king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>But the change was one of appearance only. The
+interminable series of wars, or rather of forays and reprisals,
+went on; and amidst such contests
+the life of Baldwin closed in early manhood.
+He was thirty-three years of age: but in
+that short time he had won such love as his subjects had
+to bestow, together with the admiration of his enemies.
+He died childless, and although some opposition was
+made to the choice, his brother Almeric was elected to
+fill his place.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relations of Almeric with the sultans of Egypt and Aleppo.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 741-771.</div>
+
+<p>Almost at the beginning of his reign the affairs of the
+Latin kingdom became complicated with those of Egypt;
+and the Christians are seen fighting by the
+side of one Mahomedan race, tribe, or faction
+against another. The divisions of Islam may
+have turned less on points of theology, but
+they were scarcely less bitter than those of Christendom;
+and Noureddin, the sultan of Aleppo, eagerly embraced
+the opportunity which gave him a hold on the Fatimite
+caliph of Egypt, when Shawer the grand vizier of that
+caliph came into his presence as a fugitive. A soldier
+named Dargham had risen up and deposed him, and the
+deposition of the vizier was the deposition of the real
+ruler, for the Fatimite caliphs themselves
+were now merely the puppets which the
+Merovingian kings had been in the days of Charles Martel
+and Pepin.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mission of Shiracouh and Saladin into Egypt.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege and surrender of Shiracouh in Pelusium.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1163. Defeat of the Latins by Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo.</div>
+
+<p>Among the generals of Noureddin were Shiracouh and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>his nephew Saladin (Salah-ud-deen) of the shepherd tribe
+of the Koords. These Noureddin despatched
+into Egypt to effect the restoration of Shawer.
+His enemy Dargham had sought by lavish
+offers to buy the aid of the Latins: but the terms were
+still unsettled when he was worsted in a battle by Shiracouh
+and slain. Shawer again sat in his old seat;
+but with success came the fear that his supporters might
+prove not less dangerous than his enemies. He refused
+to fulfil his compact with Noureddin and ordered his
+generals to quit the country. Shiracouh replied by the
+capture of Pelusium, and Shawer, more successful than
+Dargham in obtaining aid from Jerusalem, besieged
+Shiracouh in his newly conquered city with
+the help of the army of Almeric. The Latin
+king after a fruitless blockade of some
+months found himself called away to meet dangers nearer
+home; and the besieged general, not knowing the cause,
+accepted an offer of capitulation binding him
+to leave Egypt after the surrender of his prisoners.
+But the Latin armies were transferred
+from Egypt only to undergo a desperate defeat
+at the hands of Noureddin in the territory
+of Antioch, and thus to leave Antioch itself at the
+mercy of the enemy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alliance of Almeric with the Egyptian sultan.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Operations of Almeric against Shiracouh.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1167.</div>
+
+<p>Noureddin may have hesitated to attack Antioch from
+the fear that such an enterprise might bring upon him the
+arms of the Greek emperor. He was more anxious to
+extinguish the Fatimite power in Egypt,—in
+other words, to become lord of countries
+hemming in the Latin kingdom to the south
+as well as to the north; and it was precisely this danger
+which king Almeric knew that he had most reason to
+fear. To put the best colour on his design, Noureddin
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>obtained from Mostadhi, the caliph of Bagdad, the
+sanction which converted his enterprise into a war as
+holy as that which the Norman conqueror waged against
+Harold of England. The story of the war attests the
+valour of both sides, under the alternations of disaster
+and success. The Latin king had already entered Cairo,
+when a large part of the force of Shiracouh was overwhelmed
+by a terrific sandstorm. But the retreat of
+Shiracouh across the Nile failed to reassure the Egyptians.
+Almeric received 200,000 gold pieces for the continuance
+of his help, with the promise that 200,000 more
+should be paid to him on the complete destruction of their
+enemies; and the treaty was ratified in the presence of
+the powerless sovereign whose consent was never asked
+for the alliances or treaties of the minister who was his
+master. The remaining events of the campaign were a
+battle in which a part of the army of Almeric
+was defeated by Shiracouh and his nephew
+Saladin; the surrender of Alexandria on the
+summons of Shiracouh; and the blockade of that city by
+Almeric, who at length obtained from the
+Turk the pledge that after an exchange of
+prisoners he would lead his forces away from Egypt, on
+the condition that the road to Syria should be left open
+to him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Real designs of Almeric.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1168.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Expedition of Almeric to Pelusium.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His ignominious retreat.</div>
+
+<p>The banners of Almeric and the Fatimite caliph waved
+together on the walls of Alexandria; but on either side
+the peace or truce was a mere makeshift for
+the purpose of gaining time. Neither the
+Latin king nor the sultan of Aleppo had given up the
+thought of the conquest of Egypt; and Almeric found a
+ready cause of quarrel in the plea that since his own
+return to Palestine the Egyptians had entered into communication
+with their enemy and his. The king of Jerusalem
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>had lately married the niece of the Greek
+emperor, and the latter promised to aid the expedition
+with his fleet. The help of the Knights Hospitallers
+was easily obtained, while (some said, on this account)
+that of the Knights Templars was refused. At length
+with a large and powerful army Almeric left
+Jerusalem, pretending that his destination
+was the Syrian town of Hems: but after a while his
+march was suddenly turned. In ten days he reached
+Pelusium; and the storm and capture of that
+city were followed by a wanton carnage
+which served to increase, if anything could
+increase, the reputation of the Christians for merciless
+cruelty. The prayers of the vizir Shawer for help were
+now directed as earnestly to the Turkish sultan as they
+had once been to the Latin king of Jerusalem; but his
+envoys were also sent to Almeric offering him a million
+pieces of gold, of which a tenth part was produced on
+the spot. Almeric took the bribe; and when his army
+looked for nothing less than the immediate sack of Cairo,
+they were told that they must remain idle while the rest
+of the money was being collected. The vizir took care
+that the gathering should not be ended before the
+soldiers of Noureddin had reached the frontier; and
+Almeric found too late that he was caught
+in the trap which his own greed had laid for
+him. He could himself do nothing but retreat, and his
+retreat was as disastrous as it was ignominious. The
+Greek fleet had shown itself off the mouths of the Nile,
+and had sailed away again. The Greek emperor could
+not be punished; but a scapegoat for the failure of the
+enterprise was found in the grand-master of the Hospitallers,
+who was deprived of his dignity by his knights.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rise of Saladin to power in Egypt.</div>
+
+<p>The triumph of Shiracouh brought with it the fall of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>the vizir Shawer, who was seized and put to death, while
+the man whose aid he had invoked, was
+chosen to fill his place. But Shiracouh himself
+lived only two months; and then, by
+way of choosing one whose love of pleasure and lack of
+influence seemed to promise a career of useful insignificance,
+the Fatimite caliph made the young Saladin his
+minister. The caliph was mistaken. Saladin brought
+back his Koords, and so used the treasures which his
+office placed at his command, that the new yoke became
+stronger than the old one.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1169. Attempts to stir up a crusade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1171.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Suppression of the Fatimite caliphat by Saladin.</div>
+
+<p>To the Latins the exaltation of Saladin signified the
+formation of a really formidable power on their southern
+frontier. Their alarm prompted embassies to the court
+of the Eastern emperor and the princes of Western
+Christendom. But the time was not yet
+come for a third crusade; and only from
+Manuel was any help obtained. His fleet
+aided the Latins in a fruitless siege of Damietta; and a
+terrible earthquake which laid Aleppo in ruins and shattered
+the walls of Antioch saved them from
+attack by the army of Noureddin which was
+approaching from the north. Still, in spite of conspiracies
+or revolutions of the old nobility, the power of Saladin
+was growing, and at length he dealt with the mock
+sovereignty of the Fatimites as Pepin dealt with that of
+the Merovingians. The last Fatimite sultan, then prostrate
+in his last illness, never knew that the public
+prayer had been offered in the name of the
+caliph of Bagdad; but Saladin had the glory
+of ending a schism which had lasted two
+hundred years, and from Mostadhi, the
+vicar of the Prophet, he received the gift of a linen robe
+and two swords.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Quarrel between Saladin and the sultan of Aleppo.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1178. Death of Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo.</div>
+
+<p>But the healing of one schism led only to the opening
+of another. Saladin was the servant of the sultan of
+Aleppo, and he had been recognized and
+confirmed in office by Mostadhi strictly on
+the score of this lieutenancy. But the new
+vizir of Egypt had no mind to obey any
+longer the summons of his old master; and to his threat
+of chastisement Saladin in his council of emirs retorted
+by a threat of war. His vehemence was cooled when
+his own father declared before the assembly that, were
+he so commissioned by Noureddin, he would strike his
+son’s head off from his shoulders. In private, he let
+Saladin know that his mistake lay not in thinking of resistance,
+but in speaking of it; and a letter sent by his
+advice sufficed for the present to smooth matters over.
+But the time of quietness could not last
+long. The designs of Saladin became continually
+more manifest, and Noureddin was
+on his way to Egypt when he was struck
+down by illness and died at Damascus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Character of Noureddin.</div>
+
+<p>In the sultan of Aleppo, as in the general who had
+risen to greatness through his favour, we have a man to
+whom the chronicles of the time and of later
+ages delighted to ascribe the magnanimity
+and simplicity of Omar. It must at the least
+be admitted that the ideal of Moslem courtesy and
+chivalry is more refined and generous than that of
+Western Christendom, and that the truth of the picture
+drawn of Noureddin receives some support from the enthusiastic
+eulogies of William, archbishop of Tyre. ‘I
+fear God,’ he replied to his queen who complained that
+she had not enough even for her wants; ‘I am but the
+treasurer of the people. But I have three shops in
+Hems; these you may take, and this is all that I have to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>give.’ He made it his business to provide everywhere
+mosques, hospitals, schools, and resting-places for travellers;
+and justice, it is said, was as impartially administered
+in his time as in the days of the English Alfred.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1173. Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1183.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1186. Baldwin V. king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1186. Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>The widow of Noureddin held the fortress of Paneas;
+and her husband’s death encouraged Almeric to undertake
+the siege. A bribe to abandon it was at first refused.
+A fortnight later it was accepted: but Almeric
+returned to Jerusalem only to die. His life had lasted
+only five years longer than that of his predecessor
+Baldwin; but it had been long
+enough to win for him a reputation for consummate
+avarice and meanness. His son
+and successor, Baldwin IV., was a leper; and his disease
+made such rapid strides as to make it necessary to delegate
+his authority to another. His first choice fell on
+Guy of Lusignan, the husband of his sister Sibylla; but
+either the weakness of Guy or the quarrels of the barons
+brought everything into confusion, and Baldwin, foiled
+in his wish to annul his marriage, devised
+his crown to Baldwin, the infant son of Sibylla
+by her first marriage, Raymond II., count of Tripoli,
+being nominated regent and Joceline of Courtenay
+the guardian of the child. But within three years the
+leper king died, followed soon after by the
+infant Baldwin V.; and in the renewed strife
+consequent on these events Guy of Lusignan
+managed to establish himself by
+right of his wife king of Jerusalem. He was still quite
+a young man, but he had earned for himself
+an evil name. The murderer of Patric,
+earl of Salisbury, he had been banished by
+Henry II., from his dominions in France:
+and the opinion of those who knew him found expression
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>in the words of his brother Geoffrey, ‘Had they
+known me, the men who made my brother king would
+have made me a god.’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Preparations of Saladin for the reconquest of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>Guy was king: but Raymond of Tripoli refused him
+his allegiance. Guy besieged him in Tiberias, and Raymond
+made a treaty with Saladin. But
+Saladin was now minded to seize a higher
+prey. He was master of Syria and Egypt:
+he was resolved that the Crescent should once more displace
+the Cross on the mosque of Omar. Pretexts for
+the war were almost superfluous; but he had an abundance
+of them in the ravages committed by barons of
+the Latin kingdom on the lands and the property of
+Moslems. Fifty thousand horsemen and a vast army on
+foot gathered under his standard, when he declared his
+intention of attacking Jerusalem: but their first assault
+was on the castle of Tiberias. On hearing these ominous
+tidings Raymond of Tripoli at once laid aside all thought
+of private quarrels. Hastening to Jerusalem he said that
+the safety of his own city was a very secondary matter,
+and earnestly besought Guy to confine himself to a
+strictly defensive war, which would soon reduce the invader
+to the extremity of distress. The advice was wise
+and good; but the grand-master of the Templars fastened
+on the very nobleness of his self-sacrifice and the
+disinterestedness of his counsel as proof of some sinister
+design which they were intended to hide.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1187. July. Battle of Tiberias.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Capture of Guy of Lusignan.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Loss of the true cross.</div>
+
+<p>Had it been Baldwin III. to whom he was speaking,
+the insinuation would have been thrust aside with scorn
+and disgust. To the mean mind of Guy it carried with
+it its own evidence; and it was resolved to meet the
+Saracen on ground of his own choosing. The troops of
+Saladin were already distressed by heat and
+thirst when they encountered the Latin army
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>from Jerusalem. The issue of the first day’s fighting
+was undecided; but the heat of a Syrian summer
+night was for the Christians rendered more terrible by
+the stifling smoke of woods set on fire by the orders of
+Saladin. Parched with thirst, and well knowing that on
+the event of that day depended the preservation of the
+Holy Sepulchre, the crusaders at sunrise rushed with
+their fierce war-cries on the enemy. Before them the
+golden glory of morning lit up the radiant shores of the
+tranquil sea where the Galilæan fisherman had heard
+from the lips of Jesus of Nazareth the word of life. But
+nearer still was a memorial yet more holy, a pledge of
+divine favour yet more assuring. On a hillock hard by
+was raised the relic of the true cross, and this hillock was
+many times a rallying point during this bloody day.
+There was little of generalship perhaps on either side;
+and where men are left to mere hard fighting, numbers
+must determine the issue. The hosts of Saladin far outnumbered
+those of the Latin chiefs; and
+for these retreat ended in massacre. The
+king and the grand-master of the Templars
+were taken prisoners; the holy relic which
+had spurred them on to desperate exertion
+fell into the hands of the infidels.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fruits of the victory of Saladin.</div>
+
+<p>The victory of Saladin was rich in its fruits. Tiberias
+was taken. Berytos, Acre, Cæsarea, Jaffa opened their
+gates; Tyre alone was saved by the heroism
+of Conrad of Montferrat, brother of the first
+husband of queen Sibylla. Not caring to
+undertake a regular siege, Saladin marched to Ascalon,
+and offered its defenders an honourable peace, which after
+some hesitation was accepted.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege and fall of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>The rejection of Raymond’s advice had left Jerusalem
+practically at the mercy of Saladin. It was crowded
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>with people: but the garrison was scanty,
+and the armies which should have defended
+it were gone. Their presence would not, probably,
+have availed to give a different issue to the siege;
+but it must have added fearfully to its horrors. Saladin
+had made up his mind that the Latin kingdom must fall,
+and he would have fought on until either he or his
+enemies could fight no longer. Numbers, wealth, resources,
+military skill, instruments of war, all combined
+to give him advantages before which mere bravery must
+sooner or later go down; and protracted resistance
+meant nothing more than the infliction of useless misery.
+Saladin may have been neither a saint nor a hero; but it
+cannot be denied that his temper was less fierce and his
+language more generous than that of the Christians who
+under Godfrey had deluged the city with blood. He
+had no wish, he said, so to defile a place hallowed by its
+associations for Moslems as well as Christians, and if the
+city were surrendered, he pledged himself not merely to
+furnish the inhabitants with the money which they might
+need, but even to provide them with new homes in Syria.
+But superstition and obstinacy are to all intents and purposes
+words of the same meaning. The offer, honourable
+to him who made and carrying no ignominy to those who
+might accept it, was rejected, and Saladin made a vow
+that entering the city as an armed conqueror he would
+offer up within it a sacrifice as awful as that by which the
+crusaders had celebrated their loathsome triumph. Most
+happily for others, most nobly for himself, he failed to
+keep this vow to the letter. Fourteen days sufficed to
+bring the siege to an end. The Christians had done
+what they could to destroy the military engines of their
+enemies; the golden ornaments of the churches had
+been melted down and turned into money; but no solid
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>advantage was gained by all their efforts. The conviction
+of the Christian that death brought salvation to
+the champions of the cross, the assurance of the Moslem
+that to those who fell fighting for the creed of Islam the
+gates of paradise were at once opened, only added to
+the desperation of the combatants and to the fearfulness
+of the carnage. At length the besieged discovered
+that the walls near the gate of St. Stephen had been undermined,
+and at once they abandoned all hope of
+safety except from miraculous intervention. Clergy and
+laity crowded into the churches, their fears quickened by
+the knowledge that the Greeks within the city were treating
+with the enemy. The remembrance of Saladin’s
+offer now came back with more persuasive power; but to
+the envoys whom they sent the stern answer was returned
+that he was under a vow to deal with the Christians as
+Godfrey and his fellows had dealt with the Saracens.
+Yet, conscious or unconscious of the inconsistency of his
+words with the oath which he professed to have sworn,
+he promised them his mercy if they would at once surrender
+the city. The besieged resolved to trust the word
+of the conqueror, as they could not resist his power. The
+agreement was made that the nobles and fighting men
+should be taken to Tyre which still held out under Conrad;
+that the Latin inhabitants should be redeemed at the
+rate of ten crowns of gold for each man, five for each
+woman, one for each child; and that, failing this ransom,
+they should remain slaves. On the sick and the helpless
+he waged no war; and although the Knights of the Hospital
+were among the most determined of his enemies,
+he would allow their brethren to remain for a year in
+their attendance on the sufferers who could not be moved
+away.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Terms of the capitulation.</div>
+
+<p>In the exasperation of a religious warfare now extended
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>over nearly a century these terms were very merciful.
+It may be said that this mercy was
+the right of a people who submitted to the
+invader, and that in the days of Godfrey
+and Peter the Hermit the defenders had resisted to the
+last. It is enough to answer that the capitulation of the
+Latins was a superfluous ceremony and that Saladin knew
+it to be so, while, if the same submission had been
+offered to the first crusaders, it would have been sternly
+and fiercely refused.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Departure of the Latins from the Holy City.</div>
+
+<p>Four days were allowed to the people to prepare for
+their departure. On the fifth they passed through the
+camp of the enemy, the women carrying
+or leading their children, the men bearing
+such of their household goods as they were
+able to move. On the approach of the
+queen and her ladies in the garb and with the gestures
+of suppliants Saladin himself came forward, and with
+genuine courtesy addressed to them words of encouragement
+and consolation. Cheered by his generous language,
+they told him that for their lands, their houses,
+and their goods they cared nothing. Their prayer was
+that he would restore to them their fathers, their husbands,
+and their brothers. Saladin granted their request,
+added his alms for those who had been left orphans or
+destitute by the war, and remitted a portion of the ransom
+appointed for the poor. In this way the number
+of those who remained unredeemed was reduced to
+eleven or twelve thousand; and Saracenic slavery, although
+degrading, was seldom as cruel as the slavery
+which has but as yesterday been extinguished by the
+most fearful of recent wars.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Entry of Saladin into Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>The entry of Saladin into Jerusalem was accompanied
+by the usual signs of triumph. Amidst the waving of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>banners and the clash of martial music he
+advanced to the mosque of Omar on the
+summit of which the Christian cross still
+flashed in the clear air. A wail of agony burst from the
+Christians who were present as this emblem was hurled
+down to the earth and dragged through the mire. For
+two days it underwent this indignity, while the mosque
+was purified from its defilements by streams of rosewater,
+and dedicated afresh to the worship of the One
+God adored by Islam. The crosses, the relics, the
+sacred vessels of the Christian sanctuaries, which had
+been carefully stowed away in four chests, had fallen
+into the hands of the conquerors, and it was the wish of
+Saladin to send them to the caliph of the Prophet as the
+proudest trophies of his victory. Even this wish he
+generously consented to forego. The chests were left
+in the keeping of the patriarch, and the price put upon
+them, 52,000 golden byzants, was paid by Richard of
+England.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Escape of Tyre under Conrad.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Further conquests of Saladin.</div>
+
+<p>Conrad still held out in Tyre, nor was he induced to
+surrender even when Saladin himself assailed
+its walls. The siege was raised: and
+the next personage to appear before its
+gates was Guy of Lusignan, who, having regained his
+freedom, insisted on being admitted as lord of the city.
+The grand-master of the Templars seconded his demand.
+The reply was short and decisive. The people would
+own no other master than the gallant knight
+who had so nobly defended them. But the
+escape of Tyre had no effect on the general
+issue of the war. Town after town submitted to Saladin;
+and the long series of his triumphs closed when he entered
+the gates of Antioch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Causes of weakness in the kingdom of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(1) Bad faith in dealing with the Moslem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(2) Disregard of rights of property.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(3) Lax military discipline.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(4) Lack of statesmanship.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(5) General immorality.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(6) Desultory character of the crusades.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(7) Quarrels and feuds of the Latin chiefs.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">(8) Antagonistic jurisdictions of the civil power, the Church, and the military orders.</div>
+
+<p>Eighty-eight years had passed away since the crusaders
+of Godfrey and Tancred had stood triumphant on
+the walls of the Holy City; and during all
+those years the Latin kingdom had seldom
+rested from wars and forays, from feuds and
+dissensions of every kind. From the first it
+displayed no characteristics which could give it any
+stability; from the first it exhibited signs which foreboded
+its certain downfall. (1) It sanctified treachery, for it
+rested on the principle that no faith was to
+be kept with the unbeliever; and the sowing
+of wind by the constant breach of solemn
+compact made them reap the whirlwind. A right of
+pasturage round Paneas had been granted to the Mahomedans
+by Baldwin III. When the ground was
+covered with their sheep, the Christian troops burst in,
+murdered the shepherds, and drove away their flocks,—not
+with the sanction, we may hope, of the most high-minded
+of the Latin kings of Jerusalem. (2) It recognized
+no title to property except in those who
+professed the faith of Christ, and the power
+to commit injustice with practical impunity
+tended still further to demoralize the people. (3) It gave
+full play to the passions of men in random
+wars and petty forays, while it did nothing
+to keep up or to promote either military
+science or the discipline without which that science becomes
+useless. (4) It was marked by an almost total
+lack of statesmanship. In a country so circumstanced
+a wise ruler would strain every
+nerve to conciliate the conquered people, to
+strengthen himself by alliances which should be firmly
+maintained and by treaties which should be scrupulously
+kept, to weaken such states as he might fail to win over
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>to his friendship by anticipating combinations which
+might bring with them fatal dangers for his power. That
+the history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem presents
+a mournful and even ludicrous contrast to this picture, it
+must surely be unnecessary to say. In the case of
+Egypt alone did the Latin kings show some sense of the
+course which prudence called upon them to take; and
+even here this course was followed with miserable indecision,
+and at last disgracefully abandoned through mere
+lust of gold. (5) It had to deal with an immorality
+not of its own creating, but which
+in mere regard to its own safety it should have striven to
+keep well in check. No such efforts were made, and the
+words of William of Tyre (even if taken with a qualification),
+when he speaks of the Latin women, point to a
+state of things which must involve grave and
+imminent peril. (6) It was the misfortune of
+this kingdom that it was called into being
+by troops of adventurers banded together (it cannot be
+said, confederated) for a religious rather than a political
+purpose; in other words, for personal rather than for
+public ends. It started therefore without any principle
+of cohesion. The warriors who engaged in the enterprise
+might abandon it when they thought that they had
+fulfilled the conditions of their vow, and although the
+continuance of their efforts was indispensably needed
+for the military and political success of the undertaking.
+(7) The private and personal character of these enterprises
+led to the perpetuation and multiplication of private
+and personal interests, and thus to the
+endless divisions and feuds between the
+barons of the kingdom, which were a constant
+scandal and menace and which led frequently to
+deliberate treachery. (8) It encouraged, or permitted,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>or was compelled to tolerate the growth of
+societies which arrogated to themselves an
+independent jurisdiction, and thus rendered
+impossible a central authority of sufficient
+coercive power. The origin of the military
+orders may have been in the highest degree edifying.
+The Knights Templars might begin as the humble guardians
+of the Holy Places: the Knights Hospitallers
+may have been the poor brothers of St. John bound to
+the service of the sick and helpless among the pilgrims
+of the cross. But in a land where they might at any
+time encounter a merciless or at the least a detested enemy,
+they were justified in bearing arms; the necessity
+of bearing arms involved the need of discipline; and
+the discipline of an enthusiastic fraternity cut off from
+the world and centred upon itself cannot fail to become
+formidable. The natural strength of these orders was
+increased by immunities and privileges granted partly by
+the Latin kings of Jerusalem, but in greater part by the
+popes. The Hospitallers, as bestowing their goods to
+feed the poor and to entertain pilgrims, were freed from
+the obligation of paying tithe, or of giving heed to interdicts
+even if these were laid upon the whole country
+while it was expressly asserted that no patriarch or prelate
+should dare to pass any sentence of excommunication
+against them. In other words, a society was called
+into existence directly antagonistic to the clergy, and an
+irreconcilable conflict of claims was the inevitable consequence.
+Nor can we be surprised to find the clergy
+complaining that the knights, not content with the immunities
+secured to themselves, gave shelter to persons
+who, not belonging to their order but lying under sentence
+of excommunication, sought to place themselves
+under their protection. But if the Knights of the Hospital
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>had thus their feuds with the clergy, they had feuds
+still more bitter with the rival order of the Templars.
+With different interests and different aims, the one
+sought to promote enterprises against which the other
+protested, or stickled about points of precedence when
+common decency called for harmonious action, or withheld
+its aid when that aid was indispensable for the very
+safety of the state. Thus we have the triple discord of
+the king and his barons struggling against the claims
+of the clergy, and the military orders in conflict with the
+barons and the clergy alike. Of a state so circumstanced
+the words are emphatically true that a house divided
+against itself shall not stand.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE THIRD CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fictitious or romantic portraits of Richard I. of England.</div>
+
+<p>A halo of false glory surrounds the third crusade from
+the associations which connect it with the lion-hearted
+king of England. The exploits of Richard
+I. have stirred to enthusiasm the dullest of
+chroniclers, have furnished themes for jubilant
+eulogies, and have shed over his life
+that glamour which cheats even sober-minded men as
+they read the story of his prototype Achilleus in the
+tale of Troy. They have done even more, for, if we
+may believe the narrative, they excited the same vehement
+admiration in his most redoubtable enemy; and
+the romance of youth or even of maturer age fastens on
+the picture which exhibits the brother of Saladin in the
+thick of mortal fight as sending to him two Arabian
+chargers by way of lauding the hero for dealing wounds
+and death on a multitude of his people.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Real character of the actors in the third crusade.</div>
+
+<p>When we turn from the picture to the reality, we
+shall see in this third crusade an enterprise in which the
+fiery zeal which does something towards redeeming
+the savage brutalities of Godfrey
+and the first crusaders is displaced by base
+and sordid greed, by intrigues utterly of the earth earthy,
+by wanton crimes from which we might well suppose
+that the sun would hide away its face; and in the leaders
+of this enterprise we shall see men in whom, morally,
+there is scarcely a single quality to relieve the monotonous
+blackness of their infamy, in whom, strategically, a
+very little generalship comes to the aid of a blind brute
+force, and in some of whom, personally, an animal courage
+or ferocity, which fears no danger and knows no
+fatigue, surmounts a thousand difficulties and charms the
+vast multitudes who find their highest delight in the
+worship or idolatry of mere power. As a military leader
+Richard I. of England is beneath contempt when compared
+with the first Napoleon; but he may fairly compete
+with him as a criminal. Alaric the Goth and Attila the
+Hun never professed to be sovereigns of a civilized
+people; but in no sense have they a better title to be regarded
+as scourges of mankind.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decay of the crusading spirit.</div>
+
+<p>Undertakings which depend on the temper and resources
+of individual men are not likely to be carried out
+with unswerving persistence; and this ebb
+and flow of purpose and energy is especially
+manifest in the history of the crusades.
+With any marked success comes a feeling of self-complacency
+in the thought that a vow has been strictly fulfilled
+or a duty thoroughly discharged; and the result is
+either slackness or total indifference to matters which
+thus far seemed in their importance to leave everything
+else in the shade. Assuredly there was little indeed in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>the lives of the later Latin kings of Jerusalem to keep
+alive the enthusiasm which had been roused by the
+preaching of the hermit Peter; and for the time a change
+seems to pass over the spirit of the dream which for
+nearly a hundred years had been beguiling Western
+Christendom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1179.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Change in the character of the crusades.</div>
+
+<p>The impulse (it can scarcely be dignified with the
+name of policy) which led Almeric (<a href="#Page_100">p. 100</a>) to fix his
+thoughts on the conquest of Egypt, is the nearest approach
+to the temper of the true statesman and general exhibited
+in the history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. It
+aimed not only at preventing a combination of hostile
+powers to the north and south fraught with fatal dangers
+for any dominion which might lie between them, but it
+seemed to promise the possession of a country of immense
+importance to the merchant and the trader. This advantage
+was clearly seen and eagerly aimed at
+by the third Lateran council, which insisted
+that the conquest of Damietta should be the first object
+of every crusade, the maintenance of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem at best only the second. In
+short, these expeditions had in strictness of
+speech ceased to be crusades, unless an exception
+is to be made in the case of the sainted Louis
+IX. of France. With him, as with Godfrey and the first
+crusaders, the religious motive absorbed every other.
