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author: www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> 2026-02-21 09:55:45 -0800
committer: www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org> 2026-02-21 09:55:45 -0800
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+<title>
+  The Project Gutenberg eBook of Plutarch’s Essays and Miscellanies, Volume 5
+  by Plutarch.
+</title>
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78000 ***</div>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f000_1" style="max-width: 134.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f000_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><i>Circe.</i><br>
+<br>
+<i>From the painting by E. Burne-Jones.</i></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<h1>Plutarch’s Essays
+And Miscellanies</h1>
+
+<h2>Comprising all his Works Collected
+under the Title of “Morals” · Translated
+from the Greek by Several Hands
+Corrected and Revised by WILLIAM
+W. GOODWIN, Ph.D., Professor of
+Greek Literature in Harvard University
+In Five Volumes · Volume Five</h2>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp76" id="f001" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f001.jpg" alt="HONOS ET VIRTUS">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="center">BOSTON · LITTLE, BROWN
+AND COMPANY · MCMXI
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p class="center padt2 padb2">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870,<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Little, Brown, and Company</span>,<br>
+In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="center padb2">  Copyright, 1898, 1905,<br>
+By <span class="smcap">Little, Brown, and Company</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center padt2 padb2">Printers<br>
+<span class="smcap">S. J. Parkhill &amp; Co., Boston, U. S. A.</span>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS_OF_VOLUME_FIFTH">CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIFTH.<br>
+
+<span class="smaller">WITH THE TRANSLATORS’ NAMES.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="r5">
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#OF_EATING_OF_FLESH">OF EATING OF FLESH.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2">By William Baxter, Gent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">The very idea
+of eating the carcasses of slain animals is repulsive, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. Who could
+have begun the practice, but from the direst necessity? <a href="#Page_4">4</a>. Men must
+have been driven to the deed of slaying animals for food, because the
+supply of food from the vegetable world had utterly failed, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>. We
+have no such necessity, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>. Man is not by nature a carnivorous animal,
+<a href="#Page_7">7</a>. Our conduct in slaying animals and then preparing them for food
+is wholly against nature, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. Animal food is injurious: it clogs and
+confuses the mind and renders it stupid, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. It operates unfavorably on
+character, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. If we must eat flesh, let it be with sorrow and pity;
+not tormenting and abusing the poor animal before taking its life, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.
+Passing the bounds of nature in our feeding, intemperate appetites
+and shameful lusts are gratified, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>. Cruelty to mankind is induced,
+<a href="#Page_12">12</a>. Animals have senses; they have faculties for seeing, hearing,
+understanding: is it right to extinguish these faculties? <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. Who knows
+but the bodies of animals may contain the souls of deceased men; of a
+father, brother, son, or other friend? <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#LIVES_OF_THE_TEN_ORATORS">LIVES OF THE TEN ORATORS.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Charles Barcroft, Lecturer of
+St. Mildred’s, Bread Street.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">1. Antiphon,
+<a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>. 2. Andocides, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a>. 3. Lysias, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>. 4. Isocrates, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>. 5.
+Isaeus, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. 6. Aeschines, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_36">36</a>. 7. Lycurgus, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>. 8. Demosthenes,
+<a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>. 9. Hyperides, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>. 10. Dinarchus, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. Decrees proposed to
+the Athenians for statues to be set up to Demosthenes, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#WHETHER_AN_AGED_MAN">WHETHER AN AGED MAN OUGHT
+TO MEDDLE IN STATE AFFAIRS.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By F. Fetherston, D.D.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">It is maintained
+by some, that after a certain time men should not employ themselves
+in public affairs, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. The love of honor and zeal for the public
+good never grows old, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>. It is not well for a man who has never
+been accustomed to public business to commence such employment late
+in life, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>. An aged man may usefully conduct public affairs, as we
+see in the instances of Augustus Caesar, Pericles, and Agesilaus,
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. Simonides and Sophocles, in old age, were good poets, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. It
+is unworthy of a man who has served the public many years, to<span
+class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span> descend, in the decline
+of life, to mean employments, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>. Political life has pleasures
+very great and honorable, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>. A man should not suffer his glory to
+wither in old age, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. Reputation once acquired is easily maintained,
+and the people readily trust their old and faithful servants, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.
+Envy and jealousy do not assail old age, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. It is not easy to
+terminate a long and faithful public service, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>. An old man staying at
+home, and spending his time in small matters is not honored, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>. Old
+men, full of experience and of wisdom, are often compelled by their
+fellow-citizens to conduct difficult negotiations, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>. Old age of
+itself is not a good reason for quitting the public service, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.
+Young men for war, but old men for counsel, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>. The Roman council of
+state is called the Senate, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>. The regal dignity has cares and toils,
+but who would advise the king to abdicate? <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. Old men in office may
+instruct and guide younger statesmen, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>. Old men are often hale
+and vigorous, and so not disabled for the service of the state, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.
+Examples of Phocion, Masinissa, and Cato, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>. Idleness enervates even
+great men, as Lucullus, while constant employment invigorates, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.
+Our country has claims on our services, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>. Yet old age should have
+becoming employment, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>. An aged man should abstain from small and
+frivolous matters, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. Offices of honor and dignity befit old men, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.
+They should not eagerly seek office, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>. Old men should not be forward
+to speak in public, they should speak on grave occasions, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>. On other
+occasions, let them yield to younger men, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>. Let them comfort and
+encourage deserving young men in their failures, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>. To be a statesman
+is not only to hold office and conduct negotiations, but also to guide,
+instruct, and assist those who conduct public affairs, when occasion
+requires, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. Even men in private stations may do this, and thus
+serve their country till death, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#POLITICAL_PRECEPTS">POLITICAL PRECEPTS.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Samuel White, M.D.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Counsels to a
+politician, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>. In the administration of public affairs, be guided by
+reason and judgment, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. Act not from vain-glory, emulation, or want
+of other employment, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>. Accommodate yourself to the temper and
+disposition of the citizens, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>. Having obtained power among the
+people, endeavor to reform their disposition, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>. Do not give them
+an opportunity of finding fault with your own life or manners, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.
+Beware of little faults, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>. Cultivate the graces of speech,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>. Orators sway the multitude, as in the case of Pericles,
+<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. What the speech of a statesman should be, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. How to use
+satire and invective, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. Think before you speak, and speak
+right on, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. Speak in full, round tones, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>. Two ways of
+entering on public life, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>. First, with a bold, vigorous hand,
+like Aratus, Alcibiades, Scipio, Pompey, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_112">112</a>. Secondly, by
+procuring the assistance of some man of influence and authority,
+<a href="#Page_114">114</a>. Be careful in the choice of your man, lest your success inspire
+him with jealousy, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. Pompey owed his success to Sylla, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>. Avoid
+flatterers and favorites, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. Do not gratify friends in derogation
+of law and right, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. Grant favors to friends when consistent with
+duty and public advantage, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. Be generous and just towards your
+enemies, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>. Let patriotism overshadow all private griefs, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.
+How to meet invective, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>. Allow others to assist in public affairs,
+<a href="#Page_128">128</a>. Undertake nothing for which you lack qualification, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.
+Keep the helm in your own hand, but carry yourself with moderation;
+do not forget the limits of your power, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>. As Greece<span
+class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span> is under the Roman sway,
+it is well to remember that fact, and to cultivate the favor of some
+powerful man at Rome, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. Yet you should avoid, as much as possible,
+foreign interference, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. Let the affairs of every city be settled
+by its own citizens, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. When commotions arise, try to compose them,
+<a href="#Page_134">134</a>. One man’s virtue has often saved a state, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>. Treat colleagues in
+office with honor and respect, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. Plutarch relates an incident in his
+own life, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>. Honor the magistrates, even if you are personally their
+superior, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>. If a magistrate should be remiss in duty, do what you
+can to supply the defect, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>. Yield to the multitude in small things,
+that you may hinder their misdoings in greater, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>. When the people
+desire something which would be injurious to the state, use evasion
+and delay, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>. When about to undertake some difficult affair, secure
+the assistance of well-qualified persons, rather than of persons like
+yourself, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>. Divest yourself of the desire for riches, and of a mean,
+ignoble ambition, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>. Decline not the honors which the people
+are disposed to bestow, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>. The good-will of the people towards
+a public servant helps him greatly in the discharge of his duty, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.
+If you are rich, and can give largesses to the people, bestow them,
+but with due care, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>. If you are poor, hesitate not to confess
+it, and incur no expense you cannot afford, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>. In case of a
+sedition, try to compose it, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. Especially try to prevent seditions
+and commotions, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>. In the present state of Greece, subject to the
+will of a Roman proconsul, no good can arise from public commotions,
+<a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#WHICH_ARE_THE_MOST_CRAFTY">
+WHICH ARE THE MOST CRAFTY, WATER-ANIMALS OR THOSE CREATURES THAT
+BREED UPON THE LAND?</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By John Philips, Gent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Field sports, the
+slaughter of wild and at length of tame animals, prepared the way for
+men to kill one another, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>. Have brutes a soul? they certainly have
+sense and imagination, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>. They learn to desire some things and to
+avoid others, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>. They have expectation, memory, design, hope, fear,
+desire, and grief, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>. If they have sense, they have understanding,
+<a href="#Page_161">161</a>. They have what in men is called understanding, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Men punish
+dogs and horses for their faults, as if for the purpose of producing
+repentance, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Beasts are susceptible of pleasure, joy, anger, fear,
+<a href="#Page_163">163</a>. But are they capable of virtue? <a href="#Page_163">163</a>. They love their offspring,
+<a href="#Page_164">164</a>. They may have reason, and yet not have it perfectly, or in a high
+degree, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. As sight and swiftness exist in different degrees, so may
+reason and mental force, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>. Animals differ widely in their faculties,
+as in their habits, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>. Many brute animals excel men in the faculties
+of sight and hearing, as well as in swiftness and strength; but we may
+not therefore say that men are blind, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. There are mad dogs
+and horses; what is this but a disturbance of the reason? <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. Mankind
+are chargeable with great injustice in dealing with beasts as they do,
+<a href="#Page_169">169</a>. There is a necessary and convenient use of the brute creation,
+<a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. Beyond this, we ought not to go, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. In the exercise of
+what so nearly resembles reason, do land animals excel those that live
+in the water? <a href="#Page_172">172</a>. There is sufficient reason to believe that they
+do, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. Observe the habits of bulls, lions, and elephants, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. Of
+the ichneumon, of swallows, and spiders, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>. Of bees, crows, geese,
+and cranes, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. The contrivances and labors of emmets, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>. The
+sagacity of the elephant and the fox, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. The affection of the
+dog for his master; some striking instances related, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>. Story of
+a mule at Athens, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>. Another dog story, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. The elephant<span
+class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span> that carried King Porus,
+<a href="#Page_183">183</a>. The horse Bucephalus, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. Where there is one virtue in a brute,
+there are commonly others, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. Instances of subtlety and cunning,
+<a href="#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="#Page_186">186</a>. Elephants and lions have a taste for society, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>. Amorous
+propensities of some brutes towards mankind; singular instances given,
+<a href="#Page_188">188</a>. Starlings, magpies, and parrots learn to talk, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. Swans
+and nightingales sing, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. Story of a magpie at Rome imitating the
+music of trumpets exactly, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>. Wonderful docility of a dog, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>. Men
+have learned of the spider to weave; of the swallow to build; and have
+acquired from other animals skill in medicine, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>. Some oxen
+
+have learned to count, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. Soothsaying and divination is by means of
+birds, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>. What now can be said of the sagacity and intelligence of
+fishes and other water-animals? living in the sea, and remote from our
+observation, they are but little known to us, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. Crocodiles come when
+called, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>. Fish are not easily caught, a proof of great cunning and
+wariness, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. Fish stand by and defend each other in danger, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.
+Sagacity of the dolphin and the cuttle-fish, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>. Subtlety of the fish
+in taking their own prey, the torpedo, polypus, and others, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.
+Sagacity of the tunny, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. Mutual affection of the crocodile and
+the trochilus, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>. Sagacity of fish in depositing their spawn, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
+<a href="#Page_208">208</a>. Care of the tortoise and crocodile for their young, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.
+Intelligence and conjugal affection of the halcyon, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>. Story of
+a dolphin which served as a guide to messengers of Ptolemy Soter, king
+of Egypt, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. The dolphin, a solitary instance among the brutes
+of disinterested love for man, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. Stories of affectionate dolphins,
+<a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large">
+<a href="#THAT_BRUTE_BEASTS_MAKE_USE_OF_REASON">THAT BRUTE BEASTS MAKE USE OF REASON.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Sir A. J.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">A satire on the
+boasted wisdom, fortitude, magnanimity, and temperance of man, in
+the form of a dialogue between Ulysses in the island of Circe, and
+Gryllus, whom she had changed into a swine, and who now prefers his
+swinish condition to a return to the human form; Ulysses asks Circe for
+permission to restore his companions to the human shape, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>. Circe
+will grant the request if the men themselves desire it, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. Gryllus,
+one of them, is brought forward to answer in behalf of the entire
+company, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>. He refuses, and gives his reasons, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, et seq. He says
+that by making him and his companions beasts, Circe has done them a
+great favor, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. Beasts have more fortitude than men; they fight in
+fair, open combat, without trick or artifice; they are no cowards, they
+never cry for mercy, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>. Beasts are courageous and daring, even the
+females; while the courage of men is artificial, and women are timid,
+<a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. Beasts are more temperate and chaste than men; they indulge
+their appetites only in a natural way, and at the proper season,
+<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>. Beasts do not value silver or gold, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. They have no
+adventitious desires, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. Their senses are more accurate, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>. Men are
+incontinent: they indulge unnatural and excessive appetites; are never
+satisfied, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>. Beasts are satisfied with one kind of food, and
+this procured without difficulty; they have nature for their teacher,
+and could teach men many useful lessons, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#OF_THE_FACE">OF THE FACE APPEARING
+WITHIN THE ORB OF THE MOON.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By A. G., Gent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">In abstruse
+speculations, if we fail of satisfaction in one direction, we must
+inquire in another, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>. A face or form is seen in the moon; how is
+this to be explained? <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg
+vii]</span> The appearance of a form in the moon is not the result
+of any acuteness or dulness of our vision, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>. The appearance
+in question some think may be a reflection of the ocean from the
+moon’s disc, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>. This opinion refuted, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>. Some think the moon
+to be a compound of air and fire, a disturbance of which causes the
+appearance in question, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>. This notion disproved, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.
+That the earth is a larger body than the moon, is shown by eclipses of
+the moon, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>. The moon must be a solid body, though much lighter than
+the earth, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>. The spherical form of the earth, the antipodes,
+and all motion tending towards the earth’s centre, are pronounced
+absurdities, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>. The moon is not far from the earth, and feels
+its influence, though not of the same substance, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>. Computation
+of the respective distances of the sun and moon from the earth, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.
+The spherical form of the earth again denied, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>. If the earth is in
+the middle, of what is it the middle? not of the universe, surely,
+<a href="#Page_247">247</a>. Relations of bodies <i>above</i> and <i>beneath</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>. We are
+not, in our philosophy, to reduce every thing to the place to which it
+naturally belongs, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. All things do not follow their natural
+course, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. In the human body the heaviest parts are not placed
+lowermost, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>. So it may be in the structure of the world, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>. The
+moon, though placed in high heaven, may be a heavy body, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>. It is not
+therefore composed of fire and air, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>. But has the moon the nature of
+earth? <a href="#Page_254">254</a>. Does the moon reflect the light of the sun? <a href="#Page_255">255</a>. Reasons
+why this is probable, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>. When the moon appears only half-enlightened,
+ought not the light reflected to come at right angles? and is it so?
+<a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>. Aspect of the moon when gibbous or crescent, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>. Only solid
+bodies reflect light; the moon therefore must be a solid body, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+<a href="#Page_260">260</a>. That the moon is a solid body is farther proved by eclipses of
+the sun, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_262">262</a>. Size of the moon; as large as Peloponnesus, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>. Its
+proportionate size in relation to the earth, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>. Further arguments
+from eclipses, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a>. Objections answered, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>. The moon is not
+a star, or a burning body, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>. Its nature is like that of the earth,
+<a href="#Page_268">268</a>. This need not impugn her divinity, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>. There may be cavities
+and other inequalities on the surface of the moon, and these may be
+immensely large, so as to be seen by us, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>. The shadow of Mount Athos
+falls on Lemnos, the shadow being immensely larger than the mountain,
+<a href="#Page_270">270</a>. An objection from this answered, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>. Is the moon inhabited?
+is it fit for the abode of animated beings? <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>. Answer, (1.)
+If it be not, it does not prove that the moon was made in vain, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.
+(2.) The moon may be inhabited: we can see no reasons to the contrary,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a>. Objections considered, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. That the moon is inhabited
+is not more incredible than that the ocean should be inhabited, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.
+A description of the isle Ogygia, in the Western Ocean, the abode
+of Saturn; its inhabitants; the phenomena and customs of the place,
+<a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>. Man is compounded of three parts: the body, the soul, and
+the understanding, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. The understanding is from the sun, the soul
+from the moon, that is from Proserpine, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>. Every soul, dismissed
+from the body, wanders for a time between the earth and the moon, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.
+When they reach the moon, they behold its greatness and beauty, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.
+The moon described as it appears to them, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. The Elysian fields are
+there, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. If any of the dwellers there commit a fault, they are
+thrust down to earth again, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>. After a long time, they come back to
+the moon, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. This about the moon may be taken for what one pleases,
+<a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span>
+<a href="#OF_FATE">OF FATE.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By the Same Hand.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Fate is either
+(1) an energy, a law, an act, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; or (2) a substance, the soul of the
+world, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. Though comprehending infinite, it is itself finite, for
+law is in its nature finite, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. Every thing moves in a circle;
+all beings and all actions that now exist will come around again: we
+shall again do what we are now doing, and in the same manner, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.
+Fate, the Divine Law, the Law of Nature, determines all things, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>. It
+determines both conditionally and universally, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>. What relation has
+Fate to Divine Providence? what to fortune? what to human ability? what
+to contingent events? <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. As the civil law comprehends and relates to
+many things which are not lawful, so it is with Fate, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>. The words
+<i>possible</i> and <i>contingent</i> defined; also <i>power</i>,
+<i>necessity</i>, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>. Of causes: some are causes <i>per
+se</i>, others are causes by accident, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>. Fortune is a cause by
+accident, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>. Fortune is not the same thing as Chance, though Chance
+comprehends Fortune, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. Fortune relates to men only; Chance includes
+things animate and inanimate, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. Of Divine Providence: (1) the will
+of the Supreme Deity; (2) the will of the subordinate deities; (3) the
+will of the Daemons, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>. Of the Providence of the Supreme God, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.
+Of the Providence of the inferior gods, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>. Of the Providence of the
+Daemons, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#CONCERNING_THE_FIRST_PRINCIPLE_OF_COLD">
+CONCERNING THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF COLD.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By F. Fetherston</span>, D.D.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Is cold the
+mere privation of heat? <a href="#Page_309">309</a>. This is denied, for cold seems to act on
+fluids and on solids: like heat or other actual substances, it has a
+productive power, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. Further, a mere privation is not capable of
+degrees; but cold exists in different degrees, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>. A privation is
+nothing; cold is something, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>. A privation is not the object of any
+of our senses; but cold can be felt, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>. Privation is something single
+and simple; substances have differences, continually varying; and thus
+it is with cold, therefore cold must be a substance, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>. Cold acts as
+a substance; it resists heat, and overcomes it or is vanquished by it,
+<a href="#Page_312">312</a>. As there are four elements, of which all things are composed, so
+there should be four qualities, heat and cold, drought and moisture,
+<a href="#Page_313">313</a>. What sort of substance is cold? <a href="#Page_314">314</a>. The air, when it becomes
+dark, becomes also cold, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>. The freezing of water is caused by cold
+air, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>. Great rivers and lakes are not frozen to the bottom, because
+the air does not reach so far; the power of cold is therefore as many
+think, from the air, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>; but this is doubtful, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. Water makes things
+black; air makes them white, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. Oil is transparent because so much
+air is in it, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>. It does not easily freeze, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. Cold things are
+always heavy, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>. Fire and water are opposites, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>. In winter, heat
+is driven inward by cold, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. It is driven downward from the surfaces
+of great rivers, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>. Several considerations show that water, and not
+air, is the cause of cold, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>. Water is cold of itself, being the
+opposite of fire, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>. Opinion of Chrysippus combated, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>. The earth,
+because it is dark, might be considered the cause of cold, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.
+But many hot things are dark, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>. Cold makes things hard, heavy,
+rigid, and capable of resistance: the earth is therefore the source of
+cold, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>. Several considerations which seem to prove that heat
+exists in every thing except<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg
+ix]</span> the earth, and that cold proceeds as a substance from the
+earth; which, and the whole subject, in conclusion, is left in doubt,
+to be decided as the reader pleases. <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#WHETHER_WATER_OR_FIRE_BE_MOST_USEFUL">
+WHETHER WATER OR FIRE BE MOST USEFUL.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By the Same Hand.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">1. Arguments of
+the superior usefulness of Water: We need it at all times and in all
+places; it is not so with fire. Water was given to man at his first
+creation; fire was introduced by Prometheus. Some men and all brute
+animals can live without fire, but not without water. Fire is often
+pernicious; water never. Fire cannot be kept up without expense; water
+requires no expense. Water, or the sea, is the great civilizer of man,
+<a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_334">334</a>. 2. Arguments in behalf of Fire: Heat is the exciting cause of
+vegetation; water becomes putrid when fire leaves it; animals perish
+without heat; death is only the absence of heat; water is made more
+useful by fire; the arts cannot exist without fire, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>-<a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large">
+<a href="#AGAINST_COLOTES_THE_DISCIPLE_AND_FAVORITE_OF_EPICURUS">AGAINST COLOTES, THE
+DISCIPLE AND FAVORITE OF EPICURUS.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By A. G., Gent.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Occasion of
+this tract; a book written by Colotes, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>. Plutarch undertakes to
+answer it, and why, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>. Colotes wrongly represents Democritus,
+<a href="#Page_341">341</a>. Our senses give us true information, but it does not follow
+that the different qualities which are perceived in the same object
+by different persons prove that nothing is of one nature more than
+another, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a>. This argument further applied, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>. Does color exist
+in the dark? <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>. Doctrine of Democritus concerning atoms, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.
+Are atoms immutable and impassible? <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. How then can any thing be
+generated? <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. Is generation the mere union of atoms? <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. According
+to Colotes life cannot exist, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. His doctrines virtually abolish
+nature, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>. Is nature nothing distinct from bodies and their place?
+<a href="#Page_350">350</a>. Is death nothing but that which dies? <a href="#Page_350">350</a>. Empedocles defended
+from the misrepresentations of Colotes, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>. Parmenides also
+defended, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>-<a href="#Page_354">354</a>. A thing positively existing distinguished from its
+sensible qualities, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. Aristotle and the Peripatetics differed from
+Plato, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>. Colotes misrepresents Plato, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>. Difference between
+that which exists by itself, and that which participates of something
+else; or between essence and form, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>. Colotes falls at the feet
+of Epicurus, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>. Epicurus accepts the homage, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>. Disparagement of
+Socrates by Colotes, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>. Though our senses are not perfect, they may
+in general be safely relied on, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>. If self-knowledge is valuable,
+Colotes is blamable for scoffing at those who seek it, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>. Stilpo
+defended against Colotes, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_367">367</a>. That one thing cannot be predicated
+of another may not endanger life, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>. It is bad to withhold reverence
+and worship from the gods, as Colotes and the Epicureans do, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.