+In the rest the professed object of the scheme is made an
+excuse for roving forays or political conquests, or is
+feebly carried out as an irksome or even repulsive task,
+while the harmony indispensable for success is sacrificed
+for quarrels and deadly feuds which would do credit to
+the society of savages.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry II. of England and the patriarch of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1174.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1177.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1180.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1185.</div>
+
+<p>But until the Cross had been thrust aside for the Crescent
+on the mosque of Omar, the task of stirring up the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>Western princes for another crusade was
+neither easy nor successful. The crusading
+spirit was never strong in Henry II. of
+England, and even after the quarrel with
+Becket had come to an end with his death, he had a
+convenient excuse for staying at home in the dangers
+which menaced his dominions from the
+north. But with the captivity of his enemy
+William this pretext vanished. The Scottish king swore
+to hold his kingdom as a fief of the English crown;
+and Henry, unable any longer to resist the arguments
+or entreaties of the French king, Louis VII., promised
+to combine his forces as duke of Normandy
+with those of his liege lord for the
+succour of the Christians in the Holy Land. The death
+of Louis, which cut short this design, brought
+no bitter disappointment to Henry; but
+when, some five years later, Heraclius (Herakleios),
+patriarch of Jerusalem, kneeling before him
+with the count of Tripoli and the grand-master
+of the Hospitallers, placed in his hands the
+sceptre of his kinsman Fulk of Anjou and of the kings
+who had succeeded him, with the keys of the Holy City
+and the Holy Sepulchre, the English monarch was careful
+to address them in words which conveyed encouragement
+while they committed him to nothing. He would
+ask the advice of his council; and his question was so
+put as to show clearly what he would wish the answer to
+be. He desired to know whether his duty called him to
+govern and guard his subjects at home or to break
+lances with Saracens to prop up the tottering sway of
+a distant sovereign. There was no doubt in the mind
+of his barons and prelates that the nearer work had a
+paramount call on him; and the promise of Henry to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>contribute 50,000 marks for the needs of the Latin kingdom
+in Palestine was received by the patriarch with a
+dissatisfaction which manifestly excited the king’s anger.
+Not a whit abashed, Heraclius bade him deal with himself
+as he had dealt with the martyr Thomas of Canterbury,
+and expressed himself as not less ready to die by
+his hands than by those of the less cruel Saracens.
+This ridiculous taunt was allowed to pass without rebuke,
+and Heraclius departed unhurt after consecrating the
+church of the Knights Templars in the city of London.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1187. Death of Urban III.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pontificate of Gregory VIII.</div>
+
+<p>But the fall of Jerusalem cast a new colour over questions
+of policy and duty. A few days after that event,
+and in all likelihood before he could have
+heard of it, pope Urban III. died at Verona,
+oppressed with grief not for a disaster of
+which he was ignorant, but for the death struggle which
+seemed imminent between the papal and the imperial
+power. His successor Gregory VIII., whose short pontificate
+was ended in less than two months,
+bewailed the event as a catastrophe affecting
+the whole of Christendom; but he was
+probably not unconscious that for the papacy it might
+create a diversion which might rescue it from dire peril,
+if not destruction. The few days of life which remained
+to him were spent in writing letters to reawaken the
+spirit which had been roused successively by the hermit
+Peter and the sainted Bernard. The divine wrath was
+to be appeased by a fast of five years, and the consciousness
+of shameless corruption and venality inspired
+the cardinals to promise that they would take no more
+bribes for the furtherance or perversion of justice, and
+that they would never mount again on horseback until
+the land once trodden by the Saviour should have ceased
+to be polluted by the feet of the unbeliever.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1188. Assumption of the cross by Henry II. and Philip Augustus of France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Saladin tax or tenth.</div>
+
+<p>Pope Gregory died on a journey undertaken for the
+purpose of making peace between the republics of
+Genoa and Pisa, whose fleets were of the
+first importance for the carrying out of the
+scheme which he had at heart. A few
+weeks later the broad plain between Gisors
+and Trie witnessed the meeting of Henry
+of England and Philip Augustus, the young French king,
+to hear the cause of the Christians in Palestine pleaded
+by William, archbishop of Tyre, the historian of the first
+and second crusades. The two sovereigns assumed the
+cross, and their example was followed by the count of
+Champagne, the count of Flanders, and a crowd of
+barons and knights. It was agreed that the English
+cross should be white, and the Flemish green, the French
+retaining the red. Henry hastened to England, and obtained
+from a council held at Geddington in Northamptonshire
+the imposition of a tax called the Saladin tithe.
+Every one who refused to join the crusade
+was to pay a tenth of all his goods movable
+or immovable. The sum thus raised was 70,000<i>l.</i>;
+but it is astonishing to learn that a sum almost as
+large, 60,000<i>l.</i>, was extorted from the scanty company of
+Jews settled in England. Whether the burden pressed
+heavily upon them, we cannot tell. Worse things were in
+store for them before many months should pass away.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feuds in the family of Henry II.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1183.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1188.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1189.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1186. July. Death of Henry II.</div>
+
+<p>It is possible that Henry may now have really intended
+to fulfil a promise with which thus far he had only dallied.
+He sent messengers to the Hungarian
+king Bela, and Isaac Angelus, the Eastern
+emperor, to request a safe transit and free
+market for his followers. The demand was granted:
+but Henry now had other concerns to occupy him. The
+wretched quarrels which were the inevitable consequence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>of petty principalities and the complicated tenures of
+feudalism had assumed their most hateful form among
+the princes of the house of Anjou. Of the legitimate
+sons of Henry II., Henry, Richard, and John, it is hard
+to say which led the most disgraceful life and earned the
+most shameful reputation. The tyranny of Richard in
+Aquitaine was monstrous even in an age notorious for
+its cruelty and its treachery; but it was probably no disinterested
+sympathy for his victims which brought
+against him the forces of his elder brother Henry, and
+of his half-brother Geoffrey, the son of that Rosamond
+Clifford into whose history the popular talk of that
+or of a later day introduced a tale common to the folklore
+of many lands. The strife was for the time appeased
+by their father, against whom these dutiful children
+now turned their arms. The day fixed
+for the battle was drawing nigh when the
+young prince or king Henry (he had been crowned <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span>
+1169 by the bishops excommunicated by Thomas of
+Canterbury shortly before his martyrdom) was cut off
+by a sudden attack of fever; and Richard, as the eldest
+surviving son, looked on himself as heir to the crown
+of England. But it soon became plain that the affections
+of his father were fixed on his younger son John, one of
+the most despicable of cowards and most contemptible
+of traitors. The discovery led Richard to renew his intimacy
+with the French king, Philip Augustus, to whose
+sister Adelais or Alix he had long since been betrothed.
+That princess had passed into the custody of the English
+king, and had, it was said, borne him a child; but of
+this Richard for the present took no count, as backed
+by Philip Augustus, he insisted on her surrender
+and on receiving the fealty of the
+barons as his father’s heir-apparent. On this second
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>point the king’s answer was ambiguous; and Richard,
+exclaiming indignantly that he now believed what before
+he had thought impossible, knelt down at the feet
+of Philip, and, demanding from him protection in his
+just rights, did homage to him for all his father’s dominions
+in France. In the war which followed Henry
+was driven from the castles of Mans, Amboise, and
+Tours. His body was wasted with disease, and he was
+induced to meet his son and the French
+king on a plain near Tours. A thunderstorm,
+in which the lightning twice fell near them, unnerved
+him still more. He agreed to pay 20,000 marks
+to Philip, to surrender Adelais, and to allow his vassals
+to swear fealty to Richard, and asked only to see the
+list of the names of barons who had joined the confederacy
+of the French king. At the head
+was the name of his own son John. He
+read no further. A raging fever came on,
+during which he heaped curses on his unnatural
+children; and in a week he died.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Preparations of Richard I. for the crusade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Modes of raising money.</div>
+
+<p>Richard was now king of England; but he was not
+the man to fix his thoughts on the wilder schemes which
+had filled the mind of his father. The power
+and wealth of his kingdom were things to be
+used for spreading his own renown, and this
+renown could be won and extended nowhere so well as
+in the Holy Land, and in no other way so gloriously as in
+cleaving the bodies of unbelievers with his deadly broadsword.
+It was the ambition of a ruffian, gilded over
+with a thin varnish borrowed from the chivalry of Tancred
+(<a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>); and he proceeded to gratify it at the expense
+of the real interests whether of the kingdom or of
+himself. The sum which he needed for his enterprise far
+exceeded the 100,000 marks which his father’s greed or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>economy had amassed in the treasury at
+Salisbury. Richard sold the earldom of
+Northumberland for 1,000<i>l.</i> to the bishop of
+Durham for the term of his life: for 3,000<i>l.</i> he received
+into favour his brother Geoffrey, now archbishop of York:
+for 10,000<i>l.</i> he resigned to William the Scottish king all the
+rights over Scotland which the latter had conceded to
+Henry, together with the castles of Roxburgh and Berwick;
+and then departed for Normandy on the same
+errand of plunder and exaction.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution and massacre of Jews in England.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fearful tragedy in York castle.</div>
+
+<p>Both the first and the second crusade had been marked
+at their outset by persecutions and massacres of the
+Jews. The third was to furnish no exception.
+The Jews of England felt probably that
+a storm was gathering, and they hastened to
+conciliate the king with costly presents. Their eagerness
+unhappily outran their discretion. Richard, knowing the
+feeling of the people, had ordered that no Jews should
+appear before him on the coronation day. Disregarding
+this command, some of them, mingling with the crowd,
+entered the palace, were thrust out by the mob, and murdered.
+The fire, thus kindled, spread furiously. Every
+Jew in the streets was cut down: every house belonging
+to a Jew was plundered and burnt. Some attempt was
+made to check the slaughter. Three men were hanged;
+but they were charged, not with murdering Jews, but with
+robbing Christians under pretence that they were Jews,
+or with setting houses on fire to the danger or hurt of the
+property of Christians. The iniquity was not confined to
+London. The same things were done in all the great
+cities. At York, as at Lincoln, the wealthy Jews hurried
+with their goods into the castle. At Lincoln
+they found safety: at York they unhappily
+interpreted the departure of the governor
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>from the castle as a sign that he was plotting against them
+with the Christians of the town, and closed the gates
+against him on his return. In his anger he induced the
+sheriff of the county to order his armed bands to the assault:
+and these were joined by the populace whose fury
+showed at once that they meant much more than the mere
+recovery of the castle. The besieged could hear the
+fierce cry of a canon regular, of the Premonstratensian
+order, who hounded on the mob to ‘destroy the enemies
+of Christ.’ They knew that their doom was sealed; but
+if they must die, they might still choose the mode of their
+death. In a council summoned to debate the matter, the
+rabbi urged that they should avoid frightful insults and
+barbarous torments for their wives and children as well
+as for themselves by voluntarily rendering up their souls
+to the Creator, and falling by their own hands. The
+deed, he urged, was both reasonable and sanctioned by
+their law, as well as made famous by the men who in the
+deadly struggle between Jerusalem and Rome had slain
+themselves at Massada. To some his counsel seemed
+wise, to others a hard saying. The rabbi cut the discussion
+short by bidding all to depart in peace who could not
+approve his counsel. A few only left the chamber. In
+a few hours the work of death was done, and the castle
+was left in flames. The few, who could not summon
+courage to follow the example of their brethren, offered
+from the walls to open the gates and submit to baptism,
+if their lives should be spared. The terms were granted
+and the surrender was made; and by way of keeping
+faith the Christians rushing in slaughtered every living
+thing within the walls. These were venial offences; but the
+men of York added to them an act which was a real
+crime, and one of the deepest dye, in the eyes of king
+Richard. They hastened to the cathedral, and seizing on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>all the bonds and obligations which had been laid up in
+the archives burnt them in the nave. These bonds on the
+death of those who held them would all have escheated
+to the king; and the bishop of Ely, the chancellor, was
+commissioned to search out and punish the offenders.
+But the ringleaders had made their escape across the
+Scottish border; and justice even in the matter of robbery
+was baffled.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1190. Meeting of Richard and Philip at Vezelai.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Poetry and influence of the troubadours.</div>
+
+<p>Richard, having filled his coffers so far as he could,
+met Philip Augustus at Vezelai where, forty-four years
+before, the pleadings of St. Bernard had
+seemed to stir the heart of Christendom to
+efforts which must be successful. The voice
+which now had most power was not that of
+the priest, the hermit, or the saint. It was
+that of the troubadour; and if for the present
+his harp might be attuned to lofty measures, and his
+words might convey lessons almost as austere as those
+of pope Urban II., there was at least the danger that a
+very moderate measure of success might lead the minstrel
+to arouse emotions of a less devout sort and tempt
+his hearers to less exalted delights than those of prayer
+and meditation. The forces of the two kings amounted,
+it is said, to 100,000 men. The discipline which kept them
+together may be pictured from the rules which enacted
+that murderers should be tied to the bodies of their victims
+and hurled into the sea, that they who drew their swords
+in anger should lose their hands, and that thieves should
+be tarred and feathered and in that plight put on shore.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">March of Frederick I. Barbarossa to Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The popes and the empire.</div>
+
+<p>While Philip and Richard were on their way to Sicily,
+Frederick I., emperor of the West, commonly known as
+Barbarossa or Red Beard, was on his way
+to Constantinople. He had fought a long
+battle with the pope or the man who called
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>himself pope. He had himself set up an anti-pope, as
+the imperialist popes were called; and with the sanction
+of this anti-pope, who styled himself Pascal III., he had
+attacked Rome, beaten down the gates of St. Peter’s
+with hatchets and axes, and seen his troops advance
+filling the church with blood as they fought their way to
+the high altar. In the midst of this carnage
+Pascal III. had placed the crown on the
+head of the empress Beatrice, and had blessed again the
+diadem of Frederick. He had had to contend with a
+mightier enemy than the pope in the fearful pestilence
+which broke out within his camp; and his flight from
+Rome had ensured the victory of pope Alexander III.,
+the somewhat hesitating friend of Thomas of Canterbury.
+But although the warfare of previous years was succeeded
+by an apparent peace, Frederick lost no opportunity
+of strengthening himself against the papacy; and
+in the days of Urban III. he had gained much by securing
+for his son Henry the hand of Constantia, heiress of
+the kingdom of Sicily. The old strife might have been
+renewed; but the heart of Barbarossa was stirred by the
+tidings from the Holy Land or the letters of Gregory
+VIII., and his armies advanced under his standard
+through Hungary towards the capital of the Eastern
+empire. That capital Barbarossa, like his predecessor
+Conrad (<a href="#Page_93">p. 93</a>), refused to enter. The Byzantine Cæsar
+had with scant courtesy allowed him the privilege of
+buying food for his men; he had studiously withheld
+from him the titles which implied a divided empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Frederick I.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1190.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Re-occupation of Antioch.</div>
+
+<p>The steadier discipline, the more decent order which
+marked the army of Barbarossa seemed to promise a
+better result to his enterprise. They had
+defeated the Turks in a general battle, and
+had taken the Seljukian capital of Cogni
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>(Iconium), (<a href="#Page_82">p. 82</a>); but a great disaster, nothing less than
+the loss of their leader himself, awaited them. Frederick
+was drowned in a Pisidian river, as some said
+while he was crossing it; as others had it,
+from the effects of bathing. The misery and suffering
+which had fallen to the lot of the earlier crusaders now
+weighed heavily upon them: and the
+wretched story is sufficiently told, if it be
+true that not a tenth of the number which
+crossed the Bosporos lived to enter Antioch. The few
+who made their way thus far found a city almost deserted
+by the Turkish soldiers, and Antioch once more had a
+Christian government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1189. Siege of Acre.</div>
+
+<p>But while the sovereigns of the West were thus preparing
+for another great effort on their behalf, the Latins
+of Palestine were struggling hard to win
+back their lost supremacy, and were aided
+by crowds of armed pilgrims, whose immense
+numbers have to be taken into account if we wish
+to realize the extent of the drain to which the population
+of Europe was thus subjected. Too impatient to wait,
+these wanderers hurried, with whatever motives, to the
+scenes where, as they supposed, honour could not fail to
+be won, even if wealth and happiness should not be their
+portion. The conflict now turned on the possession of
+Acre, the key of the whole region lying to the west of
+the Jordan. It had opened its gates to Saladin soon
+after the battle of Tiberias; and before Richard of England
+and Philip Augustus set foot on the Holy Land it
+had been besieged for nearly two years by Guy of Lusignan,
+titular king of Jerusalem, with an army which
+the influx of pilgrims from Europe had raised, it is said,
+to 100,000 men. But the besiegers had little generalship,
+and the mischief done to their effectiveness by vice and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>debauchery was completed by a fearful pestilence which
+swept them away by thousands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Rise of the Teutonic order.</div>
+
+<p>In the midst of this misery a few German merchants,
+from the coast of the Baltic, sought to mitigate suffering
+by running up the sails of their ships as
+tents for the sick and dying. The happy
+results which followed their work led to an
+organization similar to that of the orders of the Temple
+and the Hospital. Like those orders, the Teutonic
+knights rose to power and distinction, and in the history
+of the crusade of Frederick II., we shall find their
+grand-master, Herman of Salza, in high favour both
+with the emperor and with the pope, his implacable
+antagonist. With the failure of the crusades in the
+East the order was transferred to the more forbidding
+regions which had sent forth its founders, and
+their crusade was turned against the heathen of the
+Lithuanian, Prussian, Esthonian, and other tribes. They
+preached the gospel with the sword, and their efforts
+were followed at least by military success. Their grasp
+on the lands which they overran was never relaxed,
+and the last grand-master became the sovereign of a
+state which has grown into the modern kingdom of
+Prussia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1190. Death of Sibylla, queen of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conrad, titular king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>The sickness and vice which wasted the forces of the
+crusaders before Acre were powerfully aided by feuds
+among the chiefs. Sibylla, the sister of Baldwin
+IV., and wife of Guy of Lusignan, was
+carried off by the plague. Her two children
+died with her, and her husband found himself
+stripped of the privilege which had made him at
+least the shadow of a king. Isabel, the sister of his
+wife, still lived, and having got rid of her first husband
+Humphry, lord of Thoron, was now married to Conrad,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>marquis of Tyre. As thus wedded to the
+heiress of Almeric, Conrad claimed the
+sovereignty of Jerusalem, and the decision
+of the point was reserved for the kings of England and
+France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Voyage of the English fleet to Lisbon and Messina.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1190. Sept. 23.</div>
+
+<p>These kings were now on their way to the East.
+Richard had journeyed by land to Genoa, while his fleet,
+having crossed the bay of Biscay, anchored
+at Lisbon, where his forces found a crusade
+ready to their hands. The town of Santarem,
+forty miles above Lisbon, was blockaded by
+the Saracen emir. With the aid of the English the Portuguese
+raised the siege and then found themselves compelled
+to fight with their deliverers in the streets of Lisbon.
+The crusaders thought that they carried with them a
+license for universal plunder and insult; and it was not
+without difficulty and much bloodshed that they were
+persuaded by their leaders to reserve the application of
+their theory for more distant lands. The summer was
+coming to an end when Richard, having
+joined his fleet on the Italian coast, entered
+Messina almost in the guise of a conqueror, to the terror
+of the Sicilians and the disgust of the French king
+Philip.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conduct of Richard I. in Sicily.</div>
+
+<p>Then, as through almost the whole of its chequered
+history, Sicily was a prize for which contending kings and
+adventurers intrigued, or fought. It was now
+held by Tancred, an illegitimate son of the
+Apulian duke Roger. His sister Constantia,
+the legitimate daughter of Roger, was the wife of Henry,
+son of Frederick Barbarossa, who wished to make the
+island a portion of his own imperial realm (<a href="#Page_125">p. 125</a>). He
+was foiled by Tancred, who took the further precaution
+of imprisoning Joanna, the widow of his predecessor
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>William called the Good. Joanna was the sister of the
+English Richard, who was not slow in demanding her
+freedom, her dower, and the legacies which William the
+Good had left to his father Henry II. His demands were
+accompanied by robbery and violence, and his followers
+hastened to imitate his example. They came to open
+strife with the people in the streets of Messina; and the
+battle was followed by the plundering of the town. But
+the raising of the English standard on the walls was interpreted
+as an insult by Philip Augustus, and Richard
+was constrained to appease his wrath by placing the city
+in the charge of the Knights Templars and Hospitallers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Quarrel between Richard and Philip Augustus.</div>
+
+<p>The dispute with Tancred was made up
+by the betrothal of his infant daughter to
+Arthur, duke of Brittany, that luckless victim
+of the cruelty of John whom Shakespeare has made
+famous. But the quarrels of these champions of the
+cross are tangled like links in a twisted chain. By way
+of showing his friendly feeling, Tancred placed in Richard’s
+hand a letter bearing the signature of the French
+king and inviting Tancred to a private alliance against
+Richard. The latter charged Philip Augustus with the
+treachery, and was charged in turn with producing forged
+letters by way of devising an escape from his engagement
+with his sister Adelais. Richard had offered to
+marry Berengaria, daughter of Sancho, king of Navarre,
+and with studied coarseness he told Philip that he could
+have nothing to do with the mother of his father’s child.
+So was changed into mortal hatred that alliance which
+in its early days had led them to eat at the same table
+and rest in the same bed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1191. March. War between Richard and the Comnenian emperor of Cyprus.</div>
+
+<p>Thus passed away the winter in disgraceful quarrels
+and in lavish outlays of money scarcely less disgraceful.
+In the spring the French king sailed for Acre.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>Richard went to Rhodes, and while he remained
+there sick, he heard that some of his
+people had been wrecked on the coast of Cyprus,
+robbed of their goods, and imprisoned
+by Isaac the Comnenian prince who called
+himself emperor of the island. His demand for compensation
+was unheeded. The English fleet appeared before
+Limasol, the southernmost town of the island: and the
+English troops were soon masters of the city. Isaac
+entered into a treaty which bound him to serve with 500
+knights in the crusade, and in the event of good behaviour
+Richard promised him the restoration of his kingdom.
+But fear got the better of his prudence. He made his
+escape, and again met the English king in battle. The
+fight was followed by his surrender, and Richard ordered
+him to be kept in a castle on the coast of Palestine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of Richard and Philip at Acre.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1191. July 12.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Surrender of Acre.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Return of Philip to France.</div>
+
+<p>Here, in the town which under the name of Paphos
+had won for itself a pre-eminence in vice and folly,
+Richard was married to Berengaria of Navarre. Here
+also he received and promised to take up the cause of Guy
+of Lusignan, the weightiest argument for so doing being
+found in the fact that Philip Augustus had taken up that
+of Conrad. Thus the two kings reached Acre only to
+complicate old feuds with new strifes. The
+siege had lasted nearly two years. In the
+plain was gathered the crusading host, still
+magnificent in its appointments; on the heights were
+assembled the Turkish armies under the black banner of
+Saladin. Richard had loitered on the road as long as it
+suited his fancy or his ambition to do so; and he had
+overwhelmed with a torrent of reproach and abuse the
+envoys from the chiefs before Acre who dared to confront
+him at the Cyprian Famagosta with the reproof that
+his business was not to dethrone Comnenian princes and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>take their kingdoms, but to do battle with the Turk for
+the sacred heritage of Christendom. He reached Acre,
+prostrated with intermittent fever; but indifference to the
+enterprise had given way to a fiery zeal. He had himself
+carried out on a mattress to point the balistæ which
+by discharging stones served in some measures the purposes
+of modern artillery. But at first the two kings
+would not act together, and this division of forces enabled
+the besieged to stand out. Their reconciliation, whether
+real or seeming, led to a combined action which was
+soon rewarded by the offer of surrender. The terms now
+proposed were rejected, and Saladin cheered the besieged
+with the hope of succours to be received from Egypt. The
+help came not, and Saladin was compelled to assent to a
+harder compact. The piece of the true cross was to be
+given up, the Christian prisoners set free,
+and some thousands of hostages were to be
+detained for the payment, within forty days, of 200,000
+pieces of gold. The surrender was made. Richard took
+up his abode in the palace, Philip went to the house of
+the Templars, and the flags of the two kings
+floated from the ramparts. Philip now regarded
+himself as absolved from his vow, and he announced
+his determination to return to
+France. Richard parted from his ally with
+undissembled anger and contempt, and
+Philip, sailing to Tyre, gave to Conrad that half of the
+city of Acre which had been reserved for himself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Massacre of 5,000 Turkish hostages.</div>
+
+<p>The forty days wore on. Saladin would not or could
+not restore the relics of the true cross or make up the
+200,000 pieces. Richard warned him what
+the consequences of neglect would be; and
+he kept his word. On the fortieth day two
+thousand seven hundred hostages were led to the top of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>a hill from which all that passed might be seen in the
+camp of Saladin; and at a signal from the king these two
+thousand seven hundred infidels were all cut down. The
+soldiers hacked open their bodies to search for the jewels
+and gold which they were supposed to have swallowed,
+and to obtain the gall which they kept as medicine. In
+such praiseworthy deeds as these the Christians could
+act with admirable concert. At the same hour hostages
+almost equalling in number the victims of Richard were
+slaughtered on the walls of the city by the duke of Burgundy,
+the representative of Philip Augustus.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Victory of Richard at Azotus.</div>
+
+<p>The recovery of Acre was for these merciful and devout
+champions of the cross a sufficient reason for plunging
+into beastly debauchery and excess, from which it
+was no easy task to tear them away. At length the
+army of Richard moved southwards, marching in compact
+array along the coast, while the fleet, generally in
+sight, advanced along the shore. On their left hung the
+hosts of Saladin, whose policy it was to wear out his
+enemy, in a country the fortresses of which he had dismantled,
+without fighting any pitched battles. In this
+way the crusaders and their enemies had reached the
+neighbourhood of Azotus (Ashdod), when Richard resolved
+to face his adversary. The right wing was under
+Jacob of Avesnes; the left was held by the Duke of
+Burgundy; the English king was in the
+centre. The disposition of the battle showed
+some approach to generalship on his part;
+and his coolness was seen in the steadiness with which
+he reserved for the decisive moment the charge of his
+horsemen. Their tremendous onset broke the Turkish
+ranks. The victory was decisive: but it was purchased
+with the death of Jacob of Avesnes, which Richard
+mourned as a costly sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Abortive negotiations with Saladin.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1191. November.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Feud between the English king and the duke of Austria.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1192. April 27.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry of Champagne titular king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>His next move was to Jaffa, although he had wished
+to go on to Ascalon. The French barons insisted on the
+necessity of rebuilding the walls of Jaffa;
+and in spite of the sluggishness which with
+the crusaders almost always followed strenuous
+exertion, the task was at length completed.
+Richard resolved to renew the war with vigour,
+and announced to Saladin that nothing less would content
+him than the surrender of all the territory which had
+been included in the kingdom of Jerusalem under Baldwin
+the leper, (<a href="#Page_104">p. 104</a>). Saladin replied by an offer to
+yield up all lands lying between the Jordan and the sea;
+but it soon became clear that the negotiations were a
+mere pretext for gaining time, and Richard
+determined to advance upon Jerusalem. The
+army reached Ramlah, encountering some
+hardships from rain and tempests. Still it seemed
+that they might soon win the prize to which they had
+looked forward as the adequate recompense of all
+human toil. It was not to be so, and the hindrance
+came from the military orders and from the men of Pisa.
+These asserted that the reconquest of Jerusalem would
+be the dissolution of the enterprise. The army would
+never be kept together, so soon as they had once paid
+their vows before the tomb of the Redeemer. The
+crusaders fell back to Ascalon, and there the winter was
+spent partly in restoring the fortifications, but for the
+more part in incessant feuds. The duke of Austria had
+learnt during the siege of Acre to look on Richard as an
+enemy. The cause, it was said, was an
+insult done to the Austrian banner, which
+Richard, on seeing it raised upon the ramparts,
+seized and flung into the ditch. The
+hatred thus excited was embittered, we are told, by the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>injunction or desire for the personal help of all in the
+camp for the rebuilding of the walls of Ascalon. The
+duke replied that he was neither a mason nor a carpenter;
+and the lion-hearted king retorted by a kick which
+threw him down. This may be romance or fiction; but
+the disorganization of the force is sufficiently shown by
+the facts that the claim of Conrad to the throne of Jerusalem
+was urged by the Genoese, that of Guy by the men
+of Pisa; that the French abandoned the camp because
+Richard was no longer able to pay them; and that the
+jealousy of Conrad could be satisfied with nothing less
+than an alliance with Saladin. The end had almost come.
+Richard knew that his presence in England was a matter
+of life and death, and he now in his offers to the Turkish
+sultan abated his claim to the mere possession of the holy
+city and the restoration of the true cross. To this last
+surrender Saladin had in the previous negotiations made
+no objection. He had now become more orthodox or
+more scrupulous, and he could not give even indirect
+encouragement to the idolatry which would worship a
+piece of wood. Nor was a treaty set on foot for the marriage
+of Richard’s sister Joanna to Saphadin the sultan’s
+brother more successful. The English king even consented
+to give up the cause of Guy and sanction the
+choice of Conrad of Tyre for the Latin crown. The murder
+of Conrad by two of the fraternity known
+as the Assassins drew on Richard a storm of
+indignation; but evidence for the crime there was none.
+A more popular claimant appeared in Henry, count of
+Champagne, whose election to the throne of
+Godfrey was followed by his marriage to the
+widow of Conrad. The grief of Guy was
+consoled by the sovereignty of Cyprus which
+was still in the hands of his descendants when the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>Crescent in 1453 displaced the Cross on Justinian’s
+church in Constantinople.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">March of Richard towards Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Retreat of the army from Bethlehem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Relief of Jaffa.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Truce between the crusaders and Saladin.</div>
+
+<p>Disunion and bad generalship had practically sealed
+the doom of the crusade; but for Richard the capture
+of Jerusalem still had greater charms than
+the punishment of his brother John. In
+June, accordingly, the army once more
+began its march to the Holy City. The tidings of his
+approach caused almost panic terror among the Turks;
+but when they had reached Bethlehem the crusaders discovered
+that their forces were insufficient for the investment
+of the city; that to a commissariat they could
+scarcely make a pretence; that they ran an imminent
+risk of being cut off from their base of supplies; and,
+lastly, that the Turks had destroyed the wells and cisterns
+for miles round. It was impossible to resist the
+logic of these facts; and Richard made a last desperate
+effort to divert their joint forces to an invasion of Egypt
+and the attack of Cairo. He was led up a hill from
+which he was told that he might see Jerusalem;
+he held up his shield before his face
+as being unworthy to behold the city which
+he had failed to wrest from the power of the infidel. The
+army was broken up. Some went to Jaffa, more to Acre;
+and Saladin, advancing with rapid marches to the former
+city, so pressed it that the besieged pledged themselves
+to surrender if within twenty-four hours they should not
+be effectually succoured. Within that time Richard appeared
+upon the scene. His onset was more fierce, his
+valour and exploits more astonishing than
+ever. The besiegers retreated in confusion,
+to learn presently with greater shame that they had been
+scared by a mere handful of Christian horsemen. But
+if the splendid bravery of the English king struck terror
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>into the multitude, there were not lacking some, it is
+said, in which it excited a chivalrous admiration. Richard
+was dismounted, we are told, in the thick of the
+fight, and Saladin’s brother Saphadin, whose son Richard
+had at his request knighted, sent him two horses to
+enable him to renew the struggle. The crusaders were
+victorious: but Richard had no wish to use the advantage
+thus gained except for the purpose of gaining the
+best terms from the enemy. The compact ultimately
+made pledged them to a truce of three years
+and eight months. Ascalon was to be dismantled:
+but the Christians were to remain
+in possession of Jaffa and Tyre with the country between
+them; and all pilgrims were to have the right of entering
+Jerusalem untaxed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pilgrimage to Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>Of this privilege the French at Acre desired to avail
+themselves. Richard indignantly refused their request.
+They had done nothing to secure the peace
+or to deserve it; and their allies only should
+be suffered to enter the Sacred City. Among
+these pilgrims was the bishop of Salisbury, who became
+the guest of Saladin and heard from his lips praises of
+the valour of Richard which were not extended to his
+generalship. The thrust was rather evaded than parried
+by the reply that the earth could not produce two warriors
+who could be put into comparison with the Syrian
+sultan and the English king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results of the third crusade.</div>
+
+<p>So ended the third crusade, with its work barely more
+than begun, or rather marred by the infatuated waste of
+splendid opportunities; yet not with an extremity
+of humiliation which would convince
+even devotees of the absurdity of
+further efforts. A large strip of coast bounded by two
+important cities still remained as a base of operations in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>any renewed contest, and much had been done to neutralize
+the effects which without doubt Saladin had anticipated
+from his victory at Tiberias and his conquest
+of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Captivity of Richard I. in Austria.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1192. Dec. 21.</div>
+
+<p>On the morning after his embarkation at Acre, Richard
+turned to take a last look on the fading shores of
+Palestine. ‘Most holy land,’ he exclaimed
+with outstretched arms, ‘I commend thee
+to the care of the Almighty! May He grant
+me life to return and deliver thee from the yoke of the
+infidels!’ His fleet, carrying his wife and sister, had preceded
+him and reached Sicily in safety. He himself followed
+in a single ship, and at the end of a month of
+baffling winds found himself at Corfu, where he hired
+some trading vessels to take him to Ragusa and Zara.
+Sailing on, he was thrown by a storm on the Istrian
+coast between Aquileia and Venice, when the perils of
+his situation must have begun to force themselves upon
+him. The kinsfolk of Conrad of Tyre bore no love for
+his supposed murderer; the French king was in treaty
+with his brother John; and Henry VI., the emperor of
+Germany, and son of Barbarossa, owed him a grudge
+for his alliance with Tancred of Sicily (<a href="#Page_128">p. 128</a>). Still
+Richard thought, it seems, that a pilgrim’s disguise and
+an unshorn beard would carry him through all dangers.
+Having reached the fortress of Goritz, which was held by
+Maynard, a nephew of Conrad, he sent his companion,
+Baldwin of Bethune, with the gift of a ruby ring, to ask
+a passport for himself and Hugh the merchant, pilgrims
+going home from Jerusalem. Maynard looked long at the
+ruby, and at length said, ‘This jewel can come only from
+a king; that king must be Richard of England. Tell him
+he may come to me in peace.’ Not trusting his promise,
+Richard fled during the night. Baldwin and seven others
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>who remained with him were seized and kept as hostages.
+At Freisach six more of his companions were
+taken, although Richard himself escaped with one knight
+and a boy who knew the language of the country. This
+boy, sent to the market at Erperg, near Vienna, showed
+his money too freely, was caught, put to the torture, and
+revealed the name of his master. Surrounded in his
+house by troops of armed men, Richard refused to yield
+except to their chief; and that chief hastened
+to take charge of him. It was Leopold,
+who may have felt that he could now
+taste the sweets of revenge for the insults (whatever these
+may have been) which Richard had put upon him in
+Palestine. But Leopold was induced to compound with
+his feelings by a bribe of 60,000<i>l.</i>; and Richard, as the
+prisoner of Henry VI., was closely guarded in a Tyrolese
+castle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1193. Exertions made for the liberation of Richard.</div>
+
+<p>The tidings of his captivity were received with sorrow
+by his subjects generally, with undissembled joy by his
+brother John and Philip Augustus of France.
+Of these two princes the former prepared to
+fight for the crown, and after the first reverse
+accepted an armistice: the latter, having
+sent to Richard to renounce his allegiance, invaded Normandy,
+and met with a complete repulse at Rouen. At
+length the place of Richard’s imprisonment was discovered
+by William Longchamp, bishop of Ely, the
+English chancellor; or, as the romance would have it, by
+his faithful minstrel Blondel. The pope was at once
+assailed with entreaties to come forward for his rescue.
+Peter of Blois, archdeacon of Bath, reminded Cælestine
+III. of his debt of gratitude to so faithful a son of the
+Church. His mother Eleanor wrote to him in less measured
+terms. Where, she asked, was the zeal of Elijah
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>against Ahab, of John the Baptist against Herod, of
+Alexander III. against the father of the emperor who
+had wrought this iniquity in Christendom? ‘For trifling
+reasons your cardinals are sent in all their power to the
+most savage lands; in this great cause you have appointed
+not even a subdeacon or an acolyth. You would not
+have much debased the dignity of the holy see had you
+set out in person to rescue him. Restore to me my son,
+O man of God, if thou art indeed a man of God and not
+a man of blood. If you remain lukewarm, the Most High
+may require his blood at your hands.’ In later letters she
+asks him if he thinks that his soul can be safe while he is
+thus slack in rescuing the sheep of his fold, and tells him
+that he ought to be willing to lay down his life for one in
+whose behalf he was unwilling to speak or write a single
+word. The truth is that Cælestine was full of zeal for
+Richard’s cause: he was only waiting with true papal
+caution for Richard’s deliverance to express his zeal
+emphatically.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Richard before the diet at Hagenau.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1194. Feb. 4. Release of Richard.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">His return to England.</div>
+
+<p>At length, after nearly four months, Richard was
+brought before the diet at Hagenau. The captive might
+have pleaded the incompetence of the tribunal;
+he chose to answer the charges brought
+against him with arguments which convinced
+his judges of his innocence and made the emperor willing
+to treat about his ransom. This ransom was raised by
+new taxes laid on his subjects, whose resources, even
+when taxed to the uttermost, seemed unlikely to satisfy
+imperial avarice; and there was the further danger that
+whatever might be the sum raised, John might outbid
+them. This upright and honourable prince had offered
+to pay to Henry VI. the sum of 20,000<i>l.</i> for every month
+during which the imprisonment of Richard might be prolonged;
+but there was a limit to the patience of the German
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>barons, and their words convinced
+Henry that this limit had been reached.
+Richard was released, hostages being given
+for that portion of his ransom which was not paid on the
+spot. His deliverance set free the tongue of pope Cælestine,
+who now wrote to the Austrian duke as well as to
+the emperor, insisting that the ransom should be given
+back and the hostages restored. The emperor paid no
+heed to the command, but Leopold was brought to obedience
+by the discipline of excommunication
+and sickness, and Richard after four years’
+absence landed in his own kingdom to impoverish his
+people by fresh exactions for quarrels as useless as the
+enterprise which had taken him across the seas.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE FOURTH CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Motives of the chief promoters of the fourth crusade.</div>
+
+<p>The story of the fourth crusade is soon told. It was
+an effort prompted by the policy of a pope to whom the
+diversion of forces which the German emperor
+might turn against himself was of supreme
+importance,—of an emperor whose
+consciousness of ill desert made him
+catch eagerly at an opportunity for winning the favour of
+his German subjects—and of chiefs who hoped to take
+advantage of the weakened condition of the Turks for
+the promotion of their personal interests against the
+wishes and even against the warning and protests of the
+Latin Christians in Palestine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1193. Death of Saladin and its consequences.</div>
+
+<p>Saladin, the chivalrous antagonist of the lion-hearted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>Richard, was dead; and the fabric of his empire soon
+showed signs of decay. His brother Saphadin,
+upheld by Saladin’s soldiers, maintained
+his ground against the competition of Saladin’s
+children who ruled in Egypt, Damascus, and
+Aleppo. But although Christians and Mahomedans
+were alike weighed down by the pressure of a terrible
+famine, the Knights of St. John longed to strike a blow
+by which they thought that they could surely crush their
+enemies. Their efforts to stir up a crusade in England
+and in Europe were seconded by pope Cælestine III.,
+who promised all the spiritual rewards which had called
+forth the heroism or the brutality of the earlier pilgrim
+warriors. On Philip Augustus all entreaties were thrown
+away. Richard of England, it is said, was nursing
+dreams of conquests which were to place him in the seat
+of the Byzantine Cæsars: but for the time he was busied
+with the less pleasing task of wringing money from impoverished
+subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Encouragement given to the crusade by the emperor Henry VI.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1196. Death of Henry VI.</div>
+
+<p>But if pope Cælestine hoped that by urging this crusade
+he should rid himself of his mortal enemy, he was
+doomed to disappointment. The death of Tancred,
+king of Sicily, and of his heir enabled the emperor
+Henry VI., the son of Barbarossa to claim the island by
+right of his wife Constantia (<a href="#Page_128">p. 128</a>); and the
+force which Germany might bring together
+for the reconquest of the Holy Land could
+be made available for strengthening the imperial
+power in Southern Europe. Thus the enterprise
+received his strongest approval, and his encouragement
+stirred up a throng of barons, knights and prelates to
+assume the cross. But he had no intention of journeying
+to Palestine in person. Money and men he was
+ready to contribute; but his own task lay nearer home.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>He had levelled the walls of Capua and
+Naples, and was besieging a Sicilian castle,
+when his own imprudence brought on a fever
+which cut short at the age of thirty a career shameful
+for its merciless and wholesale tyranny.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of his barons with their troops in the Holy Land.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Capture of Jaffa by Saphadin.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of fresh crusaders under Conrad, bishop of Hildesheim.</div>
+
+<p>His barons with their followers reached the Holy Land
+at a time when, although the truce made with Saladin
+(<a href="#Page_135">p. 135</a>) had expired, the Latin Christians were
+not disposed to renew hostilities. But the
+Germans had come to fight, not to debate;
+and their energy was to be tested by Saphadin,
+who resolved to be first in striking a blow. Jaffa was
+taken before any succour could reach it from
+Acre, its inhabitants slaughtered by hundreds
+or by thousands, and its fortifications,
+the work on which Richard and his soldiers had toiled
+so hard (<a href="#Page_132">p. 132</a>), utterly demolished. The arrival of a
+second body of German crusaders seemed to justify a
+fresh movement which was directed against Berytos.
+Saphadin compelled them to fight between Tyre and
+Sidon: but he did so to his grievous cost. His army was
+for the time broken, and Jaffa with Sidon and other cities
+came again into the possession of the Christians.
+In the town of Berytos they found, it
+is said, provisions stored up for three years,
+and the power and confidence of the conquerors
+were largely increased by the arrival
+of a third body of armed pilgrims led by Conrad, bishop
+of Hildesheim, chancellor of the empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1197. Siege of the castle of Thoron.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Complete defeat of the Crusaders.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1197. Capture of Jaffa, and massacre of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The crusaders were, in all seeming, in the
+full career of victory; but the advantages
+which they had gained were lost almost in
+a moment by their own infatuated bloodthirstiness.
+They had besieged the castle of Thoron, and so undermined
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>the rocks on which it rested, that the garrison,
+foreseeing the inevitable end, agreed to surrender on
+the single stipulation that they should be allowed a free
+passage into Moslem territory. The terms were accepted;
+but so loud were still the threats of vengeance, so
+persistent, it is said, the assurances which the Frenchmen
+gave to the besieged of the deadly intentions of the
+Germans, that the miserable garrison resolved to fight to
+the death rather than fall into their hands. They lined
+the passages which the besiegers had scooped out in the
+rock, and their desperate resistance filled with dismay
+the savages who but a little while ago had
+been crying out for their blood. The disorganization
+which had not once or twice
+disgraced the armies of the earlier crusaders was seen
+again in even greater degree. The chiefs fled from the
+camp in the night, and their followers woke to find
+themselves deserted. A confusion ensued so utter and
+helpless that an enemy might have won a victory almost
+without striking a blow; but the Saracens were scarcely
+less exhausted than the Christians, and these on being
+gathered after their dispersion were able to accuse each
+the other of obstinacy, cowardice, or treachery. Conrad
+of Hildesheim, hastening to Jaffa with the purpose of
+restoring its walls, had won a battle fought against Saphadin
+at a cost fully equal to any profit which might
+accrue from it. The tidings of the death of Henry VI.
+dealt the final blow to the enterprise, by recalling to
+Germany those princes who had an interest in the election
+of the emperor. Those who remained
+behind took refuge in Jaffa, only, however
+to meet their doom a few months later at
+the hands of a Moslem host which suddenly
+attacked and stormed the city, while the Germans were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>showing their devotion to St. Martin by drinking themselves
+into a state of helpless stupidity.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Almeric of Lusignan king of Jerusalem and Cyprus.</div>
+
+<p>In spite of these disasters the mockery of the Latin
+kingdom of Jerusalem was still carried on. On the death
+of Henry of Champagne (<a href="#Page_134">p. 134</a>), his widow Isabella was
+advised by the grand-master of the Hospitallers
+to marry Almeric of Lusignan who
+had recently succeeded his brother Guy as
+king of Cyprus. Isabella showed no unwillingness
+to follow this counsel, and with her fourth husband
+she added the title of queen of Cyprus to that of
+queen of Jerusalem. If the politics of the time represented
+Cyprus as a convenient retreat in cases of emergency,
+such considerations have little interest or none.
+The only valid plea for keeping up the fiction of the Latin
+kingdom in Palestine would be found in the likelihood
+that the abandonment of the title would be regarded
+throughout Europe as a confession of defeat, and would
+be followed by the complete extinction of the crusading
+impulse.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE FIFTH CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1198. Election of Innocent III.</div>
+
+<p>At its outset, if not in its results, the fifth crusade exhibits
+something like a return to the spirit of the age which
+gave so vast a force to the preaching of the hermit Peter
+and the eloquence of Urban II. In the chair of St. Peter
+there was now seated a man of far greater
+power than the pope who stirred the Western
+world to a fever of enthusiasm at the
+council of Clermont. At the age of thirty-seven—an age
+without example, perhaps, in the annals of the papacy—Lothair,
+of the house of Conti, cardinal of St. Mark, had
+been chosen pope by the unanimous voice of all the cardinals
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>who were present, at a time when every other
+power seemed to be tottering, if not in the very throes of
+dissolution. The Byzantine empire was in its decrepitude;
+the Latin kingdom of Palestine was reduced to a
+mere strip of coast; an infant was king of Naples; the
+French king Philip Augustus was paying in whatever measure
+the penalties of an evil life; the man who was hoping
+to wear the English crown was the vindictive and despicable
+John, whose treachery had slain his father. Everywhere
+was disunion, faction, and deadly hatred: and in
+the midst of this chaos appeared the one man whose serene
+tranquillity, based on the consciousness of a superhuman
+commission and on the sanction of a divine law,
+was undisturbed by the storms raging around him. The
+influence, righteously acquired by Leo and Gregory the
+Great, and vastly extended (not altogether by the most
+righteous means) by Gregory VII. (<a href="#Page_20">p. 20</a>) was wielded
+with even greater effect by the youthful pontiff whose eye
+surveyed with calm yet exhaustive scrutiny the troubled
+scene of European politics.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effect of the crusades in extending the jurisdiction of the pope.</div>
+
+<p>To this exalted position the undefined claims of previous
+popes would probably never have raised Innocent
+III., had it not been for the crusades. In
+these enterprises the popes had a pretext
+ready to hand for interfering with the affairs
+of every nation and country, for suspending
+or annulling civil jurisdiction, for levying
+taxes under the name of alms, for releasing barons from
+the allegiance due to their sovereigns, inferior tenants
+from their chiefs, debtors from their creditors. The crusade
+became a task which the popes might impose for
+their souls’ health on refractory emperors and kings. All
+whose hearts were filled with the love of Christ must long
+to take part in the holy work of rescuing his sepulchre
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>from the hands of the unbelievers. If any were careless
+or indifferent to a duty thus constraining, it must be because
+their lives were not as pure, their faith not so sound
+as it should be, and by such men the divine power for rebuke
+and even chastisement committed to the vicars of
+Christ and of the prince of the apostles must make itself
+felt. If kings and great feudal chiefs would prove themselves
+to be good Christians, they must put on the cross:
+and the assumption of the badge imposed an obligation
+from which, if the popes were bent on keeping them to it,
+it would be almost, if not altogether, hopeless for them
+to escape. If they resisted, their sentence was excommunication;
+and excommunication, not removed, meant
+death here and hereafter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Weakening of the Imperial power.</div>
+
+<p>The effect of this policy (for such, however sincere
+some of the popes may have been, it assuredly must be
+called) showed itself especially in the weakening
+of the imperial power, without which
+such a supremacy as that of Innocent III.
+over the sovereigns of his age would have been an impossibility.
+The emperor Conrad had been driven to
+take the cross by the awful pictures which Bernard drew
+of the judgment day (<a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>): he came back shorn practically
+of all his power. Barbarossa had obeyed the
+papal bidding, only to die in a distant land; and the
+struggle was to be renewed in a later crusade with a
+sovereign who was only in his cradle when the cardinal
+Lothair began his career as pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Growing mistrust of the court of Rome by the peoples of Europe.</div>
+
+<p>But if the crusades and the undefined powers which
+they brought to the popes carried to its utmost
+height the fabric of their supremacy,
+they began at the same time to undermine
+it. At no time had the Roman court possessed
+a high reputation for pecuniary
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>probity; more commonly it had been known as the
+seed-bed in which venality, jobbery, and corruption
+flourished with rank luxuriance. All at once, owing to
+the new impulse given to the energies of Christendom,
+the popes became the possessors or administrators of
+revenues more vast than any of which in earlier ages
+they could have ventured to dream. Then as in these
+enterprises failure followed on failure, and the results
+attained seemed wholly inadequate to the outlay, the
+suspicion was awakened that the funds obtained for the
+crusades were sometimes diverted to other purposes.
+The suspicion might be unjust, and the popes might
+appoint barons and bishops not belonging to their court
+to be trustees of revenues which were not even to be
+kept in Italy. Still in spite of these precautions the old
+sayings were repeated, and they came not unfrequently
+with chilling force just when the crusading enthusiasm
+had been fanned into the fiercest flame.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Efforts of Innocent to remove this mistrust.</div>
+
+<p>This suspicion threatened to be fatal to the new enterprise
+which Innocent sought to promote for the salvation
+of the Holy Land,—nay, for that of all
+Christians whether of the East or the West.
+Not even Urban II. had been more fervent
+in his exhortations, more lavish in his
+promises of eternal happiness, more stern in his threatenings
+of endless perdition. Still from these loftier
+regions he had to descend to defences against charges
+of personal corruption, and to appoint for the management
+of the crusading revenues committees to which it
+was supposed that suspicion could not possibly attach
+itself. More than this, the pope and his cardinals must
+show themselves ready to bear to the full the burdens
+which they sought to lay upon others. A tenth of all
+their revenues would be devoted to the rescue of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>Holy Land from the power of the infidel. The clergy
+in all other countries were to contribute at least a fortieth
+part, and the laity should be everywhere urged to contribute
+to the utmost of their power. The funds so raised
+were to be put into a safe place, the amount only being
+notified at Rome: and hard-hearted indeed must he be
+who would hold aloof from such a work of love and
+mercy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Fulk of Neuilly.</div>
+
+<p>But the indifference with which his words were everywhere
+received furnishes a fresh proof that the work of
+a genuine crusade can be set in motion only
+by the combination of authority with the
+enthusiasm of the demagogue. So it had been in the
+days of the hermit Peter (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>), and of the saint who
+had tried to cover the hermit with contempt. So, happily
+for Innocent, it was now, when Fulk, a parish priest
+of Neuilly near Paris, was smitten with the crusading
+fever. Even as a priest he had for a time led a life of
+miserable slackness, if not of gross vice; but his heart
+was touched with the penitence which was kindled in
+Mary Magdalene or Mary of Egypt. He had striven to
+atone for his sins by the severest asceticism, and to
+remedy his deplorable ignorance by attending the lectures
+of Peter the Chanter, in whom Innocent hoped to find
+the most eloquent preacher of his crusade. This hope
+was not to be realized. Peter was seized by a fatal illness,
+but his last words bequeathed to Fulk the mission
+which he had himself received from the pope.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1189.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1198. The mission of Fulk sanctioned by the pope.</div>
+
+<p>Even before the death of Peter, Fulk had preached in
+the streets and lanes of the great city, and his words
+had melted the most obdurate and evil-lived
+sinners to tears. Still the spell of his oratory
+seemed to be losing its power, and he had gone back
+to his parish work at Neuilly when the last charge of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>Peter the Chanter animated him with an irresistible impulse.
+He came forward now not merely as the preacher
+of a crusade, but as the stern reprover of vice and of
+spiritual wickedness in high places. Like Urban and
+Eugenius, Innocent saw his opportunity. He wrote to
+Fulk, expressing his hearty approbation of his work, and
+bidding him, in concert with some of the Black and
+White monks, and with the sanction of the legate Peter
+of Capua, go up and down the land calling
+on all men to repent and to give proof
+of penitence by hastening to the land of
+promise.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Effects of his eloquence.</div>
+
+<p>Soon the tidings spread from city to city that a preacher
+had appeared whose powers were not inferior to those of
+St. Bernard. His miracles were not indeed
+so numerous, nor, for the most part, of the
+sort which ascribed to Bernard the excommunication of
+troublesome flies, who under this potent sentence fell
+dead from the ceiling, and were swept up from the
+floor by shovelfuls. His humour was not less ready than
+his eloquence. His hearers strove for pieces of his
+clothing to be kept as sacred relics. One noisy bystander
+had caused him special annoyance. He turned
+to his audience, and told them that he had not blessed
+his own garments, but that he would bless those of this
+man. In a moment the man’s clothes were in tatters,
+and the fragments carried off in triumph as relics endowed
+with miraculous power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1202. Death of Fulk.</div>
+
+<p>Yet, taken at its best, the effect of Fulk’s preaching
+was not equal to that of Bernard or of Peter the Hermit.
+His words might enjoin high austerities: his appearance
+might not belie his words, but it did not convey indisputable
+evidence of their truth. He looked and lived much
+like other men; and, what was worse, he had to do
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>battle with the fatal suspicion which Innocent had striven
+with the utmost earnestness to shake off. He became the
+receiver of vast sums of money; and murmurs would make
+themselves heard which asserted that all these moneys
+were not used as they ought to be. His influence was on
+the whole waning: but he was not to see the beginning
+of the enterprise which he had so strenuously
+promoted. Fulk died of a fever at Neuilly,
+while the crusaders were still at Venice, and his mantle
+seemed to fall on the Cistercian abbot Martin.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1200. The chiefs of the fifth crusade.</div>
+
+<p>Other preachers also girded up their loins for the great
+work, and their words told especially on some of the
+younger men among the French princes. Foremost
+among these was Theobald, count of Champagne, who
+had seen only twenty summers, and whose
+goal was well nigh reached already. With
+him Louis, count of Blois and Chartres, cast
+in his lot, followed by Simon of Montfort,
+the infamous leader of the yet future Holy War against
+the Albigensians, Walter of Brienne, and with many
+others, last but not least Geoffrey of Villehardouin,
+marshal of Champagne, the historian of the crusade.
+Some months later the badge was assumed by Baldwin,
+count of Flanders, by Hugh of St. Pol, by the count of
+Perche, and many more.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mission from the French barons to Venice.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1201.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Compact for the conveyance of the crusaders to Palestine.</div>
+
+<p>The followers of these chiefs amounted already to a
+formidable army. But the leaders had no adequate
+navy at their command, and the history of all the preceding
+expeditions had convinced men at
+last of the desperate risks to be encountered
+in the land journey across Europe and the
+Lesser Asia. One state alone there was
+which was fully equal to all demands that might be made
+upon it for ships; and of the crusades this state at least
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>had no just reason to complain. These armed pilgrimages
+had vastly increased its commerce and its profits,
+and had produced in Europe a general desire for eastern
+products which insured the continuance of this wide-spread
+trade. To Venice accordingly the
+eyes of the crusading chiefs were turned,
+and the envoys of the counts of Blois, Flanders, and
+Champagne appeared there in the first week of Lent
+before the doge, or duke, Henry Dandolo, venerable in
+his age of more than ninety years, and the victim of that
+Byzantine cruelty which had almost, if not wholly, deprived
+him of his sight. ‘Sire,’ said Villehardouin, the
+ambassador from the count of Champagne, ‘we are
+come in the name of the great barons of France, who
+are pledged to avenge by the conquest of Jerusalem the
+insults offered to our Lord Jesus Christ. From no other
+state can they obtain the help which they desire, and
+they implore you for the sake of the Holy Cross and the
+Holy Sepulchre to furnish them with ships and all other
+things necessary for conveying their men across the
+sea.’ ‘On what terms?’ asked the doge. ‘On any that
+you may name,’ was the reply, ‘so long as we may be
+able to bear them.’ The doge promised an answer at
+the end of eight days; and when these were passed, the
+envoys were told that for four marks of
+silver for each horse and two for each man
+the republic would furnish ships, provisioned
+for nine months, for the conveyance
+of 4,500 knights with their horses, 9,000 squires, and 20,000
+infantry. The total cost would be 85,000 marks of
+silver; but the republic would further join the expedition
+with 50 galleys of its own. The terms were not unreasonable,
+and the envoys departed, some homewards,
+some to seek further aid from Genoa and Pisa. Here
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>they fared but ill; and Villehardouin reached Troyes
+only to find Theobald the count of Champagne prostrate
+with hopeless sickness. In his joy at seeing him, the
+young man mounted his horse: but it was for the last
+time. In a few days he died, and the count of Perche
+soon followed him to the grave.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1202. Failure of the crusaders to make up the sum agreed on with the Venetians.</div>
+
+<p>The count of Champagne was to have been the chief
+of the enterprise. The offer of the command was now
+refused by the duke of Burgundy as by many others: it
+was accepted at last by Boniface, marquis of Montferrat.
+But it was not until the following year that the crusading
+forces were fairly in motion; and their lack
+of cohesion was at once seen in all its mischievous
+effects. Venice may have driven—there
+is no just ground for thinking that she
+had driven—a hard bargain; but as it was
+certain that from her terms she would make
+no abatement, it was clear that the interests of the crusaders
+should lead them to adhere to or give up the compact
+in a body. To divide their forces was merely to lay a
+heavier burden on those who should still seek the aid of
+Venice. But of two courses the crusaders were well nigh
+sure to choose the worse, and while some sailed across the
+bay of Biscay and through the straits of Gibraltar, others
+embarked at Marseilles. Others again found their way to
+ports in Southern Italy, leaving Villehardouin to deplore
+at Venice the wretched mischief wrought by these desertions.
+It seemed at first that they had dealt a death-blow
+to the enterprise. The Venetian fleet was ready, in perfect
+order and magnificently equipped: but the price, the
+85,000 silver marks, must be paid in advance, and the
+counts of Flanders and St. Pol and the marquis of Montferrat
+could only make up 51,000 after selling all their
+plate and putting the utmost strain upon their credit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Proposal to commute the payment by an expedition against Zara.</div>
+
+<p>Of this dilemma the doge proposed a solution which
+at first excited the astonishment, the dismay, and even
+the disgust of the crusaders. The war which
+pope Innocent had striven to kindle was
+strictly a holy war, directed only against the
+infidel for the rescue of lands, which formed
+the inalienable heritage of Christendom. But
+the Venetian doge now announced that the 34,000 marks
+might be discharged by conquering for the republic the
+town of Zara, which had been, so he averred, unjustly
+seized by the king of Hungary. The summer wore on.
+The feast of the Nativity of the Virgin had come round,
+when Dandolo, ascending the pulpit in the church of St.
+Mark, declared his readiness to live or die with the pilgrims
+of the cross, and then, going to the high altar, fixed
+the blood-red badge on his high cotton cap. The sight
+called forth the tears and wakened the enthusiasm of all
+who were present. The less pleasant features of the
+compact lost their repulsive aspect; and the interests of
+Venice were further consulted by the agreement that
+she should have one half of all conquests that might be
+made.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1195. Mission to Rome to seek aid for the dethroned Byzantine emperor, Isaac Angelus.</div>
+
+<p>A new actor now appeared upon the scene. For some
+years past the palace of the Byzantine Cæsars had been
+defiled by a series of bloody murders or of
+mutilations still more cruel. Emperor after
+emperor had been put to death or blinded
+and thrust into a dungeon. The latter
+penalty was the doom of Isaac Angelus
+when his throne was usurped by his brother
+Alexios, a tyrant not wise in his generation. Isaac,
+laxly guarded, was able to communicate with his partisans;
+his son Alexios, having contrived to make his
+escape in a Pisan vessel to Ancona, appeared to plead
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>his cause before Innocent at Rome. He received no
+genial welcome. The pope had perhaps a better hope
+of bringing about the submission of the Eastern to the
+Western church through the possessor of a throne than
+through claimants or pretenders. He was better received
+at the court of his brother-in-law, the Swabian chief
+Philip; and his messengers now appeared in Venice to
+implore the help of the commercial republic and the
+high chivalry of Western Christendom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Determination of the Venetians to insist on the expedition to Zara.</div>
+
+<p>Not impossibly the vision which this crusade was destined
+for time to realize may have floated before the
+mind of Dandolo, as he listened to their earnest pleadings;
+but for the present he confined himself
+to words of encouragement and sympathy.