+Colotes assaults the philosophers of his own time, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>. He condemns
+even the opinions of Epicurus, when he finds them held by others, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
+<a href="#Page_369">369</a>. The Cyrenaic philosophers ridiculed, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>. Arcesilaus unfairly
+treated by Colotes, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>. Three sorts of motions in the soul: what they
+are; their influence, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>. Absurdity of Epicureanism, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. The
+opinions of Epicurus tend to universal scepticism, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>. It is well and
+safe in some cases to withhold our assent, and to doubt in matters
+which do not appear credible, as did Arcesilaus<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_x">x</span> and his followers, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a>. Safety of
+believing and following the doctrines of Socrates, Plato, and the
+Academy, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>. Degradation and danger resulting from the doctrines of
+Epicurus, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>. Those doctrines fatal to the state, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>. No people,
+no city, is found without some religion, but Epicureanism subverts all
+religion, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>. Great public spirit of Democritus, Parmenides, Socrates,
+Plato, and others, who are reviled by Colotes and other Epicureans,
+<a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>. Men of the school of Epicurus do not contribute to the public
+welfare, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</p></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#PLUTARCHS_CONSOLATORY_LETTER">PLUTARCH’S CONSOLATORY LETTER TO HIS WIFE.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By Robert Midgley, M.D., and Coll. Med. Lond. Cand.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">He counsels
+patience, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>. The child was affectionate and interesting; her memory
+should be cherished, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>. The mother is commended for controlling her
+grief; excessive grief is unreasonable, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>. The mother’s admirable
+conduct on the previous death of her eldest son, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>. Women are frantic
+with joy at the birth of their children, and mourn excessively at their
+death, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>. The body should not suffer through grief, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>. Women
+nourish and increase the grief of bereaved wives and mothers, by their
+tears and lamentations when visiting them; Plutarch does not fear this
+in the present case, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>. We should remember the pleasure our deceased
+child has afforded us, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>. True happiness arises from the mind itself,
+and not from external circumstances, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>. You have much left to comfort
+you, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>. State of the soul after death; the soul will return to earth
+in a new body; an early death is desirable, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#OF_THE_THREE_SORTS_OF_GOVERNMENT">
+OF THE THREE SORTS OF GOVERNMENT,—MONARCHY, DEMOCRACY, AND OLIGARCHY.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By R. Smith, M.A.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Which of these
+three sorts is best? <a href="#Page_395">395</a>. The word <i>policy</i> or government defined,
+<a href="#Page_396">396</a>. The Persians had monarchy; Sparta had an oligarchy; Athens was
+a democracy: and all were powerful and prosperous, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>. The author
+prefers monarchy, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#WHETHER_THE_ATHENIANS">
+WHETHER THE ATHENIANS WERE MORE RENOWNED FOR THEIR WARLIKE ACHIEVEMENTS OR THEIR LEARNING.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By the Same Hand.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">
+Historians, even the most admired and popular, only relate the
+actions of other men, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>. Athens was the nurse of History, of
+Painting, and of Poetry; and has derived great reputation thereby,
+<a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>. But what are historians, painters, and poets, compared
+with the generals, admirals, and statesmen, whom they commemorate?
+<a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>. Athens not renowned for epic or lyric verse, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>. Tragedy
+flourished there, but what benefit did tragedy procure for the
+Athenians? <a href="#Page_405">405</a>. They lavished money on scenes and shows, to the
+neglect of more important interests, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>. True renown belongs to
+those commanders who have upheld the honor of their country, and
+they merit a lasting remembrance, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>. But not so poets,
+rhetoricians, and orators, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>-<a href="#Page_411">411</a>. Miltiades and other commanders,
+compared with Demosthenes and other orators, to the disadvantage of
+the latter <a href="#Page_408">408</a>-<a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span>
+<a href="#AGAINST_RUNNING_IN_DEBT">AGAINST RUNNING IN DEBT, OR TAKING UP MONEY UPON USURY.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By the Same Hand.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">Running in debt
+should not be resorted to but in the last necessity, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>. To avoid it,
+practise the closest economy, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>. The borrower is slave to the lender,
+<a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>. Usurers are chargeable with oppression, fraud, and falsehood,
+<a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>. They take a man’s money without an equivalent, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>. It is
+shameful to be in the power of another, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>. We incur debt, not to
+procure necessaries, but to purchase ornaments and superfluities, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.
+We must avoid the usurer or be ruined, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#PLATONIC_QUESTIONS">PLATONIC QUESTIONS.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By R. Brown, M.L.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">1. Why did
+Socrates act the midwife’s part, rather than the parent’s? in other
+words, why did he prefer to develop in the minds of others the germs
+of knowledge, rather than communicate knowledge to them? <a href="#Page_425">425</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>. 2.
+Why does Plato call the supreme God the Father and Maker of all things?
+<a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>. 3. What does Plato, in his Republic, mean by dividing the
+universe into unequal parts? and of the sections, thus made, which is
+the greater, the Intelligible or the Sensible? <a href="#Page_429">429</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a>. 4. Plato always
+says that the Soul is elder than the Body, and the cause and principle
+of its rise. Yet he also says that neither could the Soul exist without
+the Body, nor the Reason without the Soul, but the Soul in the Body,
+and the Reason in the soul. How can this be explained? <a href="#Page_432">432</a>. 5. Since
+geometrical figures and solids are contained, partly by Rectilinears
+and partly by Circles, why does Plato make Isosceles Triangles and
+Triangles of unequal sides the Principles of Rectilinears, &amp;c.?
+<a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_435">435</a>. 6. Why does Plato say that the nature of a Wing participates
+most of the Body of God? <a href="#Page_435">435</a>. 7. In what sense does Plato say that the
+Antiperistasis, or Reaction, of Motion, is the cause of the effect,
+in using cupping-glasses, in swallowing, in throwing of weights, in
+the use of the loadstone, &amp;c.? <a href="#Page_435">435</a>-<a href="#Page_438">438</a>. 8. What does he mean in
+the Timaeus when he says that Souls are dispersed into the Earth, the
+Moon, and into other instruments of time? Is the Earth, is the Sun,
+an instrument of time? <a href="#Page_438">438</a>-<a href="#Page_441">441</a>. 9. Did Plato, in his Republic, place
+the Rational or the Irascible Faculty in the middle chord of the human
+faculties? <a href="#Page_441">441</a>-<a href="#Page_444">444</a>. 10. Why did he say that Speech is composed of
+Nouns and Verbs? <a href="#Page_444">444</a>-<a href="#Page_449">449</a>. Because they are the principal elements,
+<i>ib.</i></p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#PARALLELS">PARALLELS, OR A COMPARISON
+BETWEEN THE GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORIES.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By John Oswald, M.A.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">1. Invasion of
+Attica by Datis; the story of Cynaegirus, matched with the story of
+a Roman, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>. 2. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes; war of Porsena
+against Rome; a story under each, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>. 3. Combat of the Argives
+with the Lacedaemonians in Thyreatis; defeat of the Romans at the
+Caudine Forks, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a> 4. Leonidas at Thermopylae; Fabius Maximus
+in the Punic War, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>. 5. Chasms in the earth closed by men leaping
+into them, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>. 6. Amphiaraus, and Valerius<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_xii">xii</span> Conatus, swallowed up alive by the
+earth, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>. 7. A king of Euboea, and a king of Alba, drawn in pieces
+by horses, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>. 8. Philip of Macedon and Aster the archer, Porsena of
+Clusium and Horatius Cocles, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>. 9. Saturn and his four children, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
+<a href="#Page_457">457</a>. 10. Pausanias, the Spartan traitor, and Cassius, a Roman traitor,
+both starved to death, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>. 11. Filial treachery in Persian and in
+Roman history, and its punishment, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>. 12. A son of Epaminondas, the
+Theban general, and a son of Manlius, the Roman consul, beheaded for
+disobeying the orders of their fathers, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>. 13. Iole, the beloved
+of Hercules, threw herself from a wall without hurt; this story matched
+from Roman history, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>. 14. The sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis,
+matched among the Romans, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>. 15. The story of Tarpeia, promising
+to betray the Roman capitol, matched at Ephesus, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>. 16. The combat
+of the Horatii and Curiatii in Roman history has a parallel in Tegea,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>. 17. The Palladium in Ilium and in Rome, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>. 18. Codrus of
+Athens, and Decius of Rome, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>. 19. A Syracusan and a Roman, each
+having refused worship to Bacchus, are intoxicated to commit incest,
+and are slain, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>. 20. A daughter of Erechtheus, and a daughter
+of Marius, sacrificed by their fathers to procure victory, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>. 21.
+A Thessalian wife, and a Sybarite wife, torn in pieces by dogs of
+their husbands, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>. 22. Two maidens, a Greek and a Roman, who
+had carnal knowledge of their fathers; their punishment, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.
+23. Diomedes and Calpurnius Crassus liberated from captivity by women
+who loved them, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>. 24. Priam commits his son to the care of one who
+murdered him; the story matched in Roman history, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>. 25. Aeacus
+and his two sons; Caius Maximus and his two sons, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>. 26. Mars, and
+his lascivious misdoings in Greece and Italy, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>. 27. Telamon
+deflowers a virgin, whose father orders her to be thrown into the
+sea; a parallel at Rome, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>. 28. Six sons and six daughters in two
+different families; incest of a brother with a sister, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>. 29.
+Two cases of men having carnal knowledge of brutes, and what followed,
+<a href="#Page_468">468</a>. 30. As the price of peace women are given up to the embraces of
+the enemy, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>. 31. The allowance of soldiers shortened in war,
+and the fatal result to him who did it, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>. 32. Romulus murdered
+in the senate, and his body carried away in pieces; a parallel in
+the Peloponnesian war, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>. 33. Pelops and his two sons, Atreus and
+Thyestes, their story; a parallel in Italy, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>. 34. Theseus and
+his son Hippolytus; the latter is killed by his horses running away:
+a parallel in Italy, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>. 35. A noble virgin to be sacrificed to
+obtain relief from pestilence: an instance in Lacedaemon, another in
+Falerii, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>. 36. The story of Romulus and Remus suckled by a
+she-wolf: a parallel in Arcadia, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>. 37. Orestes slays his mother,
+in revenge of his father’s death: a similar story from Rome, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>. 38.
+Strangers murdered by Busiris in Egypt, and by Faunus in Italy, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.
+39. A brazen cow made for Phalaris of Agrigentum, a brazen horse for
+a tyrant of Egesta, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>. 40. Evenus cannot keep his daughter a
+virgin: neither can Anius, king of the Tuscans, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="large"><a href="#NAMES_OF_RIVERS_AND_MOUNTAINS">
+OF THE NAMES OF RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS, AND OF SUCH THINGS AS ARE TO BE FOUND THEREIN.</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">By R. White, M.A.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><p class="hangingindent1">1. Hydaspes,
+a river in India, why it received the name, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>. 2.
+Ismenus, a river of Boeotia, Cadmus, mount Cithaeron, Tisiphone,
+&amp;c., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>-<a href="#Page_480">480</a>. 3. Hebrus, a river of Thrace; mount Pangaeus,
+<a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>. 4. Ganges, the mountain Anatole,<span class="pagenum"
+id="Page_xiii">xiii</span> <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>. 5. Phasis, a river of Thrace;
+mount Caucasus, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>-<a href="#Page_484">484</a>. 6. Arar, a river of Gaul; mount Lugdunum,
+<a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>. 7. Pactolus, in Lydia; mount Tmolus, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>-<a href="#Page_487">487</a>. 8. Lycormas,
+in Aetolia, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>. 9. Maeander, in Asia; mount Sipylus, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>. 10.
+Marsyas, in Phrygia, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>. 11. Strymon, in Thrace; the mountains Rhodope
+and Haemus, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>. 12. Sagaris, in Phrygia, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>. 18. Scamander,
+in Troas; mount Ida, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>. 14. Tanais, in Scythia; mount Brixaba,
+<a href="#Page_494">494</a>. 15. Thermodon, in Scythia, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>. 16. Nile, formerly Melas and
+Aegyptus, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>-<a href="#Page_497">497</a>. 17. Eurotas, in Laconia; mount Taygetus, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.
+18. Inachus, in Argolis; mount Mycenae, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_498">498</a>-<a href="#Page_501">501</a>. 19. Alpheus,
+in Arcadia; mount Cronium, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>. 20. Euphrates, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>. 21. Caicus,
+in Mysia; mount Teuthras, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>. 22. Achelous, in Aetolia; mount
+Calydon, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>. 23. Araxes, in Armenia; mount Diorphus, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.
+24. Tigris; mount Gauran, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>. 25. Indus; mount Lilaeus, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>,
+<a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="large">INDEX.</span></td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_511">511</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
+
+<p id="half-title"><span class="larger">
+PLUTARCH’S MORALS.</span>
+</p></div>
+<p>VOL. V.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="largest">PLUTARCH’S MORALS.</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="OF_EATING_OF_FLESH">OF EATING OF FLESH.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak small normal">TRACT I.</h3></div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">You</span> ask of me then for what reason it was that Pythagoras abstained
+from eating of flesh. I for my part do much admire in what humor, with
+what soul or reason, the first man with his mouth touched slaughter,
+and reached to his lips the flesh of a dead animal, and having set
+before people courses of ghastly corpses and ghosts, could give
+those parts the names of meat and victuals, that but a little before
+lowed, cried, moved, and saw; how his sight could endure the blood of
+slaughtered, flayed, and mangled bodies; how his smell could bear their
+scent; and how the very nastiness happened not to offend the taste,
+while it chewed the sores of others, and participated of the saps and
+juices of deadly wounds.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Crept the raw hides, and with a bellowing sound</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Roared the dead limbs; the burning entrails groaned.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This indeed is but a fiction and fancy; but the fare itself is
+truly monstrous and prodigious,—that a man should have a stomach
+to creatures while they yet bellow, and that he should be giving
+directions which of things yet alive and speaking is fittest to make
+food of, and ordering the several manners of the seasoning and dressing
+them and serving them up to tables. You ought rather, in my opinion,
+to have enquired who first began this practice, than who of late times
+left it off.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p>
+
+<p>2. And truly, as for those people who first ventured upon eating of
+flesh, it is very probable that the whole reason of their so doing was
+scarcity and want of other food; for it is not likely that their living
+together in lawless and extravagant lusts, or their growing wanton and
+capricious through the excessive variety of provisions then among them,
+brought them to such unsociable pleasures as these, against Nature.
+Yea, had they at this instant but their sense and voice restored to
+them, I am persuaded they would express themselves to this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>“Oh! happy you, and highly favored of the Gods, who now live! Into what
+an age of the world are you fallen, who share and enjoy among you a
+plentiful portion of good things! What abundance of things spring up
+for your use! What fruitful vineyards you enjoy! What wealth you gather
+from the fields! What delicacies from trees and plants, which you may
+gather! You may glut and fill yourselves without being polluted. As
+for us, we fell upon the most dismal and affrighting part of time,
+in which we were exposed by our first production to manifold and
+inextricable wants and necessities. As yet the thickened air concealed
+the heaven from our view, and the stars were as yet confused with a
+disorderly huddle of fire and moisture and violent fluxions of winds.
+As yet the sun was not fixed to an unwandering and certain course,
+so as to distinguish morning and evening, nor did he bring back the
+seasons in order crowned with wreaths from the fruitful harvest. The
+land was also spoiled by the inundations of disorderly rivers; and a
+great part of it was deformed with sloughs, and utterly wild by reason
+of deep quagmires, unfertile forests, and woods. There was then no
+production of tame fruits, nor any instruments of art or invention
+of wit. And hunger gave no time, nor did seed-time then stay for the
+yearly season. What wonder is it if we made use of the flesh of beasts
+contrary to Nature,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> when mud was eaten and the bark of wood, and when
+it was thought a happy thing to find either a sprouting grass or a
+root of any plant! But when they had by chance tasted of or eaten an
+acorn, they danced for very joy about some oak or esculus, calling it
+by the names of life-giver, mother, and nourisher. And this was the
+only festival that those times were acquainted with; upon all other
+occasions, all things were full of anguish and dismal sadness. But
+whence is it that a certain ravenousness and frenzy drives you in these
+happy days to pollute yourselves with blood, since you have such an
+abundance of things necessary for your subsistence? Why do you belie
+the earth as unable to maintain you? Why do you profane the lawgiver
+Ceres, and shame the mild and gentle Bacchus, as not furnishing you
+with sufficiency? Are you not ashamed to mix tame fruits with blood
+and slaughter? You are indeed wont to call serpents, leopards, and
+lions savage creatures; but yet yourselves are defiled with blood, and
+come nothing behind them in cruelty. What they kill is their ordinary
+nourishment, but what you kill is your better fare.”</p>
+
+<p>3. For we eat not lions and wolves by way of revenge; but we let those
+go, and catch the harmless and tame sort, and such as have neither
+stings nor teeth to bite with, and slay them; which, so may Jove help
+us, Nature seems to us to have produced for their beauty and comeliness
+only. <a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a>[Just as if one seeing the river Nilus overflowing its banks,
+and thereby filling the whole country with genial and fertile moisture,
+should not at all admire that secret power in it that produces plants
+and plenteousness of most sweet and useful fruits, but beholding
+somewhere a crocodile swimming in it, or an asp crawling along, or
+mice <span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>(savage and filthy creatures), should presently affirm these to
+be the occasion of all that is amiss, or of any want or defect that
+may happen. Or as if indeed one contemplating this land or ground, how
+full it is of tame fruits, and how heavy with ears of corn, should
+afterwards espy somewhere in these same cornfields an ear of darnel or
+a wild vetch, and thereupon neglect to reap and gather in the corn,
+and fall a complaining of these. Such another thing it would be, if
+one—hearing the harangue of some advocate at some bar or pleading,
+swelling and enlarging and hastening towards the relief of some
+impending danger, or else, by Jupiter, in the impeaching and charging
+of certain audacious villanies or indictments, flowing and rolling
+along, and that not in a simple and poor strain, but with many sorts
+of passions all at once, or rather indeed with all sorts, in one and
+the same manner, into the many and various and differing minds of
+either hearers or judges that he is either to turn and change, or else,
+by Jupiter, to soften, appease, and quiet—should overlook all this
+business, and never consider or reckon upon the labor or struggle he
+had undergone, but pick up certain loose expressions, which the rapid
+motion of the discourse had carried along with it, as by the current of
+its stream, and so had slipped and escaped the rest of the oration, and
+hereupon undervalue the orator.]</p>
+
+<p>4. But we are nothing put out of countenance, either by the beauteous
+gayety of the colors, or by the charmingness of the musical voices,
+or by the rare sagacity of the intellects, or by the cleanliness and
+neatness of diet, or by the rare discretion and prudence of these
+poor unfortunate animals; but for the sake of some little mouthful of
+flesh, we deprive a soul of the sun and light, and of that proportion
+of life and time it had been born into the world to enjoy. And then we
+fancy that the voices it utters and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> screams forth to us are nothing
+else but certain inarticulate sounds and noises, and not the several
+deprecations, entreaties, and pleadings of each of them, as it were
+saying thus to us: “I deprecate not thy necessity (if such there be),
+but thy wantonness. Kill me for thy feeding, but do not take me off
+for thy better feeding.” O horrible cruelty! It is truly an affecting
+sight to see the very table of rich people laid before them, who keep
+them cooks and caterers to furnish them with dead corpses for their
+daily fare; but it is yet more affecting to see it taken away, for the
+mammocks left are more than that which was eaten. These therefore were
+slain to no purpose. Others there are, who are so sparing of what is
+set before them that they will not suffer it to be cut or sliced; thus
+abstaining from them when dead, while they would not spare them when
+alive.</p>
+
+<p>5. Well then, we understand that that sort of men are used to say, that
+in eating of flesh they follow the conduct and direction of Nature. But
+that it is not natural to mankind to feed on flesh, we first of all
+demonstrate from the very shape and figure of the body. For a human
+body no ways resembles those that were born for ravenousness; it hath
+no hawk’s bill, no sharp talon, no roughness of teeth, no such strength
+of stomach or heat of digestion, as can be sufficient to convert or
+alter such heavy and fleshy fare. But even from hence, that is, from
+the smoothness of the tongue, and the slowness of the stomach to
+digest, Nature seems to disclaim all pretence to fleshy victuals. But
+if you will contend that yourself was born to an inclination to such
+food as you have now a mind to eat, do you then yourself kill what you
+would eat. But do it yourself, without the help of a chopping-knife,
+mallet, or axe,—as wolves, bears, and lions do, who kill and eat at
+once. Rend an ox with thy teeth, worry a hog with thy mouth, tear a
+lamb or a hare in pieces, and fall on and eat it alive as they do.
+But if thou hadst rather stay until what thou<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> eatest is become dead,
+and if thou art loath to force a soul out of its body, why then dost
+thou against Nature eat an animate thing? Nay, there is nobody that
+is willing to eat even a lifeless and a dead thing as it is; but they
+boil it, and roast it, and alter it by fire and medicines, as it were,
+changing and quenching the slaughtered gore with thousands of sweet
+sauces, that the palate being thereby deceived may admit of such
+uncouth fare. It was indeed a witty expression of a Lacedaemonian, who,
+having purchased a small fish in a certain inn, delivered it to his
+landlord to be dressed; and as he demanded cheese, and vinegar, and oil
+to make sauce, he replied, if I had had those, I would not have bought
+the fish. But we are grown so wanton in our bloody luxury, that we have
+bestowed upon flesh the name of meat (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄψον</span>), and then require another
+seasoning (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄψον</span>), to this same flesh, mixing oil, wine, honey, pickle,
+and vinegar, with Syrian and Arabian spices, as though we really meant
+to embalm it after its disease. Indeed when things are dissolved and
+made thus tender and soft, and are as it were turned into a sort
+of a carrionly corruption, it must needs be a great difficulty for
+concoction to master them, and when it hath mastered them, they must
+needs cause grievous oppressions and qualmy indigestions.</p>
+
+<p>6. Diogenes ventured once to eat a raw pourcontrel, that he might
+disuse himself from meat dressed by fire; and as several priests and
+other people stood round him, he wrapped his head in his cassock, and
+so putting the fish to his mouth, he thus said unto them: It is for
+your sake, sirs, that I undergo this danger, and run this risk. A noble
+and gallant risk, by Jupiter! For far otherwise than as Pelopidas
+ventured his life for the liberty of the Thebans, and Harmodius and
+Aristogiton for that of the Athenians, did this philosopher encounter
+with a raw pourcontrel, to the end he might make human life more
+brutish.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> Moreover, these same flesh-eatings not only are preternatural
+to men’s bodies, but also by clogging and cloying them, they render
+their very minds and intellects gross. For it is well known to most,
+that wine and much flesh-eating make the body indeed strong and lusty,
+but the mind weak and feeble. And that I may not offend the wrestlers,
+I will make use of examples out of my own country. The Athenians are
+wont to call us Boeotians gross, senseless, and stupid fellows, for
+no other reason but our over-much eating; and Pindar calls us also
+hogs, for the same reason. Menander the comedian calls us “fellows
+with long jaws.” It is observed also that, according to the saying of
+Heraclitus, “the wisest soul is like a dry light.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Earthen jars, if
+you strike them, will sound; but if they be full, they perceive not
+the strokes that are given them. Copper vessels also that are thin
+communicate the sound round about them, unless some one stop and dull
+the ambient stroke with his fingers. Moreover, the eye, when seized
+with an over-great plenitude of humors, grows dim and feeble for its
+ordinary work. When we behold the sun through a humid air and a great
+quantity of gross and indigested vapors, we see it not clear and
+bright, but obscure and cloudy, and with glimmering beams. Just so in a
+muddy and clogged body, that is swagged down with heavy and unnatural
+nourishments; it must needs happen that the gayety and splendor of the
+mind be confused and dulled, and that it ramble and roll after little
+and scarce discernible objects, since it wants clearness and vigor for
+higher things.</p>
+
+<p>7. But to pass by these considerations, is not accustoming one’s self
+to mildness and a human temper of mind an admirable thing? For who
+could wrong or injure a man that is so sweetly and humanly disposed
+with respect to the ills of strangers that are not of his kind? I
+remember <span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>that three days ago, as I was discoursing, I made mention
+of a saying of Xenocrates, and how the Athenians gave judgment upon a
+certain person who had flayed a living ram. For my part I cannot think
+him a worse criminal that torments a poor creature while living, than
+a man that shall take away its life and murder it. But (as it seems)
+we are more sensible of what is done against custom than against
+Nature. There, however, I discoursed on these matters in a more popular
+style. But as for that grand and mysterious principle which (as Plato
+speaks) is incredible to base minds and to such as affect only mortal
+things, I as little care to move it in this discourse as a pilot doth
+a ship in a storm, or a comedian his machine while the scenes are
+moving; but perhaps it would not be amiss, by way of introduction and
+preface, to proclaim certain verses of Empedocles.... For in these,
+by way of allegory, he hints at men’s souls, as that they are tied to
+mortal bodies, to be punished for murders, eating of flesh and of one
+another, although this doctrine seems much ancienter than his time.