+The task immediately before them was the
+conquest of Zara; and Venice stuck to her
+bond with inflexible pertinacity. In vain the abbot
+Martin, who with his followers had crossed the Tyrolese
+Alps, protested against the invasion of territories belonging
+to the Hungarian king who had himself assumed the
+cross. They were told that the scheme might be given
+up on the payment of the 34,000 silver marks. In vain
+Innocent sent his cardinal legate Peter of Capua with
+orders to interdict the Venetians from assailing Zara
+even with their own forces, and to lead the army of the
+pilgrims himself to Palestine. The legate was told that
+he might embark in their fleet if he pleased, but that he
+must not dare to exercise his legatine authority when
+he had done so. The indignant cardinal hastened to
+Rome. Some few drew back from the enterprise: and
+the marquis of Montferrat pleaded pressing engagements
+which withheld him at present from taking the
+command.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Siege and conquest of Zara.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1202. Nov. 15.</div>
+
+<p>But with the main body of the crusaders the Venetian
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>fleet set sail, in a magnificent order and with a display
+of power which seemed capable of sweeping
+everything before it. The people of Zara,
+dismayed at the sight of the armament, offered
+at once to surrender on the best terms which they
+could get. The doge promised to consider the matter
+with the barons: but while they were thus in council,
+Simon of Montfort, the destined hero of a bloody crusade
+against heretical Christians, upbraided the Zarans with
+their cowardice, and assured them that the conquest of
+Zara was no part of the crusading plan. When the summons
+for the envoys came from the doge’s tent, they were
+nowhere to be found. They had hastened back into the
+city, and the walls had been manned for a siege. In the
+camp Guido, the abbot of Vaux Cernay, warned the army
+that they were pilgrims of the cross, under oath not to
+make war against Christians in communion with the Holy
+See. In high wrath Dandolo insisted that the barons
+should keep to their engagements. Few dared, perhaps
+few wished, to gainsay him. For five days Zara was besieged;
+on the sixth it fell. The doge took
+possession, but he divided the spoil with his
+allies.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Proposal to divert the crusade to the restoration of Alexios at Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">December.</div>
+
+<p>The reduction of Zara raised hopes which were to be
+speedily disappointed. The crusaders wished to sail at
+once for the Holy Land. The doge was determined
+to guard his conquest against attacks
+from the Hungarian king. Winter
+was coming on; the countries of Western
+Asia were suffering grievously from famine,
+and a voyage then undertaken would bring with it the
+miseries of starvation. The only course was to make Zara
+their winter quarters. The proposal called forth vehement
+opposition, which was not suppressed without
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span>bloodshed. The arrival of the marquis of
+Montferrat to take the chief command gave
+promise of more harmonious action; but the crusade was
+to be a second time diverted from its original purpose.
+Envoys came from the Byzantine Alexios and the Swabian
+Philip urging that the purposes of the expedition
+would be better achieved by placing Alexios on the throne
+of Constantinople than by attempts, which would certainly
+be in vain, to wrest Palestine from the Saracens.
+They insisted that the crusader’s vow was really a vow
+to promote in every way the cause of God, of right, and
+of justice; and in no way would this cause be more surely
+furthered than by restoring the disinherited prince to
+the throne of which he had been robbed by an usurper.
+They pleaded that in this instance interest and duty went
+hand in hand. It would be the first business of Alexios
+after his restoration to bring the Eastern church into submission
+to the Roman church and see; his next task
+would be to aid the crusaders to the best of his power in
+the work which they had most at heart. He would not
+only feed the whole army and give them 400,000 silver
+marks: but he would also join them in person, or send
+10,000 men at his own charge.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resolution to accept the terms proposed by Alexios.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Negotiations with the pope for the removal of the interdict.</div>
+
+<p>The announcement of this proposal drew from the
+abbot of Vaux Cernay the passionate rejoinder that they
+were in arms only against Saracens, and
+that to Syria only would they go. But
+though he was firmly seconded by his
+partisans, there was practically no reply to
+the retort that in Syria they could do nothing, and that
+Jerusalem could be won only through Constantinople or
+Egypt. Words and tempers ran high: but the treaty
+with Alexios was accepted by the marquis of Montferrat
+and the count of Flanders, and the destination of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>army was fixed. The numbers of that army were slowly
+diminished through the weeks of winter. The terrors of
+the papal interdict hung like a cloud over
+the host, and the barons resolved to send
+envoys who should assure Innocent that the
+diversion to Zara, which they and he alike
+lamented, was to be laid wholly to the charge of those
+faithless knights who by departing from other ports left
+their comrades without the means of paying the money
+due to the Venetians. Of the new compact made with
+Alexios they prudently said nothing: and Innocent,
+while he agreed to suspend the interdict till the arrival
+of his legate Peter of Capua, insisted that the barons
+must still make atonement for their offence. Against
+the Venetians he took a higher tone. The envoys must
+carry with them a letter excommunicating these marauders.
+The marquis Boniface received the brief, but,
+instead of publishing it, he wrote to Innocent, sending
+the submission of the barons and saying that the Venetians
+were about to entreat his forgiveness for the conquest
+of Zara. No such entreaties came: and Innocent
+issued fresh orders that his brief should be placed in the
+hands of the doge. If this was done, it produced no result:
+and Innocent was startled, if not dismayed, when
+he learnt that the spoilers of Zara were making ready
+to sin on a larger scale. He denounced the whole
+scheme with seemingly vehement indignation. The emperor
+of Constantinople may have been guilty of blinding
+his brother and usurping his throne; but his empire,
+he insisted, was under the special protection of the Holy
+See. It was no part of their business or their vow to
+avenge the wrongs of the prince Alexios; it was their
+first and paramount duty to avenge the wrongs done to
+their Redeemer, the sign of whose cross they bore upon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>their shoulders. Nay, more, the Byzantine emperor
+had, at the special request of the pope, promised to
+furnish provisions for the crusaders: and the promise
+of the Eastern Cæsar might be trusted. If it should fail,
+then they might forcibly take what they wanted, at the
+same time paying or promising to pay the value in money.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1203. Easter.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Vain attempts of Innocent to oppose the expedition.</div>
+
+<p>Dandolo was in no mood to have his course checked
+by either papal pleadings or papal threats. The day of
+embarkation had arrived, and Simon of
+Montfort, impenetrable in his gloomy bigotry,
+hastened away to join the king of Hungary,
+the faithful servant of the pope. The
+other chiefs went on board the Venetian
+fleet, with perhaps a shrewd suspicion that their success
+would be followed by a marked change in the tone and
+language of the pope. But whatever might be his desire
+to keep on good terms with the reigning monarch, his longing
+to see the Byzantine church brought back to Roman
+subjection was altogether more intense. This submission
+would be the immediate result of the enthronement
+of Alexios, and the crusaders would depart for the Holy
+Land, (the vision of a Latin empire at Byzantium had
+not yet dawned upon their minds,) rich not only in the
+blessing of the pope, but in a wealth of sacred relics
+which, now stored up in the churches of the capital,
+ought to pass into the hands of the faithful children of
+the Roman obedience.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1203. Arrival of the fleet at Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>About the time of the summer solstice, the Venetian
+fleet anchored in the Propontis nine miles to the west of
+the Imperial city. A few days later the
+army was at Scutari, where they received a
+message from the reigning emperor Alexios
+promising them aid in their passage through
+Asia Minor, on the condition that during their stay on
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>the shores of the Bosporos they should do his subjects
+no harm. The reply was a summons to the usurper to
+descend from his throne, with a promise that on this condition
+they would obtain for him the pardon of his nephew,
+the rightful sovereign.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Flight of the usurper Alexios.</div>
+
+<p>This young prince was paraded by the Venetian fleet
+in front of the walls; but the proclamation which called
+upon the people to acknowledge him as their sovereign
+was received with contemptuous silence or with showers
+of arrows, and no alternative remained but
+that of open war. The struggle presents
+few features of real interest: as a series of
+military operations it has little value or none. The imperial
+fleet consisted, it is said, of only twenty ships, and
+these useless, the anchors, cables, and sails having been
+sold by the admiral, a brother of the empress. The army
+exhibited all the pageantry of war, and lacked almost
+every soldierly quality. The port of Constantinople and
+the town of Galata were soon in the possession of the
+invaders, and the siege of the city was begun, so far as
+the efforts of a force which could assail but an insignificant
+extent of wall deserves the name. The first flag
+planted on one of the towers was placed there by the
+men of Dandolo’s ship; and Dandolo himself, setting
+fire to the surrounding houses, kept off the imperial
+troops while his crew fortified themselves in their position.
+The Latins and the Greeks were now face to face.
+The splendid ranks of the Byzantine army stood, as it
+might seem, ready for battle, when Alexios gave the signal
+for retreat and sealed his own downfall. That night
+he fled from the city. The blind Isaac Angelus, drawn
+from his dungeon, was again clad in the imperial robes,
+and his son Alexios was admitted to share his imperial
+dignity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The crusaders are compelled to spend the winter at Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>The task of the crusaders in Europe seemed to be
+now done. Their heralds announced to the Egyptian
+sultan that they would soon take summary
+vengeance unless he surrendered the Holy
+Land. The Pisans who had aided the
+usurping Alexios made up their quarrel
+with Venice. The French barons asked
+the forgiveness of the pope for the attack made upon
+Constantinople, and Innocent replied that it must depend
+on the fulfilment of the promises made by Alexios.
+This prince, having paid part of the money which he
+had sworn to give them, bade them remember how dear
+must be to himself the cost of alliance with them, and how
+greatly he must need their help to stem the tide of
+unpopularity. In short, he let them know that in or
+near Constantinople they must find their winter quarters.
+It was absurd to think of encountering the risk of a voyage
+during the winter: and even if they went, they
+could do nothing against the Turks until spring. He
+would then see that nothing should be left undone
+towards furthering the success of the crusade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Efforts of Mourzoufle to detach Alexios from the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The northern pilgrims received these proposals with
+murmurs of anger. But the decision lay really with
+Dandolo, and Dandolo declared that at this season of
+the year the ships of the republic should not be exposed
+to useless dangers. The army remained where it was:
+but new troubles came thick and fast. Religious antagonism
+ran out into brawls and fights. An accidental
+conflagration preyed for eight days on the
+streets and houses of the city. The rage
+excited by these losses was increased by the
+exactions to which the young Alexios was
+driven in order to meet his engagements with the crusaders,
+and was lashed into madness when his officers
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>stripped the churches of their gold and silver ornaments.
+The indignation of the people found utterance in the
+vehement eloquence of Alexios Ducas, called Mourzoufle
+from his dark and shaggy eyebrows; and his protests so
+far swayed the youthful emperor as to make him remiss
+in carrying out his compact with his allies. These told
+him plainly that to that compact he must strictly adhere,
+or, failing in this, must prepare himself for war.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Deposition and death of Alexios.</div>
+
+<p>During the night following the day in which he received
+this warning Alexios sent a squadron of fire-ships
+against the Venetian fleet. The danger was
+great; but the Venetian sailors were as
+prompt as they were brave. The deadly
+ships were turned aside into open water, and a Pisan
+merchant ship was the only vessel set on fire and destroyed.
+It was the last exploit of Alexios. Another
+revolution hurled him from the throne, which after one
+or two more emperors had been set up and put down
+passed to Mourzoufle. The new Cæsar showed some
+aptitude for war, but he preferred to try the effect of
+negotiations with Dandolo. The old doge retorted that
+with an usurper he could have no dealings, and that, if
+he sought peace, he should replace his master Alexios
+on the throne. Mourzoufle resolved that this demand
+should not be made a second time: and that night Alexios
+was slain in prison.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Resolution to set up a Latin dynasty in Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>For the fate of their former ally the crusaders professed
+to feel a profound sympathy; and their grief prompted
+the resolution of cutting the evil at its root by placing a
+Latin emperor on the seat of the Eastern
+Cæsars. The compact was accordingly
+drawn up. The booty to be obtained within
+the city was to be shared equally between the
+French and the Venetians; and a committee of twelve,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>half French, half Venetian, should elect the new sovereign,
+who was to have one-fourth part of the city with
+the palaces of Blachernai and Boukoleon, the rest of the
+city being shared by the two allied powers. Venice,
+freed from all feudal obligations to the Greek empire,
+should be equally free from all feudal dependence on
+the Latin sovereign, while the Latin patriarch should
+be chosen from the nation to which the emperor might
+not belong.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1204. April. Siege and conquest of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Horrible excesses of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The second siege of Constantinople is as devoid of interest
+as the first. The success of the Greeks on the
+first day was followed by a series of disasters
+which on the fourth day enabled the
+Latins to force their way through the gates.
+Mourzoufle shut himself up in his palace.
+A third conflagration desolated the city. In the morning
+the conquerors learnt that the usurper had fled with
+many of the inhabitants. The Latin conquest was accomplished.
+The Byzantine clergy alone urged continued
+resistance; but when they presented Theodore
+Lascaris to the people as their emperor, their silence
+showed that the appeal was made in vain. Then, seeing
+that nothing more could be done, the patriarch John
+Kamateros fled from the sight of the awful scenes which
+disgraced the triumph of the Latins. The three Western
+bishops had strictly charged the crusaders to respect
+the churches and the persons of the clergy, the monks,
+and the nuns. They were talking to the winds. In the
+frantic excitement of victory all restraint was
+flung aside, and the warriors of the cross
+abandoned themselves with ferocious greed
+to their insatiable and filthy lewdness. With disgusting
+gestures and in shameless attire an abandoned woman
+screamed out a drunken song from the patriarchal chair
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>in the church of Sancta Sophia, the magnificent work of
+Justinian. Wretches blind with fury drained off draughts
+of wine from the vessels of the altar: the table of oblation,
+famed for its exquisite and costly workmanship,
+was shattered: the splendid pulpit with its silver ornaments
+utterly defaced. Mules and horses were driven
+into the churches to bear away the sacred treasures; if
+they fell, they were lashed and goaded till their blood
+streamed upon the pavement. While the savages were
+employed on these appropriate tasks, the more devout
+were busy in ransacking the receptacles of holy relics,
+and laying up a goodly store of wonder-working bones
+or teeth to be carried away to the churches of the great
+cities on the Rhine, the Loire, or the Seine. ‘How,’
+asks the pope, ‘shall the Greek Church return to ecclesiastical
+unity and to respect for the Apostolic See,
+when they have seen in the Latins only examples of
+wickedness and works of darkness, for which they might
+justly loathe them worse than dogs?’ The question
+might well be asked: and we may be well assured that
+Innocent would not be likely to over-colour the picture
+in favour of the Greeks, and that his informers would not
+care to put before him in their naked hideousness iniquities
+which it would be a sin to describe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor of the East.</div>
+
+<p>The first task of the conquerors was to elect a chief
+and share the spoil. The committee of twelve met in
+the chapel of the palace and invoked the
+aid of the Holy Spirit. The six French
+electors were all ecclesiastics,—the abbot
+of Loces, the bishops of Troyes, Soissons,
+Halberstadt, and Bethlehem, and the archbishop-elect
+of Acre. Their first choice fell on Dandolo. His wisdom,
+his energy, his undaunted courage, seemed to point
+him out as the best man fitted to rule the empire in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>winning of which he had played the chief part. But the
+old man cared little for the office, and to the Venetians
+the combination of the powers of emperor and doge in
+the same person probably boded ill for the best interests
+of the commercial republic. There remained only two
+who could well be placed in competition for the prize.
+The marquis of Montferrat, the lord of a petty principality
+at the foot of the Alps, could be no object of Venetian
+jealousy, while his age and character well qualified
+him for the office. But Baldwin of Flanders, at the age
+of thirty-two, was in the first flush of vigorous manhood;
+he was come of the race of Charles the Great, and the
+French king was his cousin. He was also the feudal
+sovereign of a wealthy territory and the leader of a
+powerful army raised among his own people. The electors
+came to an unanimous decision, and this decision
+announced to the barons, who were waiting outside, that
+the count of Flanders was the Eastern Cæsar. Boniface
+of Montferrat at once did homage to him as his lord;
+and the old doge was the only man not called upon to
+make this act of submission. Borne on the shields of
+his comrades Baldwin was carried to the church of
+Sancta Sophia and there was invested with the purple
+buskins. Three weeks later he was crowned by the papal
+legate, the new patriarch not having been yet elected.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Election of Thomas Morosini as patriarch of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<p>This election was to the Venetians a subject of greater
+anxiety than the choice of a temporal sovereign. There
+was no room here for the fear that Venice
+might become an insignificant dependency
+of a vast empire; and they set to work with
+their usual promptitude and coolness. The
+canonical regularity of the election was, as they supposed,
+ensured by the appointment of Venetian priests
+to be canons of Sancta Sophia; and these canons were
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>placed under oath to elect none but a Venetian. Their
+choice fell on Thomas Morosini, a member of one of
+their noblest houses and a man highly esteemed by Innocent
+III.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Embassies from Baldwin and the Venetians to the pope.</div>
+
+<p>The Roman pontiff played his part with consummate
+skill. While the usurping Alexios was on the throne, he
+had striven to secure through his help the
+submission of the Eastern church. No sooner
+had he fled, than Innocent reminded his
+nephew Alexios of the promises of obedience
+which he had personally made, and urged the crusaders
+to insist on the immediate fulfilment of this promise. In
+no other way could they justify themselves for diverting
+to other purposes the forces which had been enrolled
+solely for the redemption of the Holy Land. He had
+now to deal with a new order of things. The emperor
+Baldwin had prayed him to ratify the compact made with
+the Venetians, to stir up afresh the zeal of Western
+Europe for the maintenance of the Latin empire in the
+East, to send forth new armies who in the countries now
+brought under Latin sway would assuredly reap an abundant
+harvest, and to reinforce the Latin clergy by a multitude
+of new recruits. The Venetians had besought his
+forgiveness for attacking Zara, his sanction of the conquest
+of Constantinople. They could not bring themselves
+to believe that the people of Zara were really
+under his protection, and hence they had determined to
+bear with the excommunication in patient silence until
+the pontiff should learn the truth. For what they had
+done at Byzantium the young Alexios was chargeable, not
+they. He had tried to send fire-ships among their fleet,
+and it was indispensable for their own safety and that of
+their allies to deprive him of the power of doing further
+mischief.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Answers of Innocent III.</div>
+
+<p>The satisfaction which Innocent felt, and avowed that
+he felt, was expressed in carefully guarded terms. He
+was rejoiced to be able to revoke the excommunication
+of the Venetians, and so high
+was his admiration of the valour and wisdom
+of Dandolo that he could not comply with the prayer of
+the venerable doge to be relieved from further obligation
+under his vow. The hero who could bear so lightly the
+burden of ninety winters must not deprive the crusade
+of services which would ensure success to the enterprise
+and a glorious reward for himself. To the delicate praise
+which thus took the form of a command he added the
+assurance that he had taken the Latin empire under his
+special protection, and had prayed the sovereigns and
+prelates of the West to exert themselves to the utmost in
+its behalf. He had felt himself bound to pass a stern
+condemnation on the deeds of horrible violence and
+lewdness committed by the crusaders in the sacking of a
+Christian city; but he could not withhold the admission
+that the history of the conquest was a memorable commentary
+on the parables of the talents and the vineyard.
+The Greeks had done nothing with the good things committed
+to their trust: far from aiding, they had seriously
+hindered, the warriors of the cross and even done their
+best to destroy them. They had kept up a causeless
+schism; they had turned a deaf ear to all entreaties which
+called upon them to come back to the unity of the Church;
+and they had now paid the penalty by seeing their inheritance
+in the hands of better husbandmen who would
+bring forth fruit in due season. But if Innocent was thus
+complaisant with the secular empire, he laid a heavy
+hand on the spiritual power which the Venetians hoped
+to secure as their special portion. The pope had a stern
+censure for the conduct both of the Venetians and the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>French in daring to seize on the temporalities of the
+Eastern church and to portion out along with other
+lands and property all that might remain over and above
+the amount deemed sufficient for the maintenance of the
+Latin clergy. Nor could he allow the validity of Morosini’s
+election, whether by a self-constituted chapter or
+by priests chosen by a purely secular authority. The
+election, in short, was null and void; but so great was
+his regard for the Venetians, so high his esteem for
+Morosini, that he would himself appoint to the Byzantine
+patriarchate the man whom they had chosen, and invest
+him with singular privileges. These privileges involved
+a reservation of certain appeals to the pope; and the
+very plenitude of the powers thus bestowed served only
+to show with the greater clearness the paramount sovereignty
+of the Roman pontiff to whom he owed his dignity
+and his jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Results of the crusades to the pope and to the Venetians.</div>
+
+<p>The great crusade promoted by Innocent had thus
+produced results very different from those which he had
+looked for. It had not touched the power of the Syrian
+sultans; it had not struck a blow on the soil of Palestine.
+But on the whole he had no cause to complain. It had
+widely extended the limits of his supremacy,
+and had subdued a spiritual rebellion which
+had rent asunder the seamless robe of Christ.
+But if the pope was a gainer, Venice had
+secured to herself advantages, more solid perhaps, certainly
+more enduring. By the conquest of Zara she had
+laid the foundations of her vast commercial empire; and
+her factories at Pera needed only the defence of her
+fleets, while the Latins in Byzantium had to guard themselves
+against attacks by land. She had her settlements
+in the richest islands of the Egean, and in every harbour
+was seen the flag of the maritime republic. This growth
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>of her commerce was, moreover, fostering in her a spirit
+of antagonism to ecclesiastical authority, of which Innocent
+seems to have foreseen the issue, and which he
+sought with all his power to crush. The abbot of St.
+Felix in Venice was consecrated, by the command of
+Ziani, the successor of Henry Dandolo, to the archbishopric
+of Zara, the sanction of the pope not being first
+asked. The wrath of Innocent blazed forth at once.
+He reviewed in the harshest terms the general policy of
+the Venetians in the conduct of the crusade. It was true
+that they had taken Zara, and even that they had overthrown
+the Byzantine empire: but what would not an army,
+which had won such victories, have achieved in the Holy
+Land? Had the crusaders fulfilled their vows, not only
+must Egypt have been subdued, and the cross replaced
+on the dome of Omar, but Syria itself must have been
+swept clear of all Saracen dominion. That this glorious
+result had not been brought about already, was the fault
+of the Venetians and of them alone. He could not
+therefore recognize their archbishop, and he insisted on
+their submission under pain of the censures which were
+ready to fall upon them. There is no evidence to show
+that the Venetians took the reproof to heart, or that they
+vouchsafed any reply.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE LATIN EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Contrast between the Greeks and the Latins.</div>
+
+<p>We have already (<a href="#Page_55">p. 55</a>) marked the broad contrast
+between the character of the Greeks and that of the
+Latin and Teutonic nations of Western
+Europe; between the centralized and legal
+government of the one and the feudalism of
+the other; between the restlessness and ambition which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>in the West ran out into constant private war, and the
+habit of almost unreflecting obedience which had left the
+subjects of the Eastern Cæsars unable to cope with
+rougher and ruder spirits except with the weapons supplied
+by cunning, fraud, and treachery. The crusaders had
+come to a people which to a large extent might be described
+as in a state of decrepitude, but to a land nevertheless
+which was not less Christian than Italy or France,
+nay, which boasted churches of an antiquity more venerable
+than those of Milan, Ravenna, and Rome itself,—to
+a land ruled by a system of law which has affected
+the legislation of every nation in Europe,—to a land
+where Antony and Basil had reared the fabric of monachism
+long before the days of the Nursian Benedict
+or the Scottish Columba,—to a land where the ritual of
+the Church had taken root while Christianity was in its
+cradle, and had moulded the life, the thoughts, the very
+being of all its members.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Attempt to upset the civilization of the old empire.</div>
+
+<p>This time-honoured civilization the Western champions
+of the cross now fancied that they could crush or sweep
+away. Not one of them cared to think that
+he was dealing with Christians or with the
+subjects of the ancient empire of Octavius or
+of Constantine. For them the land, not less than Syria
+and Egypt, was a part of heathendom; the people savages
+to be brought under a yoke as heavy as that of the
+Western serfs; their patriarchs, their bishops, their
+priests, and their monks were ministers of a false faith
+beyond the pale of charity or mercy. Wiser conquerors
+might have mingled with the people, and through intermarriage
+might have infused new vigour into the feeble
+mass. By Baldwin and his allies a rigid line was drawn
+separating the present from the past. All dignities,
+offices, and lands were forfeited; all were shared exclusively
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>among the conquerors. If they were still under an
+emperor, this emperor was not the autocrat who represented
+the majesty of Rome, but a mere feudal chief
+whose barons, although owing him homage, regarded
+themselves as practically his peers. In short, Baldwin
+and his comrades held that they might do at Constantinople
+what Godfrey and his allies had done in Palestine.
+The code of Justinian gave place to the Assize of Jerusalem
+(<a href="#Page_78">p. 78</a>), and not a single Greek was permitted to
+take part in the administration of this law.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Conduct of the pope towards the Greek clergy.</div>
+
+<p>As it was with the secular order of things, so was it
+with the spiritual. The pope annulled without scruple
+the election of Morosini by self-chosen or
+state-appointed canons: but he did so only
+because his own authority was imperilled, not
+at all because they were invading the jurisdiction of a
+patriarch whose throne was as ancient as that of Innocent
+himself. Just as though they had been mere priests
+of Baal or Mahomedan Imams, the Greek clergy were
+all driven from their churches (<a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>), and the people
+compelled to abandon their venerable liturgy for that of
+the Church of Rome. The emperor besought the pope
+to send out bands of priests as though for the conversion
+of a heathen country, and to furnish Dominican and
+Cistercian monks for the purposes of reforming the stereotyped
+monachism of the East. Innocent was indeed
+full of exultation. His letters everywhere called on the
+faithful to succour the devoted missionaries who were
+preaching the Gospel in the churches of Constantinople
+and bringing home to the people the enormity of the
+heresy which denied the procession of the Holy Spirit
+from the Son as well as from the Father. ‘Samaria,’ he
+said, ‘had now returned to Jerusalem; God had transferred
+the empire of the Greeks from the proud to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>lowly, from the superstitious to the religious, from the
+schismatics to the Catholics, from the disobedient to the
+devoted servants of God.’ He was impressed with the
+needfulness of sending young men from the schools of
+Paris to strengthen themselves by the learning of the
+East: Philip Augustus summoned young Greeks to Paris
+to receive instruction in the creed and ritual of the West.
+Both were playing with edged tools. The pope and the
+king were both encouraging that intercourse of thought
+which was in the end to scatter to the winds the theory
+of the divine right of temporal despots and the infallibility
+of spiritual rulers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Opposition of the French clergy to the new patriarch.</div>
+
+<p>The order of things so set up lasted a little longer than
+the Latin principality of Edessa (<a href="#Page_59">p. 59</a>). It was essentially
+the piece of new cloth patched into the
+old garment, the new wine poured into old
+leathern bottles only to burst them. In its
+relation to the conquered race it had no
+more stability than the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem (<a href="#Page_111">p.
+111</a>); and in itself gave play to all the jealousies and
+quarrels which disgraced the feudal states of Western
+Europe. The strife began before the landing of Morosini.
+While yet at Rome, he had been warned by the
+pope to have nothing to do with the schemes of Venetian
+statesmen, and to show no preference in his new home
+for men of Venetian birth. In Venice he was compelled
+to abjure this promise, to swear that Venetians alone
+should be canons of Sancta Sophia, and that, so far as
+his power might extend, he would strive to secure to a
+Venetian the succession to his patriarchate. Nothing
+more would be needed beyond the rumours of these intrigues
+to rouse the suspicions of the French clergy; and
+accordingly, when Morosini approached the shore, not
+one obeyed his summons. To the Greeks the sleek and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span>beardless prelate and his coarse-looking and beardless
+priests were alike repulsive. Morosini was left almost
+alone. He threatened with excommunication the clergy
+who would not admit his authority; his menaces were
+treated with indifference or contempt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Partition of the empire among the crusading chiefs.</div>
+
+<p>The conquerors had indeed won for themselves a domain
+almost appalling in its extent; and the sharing of
+the prize was soon followed by the quarrelling
+of robbers over their booty. Not three
+months after the fall of Constantinople the
+emperor led his forces against his vassal Boniface
+of Montferrat, now the lord of Thessalonica: and
+the quarrel which was for the time made up was a significant
+token of the future history of his empire. The time
+was come for carrying out the compact made before the
+conquest. The aged Dandolo became despot of Romania,
+and in his new sovereignty he died, leaving to his
+countrymen the task of strengthening and extending
+their commercial empire by means of a chain of factories
+along the mainland and in the islands of the Adriatic
+and the Archipelago. The task was too costly even
+for the resources of Venice: and the commercial republic
+was constrained to govern her possessions by that
+feudal system to which her constitution was utterly opposed.
+For Boniface, the chivalrous rival of Baldwin, the
+lordship of Crete had less attractions than the kingdom
+of the Macedonian Thessalonica: but his wanderings
+did not end here. Thebes, Athens, Argos, received his
+followers within their gates; and the resistance of Corinth
+and Napoli was speedily overpowered. The count
+of Blois received the dukedom of Nicæa (Nikaia, Nice),
+the count of St. Pol the lordship of Demetria, a city about
+twenty miles to the south of Adrianople, while Geoffrey
+of Villehardouin, now marshal of Romania as well as of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>Champagne, found a splendid home on the banks of the
+Hebros.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1204. Rise of new empires at Nice, Trebizond, and Durazzo.</div>
+
+<p>But the power of the old Byzantine Cæsars was rather
+divided than crushed by the Latin crusaders. The
+wretched Mourzoufle, caught by the Latins,
+was hurled from the Theodosian column;
+but Theodore Lascaris, the son-in-law of the
+Alexios who dethroned Isaac Angelus, established
+himself at Nicæa first as despot
+then as emperor, and in no long time had extended his
+power from the Bosporos to the banks of the Meander.
+Other parts of the empire were likewise in revolt against
+the new Cæsars. The governors of Trebizond, without
+changing their titles at first, became sovereigns of their
+province, and laid the foundations of their later empire.
+A power not less formidable sprung up in Epirus (Epeiros)
+and had its centre within the walls of that city of Durazzo
+which is especially associated with the history of
+Bohemond. The conquerors were now to feel the effects
+of feudal subordination, which was only another name
+for real anarchy. The terror which they had inspired
+when their combined forces assailed the walls of Constantinople
+was rapidly lessened when their dispersal
+betrayed their scanty powers of cohesion, and when encounters
+in the field proved to be not always irresistible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Massacre of the Latins in Thrace by order of the Bulgarian Calo-John.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1205. April. Captivity of the emperor Baldwin.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Baldwin.</div>
+
+<p>The storm burst on the Latins from a
+quarter in which they had not looked for it.