+For the fables that are storied and related about the discerption of
+Bacchus, and the attempts of the Titans upon him, and of their tasting
+of his slain body, and of their several punishments and fulminations
+afterwards, are but a representation of the regeneration. For what in
+us is unreasonable, disorderly, and boisterous, being not divine but
+demoniac, the ancients termed Titans, that is <i>tormented</i> and
+<i>punished</i> (from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τίνω</span>)....</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak small normal">TRACT II</h3></div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Reason</span> persuades us now to return with fresh cogitations and
+dispositions to what we left cold yesterday of our discourse about
+flesh-eating. It is indeed a hard <span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>and a difficult task to undertake
+(as Cato once said) to dispute with men’s bellies, that have no ears;
+since most have already drunk that draught of custom, which is like
+that of Circe,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Of groans and frauds and sorcery replete.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And it is no easy task to pull out the hook of flesh-eating from the
+jaws of such as have gorged themselves with luxury and are (as it
+were) nailed down with it. It would indeed be a good action, if as
+the Egyptians draw out the stomach of a dead body, and cut it open
+and expose it to the sun, as the only cause of all its evil actions,
+so we could, by cutting out our gluttony and blood-shedding, purify
+and cleanse the remainder of our lives. For the stomach itself is not
+guilty of bloodshed, but is involuntarily polluted by our intemperance.
+But if this may not be, and we are ashamed by reason of custom to live
+unblamably, let us at least sin with discretion. Let us eat flesh; but
+let it be for hunger and not for wantonness. Let us kill an animal; but
+let us do it with sorrow and pity, and not abusing and tormenting it,
+as many nowadays are used to do, while some run red-hot spits through
+the bodies of swine, that by the tincture of the quenched iron the
+blood may be to that degree mortified, that it may sweeten and soften
+the flesh in its circulation; others jump and stamp upon the udders of
+sows that are ready to pig, that so they may trample into one mass,
+(O Piacular Jupiter!) in the very pangs of delivery, blood, milk, and
+the corruption of the crushed and mangled young ones, and so eat the
+most inflamed part of the animal; others sew up the eyes of cranes and
+swans, and so shut them up in darkness to be fattened, and then souse
+up their flesh with certain monstrous mixtures and pickles.</p>
+
+<p>2. By all which it is most manifest, that it is not for <span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>nourishment,
+or want, or any necessity, but for mere gluttony, wantonness, and
+expensiveness, that they make a pleasure of villany. Just as it happens
+in persons who cannot satiate their intemperance upon women, and having
+made trial of every thing else and falling into vagaries, at last
+attempt things not to be mentioned; even so inordinateness in feeding,
+when it hath once passed the bounds of nature and necessity, studies at
+last to diversify the lusts of its intemperate appetite by cruelty and
+villany. For the senses, when they once quit their natural measures,
+sympathize with each other in their distempers, and are enticed by each
+other to the same consent and intemperance. Thus a distempered ear
+first debauched music, the soft and effeminate notes of which provoke
+immodest touches and lascivious tickling. These things first taught
+the eye not to delight in Pyrrhic dances, gesticulations of hands, or
+elegant pantomimes, nor in statues and fine paintings; but to reckon
+the slaughtering and death of mankind and wounds and duels the most
+sumptuous of shows and spectacles. Thus unlawful tables are accompanied
+with intemperate copulations, with unmusician-like balls, and theatres
+become monstrous through shameful songs and rehearsals; and barbarous
+and brutish shows are again accompanied with an unrelenting temper and
+savage cruelty towards mankind. Hence it was that the divine Lycurgus
+in his Three Books of Laws gave orders that the doors and ridges of
+men’s houses should be made with a saw and an axe, and that no other
+instrument should so much as be brought to any house. Not that he
+did hereby intend to declare war against augers and planes and other
+instruments of finer work; but because he very well knew that with such
+tools as these you will never bring into your house a gilded couch,
+and that you will never attempt to bring into a slender cottage either
+silver<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> tables, purple carpets, or costly stones; but that a plain
+supper and a homely dinner must accompany such a house, couch, table,
+and cup. The beginning of a vicious diet is presently followed by all
+sorts of luxury and expensiveness,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Ev’n as a mare is by her thirsty colt.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. And what meal is not expensive? That for which no animal is put
+to death. Shall we reckon a soul to be a small expense. I will not
+say perhaps of a mother, or a father, or of some friend, or child,
+as Empedocles did; but one participating of feeling, of seeing, of
+hearing, of imagination, and of intellection; which each animal hath
+received from Nature for the acquiring of what is agreeable to it, and
+the avoiding what is disagreeable. Do but consider this with yourself
+now, which sort of philosophers render us most tame and civil, they who
+bid people to feed on their children, friends, fathers, and wives, when
+they are dead; or Pythagoras and Empedocles, that accustom men to be
+just towards even the other members of the creation. You laugh at a man
+that will not eat a sheep: but we (they will say again)—when we see
+you cutting off the parts of your dead father or mother, and sending
+it to your absent friends, and calling upon and inviting your present
+friends to eat the rest freely and heartily—shall we not smile? Nay,
+peradventure we offend at this instant time while we touch these books,
+without having first cleansed our hands, eyes, feet, and ears; if it
+be not (by Jupiter) a sufficient purgation of them to have discoursed
+of these matters in potable and fresh language (as Plato speaketh),
+thereby washing off the brackishness of hearing. Now if a man should
+set these books and discourses in opposition to each other, he will
+find that the philosophy of the one sort suits with the Scythians,
+Sogdians, and Melanchlaenians, of whom Herodotus’s relation is scarce
+believed; but the sentiments of Pythagoras and Empedocles were the laws
+and customs of the ancient Grecians.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p>
+
+<p>4. Who then were the first authors of this opinion, that we owe no
+justice to dumb animals?</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Who first beat out accursed steel,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And made the lab’ring ox a knife to feel.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the very same manner oppressors and tyrants begin first to shed
+blood. For example, the first man that the Athenians ever put to death
+was one of the basest of all knaves, whom all thought deserving of
+death; after him they put to death a second and a third. After this,
+being now accustomed to blood, they patiently saw Niceratus the son
+of Nicias, and their own general Theramenes, and Polemarchus the
+philosopher suffer death. Even so, in the beginning, some wild and
+mischievous beast was killed and eaten, and then some little bird or
+fish was entrapped. And the love of slaughter, being first experimented
+and exercised in these, at last passed even to the laboring ox, and the
+sheep that clothes us, and to the poor cock that keeps the house; until
+by little and little, unsatiableness being strengthened by use, men
+came to the slaughter of men, to bloodshed and wars. Now even if one
+cannot demonstrate and make out, that souls in their regenerations make
+a promiscuous use of all bodies, and that that which is now rational
+will at another time be irrational, and that again tame which is now
+wild,—for that Nature changes and transmutes every thing.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">With different fleshy coats new clothing all,—</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>this thing should be sufficient to change and reclaim men, that it is
+a savage and intemperate habit, that it brings sickness and heaviness
+upon the body, and that it inclines the mind the more brutishly to
+bloodshed and destruction, when we have once accustomed ourselves
+neither to entertain a guest nor keep a wedding nor to treat our
+friends without blood and slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>5. And if what is argued about the return of souls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> into bodies is
+not of force enough to beget faith, yet methinks the very uncertainty
+of the thing should fill us with apprehension and fear. Suppose, for
+instance, one should in some night-engagement run on with his drawn
+sword upon one that had fallen down and covered his body with his arms,
+and should in the mean time hear one say, that he was not very sure,
+but that he fancied and believed, that the party lying there was his
+own son, brother, father, or tent-companion; which were more advisable,
+think you,—to hearken to a false suggestion, and so to let go an enemy
+under the notion of a friend, or to slight an authority not sufficient
+to beget faith, and to slay a friend instead of a foe? This you will
+all say would be insupportable. Do but consider the famous Merope in
+the tragedy, who taking up a hatchet, and lifting it at her son’s head,
+whom she took for her son’s murderer, speaks thus as she was ready to
+give the fatal blow,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Villain, this pious blow shall cleave thy head;<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>what a bustle she raises in the whole theatre while she raises herself
+to give the blow, and what a fear they are all in, lest she should
+prevent the old man that comes to stop her hand, and should wound the
+youth. Now if another old man should stand by her and say, “Strike, it
+is thy enemy,” and this, “Hold, it is thy son;” which, think you, would
+be the greater injustice, to omit the punishing of an enemy for the
+sake of one’s child, or to suffer one’s self to be so transported with
+anger at an enemy as to kill one’s child? Since then neither hatred
+nor wrath nor any revenge nor fear for ourselves carries us to the
+slaughter of a beast, but the poor sacrifice stands with an inclined
+neck, only to satisfy thy lust and pleasure, and then one philosopher
+stands by and tells thee, “Cut him down, it is but an unreasonable
+animal,” and another cries, “Hold, what if there should be the soul of
+some kinsman or God <span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>inclosed in him”?—good Gods! is there the like
+danger if I refuse to eat flesh, as if I for want of faith murder my
+child or some other friend?</p>
+
+<p>6. The Stoics’ way of reasoning upon this subject of flesh-eating is
+no way equal nor consonant with themselves. Who is this that hath so
+many mouths for his belly and the kitchen? Whence comes it to pass,
+that they so very much womanize and reproach pleasure, as a thing
+that they will not allow to be either good or preferable, or so much
+as agreeable, and yet all on a sudden become so zealous advocates
+for pleasures? It were indeed but a reasonable consequence of their
+doctrine, that, since they banish perfumes and cakes from their
+banquets, they should be much more averse to blood and to flesh. But
+now, just as if they would reduce their philosophy to their day-books,
+they lessen the expenses of their suppers in certain unnecessary and
+needless matters, but the untamed and murderous part of their expense
+they nothing boggle at. “Well! What then?” say they. “We have nothing
+to do with brute beasts.” Nor have you any with perfumes, nor with
+foreign sauces, may some one answer; therefore expel these from your
+banquets, if you are driving out every thing that is both useless and
+needless.</p>
+
+<p>7. Let us therefore in the next place consider, whether we owe any
+justice to the brute beasts. Neither shall we handle this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> point
+artificially, or like subtle sophisters, but by casting our eye into
+our own breasts, and conversing with ourselves as men, we will weigh
+and examine the whole matter....</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIVES_OF_THE_TEN_ORATORS">LIVES OF THE TEN ORATORS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">I. ANTIPHON.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antiphon</span>, the son of Sophilus, by descent a Rhamnusian, was his
+father’s scholar; for Sophilus kept a rhetoric school, to which it is
+reported that Alcibiades himself had recourse in his youth. Having
+attained to competent measure of knowledge and eloquence,—and that, as
+some believe, from his own natural ingenuity,—he dedicated his study
+chiefly to affairs of state. And yet he was for some time conversant
+in the schools, and had a controversy with Socrates the philosopher
+about the art of disputing,—not so much for the sake of contention as
+for the profit of arguing, as Xenophon tells us in his Commentaries of
+Socrates. At the request of some citizens, he wrote orations by which
+they defended their suits at law. Some say that he was the first that
+ever did any thing of this nature. For it is certain there is not one
+juridical oration extant written by any orator that lived before him,
+nor by his contemporaries either, as Themistocles, Aristides, and
+Pericles; though the times gave them opportunity, and there was need
+enough of their labor in such business. Not that we are to impute it
+to their want of parts that they did nothing in this way, for we may
+inform ourselves of the contrary from what historians relate of each
+of them. Besides, if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
+we inspect the most ancient of those known in
+history who had the same form and method in their pleadings, such as
+Alcibiades, Critias, Lysias, and Archinous, we shall find that they
+all followed Antiphon when he was old. For being a man of incomparable
+sagacity, he was the first that published institutions of oratory;
+and by reason of his profound learning, he was surnamed Nestor.
+Caecilius, in a tract which he wrote of him, supposes him to have
+been Thucydides’s pupil, from what Antiphon delivered in praise of
+him. He is most accurate in his orations, in invention subtle; and he
+would frequently baffle his adversary at unawares, by a covert sort of
+pleading; in troublesome and intricate matters he was very judicious
+and sharp; and as he was a great admirer of ornamental speaking, he
+would always adapt his orations to both law and reason.</p>
+
+<p>He lived about the time of the Persian war and of Gorgias the
+rhetorician, being somewhat younger than he. And he lived to see the
+subversion of the popular government in the commonwealth which was
+wrought by the four hundred conspirators, in which he himself is
+thought to have had the chiefest hand, being sometimes commander of
+two galleys, and sometimes general, and having by the many and great
+victories he obtained gained them many allies, he armed the young men,
+manned out sixty galleys, and on all their occasions went ambassador
+to Lacedaemon at the time when Eetionia was fortified. But when those
+Four Hundred were overcome and taken down, he with Archeptolemus, who
+was likewise one of the same number, was accused of the conspiracy,
+condemned, and sentenced to the punishment due to traitors, his body
+cast out unburied, and all his posterity infamous on record. But there
+are some who tell us, that he was put to death by the Thirty Tyrants;
+and among the rest, Lysias, in his oration for Antiphon’s daughter,
+says the same; for he left a little daughter, whom Callaeschrus claimed
+for his wife by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> law of propinquity. And Theopompus likewise, in
+his Fifteenth Book of Philippics, tells us the same thing. But this
+must have been another Antiphon, son of Lysidonides, whom Cratinus
+mentions in his Pytine as a rascal. But how could he be executed in the
+time of the Four Hundred, and afterward live to be put to death by the
+Thirty Tyrants? There is likewise another story of the manner of his
+death: that when he was old, he sailed to Syracuse, when the tyranny
+of Dionysius the First was most famous; and being at table, a question
+was put, what sort of brass was best. When others had answered as they
+thought most proper, he replied, That is the best brass, of which the
+statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton were made. The tyrant hearing
+this, and taking it as a tacit exhortation to his subjects to contrive
+his ruin, he commanded Antiphon to be put to death; and some say that
+he put him to death for deriding his tragedies.</p>
+
+<p>This orator is reported to have written sixty orations; but Caecilius
+supposes twenty-five of them to be spurious and none of his. Plato,
+in his comedy called Pisander, traduces him as a covetous man. He is
+reported to have composed some of his tragedies alone, and others with
+Dionysius the tyrant. While he was poetically inclined, he invented
+an art of curing the distemper of the mind, as physicians are wont
+to provide cure of bodily diseases. And having at Corinth built him
+a little house, in or near the market, he set a postscript over the
+gate, to this effect: that he had a way to cure the distemper of men’s
+minds by words; and let him but know the cause of their malady, he
+would immediately prescribe the remedy, to their comfort. But after
+some time, thinking that art not worth his while, he betook himself to
+the study and teaching of oratory. There are some who ascribe the book
+of Glaucus of Rhegium concerning Poets to him as author. His orations
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>concerning Herodes, against Erasistratus concerning Peacocks,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>
+are very much commended, and also that which, when he was accused,
+he penned for himself against a public indictment, and that against
+Demosthenes the general for moving an illegal measure. He likewise had
+another against Hippocrates the general; who did not appear on the day
+appointed for his trial, and was condemned in his absence.</p>
+
+<p>Caecilius has recorded the decree of the senate for the judicial
+trial of Antiphon, passed in the year<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> in which Theopompus was
+chief magistrate of Athens, the same in which the Four Hundred were
+overthrown,—in these words:</p>
+
+<p>“Enacted by the senate on the twenty-first day of the prytany.
+Demonicus of Alopece was clerk; Philostratus of Pallene was president.</p>
+
+<p>“Andron moved in regard to those men,—viz. Archeptolemus, Onomacles,
+and Antiphon, whom the generals had declared against, for that they
+went in an embassage to Lacedaemon, to the great damage of the city
+of Athens, and departed from the camp in an enemies’ ship, and went
+through Decelea by land,—that they should be apprehended and brought
+before the court for a legal trial.</p>
+
+<p>“Therefore let the generals, with others of the senate, to the number
+of ten, whom it shall please the generals to name and choose, look
+after these men to present them before the court, that they may be
+present during the proceedings. Then let the Thesmothetes summon the
+defendants to appear on the morrow, and let them open the proceedings
+in court at the time at which the summonses shall be returnable. Then
+let the chosen advocates, with the generals and any others who may have
+any thing to say, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>accuse the defendants of treason; and if any one
+of them shall be found guilty, let sentence be passed upon him as a
+traitor, according to the law in such case made and provided.”</p>
+
+<p>At the bottom of this decree was subscribed the sentence.—</p>
+
+<p>“Archeptolemus son of Hippodamus, the Agrylian, and Antiphon son of
+Sophilus, the Ramnusian, being both present in court, are condemned
+of treason. And this was to be their punishment: that they should be
+delivered to the eleven executioners, their goods confiscated, the
+tenth part of them being first consecrated to Minerva; their houses to
+be levelled with the ground, and in the places where they stood this
+subscription to be engraven on brass, '[The houses] of Archeptolemus
+and Antiphon, traitors.’...<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> That Archeptolemus and Antiphon should
+neither of them be buried in Athens, nor anywhere else under that
+government. And besides all this, that their posterity should be
+accounted infamous, bastards as well as their lawful progeny; and he
+too should be held infamous who should adopt any one of their progeny
+for his son. And that all this should be engrossed and engraven on a
+brass column, and that column should be placed where that stands on
+which is engraven the decree concerning Phrynichus.”</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">II. ANDOCIDES.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Andocides</span>, the son of Leogoras, [and grandson of that Andocides] who
+once made a peace between the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians, by
+descent a Cydathenian or Thorian, of a noble family, and, as Hellanicus
+tells us, the offspring of Mercury himself, for the race of Heralds
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>belongs to him. On this account he was chosen by the people to go with
+Glaucon, with twenty sail of ships, to aid the Corcyraeans against the
+Corinthians. But in process of time he was accused of some notorious
+acts of impiety, as that he was of the number of those who defaced the
+statues of Mercury and divulged the sacred mysteries of Ceres. And
+withal, he had been before this time wild and intemperate, and had
+once been seen in the night in masquerade to break one of the statues
+of Mercury; and when on his trial he refused to bring his servant
+to examination whom his accusers named, he not only remained under
+this reproach, but was also on this account very much suspected to
+be guilty of the second crime too. This later action was laid to his
+charge soon after the expedition of the navy sent by the Athenians into
+Sicily. For, as Cratippus informs us, when the Corinthians sent the
+Leontines and Egestians to the Athenians, who hesitated to lend them
+assistance, they in the night defaced and brake all the statues of
+Mercury which were erected in the market. To which offence Andocides
+added another, that of divulging the mysteries of Ceres. He was brought
+to his trial, but was acquitted on condition he would discover who were
+companions with him in the crime. In which affair being very diligent,
+he found out who they were that had been guilty, and among the rest he
+discovered his own father. He proved all guilty, and caused them all
+to be put to death except his father, whom he saved, though in prison,
+by a promise of some eminent service he would do to the commonwealth.
+Nor did he fail of what he promised; for Leogoras accused many who had
+acted in several matters against the interest of the commonwealth, and
+for this was acquitted of his own crime.</p>
+
+<p>Now, though Andocides was very much esteemed of for his skill in the
+management of the affairs of the commonwealth, yet his inclinations
+led him rather to traffic by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> sea; and by this means he contracted
+friendship with the kings of Cyprus and other great princes. At which
+time he privily stole a damsel of the city, the daughter of Aristides,
+and his own niece, and sent her as a present to the king of Cyprus. But
+suspecting he should be called in question for it, he again stole her
+from Cyprus, for which the king of Cyprus took him and clapped him up
+in prison; whence he brake loose, and returned to Athens, just at that
+time when the four hundred conspirators had usurped the government. By
+whom being confined, he again escaped when the oligarchical government
+was broken up.... But when the Thirty Tyrants were uppermost, he
+withdrew to Elis, and there lived till Thrasybulus and his faction
+returned into the city, and then he also repaired thither. And after
+some time, being sent to Lacedaemon to conciliate a peace, he was again
+suspected to be faulty, and on that suspicion banished.</p>
+
+<p>He himself has given an account of all these transactions, in his
+orations, which he has left behind him. For some of them contain his
+defence of himself in regard to the mysteries; others his petition for
+restoration from exile; there is one extant on <i>Endeixis</i> (or
+information laid against a criminal); also a defence against Phaeax,
+and one on the peace. He flourished at the same time with Socrates
+the philosopher. He was born in the seventy-eighth Olympiad, when
+Theogenides was chief magistrate of Athens, so that he should seem to
+be about ten years before Lysias. There is an image of Mercury, called
+from his name, being given by the tribe Aegeis; and it stood near the
+house where Andocides dwelt, and was therefore called by his name.
+This Andocides himself was at the charge of a cyclic chorus for the
+tribe Aegeis, at the performance of a dithyrambus. And having gained a
+victory, he erected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> a tripod on an ascent opposite to the tuffstone
+statue of Silenus. His style in his orations is plain and easy, without
+the least affectation or any thing of a figurative ornament.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">III. LYSIAS.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lysias</span> was the son of Cephalus, grandson of Lysanias, and
+great-grandson of Cephalus. His father was by birth a Syracusan; but
+partly for the love he had to the city, and partly in condescension
+to the persuasions of Pericles the son of Xanthippus, who entertained
+him as his friend and guest, he went to live at Athens, being a man of
+great wealth. Some say that he was banished Syracuse when the city was
+under the tyranny of Gelo. Lysias was born at Athens when Philocles,
+the successor of Phrasicles, was chief magistrate, in the second year
+of the eightieth Olympiad.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> At his first coming, he was educated
+among the most noble of the Athenians. But when the city sent a colony
+to Sybaris, which was afterwards called Thurii, he went thither with
+his other brother Polemarchus, his father being now dead (for he had
+two other brothers, Euthydemus and Brachyllus), that he might receive
+his portion of his father’s estate. This was done in the fifteenth year
+of his age, when Praxiteles was chief magistrate.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> There then he
+stayed, and was brought up under Nicias and Tisias, both Syracusans.
+And having purchased a house and received his estate, he lived as a
+citizen for thirty-three years, till the year of Cleocritus.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> In
+the year following, in the time of Callias, viz. in the ninety-second
+Olympiad, when the Athenians had met with their disasters in Sicily,
+and when other of their allies revolted, and especially the Italians,
+he, being accused of favoring the Athenians, was banished with three
+other of his association; when coming to Athens, in the year wherein
+Callias succeeded Cleocritus, the city then laboring under the tyranny
+of the four hundred <span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>conspirators, he there sat down. But after
+the fight at Aegospotami, when the Thirty Tyrants had usurped the
+government, he was banished thence, after he had remained in Athens
+seven years. His goods were confiscated; and having likewise lost his
+brother Polemarchus, he himself escaped by a back door of the house
+in which he was kept for execution, fled to Megara and there lived.
+But when the citizens endeavored to return from Phyle, he also behaved
+himself very well, and appeared very active in the affair, having,
+to forward this great enterprise, deposited two thousand drachms of
+silver and two hundred targets, and being commissioned with Hermas, he
+maintained three hundred men in arms, and prevailed with Thrasylaeus
+the Elean, his old friend and host, to contribute two talents. Upon
+entering the city, Thrasybulus proposed that, for a consideration
+of his good service to the public, he should receive the rights of
+citizenship: this was during the so-called time of anarchy before
+Euclides. Which proposal being ratified by the people, Archinus
+objected that it was against the laws, and a decree without authority
+of the senate. The decree was thereupon declared void, and Lysias lost
+his citizenship. He led the remainder of his life in the rank of an
+<i>Isoteles</i> (or citizen who had no right to vote or hold office),
+and died at last at Athens, being fourscore and three years old, or as
+some would have it, seventy-six; and others again say, that he lived
+above fourscore years, till after the birth of Demosthenes. It is
+supposed he was born in the year of Philocles.</p>
+
+<p>There are four hundred and twenty-five orations which bear his name,
+of which Dionysius and Caecilius affirm only two hundred and thirty
+to be genuine, and he is said to have been overcome but twice in all.
+There is extant also the oration which he made in defence of the
+fore-mentioned decree against Archinus, who indicted it and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> thereby
+prevented Lysias from receiving the citizenship, as also another
+against the Thirty Tyrants. He was very cogent in his persuasions, and
+was always very brief in what he delivered. He would commonly give
+orations to private persons. There are likewise his institutions of
+oratory, his public harangues, his epistles, his eulogies, funeral
+orations, discourses of love, and his defence of Socrates, accommodated
+to the minds of the judges. His style seems plain and easy, though
+hardly imitable. Demosthenes, in his oration against Neaera, says that
+he was in love with one Metanira, Neaera’s serving-maid, but afterwards
+married his brother Brachyllus’s daughter. Plato in his Phaedrus makes
+mention of him, as a most eloquent orator and ancienter than Isocrates.
+Philiscus, his companion, and Isocrates’s votary, composed an epigram
+concerning him, whence the same that we have urged from Plato is
+deducible; and it sings to this effect:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Calliope’s witty daughter, Phrontis, show</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">If aught of wit or eloquence thou hast;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">For ’tis decreed that thou shalt bear a son,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Lysias by name, to spread the name of him</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Whose great and generous acts do fill the world,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And are received for glorious above.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Let him who sings those praises of the dead,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Let him, my friend, too, praise our amity.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>He likewise wrote two orations for Iphicrates,—one against Harmodius,
+and another accusing Timotheus of treason,—in both which he overcame.
+But when Iphicrates made himself responsible for Timotheus’s actions,
+and would purge himself of the allegation of treason made also against
+him, Lysias wrote an oration for him to deliver in his defence; upon
+which he was acquitted, but Timotheus was fined in a considerable sum
+of money. He likewise delivered an oration at the Olympic games,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> in
+which he endeavored to convince the Greeks of how great advantage it
+would be to them, if they could but unanimously join to pull down the
+tyrant Dionysius.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">IV. ISOCRATES.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Isocrates</span> was the son of Theodorus, of Erchia, reckoned among the
+middle class of citizens, and a man who kept servants under him to
+make flutes, by which he got so much money as enabled him not only to
+bring up his children after the most genteel manner, but likewise to
+maintain a choir. For besides Isocrates, he had other sons, Telesippus
+and Diomnestus, and one daughter. And hence, we may suppose, those
+two comical poets, Aristophanes and Stratis, took occasion to bring
+him on the stage. He was born in the eighty-sixth Olympiad,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>
+Lysimachus being archon, about two and twenty years after Lysias, and
+seven before Plato. When he was a boy, he was as well educated as any
+of the Athenian children, being under the tuition of Prodicus the
+Cean, Gorgias the Leontine, Tisias the Syracusan, and Theramenes the
+rhetorician. And when Theramenes was to be apprehended by the order of
+the Thirty Tyrants, and flying for succor to the altar of the senate,
+only Isocrates stood his friend, when all others were struck with
+terror. For a long time he stood silent; but after some time Theramenes
+advised him to desist, because, he told him, it would be an aggravation
+of his grief, if any of his friends should come into trouble through
+him. And it is said that he made use of certain institutions of
+rhetoric composed by Theramenes, when he was slandered in court; which
+institutions have since borne Boton’s name.</p>
+
+<p>When Isocrates was come to man’s estate, he meddled with nothing of
+state affairs, both because he had a very <span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>weak voice and because he
+was something timorous; and besides these two impediments, his estate
+was much impaired by the loss of a great part of his patrimony in the
+war with the Lacedaemonians. It is evident that he composed orations
+for others to use, but delivered only one, that concerning Exchange of
+Property. Having set up a school, he gave himself much to writing and
+the study of philosophy, and then he wrote his Panegyrical oration, and
+others which were used for advice, some of which he delivered himself,
+and others he gave to others to pronounce for him; aiming thereby to
+persuade the Greeks to the study and practice of such things as were of
+most immediate concern to them. But his endeavors in that way proving
+to no purpose, he gave those things over, and opened a school in Chios
+first, as some will have it, having for a beginning nine scholars;
+and when they came to him to pay him for their schooling, he weeping
+said, “Now I see plainly that I am sold to my scholars.” He admitted
+all into his acquaintance who desired it. He was the first that made a
+separation between wrangling pleas and political arguments, to which
+latter he rather addicted himself. He instituted a form of magistracy
+in Chios, much the same with that at Athens. No schoolmaster ever got
+so much; so that he maintained a galley at his own charge. He had more
+than a hundred scholars, and among others Timotheus the son of Conon
+was one, with whom he visited many cities, and composed the epistles
+which Timotheus sent to the Athenians; who for his pains gave him a
+talent out of that which he got at Samos. Theopompus likewise the
+Chian, Ephorus the Cumaean, Asclepiades who composed arguments for
+tragedies, and Theodectes of Phaselis, who afterwards wrote tragedies,
+were all Isocrates’s scholars. The last of these had a monument in the
+way to the shrine of Cyamites, as we go to Eleusis by the Sacred Way,
+of which now remains only rubbish.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> There also he set up with his own
+the statues of other famous poets, of all which only Homer’s is to be
+seen. Leodamas also the Athenian, and Lacritus who gave laws to the
+Athenians, were both his scholars; and some say, Hyperides and Isaeus
+too. They add likewise, that Demosthenes also was very desirous to
+learn of him, and because he could not give the full rate, which was
+a thousand drachms, he offered him two hundred, the fifth part, if he
+would teach him but the fifth part of his art proportionable: to whom
+Isocrates answered, We do not use, Demosthenes, to impart our skill by
+halves, but as men sell good fish whole, or altogether, so if thou hast
+a desire to learn, we will teach thee our full art, and not a piece of
+it. He died in the year when Charondas was chief magistrate,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> when,
+being at Hippocrates’s public exercise, he received the news of the
+slaughter at Chaeronea; for he was the cause of his own death by a four
+days’ fast, which he then made, pronouncing just at his departure the
+three verses which begin three tragedies of Euripides:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Danaus, father of the fifty sisters,—</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Pelops, son of Tantalus, in quest of Pisa,—</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Cadmus, in time past, going from Sidon.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>He lived ninety-eight years, or, as some say, a hundred, not being
+able to behold Greece the fourth time brought into slavery. The year
+(or, as some say, four years) before he died, he wrote his Panathenaic
+oration. He labored upon his Panegyric oration ten years, or, as some
+tell us, fifteen, which he is supposed to have borrowed out of Gorgias
+the Leontine and Lysias. His oration concerning Exchange of Property he
+wrote when he was eighty-two years old, and those to Philip a little
+before his death. When he was old, he adopted Aphareus, the youngest
+of the three sons of Plathane, the daughter of Hippias the orator. He
+was very rich, both in respect of the great <span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>sums of money he exacted
+of his scholars, and besides that, having at one time twenty talents of
+Nicocles, king of Cyprus, for an oration which he dedicated to him. By
+reason of his riches he became obnoxious to the envy of others, and was
+three times named to maintain a galley; which he evaded twice by the
+assistance of his son and a counterfeit sickness, but the third time
+he undertook it, though the charge proved very great. A father telling
+him that he had allowed his son no other companion than one slave,
+Isocrates replied, Go thy way then, for one slave thou shalt have two.
+He strove for the prize which Aretemisia dedicated to the honor and
+memory of her husband Mausolus; but that oration is lost. He wrote also
+another oration in praise of Helen, and one called Areopagiticus. Some
+say that he died when he had fasted nine days,—some again, at four
+days’ end,—and his death took its date from the funeral solemnities
+of those that lost their lives at Chaeronea. His son Aphareus likewise
+wrote several orations.</p>
+
+<p>He lies buried with all his family near Cynosarges, on the left hand of
+the hill. There are interred Isocrates and his father Theodorus, his
+mother and her sister Anaco, his adoptive son Aphareus, Socrates the
+son of Anaco, Theodorus his brother, bearing his father’s name, his
+grandsons, the sons of his adopted Aphareus, and his wife Plathane,
+the mother of Aphareus. On these tombs were erected six tables, which
+are now demolished. And upon the tomb of Isocrates himself was placed
+a column thirty cubits high, and on that a mermaid of seven cubits,
+which was an emblem of his eloquence; there is nothing now extant.
+There was also near it a table, having poets and his schoolmasters
+on it; and among the rest, Gorgias inspecting a celestial globe, and
+Isocrates standing by him. There is likewise a statue of his of bronze
+in Eleusis, dedicated by Timothy the son of Conon, before the entry of
+the porch, with this inscription:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">To the fame and honor of Isocrates,</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
+<div class="verse indent0">This statue’s sacred to the Goddesses;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The gift of Timothy.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This statue was made by Leochares. There are threescore orations which
+bear his name; of which, if we credit Dionysius, only five and twenty
+are genuine; but according to Caecilius, twenty-eight; and the rest are
+accounted spurious. He was an utter stranger to ostentation, insomuch
+that, when there came at one time three persons to hear him declaim,
+he admitted but two of them, desiring the third to come the next day,
+for that two at once were to him as a full theatre. He used to tell
+his scholars that he taught his art for ten minas; but he would give
+any man ten thousand, that could teach him to be bold and give him a
+good utterance. And being once asked how he, who was not very eloquent
+himself, could make others so, he answered, Just as a whetstone cannot
+cut, yet it will sharpen knives for that purpose. Some say that he
+wrote institutions to the art of oratory; others are of opinion that
+he had no method of teaching, but only exercise. He would never ask
+any thing of a free-born citizen. He used to enjoin his scholars
+being present at public assemblies to repeat to him what was there
+delivered. He conceived no little sorrow for the death of Socrates,
+insomuch that the next day he put himself in mourning. Being asked
+what was the use and force of rhetoric, he answered, To make great
+matters small, and small great. At a feast with Nicoceon, the tyrant
+of Cyprus, being desired by some of the company to declaim upon some
+theme, he made answer, that that was not a season for him to speak what
+he knew, and he knew nothing that was then seasonable. Happening once
+to see Sophocles the tragedian amorously eying a comely boy, he said to
+him, It will become thee, Sophocles, to restrain not only thy hands,
+but thine eyes. When Ephorus of Cumae left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> his school before he had
+arrived at any good proficiency, his father Demophilus sent him again
+with a second sum of money in his hand; at which Isocrates jocosely
+called him Diphorus, that is, <i>twice bringing</i> his fee. However,
+he took a great deal of pains and care with him, and went so far as to
+put him in the way of writing history.</p>
+
+<p>He was wantonly given; and used to lie upon a ... mat for his bed, and
+his bolster was commonly made moist with saffron. He never married
+while he was young; but in his old age he kept a miss, whose name was
+Lagisce, and by her he had a daughter, who died in the twelfth year of
+her age, before she was married. He afterwards married Plathane, the
+wife of Hippias the rhetorician, who had three sons, the youngest of
+which, Aphareus by name, he adopted for his own, as we said before.
+This Aphareus erected a bronze statue to him near the temple of
+Jupiter, as may be seen from the inscription:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">In veneration of the mighty Jove,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">His noble parents, and the Gods above,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Aphareus this statue here has set,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The statue of Isocrates his father.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>He is said to have run a race on a swift horse, when he was but a
+boy; for he is to be seen in this posture in the Citadel, in the
+tennis court of the priestesses of Minerva, in a statue. There were
+but two suits commenced against him in his whole life. One whereof
+was with Megaclides, who provoked him to exchange of property; at
+the trial of which he could not be personally present, by reason of
+sickness; but sending Aphareus, he nevertheless overcame. The other
+suit was commenced against him by Lysimachus, who would have him come
+to an exchange or be at the charge of maintaining a galley for the
+commonwealth. In this case he was overthrown, and forced to perform the
+service. There was likewise a painting of him in the Pompeum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span></p>
+
+<p>Aphareus also wrote a few orations, both judicial and deliberative;
+as also tragedies to the number of thirty-seven, of which two
+are contested. He began to make his works public in the year of
+Lysistratus, and continued it to the year of Sosigenes, that is, eight
+and twenty years.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> In these years he exhibited dramas six times
+at the city Dionysiac festivals, and twice went away with the prize
+through the actor Dionysius; he also gained two other victories at the
+Lenaean festival through other actors.</p>
+
+<p>There were to be seen in the Citadel the statues of the mother of
+Isocrates, of Theodorus, and of Anaco his mother’s sister. That of
+the mother is placed just by the image of Health, the inscription
+being changed; that of Anaco is no longer there. [Anaco] had two sons,
+Alexander by Coenes, and Lysicles by Lysias.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">V. ISAEUS.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Isaeus</span> was born in Chalcis. When he came to Athens, he read Lysias’s
+works, whom he imitated so well, both in his style and in his skill in
+managing causes, that he who was not very well acquainted with their
+manner of writing could not tell which of the two was author of many
+of their orations. He flourished after the Peloponnesian war, as we
+may conjecture from his orations, and was in repute till the reign of
+Philip. He taught Demosthenes—not at his school, but privately—who
+gave him ten thousand drachms, by which business he became very famous.
+Some say that he composed orations for Demosthenes, which he pronounced
+in opposition to his guardians. He left behind him sixty-four orations,
+of which fifty are his own; as likewise some peculiar institutions of
+rhetoric. He was the first that used to speak or write figuratively,
+and that addicted <span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>himself to civil matters; which Demosthenes chiefly
+followed. Theopompus the comedian makes mention of him in his Theseus.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">VI. AESCHINES.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">He</span> was the son of Atrometus—who, being banished by the Thirty Tyrants,
+was thereby a means of reducing the commonwealth to the government of
+the people—and of his wife Glaucothea; by birth a Cothocidian. He
+was neither nobly born nor rich; but in his youth, being strong and
+well set, he addicted himself to all sorts of bodily exercises; and
+afterwards, having a very clear voice, he took to playing of tragedies,
+and if we may credit Demosthenes, he was a petty clerk, and also served
+Aristodemus as a player of third parts at the Bacchanalian festivals,
+in his times of leisure rehearsing the ancient tragedies. When he was
+but a boy, he was assisting to his father in teaching little children
+their letters, and when he was grown up, he listed himself a private
+soldier. Some think he was brought up under Socrates and Plato; but
+Caecilius will have it that Leodamas was his master. Being concerned
+in the affairs of the commonwealth, he openly acted in opposition to
+Demosthenes and his faction; and was employed in several embassies,
+and especially in one to Philip, to treat about articles of peace. For
+which Demosthenes accused him for being the cause of the overthrow and
+ruin of the Phocians, and the inflamer of war; which part he would
+have him thought to have acted when the Amphictyons chose him one of
+their deputies to the Amphissians who were building up the harbor
+[of Crissa]. On which the Amphictyons put themselves under Philip’s
+protection, who, being assisted by Aeschines, took the affair in hand
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>and soon conquered all Phocis.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> But Aeschines, notwithstanding
+all that Demosthenes could do, being favored by Eubulus the son of
+Spintharus, a Probalisian, who pleaded in his behalf, carried his cause
+by thirty voices, and so was cleared. Though some tell us, that there
+were orations prepared by the orators, but the news of the conquest of
+Chaeronea put a stop to the present proceedings, and so the suit fell.</p>
+
+<p>Some time after this, Philip being dead, and his son Alexander marching
+into Asia, Aeschines impeached Ctesiphon for acting against the laws,
+in passing a decree in favor of Demosthenes. But he having not the
+fifth part of the voices of the judges on his side, was forced to go
+in exile to Rhodes, because he would not pay his mulct of a thousand
+drachms. Others say, that he incurred disfranchisement also, because he
+would not depart the city, and that he went to Alexander at Ephesus.
+But upon the death of Alexander, when a tumult had been excited, he
+went to Rhodes, and there opened a school and taught. And on a time
+pronouncing the oration which he had formerly made against Ctesiphon,
+to pleasure the Rhodians, he did it with that grace, that they wondered
+how he could fail of carrying his cause if he pleaded so well for
+himself. But ye would not wonder, said he, that I was overthrown, if
+ye had heard Demosthenes pleading against me. He left a school behind
+him at Rhodes, which was afterwards called the Rhodian school. Thence
+he sailed to Samos, and there in a short time died. He had a very good
+voice, as both Demosthenes and Demochares testified of him.</p>
+
+<p>Four orations bear his name, one of which was against Timarchus,
+another concerning false embassage, and a third against Ctesiphon,
+which three are really his own; but the fourth, called Deliaca, is
+none of his; for though <span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>he was named to plead the cause of the temple
+at Delos, yet Demosthenes tells us that Hyperides was chosen in his
+stead.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> He says himself, that he had two brothers, Aphobetus and
+Philochares. He was the first that brought the Athenians the news of
+the victory obtained at Tamynae, for which he was crowned for the
+second time. Some report that Aeschines was never any man’s scholar,
+but having passed his time chiefly in courts of justice, he raised
+himself from the office of clerk to that of orator. His first public
+appearance was in a speech against Philip; with which the people being
+pleased, he was immediately chosen to go ambassador to the Arcadians;
+and being come thither, he excited the Ten Thousand against Philip. He
+indicted Timarchus for profligacy; who, fearing the issue, deserted his
+cause and hanged himself, as Demosthenes somewhere informs us. Being
+employed with Ctesiphon and Demosthenes in an embassage to Philip to
+treat of peace, he appeared the most accomplished of the three. Another
+time also he was one of ten men sent in embassage to conclude a peace;
+and being afterwards called to answer for it, he was acquitted, as we
+said.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">VII. LYCURGUS.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lycurgus</span> was the son of Lycophron, and grandson of that Lycurgus whom
+the Thirty Tyrants put to death, by the procurement of Aristodemus
+the Batesian, who, also being treasurer of the Greeks, was banished
+in the time of the popular government. He was a Butadian by birth,
+and of the line or family of the Eteobutades. He received his first
+institutions of philosophy from Plato the philosopher. But afterward
+entering himself a scholar to Isocrates the orator, he employed his
+study about affairs of the commonwealth. And to his care was committed
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> disposal and management of the city stock, and so he executed the
+office of treasurer-general for the space of twelve years; in which
+time there went through his hands fourteen thousand talents, or (as
+some will have it) eighteen thousand six hundred and fifty. It was the
+orator Stratocles that procured him this preferment. At first he was
+chosen in his own name; but afterwards he nominated one of his friends
+to the office, while he himself performed the duties; for there was
+a law just passed, that no man should be chosen treasurer for above
+the term of four years. But Lycurgus plied his business closely,
+both summer and winter, in the administration of public affairs. And
+being entrusted to make provision of all necessaries for the wars, he
+reformed many abuses that were crept into the commonwealth. He built
+four hundred galleys for the use of the public, and prepared and fitted
+a place for public exercises in Lyceum, and planted trees before it;
+he likewise built a wrestling-court, and being made surveyor of the
+theatre of Bacchus, he finished this building. He was likewise of so
+great repute among all sorts, that he was entrusted with two hundred
+and fifty talents of private citizens. He adorned and beautified the
+city with gold and silver vessels of state, and golden images of
+victory. He likewise finished many things that were as yet imperfect,
+as the dock-yards and the arsenal. He built a wall also about the
+spacious Panathenaic race-course, and made level a piece of uneven
+ground, given by one Dinias to Lycurgus for the use of the city. The
+keeping of the city was committed wholly to his care, and power to
+apprehend malefactors, of whom he cleared the city utterly; so that
+some sophisters were wont to say, that Lycurgus did not dip his pen in
+ink, but in blood. And therefore it was, that when Alexander demanded
+him of the people, they would not deliver him up. When Philip made
+the second war upon the Athenians, he was employed with Demosthenes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
+and Polyeuctus in an embassy to Peloponnesus and other cities. He
+was always in great repute and esteem with the Athenians, and looked
+upon as a man of that justice and integrity, that in the courts of
+judicature his good word was at all times prevalent on the behalf of
+those persons for whom he undertook to speak. He was the author of
+several laws; one of which was, that there should be certain comedies
+played at the Chytrian solemnities, and whoever of the poets or players
+should come off victor, he should thereby be invested with the freedom
+of the city, which before was not lawful; and so he revived a solemnity
+which for want of encouragement had for some time before been out of
+request. Another of his laws was, that the city should erect statues
+to the memory of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides; and that their
+tragedies, being fairly engrossed, should be preserved in the public
+consistory, and that the public clerks should read these copies as
+the plays were acted, that nothing might be changed by the players;
+and that otherwise it should be unlawful to act them. A third law
+proposed by him was, that no Athenian, nor any person inhabiting in
+Athens, should be permitted to buy a captive, who was once free, to be
+a slave, without the consent of his former master. Further, that in
+the Piraeus there should be at least three circular dances played to
+Neptune; and that to the victor in the first should be given not less
+than ten minas; in the second, eight; in the third, six. Also, that no
+woman should go to Eleusis in a coach, lest the poor should appear more
+despicable than the rich, and so be dejected and cast down; and that
+whoever should ride in a coach contrary to this law should be fined six
+thousand drachms. And when even his own wife was taken in the violation
+of it, he paid to the discoverers of it a whole talent; for which being
+afterwards called in question by the people: See therefore, said he, I
+am called to answer for giving, and not for receiving money.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p>
+
+<p>As he was walking one day in the streets, he saw an officer lay hand
+on Xenocrates the philosopher; and when nothing would serve his turn
+but the philosopher must to prison, because he had not deposited the
+tribute due from strangers, he with his staff struck the officer on the
+head for his unmannerly roughness toward a person of that character,
+and freeing Xenocrates, cast the other into prison in his stead. And
+not many days after, Xenocrates meeting with the children of Lycurgus
+said: I have returned thanks unto your father right speedily, my good
+children, for his friendship towards me, for I hear his kindness
+commended by all people where I go. He made likewise several decrees,
+in which he made use of the help of an Olynthian named Euclides, one
+very expert in such matters. Though he was rich enough, yet he was
+used to wear the same coat every day, both summer and winter; but he
+wore shoes only when he was compelled to do it. Because he was not
+ready to speak extempore, he used to practise and study day and night.