+The chief of the Bulgarians, John or Calo-John,
+had at first greeted Baldwin with the
+freedom of an equal as well as the heartiness
+of a friend; but the retort that in the count of
+Flanders he must recognize his emperor roused a resentment
+which led him to make common cause with the
+insurgent Greeks. Waiting until Baldwin’s brother
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>Henry had with a large force crossed the Hellespont,
+he gave the signal for slaughter, and the Latins were
+forthwith cut down in the towns and villages of Thrace.
+Baldwin at once sent a messenger to recall his brother;
+but before he could return, he set out with 140 knights
+and their retinues, followed by the aged Dandolo. The
+force was perilously small; but good order and discipline
+might have more than compensated this disadvantage.
+All desultory action was forbidden; the order
+was disregarded by the count of Blois who was himself
+surprised and slain, while the emperor
+Baldwin became a prisoner. The army was
+saved by the wisdom, fortitude, and heroism
+of Villehardouin, whose masterly retreat
+is perhaps the only piece of true generalship in the
+whole military history of the crusades. But the empire
+was already little more than the shadow of its former
+self. A few fortresses on the shore of the Propontis now
+formed with the capital the imperial domain of the
+Latins. Calo-John was in the full tide of success. The
+pope, for whom he had but a little while ago professed a
+deep devotion, entreated him to have mercy on his
+enemies and to release the emperor. This last request
+was, he said, beyond mortal power to grant.
+Baldwin had already died in prison. How,
+no one ever knew. Stories grew up which
+told of horrible barbarities practised on the defenceless
+captive; and the common belief that great men cannot
+die brought forward twenty years later in Flanders a man
+who gave himself out as the true sovereign of the country,
+and won from thousands a faith not to be shaken by the
+discovery of his imposture and the ignominious death
+which followed it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Henry, (brother of Baldwin,) emperor of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1205.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1207.</div>
+
+<p>The career of Alexander the Great and of Baldwin
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>was cut short at the same early age. The reign of Baldwin’s
+younger brother Henry was extended
+over ten years, and closed when he was
+forty-four years old. It began in darkness
+and gloom, it was followed by a time of
+overwhelming disasters: but in itself it is
+the only period in the history of the Latin empire on
+which our thoughts may rest with anything approaching
+to satisfaction. Twelve months had passed while he
+acted as regent for his brother before he could be brought
+to believe that Baldwin no longer lived, and to assume
+the imperial title. Dandolo had already ended his long
+life at Constantinople. Boniface of Montferrat
+was soon to follow him, after his disputes
+with the emperor on points of homage had been
+settled by the marriage of Henry to his
+daughter Agnes. Boniface died in a war
+with Calo-John; and with him his friend Geoffrey of
+Villehardouin disappears from history.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Assassination of Calo-John.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Wise government of the emperor Henry.</div>
+
+<p>But the tide was now to turn against the Bulgarian
+chief. The Greeks, who had looked to Calo-John as to
+one who would restore to them their freedom
+and their laws, found that they were dealing
+with a savage whose mind ran on massacre
+and on those wholesale deportations of conquered tribes
+which have in all ages delighted the hearts of Eastern
+despots. The cruelties of the tyrant taught them that in
+the Latin emperor they might perhaps find a friend.
+At their prayer for help Henry took the field with a dangerously
+scanty force; and the retreat of Calo-John was
+probably caused less through fear of the Latin army
+than by the desertion of his Comans. Not long afterwards
+the Bulgarian chief was killed in his tent, while
+besieging Thessalonica. With his successor Vorylas
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>Henry made an honourable peace; a treaty with the
+Greek sovereigns of Nice and Epirus (Epeiros) left to
+him undisturbed possession of an ample territory; and
+the rest of his life was spent in conscientious efforts for
+its just and orderly government. Clearly seeing the
+fatal folly of that exclusive system which
+was so dear to the hearts of crusaders generally,
+Henry resolved to govern Greeks
+through Greeks. The great offices of the state were
+thrown open to them, in great part filled by them. To
+the tyranny which repressed the use of the Eastern
+liturgy and thrust on the people a theological dogma he
+opposed a passive resistance: to the theory of papal supremacy
+he gave a significant answer by having his
+throne placed on the right hand of the patriarch’s chair
+in the church of Sancta Sophia. His presumption was
+rebuked by Innocent III.; but Henry was none the more
+deterred from prohibiting the alienation of fiefs which
+was adding only to the wealth and power of the clergy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1207. Death of Henry.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Peter of Courtenay emperor of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1218. Captivity and death of Peter of Courtenay.</div>
+
+<p>Henry died at Thessalonica; and with him the male
+line of the counts of Flanders came to an end. But the
+daughter of Henry’s sister Yolande was
+married to Andrew, king of Hungary; and
+to the Latins it seemed that the choice of a
+powerful sovereign as their emperor might be the salvation
+of their dynasty. The prize had no attractions for
+Andrew: and the offer of the crown was in a fatal hour
+accepted by Peter of Courtenay, count of
+Auxerre, the husband of Yolande herself,
+who had won his spurs in a crusade, not
+against Turks and Saracens, but against the
+Albigensian heretics of Provence. To raise a decent force
+which might guard him on the march to his capital
+Peter was compelled to sell or mortgage the best part of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>his territories; and when he reached Rome, the pope,
+Honorius III., careful to avoid anything which might
+seem to recognize his authority over the old imperial
+city, crowned him in a church without the walls. The
+means of transport across the sea he had been obliged
+to seek from the Venetians. They were granted, but
+under conditions similar to those which had been imposed
+on Baldwin and his allies. He must recover
+Durazzo for the republic, as for her they had conquered
+Zara. His success was not greater than
+that of Bohemond, and his miserable march
+from Durazzo led him into trackless mountains,
+amongst which he fell into the hands of
+his enemies. With him the papal legate became a captive.</p>
+
+<p>At once the pope threatened to place the Epirot sovereign
+under his ban; but it soon became evident that his
+anxiety was for the legate, not for the emperor. The
+former was released; the latter was probably murdered
+in prison; and the successor of Henry died without seeing
+the city of which he was the Cæsar.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Robert, emperor of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1219.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1224.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1228.</div>
+
+<p>While Peter of Courtenay pined in his dungeon, his
+wife Yolande, in the midst of her grief, anxiety, and apprehension,
+gave birth to Baldwin, the luckless child with
+whom the Latin dynasty was to reach its close. Death
+soon brought relief from her sorrows; and the barons had
+again before them the task of choosing an emperor.
+Namur, the inheritance of Yolande, had passed to her
+eldest son Philip, who was too prudent to change the substance
+of his principality for the shadow of
+an empire. The crown was offered to her
+second son Robert, who set out on his journey,
+by way of Germany and the Danube, through the
+territories of his brother-in-law, the king of
+Hungary. He was crowned by the patriarch
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>in Justinian’s church; but the pageant preceded an
+endless line of disasters. Demetrius, the son and successor
+of the marquis Boniface, was expelled from his
+kingdom of Thessalonica: and the remains of Asiatic
+territory still in the hands of the Latins were
+seized by the Nicæan emperor, John Vataces,
+the son-in-law of Theodore Lascaris. Still more ominous
+was the fact that these conquests were achieved by
+the aid of French mercenaries. The house was indeed
+divided against itself; and the champions of the cross
+had learnt the art of turning their arms to profit in the
+service of the highest bidder or the most successful
+general. To disaster in the field was added vice, with its
+issue crime, in the palace: and Robert, in an agony of
+grief and rage at the mutilation of a woman for whom he
+had wished to thrust aside his wife, the daughter of
+Vataces, sought comfort and redress at the feet of the
+Roman pontiff. He was told to go back to his capital
+and there do his duty. The weight of his
+humiliation was a burden beyond his
+strength. Death relieved him from the duty of obedience
+to the papal order.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">John of Brienne, emperor of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1235. Siege of Constantinople by Vataces.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1237-1261. Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Efforts to raise money.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Sale of relics.</div>
+
+<p>Baldwin, the youngest son of Yolande, was a child only
+seven years old when Robert died; and the barons of
+the Latin empire felt that the imperial power,
+shadowy though it had become, could not
+yet be entrusted to his hands. They resolved
+to offer it in the mean season to John of Brienne,
+titular king of Jerusalem, by right of his wife Mary,
+daughter of Isabella (<a href="#Page_144">p. 144</a>) and Conrad of Montferrat,
+and grand-daughter of king Almeric. This veteran
+warrior, now more than eighty years of age, whom in his
+earlier years we shall meet in the crusade of Frederick
+II., was induced to accept the title of emperor on condition
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>that Baldwin should marry his second daughter and
+succeed him on the throne. But his energy was impaired,
+whether by age or by desire for rest. He did not
+reach Constantinople till 1231, two years after his election:
+and the Greek traditions are silent
+about the exploits which he is said by the
+Latins to have performed during a siege of
+the city by the forces of Vataces and the Bulgarian chief
+Azan. On his death began the ignominious reign of the
+second Baldwin, a reign of twenty-five years, most of
+which were spent in foreign lands for the
+purpose of exciting pity for his sorrows and
+raising alms to relieve his needs. His success
+was not equal to his importunities. If
+at the council of Lyons which excommunicated Frederick
+II. he was placed on the right hand of the pope, at
+Dover he was asked how he could presume without
+leave to enter an independent territory. In England he
+received 700 marks: at Rome the pontiff
+loaded him with indulgences and proclaimed
+a crusade in his favour. The sainted Louis of France
+was moved to tears of sympathy by the story of his
+wrongs: but his arms were directed to Egypt, not to Constantinople.
+Still, by alienating his marquisate of Namur
+and his lordship of Courtenay, he contrived to return to
+the East with an army of 30,000 men. But the next scene
+of his history exhibits him as the ally of the sultan of
+Iconium, on whom he bestowed his niece, and of the
+Comans, in whose pagan rites he did not hesitate to take
+part. His needs became more pressing, and he bethought
+him of the sacred relics which still remained
+in the churches of Constantinople. Of these
+the most precious was the crown of thorns which had
+circled the brow of the Redeemer, and for which he received
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>from Louis IX. 10,000 marks of silver. At smaller
+prices he disposed of the baby linen used by the Virgin
+Mary in the cave of Bethlehem, the lance and sponge used
+in the Passion on Calvary, and the rod of Moses, all of
+which, with some others, were transferred to the exquisite
+chapel in Paris which still attests the munificence
+and perfect taste of the sainted king of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1255. Death of Vataces.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1259. The envoys of Baldwin repelled by Michael Paleologos.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1261. July. Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks.</div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the power of Vataces was being extended
+on every side: and only his submission to the Roman
+doctrine respecting the procession of the
+Holy Spirit was needed to secure a papal
+declaration in his favour. That submission
+was not made; and his death brought a respite to the
+Latin emperor. But when Baldwin sent his envoys to
+see what territorial concessions could be obtained from
+Michael Paleologos, the colleague and guardian of John,
+the grandson of Vataces, they were curtly
+told that he would yield them not a foot of
+land. By the payment of an annual tribute
+amounting to the whole sum received
+from the customs and excise of Constantinople
+the Latin Cæsar might secure peace: if he refused
+these terms, he must prepare for war. The great quarrel
+was soon decided. Michael had bestowed the title of
+Cæsar on his general Alexios Strategopoulos; and by
+his orders this general went to keep close watch on the
+capital, under the pledge that he would run no dangerous
+risks. He failed to keep his promise, and when with
+a scanty band of followers he clambered over the unguarded
+walls, he began to tremble at his own rashness.
+But his volunteers (for so they were termed) would listen
+to no arguments for retreat. The die was cast, and the
+result was victory. The Greeks rose on all hands at the
+cry which called them to the rescue of their ancient empire;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>the Genoese were not unwilling to take revenge
+upon their Venetian enemies; and the Latin emperor
+with his chief vassals, embarking on board
+the Venetian fleet, sailed first to Euboia and
+thence to Italy. The capital of the Eastern
+empire was freed from the presence and the
+yoke of its Western conquerors; but for thirteen years
+longer Baldwin bore about with him an empty title which
+won for him the commiseration or the contempt of thousands
+who could not be brought to stir hand or foot in
+his service. His pretensions were maintained by his son
+Philip, and through his grand-daughter Catharine passed
+to her husband Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the
+Fair of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Permanent alienation of the East from the West.</div>
+
+<p>Next after, perhaps even before, the deliverance of the
+Holy Land and the restoration of the Latin kingdom of
+Jerusalem, the wish dearest to the heart of
+Innocent III. was the recovery of the Greek
+communion to the unity of the Church. He
+was also statesman enough to see that his
+wishes would best be realized by a closer union between
+the subjects of the Eastern and the Western empires.
+The death-blow to these hopes and yearnings was dealt by
+his own crusade. In itself, and in the events which followed
+it, not a single thing was lacking which could exaggerate
+suspicion into vehement jealousy, and intensify
+dislike into burning hatred. There was the merciless intolerance
+which regarded Christian patriarchs with their
+clergy and their laity as heathens because they questioned
+the supremacy of the pope and refused to add one
+word to one proposition in the Nicene creed. There was
+the cruelty which intruded strangers into the places of
+those who had taught and ministered to the people, and
+which suppressed a ritual hallowed by the associations
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>of ages. There was the gross injustice which thrust
+Greeks out of every high, or responsible, or lucrative office,
+and which imposed on them a system of law utterly
+alien to their wishes, thoughts, and habits. There was
+the savage fury which had made the streets of the capital
+run with blood, and defiled its sanctuaries with blasphemy
+and massacre. Last, but perhaps not least, was
+the brutality which had shattered or committed to the
+flames all that was beautiful in art, costly in materials,
+exquisite in workmanship, precious from its rarity or the
+absolute impossibility of restoring it. The tombs of the
+emperors were burst open and rifled: the masterpieces
+of ancient sculptors were thrown down and shattered.
+In the Venetians alone the impulse to destroy was weaker
+than the temptation to theft, and the horses of Lysippos,
+borne across the sea to Venice, still stand above the
+gorgeous portals of the basilica of St. Mark. The Greeks
+were left with a bitter hatred of the laws, the customs,
+the government of Latin Christendom; and an impassable
+gulf remained yawning between the churches of the East
+and the West, which no efforts have thus far been able
+to close or to bridge over.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SIXTH CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Chief features of the sixth crusade.</div>
+
+<p>The infatuation by which in every instance the champions
+of the cross had nullified or thrown away the advantages
+gained by their victories was to be shown
+not less persistently in the sixth crusade.
+But the short-sighted obstinacy of the mass
+was to be brought out in more prominent relief by its
+contrast with the moderation and sagacity of the great
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>sovereign whose name is especially associated with this
+enterprise. In the career of this remarkable man we
+have a picture in which we see running together or side
+by side the lines which belong to the old order of things
+with others which seem to belong exclusively to the
+modern civilization of Europe. The struggle between
+Frederick II. and Gregory II. anticipated in more than
+one of its features the struggle between Leo X. and Luther.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Depression of the Latins in Palestine.</div>
+
+<p>The famine which Dandolo urged on the leaders of
+the fifth crusade (<a href="#Page_153">p. 153</a>) as a reason for delaying their
+voyage to Palestine till the spring which followed
+the conquest of Zara, pressed less
+heavily on the Latin Christians in the Holy
+Land than the destruction wrought by an earthquake
+which laid many cities in ruins and which was regarded
+as a presage of the last judgment. In spite of this belief
+much money and labour was spent in repairing the
+shattered walls of Acre; and amongst the captives impressed
+for the work was, it is said, the Persian poet
+Saadi.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1204. Truce between Saphadin and the Christians.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1206.</div>
+
+<p>Both sides in fact were greatly weakened and depressed:
+and the tidings that Constantinople was in the
+hands of Boniface, Dandolo, and Baldwin
+carried with them for Saphadin a conclusive
+reason for concluding a peace of six years
+with the Christians. But before the six
+years had come to an end the death of Almeric and his
+wife had left to Mary, the daughter of Isabella
+and Conrad of Tyre, the titular sovereignty
+of Jerusalem. Unable to find on the spot a man
+of sufficient energy and ability to share with her the
+shadowy dignity, the barons invoked the aid of the
+French king, Philip Augustus, to find her a husband. His
+choice fell on John of Brienne, who promised to lead a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>powerful army to Palestine within two years. The prospect
+of this formidable increase to the strength of his
+enemies led Saphadin to propose a renewal of the peace,
+and to give as guarantees of his good faith any ten
+castles which they might choose to name. As we might
+expect, the approval of the Teutonic knights and the
+Hospitallers called forth the angry protests of the Templars
+and the clergy: and the decision was given for war.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1210. John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>Three hundred knights only accompanied John of
+Brienne when he set out for Palestine. In England the
+wretched John was defying the pope while the kingdom
+for his sake lay under the papal interdict; the French
+king was more anxious to turn that interdict to his own
+advantage than to face once more the perils of a distant
+enterprise; and for the time even Innocent III. felt that
+the chastisement of Christian heretics was a
+more pressing duty than the deliverance of
+the Holy Sepulchre. Hence the marriage
+of John of Brienne to Mary, and their coronation
+as king and queen of Jerusalem, were soon followed
+by the sterner business of war. In his encounters
+with Saphadin his exploits may have equalled those of
+Tancred; but he was compelled to write and tell the
+pope that the Latin kingdom was attenuated to the
+shadow of a shade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Zeal of Innocent III. in promoting a new crusade.</div>
+
+<p>His entreaties roused in the pope the old crusading
+spirit. Innocent revoked the indulgences which had
+made the crusade against the Albigenses as
+attractive as the crusade against the Saracens;
+and in his encyclical letter he declared
+that the Moslem power was tottering
+and ready to vanish away. It had lasted 666 years, the
+mystic number which showed it to be the Beast of the
+Apocalypse. A little while ago he had written to the sultan
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>of Aleppo to thank him for his moderation to the
+Christians and his respect for their religion. He now demanded
+of Saphadin the peaceable and immediate surrender
+of all Palestine, as a country from which he was
+deriving far more of annoyance than of profit.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Robert of Courcon.</div>
+
+<p>The crusade which Innocent now wished to set in motion
+was preached in France by Robert of
+Courcon, an Englishman whom he had
+made his legate. This pupil of Fulk of
+Neuilly had inherited all his earnestness with some portion
+of his eloquence; nor, if the numbers whom he
+enrolled as pilgrims be taken as a test, was his success
+much less splendid. But in truth the barons and knights
+who engaged in these expeditions were getting tired of
+the zeal which invited the maimed, the halt, the blind,
+and the leper to take the kingdom of heaven by violence;
+and the same charge which had been heard in
+the days of Fulk was now urged with greater force
+against his disciple. Robert was convicted of diverting
+to other purposes money given solely for the recovery
+of the Holy Land; but he had a firm friend in Innocent
+who, in 1218, appointed him the colleague of Pelagius,
+bishop of Albano, in his legatine commission.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1215. Fourth council of Lateran.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1216.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Crusade of Andrew, king of Hungary.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1217.</div>
+
+<p>A few months sufficed after the council of Clermont
+to get together and send forth the armies of the first crusade:
+for these latter enterprises the time of preparation
+was extending to years. In his sermons
+preached before the fourth council of Lateran
+Innocent declared his intention of
+accompanying the champions of the cross to the scene
+of their exploits; and the troubadours in their songs extolled
+him as their firm and courageous guide. But
+another year had passed before the king of
+a people who had done what they could to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>bar the way of the first crusaders was prepared to set
+forth on his eastward journey. The ships
+of Venice conveyed Andrew, king of Hungary,
+first to Cyprus, and thence to Palestine,
+where an unsuccessful attack on a tower or castle
+on Mount Thabor seems to have disgusted him with the
+undertaking. He determined to return to
+Hungary, and he reached home with
+scant glory, but rich in relics gathered in Armenia and
+Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1218. Siege of Damietta.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of Saphadin.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Terms of peace offered by Coradin.</div>
+
+<p>In the following year another force, which had been
+brought together at Cologne and on its way had done
+some work in Portugal by taking Alcazar from the
+Moors, joined the Templars and Teutonic knights who
+had fortified a post on mount Carmel. These warriors
+now inclined to the policy of Almeric I. which had aimed
+at attacking and recovering Palestine through
+Egypt. The siege of Damietta was begun;
+the castle was soon taken; and the Christians
+were still further aided by the disorders which in
+Egypt followed the death of Saphadin, and
+which drove his son, the Egyptian sultan
+Kameel, to take refuge in Arabia. In the crusaders’
+camp success, as usual, produced arrogance and sloth.
+Their strength was increased by the arrival of new bands
+from France under the counts of Nevers and la Marche,
+from England under William Longsword, earl of Salisbury,
+and from Italy under the bishop of Albano and
+Robert of Courcon. The latter landed only to be cut
+off by sickness; and while the other chiefs lay idle,
+Kameel was brought back to his throne by his brother
+the Syrian sultan Coradin. At length the siege was
+resumed with some vigour and good fortune: and Coradin,
+knowing the consequences which the fall of Damietta
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>would bring with it, dismantled the walls of Jerusalem
+and then offered peace to the
+besiegers, pledging himself to rebuild the
+walls which he had just thrown down, and
+to surrender not only the piece of the true cross but the
+whole of Palestine, with the exceptions of the castles of
+Karac and Montreal for the purpose of protecting the
+pilgrims for Mecca.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Mad rejection of the terms by the crusaders.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">1219. Nov. 5. Fall of Damietta.</div>
+
+<p>All that the crusaders could even hope to
+accomplish was thus within their grasp.
+But the eagerness of king John of Brienne,
+with the Teutonic knights and the French, to seize the
+prize was for the Templars and Hospitallers,
+with the Italians and the papal legate,
+a sufficient reason for rejecting the proffers
+of the sultan with indignant contempt. Folly carried
+the day. Damietta was taken, and the Christians
+hurried in to plunder and to slay. The pillage was
+abundant enough; but in the work of slaughter pestilence
+had been beforehand with them. Three thousand
+only remained, it is said, of the 70,000 who were shut up
+in the city at the beginning of the siege, and to these
+plague-stricken wretches life was promised on condition
+that they should clear the streets and houses of the dead
+bodies of their kinsfolk.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1220. March of the Christians for Cairo.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The old terms again rejected.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ruin of the crusaders.</div>
+
+<p>The crusades had everything once more in their
+hands; but the winter was allowed to pass by without
+further action. When spring came round
+the legate, in opposition to the remonstrance
+of John of Brienne, insisted on attempting
+the conquest of Egypt. On their march to Cairo they
+received from the Sultan Kameel the same
+offers which they had rejected during the
+siege of Damietta; and they rejected them
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>again. But the Nile was fast rising. The Egyptians
+opened the sluices; the camp of the crusaders was
+inundated; their tents and baggage swept
+away. It was now the turn of the legate to
+sue for peace, and he offered to surrender Damietta. In
+the Saracen camp it was no easy task for the Sultan
+Kameel to repress the stern indignation with which many
+of the chiefs demanded the utter destruction of the enemy.
+He urged the vast importance of doing nothing which
+should excite fresh crusades in Europe, while Syria was
+menaced and ravaged by Tartar invasions, and of recovering
+Damietta without a blow from a garrison strong
+enough to sustain a siege as long as that which had come
+to an end a few months ago.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1212.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The popes and the emperors.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1200.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Otho of Brunswick.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1214. Battle of Bouvines.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1216. Honorius III. pope.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1220.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Nov. 22.</div>
+
+<p>The triumph of the Egyptian sultan seemed to be
+complete; but he had now to encounter an
+enemy of a very different temper. At the
+age of eighteen Frederick, the son of the infamous
+Henry VI. and grandson of Frederick Barbarossa,
+had been summoned by the pope to assume the imperial
+crown which Otho of Brunswick, the son of
+Henry the Lion, was pronounced to have
+forfeited by his misdeeds. It was the old story. The
+strife between pope and anti-pope was but a reflection of
+the almost fiercer strife of rival emperors; and in this
+struggle the pope naturally inclined to that
+side from which the church was likely to
+reap the most advantage. Otho, the nephew
+of Richard Cœur de Lion, came of a house which had
+been generally loyal and faithful to the Roman pontiffs;
+his rival belonged to the Swabian house of Hohenstaufen,
+at whose hands the popes had experienced more of
+enmity than of friendship. The remembrance of the
+days of Frederick Barbarossa was vivid in the mind of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>Innocent III., to whom the two emperors
+appealed after their coronation. The deliberation
+was grave and long; but the issue was not doubtful.
+Otho’s rival Philip was ‘an obstinate persecutor of
+the Church’, and he was even then scheming to deprive
+the pontiff of his kingdom of Sicily. He must be put
+down before he could reach his full strength; and therefore
+the pope declared himself for Otho, himself devoted
+to the Church, by his mother’s side from the royal house
+of England, by his father from the duke of Saxony, all
+loyal sons of the Church. ‘Him, therefore, we proclaim
+king; him we summon to take on himself the imperial
+crown.’ Innocent, like the frogs in the fable, was only
+exchanging king Log for king Stork. The
+reign of Otho was a period of desperate
+strife and anarchy in Germany, of desperate
+struggles on his part to throw off the papal yoke.
+The pope turned his eye on the youthful Frederick, then
+basking in the sunshine of his Sicilian paradise and giving
+promise of the brilliant qualities of his nature which
+were afterwards to be sullied by darker lines of angry
+passion. In 1212 Frederick was chosen emperor at Frankfort.
+In 1214 his victory at Bouvines shattered
+the power of Otho. The gratitude of
+Frederick for the favour of the pope had
+been shown by taking the crusader’s vow and pledging
+himself to lead an army for the recovery of the Holy
+Land. While his rival Otho lived, it was impossible for
+him to fulfil his promise. Two years before his death
+Innocent III. had passed away from the scene of proud
+dominion and unceasing toil, and the more
+moderate and kindly Honorius III. sat in
+his seat. In courteous language which
+might pass for that of friendship, the pope besought him
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>to march to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre; but the
+dark shadows were already stealing across the clear sky.
+Without asking the sanction of the pope Frederick by a
+compact made with his vassals and prelates at the Diet
+of Frankfort procured the election of his son
+Henry to the crown of Germany. Honorius
+expressed his displeasure at a step which seemed designed
+to unite permanently the Sicilian kingdom with
+the empire. Frederick hastened to say that he had no
+such wish, and that Sicily should revert to the pope if he
+should die without lawful heirs. When, a
+little while later, he was crowned with his
+queen by the pope in the church of St. Peter’s, Frederick
+promised that part of his army should be ready for
+the crusade in March of the following year, while he
+himself would follow in August with the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1221. Loss of Damietta.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1222. April.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treaty of Ferentino.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1225. July. Treaty of San Germano.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick, king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>But Frederick had enough, and more than enough, to
+do in dealing with the turbulent barons of Apulia and in
+guarding against Saracen insurrection in
+Sicily. A fleet of forty ships was sent to no
+purpose: and the tidings of the loss of
+Damietta were construed as an expression of divine displeasure
+for his slackness. It was clear that only a vast
+army under a skilful general could turn the scale in favour
+of the Latin Christians of Palestine: but nothing was
+said of the besotted folly which had more than once flung
+aside all the advantages which could possibly be gained
+by the most successful crusade. Such an army could not,
+however, be got together in a month or in a year. The
+decision was postponed from a meeting at
+Veroli to a meeting at Verona which never
+took place. When next the pope and emperor met at
+Ferentino (March 1223), it was agreed that
+two years more should be spent in preparations,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>and that Frederick, now a widower, should marry
+Iolante, the daughter of the titular king of Jerusalem, and
+thus as his heir go forth to the maintenance of his own
+rights. King John of Brienne, who was present at the
+debate, started at once on a mission in which he hoped to
+achieve a success not unlike that of the hermit Peter, of
+Bernard, or Fulk of Neuilly. But the times were changed,
+and king John could only report to the pope the impossibility
+of moving at the time named in the treaty of Ferentino.
+A new agreement was made at San
+Germano, postponing the departure of the
+army for two years longer. Four months
+later Frederick married Iolante, and proceeded at once
+to deprive his father-in-law of his shadowy royalty. John
+of Brienne, he insisted, was king only by right of his
+wife: by her death the title had passed to his daughter,
+and to him as her husband, and he, Frederick,
+was thus king of Naples, Sicily, and
+Jerusalem. John was furious, but he could
+revenge himself only by accusations, whether true or
+false, of gross and habitual profligacy on the part of the
+young emperor.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1227. Gregory IX. pope.</div>
+
+<p>‘Never did pope love emperor as he loved his son
+Frederick.’ Such were the words of Honorius when he
+parted from him after his coronation at Rome. Before
+the close of his pontificate in 1227 the gentle pontiff had
+to address not a few stern remonstrances to his loving
+son. The real struggle was reserved for the papacy of
+the cardinal Ugolino, a kinsman of Innocent
+III., who assumed the triple crown at
+the age of eighty years. To an eloquence
+unrivalled in his own day, to a profound knowledge of
+the canon law and the decretals, Gregory IX. united the
+monastic severity of Gregory the Great and the inexorable
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span>will of Gregory VII. The sovereign with whom he
+had to deal was still a young man of only thirty-three, a
+young man with whose wishes and dreams, with whose
+tastes and accomplishments, Gregory had nothing whatever
+in common. Frederick had been born and bred in
+Sicily; and in the voluptuous splendours of that beautiful
+island, in the luxury of its sunshine, in the gorgeous
+profusion and glory of its vegetation, his youth passed
+in a passion of delight, fed by the charms of music,
+poetry, painting, and a rich literature which laid at his
+feet the treasures of ancient knowledge. From the lays
+of the troubadour and the company of noble knights
+and fair women, Frederick could turn to men learned
+in the lore of the East and in the philosophy of Alexandria
+and Athens. His life was far from faultless. With
+more truth it may be described as one of license which
+cast to the winds, at least for himself, the moral code of
+priests and monks, but a license to which all grossness
+and coarse rioting, all unrefined and boorish vices, were
+altogether abhorrent. Here in his southern paradise
+Frederick could say, with a freedom horrifying to the
+sacerdotal spirit of the age, that if God had seen his
+beautiful home he would never have chosen the barren
+land of Judæa for the abode of his own people. Here
+too he was subjected to influences which were likely to
+cultivate a temper far more disliked and dreaded by
+popes and their followers than irreverence or even blasphemous
+profanity. Around him were gathered populations
+brought from many lands, all softened by the
+genial and delicious climate. The Norman had here laid
+aside some of his northern roughness, and become an
+apt disciple of the gay science in which Frederick had
+won a foremost place. Even the Germans were toned
+down to something like decency of demeanour and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>language: and in contrast to these were numbers of
+Jews, who surpassed the Christians as much in refinement
+and learning as in their wealth, and of Saracens
+not less polished, not less cultivated, who delighted to
+call themselves subjects of Frederick and to submit
+themselves peaceably to his rule. Frederick was, in
+short, learning the dangerous lessons of toleration, and
+his eyes were being gradually opened to the perilous
+views which have become the orthodox creed of modern
+statesmen. As a ruler, he could survey without dislike
+the mingling of different religions, and see that an empire
+surpassing the wildest dreams of feudal grandeur
+could be achieved by the extension and freedom of a
+commerce spread over all portions of the earth. As a
+man of learning he could promote the cultivation of a
+philosophy which, whatever might be its merit, could
+not fail to set the mind working and accustom it to regard
+all questions as matters to be settled by reason and
+evidence, not by authority. A picture more repulsive to
+the mind of a man like Gregory IX. cannot well be imagined.