+And to the end he might not at any time oversleep himself and so lose
+time from his study, he used to cover himself on his bed only with a
+sheepskin with the wool on, and to lay a hard bolster under his head.
+When one reproached him for being in fee with rhetoricians when he
+studied his orations, he answered, that, if a man would promise to
+restore his sons better, he would give him not only a thousand drachms,
+but half what he was worth. He took the liberty of speaking boldly upon
+all occasions, by reason of his greatness; as when once the Athenians
+interrupted him in his speaking, he cried out, O thou Corcyraean whip,
+how many talents art thou worth? And another time, when some would rank
+Alexander among the Gods, What manner of God, said he, must he be, when
+all that go out of his temple had need to be dipped in water to purify
+themselves?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span></p>
+
+<p>After his death Menesaechmus accusing and indicting them by virtue
+of an instrument drawn by Thracycles, his sons were delivered to the
+eleven executioners of Justice. But Demosthenes, being in exile,
+wrote to the Athenians, to let them know that they were wrongfully
+accused, and that therefore they did not well to hear their accusers;
+upon which they recanted what they had done, and set them at liberty
+again,—Democles, who was Theophrastus’s scholar, likewise pleading in
+their defence. Lycurgus and some of his posterity were buried publicly,
+at or near the temple of Minerva Paeonia, where their monuments stand
+in the garden of Melanthius the philosopher, on which are inscriptions
+to Lycurgus and his children, which are yet extant. The greatest thing
+he did while he lived was his raising the revenue of the commons
+totally from sixty talents, as he found it, to twelve hundred. When
+he found he must die, he was by his own appointment carried into the
+temple of the Mother of the Gods, and into the senate-house, being
+willing before his death to give an account of his administration. And
+no man daring to accuse him of any thing except Menesaechmus, having
+purged himself from those calumnies which he cast upon him, he was
+carried home again, where in a short time he ended his life. He was
+always accounted honest; his orations were commended for the eloquence
+they carried in them; and though he was often accused, yet he never was
+overthrown in any suit.</p>
+
+<p>He had three children by Callisto, the daughter of Abron, and sister
+of Callias, Abron’s son, by descent a Batesian,—I mean, of him who,
+when Chaerondas was magistrate, was paymaster to the army. Of this
+affinity Dinarchus speaks in his oration against Pastius. He left
+behind him three sons, Abron, Lycurgus, and Lycophron; of which,
+Abron and Lycurgus died without issue,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> though the first, Abron, did
+for some time act very acceptably and worthily in affairs of the
+commonwealth. Lycophron, marrying Callistomacha, the daughter of
+Philip of Aexone, begat Callisto, who married Cleombrotus the son
+of Dinocrates the Acharnian, to whom she bare Lycophron, who, being
+adopted by his grandfather, died without issue. He being dead, Socrates
+married Callisto, of whom he had his son Symmachus. To him was born
+Aristonymus; to Aristonymus, Charmides, who was the father of Philippe.
+Of her and Lysander came Medeius, who also was an interpreter, one
+of the Eumolpids. He begat two children of Timothea, the daughter
+of Glaucus, viz. Laodamia and Medius, who were priests of Neptune
+Erechtheus; also Philippe a daughter, who was afterward priestess of
+Minerva; for before, she was married to Diocles of Melite, to whom
+she bare a son named Diocles, who was a colonel of a regiment of
+foot. He married Hediste, the daughter of Abron, and of her begat
+Philippides and Nicostrata, whom Themistocles the torch-bearer, son of
+Theophrastus, married, and by her had Theophrastus and Diocles; and he
+likewise constituted the priesthood of Neptune Erechtheus.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that he penned fifteen orations. He was often crowned by the
+people, and had statues dedicated to him. His image in brass was set
+up in Ceramicus by order of the public, in the year of Anaxicrates; in
+whose time also it was ordered that he and his eldest son should be
+provided for with diet in the Prytaneum; but he being dead, Lycophron
+his eldest son was forced to sue for that donation. This Lycurgus also
+was used frequently to plead on the account of sacred things; and
+accused Autolycus the Areopagite, Lysicles the general, Demades the
+son of Demeas, Menesaechmus, and many others, all whom he caused to be
+condemned as guilty. Diphilus also was called in question by him, for
+impairing and diminishing the props<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> of the metal mines, and unjustly
+making himself rich therefrom; and he caused him to be condemned to
+die, according to the provision made by the laws in that case. He gave
+out of his own stock fifty drachms to every citizen, the sum total of
+which donation amounted to one hundred and sixty talents;<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> but some
+say he gave a mina of silver to each. He likewise accused Aristogiton,
+Leocrates, and Autolycus for cowardice. He was called the Ibis:...</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The ibis to Lycurgus, to Chaerephon the bat.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>His ancestors derived their pedigree from Erechtheus, the son of the
+Earth and of Vulcan; but he was nearest to Lycomedes and Lycurgus,
+whom the people honored with public solemnities. There is a succession
+of those of the race who were priests of Neptune, in a complete table
+placed in the Erechtheum, painted by Ismenias the Chalcidian; in the
+same place stood wooden images of Lycurgus, and of his sons, Abron,
+Lycurgus, and Lycophron; made by Timarchus and Cephisodotus, the
+sons of Praxiteles. His son Abron dedicated the table; and coming to
+the priesthood by right of succession, he resigned to his brother
+Lycophron, and hence he is painted as giving a trident. But Lycurgus
+had made a draught of all his actions, and hung it on a column before
+the wrestling-court built by himself, that all might read that would;
+and no man could accuse him of any peculation. He likewise proposed to
+the people to crown Neoptolemus, the son of Anticles, and to dedicate
+statues to him, because he had promised and undertaken to cover the
+altar of Apollo in the market with gold, according to the order of the
+oracle. He decreed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>honors likewise to Diotimus, the son of Diopithes
+of Euonymus, in the year when Ctesicles was magistrate.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">VIII. DEMOSTHENES.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Demosthenes</span>, the son of Demosthenes by Cleobule, the daughter of
+Gylon, was a Paeanian by descent. He was left an orphan by his father,
+when he was but seven years old, together with a sister of the age of
+five. Being kept by his mother during his nonage, he went to school
+to Isocrates, say some; but the generality are of opinion that he was
+pupil to Isaeus the Chalcidian, who lived in Athens and was Isocrates’s
+scholar. He imitated Thucydides and Plato, and some affirm that he more
+especially attended the school of Plato. Hegesias the Magnesian writes,
+that he entreated his master’s leave to go to hear Callistratus the son
+of Empaedus, an Amphidnean, a noble orator, and sometime commander of
+a troop of horse, who had dedicated an altar to Mercury Agoraeos, and
+was to make an oration to the people. And when he heard him, he became
+a lover of oratory, and so long as he continued at Athens, remained his
+disciple.</p>
+
+<p>But Callistratus being soon banished to Thrace, and Demosthenes arrived
+at some years of maturity, he joined with Isocrates and Plato. After
+this, he took Isaeus into his house, and for the space of four years
+labored very hard in imitation of his orations. Though Ctesibius in his
+book of philosophy affirms that, by the help of Callias the Syracusan,
+he got the orations of Zoilus the Amphipolite, and by the assistance
+of Charicles the Carystian those also of Alcidamas, and devoted
+himself to the imitation of them. When he came to age, in the year of
+Timocrates<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> he called his tutors and guardians to account for their
+maladministration, in not allowing him what was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>fitting and requisite
+out of his estate. And these tutors or guardians were three, Aphobus,
+Therippides, and Demophon (or Demeas), the last of whom, being his
+uncle, he charged more severely than the other two. He arrested each of
+them in an action of ten talents, and cast them, but did not exact of
+them what the law had given him, releasing some for money and others
+for favor.</p>
+
+<p>When Aristophon, by reason of his age, could not hold the office any
+longer, he was chosen choregus, or overseer of the dances. During the
+execution of which office, Midias the Anagyrasian striking him as he
+was ordering the dances in the theatre, he sued him upon it, but let
+fall his suit upon Midias’s paying him three thousand drachms.</p>
+
+<p>It is reported of him that, while he was a youth, he confined himself
+to a den or cave, and there studied his orations, and shaved half of
+his head that he might not be allured to divert himself from it; and
+that he lay upon a very narrow bed, that he might awake and rise the
+sooner. And for that he could not very well pronounce the letter R,
+he accustomed himself very much to that, that he might master it if
+possible; and using likewise an unseemly motion of his shoulder when
+he spake at any time, he remedied that by a spit (or, as some say, a
+sword) stuck in the ceiling just over his shoulder, that the fear of
+being pricked with it might break him of that indecent gesture. They
+report of him further that, when he could declaim pretty well, he had a
+sort of mirror made as big as himself, and used always in declaiming to
+look in that, to the end that he might see and correct what was amiss.
+He used likewise at some certain times to go down to the Phalerian
+shore, to the end that, being accustomed to the surges and noise of the
+waves, he might not be daunted by the clamors of the people, when he
+should at any time declaim in public. And being naturally short-winded,
+he gave Neoptolemus a player ten thousand drachms to teach<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> him to
+pronounce long sentences in one breath.</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards, betaking himself to the affairs of the commonwealth, and
+finding the people divided into two different factions, one in favor
+of Philip, and the other standing for the liberty and properties of
+the people, he took part with them that opposed Philip, and always
+persuaded the citizens to help those who were in danger and trouble by
+Philip’s oppression; taking for his companions in council Hyperides,
+Nausicles, Polyeuctus, and Diotimus; and then he drew the Thebans,
+Euboeans, Corcyraeans, Corinthians, Boeotians, and many more into
+a league with the Athenians. Being in the assembly one day and his
+memory failing him, his oration was hissed; which made him return home
+very heavy and melancholy; and being met by Eunomus the Thriasian, an
+old man, by him he was comforted and encouraged. But he was chiefly
+animated by Andronicus the player, who told him that his orations were
+excellent, but that he wanted something of action, thereupon rehearsing
+certain places out of his oration which he had delivered in that same
+assembly. Unto which Demosthenes gave good ear and credit, and he then
+betook himself to Andronicus. And therefore, when he was afterwards
+asked what was the first part of oratory, he answered, “Action;” and
+which was the second, he replied, “Action;” and which was the third,
+he still answered, “Action.” Another time, declaiming publicly, and
+using expressions too youthful for one of his years and gravity, he was
+laughed at, and ridiculed by the comedians, Antiphanes and Timocles,
+who in derision used to repeat such phrases as these, as uttered by him:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">By the earth, by the fountains, by the rivers, by the floods!</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For having sworn thus in presence of the people, he raised <span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>a tumult
+about him. He likewise used to swear by Asclepius, and accented
+the second syllable (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκλήπιος</span>)<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> through some mistake, and yet
+afterwards defended it; for this Asclepius, he said, was called
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἤπιος</span>, that is a <i>mild</i> God. This also often caused him to be
+interrupted. But all these things he reformed in time, being sometime
+conversant with Eubulides, the Milesian philosopher. Being on a time
+present at the Olympic games, and hearing Lamachus the Myrrhinaean
+sound the praises of Philip and of Alexander the Great, his son, and
+decry the cowardice of the Thebans and Olynthians, he stood up in their
+defence against him, and from the ancient poets he proclaimed the great
+and noble achievements of the Thebans and Olynthians; and so elegantly
+he behaved himself in this affair, that he at once silenced Lamachus,
+and made him convey himself immediately out of the assembly. And even
+Philip himself, when he had heard what harangues he made against him,
+replied, that if he had heard him, he should have chosen him general
+in the war against himself. He was used to compare Demosthenes’s
+orations to soldiers, for the force they carried along with them; but
+the orations of Isocrates to fencers, because of the theatrical delight
+that accompanied them.</p>
+
+<p>Being about the age of seven and thirty, reckoning from Dexitheus
+to Callimachus,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a>—in whose time the Olynthians sent to beg aid
+of the Athenians against Philip, who then made war upon them,—he
+persuaded them to answer the Olynthians’ request; but in the following
+year, in which Plato died,<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Philip overthrew and destroyed the
+Olynthians. Xenophon also, the scholar of Socrates, had some knowledge
+of Demosthenes, either at his first rise, or at least when he was
+most famous and flourishing; for he wrote the Acts of the Greeks,
+as touching what passed at the battle of Mantinea, in the year of
+Chariclides;<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> our Demosthenes having sometime before overthrown
+his guardians <span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>in a suit he had commenced against them, in the year
+of Timocrates. When Aeschines, being condemned, fled from Athens,
+Demosthenes hearing of it took horse and rode after him; which
+Aeschines understanding, and fearing to be apprehended again, he came
+out to meet Demosthenes, and fell at his feet, covered his face, and
+begged his mercy; upon which Demosthenes bid him stand up, be assured
+of his favor, and as a pledge of it, gave him a talent of silver. He
+advised the people to maintain a company of mercenary soldiers in
+Thasos, and thither sailed himself as captain of the galleys. Another
+time, being entrusted to buy corn, he was accused of defrauding the
+city, but cleared himself of the accusation and was acquitted. When
+Philip had seized upon Elatea, Demosthenes with others went to the war
+of Chaeronea, where he is said to have deserted his colors; and flying
+away, a bramble caught hold of his vest behind, when turning about in
+haste, thinking an enemy had overtaken him, he cried out, Save my life,
+and say what shall be my ransom. On his buckler he had engraven for
+his motto, To Good Fortune. And it was he that made the oration at the
+funerals of such as died in that battle.</p>
+
+<p>After these things, he bent his whole care and study for the reparation
+of the city and wall; and being chosen commissary for repairing the
+walls, besides what money he expended out the city stock, he laid out
+of his own at least a hundred minas. And besides this, he gave ten
+thousand drachms to the festival fund; and taking ship, he sailed
+from coast to coast to collect money of the allies; for which he was
+often by Demotelus, Aristonicus, and Hyperides crowned with golden
+crowns, and afterwards by Ctesiphon. Which last decree had like to have
+been retracted, Diodotus and Aeschines endeavoring to prove it to be
+contrary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> to the laws; but he defended himself so well against their
+allegations, that he overcame all difficulties, his enemies not having
+the fifth part of the votes of the judges.</p>
+
+<p>After this, when Alexander the Great made his expedition into Asia,
+and Harpalus fled to Athens with a great sum of money, at first he
+would not let him be entertained, but afterwards, Harpalus being landed
+and having given him a thousand darics he was of another mind; and
+when the Athenians determined to deliver Harpalus up to Antipater,
+he opposed it, proposing to deposit the money in the Citadel, still
+without declaring the amount to the people. Thereupon Harpalus declared
+that he had brought with him from Asia seven hundred talents, and that
+this sum had been deposited in the Citadel; but only three hundred and
+fifty or a little more could be found, as Philochorus relates. But
+when Harpalus broke out of the prison wherein he was kept till some
+person should come from Alexander, and was escaped into Crete,—or, as
+some will have it, into Taenarum in Laconia,—Demosthenes was accused
+that he had received from him a sum of money, and that therefore he
+had not given a true account of the sum delivered to him, nor had
+impeached the negligence of the keepers. So he was judicially cited
+by Hyperides, Pytheus, Menesaechmus, Himeraeus, and Patrocles, who
+prosecuted him so severely as to cause him to be condemned in the
+court of Areopagus; and being condemned, he went into exile, not being
+able to pay fivefold; for he was accused of receiving thirty talents.
+Others say, that he would not run the risk of a trial, but went into
+banishment before the day came. After this tempest was over, when the
+Athenians sent Polyeuctus to the republic of Arcadia to draw them off
+from the alliance with the Macedonians, he not succeeding, Demosthenes
+appeared to second him, where he reasoned so effectually that he easily
+prevailed. Which procured him so much credit and esteem,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> that after
+some time a galley was dispatched to call him home again. And the
+Athenians decreed that, whereas he owed the state thirty talents, as a
+fine laid on him for the misdemeanor he was accused of, he should be
+excused for only building an altar to Jupiter Servator in the Piraeus;
+which decree was first proposed by Demon his near kinsman. This
+being agreed on, he returned to the administration of affairs in the
+commonwealth again.</p>
+
+<p>But when Antipater was blocked up in Lamia, and the Athenians offered
+sacrifices for the happy news, he happened, being talking with
+Agesistratus, one of his intimate friends, to say, that his judgment
+concerning the state of affairs did not jump with other men’s, for that
+he knew the Greeks were brisk and ready enough to run a short course
+but not to hold on a long race. When Antipater had taken Pharsalus,
+and threatened to besiege Athens itself if they refused to deliver up
+such orators as had declaimed against him, Demosthenes, suspecting
+himself to be one of the number, left the city, and fled first into
+Aegina, that he might take sanctuary in the temple of Aeacus; but being
+afraid to trust himself long there, he went over to Calauria; and
+when the Athenians had decreed to deliver up those orators, and him
+especially as one of them, he continued a suppliant in the temple of
+Neptune. When Archias came thither,—who, from his office of pursuing
+fugitives, was called Phygadotheres and was the scholar of Anaximines
+the orator,—when he, I say, came to him, and persuaded him to go with
+him, telling him that no doubt he should be received by Antipater as a
+friend, he replied: When you played a part in a tragedy, you could not
+persuade me to believe you the person you represented; no more shall
+you now persuade me by your counsel. And when Archias endeavored to
+force him thence, the townsmen would not suffer it. And Demosthenes
+told them, that he did not flee to Calauria to save<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> his life, but
+that he might convince the Macedonians of their violence committed
+even against the Gods themselves. And with that he called for a
+writing-table; and if we may credit Demetrius the Magnesian, on that he
+wrote a distich, which afterwards the Athenians caused to be affixed to
+his statue; and it was to this purpose:—</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Hadst thou, Demosthenes, an outward force</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Great as thy inward magnanimity.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Greece should not wear the Macedonian yoke.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This statue, made by Polyeuctus, is placed near the cloister where the
+altar of the twelve Gods is erected. Some say this writing was found:
+“Demosthenes to Antipater, Greeting.” Philochorus tells us that he died
+by drinking of poison; and Satyrus the historiographer will have it,
+that the pen was poisoned with which he wrote his epistle, and putting
+it into his mouth, soon after he tasted it he died. Eratosthenes is of
+another opinion, that being in continual fear of the Macedonians, he
+wore a poisoned bracelet on his arms. Others say again, that he died
+with holding his breath; and others, lastly, say that he carried strong
+poison in his signet. He lived to the age of seventy, according to
+those who give the highest number,—of sixty-seven, according to other
+statements. And he was in public life two and twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>When King Philip was dead, he appeared publicly in a glorious robe or
+mantle, as rejoicing for his death, though he but just before mourned
+for his daughter. He assisted the Thebans likewise against Alexander,
+and animated all the other Greeks. So that when Alexander had conquered
+Thebes, he demanded Demosthenes of the Athenians, threatening them if
+they refused to deliver him. When he went against Persia, demanding
+ships of the Athenians, Demosthenes opposed it, saying, who can
+assure us that he will not use those ships we should send him against
+ourselves?</p>
+
+<p>He left behind him two sons by one wife, the daughter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> of one
+Heliodorus, a principal citizen. He had but one daughter, who died
+unmarried, being but a child. A sister too he had, who married with
+Laches of Leuconoe, his kinsman, and to him bore Demochares, who proved
+inferior to none in his time for eloquence, conduct, and courage. His
+statue is still standing in the Prytaneum, the first on the right as
+you approach the altar, clothed with a mantle and girt with a sword,
+because in this habit he delivered an oration to the people, when
+Antipater demanded of them their orators.</p>
+
+<p>Afterwards, in process of time, the Athenians decreed nourishment to
+be given to the kindred of Demosthenes in the Prytaneum, and likewise
+set up a statue to his memory, when he was dead, in the market, in
+the year of Gorgias,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> which honors were paid him at the request of
+Demochares his sister’s son. And ten years after, Laches, the son of
+Demochares of Leuconoe, in the year of Pytharatus, required the same
+honor for himself, that his statue should be set up in the market, and
+that both he and the eldest of his line for the future should have
+their allowance in the Prytaneum, and the highest room at all public
+shows. These decrees concerning both of them are engrossed, and to be
+found among the statute laws. The statue of Demochares, of which we
+have spoken before, was afterwards removed out of the market into the
+Prytaneum.</p>
+
+<p>There are extant sixty-five orations which are truly his. Some report
+of him, that he lived a very dissolute and vicious life, appearing
+often in women’s apparel, and being frequently conversant at masks
+and revellings, whence he was surnamed Batalus; though others say,
+that this was a pet name given him by his nurse, and that from this
+he was called Batalus in derision. Diogenes the Cynic espying him one
+day in a victualling-house, he was very much ashamed, and to shun
+him, went to withdraw; but Diogenes <span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>called after him, and told him,
+The more you shrink inward, the more you will be in the tavern. The
+same Diogenes once upon the banter said of him, that in his orations
+he was a Scythian, but in war a delicate nice citizen. He was one of
+them who received gold of Ephialtes, one of the popular orators, who,
+being sent in an embassy to the king of Persia, took money privily, and
+distributed it among the orators of Athens, that they might use their
+utmost endeavors to kindle and inflame the war against Philip; and it
+is said of Demosthenes, that he for his part had at once three thousand
+darics of the king. He apprehended one Anaxilas of Oreus, who had been
+his friend, and caused him to be tortured for a spy; and when he would
+confess nothing, he procured a decree that he should be delivered to
+the eleven executioners.</p>
+
+<p>When once at a meeting of the Athenians they would not suffer him to
+speak, he told them he had but a short story to tell them. Upon which
+all being silent, thus he began: A certain youth, said he, hired an
+ass in summer time, to go from hence to Megara. About noon, when the
+sun was very hot, and both he that hired the ass and the owner were
+desirous of sitting in the shade of the ass, they each thrust the other
+away,—the owner arguing that he let him only his ass and not the
+shadow, and the other replying that, since he had hired the ass, all
+that belonged to him was at his dispose. Having said thus, he seemed to
+go his way. But the Athenians willing now to hear his story out, called
+him back, and desired him to proceed. To whom he replied: How comes it
+to pass that ye are so desirous of hearing a story of the shadow of an
+ass, and refuse to give ear to matters of greater moment? Polus the
+player boasting to him that he had gotten a whole talent by playing but
+two days, he answered, and I have gotten five talents by being silent
+but one day. One day his voice failing him when he was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> declaiming
+publicly, being hissed, he cried out to the people, saying, Ye are to
+judge of players, indeed, by their voice, but of orators by the gravity
+of their sentences.</p>
+
+<p>Epicles upbraiding him for his premeditating what he was to say, he
+replied, I should be ashamed to speak what comes uppermost to so great
+an assembly. They say of him that he never put out his lamp—that
+is, never ceased polishing his orations—until he was fifty years
+old. He says of himself, that he drank always fair water. Lysias the
+orator was acquainted with him; and Isocrates knew him concerned in
+the management of public affairs till the battle of Chaeronea; as
+also some of the Socratical sect. [He delivered most of his orations
+extempore, Nature having well qualified him for it.]<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> The first that
+proposed the crowning him with a coronet of gold was Aristonicus, the
+son of Nicophanes, the Anagyrasian; though Diondas interposed with an
+indictment.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">IX. HYPERIDES.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hyperides</span> was son of Glaucippus, and grandson of Dionysius, of the
+borough of Colyttus. He had a son, who bare the same name with his
+father Glaucippus, an orator, who wrote many orations, and begat a son
+named Alphinous. At the same time with Lycurgus, he had been a scholar
+of the philosopher Plato and of the orator Isocrates. In Athens his
+concern in the commonwealth was at that time when Alexander accosted
+Greece, whom he vigorously opposed in his demands made of the Athenians
+for the generals as well as for galleys. He advised the people not to
+discharge the garrison of Taenarum, and this he did for the sake of a
+friend of his, Chares, who was commander of it. At first he used to
+plead causes for a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>fee. He was suspected to have received part of
+the money which Ephialtes brought out of Persia, and was chosen to
+maintain a galley, and was sent to assist the Byzantines, when Philip
+was besieging their city. Nevertheless, in the same year he took the
+charge of defraying the expense of the solemn dances, whereas the rest
+of the captains were exempt from all such public burdens for that year.
+He obtained a decree for some honors to be paid to Demosthenes; and
+when that decree was indicted at the instance of Diondas, as being
+contrary to the laws, he, being called in question upon it, cleared
+himself. He did not continue his friendship with Demosthenes, Lysicles,
+and Lycurgus to the last; for, Lysicles and Lycurgus being dead, and
+Demosthenes being accused of having received money of Harpalus, he,
+among all the rest, was pitched upon, as the only person who was not
+corrupted with bribery, to draw up his indictment, which he accordingly
+did. Being once accused at the instance of Aristogiton of publishing
+acts contrary to the laws after the battle of Chaeronea,—that all
+foreign inhabitants of Athens should be accounted citizens, that
+slaves should be made free, that all sacred things, children, and
+women should be confined to the Piraeus,—he cleared himself of all
+and was acquitted. And being blamed by some, who wondered how he could
+be ignorant of the many laws that were directly repugnant to those
+decrees, he answered, that the arms of the Macedonians darkened his
+sight, and it was not he but the battle of Chaeronea that made that
+decree. But Philip, being affrighted at somewhat, gave leave to carry
+away their dead out of the field, which before he had denied to the
+heralds from Lebadea.</p>
+
+<p>After this, at the overthrow at Crannon, being demanded by Antipater,
+and the people being resolved to deliver him up, he fled out of the
+city with others who were under the same condemnation to Aegina;
+where meeting with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> Demosthenes, he excused himself for the breach
+of friendship between them. Going from thence, he was apprehended by
+Archias, surnamed Phygadotheres, by country a Thurian, formerly a
+player, but at that time in the service of Antipater; by this man, I
+say, he was apprehended, even in the very temple of Neptune, though
+he grasped the image of that God in his arms. He was brought before
+Antipater, who was then at Corinth; where being put upon the rack, he
+bit out his tongue, because he would not divulge the secrets of his
+country, and so died, on the ninth day of October. Hermippus tells us
+that, as he went into Macedonia, his tongue was cut out and his body
+cast forth unburied; but Alphinous his cousin-german (or, according to
+the opinion of others, his grandson, by his son Glaucippus) obtained
+leave, by means of one Philopithes a physician, to take up his body,
+which he burnt, and carried the ashes to Athens to his kinsfolk there,
+contrary to the edicts both of the Athenians and Macedonians, which not
+only banished them, but likewise forbade the burial of them anywhere
+in their own country. Others say, that he was carried to Cleonae with
+others, and there died, having his tongue cut out, as above; however,
+his relations and friends took his bones, when his body was burned, and
+buried them among his ancestors before the gate Hippades, as Heliodorus
+gives us the relation in his Third Book of Monuments. His monument is
+now altogether unknown and lost, being thrown down with age and long
+standing.</p>
+
+<p>He is said to have excelled all others in his way of delivering himself
+in his orations to the people. And there are some who prefer him even
+to Demosthenes himself. There are seventy-seven orations which bear his
+name, of which only two and fifty are genuine and truly his. He was
+much given to venery, insomuch that he turned his son out of doors, to
+entertain that famous courtesan Myrrhina. In Piraeus he had another,
+whose name was Aristagora;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> and at Eleusis, where part of his estate
+lay, he kept another, one Philte a Theban, whom he ransomed for twenty
+minas. His usual walk was in the fish-market. It is thought that he
+was accused of impiety with one Phryne, a courtesan likewise, and so
+was sought after to be apprehended, as he himself seems to intimate in
+the beginning of an oration; and it is said, that when sentence was
+just ready to be passed upon her, he produced her in court, opened
+her clothes before, and discovered her naked breasts, which were so
+very white, that for her beauty’s sake the judges acquitted her. He
+at leisure times drew up several declamations against Demosthenes,
+which were thus discovered: Hyperides being sick, Demosthenes came
+one day to visit him, and caught him with a book in his hand written
+against him; at which seeming somewhat displeased, Hyperides told him:
+This book shall hurt no man that is my friend; but as a curb, it may
+serve to restrain my enemy from offering me any injury. He obtained a
+decree of some honors to be paid to Iolas, who gave the poisoned cup
+to Alexander. He joined with Leosthenes in the Lamian war, and made an
+admirable oration at the funerals of those who lost their lives therein.</p>
+
+<p>When Philip was prepared to embark for Euboea, and the Athenians heard
+the news of it with no little consternation, Hyperides in a very short
+time, by the voluntary contributions of the citizens, fitted out
+forty sail, and was the first that set an example, by sending out two
+galleys, one for himself and another for his son, at his own charge.</p>
+
+<p>When there was a controversy between the Delians and the Athenians,
+who should have the pre-eminence in the temple at Delos; Aeschines
+being chosen on the behalf of the Athenians for their advocate, the
+Areopagites refused to ratify the choice and elected Hyperides; and his
+oration <span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>is yet extant, and bears the name of the Deliac oration.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p>
+
+<p>He likewise went ambassador to Rhodes; where meeting other ambassadors
+from Antipater, who commended their master very highly for his goodness
+and virtue. We know, replied he, that Antipater is good, but we have no
+need of a good master at present.</p>
+
+<p>It is said of him, that he never affected much action in his orations
+to the people, his chief aim being to lay down the matter plainly, and
+make the case as obvious to the judges as he could.</p>
+
+<p>He was sent likewise to the Eleans, to plead the cause of Callippus
+the fencer, who was accused of carrying away the prize at the public
+games unfairly; in which cause he got the better. But when he opposed
+the sentence of paying honors to Phocion, obtained by Midias the son of
+Midias the Anagyrasian, he was in that cause overthrown. This cause was
+pleaded on the twenty-fourth day of May, in the year when Xenius was
+magistrate.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">X. DINARCHUS.</h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dinarchus</span>, the son of Socrates or Sostratus,—born, as some think,
+at Athens, but according to others, at Corinth,—came to Athens very
+young, and there took up his dwelling, at that time when Alexander made
+his expedition into Asia. He used to hear Theophrastus, who succeeded
+Aristotle in his school. He was frequently conversant with Demetrius
+the Phalerian too. He betook himself more especially to the affairs of
+the commonwealth after the death of Antipater, when some of the orators
+were killed and others banished. Having contracted friendship with
+Cassander, he became in a short time vastly rich, by exacting great
+rates for his orations of those for whom he wrote<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> them. He opposed
+himself to the greatest and most noble orators of his time, not by
+being overforward to declaim publicly,—for his faculty did not lie
+that way,—but by composing orations for their adversaries. And when
+Harpalus had broken out of prison, he wrote several orations, which he
+gave to their accusers to pronounce against those that were suspected
+to have taken bribes of him.</p>
+
+<p>Some time after, being accused of a conspiracy with Antipater and
+Cassander about the matter of Munychia, when it was surprised by
+Antigonus and Demetrius, who put a garrison into it, in the year of
+Anaxicrates,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> he turned the greatest part of his estate into money,
+and fled to Chalcis, where he lived in exile about fifteen years, and
+increased his stock; but afterwards, by the mediation of Theophrastus,
+he and some other banished persons returned to Athens. Then he took up
+his abode in the house of one Proxenus, his intimate friend; where,
+being very aged and withal dim-sighted, he lost his gold. And because
+Proxenus refused to make inquiry after the thief, he apprehended him;
+and this was the first time that ever he appeared in court. That
+oration against Proxenus is extant; and there are sixty-four that bear
+his name, whereof some are believed to be Aristogiton’s. He imitated
+Hyperides; or, as some incline to judge, rather Demosthenes, because
+of that vigor and force to move the affections, and the rhetorical
+ornaments that are evident in his style.</p>
+
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">DECREES PROPOSED TO THE ATHENIANS.</h3></div>
+
+<h4 class="nobreak center larger">I.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Demochares</span>, the son of Laches of Leuconoe, requires that a statue
+of brass be set up for Demosthenes, the son of Demosthenes the
+Paeanian, in the market-place, as <span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>likewise that provision of diet
+be made in the Prytaneum for himself and the eldest of his progeny
+successively, and the chief seat in all public shows; for that he had
+done many good offices for the Athenians, had on most occasions been
+a good counsellor, and had spent his patrimony in the commonwealth;
+had expended eight talents for the fitting out and maintenance of
+one galley, when they delivered Euboea, another, when Cephisodorus
+sailed into the Hellespont, and a third, when Chares and Phocion were
+commissioned by the people to go captains to Byzantium; that he at his
+own charge had redeemed many who had been taken prisoners by Philip at
+Pydna, Methone, and Olynthus; that himself had maintained a choir of
+men, when no provision had been made therefor through the neglect of
+the tribe Pandionis; that he had furnished many indigent citizens with
+arms; that being chosen by the people to oversee the city works, he
+had laid out three talents of his own stock towards the repairing of
+the walls, besides all that he gave for making two trenches about the
+Piraeus; that after the battle of Chaeronea he deposited one talent
+for the use of the public, and after that, another to buy corn in time
+of scarcity and want; that by his beneficence, wholesome counsels and
+effectual persuasions, he allured the Thebans, Euboeans, Corinthians,
+Megarians, Achaeans, Locrians, Byzantines, and Messenians to a league
+with the Athenians; that he raised an army of ten thousand foot and a
+thousand horse, and contracted plenty to the people and their allies;
+that being ambassador, he had persuaded the allies to the contribution
+of above five hundred talents; that in the same quality, by his
+influence and the free gift of money, he obtained of the Peloponnesians
+that they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> should not send aid to Alexander against the Thebans; and
+in consideration of many other good offices performed by him, either
+as to his counsels, or his personal administration of affairs in the
+commonwealth, in which, and in defending the rights and liberties of
+the people, no man in his time had done more or deserved better; and
+in regard of his sufferings when the commonwealth was ruined, being
+banished by the insolence of the oligarchy, and at last dying at
+Calauria for his good-will to the public, there being soldiers sent
+from Antipater to apprehend him; and that notwithstanding his being in
+the hands of his enemies, in so great and imminent danger, his hearty
+affection to his countrymen was still the same, insomuch that he never
+to the last offered any unworthy thing to the injury of his people.</p>
+
+<h4 class="nobreak center larger">II.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the magistracy of Pytharatus,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Laches, the son of Demochares of
+Leuconoe requires of the Athenian senate that a statue of brass be set
+up for Demochares, the son of Laches of Leuconoe, in the market-place,
+and table and diet in the Prytaneum for himself and the eldest of his
+progeny successively, and the first seat at all public shows; for that
+he had always been a benefactor and good counsellor to the people,
+and had done these and the like good offices to the public: he had
+gone in embassies in his own person; had proposed and carried in bills
+relating to his embassage; had been chief manager of public matters;
+had repaired the walls, prepared arms and machines; had fortified the
+city in the time of the four years’ war, and composed a peace, truce,
+and alliance with the Boeotians; for which things he was banished by
+those who overturned and usurped the government;—and being called
+home <span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>again by a decree of the people, in the year of Diocles, he had
+contracted the administration, sparing the public funds; and going
+in embassage to Lysimachus, he had at one time gained thirty, and at
+another time a hundred talents of silver, for the use of the public;
+he had moved the people to send an embassage to Ptolemy, by which
+means the people got fifty talents; he went ambassador to Antipater,
+and by that got twenty talents, and brought it to Eleusis to the
+people,—all which measures he persuaded the people to adopt while he
+himself carried them out; furthermore, he was banished for his love
+for the commonwealth, and would never take part with usurpers against
+the popular government; neither did he, after the overthrow of that
+government, bear any public office in the state; he was the only man,
+of all that had to do in the public administration of affairs in his
+time, who never promoted or consented to any other form of government
+but the popular; by his prudence and conduct, all the judgments and
+decrees, the laws, courts, and all things else belonging to the
+Athenians, were preserved safe and inviolate; and, in a word, he never
+said or did any thing to the prejudice of the popular government.</p>
+
+<h4 class="nobreak center larger">III.</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lycophron</span>, the son of Lycurgus of Butadae, requires that he may have
+diet in the Prytaneum, according to a donation of the people to
+Lycurgus. In the year of Anaxicrates,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> in the sixth prytany,—which
+was that of the tribe Antiochis,—Stratocles, the son of Euthydemus
+of Diomea, proposed; that,—since Lycurgus, the son of Lycophron of
+Butadae, had (as it were) an ingenerated good-will in him towards the
+people of Athens; <span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>and since his ancestors Diomedes and Lycurgus lived
+in honor and esteem of all people, and when they died were honored
+for their virtue so far as to be buried at the public charge in the
+Ceramicus; and since Lycurgus himself, while he had the management of
+public affairs, was the author of many good and wholesome laws, and
+was the city treasurer for twelve years together, during which time
+there passed through his own hands eighteen thousand and nine hundred
+talents, besides other great sums of money that he was entrusted with
+by private citizens for the public good, to the sum of six hundred and
+fifty talents; in all which concerns he behaved himself so justly,
+that he was often crowned by the city for his fidelity; besides, being
+chosen by the people to that purpose, he brought much money into the
+Citadel, and provided ornaments, golden images of victory, and vessels
+of gold and silver for the Goddess Minerva, and gold ornaments for a
+hundred Canephoroe;<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> since, being commissary-general, he brought
+into the stores a great number of arms and at least fifty thousand shot
+of darts, and set out four hundred galleys, some new built, and others
+only repaired; since, finding many buildings half finished, as the
+dock-yards, the arsenal, and the theatre of Bacchus, he completed them;
+and finished the Panathenaic race, and the court for public exercises
+at the Lyceum, and adorned the city with many fair new buildings;
+since, when Alexander, having conquered Asia, and assuming the empire
+of all Greece, demanded Lycurgus as the principal man that confronted
+and opposed him in his affairs, the people refused to deliver him up,
+notwithstanding the terror inspired by Alexander; and since, being
+often called to account for his management of affairs in so free a
+city, which was wholly governed by the people, he never was found
+faulty or corrupt in any particular;—that all people, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>therefore, may
+know, not only that the people do highly esteem all such as act in
+defence of their lïberties and rights while they live, but likewise
+that they pay them honors after death, in the name of Good Fortune it
+is decreed by the people, that such honors be paid to Lycurgus, the son
+of Lycophron of Butadae, for his justice and magnanimity, as that a
+statue of brass be erected in memory of him in any part of the market
+which the laws do not prohibit; as likewise that there be provision for
+diet in the Prytaneum for every eldest son of his progeny, successively
+for ever. Also, that all his decrees be ratified, and engrossed by the
+public notary, and engraven on pillars of stone, and set up in the
+Citadel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> just by the gifts consecrated to Minerva; and that the city
+treasurer shall deposit fifty drachms for the engraving of them, out of
+the money set apart for such uses.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WHETHER_AN_AGED_MAN">WHETHER AN AGED MAN OUGHT TO MEDDLE IN STATE AFFAIRS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">We</span> are not ignorant, O Euphanes, that you, being an extoller of
+Pindar, have often in your mouth this saying of his, as a thing well
+and to the purpose spoken by him:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When as the combat’s once agreed,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Who by pretence seeks to be freed</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Obscures his virtue quite.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But since sloth and effeminacy towards civil affairs, having many
+pretences, do for the last, as if it were drawn from the sacred
+line, tender to us old age, and thinking by this chiefly to abate
+and cool our honorable desire, allege that there is a certain decent
+dissolution, not only of the athletical, but also of the political
+period, or that there is in the revolution of our years a certain set
+and limited time, after which it is no more proper for us to employ
+ourselves in the conduct of the state than in the corporeal and robust
+exercises of youth; I esteem myself obliged to communicate also to
+you those sentiments of mine concerning old men’s intermeddling with
+public matters, which I am ever and anon ruminating on by myself; so
+that neither of us may desert that long course we have to this day
+held together, nor rejecting the political life, which has been (as it
+were) an intimate friend of our own years, change it for another to
+which we are absolute strangers, and with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> which we have not time to
+become acquainted and familiar, but that we may persist in what we had
+chosen and have been inured to from the beginning, putting the same
+conclusion to our life and our living honorably; unless we would, by
+the short space of life we have remaining, disgrace that longer time
+we have already lived, as having been spent idly and in nothing that
+is commendable. For tyranny is not an honorable sepulchre, as one told
+Dionysius, whose monarchy, obtained by and administered with injustice,
+did by its long continuance bring on him but a more perfect calamity;
+as Diogenes afterwards let his son know, when, seeing him at Corinth,
+of a tyrant become a private person, he said to him: “How unworthy of
+thyself, Dionysius, thou actest! For thou oughtest not to live here
+at liberty and fearless with us, but to spend thy life, as thy father
+did, even to old age, immured within a tyrannical fortress.” But the
+popular and legal government of a man accustomed to show himself no
+less profitable in obeying than in commanding is an honorable monument,
+which really adds to death the glory accruing from life. For this
+thing, as Simonides says, “goes last under the ground;” unless it be
+in those in whom humanity and the love of honor die first, and whose
+zeal for goodness sooner decays than their covetousness after temporal
+necessaries; as if the soul had its active and divine parts weaker than
+those that are passive and corporeal; which it were neither honest to
+say, nor yet to admit from those who affirm that only of gaining we are
+never weary. But we ought to turn to a better purpose the saying of
+Thucydides, and believe that it is not the desire of honor only that
+never grows old,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> but much more also the inclinations to society
+and affection to the state, which continue even in ants and bees to
+the very last. For never did any one know a bee to become by age a
+drone, as some think it requisite of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>statesmen, of whom they expect
+that, when the vigor of their youth is past, they should retire and
+sit mouldy at home, suffering their active virtue to be consumed by
+idleness, as iron is by rust. For Cato excellently well said, that we
+ought not willingly to add the shame proceeding from vice to those
+many afflictions which old age has of its own. For of the many vices
+everywhere abounding, there is none which more disgraces an old man
+than sloth, delicacy, and effeminateness, when, retiring from the court
+and council, he mews himself up at home like a woman, or getting into
+the country oversees his reapers and gleaners; for of such a one we may
+say,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Where’s Oedipus, and all his famous riddles?</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But as for him who should in his old age, and not before, begin to
+meddle with public matters,—as they say of Epimenides, that having
+fallen asleep while he was a young man, he awakened fifty years
+after,—and shaking off so long and so close-sticking a repose, should
+thrust himself, being unaccustomed and unexercised, into difficult and
+laborious employs, without having been experienced in civil affairs,
+or inured to the conversations of men, such a man may perhaps give
+occasion to one that would reprehend him, to say with the prophetess
+Pythia</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Thou com’st too late,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>seeking to govern in the state and rule the people, and at an unfit
+hour knocking at the palace gate, like an ill-bred guest coming late to
+a banquet, or a stranger, thou wouldst change, not thy place or region,
+but thy life for one of which thou hast made no trial. For that saying
+of Simonides,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The state instructs a man,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>is true in those who apply themselves to the business of the commonweal
+whilst they have yet time to be taught, and to learn a science which
+is scarce attained <span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>with much labor through many strugglings and
+negotiations, even when it timely meets with a nature that can easily
+undergo toil and difficulty. These things seem not to be impertinently
+spoken against him who in his old age begins to act in the management
+of the state.</p>
+
+<p>2. And yet, on the contrary, we see how young men and those of unripe
+years are by persons of judgment diverted from meddling in public
+matters; and the laws also testify the same, when by the crier in the
+assemblies they summon not first the men like Alcibiades and Pytheas to
+come to the desk, but those who have passed the age of fifty years, to
+make speeches and consult together for the good of the people. For the
+being unused to boldness and the want of experience are not so much to
+every soldier....</p>
+
+<p>[Here is a defect in the original.]</p>
+
+<p>But Cato, when above eighty years of age he was to plead his own cause,
+said, that it was a difficult thing for a man to make his apology and
+justify his life before others than those with whom he had lived and
+been conversant.</p>
+
+<p>All men indeed confess, that the actions of Augustus Caesar, when
+he had defeated Antony, were no less royal and useful to the public
+towards the end of his life, than any he had done before. And himself
+severely reprehending the dissoluteness of young men by establishing
+good customs and laws, when they raised an uproar, he only said to
+them: Young men, refuse not to hear an old man, to whom old men not
+unwillingly gave ear when he was young. The government also of Pericles
+exerted itself with most vigor in his old age, when he both persuaded
+the Athenians to make war, and at another time, when they were eagerly
+bent unseasonably to go forth and fight sixty thousand armed men
+withstood and hindered them, sealing up in a manner the arms of the
+people and the keys of the gates. Now as for what Xenophon has written<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
+of Agesilaus, it is fit it should be set down in his own words. “What
+youth,” says he, “was ever so gallant but that his old age surpassed
+it? Who was ever so terrible to his enemies in the very flower of his
+virility, as Agesilaus in the declension of his days? At whose death
+were adversaries ever seen more joyful than at that of Agesilaus,
+though he departed not this life till he was stooping under the burden
+of his years? Who more emboldened his confederates than Agesilaus,
+though being at the utmost period of his life? What young man was ever
+missed more by his friends than Agesilaus, who died not till he was
+very old?”</p>
+
+<p>3. Age then hindered not these men from performing such gallant
+actions; and yet we, forsooth, being at our ease in states which have
+neither tyranny, war, nor siege to molest them, are afraid of such
+bloodless debates and emulations, as are for the most part terminated
+with justice only by law and words; confessing ourselves by this not
+only worse than those ancient generals and statesmen, but even than
+poets, sophisters, and players. Since Simonides in his old age gained
+the victory by his choral songs, as the epigram testifies in these
+concluding verses:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Fourscore years old was Leoprepes’ son,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Simonides, when he this glory won.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And it is said of Sophocles, that, to avoid being condemned of dotage
+at the instance of his children, he repeated the entrance song of the
+Chorus in his tragedy of Oedipus in Colonus, which begins thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent2">Welcome, stranger, come in time</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">To the best place of this clime,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">White Colonus, which abounds</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">With brave horses. In these grounds,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Spread with Nature’s choicest green,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Philomel is often seen.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Here she her hearers charms with sweetest lays,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Whilst with shrill throat</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">And warbling note</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">She moans the sad misfortunes of her former days:<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span></p>
+<p>and that, this song appearing admirable, he was dismissed
+from the court, as from the theatre, with the applause and acclamations
+of all that were present. And this short verse is acknowledged to be
+written of him:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When Sophocles framed for Herodotus</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">This ode, his years were fifty-five.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Philemon also the comedian and Alexis were snatched away by death,
+whilst they were acting on the stage and crowned with garlands. And as
+for Polus the tragedian, Eratosthenes and Philochorus related of him
+that, being seventy years of age, he a little before his death acted in
+four days eight tragedies.</p>
+
+<p>4. Is it not then a shame, that those who have grown old in councils
+and courts of judicature should appear less generous than such as have
+spent their years on the stage, and forsaking those exercises which are
+really sacred, cast off the person of the statesman, to put on instead
+of it I know not what other? For to descend from the state of a prince
+to that of a ploughman is all over base and mean. For since Demosthenes
+says that the Paralus, being a sacred galley, was unworthily used in
+being employed to carry timber, pales, and cattle to Midias; would not
+a man who should, after his having quitted the office of superintendent
+at the public solemnities, governor of Boeotia, or president in the
+council of the Amphictyons, be seen measuring of corn, weighing of
+raisins, and bargaining about fleeces and wool-fells,—would not such
+a one, I say, wholly seem to have brought on himself, as the proverb
+has it, the old age of a horse, without any one’s necessitating him to
+it? For to set one’s self to mechanical employments and trafficking,
+after one has borne office in the state, is the same as if one
+should strip a well-bred virtuous gentlewoman out of her matron-like
+attire, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> thrust her with an apron tied about her into a public
+victualling-house. For the dignity and greatness of political virtue
+is overthrown, when it is debased to such mean administrations and
+traffics for gain. But if (which is the only thing remaining) they
+shall, by giving effeminacies and voluptuousness the name of living at
+quiet and enjoying one’s self, exhort a statesman leisurely to waste
+away and grow old in them, I know not to which of the two shameful
+pictures his life will seem to have the greater resemblance,—whether
+to the mariners who, leaving their ship for the future not in the
+harbor but under sail, spend all their time in celebrating the
+feasts of Venus; or to Hercules, whom some painters merrily but yet
+ridiculously represent wearing in Omphale’s palace a yellow petticoat,
+and giving himself up to be boxed and combed by the Lydian damsels. So
+shall we, stripping a statesman of his lion’s-skin, and seating him at
+a luxurious table, there be always cloying his palate with delicacies,
+and filling his ears with effeminate songs and music; being not a whit
+put to the blush by the saying of Pompey the Great to Lucullus, who
+after his public services both in camp and council, addicted himself
+to bathing, feasting, conversing with women in the day, and much other
+dissoluteness, even to the raising and extravagantly furnishing of
+sumptuous buildings, and who, once upbraiding Pompey with an ambition
+and desire of rule unsuitable to his age, was by him answered, that it
+was more misbecoming an old man to live voluptuously than to govern?