+The light-hearted enjoyment and the liberal
+government of the one were hopelessly opposed to the
+monastic gloom and ingrained despotism of the other.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1227. Excommunication of the emperor.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1228.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Departure of Frederick from Brundusium.</div>
+
+<p>Frederick may have been slow in fulfilling his promise:
+there is no evidence that he ever deliberately intended
+to break it. But he had no intention of wading through
+a sea of blood if he could obtain his ends without striking
+a blow. He had already had some friendly intercourse
+with the Egyptian sultan: and from these relations
+he was hereafter to reap good fruit. For the present
+they served only to excite the anger
+of Gregory, whose patience was exhausted
+when at length Frederick gathered his
+forces at Brundusium (Brindisi) only to see
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>them decimated by fever, and when he himself, having
+set out with his fleet, was compelled to return after
+three days to the harbour of Otranto. On St. Michael’s
+day the pope excommunicated Frederick with bell, book,
+and candle. In his discourse to the Apulian bishops,
+the subjects of Frederick, he spoke of the tender care
+with which the Church had nursed him in his infancy
+and childhood in order that he might fight the serpents
+and basilisks whom she had unwittingly fostered in her
+bosom. She had borne him on her shoulders; she had
+rescued him from those who would have slain him; she
+had hoped to find in him a protecting staff and support.
+These hopes had been cheated. Frederick had purposely
+exposed his army at Brundusium to pestilence,
+and after pretending to set off on his voyage for Palestine
+had returned under a false plea of illness to the
+luxuries of the baths of Puteoli. On St. Martin’s day
+and again on Christmas day the excommunication was
+repeated with all its appalling ceremonies. The sentence
+was by the pope’s orders to lie published in all churches
+of his obedience. By one of the clergy of Paris, who
+professed to know merely the fact of the quarrel and
+nothing of the merits of the case, it was published as a
+sentence of condemnation against the one who might be
+in the wrong. ‘I excommunicate the aggressor, and I
+absolve the sufferer.’ Frederick appealed not to the pope,
+but to the sovereigns of Christendom. His illness had
+been real, the accusations of the pope wanton and cruel.
+‘The Christian charity which should hold all things together
+is dried up at its source, in its stem, not in its
+branches. What had the pope done in England but stir
+up the barons against John, and then abandon them to
+death or ruin? The whole world paid tribute to his
+avarice. His legates were everywhere, gathering where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>they had not sown, and reaping where they had not
+strawed.’ But although he thus dealt in language as
+furious as that of the pope, the thought of breaking
+definitely with him and of casting aside his crusading
+vow as a worthless mockery never seems to have entered
+his mind. He undertook to bring his armies together
+again with all speed, and to set off on his expedition.
+His promise only brought him into fresh trouble
+with the pope, who in the Holy Week next
+following laid under interdict every place in
+which Frederick might happen to be. If this censure
+should be treated with contempt, his subjects
+were at once absolved from their allegiance.
+The emperor went on steadily
+with his preparations, and then went to Brundusium.
+He was met by papal messengers who strictly forbade
+him to leave Italy until he had offered satisfaction for
+his offences against the Church. In his turn Frederick,
+having sailed to Otranto, sent his own envoys to the
+pope to demand the removal of the interdict; and these,
+of course, were dismissed with contempt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Landing of Frederick at Ptolemais.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1229. Feb. 13. Treaty between Frederick and the sultan Kameel.</div>
+
+<p>In September the emperor landed at Ptolemais; but
+the emissaries of the pope had preceded him, and he
+found himself under the ban of the clergy
+and shunned by their partisans. The patriarch
+and the masters of the military
+orders were to see that none served under his polluted
+banners. The charge was given to willing servants:
+but Frederick found friends in the Teutonic knights
+under their grand-master Herman of Salza, as well as
+with the body of pilgrims generally. He determined to
+possess himself of Joppa, and summoned all the crusaders
+to his aid. The Templars refused to stir, if any orders
+were to be issued in his name; and Frederick agreed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>that they should run in the name of God and Christendom.
+But while the enemy was aided greatly by the
+divisions among the Christians, the death of the Damascene
+sultan Moadhin was of little use to Frederick. The
+Egyptian sultan Kameel was now in a position of
+greater independence, and his eagerness for an alliance
+with the emperor had rapidly cooled down. Frederick
+on his side still resolved to try the effect of negotiation.
+His demands extended at first, it is said, to
+the complete restoration of the Latin kingdom,
+and ended, if we are to believe Arabian
+chroniclers, in almost abject supplications.
+At length the treaty was signed. It
+surrendered to the emperor the whole of Jerusalem except
+the Temple or mosque of Omar, the keys of which
+were to be retained by the Saracens; but Christians
+under certain conditions might be allowed to enter it for
+the purpose of prayer. It further restored to the Christians
+the towns of Jaffa, Bethlehem, and Nazareth.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Frederick at Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<p>To Frederick the conclusion of this treaty was a reason
+for legitimate satisfaction. It enabled him to hasten
+back to his own dominions, where a papal
+army was ravaging Apulia and threatening
+Sicily. One task only remained for him in the East.
+He must pay his vows at the Holy Sepulchre. But here
+also the hand of the pope lay heavy upon him. Not
+merely Jerusalem but the Sepulchre itself passed under
+the interdict as he entered the gates of the city, and the
+infidel Moslem saw the churches closed and all worship
+suspended at the approach of the Christian emperor.
+On Sunday, in his imperial robes, and attended by a
+magnificent retinue, Frederick went to his coronation as
+king of Jerusalem in the church of the Sepulchre. Not
+a single ecclesiastic was there to take part in the ceremony.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>The archbishops of Capua and Palermo stood
+aloof, while Frederick, taking the crown from the high
+altar, placed it on his head. By his orders his friend
+Herman of Salza read an address in which the emperor
+acquitted the pope for his hard judgment of him and
+for his excommunication, and added that a real knowledge
+of the facts would have led him to speak not
+against him, but in his favour. He confessed his desire
+to put to shame the false friends of Christ, his accusers
+and slanderers, by the restoration of peace and unity,
+and to humble himself before God and before his Vicar
+upon earth.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Moderation of the emperor.</div>
+
+<p>From the Saracens he won golden opinions. The
+kadi silenced a muezzin who had to proclaim the hour of
+prayer from a minaret near the house in
+which the emperor lodged, because he
+added to his call the question, ‘How is it
+possible that God had for his son Jesus the son of Mary?’
+Frederick marked the silence of the crier when the hour
+of prayer came round. On learning the cause he rebuked
+the kadi for neglecting on his account his duty
+and his religion, and warned him that if he should visit
+him in his kingdom he would find no such ill-judged
+deference. He showed no dissatisfaction, it is said,
+with the inscription which declared that Saladin had
+purified the city from those who worshipped many gods,
+or any displeasure when the Mahomedans in his train
+fell on their knees at the times for prayer. His thoughts
+about the Christians were shown, it was supposed, when,
+seeing the windows of the Holy Chapel barred to keep
+out the birds which might defile it, he asked, ‘You
+may keep out the birds; but how will you keep out the
+swine?’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Condemnation of the treaty by Gregory IX.</div>
+
+<p>In glowing terms Frederick wrote to the sovereigns of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>Europe, announcing the splendid success which he had
+achieved rather by the pen than by the sword. He
+scarcely knew what a rock of offence he
+had raised up amongst Christian and Moslem
+alike. By a few words on a sheet
+of parchment the Christian emperor had deprived his
+people of the hope of getting their sins forgiven by murdering
+unbelievers: by the same words the Moslem sultan
+had prevented his subjects from ensuring an entrance
+to the delights of paradise by the slaughter of the
+Nazarenes. From Gerold, patriarch of Jerusalem, a
+letter went to the pope, full of virulent abuse of the emperor
+as a traitor, an apostate, and a robber; but even
+before he received this letter Gregory had condemned
+what he chose to consider as a monstrous attempt to reconcile
+Christ and Belial, and to set up Mahomed as an
+object of worship in the temple of God. ‘The antagonist
+of the cross,’ he wrote, ‘the enemy of the faith and
+of all chastity, the wretch doomed to hell, is lifted up
+for adoration, by a perverse judgment, and by an intolerable
+insult to the Saviour, to the lasting disgrace of the
+Christian name and the contempt of all the martyrs who
+have laid down their lives to purify the Holy Land from
+the defilements of the Saracens.’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Return of the emperor with the crusaders to Europe.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Renewed excommunication of the emperor.</div>
+
+<p>But Frederick in his turn could be firm and unyielding.
+He returned from Jerusalem to Joppa, from Joppa to Ptolemais;
+and there learning that a proposal
+had been made to establish a new order of
+knights, he declared that no one should
+without his consent levy soldiers within his dominion.
+Summoning all the Christians within the city to the
+broad plain without the gates, he spoke his mind freely
+about the conduct of the patriarch and the Templars, with
+all who aided and abetted them, and insisted that all the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>pilgrims, having now paid their vows, should return at
+once to Europe. On this point he was inexorable. His
+archers took possession of the churches; two friars who
+denounced him from the pulpit were scourged through
+the streets; the patriarch was shut up in his palace; and
+the commands of the emperor were carried out. Frederick
+returned to Europe, to find that the pope had been
+stirring up Albert of Austria to rebel against him, and
+that the papal forces were in command of
+John of Brienne, who may have been the
+author of the false news of Frederick’s
+death, and who certainly proclaimed himself as the
+only emperor. To the pope Frederick sent his envoys,
+Herman of Salza at their head. They were dismissed
+with contempt; and their master was again placed under
+the greater excommunication with the Albigensians, the
+Poor Men of Lyons, the Arnoldists, and other heretics who
+in the eyes of the faithful were the worst enemies of the
+Christian church. Such was the reward of the man who
+had done more towards the re-establishment of the Latin
+kingdom in Palestine than had been done by the lion-hearted
+Richard, and who, it may fairly be said, had
+done it without shedding a drop of blood.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SEVENTH CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans.</div>
+
+<p>The number of the crusades might be largely extended
+if we gave the name to all the minor expeditions to the
+Holy Land in the intervals between the
+greater enterprises to which the term has
+been commonly applied. Yet the expedition
+led by Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>and brother of Henry III. of England, as being scarcely
+less remarkable than that of Frederick II., and for the
+same reason, may fairly be reckoned as the seventh of
+these extravagant and ill-starred enterprises.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Charges of peculation against the papal collectors.</div>
+
+<p>Time had softened in some degree the spirit which
+had animated the first crusaders; but in the events which
+follow the return of Frederick we see something
+like an honest reaction against the
+diversion to other purposes of money contributed
+for the deliverance of Palestine.
+These diversions had become so frequent that the papal
+collectors regarded it as an annoyance or an insult if
+any refused to commute by money payments their engagements
+as crusaders.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1230. Opposition of the pope and the emperor to the new crusade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1236-1239.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Arrival of the French crusaders at Acre.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Their complete failure.</div>
+
+<p>The peace which the Egyptian sultan Kameel had
+made with Frederick was little more than a truce. It
+was to last for ten years; but even during that term the
+compact was kept with no rigid strictness
+perhaps on either side. Thousands of
+Christians were slain, it is said, on their passage
+from Acre to Jerusalem, and envoys
+were sent to Gregory IX. and to Frederick, with whom
+he had been reconciled at Anagni, to entreat the equipment
+of another crusade. The crusade was enjoined,
+accordingly, but, as it seemed, with little
+sincerity; and when the French barons,
+headed by Theobald, count of Champagne and king of
+Navarre, and Hugh, duke of Burgundy, met in council
+at Lyons, they were commanded by the papal legate to
+adjourn their discussions and to return home. The request
+was peremptorily refused; but when their plans
+seemed to be in all respects matured, the ambassadors
+of Frederick himself besought them to wait until he
+could give them effectual help. Even to this appeal they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>turned a deaf ear: and although Frederick charged his
+officers to withhold all aid from the crusaders, these
+barons still insisted on carrying out their design and
+found their way to Acre. Before they
+reached it, Kameel had seized Jerusalem
+and dismantled the tower of David; and
+the crusaders had before them a task not less arduous
+than that which Godfrey of Bouillon and
+his followers had to encounter. Their failure
+was complete; it can scarcely be said that they even
+attempted to grapple with it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1240. The English crusade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Treaty between Richard of Cornwall and the Egyptian sultan.</div>
+
+<p>The English crusade which under Richard of Cornwall
+and William Longsword (son of the
+earl of Salisbury, but not earl of Salisbury
+himself) embarked at Dover for France, and
+having journeyed across France set sail from Marseilles
+in spite of a papal prohibition, was followed by results
+far more solid. On reaching Acre, they found the affairs
+both of Christians and Moslems in a state of strange
+confusion through treaties which neither side was able
+strictly to carry out. But the quarrel which
+had broken out afresh between the sultans
+of Egypt and Damascus told greatly in
+their favor. The march of Richard to Jaffa
+led to negotiations, and by the treaty which followed
+them the Egyptian sultan granted him terms even more
+favourable than those which had been conceded to
+Frederick II.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1242. Invasion of the Korasmians.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Alliance of the Templars and the Syrians.</div>
+
+<p>Palestine was once more virtually in the hands of the
+Christians, and in their hands it virtually remained, until,
+two years later, the Latin kingdom was
+again swept away by a foe more merciless
+than any which the crusaders had yet encountered.
+The brutal hordes, which Genghis Khan
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>had set in motion from the remote wilds of Tartary,
+drove out from the Korasmian territories myriads of
+myriads scarcely less brutal than themselves. The fugitive
+Korasmians burst into Palestine. Jerusalem was
+deserted by its garrison, and the savages hastened to
+glut themselves with blood. The living were cut down,
+the dead torn from their graves, and thousands of pilgrims,
+decoyed back to the city by the display of crusading
+banners from the walls, furnished fresh victims for
+the awful sacrifice. In this desperate strait
+the Templars made common cause with the
+Syrians. A battle was fought in which the
+grand-masters of the Templars and Hospitallers were
+slain, the only survivors being thirty-three Templars,
+sixteen Hospitallers, and three Teutonic knights. The
+Korasmians were for the present in league with the
+Egyptian sovereign; but this harmony was soon followed
+by enmity. The Korasmians were defeated and
+scattered, and the tempest of barbarian invasion came
+to an end.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE EIGHTH CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1245. Council of Lyons.</div>
+
+<p>The havoc wrought by the Korasmian inroad was
+alleged by pope Innocent IV. as a reason for
+sending forth another crusade. In a council
+held at Lyons, the bishop of Berytos dwelt on
+the miserable state of the Christians in the Holy Land,
+and it was resolved that another effort should be made
+for its deliverance. Honorius wrote to Henry III. of
+England to impress upon him the duty of taking up the
+cross like his lion-hearted predecessor; but Henry had in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester, a more pressing
+antagonist than Egyptian sultans or Korasmian savages.
+The pope found fuel more easily kindled in the heart of
+Louis IX., king of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1226. Louis IX., king of France.</div>
+
+<p>This saint, the very type of royal monks and devotees,
+was ten years old when on the death of his father Louis
+VIII. he succeeded to the throne. By his
+mother, Blanche of Castile, the regent of the
+kingdom, the child was brought up with a
+strictness to which he answered with unbounded docility.
+In his early youth the beauty of some fair maidens drew
+from him a glance expressive of some admiration: his
+mother told him that she would rather see him dead than
+that he should entertain even a sinful thought. His own
+will would have led him to assume the obligations of the
+cloister; but the interests of the state demanded his marriage,
+and his wife, Margaret of Provence, passed with her
+husband under the rigid discipline of the queen-mother.
+His severity to himself grew with his years. At night
+he would rise from his bed and pace his chamber in the
+coldest season. A shift of the coarsest haircloth worn
+next to his skin furnished a desirable torture. Fruit he
+tasted only once in the year. On Fridays he never
+changed his dress, and never laughed. The iron chain
+scourges which he carried at his waist in an ivory case
+drew blood from his shoulders once every week of the
+year and thrice in every week during Lent. He would
+walk for miles to distant churches wearing shoes without
+soles. He would scarcely content himself with two,
+three, and even four masses a day; and if he made a
+journey, his chaplain recited the offices on the road.
+Even monks tried to check an asceticism almost exceeding
+that which was demanded by the rules of Benedict,
+Dominic, or Francis; the king asked whether he would
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>have incurred the same rebuke had he spent twice as
+much time in hawking and dicing. No reproach, no
+sarcasm, no insult, could disturb the serenity of his humble
+soul. ‘You are not a king of France,’ exclaimed a
+woman who was pleading her cause before him; ‘you
+are a king only of priests and monks. It is a pity that you
+are king of France. You ought to be turned out.’ ‘You
+speak truly,’ answered Louis. ‘It has pleased God to
+make me king: it had been well had He chosen some
+one better able to govern this kingdom rightly.’ The
+woman was sent away with a gift of money: and money
+was a thing on which the king set little store, and which
+he seldom needed except for the purchase of relics.
+Here his avarice was unbounded; and we have seen
+him paying the enormous sum of 10,000 silver marks for
+the ‘genuine crown of thorns’ preserved in the church
+of Sancta Sophia (<a href="#Page_173">p. 173</a>). To such a man absolute
+obedience and implicit trust not only in God but in every
+article or proposition set forth as forming part of the
+Christian faith were the first, the most indispensable of
+all virtues. Not one point in all the theology of the
+Church was to be called into question; there was not
+one which was not to be received as absolutely true.
+‘Do you know the name of your father?’ he asked his
+seneschal, the lord of Joinville, who accompanied him
+to Palestine, and whose inimitable memoirs bring the
+man and his age before us in living reality. ‘Yes,’
+answered the seneschal; ‘his name was Simon.’ ‘How
+do you know that?’ again asked Louis. ‘Because my
+mother has told me so many times.’ ‘Then,’ answered
+the king, ‘you ought perfectly to believe the articles of
+the faith which the apostles of our Lord have testified to
+you, as you have heard the Credo chanted every Sunday.’
+For questioning and argument his system had no place.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>Under no circumstances could there ever be need of any.
+He related to Joinville with hearty approval the conduct
+of a knight, who, during a disputation between some Jews
+and the monks of the abbey of Clugny, asked leave of
+the abbot to say a few words. With some difficulty his
+request was granted. Raising himself on his crutches,
+the old warrior beckoned the rabbi to draw near, and
+then put to him one question. ‘Do you believe in the
+Virgin Mary, who bore our Saviour Jesus Christ, and that
+she was a virgin when she was the mother of God?’ The
+Jew answered promptly that he believed not one word of
+it. ‘Fool that thou art,’ replied the knight, ‘for daring to
+enter a Christian monastery when thou disbelievest these
+things. For this madness thou shalt now pay.’ Lifting
+up his crutch, he struck the man a blow on the ear which
+smote him to the ground. His comrades fled away from
+the scene of controversy, while the abbot came forward
+to reprove the knight for his folly. ‘Thou art the greater
+fool,’ was the retort, ‘in permitting an assembly from
+which good Christians might by listening to their arguments
+have gone away unbelievers.’ The king, Joinville
+tells us, clinched the moral of the story in the following
+words: ‘No one, however learned or perfect a theologian
+he may be, ought to dispute with Jews. The layman,
+whenever he hears the Christian faith impugned, should
+defend it with a sharp-edged sword which he should
+drive up to the hilt into the bodies of the unbelievers.’</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Louis IX., the pope and the emperor.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1239.</div>
+
+<p>We cannot really know the history of an age, if we do
+not really know some at least of the men who lived in it:
+and this fact gives in the case of Louis IX.
+an importance to details which we might be
+tempted to pass with a sigh, perhaps, or a
+smile. ‘Do you wash the feet of the poor on Holy
+Thursday?’ he asked the lord of Joinville. ‘Oh, fie!’
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>was the answer; ‘no, never will I wash the feet of such
+fellows.’ ‘It is ill said, indeed,’ answered the king, ‘for
+you should never hold in disdain what God did for our
+instruction; for He who is Lord and Master of the universe
+did on that day, Holy Thursday, wash the feet of
+all His apostles, telling them that He who was their
+Master had thus done, that they in like manner might do
+the same to each other. I therefore beg of you, out of
+love to Him first, and then from regard to me, that you
+will accustom yourself to do so.’ Another sermon, the
+gentleness of which makes us forget its tedious prosing,
+rebuked Joinville’s impetuosity in saying that he would
+rather have committed thirty deadly sins than be a leper.
+Louis was, in short, a man who would have loved all
+men, had he not been taught to believe that unbelief,
+heresy, or even doubt (honest doubt was for him, of
+course, a thing inconceivable), put the unbeliever or
+doubter beyond the pale of Christian charity. For Jews,
+then, or infidels he avowed the most burning hatred, although
+probably this hatred would have vanished like
+morning mist before the sight of Jew or infidel in dire
+distress or agony. But in spite of his bigotry and
+narrowness, his stern asceticism, his incessant sermonizing,
+there was in him a depth of sweetness and
+gentleness, a genuine goodness of heart and life, which
+won for him the love of thousands who made little
+attempt to follow his example. In an age infamous for
+its foulness of speech and the profanity of its oaths the
+purity of his language was never tarnished. In his
+quaint phrases Joinville says of him, ‘I never heard him,
+at any time, utter an indecent word nor make use of the
+devil’s name, which is now very commonly uttered by
+every one—a practice which, I firmly believe, far from
+being agreeable to God, is highly displeasing to Him.’
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>Nay, more, these qualities were in him combined with a
+sound sense and a firmness of will which made him in
+all cases of right and duty hard as adamant, and effectually
+crushed the contempt which some might have
+been tempted to feel for his superstitions. He could
+bear rebuke patiently: but they who thought that they
+might take advantage of his devotion to encroach on his
+rights as king or even on the rights of his neighbours
+found themselves speedily undeceived. When Gregory
+IX., after his second and final rupture with Frederick II.,
+deposed him from his imperial throne and
+offered the dignity to Louis’s brother Robert,
+the meek and gentle king replied to the pope in the following
+words:—Whence is this pride and daring of the
+pope, which thus disinherits a king who has no superior,
+nor even an equal, among Christians,—a king not convicted
+of the crimes laid to his charge? Even if these
+crimes were proved, no power could depose him but that
+of a general council. On his transgressions the judgment
+of his enemies is of no weight, and his deadliest
+enemy is the pope. To us he has not only thus far appeared
+guiltless, he has been a good neighbour: we see
+no cause for suspicion either of his worldly loyalty or of
+his Catholic faith. This we know, that he has fought
+valiantly for our Lord Jesus Christ both by sea and land.
+So much religion we have not found in the pope, who
+endeavoured to confound and wickedly supplant him in
+his absence, while he was engaged in the cause of God.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1245. Assumption of the cross by Louis IX.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1244. Dec. 10.</div>
+
+<p>In this cause, as interpreted by the religion of the time,
+this guiltless but stout-hearted champion of justice and
+right was now to peril limb and life without
+a shade of fear and with as complete a lack
+of every quality needed in a general and
+leader of armies. A more thorough contrast to Frederick
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>whom he thus valiantly defended it would be impossible
+to imagine. To him the learning, the grace, the refinement
+of heathen philosophers and poets, the music and
+the songs of all poets of all ages, were beyond expression
+horrible. Of an intercommunion of nations founded on
+commerce, learning, and art, he could have not the
+faintest notion. To the best of his power he would administer
+justice in his own land so long as he remained
+in it; when his duty as a champion of the cross called
+him elsewhere, he would leave it with fifty thousand men
+in his train, having formed no military plans, but under
+a profound conviction that God whom he sought to serve
+would fight his battles, and that, if it should not be so,
+the result would be due only to his own sins and sinfulness.
+To the remonstrances of his mother, who sought
+to dissuade him from the enterprise, his ear was utterly
+deaf. He was seized with illness: life seemed to be gone;
+an attendant, thinking that it had gone, drew
+a covering over his face. It was withdrawn
+by another, and the king was heard to say, ‘God has
+raised me from the dead: give me the cross.’ The die
+was cast. Nine months later, he assumed the badge
+publicly in the parliament of Paris; and at Christmas in
+the same year he distributed to his courtiers his usual
+gift of a new robe to each. By his orders a red cross
+had been embroidered on these garments between the
+shoulders, and the nobles owned themselves fairly entrapped.
+They must accompany the king.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Departure of Louis from France.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1249.</div>
+
+<p>Two years more were spent in preparations. On the
+12th of June 1248 Louis received from the papal legate
+at the abbey of St. Denis his purse and pilgrim’s
+staff with the Oriflamme or sacred
+banner of the saint. At the end of August
+he sailed from France. Eight months were spent in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>Cyprus, where his people were fed in great part by the
+emperor Frederick. The kindness called forth a warm
+letter to the pope, pleading for the absolution of a man
+who had thus befriended the soldiers of the cross. His
+letter was treated with contempt. In the
+spring of the next year he sailed for Egypt;
+and as soon as his fleet was off Damietta, his envoys
+hastened to the sultan with alarming pictures of their
+master’s power, and with a summons for immediate submission.
+The sultan replied that his cause was just;
+that those who made war without just cause should
+perish; and that mighty armaments had often been destroyed
+by a handful of soldiers.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Capture of Damietta.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">June.</div>
+
+<p>The campaign began with a signal success. The garrison
+of Damietta, struck with something like panic fear,
+fled at the sight of the fifty thousand crusaders
+landing in the pomp of military
+parade. The place was taken; but the people had hurried
+away to Cairo, having first set fire to
+that quarter of the city in which they had
+stored their merchandise and their most valuable property.
+This victory had its usual result on the crusaders.
+The tenor of Louis’s saintly life was unbroken; but
+within a stone’s throw of his tent his people were indulging
+in unbounded debauchery.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">March of the army towards Cairo.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Total defeat of the forces under the count of Artois.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1250. The king taken prisoner.</div>
+
+<p>Later in the season an addition to their force was made
+by 200 English knights under William Longsword (<a href="#Page_194">p.
+194</a>) now bishop of Salisbury; and in November
+the army began its march towards
+Cairo. Their progress, never easy, owing
+to the assaults of the enemy, was effectually checked at
+the canal of Ashmoun. The causeways which they attempted
+to construct were destroyed, and their machines
+burnt with Greek fire. At length a Bedoween, for a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>large bribe, showed them a ford. The passage was effected,
+and the enemy fled before them on the other
+side. With good order and discipline the crusaders
+might now have achieved some solid success. But the
+count of Artois, brother of the king, could not wait to be
+joined by the main army. He must press on at once
+against the fugitives. In vain the grand-master of the
+Templars reminded him of the folly of trusting to a feeling
+of passing fear. The count deliberately imputed his
+advice to systematic treachery. ‘Do you suppose,’ replied
+the Templar with calm dignity, ‘that we have left
+our homes and our substance, and taken the religious
+habit in a strange land, only to betray the cause of God
+and to forfeit our salvation?’ The bishop of Salisbury
+offered his mediation: it was rejected with a biting insult.
+In thorough disorder the crusaders rushed into
+Mansourah; and seeing their condition at a glance the
+Mamelukes rushed upon their prey. A sufficient force
+was sent to cut off all communication between the men
+with the count of Artois and the main army under the king.
+Boiling water, stones, blazing wood, were
+hurled upon them from the houses. The
+count of Artois was killed before he could
+see the full effects of his folly; and his
+death was soon followed by that of William Longsword.
+The utter destruction of his force was prevented only by
+succour from the king who, feeble though he may have
+been as a general, showed in the hour of danger a
+dauntless and unselfish bravery. Both sides had suffered
+fearfully; but the king was cut off from Damietta,
+and sickness of a singularly malignant kind began to
+waste his camp. Louis offered the enemy a treaty based
+on the exchange of Damietta for the lordship of Jerusalem.
+The negotiation failed, and retreat became inevitable;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span>but at the river and before the canal they had
+to fight at desperate disadvantage. The
+courage of the king was unbroken; but his
+strength was gone. He sank down in a
+state of exhaustion after exertions worthy of the English
+Richard, and awoke to find himself a prisoner. Some
+there were, says Joinville, to whom the idea of retreat
+was intolerable; and the thought of the age is vividly
+marked in the story which tells us how James du Chastel,
+bishop of Soissons, preferred to live with God to returning
+to the land of his birth, how he made a charge on
+the Turks, as if he alone meant to fight their whole
+army, and how they soon sent him to God and placed him
+in the company of martyrs by forthwith cutting him down.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Firmness of the king.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Terms of ransom.</div>
+
+<p>The crusade seemed to be closing in hopeless disaster.
+The queen at Damietta was about to become a mother,
+when she heard the tidings of her husband’s captivity.