+The same Pompey, when in his sickness his physician had prescribed him
+the eating of a thrush, which was then hard to be got, as being out of
+season, being told that Lucullus bred great store of such birds, would
+not send to him for one, but said: What! Cannot Pompey live, unless
+Lucullus be luxurious?</p>
+
+<p>5. For though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> Nature seeks by all means to delight and rejoice
+herself, yet the bodies of old men are incapacitated for all pleasures,
+except a few that are absolutely necessary. For not only</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Venus to old men is averse,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Euripides has it; but their appetite also to their meat and drink is
+for the most part dull, and as one would say, toothless; so that they
+have but little gust and relish in them.</p>
+
+<p>They ought therefore to furnish themselves with pleasures of the mind,
+not ungenerous or illiberal, like those of Simonides, who said to those
+who reproached him with covetousness, that being by his years deprived
+of other pleasures, he recreated his old age with the only delight
+which remained, that of heaping up riches. But political life has in
+it pleasures exceeding great, and no less honorable, being such as it
+is probable the very Gods do only or at least chiefly enjoy themselves
+in; and these are the delights which proceed from doing good and
+performing what is honest and laudable. For if Nicias the painter took
+such pleasure in the work of his hands, that he often was fain to ask
+his servants whether he had washed or dined; and if Archimedes was so
+intent upon the table in which he drew his geometrical figures, that
+his attendants were obliged by force to pluck him from it and strip him
+of his clothes that they might anoint him, whilst he in the mean time
+drew new schemes on his anointed body; and if Canus the piper, whom you
+also know, was wont to say that men knew not how much more he delighted
+himself with his playing than he did others, for that then his hearers
+would rather demand of him than give him a reward; do we not thence
+conceive how great pleasures the virtues afford to those who practise
+them, from their honest actions and public-spirited works tending to
+the benefit of human society? They do not tickle or weaken, as do
+such <span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>sweet and gentle motions as are made on the flesh; for these
+indeed have a furious and unconstant itching, mixed with a feverish
+inflammation; whereas those which accompany the state is worker of, not
+like the golden plumes of Euripides, but like those celestial wings of
+Plato, elevate the soul which has received a greatness of courage and
+wisdom accompanied with joy.</p>
+
+<p>6. Call to mind a little, I entreat you, those things you have so often
+heard. For Epaminondas indeed, being asked what was the most pleasant
+thing that ever befell him, answered, his having gained the victory at
+Leuctra whilst his father and mother were yet living. And Sylla, when,
+having freed Italy from civil wars, he came to Rome, could not the
+first night fetch the least wink of sleep, having his soul transported
+with excessive joy and content, as with a strong and mighty wind; and
+this he himself has written in his Commentaries. For be it indeed so,
+as Xenophon says, that there is no sound more pleasing than one’s own
+praises; yet there is no sight, remembrance, or consideration which
+gives a man so much satisfaction as the contemplation of his own
+actions, performed by him in offices of magistracy, and management of
+the state, in eminent and public places.</p>
+
+<p>It is moreover true, that the courteous thanks attending as a witness
+on such virtuous acts, and the emulous praise conferred on them, which
+is as a guide conducting us in the way of just benevolence, add a
+certain lustre and shining gloss to the joy of virtue. Neither ought a
+man negligently to suffer his glory to wither in his old age, like a
+wrestler’s garland; but, by adding always something new and fresh, he
+should awaken, meliorate, and confirm the grace of his former actions.
+For as those workmen on whom was incumbent the charge of keeping in
+repair the Delian ship, by supplying and putting into the place of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
+the decayed planks and timber others that were new and sound, seem
+to have preserved it from ancient times, as if it were eternal and
+incorruptible; so the preserving and upholding of one’s glory is as
+the keeping in of a fire, a work of no difficulty, as requiring only
+to be supplied with a little fuel, but when either of them is wholly
+extinct and suppressed, one cannot without great labor rekindle it
+again. Lampis, the sea commander, being asked how he got his wealth,
+answered: “My greatest estate I gained easily enough, but the smaller
+slowly and with much labor.” In like manner, it is not easy at the
+beginning to acquire reputation and power in the state; but to augment
+and conserve it, when it is grown great, is not at all hard for those
+who have obtained it. For neither does a friend, when he is once had,
+require many and great services that he may so continue, but assiduity
+does by small signs preserve his good-will; nor do the friendship
+and confidence of the people expect to have a man always bestowing
+largesses, defending their causes, or executing of magistracy, but
+they are maintained by a readiness, and by not failing or being
+weary of carefulness and solicitude for the public. For even wars
+themselves have not always conflicts, fights, and sieges; but there
+sometimes intervene sacrifices and parleys, and abundance of leisure
+for sports and pastimes. Whence then comes it, that the administration
+of the commonwealth should be feared as inconsolable, laborious, and
+unsupportable, where theatres, processions, largesses, music, joy, and
+at every turn the service and festival of some God or other, unbending
+the brows of every council and senate, yield a manifold pleasure and
+delight?</p>
+
+<p>7. As for envy, which is the greatest evil attending the management
+of public affairs, it least attacks old age. For dogs indeed, as
+Heraclitus has it, bark at a stranger whom they do not know; and
+envy opposes him who is a beginner on the very steps of the tribune,
+hindering his access,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> but she meekly bears an accustomed and familiar
+glory, and not churlishly or difficultly. Wherefore some resemble envy
+to smoke; for it arises thick at first, when the fire begins to burn;
+but when the flame grows clear, it vanishes away. Now men usually
+quarrel and contend about other excellences, as virtue, nobility,
+and honor, as if they were of opinion that they took from themselves
+as much as they give to others; but the precedency of time, which is
+properly called by the Greeks <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρεσβεῖον</span> (or the honor of old age), is
+free from jealousy, and willingly granted by men to their companions.
+For to no honor is it so incident to grace the honorer more than the
+honored, as to that which is given to persons in years. Moreover, all
+men do not expect to gain themselves authority from wealth, eloquence,
+or wisdom; but as for the reverence and glory to which old age brings
+men, there is not any one of those who act in the management of the
+state but hopes to attain it.</p>
+
+<p>He therefore who, having a long time contended against envy, shall when
+it ceases and is appeased withdraw himself from the state, and together
+with public actions desert communities and societies, differs nothing
+from that pilot who, having kept his ship out at sea when in danger
+of being overwhelmed by contrary and tempestuous waves and winds,
+seeks to put into harbor as soon as ever the weather is grown calm and
+favorable. For the longer time there has been, the more friends and
+companions he has made; all which he cannot carry out with him, as a
+singing-master does his choir, nor is it just to leave them. But as
+it is not easy to root up old trees, so neither is it to extirpate a
+long-continued practice in the management of the state, which having
+many roots is involved in a tangled mass of affairs, which create more
+troubles and vexations to those who retire from them than to those who
+continue in them. And if there is any remainder of envy and emulation
+against old men from former contentions about civil<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> affairs, they
+should rather extinguish it by authority, than turn their backs on it
+and go away naked and disarmed. For envious persons do not so much
+assail those who contend against them, as they do by contempt insult
+over such as retire.</p>
+
+<p>8. And to this bears witness that saying of the great Epaminondas to
+the Thebans, when in the winter the Arcadians requested them to come
+into their city and dwell in their houses,—which he would not permit,
+but said to them: Now the Arcadians admire you, seeing you exercise
+yourselves, and wrestle in your armor; but if they shall behold you
+sitting by the fire and pounding of beans, they will think you to
+differ nothing from themselves. So an old man speaking to the people,
+acting in the state, and honored, is a venerable spectacle; but he who
+wastes away his days in his bed, or sits discoursing of trivial matters
+and wiping his nose in the corner of a gallery, easily renders himself
+an object of contempt. And this indeed Homer himself teaches those
+who hear him aright. For Nestor, who fought before Troy, was highly
+venerated and esteemed; whilst Peleus and Laertes, who stayed at home,
+were slighted and despised. For the habit of prudence does not continue
+the same in those who give themselves to their ease; but by little and
+little diminishes and is dissolved by sloth, as always requiring some
+exercise of the thought to rouse up and purify the rational, active
+faculty of the soul. For,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Like glittering brass, by being used it shines.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the infirmity of the body does not so much incommode the
+administrations of those who, almost spent with age, go to the tribune
+or to the council of war, as they are advantageous by the caution
+and prudence which attend their years, and keep them from thrusting
+themselves precipitately <span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>into affairs, abused partly by want of
+experience and partly by vain-glory, and hurrying the people along with
+them by violence, like a sea agitated by the winds; causing them mildly
+and moderately to manage those with whom they have to do.</p>
+
+<p>Whence cities, when they are in adversity and fear, desire the
+government of grave and ancient personages; and often having drawn out
+of his field some old man who had not so much as the least thought of
+it, have compelled him, though unwilling, to put his hand to the helm,
+and conduct the ship of the state into the haven of security, rejecting
+generals and orators, who not only knew how to speak loud and make long
+harangues without drawing their breath, but were able also valiantly
+to march forth and fight their enemies. So when the orators one day
+at Athens, before Timotheus and Iphicrates uncovering Chares the son
+of Theochares, a vigorous and stout-bodied young man, said they were
+of opinion that the general of the Athenians ought to be such a one;
+Not so, by all the Gods, answered Timotheus, but such a one he should
+be that is to carry the general’s bedding; but the general himself
+ought to be such a one as can at the same time see both forwards and
+backwards, and will suffer not his reasonings about things convenient
+to be disturbed by any passion.</p>
+
+<p>Sophocles indeed said, he was glad that he was got free from the
+tyranny of wanton love, as being a furious and raging master; but in
+the administrations of state, we are not to avoid this one only master,
+the love of women or boys, but many who are madder than he, such as
+obstinacy in contending ambition, and a desire of being always the
+first and greatest, which is a disease most fruitful in bringing forth
+envy, jealousy, and conspiracies; some of which vices old age abates
+and dulls, while it wholly extinguishes and cools the others, not so
+much detracting from the practical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> impulse of the mind, as repressing
+its impetuous and over-hot passions, that it may apply a sober and
+settled reasoning to its considerations about the management of affairs.</p>
+
+<p>9. Nevertheless let this speech of the poet,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Lie still at ease, poor wretch, in thy own bed,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>both be and seem to be spoken for the dissuading of him who shall, when
+he is now grown gray with age, begin to play the youth; and for the
+restraining an old man who, rising from a long administration of his
+domestic affairs, as from a lingering disease, shall set himself to
+lead an army to the field, or perform the office of secretary of state.</p>
+
+<p>But altogether senseless, and nothing like to this, is he who will not
+suffer one that has spent his whole time in political administrations,
+and been thoroughly beaten to them, to go on to his funeral torch and
+the conclusion of his life, but shall call him back, and command him
+(as it were) to turn out of the long road he has been travelling in. He
+who, to draw off from his design an old fellow who is crowned and is
+perfuming himself to go a wooing, should say to him, as was heretofore
+said to Philoctetes,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">What virgin will her blooming maidenhead</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Bestow on such a wretch? Why would’st thou wed?</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>would not be at all absurd, since even old men break many such jests
+upon themselves, and say,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">I, old fool, know, I for my neighbors wed;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>but he who should think, that a man which has long co-habited and
+lived irreprehensibly with his wife ought, because he is grown old,
+to dismiss her and live alone, or take a concubine in her place,
+would have attained the utmost excess of perverseness. So he would
+not act altogether unreasonably, that should admonish an old man
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>who is making his first approaches to the people, whether he be
+such a one as Chlidon the farmer, or Lampon the mariner, or some old
+dreaming philosopher of the garden, and advise him to continue in
+his accustomed unconcernedness for the public; but he who, taking
+hold of Phocion, Cato, or Pericles, should say to him, My Athenian or
+Roman friend, who art come to thy withered old age, make a divorce,
+and henceforth quit the state; and dismissing all conversations and
+cares about either council or camp, retire into the country, there
+with an old maid-servant looking after thy husbandry, or spending the
+remainder of thy time in managing thy domestic affairs and taking thy
+accounts,—would persuade a statesman to do things misbeseeming him and
+unacceptable.</p>
+
+<p>10. What then! may some one say; do we not hear the soldier in the
+comedy affirming,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Henceforth my gray hairs exempt me from wars?</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Yes indeed, my friend, it is altogether so; for it becomes the servants
+of Mars to be young and vigorous, as managing</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">War, and war’s toilsome works;<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>in which, though an helmet may also hide the old man’s gray hairs,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Yet inwardly his limbs are all decayed,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and his strength falls short of his good-will. But from the ministers
+of Jupiter, the counsellor, orator, and patron of cities, we expect
+not the works of feet and hands, but those of counsel, providence, and
+reason,—not such as raises a noise and shouting amongst the people,
+but such as has it in understanding, prudent solicitousness, and
+safety; by which the derided hoariness and wrinkles appear as witnesses
+of his experience, and add to him the help of persuasion, and the glory
+of ingenuity. For youth is made to follow and be persuaded, age to
+guide and direct; and that city is most secure, where the counsels of
+the old <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>and the prowess of the young bear sway. And this of Homer,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">A council first of valiant old men</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">He called in Nestor’s ship,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>is wonderfully commended. Wherefore the Pythian Apollo called the
+aristocracy or council of noblemen in Lacedaemon, joined as assistants
+to their kings, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Πρεσβυγενεῖς</span> (or the <i>ancients</i>), and Lycurgus
+named it plainly <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Γέροντες</span> (or the <i>council of old men</i>); and
+even to this day the council of the Romans is called the senate (from
+<i>senium</i>, signifying <i>old age</i>). And as the law places the
+diadem and crown, so does Nature the hoariness of the head, as an
+honorable sign of princely dignity. And I am of opinion, that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γέρας</span>
+(signifying <i>an honorable reward</i>) and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γεραίρειν</span> (signifying
+<i>to honor</i>) continue still in use amongst the Greeks, being made
+venerable from the respect paid to old men, not because they wash in
+warm water and sleep on softer beds than others, but because they
+have as it were a king-like esteem in states for their prudence, from
+which, as from a late-bearing tree, Nature scarcely in old age brings
+forth its proper and perfect good. Therefore none of those martial and
+magnanimous Achaeans blamed that king of kings, Agamemnon, for praying
+thus to the Gods,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">O that among the Greeks I had but ten</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Such counsellors as Nestor;<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>but they all granted, that not in policy only, but in war also, old age
+has great influence;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">For one discreet advice is much more worth</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Than many hands,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and one rational and persuasive sentence effects the bravest and
+greatest of public exploits.</p>
+
+<p>11. Moreover, the regal dignity, which is the perfectest and greatest
+of all political governments, has exceeding many cares, labors, and
+difficulties; insomuch that Seleucus <span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>is reported ever and anon to
+have said: If men knew how laborious are only the writing and reading
+of so many epistles, they would not so much as stoop to take up a
+diadem thrown on the ground. And Philip, when, being about to pitch
+his camp in a fair and commodious place, he was told that there was
+not there forage for his regiments, cried out: O Hercules, what a life
+is ours, if we must live for the conveniency of asses! It is then time
+to persuade a king, when he is now grown into years, to lay aside his
+diadem and purple, and putting on a coarse coat, with a crook in his
+hand, to betake himself to a country life, lest he should seem to act
+superfluously and unseasonably by reigning in his old age. But if the
+very mentioning such a thing to an Agesilaus, a Numa, or a Darius would
+be an indignity; let us not, because they are in years, either drive
+away Solon from the council of the Areopagus, or remove Cato out of the
+senate; nor yet let us advise Pericles to abandon the democracy. For it
+is besides altogether unreasonable and absurd, that he who has in his
+youth leaped into the tribunal should, after he has discharged all his
+furious ambitions and impetuous passions on the public, when he is come
+to that maturity of years which by experience brings prudence, desert
+and abandon the commonwealth, having abused it as if it were a woman.</p>
+
+<p>12. Aesop’s fox indeed would not permit the hedge-hog, who offered it,
+to take from him the ticks that fed upon his body. For, said he, if
+thou remov’st those that are full, other hungry ones will succeed them.
+So it is of necessity, that a commonwealth which is always casting
+off those who grow old must be replenished with young men, thirsting
+after glory and power, and void of understanding in state affairs. For
+whence, I pray, should they have it, if they shall have been neither
+disciples nor spectators of any ancient statesman? For if treatises<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> of
+navigation cannot make those skilful pilots who have not often in the
+stern been spectators of the conflicts against the waves, winds, and
+pitchy darkness of the night,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When the poor trembling seaman longs to see</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The safety-boding twins, Tyndaridae;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>how should a raw young man take in hand the government of a city, and
+rightly advise both the senate and the people, having only read a book
+or written an exercise in the Lyceum concerning policy, though he
+has seldom or never stood by the reins or helm, when grave statesmen
+and old commanders have in debating alleged both their experiences
+and fortunes, whilst he was wavering on both sides, that so he might
+with dangers and transacting of affairs gain instruction? This is not
+to be said. But if it were for nothing else, yet ought an old man to
+manage in public affairs, that he may instruct and teach those who
+are young. For as those who teach children reading and music do, by
+pronouncing and by singing notes and tunes before them, lead and bring
+on their scholars; so an old statesman, not by speaking and dictating
+exteriorly, but by acting and administering public affairs, directs
+and breeds up a young one, who is by his deeds joined with his words
+interiorly formed and fashioned. For he who is exercised after this
+manner, not amongst the disputes of nimble tongued sophisters, as in
+the wrestling-schools and anointings, where there is not the least
+appearance of any danger, but really, and as it were in the Olympian
+and Pythian games, will tread in his teacher’s steps,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Like a young colt, which runs by th’ horse’s side,—</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Simonides has it. Thus Aristides followed Clisthenes, Cimon
+Aristides, Phocion Chabrias, Cato Fabius Maximus, Pompey Sylla,
+and Polybius Philopoemen; for these, when they were young, joining
+themselves with their elders, and afterwards as it were flourishing and
+growing up by their administrations and actions, gained experience, and
+were inured to the management of public affairs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> with reputation and
+power.</p>
+
+<p>13. Aeschines therefore the Academic, being charged by certain
+sophisters that he pretended himself a disciple of Carneades when
+he was not so, said: I was then a hearer of Carneades, when his
+discourse, having dismissed contention and noise by reason of his old
+age, contracted itself to what was useful and fit to be communicated.