+A premature birth followed. She called her babe Tristan,
+the child of sorrow. Louis himself had to undergo
+greater misery. Of 10,000 Christian prisoners in Mansourah
+those only who embraced the faith of Islam were
+allowed to live. Some recanted, and Louis had the bitterness
+of witnessing their apostasy: the vast majority
+stood firm, and he had the agony of seeing
+them die. But at no time was he known to
+exhibit a more unclouded trust in God, a
+more cool bravery towards his enemy. Peace was
+offered to him if he would surrender all the Christian
+fortresses in Syria. He answered that they were not his
+to surrender, and that he could not dispose of that which
+belonged to Frederick II. as king of Jerusalem. He was
+threatened with torture to his limbs, with
+the degradation of being carried from city
+to city and exposed for the gratification of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>sight-seers. He replied quietly, ‘I am your prisoner.
+You may do with me as you will.’ At last it was arranged
+that Damietta should be given up, that the king
+should pay one million byzants for his own ransom, and
+half a million French livres for his barons. He demurred
+to the amount for himself, but agreed at once to
+the other. ‘The king of France,’ he said, ‘must not
+haggle about the freedom of his subjects.’ Not to be
+outdone by his unselfishness, the sultan Turan Shah
+struck off one fifth from his ransom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Murder of Turan Shah.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Release of Louis IX.</div>
+
+<p>It was almost the last act of the sultan’s
+life. His murder heightened the dangers
+of the Christian captives; the firmness of
+Louis in refusing to take an oath couched in what he
+pronounced to be blasphemous language increased them
+still more. The difficulty was at length got over; and
+after enduring sufferings for which the Saracens
+said (if we may believe Joinville) that
+if they had had to undergo them they would
+have renounced Mahomed, the king was free.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pilgrimage of Louis to Nazareth.</div>
+
+<p>Still Louis, with the bare relics of his army, could not
+bring himself to return home. He had written again and
+again to urge on Henry of England the duty
+of coming himself with instant and effectual
+succour; he could not think that Henry
+would disregard his entreaties, especially when these
+were backed by offers of the surrender of Normandy.
+He still fancied that the Vicar of Christ himself, having
+made up his long quarrel with Frederick, would hasten
+to join his faithful children and lead them in a supreme
+effort which could not fail of success. He was abandoned
+by his brothers the counts of Anjou and Poitou; but
+with his faithful seneschal he made a pilgrimage in sackcloth
+to Nazareth. The sight of the Holy Sepulchre,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>the dearest longing of his heart, he firmly denied himself.
+The permission to visit it was freely offered by the
+sultan of Damascus: but Louis would not leave behind
+for future sovereigns a precedent by which they might
+reap the fruits of an enterprise in which they had
+failed. He returned to Europe like Richard of England,
+humbled but not dishonoured;—rather, to speak more
+strictly, having won that serene renown which was soon
+to place his name in the long catalogue of the saints.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE NINTH CRUSADE.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Comparison of the earlier and later crusades.</div>
+
+<p>Throughout the history of the crusades the wisdom
+of the general or the statesman is conspicuous by its
+absence; and we may fairly compare the
+long series of these wild enterprises with the
+erratic course and fitful splendour of a comet
+which at the moment of its greatest brilliancy rushes off
+into an ocean of darkness. They carried with them, as
+we have seen (<a href="#Page_107">p. 107</a>), not one of the elements of permanent
+success, while they lasted long enough to impoverish
+myriads and carry misery and grief to the
+homes of millions. But the qualities which had won for
+the earlier crusaders whatever renown they may have
+acquired, were exhibited in full measure to the end.
+Their absolute fearlessness, their firm persistence in the
+faith which alone they could allow to be true, their heroic
+endurance of the suffering which in hours of triumph
+they seldom hesitated to inflict on others, are beyond
+question; but all these are virtues which apart from the
+sagacity of the wise ruler may be brilliant but must be
+eminently useless.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1259. Battle between the Templars and Hospitallers.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1263. Invasion of Palestine by the Mameluke Sultan Bibars.</div>
+
+<p>This wisdom the Latin Christians of Palestine were
+destined never to learn. Disunion ran perpetually into
+quarrels,—quarrel sometimes into open warfare. Between
+the Venetians and the men of Pisa and Genoa
+there was but at best but a hollow truce. The side which
+the Templars might take in a dispute was
+not that which would be taken by the Hospitallers
+or the Teutonic knights; and the
+schism of the two former of these orders
+led in 1259 to a pitched battle from which scarcely a
+Templar escaped alive. From slaughtering each other
+the champions of the cross passed to the slaughter-houses
+of Saracen executioners. The savage warriors of the
+Mameluke sultan Bibars seized Nazareth and Acre, torturing
+to death those who had not been happy enough
+to fall on the battle-field. Ninety Hospitallers held the
+fortress of Azotus! the last of them died
+when at length their enemies stormed the
+walls. The castle of Saphouri was surrendered
+by the Templars on the condition
+that the garrison, numbering 600 men in
+all, should be safely conveyed to the next Christian
+town. The sultan flung the treaty to the winds, and
+gave them a few hours to make their choice between
+death and apostasy. The prior and two Franciscan
+monks besought their companions to stand fast in their
+faith; and when the sultan demanded their answer,
+not a man shrunk from the penalty of refusal. All were
+slaughtered, the prior with the two monks being flayed
+alive.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Loss of Antioch.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1268.</div>
+
+<p>At length the tidings reached Europe that Bohemond
+VI. had been driven from Antioch and that his city had
+passed into the hands of the unbelievers.
+The saintly Louis still yearned for the rescue
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>of the holy places; but the memory of his past disasters
+led him to fear that his sinfulness or his bad
+generalship might again bring disgrace on
+the Christian arms. His diffidence called forth the encouragement
+of pope Clement IV., who with greater importunity
+urged Henry III. of England to do his duty by
+taking the cross. Three years had passed since the fatal
+defeat of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester,
+at Evesham: but the country, although
+not in actual war, was by no means in a state of repose,
+and we might wonder why at such a time the prince who
+was afterwards to reign as Edward I. should pledge himself
+to the new crusade, were it not clear that the enterprise
+was one which might be used for the purpose of
+drawing away from England men who might be troublesome
+or dangerous to his father or to himself. Edward
+took good care that the earl of Gloucester whom he feared
+the most should share his perils, if not his glory, in the
+East.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Second crusade of Louis IX.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1270.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Death of the king.</div>
+
+<p>With sixty thousand men, Louis IX., accompanied by
+the counts of Flanders, Brittany, Champagne, and other
+barons, left France to return to it no more.
+A storm drove the fleet to Sardinia; and
+there it was decided that the crusaders
+should in the first instance go to Tunis. Charles of
+Anjou, the sovereign of Sicily, was anxious
+to maintain the rights of Christendom by
+exacting a tribute paid formerly to his predecessors: the
+devout Louis remembered, it is said, the messages by
+which the king of Tunis had expressed his wish to embrace
+Christianity, and thought that the presence of a
+large army would give him courage to make open confession
+of the true faith. The army landed and had
+encamped, we are told, on the site of Carthage, when a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>plague broke out, and amongst its crowd of victims
+struck the king. His whole life had been a prayer: it
+remained to the last a prayer for others rather than for
+himself. With serene submission to the
+divine counsels he stretched himself on his
+couch of ashes, and as he uttered the words, ‘I will enter
+Thy house, O Lord, I will worship in Thy sanctuary,’
+he died.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1271. Capture of Nazareth by Edward, son of Henry III. of England.</div>
+
+<p>When the English Edward at last arrived in the camp,
+he saw that the idea of reaching Palestine before the
+winter was impracticable, and made up his mind to return
+to Sicily until the spring. When at length he reached
+Acre, he found that his name carried with
+it much of the terror associated with that of
+Richard Plantagenet. The Christians hastened
+to his standard, and with 7,000 men he
+attacked and took Nazareth, slaying the people with
+a massacre as pitiless as any which had sullied the
+chronicles of the crusades. It was his first and his last
+victory in Palestine. His campaign was cut short by
+sickness, and the dagger of an assassin sent by the emir
+of Joppa as a bearer of letters touching his conversion to
+Christianity well nigh cut short his life. Edward hurled
+the murderer to the floor and stabbed him to the heart.
+But the dagger was undoubtedly poisoned; and it needed
+more than ordinary skill on the part of the surgeons to
+arrest the progress of the venom. The sides of the wound
+were carefully pared away; and the strength of youth
+with the tender nursing of his wife Eleanor did the rest.
+The romancers of a later age framed the tale that he
+must have died, had she not with her lips sucked the
+poison from the wound.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1272. Return of Edward to Europe.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Vain efforts of Gregory X. to stir up a crusade.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1274.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1276.</div>
+
+<p>It was clear that nothing more could be done in the
+Holy Land, and Edward knew not how soon his presence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>might become indispensable in England. A
+peace was made for ten years, and the
+English crusaders set out on their homeward
+voyage. For a long series of years Europe had been
+making vigorous efforts, and the result of these efforts
+had been nothing more substantial or permanent than
+the lines left on the sea sand by an ebbing tide. For
+one moment it seemed that the spirit of the dream might
+be changed, when Theobald, archdeacon of Liege, the
+friend of the English Edward, was summoned from
+Acre to fill the chair of St. Peter as Gregory X. Theobald
+had been an eye-witness of the desperate
+calamities which were crushing the
+Latins of Palestine, and he called the princes
+of Europe to the rescue with a zeal worthy of Innocent
+III. or of Urban II. A council held at Lyons
+decreed a new crusade. Rodolph of Hapsburg,
+not yet firm in his imperial dignity, pledged himself
+to join it; and his example was followed by Michael
+Paleologos who thirteen years earlier (1287) had put
+down the Latin dynasty in Constantinople.
+But Gregory died in less than two years
+after the assembly at Lyons, and his visions of renewed
+conquests in Palestine died with him.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Claims to the titular kingdom of Jerusalem.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1289.</div>
+
+<p>In the Holy Land itself the miserable Christian remnant
+adhered to its old tradition of fighting about shadows
+when the substance had been already lost.
+Hugh III. of Cyprus had had himself crowned
+at Tyre as king of Jerusalem. The Templars
+urged the claims of Charles of Anjou; the
+Hospitallers insisted with more sense that the dispute
+might be postponed until they had recovered the kingdom
+the title to which they were debating. A few years
+later, when Henry II. of Cyprus held this shadowy
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>dignity, the grand-master of the Templars
+pleaded before Nicholas IV. the wrongs of
+the Latins which could be avenged only by the blood of
+the Saracens. But the power of the ancient spell was
+broken. Nicholas was ready to furnish some men, but
+these were ruffians and criminals, the very offscourings
+of the people: money he obstinately refused to give.
+The grand-master was not more successful elsewhere;
+and the Italian robbers formed the whole force with
+which he returned to Palestine.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Loss of Acre.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1291.</div>
+
+<p>The last forlorn struggle was made at Acre. Here, as
+elsewhere, the valour of the Templars shone conspicuous.
+The grand-master rejected the bribes of the
+sultan; but the latter cared little whether he
+could work on the venality of his enemies or whether he
+could not. His Mamelukes were not less courageous
+than the Templars, and their numbers were
+overwhelming. The assault began; the
+titular king of Jerusalem, Henry II. of Cyprus, besought
+the Teutonic knights to occupy his post, promising to
+return the next morning. His request was granted: but
+before the morning came, Henry was on his way to
+Cyprus. The attack was renewed with greater fury; but
+the Christians had lost all heart. The master of the
+Templars had been killed by a poisoned arrow, and
+seven Knights Hospitallers sailed away, the last remnant
+of the magnificent order which had braved successfully a
+thousand dangers. The city was lost: but the horrors
+of the siege were not ended. The people had hurried to
+the shore; a storm prevented them from embarking;
+and the very sea was reddened by the blood of the last
+victims of a wild and fanatical superstition.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SEQUEL OF THE RELIGIOUS WARS.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Gradual decay and extinction of the crusading spirit.</div>
+
+<p>The crusades had come to an end. The embers smouldered
+on: but it was to the last degree unlikely that they
+would be rekindled. The great military orders
+withdrew to seek a field for their energies
+elsewhere; the Teutonic knights to the
+dreary regions of Lithuania and Poland,—the
+knights of the Hospital first to Cyprus, then to Rhodes
+where, after many a hard fight with Greeks and Saracens,
+they achieved the conquest of the whole island and settled
+down to repose in their earthly paradise. The dream
+of returning to Palestine still haunted the mind of Edward I.,
+who by his will left 30,000<i>l.</i> for the equipment
+and maintenance of the knights who were to bear his
+heart to the Holy Land; but probably the last reflection
+of the old fire is seen in the words by which Henry V. in
+his dying moments asserted the bounden duty of princes
+to build the walls of Jerusalem, and declared that, had he
+been spared for a longer life, or had he lived in quieter
+times, he would have undertaken this task of restoration.
+Even now, perhaps, the task was one of no insuperable
+difficulty. Its practicability had been shown more than
+once by its accomplishment; but it was one which must
+be taken in hand in the spirit of that wise and tolerant
+statesmanship which seeks to further the interests of the
+subject population, and to make one people of the conquerors
+and the conquered. This idea was, as we have
+seen, deliberately rejected by the first crusaders, and,
+with the single exception of the emperor Henry at Constantinople
+(<a href="#Page_170">p. 170</a>), by all who followed them. There is
+no reason to suppose that the English Henry V. would
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>have been animated by a wiser spirit and a larger charity
+than the companions of Godfrey and Tancred.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Persecution and suppression of the Knights Templars.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1309.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1314.</div>
+
+<p>The soil of Palestine had been watered abundantly
+with the blood both of Christians and of infidels. The
+soil of Europe, chiefly that of France, was to
+drink the blood of that haughty but valiant
+order which had done as much to destroy as
+to maintain the hold of Latin Christendom
+on Palestine. Among all the monstrous iniquities which
+perjured kings and godless statesmen have ever perpetrated,
+the lies and cruelties, the persistent and diabolical
+injustice which attended the suppression of the Knights
+Templars must hold very nearly the first place. These
+men may have, nay undoubtedly they had, committed
+enormous crimes themselves; but these were crimes done
+in the sight of the sun and shared by all crusaders of
+every generation, the saintly Louis of France forming, it
+would seem, the solitary exception. Now, when their
+services were no longer needed or could no more be of
+use in Palestine, the benefits to be derived from a confiscation
+of their properties became patent to
+Philip the Fair, the brutal tyrant, the profligate
+murderer, the unscrupulous thief, who bullied the
+pope, Clement V., into a recognition of charges which
+at first he had rightly cast aside as absurd, extravagant,
+and impossible. False witness, tortures, hunger, thirst,
+darkness, filth, and disease in sunless dungeons, were
+all used with consummate skill and pertinacity to subdue
+the warriors who in the field had never quailed.
+Taken one by one, some made confessions which were
+drawn from them by excruciating agonies, and which,
+when these agonies ceased, were indignantly withdrawn.
+With his remaining comrades the last grand-master
+died, solemnly asserting the innocence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>of his order—an innocence unquestionably real,
+if we confine ourselves to the charges brought against
+them by Philip and his myrmidons; and the kings of
+France, made wealthier by their iniquities, laid up another
+count for the great indictment to be brought
+against their luckless representative in the French revolution.
+In England the proceedings against the Templars,
+shameful though they were, fell infinitely short of
+the disgrace which covered the king and the judges of
+France: but in both countries it was seen what might
+be done by malignant lies uttered boldly under the plea
+of maintaining the truth and the righteousness of God.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1208-1249. The Albigensian crusades.</div>
+
+<p>In this process we see, in fact, the legitimate result of
+the crusades. The unbelief of the Saracen was a sufficient
+reason for wresting from him a country
+which was regarded as the inalienable heritage
+of Christendom: the alleged unbelief
+or profanity of Templars was a sufficient
+reason for hounding on judges to their destruction; and
+the heresies truly or falsely alleged against any persons
+whatsoever would be a thorough warrant for carrying
+fire and sword through their land, if gentler means
+failed to extort submission. The lesson had been soon
+learnt; and while Dandolo and Baldwin were laying the
+foundations of the short-lived Latin empire at Constantinople,
+Innocent was preaching a crusade against the
+peaceable, although perhaps not strictly orthodox, subjects
+of count Raymond of Toulouse. The attempt to
+put down error by force was producing its natural fruits;
+and men like Bernard and Innocent were brought to
+consider every means lawful, every weapon hallowed,
+against the wretched enemies of Christ and of his
+Church. Horrible miscreants, like the inquisitors Fulk
+of Marseilles and Arnold of Amaury, could without a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>pang of remorse involve in one common slaughter the
+aged and the young, the mother and the infant; and
+Simon of Montfort, cased in the triple armour of a heart
+harder than the nether millstone, could exult with savage
+joy over the massacres of his sword and the torments
+of the Inquisition. In this awful chaos Frederick
+II., the enemy of the pope, the friends of Saracenic
+philosophers, of Moslem women, joined furiously in the
+fray. Near in its ideal, and similar in some points of its
+development, as was the careless society of the troubadour
+to his own luxurious civilization in Sicily, yet not a
+sign is there to show that he regarded with the least
+emotion its rapid and terrible catastrophe. His appreciation
+of their Gay Science, of their art, their refinement,
+and their luxury, was chilled and quenched by the
+thought of the vile crowd of Petrobrussians and other
+vulgar heretics, by whom these careless voluptuaries
+were surrounded. Well may it be said that never in any
+history were the principles of justice, the faith of treaties,
+common humanity so trampled under foot as in the Albigensian
+crusade, ‘Slay on; God will know his own,’
+was the cry of the papal legate before the walls of
+Beziers; and this easy method of settling a long controversy
+was the moral logically drawn from the preaching
+of the hermit Peter and of Bernard of Clairvaux.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The children’s crusades.</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 1212.</div>
+
+<p>It is possible that the historian who seeks to account
+for all the characteristics which mark the era of the crusades
+may connect these expeditions with
+some events which should be traced to other
+causes. The impulses which bring vast crowds together
+for any purpose are always more or less contagious: and
+the middle ages exhibit, throughout, a series of enthusiastic
+risings. The outbreak of the Pastoureaux, or Shepherds
+(so called from their supposed simplicity), which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>for a time led astray even Blanche of Castile (<a href="#Page_196">p. 196</a>),
+took place, perhaps only by an accidental coincidence,
+while Louis IX. was a captive in Egypt: but it was only
+one of a thousand instances of what has well been
+termed superstition set in motion. To this class belong
+probably the expeditions known as the Children’s crusades,
+although these were started with the idea of recovering
+the Holy Cross from the infidel. A few words
+may suffice to tell the miserable story how in
+France under the boy Stephen 30,000 children
+encamped around Vendome; how 10,000 were lost
+or had strayed away before they reached Marseilles a
+month later; how there they waited under a conviction
+that the waters of the Mediterranean would be cloven
+asunder to give them a passage on dry land; how at
+length two merchants offered ‘for the cause of God and
+without charge’ to convey them in ships to Palestine;
+and how the 5,000 children, who sailed from the harbour
+chanting the hymn <i>Veni Creator Spiritus</i>, found themselves
+at the end of their voyage in the slave markets of
+Alexandria and Algiers. A pendant to this woful tale is
+found in the sufferings of the 20,000 German boys and
+girls who set out in the same year from Cologne under
+the peasant lad Nicholas 20,000 strong, and of whom
+5,000 only reached Genoa. Of the rest some had returned
+home: some marched to Brindisi, and, setting
+sail for Palestine, were never heard of more. The fortune
+of those who found their way to Genoa was more
+happy. Invited to settle there by the senate, many became
+wealthy, and not a few, rising to distinction,
+founded some of the noblest families in the state.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Indirect results of the crusades.</div>
+
+<p>But as the motives which led to the crusades were
+complex, so their results were complex also. The picture
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>must not be presented only in its darker
+aspects. We have seen the effect which they
+produced on the growth of the temporal
+power of the popes. We must not forget that by rolling
+back the tide of Mahomedan conquest from Constantinople
+for upwards of four centuries they probably saved
+Europe from horrors the recital of which might even now
+make our ears tingle; that by weakening the resources
+and the power of the barons they strengthened the
+authority of the kings acting in alliance with the citizens
+of the great towns; that this alliance broke up the feudal
+system, gradually abolished serfdom, and substituted the
+authority of a common law for the arbitrary will of chiefs
+who for real or supposed affronts rushed to the arbitrament
+of private war. Worthless in themselves, and
+wholly useless as means for founding any permanent
+dominion in Palestine or elsewhere, these enterprises
+have affected the commonwealths of Europe in ways of
+which the promoters never dreamed. They left a wider
+gulf between the Greek and the Latin churches, between
+the subjects of the Eastern empire and the nations of
+Western Europe; but by the mere fact of throwing East
+and West together they led gradually to that interchange
+of thought and that awakening of the human intellect to
+which we owe all that distinguishes our modern civilization
+from the religious and political systems of the
+middle ages.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abelard, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abubekr, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acre, siege of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">surrender of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adelais, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adhemar, bishop of Puy, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albigensians, crusades against the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander II., pope, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandria, surrender of, to Almeric, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexios, brother of Isaac Angelus, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexios emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">extorts the homage of the crusaders, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">his conduct to the crusaders, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">fails to aid them, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">benefited by the crusaders, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexios, son of Isaac Angelus, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexios Strategopoulos, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alfonso, king of Gallicia, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Almeric, king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Almeric of Lusignan, king of Cyprus and titular king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amalfi, merchants of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Andrew, king of Hungary, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anna Comnena, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antioch, siege of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">betrayed to Bohemond, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">fall of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold, chaplain of Bohemond, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold of Amaury, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arthur of Brittany, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artois, count of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ascalon, Battle of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">fall of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assize of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Austria, Leopold, duke of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Azan the Bulgarian, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Azotus, battle of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Baghasian, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin I., brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin II., emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin V., king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin du Bourg, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin, lord of Edessa, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin of Flanders, emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baldwin of Hainault, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barbarossa [<a href="#Frederick_I">Frederick I.</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bela, king of Hungary, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berengaria, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bernard, patriarch of Antioch, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bernard, St., <a href="#Page_86">86 <i>et seq.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bertrand of Toulouse, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blanche of Castile, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blondel, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bodin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bouvines, battle of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brienne, constable of Apulia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brienne, John of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bulgarians, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Calo John, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles of Anjou, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles the Great, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chivalry, cause and effect of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chosroes [<a href="#Khosru">Khosru</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christianity, the, of the first century, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">influence of paganism upon, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">modified by the Roman imperial tradition, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cid, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clement IV., pope, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clement V., pope, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cogni [<a href="#Iconium">Iconium</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conrad, bishop of Hildesheim, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conrad, emperor of Germany, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conrad of Tyre, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantia, heiress of Sicily, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantine, church of, at Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantinople, first siege of, by the Latins, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">second siege and conquest of, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Latin emperors of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub2">Baldwin I., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub2"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>Henry, brother of Baldwin, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub2">Peter of Courtenay, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub2">Robert, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub2">John of Brienne, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub2">Baldwin II., <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Latin empire of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">recovery of, by the Greeks, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coradin, sultan of Syria, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Council of Clermont, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Council of Lyons, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Council of Nice, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Council of Piacenza, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Councils of Lateran, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courtenay, Joceline of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courtenay, Peter of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courtesy, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Courts of Love, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cross, discovery of the true, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">recovery of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusaders, numbers of the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">ferocity of the, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusades, causes tending to, <a href="#Page_1">1 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">financial effects of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">effects of, on the power of the pope and the clergy, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">on the feudal system, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">not national enterprises, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">against the Albigensians, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">the Children’s, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">indirect results of the, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Daimbert, patriarch of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damascus, siege of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damietta, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dargham, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">David [<a href="#Kilidje_Arslan">Kilidje Arslan</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demetrius, lord of Thessalonica, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorylaion, battle of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Durazzo, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Edessa, conquest of, by Baldwin, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by Zenghis, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edward I., of England, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eleanor of Poitou, wife of Louis VII., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">marries Henry of Normandy, afterwards Henry II. of England, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">writes to Cælestine III., <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eleanor, wife of Edward I., <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emico, count of Leiningen, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Engelbert of Tournay, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eugenius III., pope, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eustace, count of Boulogne, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fatimite sultans of Egypt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferentino, treaty of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Frederick_I">Frederick I., Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_183">183 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulk of Anjou, king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulk of Marseilles, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulk of Neuilly, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Genghis Khan, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geoffrey, archbishop of York, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geoffrey of Villehardouin, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gerold, patriarch of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Godfrey of Bouillon, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">baron and defender of the Holy Sepulchre, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">reign and death of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gotschalk, the monk, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greeks and Latins, antagonism between, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory I., the Great, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory VII., pope [<a href="#Hildebrand">Hildebrand</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory VIII., pope, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Gregory_IX">Gregory IX., pope, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gregory X., pope, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guelf, duke of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guibert, abbot, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guido, abbot of Vaux Cernay, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guiscard, Robert, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">of Cyprus, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Hakem, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harun-al-Reschid, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helena, church of, at Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry II., king of Cyprus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry II. of England, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry IV., emperor, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry V. of England, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry VI., emperor, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry, Latin emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry of Champagne, titular king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Heraclius">Heraclius, emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heraclius, patriarch of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herakleios [<a href="#Heraclius">Heraclius</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herman of Salza, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Hildebrand">Hildebrand [Gregory VII.], <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21 <i>et seq.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hohenstaufen, house of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holy Land, growth of local traditions in the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Honorius III., pope, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hospitallers, or knights of St. John, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+ <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>Hugh III., king of Cyprus, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hugh of Vermandois, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hungary, conversion of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst" id="Iconium">Iconium, sultan of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ingulf, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Innocent II., pope, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Innocent_III">Innocent III., pope, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Innocent IV., pope, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isaac Angelus, emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isaac of Cyprus, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isabella, sister of Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">James du Chastel, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jerome, St., at Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jerusalem, Assize of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Latin kingdom of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Latin kings of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Godfrey, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Baldwin I., <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Baldwin II., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Fulk of Anjou, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Baldwin III., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Almeric, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Baldwin IV., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Baldwin V., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Guy of Lusignan, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Henry of Champagne (titular), <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Almeric of Lusignan (titular), <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jerusalem, captured by the Persians, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by Omar, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by Hakem, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by the Seljukian Toucush, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by the first crusaders, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by Saladin, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">by Kameel, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jews, persecution of the, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jews, plunder of the, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Joanna, sister of Richard I., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Joceline of Courtenay, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John Comnenos, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John of Brienne, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John of England, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John, St., Hospital of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">John the monk, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Joinville, <a href="#Page_206">206 <i>et seq.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kameel, sultan of Egypt, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">treaty of, with Frederick II., <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">takes Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kerboga, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Khosru">Khosru II., <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khosru Nushirvan, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Kilidje_Arslan">Kilidje Arslan, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knighthood, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knights Hospitallers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+ <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knights Templars, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knights, Teutonic, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Korasmians, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Lance, discovery of the holy, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lateran, councils of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latin empire of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">kingdom of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">emperors of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">kings of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latins and Greeks, antagonism between, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leo III., pope, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Letold of Tournay, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lothair, cardinal [<a href="#Innocent_III">Innocent III.</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis VI., the Fat, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis VII., king of France, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis IX., king of France, <a href="#Page_203">203 <i>et seq.</i></a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lusignan, Almeric of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">Guy of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lyons, council of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Mahomed, embassy from, to Khosru II., <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mamelukes, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manuel, emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marra, siege of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mary, niece of Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maynard, nephew of Conrad of Tyre, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Merovingian kings of France, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moadhin, sultan of Damascus, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montferrat, marquis of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montfort, Simon of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montfort, Simon of, earl of Leicester, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morosini, Thomas, patriarch of Constantinople, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mostadhi, caliph of Bagdad, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mourzoufle, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nicæa, Nikaia [<a href="#Nice">Nice</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Nice">Nice, Seljukian sovereigns of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicephorus III., emperor, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicolas IV., pope, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicolas, the child crusader, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nineveh, battle of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Omar, the caliph, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oriflamme, the, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Otho of Brunswick, emperor, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Pascal II., pope, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pastoureaux, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pelagius, bishop of Albano, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter Barthelemy, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter of Blois, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter of Capua, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter the Chanter, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>Peter of Courtenay, Latin emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter the Hermit, <a href="#Page_26">26 <i>et seq.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip Augustus, king of France, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip I., king of France, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip IV., the Fair, king of France, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip of Namur, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip of Swabia, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip [titular], Latin emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piacenza, council of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pilgrimage, growth of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pilgrims, tax on, at Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phirouz, the renegade, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Placentia, council of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pontius, son of Bertrand of Toulouse, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Raymond, count of Toulouse, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raymond of Tripoli, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhazates, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richard, earl of Cornwall, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richard I’st of England, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">at Messina, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">at Rhodes, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">at Acre, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">retreats from Bethlehem, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">at Jaffa, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">imprisonment, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">return of, to England, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robert, count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robert, count of Paris, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robert duke of Normandy, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robert, Latin emperor of the East, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robert of Courcon, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rodolph of Hapsburg, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rodolph the Monk, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roger, successor of Tancred, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Saadi, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saladin tax or tithe, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saladin, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">enters Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Samosata, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">San Germano, treaty of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saphadin, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">takes Jaffa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">offers peace, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seljukian Turks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shawer, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shepherds of Pastoureaux, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shiracouh, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sibylla, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sidon, conquest of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simon of Montfort, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siroes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siward, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sophronios, patriarch of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stephen, apostle of Hungary, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stephen, count of Chartres, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stephen Harding, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stephen, the child crusader, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tancred, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tancred, son of Roger of Apulia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tatikios, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Templars, knights, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theobald, archdeacon of Liege, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theobald, count of Champagne, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theodore Lascaris, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thierry, count of Flanders, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thoron, siege of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiberias, battle of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toucush, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trebizond, empire of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tristan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Truce of God, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turan Shah, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tyre, conquest of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ugolino [<a href="#Gregory_IX">Gregory IX.</a>]</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Urban II., pope, at Piacenza, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">at Clermont, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+ <li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Urban III., pope, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vataces, John, emperor of Nicæa, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venice, growth of the power of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Victor III., pope, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Villehardouin, Geoffrey of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vorylas, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Walter of Brienne, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walter the Penniless, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William Longchamp, bishop of Ely, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William Longsword, bishop of Salisbury, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William Longsword, earl of Salisbury, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William of Melun, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William of Scotland, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William of Tyre, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William the Conqueror, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">William Rufus, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Zara, expedition to, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zenghis, sultan of Aleppo, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ziani, doge of Venice, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="center smaller">“<i>The volumes contain the ripe results of the studies of men who
+are authorities in their respective fields.</i>”—<span class="smcap">The Nation.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center larger">EPOCHS OF HISTORY</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<table>
+ <tr>
+ <td><p class="center"><b>EPOCHS OF<br>
+ ANCIENT HISTORY</b></p></td>
+ <td><p class="center"><b>EPOCHS OF<br>
+ MODERN HISTORY</b></p></td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+ <td><p class="center">Eleven volumes, 16mo,<br>
+ each $1.00.</p></td>
+ <td><p class="center">Eighteen volumes, 16mo,<br>
+ each $1.00.</p></td>
+ </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Epoch volumes have most successfully borne the test of
+experience, and are universally acknowledged to be the best series
+of historical manuals in existence. They are admirably adapted in
+form and matter to the needs of colleges, schools, reading circles,
+and private classes. Attention is called to them as giving the
+utmost satisfaction as class hand-books.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Noah Porter</span>, <i>President of Yale College</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“The ‘Epochs of History’ have been prepared with knowledge
+and artistic skill to meet the wants of a large number of
+readers. To the young they furnish an outline or compendium.
+To those who are older they present a convenient sketch of the
+heads of the knowledge which they have already acquired. The
+outlines are by no means destitute of spirit, and may be used with
+great profit for family reading, and in select classes or reading clubs.”</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Charles Kendall Adams</span>, <i>President of Cornell University</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“A series of concise and carefully prepared volumes on special
+eras of history. Each is also complete in itself, and has no especial
+connection with the other members of the series. The works are
+all written by authors selected by the editor on account of some
+especial qualifications for a portrayal of the period they respectively
+describe. The volumes form an excellent collection, especially
+adapted to the wants of a general reader.”</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<p class="center"><i>The Publishers will supply these volumes to teachers at SPECIAL
+NET RATES, and would solicit correspondence concerning
+terms for examination and introduction copies.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<p class="center">CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS, Publishers<br>
+743-745 Broadway, New York</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center larger">THE GREAT SUCCESS OF THE SERIES</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">is the best proof of its general popularity, and the excellence of
+the various volumes is further attested by their having been
+adopted as text-books in many of our leading educational institutions.
+The publishers beg to call attention to the following list
+comprising some of the most prominent institutions using volumes
+of the series:</p>
+
+<ul>
+ <li>Smith College, Northampton, Mass.</li>
+ <li>Univ. of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.</li>
+ <li>Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.</li>
+ <li>Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass.</li>
+ <li>Bellewood Sem., Anchorage, Ky.</li>
+ <li>Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tenn.</li>
+ <li>State Univ., Minneapolis, Minn.</li>
+ <li>Christian Coll., Columbia, Mo.</li>
+ <li>Adelphi Acad., Brooklyn, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Earlham Coll., Richmond, Ind.</li>
+ <li>Granger Place School, Canandaigua, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Salt Lake Acad., Salt Lake City, Utah.</li>
+ <li>Beloit Col., Beloit, Wis.</li>
+ <li>Logan Female Coll., Russellville, Ky.</li>
+ <li>No. West Univ., Evanston, Ill.</li>
+ <li>State Normal School, Baltimore, Md.</li>
+ <li>Hamilton Coll., Clinton, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Doane Coll., Crete, Neb.</li>
+ <li>Princeton College, Princeton, N. J.</li>
+ <li>Williams Coll., Williamstown, Mass.</li>
+ <li>Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Illinois Coll., Jacksonville, Ill.</li>
+ <li>Univ. of South, Sewaunee, Tenn.</li>
+ <li>Wesleyan Univ., Mt. Pleasant, Ia.</li>
+ <li>Univ. of Cal., Berkeley, Cal.</li>
+ <li>So. Car. Coll., Columbia, S. C.</li>
+ <li>Amsterdam Acad., Amsterdam, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Carleton Coll., Northfield, Minn.</li>
+ <li>Wesleyan Univ., Middletown, Mass.</li>
+ <li>Albion Coll., Albion, Mich.</li>
+ <li>Dartmouth Coll., Hanover, N. H.</li>
+ <li>Wilmington Coll., Wilmington, O.</li>
+ <li>Madison Univ., Hamilton, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Univ. of Wis., Madison, Wis.</li>
+ <li>Union Coll., Schenectady, N. Y.</li>
+ <li>Norwich Free Acad., Norwich, Conn.</li>
+ <li>Greenwich Acad., Greenwich, Conn.</li>
+ <li>Univ. of Neb., Lincoln, Neb.</li>
+ <li>Kalamazoo Coll., Kalamazoo, Mich.</li>
+ <li>Olivet Coll., Olivet, Mich.</li>
+ <li>Amherst Coll., Amherst, Mass.</li>
+ <li>Ohio State Univ., Columbus, O.</li>
+ <li>Free Schools, Oswego, N. Y.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<p class="center">Bishop <span class="smcap">J. F. Hurst</span>, <i>ex-President of Drew Theol. Sem.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It appears to me that the idea of Morris in his Epochs is
+strictly in harmony with the philosophy of history—namely, that
+great movements should be treated not according to narrow
+geographical and national limits and distinction, but universally,
+according to their place in the general life of the world. The
+historical Maps and the copious Indices are welcome additions
+to the volumes.”</p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center larger">EPOCHS OF ANCIENT HISTORY.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>A SERIES OF BOOKS NARRATING THE HISTORY OF
+GREECE AND ROME, AND OF THEIR RELATIONS TO
+OTHER COUNTRIES AT SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Edited by</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">Rev. <span class="smcap">G. W. Cox</span> and <span class="smcap">Charles Sankey</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Eleven volumes, 16mo, with 41 Maps and Plans.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Sold separately. Price per vol., $1.00.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in box, $11.00.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>TROY—ITS LEGEND, HISTORY, AND
+LITERATURE.</b> By <span class="smcap">S. G. W. Benjamin</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“The task of the author has been to gather into a clear
+and very readable narrative all that is known of legendary,
+historical, and geographical Troy, and to tell the story of
+Homer, and weigh and compare the different theories in the
+Homeric controversy. The work is well done. His book is
+altogether candid, and is a very valuable and entertaining
+compendium.”—<i>Hartford Courant.</i></p>
+
+<p>“As a monograph on Troy, covering all sides of the question,
+it is of great value, and supplies a long vacant place in
+our fund of classical knowledge.”—<i>N. Y. Christian Advocate.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE GREEKS AND THE PERSIANS.</b> By
+Rev. <span class="smcap">G. W. Cox</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“It covers the ground in a perfectly satisfactory way.
+The work is clear, succinct, and readable.”—<i>New York
+Independent.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Marked by thorough and comprehensive scholarship and
+by a skillful style.”—<i>Congregationalist.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It would be hard to find a more creditable book. The
+author’s prefatory remarks upon the origin and growth of
+Greek civilization are alone worth the price of the volume.”—<i>Christian
+Union.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE—From the Flight
+of Xerxes to the Fall of Athens.</b> By Rev.
+<span class="smcap">G. W. Cox</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Cox writes in such a way as to bring before the
+reader everything which is important to be known or learned;
+and his narrative cannot fail to give a good idea of the men
+and deeds with which he is concerned.”—<i>The Churchman.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Cox has done his work with the honesty of a true
+student. It shows persevering scholarship and a desire to
+get at the truth.”—<i>New York Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACIES.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Charles Sankey</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“This volume covers the period between the disasters of
+Athens at the close of the Pelopenesian war and the rise of
+Macedon. It is a very striking and instructive picture of the
+political life of the Grecian commonwealth at that time.”—<i>The
+Churchman.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It is singularly interesting to read, and in respect to
+arrangement, maps, etc., is all that can be desired.”—<i>Boston
+Congregationalist.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE—Its Rise and
+Culmination to Death of Alexander the
+Great.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. M. Curteis</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“A good and satisfactory history of a very important period.
+The maps are excellent, and the story is lucidly and vigorously
+told.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The same compressive style and yet completeness of
+detail that have characterized the previous issues in this
+delightful series, are found in this volume. Certainly the art
+of conciseness in writing was never carried to a higher or
+more effective point.”—<i>Boston Saturday Evening Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="mt1">⁂ <i>The above five volumes give a connected and complete
+history of Greece from the earliest times to the death of
+Alexander.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>EARLY ROME—From the Foundation of the
+City to its Destruction by the Gauls.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">W. Ihne</span>, Ph.D.</p>
+
+<p>“Those who want to know the truth instead of the traditions
+that used to be learned of our fathers, will find in the
+work entertainment, careful scholarship, and sound sense.”—<i>Cincinnati
+Times.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The book is excellently well done. The views are those
+of a learned and able man, and they are presented in this
+volume with great force and clearness.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>ROME AND CARTHAGE—The Punic Wars.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">R. Bosworth Smith</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“By blending the account of Rome and Carthage the accomplished
+author presents a succinct and vivid picture of
+two great cities and people which leaves a deep impression.
+The story is full of intrinsic interest, and was never better
+told.”—<i>Christian Union.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The volume is one of rare interest and value.”—<i>Chicago
+Interior.</i></p>
+
+<p>“An admirably condensed history of Carthage, from its
+establishment by the adventurous Phœnician traders to its
+sad and disastrous fall.”—<i>New York Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE GRACCHI, MARIUS, AND SULLA.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">A. H. Beesley</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“A concise and scholarly historical sketch, descriptive of
+the decay of the Roman Republic, and the events which paved
+the way for the advent of the conquering Cæsar. It is an
+excellent account of the leaders and legislation of the republic.”—<i>Boston
+Post.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It is prepared in succinct but comprehensive style, and is
+an excellent book for reading and reference.”—<i>New York
+Observer.</i></p>
+
+<p>“No better condensed account of the two Gracchi and the
+turbulent careers of Marius and Sulla has yet appeared.”—<i>New
+York Independent.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE ROMAN TRIUMVIRATES.</b> By the Very Rev.
+<span class="smcap">Charles Merivale</span>, D.D.</p>
+
+<p>“In brevity, clear and scholarly treatment of the subject,
+and the convenience of map, index, and side notes, the
+volume is a model.”—<i>New York Tribune.</i></p>
+
+<p>“An admirable presentation, and in style vigorous and
+picturesque.”—<i>Hartford Courant.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE EARLY EMPIRE—From the Assassination
+of Julius Cæsar to the Assassination
+of Domitian.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Wolfe Capes</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“It is written with great clearness and simplicity of style,
+and is as attractive an account as has ever been given in
+brief of one of the most interesting periods of Roman
+History.”—<i>Boston Saturday Evening Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It is a clear, well-proportioned, and trustworthy performance,
+and well deserves to be studied.”—<i>Christian at
+Work.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE AGE OF THE ANTONINES—The Roman
+Empire of the Second Century.</b> By Rev.
+<span class="smcap">W. Wolfe Capes</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“The Roman Empire during the second century is the
+broad subject discussed in this book, and discussed with
+learning and intelligence.”—<i>New York Independent.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The writer’s diction is clear and elegant, and his narration
+is free from any touch of pedantry. In the treatment of
+its prolific and interesting theme, and in its general plan, the
+book is a model of works of its class.”—<i>New York Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p>“We are glad to commend it. It is written clearly, and
+with care and accuracy. It is also in such neat and compact
+form as to be the more attractive.”—<i>Congregationalist.</i></p>
+
+<p class="mt1">⁂ <i>The above six volumes give the History of Rome from
+the founding of the City to the death of Marcus Aurelius
+Antoninus.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center larger">EPOCHS OF MODERN HISTORY.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>A SERIES OF BOOKS NARRATING THE HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND AND EUROPE AT SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS
+SUBSEQUENT TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Edited by</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Edward E. Morris</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Eighteen volumes, 16mo, with 74 Maps, Plans, and Tables.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Sold separately. Price per vol., $1.00.</p>
+
+<p class="center">The Set, Roxburgh style, gilt top, in box, $18.00.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES—England
+and Europe in the Ninth Century.</b>
+By the Very Rev. <span class="smcap">R. W. Church</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“A remarkably thoughtful and satisfactory discussion of
+the causes and results of the vast changes which came upon
+Europe during the period discussed. The book is adapted to
+be exceedingly serviceable.”—<i>Chicago Standard.</i></p>
+
+<p>“At once readable and valuable. It is comprehensive and
+yet gives the details of a period most interesting to the student
+of history.”—<i>Herald and Presbyter.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It is written with a clearness and vividness of statement
+which make it the pleasantest reading. It represents a great
+deal of patient research, and is careful and scholarly.”—<i>Boston
+Journal.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE NORMANS IN EUROPE—The Feudal
+System and England under the Norman
+Kings.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">A. H. Johnson</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“Its pictures of the Normans in their home, of the Scandinavian
+exodus, the conquest of England, and Norman
+administration, are full of vigor and cannot fail of holding the
+reader’s attention.”—<i>Episcopal Register.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The style of the author is vigorous and animated, and he
+has given a valuable sketch of the origin and progress of the
+great Northern movement that has shaped the history of
+modern Europe.”—<i>Boston Transcript.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE CRUSADES.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">G. W. Cox</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“To be warmly commended for important qualities. The
+author shows conscientious fidelity to the materials, and such
+skill in the use of them, that, as a result, the reader has
+before him a narrative related in a style that makes it truly
+fascinating.”—<i>Congregationalist.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It is written in a pure and flowing style, and its arrangement
+and treatment of subject are exceptional.”—<i>Christian
+Intelligencer.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE EARLY PLANTAGENETS—Their
+Relation to the History of Europe; The
+Foundation and Growth of Constitutional
+Government.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Stubbs</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“Nothing could be desired more dear, succinct, and well
+arranged. All parts of the book are well done. It may be
+pronounced the best existing brief history of the constitution
+for this, its most important period.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Prof. Stubbs has presented leading events with such fairness
+and wisdom as are seldom found. He is remarkably
+clear and satisfactory.”—<i>The Churchman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>EDWARD III.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Warburton</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“The author has done his work well, and we commend it
+as containing in small space all essential matter.”—<i>New York
+Independent.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Events and movements are admirably condensed by the
+author, and presented in such attractive form as to entertain
+as well as instruct.”—<i>Chicago Interior.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK—The
+Conquest and Loss of France.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">James Gairdner</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“Prepared in a most careful and thorough manner, and
+ought to be read by every student.”—<i>New York Times.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It leaves nothing to be desired as regards compactness,
+accuracy, and excellence of literary execution.”—<i>Boston
+Journal.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLUTION.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Frederic Seebohm</span>. With Notes, on
+Books in English relating to the Reformation, by Prof.
+<span class="smcap">George P. Fisher</span>, D.D.</p>
+
+<p>“For an impartial record of the civil and ecclesiastical
+changes about four hundred years ago, we cannot commend a
+better manual.”—<i>Sunday-School Times.</i></p>
+
+<p>“All that could be desired, as well in execution as in plan.
+The narrative is animated, and the selection and grouping of
+events skillful and effective.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE EARLY TUDORS—Henry VII., Henry
+VIII.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">C. E. Moberley</span>, M.A., late Master in
+Rugby School.</p>
+
+<p>“Is concise, scholarly, and accurate. On the epoch of which
+it treats, we know of no work which equals it.”—<i>N. Y. Observer.</i></p>
+
+<p>“A marvel of clear and succinct brevity and good historical
+judgment. There is hardly a better book of its kind to be
+named.”—<i>New York Independent.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE AGE OF ELIZABETH.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">M.
+Creighton</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“Clear and compact in style; careful in their facts, and
+just in interpretation of them. It sheds much light on the
+progress of the Reformation and the origin of the Popish
+reaction during Queen Elizabeth’s reign; also, the relation of
+Jesuitism to the latter.”—<i>Presbyterian Review.</i></p>
+
+<p>“A clear, concise, and just story of an era crowded with
+events of interest and importance.”—<i>New York World.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Samuel Rawson Gardiner</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“As a manual it will prove of the greatest practical value,
+while to the general reader it will afford a clear and interesting
+account of events. We know of no more spirited and attractive
+recital of the great era.”—<i>Boston Saturday Evening Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The thrilling story of those times has never been told so
+vividly or succinctly as in this volume.”—<i>Episcopal Register.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE PURITAN REVOLUTION; and the First
+Two Stuarts, 1603-1660.</b> By <span class="smcap">Samuel Rawson
+Gardiner</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“The narrative is condensed and brief, yet sufficiently comprehensive
+to give an adequate view of the events related.”—<i>Chicago
+Standard.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Gardiner uses his researches in an admirably clear
+and fair way.”—<i>Congregationalist.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The sketch is concise, but clear and perfectly intelligible.”—<i>Hartford
+Courant.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE ENGLISH RESTORATION AND LOUIS
+XIV., from the Peace of Westphalia to the
+Peace of Nimwegen.</b> By <span class="smcap">Osmund Airy</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“It is crisply and admirably written. An immense amount
+of information is conveyed and with great clearness, the
+arrangement of the subjects showing great skill and a thorough
+command of the complicated theme.”—<i>Boston Saturday
+Evening Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The author writes with fairness and discrimination, and
+has given a clear and intelligible presentation of the time.”—<i>New
+York Evangelist.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE FALL OF THE STUARTS; and Western
+Europe.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">Edward Hale</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“A valuable compend to the general reader and scholar.”—<i>Providence
+Journal.</i></p>
+
+<p>“It will be found of great value. It is a very graphic
+account of the history of Europe during the 17th century,
+and is admirably adapted for the use of students.”—<i>Boston
+Saturday Evening Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p>“An admirable handbook for the student.”—<i>The Churchman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE AGE OF ANNE.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward E. Morris</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“The author’s arrangement of the material is remarkably
+clear, his selection and adjustment of the facts judicious, his
+historical judgment fair and candid, while the style wins by
+its simple elegance.”—<i>Chicago Standard.</i></p>
+
+<p>“An excellent compendium of the history of an important
+period.”—<i>The Watchman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE EARLY HANOVERIANS—Europe from
+the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Edward E. Morris</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p>“Masterly, condensed, and vigorous, this is one of the
+books which it is a delight to read at odd moments; which
+are broad and suggestive, and at the same time condensed in
+treatment.”—<i>Christian Advocate.</i></p>
+
+<p>“A remarkably clear and readable summary of the salient
+points of interest. The maps and tables, no less than the
+author’s style and treatment of the subject, entitle the volume
+to the highest claims of recognition.”—<i>Boston Daily Advertiser.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>FREDERICK THE GREAT, AND THE SEVEN
+YEARS’ WAR.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. W. Longman</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“The subject is most important, and the author has treated
+it in a way which is both scholarly and entertaining.”—<i>The
+Churchman.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Admirably adapted to interest school boys, and older
+heads will find it pleasant reading.”—<i>New York Tribune.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, AND FIRST
+EMPIRE.</b> By <span class="smcap">William O’Connor Morris</span>. With
+Appendix by <span class="smcap">Andrew D. White</span>, LL.D., ex-President of
+Cornell University.</p>
+
+<p>“We have long needed a simple compendium of this period,
+and we have here one which is brief enough to be easily run
+through with, and yet particular enough to make entertaining
+reading.”—<i>New York Evening Post.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The author has well accomplished his difficult task of
+sketching in miniature the grand and crowded drama of the
+French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire, showing
+himself to be no servile compiler, but capable of judicious
+and independent criticism.”—<i>Springfield Republican.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE EPOCH OF REFORM—1830-1850.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">Justin McCarthy</span>.</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. McCarthy knows the period of which he writes
+thoroughly, and the result is a narrative that is at once entertaining
+and trustworthy.”—<i>New York Examiner.</i></p>
+
+<p>“The narrative is clear and comprehensive, and told with
+abundant knowledge and grasp of the subject.”—<i>Boston
+Courier.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center larger">IMPORTANT HISTORICAL WORKS.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE DAWN OF HISTORY. An Introduction
+to Pre-Historic Study.</b> New and Enlarged Edition.
+Edited by <span class="smcap">C. F. Keary</span>. 12mo, cloth, $1.25.</p>
+
+<p>This work treats successively of the earliest traces of man;
+of language, its growth, and the story it tells of the pre-historic
+users of it; of early social life, the religions, mythologies,
+and folk-tales, and of the history of writing. The present
+edition contains about one hundred pages of new matter,
+embodying the results of the latest researches.</p>
+
+<p>“A fascinating manual. In its way, the work is a model
+of what a popular scientific work should be.”—<i>Boston Sat.
+Eve. Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS.</b> By Professor <span class="smcap">George
+Rawlinson</span>, M.A. 12mo, with maps, $1.00.</p>
+
+<p>The first part of this book discusses the antiquity of civilization
+in Egypt and the other early nations of the East. The
+second part is an examination of the ethnology of Genesis,
+showing its accordance with the latest results of modern
+ethnographical science.</p>
+
+<p>“A work of genuine scholarly excellence, and a useful
+offset to a great deal of the superficial current literature on
+such subjects.”—<i>Congregationalist.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>MANUAL OF MYTHOLOGY. For the Use
+of Schools, Art Students, and General
+Readers. Founded on the Works of Petiscus,
+Preller, and Welcker.</b> By <span class="smcap">Alexander
+S. Murray</span>, Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities,
+British Museum. With 45 Plates. Reprinted from the
+Second Revised London Edition. Crown 8vo, $1.75.</p>
+
+<p>“It has been acknowledged the best work on the subject
+to be found in a concise form, and as it embodies the results
+of the latest researches and discoveries in ancient mythologies,
+it is superior for school and general purposes as a handbook
+to any of the so-called standard works.”—<i>Cleveland Herald.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Whether as a manual for reference, a text-book for school
+use, or for the general reader, the book will be found very
+valuable and interesting.”—<i>Boston Journal.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE HISTORY OF ROME, from the Earliest
+Time to the Period of Its Decline.</b> By Dr.
+<span class="smcap">Theodor Mommsen</span>. Translated by <span class="smcap">W. P. Dickson</span>, D.D.,
+LL.D. Reprinted from the Revised London Edition. Four
+volumes, crown 8vo. Price per set, $8.00.</p>
+
+<p>“A work of the very highest merit; its learning is exact
+and profound; its narrative full of genius and skill; its
+descriptions of men are admirably vivid.”—<i>London Times.</i></p>
+
+<p>“Since the days of Niebuhr, no work on Roman History
+has appeared that combines so much to attract, instruct, and
+charm the reader. Its style—a rare quality in a German
+author—is vigorous, spirited, and animated.”—Dr. <span class="smcap">Schmitz</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE PROVINCES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
+From Cæsar to Diocletian.</b> By <span class="smcap">Theodor
+Mommsen</span>. Translated by <span class="smcap">William P. Dickson</span>, D.D.,
+LL.D. With maps. Two vols., 8vo, $6.00.</p>
+
+<p>“The author draws the wonderfully rich and varied picture
+of the conquest and administration of that great circle of
+peoples and lands which formed the empire of Rome outside
+of Italy, their agriculture, trade, and manufactures, their
+artistic and scientific life, through all degrees of civilization,
+with such detail and completeness as could have come from
+no other hand than that of this great master of historical research.”—Prof.
+<span class="smcap">W. A. Packard</span>, Princeton College.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE HISTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.</b>
+Abridged from the History by Professor <span class="smcap">Theodor Mommsen</span>,
+by <span class="smcap">C. Bryans</span> and <span class="smcap">F. J. R. Hendy</span>. 12mo, $1.75.</p>
+
+<p>“It is a genuine boon that the essential parts of Mommsen’s
+Rome are thus brought within the easy reach of all, and the
+abridgment seems to me to preserve unusually well the glow
+and movement of the original.”—Prof. <span class="smcap">Tracy Peck</span>, Yale
+University.</p>
+
+<p>“The condensation has been accurately and judiciously
+effected. I heartily commend the volume as the most adequate
+embodiment, in a single volume, of the main results of modern
+historical research in the field of Roman affairs.”—Prof.
+<span class="smcap">Henry M. Baird</span>, University of City of New York.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE HISTORY OF GREECE.</b> By Prof. Dr.
+<span class="smcap">Ernst Curtius</span>. Translated by Adolphus William Ward,
+M.A., Fellow of St. Peter’s College, Cambridge, Prof. of
+History in Owen’s College, Manchester. Five volumes,
+crown 8vo. Price per set, $10.00.</p>
+
+<p>“We cannot express our opinion of Dr. Curtius’ book better
+than by saying that it may be fitly ranked with Theodor
+Mommsen’s great work.”—<i>London Spectator.</i></p>
+
+<p>“As an introduction to the study of Grecian history, no
+previous work is comparable to the present for vivacity and
+picturesque beauty, while in sound learning and accuracy of
+statement it is not inferior to the elaborate productions which
+enrich the literature of the age.”—<i>N. Y. Daily Tribune.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>CÆSAR: a Sketch.</b> By <span class="smcap">James Anthony Froude</span>,
+M.A. 12mo, gilt top, $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>“This book is a most fascinating biography and is by far
+the best account of Julius Cæsar to be found in the English
+language.”—<i>The London Standard.</i></p>
+
+<p>“He combines into a compact and nervous narrative all
+that is known of the personal, social, political, and military
+life of Cæsar; and with his sketch of Cæsar includes other
+brilliant sketches of the great man, his friends, or rivals,
+who contemporaneously with him formed the principal figures
+in the Roman world.”—<i>Harper’s Monthly.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>CICERO. Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">William Forsyth</span>, M.A., Q.C. 20 Engravings. New
+Edition. 2 vols., crown 8vo, in one, gilt top, $2.50.</p>
+
+<p>The author has not only given us the most complete and
+well-balanced account of the life of Cicero ever published;
+he has drawn an accurate and graphic picture of domestic life
+among the best classes of the Romans, one which the reader
+of general literature, as well as the student, may peruse with
+pleasure and profit.</p>
+
+<p>“A scholar without pedantry, and a Christian without cant,
+Mr. Forsyth seems to have seized with praiseworthy tact the
+precise attitude which it behooves a biographer to take when
+narrating the life, the personal life of Cicero. Mr. Forsyth
+produces what we venture to say will become one of the
+classics of English biographical literature, and will be welcomed
+by readers of all ages and both sexes, of all professions
+and of no profession at all.”—<i>London Quarterly.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center larger">VALUABLE WORKS ON CLASSICAL LITERATURE.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.
+From the Earliest Period to the Death of
+Marcus Aurelius.</b> With Chronological Tables, etc.,
+for the use of Students. By <span class="smcap">C. T. Cruttwell</span>, M.A. Crown
+8vo, $2.50.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Cruttwell’s book is written throughout from a purely
+literary point of view, and the aim has been to avoid tedious
+and trivial details. The result is a volume not only suited
+for the student, but remarkably readable for all who possess
+any interest in the subject.</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Cruttwell has given us a genuine history of Roman
+literature, not merely a descriptive list of authors and their
+productions, but a well elaborated portrayal of the successive
+stages in the intellectual development of the Romans and the
+various forms of expression which these took in literature.”—<i>N.
+Y. Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>A HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.
+From the Earliest Period of Demosthenes.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Frank Byron Jevons</span>, M.A., Tutor in the University
+of Durham. Crown 8vo, $2.50.</p>
+
+<p class="center smaller"><i>UNIFORM WITH THE ABOVE.</i></p>
+
+<p>The author goes into detail with sufficient fullness to make
+the history complete, but he never loses sight of the commanding
+lines along which the Greek mind moved, and a
+clear understanding of which is necessary to every intelligent
+student of universal literature.</p>
+
+<p>“It is beyond all question the best history of Greek literature
+that has hitherto been published.”—<i>London Spectator.</i></p>
+
+<p>“With such a book as this within reach there is no reason
+why any intelligent English reader may not get a thorough
+and comprehensive insight into the spirit of Greek literature,
+of its historic development, and of its successive and chief
+masterpieces, which are here so finely characterized, analyzed,
+and criticised.”—<i>Chicago Advance.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap">
+
+<p class="center larger">TRANSLATIONS OF PLATO.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>THE DIALOGUES OF PLATO. Translated
+into English, with Analysis and Introductions.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">B. Jowett</span>, M.A., Master of Balliol College,
+Oxford. A new and cheaper edition. Four vols., crown 8vo,
+per set, $8.00.</p>
+
+<p>“The present work of Professor Jowett will be welcomed
+with profound interest, as the only adequate endeavor to
+transport the most precious monument of Grecian thought
+among the familiar treasures of English literature. The
+noble reputation of Professor Jowett, both as a thinker and a
+scholar, is a valid guaranty for the excellence of his performance.”—<i>New
+York Tribune.</i></p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>SOCRATES. A Translation of the Apology,
+Crito, and parts of the Phædo of Plato.</b>
+Containing the Defence of Socrates at his Trial, his Conversation
+in Prison, with his Thoughts on the Future Life, and
+an Account of his Death. With an Introduction by Professor
+W. W. Goodwin, of Harvard College. 12mo, cloth, $1.00;
+paper, 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>TALKS WITH SOCRATES ABOUT LIFE.
+Translations from the Gorgias and the
+Republic of Plato.</b> 12mo, cloth, $1.00; paper, 50
+cents.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging"><b>A DAY IN ATHENS WITH SOCRATES.
+Translations from the Protagoras and the
+Republic of Plato.</b> Being conversations between
+Socrates and other Greeks on Virtue and Justice. 12mo,
+cloth, $1.00; paper, 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p>“Eminent scholars, men of much Latin and more Greek,
+attest the skill and truth with which the versions are made;
+we can confidently speak of their English grace and clearness.
+They seem a ‘model of style,’ because they are without
+manner and perfectly simple.”—<span class="smcap">W. D. Howells.</span></p>
+
+<p>“We do not remember any translation of a Greek author
+which is a better specimen of idiomatic English than this, or
+a more faithful rendering of the real spirit of the original
+into English as good and as simple as the Greek.”—<i>New York
+Evening Post.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center mt1">CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS,<br>
+743 and 745 Broadway, New York.</p>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 77173 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #77173
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/77173)
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