+Now an aged man’s government being not only in words but in deeds far
+remote from all ostentation and vain-glory,—as they say of the bird
+ibis, that when she is grown old, having exhaled all her venomous and
+stinking savor, she sends forth a most sweet and aromatical one,—so
+in men grown into years, there is no opinion or counsel disturbed, but
+all grave and settled. Wherefore, even for the young men’s sake, as
+has been said, ought an old man to act in the government of the state;
+that, (as Plato said of wine allayed with water, that the furious
+God was made wise, being chastised by another who was sober) so the
+caution of old age, mixed among the people with the fervency of youth,
+transported by glory and ambition, may take off that which is furious
+and over-violent.</p>
+
+<p>14. But besides all this, they are under a mistake who think that, as
+sailing and going to the wars, so also acting in the state is done for
+a certain end, and ceases when that is obtained. For the managing of
+state affairs is not a ministry which has profit for its end; but the
+life of gentle, civil, and sociable animals, framed by nature to live
+civilly, honestly, and for the benefit of mankind. Wherefore it is fit
+he should be such a one as that it may be said of him, he is employed
+in state affairs, and not he has been so employed; as also, that he is
+true, and not he has been true; he acts justly, and not he has acted
+justly; and that he loves his country and fellow-citizens,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> and not
+he has loved them. For to these things does Nature direct, and these
+voices does she sound to those who are not totally corrupted with sloth
+and effeminacy:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Thy father has engendered thee a man,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Worthy of much esteem with men:</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and again,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Let us not cease to benefit mankind.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>15. Now as for those who pretend weakness and impotency, they accuse
+rather sickness and infirmity of body than old age; for there are many
+young men sickly, and many old ones lusty; so that we are not to remove
+from the administration of the state aged, but impotent persons; nor
+call to it such as are young, but such as are able. For Aridaeus was
+young, and Antigonus old; and yet the latter conquered in a manner
+all Asia, whereas the former, as if he had only been to make a dumb
+show with his guards upon a stage, was but the bare name of a king, a
+puppet always mocked by those who were in power. As therefore he would
+be a very fool that should think Prodicus the sophister and Philetas
+the poet—men indeed young, but withal weak, sickly, and almost always
+confined by their infirmity to their beds—fit to be concerned in the
+management of the state; so he would be no less absurd that should
+hinder such vigorous old men as were Phocion, Masinissa the Libyan, and
+Cato the Roman, from governing or leading forth of armies. For Phocion,
+when the Athenians were at an unseasonable time hurrying to war, made
+proclamation that all who were not above sixty years of age should take
+up arms and follow him; and when they were offended at it, he said,
+There is no hardship put upon you, for I, who am above fourscore years
+old, will be your general. And Polybius relates, that Masinissa, dying
+at the age of ninety years, left behind him a young son of his own
+begetting, not above four years old; and that, having a little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> before
+been in a great fight, he was the next day seen at the door of his tent
+eating a dirty piece of bread, and that he said to those who wondered
+at it, that he did this....</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">For brass by use and wear its gleam displays,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But every house untenanted decays;<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Sophocles has it; we all say the same of that light and lustre of
+the soul, by which we reason, remember, and think.</p>
+
+<p>16. Wherefore also they say, that kings become better in wars and
+military expeditions than when they live at ease. Attalus therefore,
+the brother of Eumenes, being enervated with long idleness and peace,
+was with little skill managed by Philopoemen, one of his favorites,
+who fattened him like a hog in the sty; so that the Romans were wont
+in derision to ask those who came out of Asia, whether the king had
+any power with Philopoemen. Now one cannot find amongst the Romans
+many stouter generals than Lucullus, as long as he applied his mind
+to action; but when he gave himself up to an unactive life, to a
+continuing lazily at home, and an unconcernedness for the public,
+being dulled and mortified, like sponges in calm weather, and then
+delivering his old age to be dieted and ordered by Callisthenes one
+of his freedmen, he seemed bewitched by him with philters and other
+incantations; till such time as his brother Marcus, having driven away
+this fellow, did himself govern and conduct the remainder of his life,
+which was not very long. But Darius, father of Xerxes, said, that
+by difficulties he grew wiser than himself. And the Scythian Ateas
+affirmed, that he thought there was no difference between himself and
+his horse-keepers, when he was idle. And Dionysius the Elder, when
+one asked him whether he was at leisure, answered, May that never
+befall me. For a bow, they say, will break, if over-bent; and a soul,
+if too much slackened. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>For even musicians, if they over-long omit to
+hear accords, geometricians, if they leave off demonstrating their
+propositions, and arithmeticians, if they discontinue their casting up
+of accounts, do, together with the actions, impair by their progress in
+age the habits, though they are not practical but speculative arts; but
+the habit of statesmen—being wise counsel, discretion, and justice,
+and besides these, experience which seizes upon the right opportunities
+and words, the very faculty which works persuasion—is maintained by
+frequent speaking, acting, reasoning, and judging. And a hard thing it
+would be, if by avoiding to do these things it should suffer such and
+so great virtues to run out of the soul. For it is probable also that
+humanity, friendly society, and beneficence will then also decay, of
+which there ought to be no end or limit.</p>
+
+<p>17. If then you had Tithonus to your father, who was indeed immortal,
+but yet by reason of his old age stood perpetually in need of much
+attendance, I do think you would shun or be weary of looking to
+him, discoursing with him, and helping him, as having a long time
+done him service. Now our fatherland (or, as the Cretans call it,
+our <i>motherland</i>), being older and having greater rights than
+our parents, is indeed long lasting, yet neither free from the
+inconveniences of old age nor self-sufficient; but standing always in
+need of a serious regard, succor, and vigilance, she pulls to her and
+takes hold of a statesman,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">And with strong hand restrains him, who would go.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And you indeed know that I have these many Pythiads served the Pythian
+Apollo; but yet you would not say to me: Thou hast sufficiently, O
+Plutarch, sacrificed, gone in procession, and led dances in honor of
+the Gods; it is now time that, being in years, thou shouldst in favor
+of thy <span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>old age lay aside the garland and leave the oracle. Therefore
+neither do you think that you, who are the chief priest and interpreter
+of religious ceremonies in the state, may leave the service of Jupiter,
+the protector of cities and governor of assemblies, for the performance
+of which you were long since consecrated.</p>
+
+<p>18. But leaving, if you please, this discourse about withdrawing old
+men from performing their duties to the state, let us make it a little
+the subject of our consideration and philosophy, how we may enjoin them
+no exercise unfitting or grievous to their years, the administration
+of a commonwealth having many parts beseeming and suitable for such
+persons. For as, if we were obliged to persevere in the practice of
+singing to the end of our days, it would behoove us, being now grown
+old, of the many tones and tensions there are of the voice, which the
+musicians call harmonies, not to aim at the highest and shrillest,
+but to make choice of that in which there is an easiness joined with
+a decent suitableness; so, since it is more natural for men to act
+and speak even to the end of their lives, than for swans to sing, we
+must not reject action, like a harp that is set too high, but rather
+let it a little down, accommodating it to such employs in the state as
+are easy, moderate, and fitting for men in years. For neither do we
+suffer our bodies to be altogether motionless and unexercised because
+we cannot any longer make use of spades and plummets, nor yet throw
+quoits or skirmish in armor, as we have formerly done; but some of
+us do by swinging and walking, others by playing gently at ball, and
+some again by discoursing, stir up our spirits and revive our natural
+heat. Therefore neither let us permit ourselves to be wholly chilled
+and frozen by idleness, nor yet on the contrary let us, by burthening
+ourselves with every office or intermeddling with every public
+business, force on old age, convinced of its disability, to break forth
+into these exclamations:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span></p><div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The spear to brandish, thou, right hand, art bent;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But weak old age opposes thy intent.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since even that man is not commended who, in the vigor and strength
+of his years, imposing all public affairs in general on himself,
+and unwilling to leave any thing for another (as the Stoics say of
+Jupiter), thrusts himself into all employs, and intermeddles in every
+business, through an insatiable desire of glory, or through envy
+against those who are in some measure partakers of honor and authority
+in the state. But to an old man, though you should free him from the
+infamy, yet painful and miserable would be an ambition always laying
+wait at every election of magistrates, a curiosity attending for every
+opportunity of judicature or assembling in counsel, and a humor of
+vain-glory catching at every embassy and patronage. For the doing of
+these things, even with the favor and good liking of every one, is too
+heavy for that age. And yet the contrary to this happens; for they are
+hated by the young men, as leaving them no occasions of action, nor
+suffering them to put themselves forth; and their ambitious desire of
+primacy and rule is no less odious to others than the covetousness and
+voluptuousness of other old men.</p>
+
+<p>19. Therefore, as Alexander, unwilling to tire his Bucephalus when he
+now began to grow old, did before the fight ride on other horses, to
+view his army and draw it up for battle, and then, after the signal
+was given, mounting this, marched forth and charged the enemy; so
+a statesman, if he is wise, moderating himself when he finds years
+coming on, will abstain from intermeddling in unnecessary affairs, and
+suffering the state to make use of younger persons in smaller matters,
+will readily exercise himself in such as are of great importance.
+For champions indeed keep their bodies untouched and unemployed in
+necessary matters, that they may be in a readiness for unprofitable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
+engagements; but let us on the contrary, letting pass what is little
+and frivolous, carefully preserve ourselves for worthy and gallant
+actions. For all things perhaps, as Homer says, equally become a young
+man;<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> all men now esteem and love him; so that for undertaking
+frequently little and many businesses, they say he is laborious and
+a good commonwealths-man; and for enterprising none but splendid and
+noble actions, they style him generous and magnanimous; nay, there
+are also some occurrences when even contention and rashness have a
+certain seasonableness and grace, becoming such men. But an old man’s
+undertaking in a state such servile employs as the farming out of the
+customs, and the looking after the havens and market-place, or else
+his running on embassies and journeys to princes and potentates when
+there are no necessary or honorable affairs to be treated of, but only
+compliments and a maintaining of correspondence,—such management, dear
+friend, seems to me a thing miserable and not to be imitated, but to
+others, perhaps, odious and intolerable.</p>
+
+<p>20. For it is not even seasonable for such men to be employed in
+magistracies, unless it be such as bear somewhat of grandeur and
+dignity; such is the presidency in the council of Areopagus, which
+you now exercise, and such also, by Jove, is the excellency of the
+Amphictyonic office, which your country has conferred on you for your
+life, having an easy labor and pleasant pains. And yet old men ought
+not ambitiously to affect even these honors, but accept them with
+refusal, not seeking but being sought; nor as taking government on
+themselves, but bestowing themselves on government. For it is not,
+as Tiberius Caesar said, a shame for those that are above threescore
+years old to reach forth their hands to the physician; but it far more
+misbeseems them to hold up their hands to the people, to beg their
+votes or suffrages for the obtaining <span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>offices; for this is ungenerous
+and mean, whereas the contrary has a certain majesty and comeliness,
+when, his country choosing, inviting, and expecting him, he comes down
+with honor and courtesy to welcome and receive the present, truly
+befitting his old age and acceptance.</p>
+
+<p>21. After the same manner also ought he that is grown old to use his
+speech in assemblies, not ever and anon climbing up to the desk to
+make harangues, nor always, like a cock, crowing against those that
+speak, nor letting go the reins of the young men’s respect to him by
+contending against them and provoking them, nor breeding in them a
+desire and custom of disobedience and unwillingness to hear him; but he
+should sometimes pass them by, and let them strut and brave it against
+his opinion, neither being present nor concerning himself much at
+it, as long as there is no great danger to the public safety nor any
+offence against what is honest and decent. But in such cases, on the
+contrary, he ought, though nobody call him, to run beyond his strength,
+or to deliver himself to be led or carried in a chair, as historians
+report of Appius Claudius in Rome. For he having understood that the
+senate, after their army had been in a great fight worsted by Pyrrhus,
+were debating about receiving proposals of peace and alliance, could
+not bear it, but, although he had lost both his eyes, caused himself to
+be carried through the common place straight to the senate house, where
+entering among them and standing in the midst, he said, that he had
+formerly indeed been troubled at his being deprived of his sight, but
+that he now wished he had also lost his ears, rather than to have heard
+that the Roman senators were consulting and acting things so ungenerous
+and dishonorable. And then partly reprehending, and partly teaching
+and exalting them, he persuaded them to betake themselves presently
+to their arms, and fight with Pyrrhus for the dominion of Italy. And
+Solon, when the popularity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> of Pisistratus was discovered to be only a
+plot for the obtaining of a tyranny, none daring to oppose or impeach
+it, did himself bring forth his arms, and setting them before the
+doors of his house, called out to the people to assist him; and when
+Pisistratus sent to ask him what gave him the confidence to act in that
+manner, “My old age,” answered he.</p>
+
+<p>22. For matters that are so necessary as these inflame and rouse up
+old men who are in a manner extinct, so that they have but any breath
+yet left them; but in other occurrences, an old man, as has been said,
+should be careful to avoid mean and servile offices, and such in which
+the trouble to those who manage them exceeds the advantage and profit
+for which they are done. Sometimes by expecting also till the citizens
+call and desire and fetch him out of house, he is thought more worthy
+of credit by those who request him. And even when he is present, let
+him for the most part silently permit the younger men to speak, as if
+he were an arbitrator, judging to whom the reward and honor of this
+their debate about public matters ought to be given; but if any thing
+should exceed a due mediocrity, let him mildly reprehend it, and with
+sweetness cut off all obstinate contentions, all injurious and choleric
+expressions, directing and teaching without reproof him that errs in
+his opinions, boldly praising him that is in the right, and often
+willingly suffering himself to be overcome, persuaded, and brought to
+their side, that he may hearten and encourage them; and sometimes with
+commendations supplying what has been omitted, not unlike to Nestor,
+whom Homer makes to speak in this manner:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">There is no Greek can contradict or mend</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">What you have said; yet to no perfect end</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Is your speech brought. No wonder, for’t appears.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">You’re young, and may my son be for your years.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p>
+
+<p>23. And it were yet more civil and politic, not only in reprehending
+them openly and in the face of the people, to forbear that sharpness
+of speech which exceedingly dashes a young man and puts him out of
+countenance, but rather, wholly abstaining from all such public
+reproofs, privately to instruct such as have a good genius for
+the managing of state affairs, drawing them on by setting gently
+before them useful counsels and political precepts, inciting them to
+commendable actions, enlightening their understanding, and showing
+them, as those do who teach to ride, how at their beginning to render
+the people tractable and mild, and if any young man chances to fall,
+not to suffer him to lie gasping and panting on the ground, but to help
+him up and comfort him, as Aristides dealt by Cimon, and Mnesiphilus by
+Themistocles; whom they raised up and encouraged, though at first they
+were harshly received and ill spoken of in the city, as audacious and
+intemperate. It is said also, that Demosthenes being rejected by the
+people and taking it to heart, there came to him a certain old man, who
+had in former years been an hearer of Pericles, and told him, that he
+naturally resembled that great man, and did unjustly cast down himself.
+In like manner Euripides exhorted Timotheus, when he was hissed at for
+introducing of novelty, and thought to transgress against the law of
+music, to be of good courage, for that he should in a short time have
+all the theatres subject to him.</p>
+
+<p>24. In brief, as in Rome the Vestal virgins have their time divided
+into three parts, in one of which they are to learn what belong to the
+ceremonies of their religion, in the second to execute what they have
+learned, and in the third to teach the younger; and as in like manner
+they call every one of those who are consecrated to the service of
+Diana in Ephesus, first Mell-hiere (one that is to be a priestess),
+then Hiere (priestess), and thirdly Par-hiere (or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> one that has been
+a priestess), so he that is a perfect statesman is at first a learner
+in the management of public affairs, then a practitioner, and at last
+a teacher and instructor in the mysteries of government. For indeed he
+who is to oversee others that are performing their exercise or fighting
+for prizes cannot judge at the same exercise and fight himself. Thus
+he who instructs a young man in public affairs and negotiations of the
+state, and prepares him</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Both to speak well and act heroicly<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>for the service of his country, is in no small or mean degree useful to
+the commonwealth, but in that at which Lycurgus chiefly and principally
+aimed himself, when he accustomed young men to persist in obedience to
+every one that was elder, as if he were a lawgiver. For to what, think
+you, had Lysander respect, when he said that in Lacedaemon men most
+honorably grew old? Was it because old men could most honorably grow
+old there enjoying idleness, putting out money to use, sitting together
+at tables, and after their game taking a cheerful cup? You will not,
+I believe, say any such thing. But it was because all such men, being
+after some sort in the place of magistrates, fatherly governors, or
+tutors of youth, inspected not only the public affairs, but also made
+inquiry—and that not slightly—into every action of the younger men,
+both as concerning their exercises, recreations, and diet, being
+terrible indeed to offenders, but venerable and desirable to the good.
+For young men indeed always venerate and follow those who increase and
+cherish the neatness and generosity of their disposition without any
+envy.</p>
+
+<p>25. For this vice, though beseeming no age, is nevertheless in young
+men veiled with specious names, being styled emulation, zeal, and
+desire of honor; but in old men, it is altogether unseasonable, savage,
+and unmanly. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>Therefore a statesman that is in years must be very
+far from being envious, and not act like those old trees and stocks
+which, as with a certain charm, manifestly withdraw the nutritive juice
+from such young plants as grow near them or spring up under them, and
+hinder their growth; but he should kindly admit and even offer himself
+to those that apply themselves to him and seek to converse with him,
+directing, leading, and educating them, not only by good instructions
+and counsels, but also by affording them the means of administering
+such public affairs as may bring them honor and repute, and executing
+such unprejudicial commissions as will be pleasing and acceptable to
+the multitude. But for such things as, being untoward and difficult, do
+like medicines at first gripe and molest, but afterwards yield honor
+and profit,—upon these things he ought not to put young men, nor
+expose those who are inexperienced to the mutinous clamors of the rude
+and ill-natured multitude, but he should rather take the odium upon
+himself for such things as (though harsh and unpleasing) may yet prove
+beneficial to the commonwealth; for this will render the young men both
+more affectionate to him, and more cheerful in the undertaking other
+services.</p>
+
+<p>26. But besides all this, we are to keep in mind, that to be a
+statesman is not only to bear offices, go on embassies, talk loud in
+public meetings, and thunder on the tribune, speaking and writing such
+things in which the vulgar think the art of government to consist; as
+they also think that those only philosophize who dispute from a chair
+and spend their leisure time in books, while the policy and philosophy
+which is continually exercised in works and conspicuous in actions is
+nowise known to them. For they say, as Dicaearchus affirmed, that they
+who fetch turns to and fro in galleries walk, but not they who go into
+the country or to visit a friend. But the being a statesman is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> like
+the being a philosopher. Wherefore Socrates did philosophize, not only
+when he neither placed benches nor seated himself in his chair, nor
+kept the hour of conference and walking appointed for his disciples,
+but also when, as it happened, he played, drank, went to war with some,
+bargained, finally, even when he was imprisoned and drank the poison;
+having first shown that man’s life does at all times, in every part,
+and universally in all passions and actions, admit of philosophy. The
+same also we are to understand of civil government, to wit, that fools
+do not administer the state, even when they lead forth armies, write
+dispatches and edicts, or make speeches to the people; but that they
+either endeavor to insinuate themselves into the favor of the vulgar
+and become popular, seek applause by their harangues, raise seditions
+and disturbances, or at the best perform some service, as compelled by
+necessity. But he that seeks the public good, loves his country and
+fellow-citizens, has a serious regard to the welfare of the state, and
+is a true commonwealths-man, such a one, though he never puts on the
+military garment or senatorial robe, is yet always employed in the
+administration of the state, by inciting to action those who are able,
+guiding and instructing those that want it, assisting and advising
+those that ask counsel, deterring and reclaiming those that are
+ill-given, and confirming and encouraging those that are well-minded;
+so that it is manifest, he does not for fashion’s sake apply himself to
+the public affairs, nor go then to the theatre or council when there is
+any haste or when he is sent for by name, that he may have the first
+place there, being otherwise present only for his recreation, as when
+he goes to some show or a concert of music; but on the contrary, though
+absent in body, yet is he present in mind, and being informed of what
+is done, approves some things and disapproves others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p>
+
+<p>27. For neither did Aristides amongst the Athenians, nor Cato amongst
+the Romans often execute the office of magistrate; and yet both the one
+and the other employed their whole lives perpetually in the service of
+their country. And Epaminondas indeed, being general, performed many
+and great actions; but yet there is related an exploit of his, not
+inferior to any of them, performed about Thessaly when he had neither
+command in the army nor office in the state. For, when the commanders,
+having through inadvertency drawn a squadron into a difficult and
+disadvantageous ground, were in amaze, for that the enemies pressed
+hard upon them, galling them with their arrows, he, being called up
+from amongst the heavy-armed foot, first by his encouraging them
+dissipated the trouble and fright of the army, and then, having ranged
+and brought into order that squadron whose ranks had been broken, he
+easily disengaged them out of those straits, and placed them in front
+against their enemies, who, thereupon changing their resolutions,
+marched off. Also when Agis, king of Sparta, was leading on his army,
+already put in good order for fight, against the enemies, a certain old
+Spartan called out aloud to him, and said, that he thought to cure one
+evil by another; meaning that he was desirous the present unseasonable
+promptness to fight should salve the disgrace of their over-hasty
+departure from before Argos, as Thucydides says. Now Agis, hearing
+him, took his advice, and at that present retreated; but afterwards
+got the victory. And there was every day a chair set for him before
+the doors of the government house, and the Ephori, often rising from
+their consistory and going to him, asked his advice and consulted him
+about the greatest and most important affairs; for he was esteemed
+very prudent, and is recorded to have been a man of great sense. And
+therefore, having now wholly exhausted the strength of his body, and
+being for the most part tied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> to his bed, when the Ephori sent for him
+to the common hall of the city, he strove to get up and go to them;
+but walking heavily and with great difficulty, and meeting by the way
+certain boys, he asked them whether they knew any thing stronger than
+the necessity of obeying their master; and they answering him that
+inability was of greater force, he, supposing that this ought to be
+the limit of his service, turned back again homewards. For a readiness
+and good will to serve the public ought not to fail, whilst ability
+lasts; but when that is once gone, it is no longer to be forced. And
+indeed Scipio, both in war and peace, always used Caius Laelius for
+a counsellor; insomuch that some said, Scipio was the actor of those
+noble exploits, and Caius the poet or author. And Cicero himself
+confessed, that the honorablest and greatest of his counsels, by the
+right performance of which he in his consulship preserved his country,
+were concerted with Publius Nigidius the philosopher.</p>
+
+<p>28. Thus is there nothing that in any manner of government hinders
+old men from helping the public by the best things, to wit, by their
+reason, sentences, freedom of speech, and solicitous care, as the poets
+term it. For not only our hands, feet, and corporeal strength are the
+possession and share of the commonwealth; but chiefly our soul, and
+the beauties of our soul, justice, temperance, and prudence; which
+receiving their perfection late and slowly, it were absurd that men
+should remain in charge of house and land and other wealth, and yet not
+be beneficial to their common country and fellow-citizens by reason
+of their age, which does not so much detract from their ministerial
+abilities as it adds to their directive and political. And this is the
+reason why they portrayed the Mercuries of old without hands and feet,
+but having their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> natural parts stiff, enigmatically representing that
+there is no great need of old men’s corporeal services, if they have
+but their reason (as is convenient) active and fruitful.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="POLITICAL_PRECEPTS">POLITICAL PRECEPTS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">If</span> ever, O Menemachus, that saying of Nestor’s in Homer,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">There is no Greek can contradict or mend</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">What you have said, yet to no perfect end</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Is your speech brought,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>might pertinently be made use of and applied, it is against those
+exhorting, but nothing teaching nor any way instructing, philosophers.
+For they do (in this respect) resemble those who are indeed careful in
+snuffing the lamps, but negligent in supplying them with oil. Seeing
+therefore that you, being by reason moved to engage yourself in the
+affairs of the state, desire, as becomes the nobility of your family,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Both to speak and act heroicly<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>in the service of your country, and that, not having attained to
+such maturity of age as to have observed the life of a wise and
+philosophical man openly spent in the transactions of the state and
+public debates, and to have been a spectator of worthy examples
+represented not in word but in deed, you request me to lay you down
+some political precepts and instructions; I think it no ways becoming
+me to give you a denial, but heartily wish that the work may be worthy
+both of your zeal and my forwardness. <span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>Now I have, according to your
+request, made use in this my discourse of sundry and various examples.</p>
+
+<p>2. First then for the administration of state affairs, let there
+be laid, as a firm and solid foundation, an intention and purpose,
+having for its principles judgment and reason, and not any impulse
+from vain-glory, emulation, or want of other employment. For as those
+who have nothing grateful to them at home frequently spend their
+time in the forum, though they have no occasion that requires it; so
+some men, because they have no business of their own worth employing
+themselves in, thrust themselves into public affairs, using policy
+as a divertisement. Many also, having been by chance engaged in the
+negotiations of the commonweal, and being cloyed with them, cannot yet
+easily quit them; in which they suffer the same with those who, going
+on board a ship that they may be there a little tossed, and being after
+carried away into the deep, send forth many a long look towards the
+shore, being sea-sick and giddy-headed, and yet necessitated to stay
+and accommodate themselves to their present fortune.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent2">Past is the lovely pleasure</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">They took, when th’ sea was calm and weather bright,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">In walking at their leisure</div>
+<div class="verse indent4">On the ship’s deck,</div>
+<div class="verse indent4">Whilst her sharp beak</div>
+<div class="verse indent4">With merry gale,</div>
+<div class="verse indent4">And full blown sail,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Did through the surging billows cut its course aright</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And these do most of all discredit the matter by their repenting
+and being discontented, when either hoping for glory they fall into
+disgrace, or expecting to become formidable to others by their power
+they are engaged in affairs full of dangers and troubles. But he who on
+a well grounded principle of reason undertakes to act in the public,
+as an employ very honorable and most beseeming him, is dismayed by
+none of these things; nor does he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> therefore change his opinion. For
+we must not come to the management of the commonweal on a design of
+gaining and growing rich by it, as Stratocles and Dromoclides exhorted
+one another to the golden harvest,—so in mirth terming the tribunal,
+or place of making harangues to the people,—nor yet as seized with
+some sudden fit of passion, as did heretofore Caius Gracchus, who
+having, whilst his brothers’ misfortunes were hot, withdrawn himself
+to a retired life most remote from public affairs, did afterwards,
+inflamed by indignation at the injuries and affronts put on him by some
+persons, thrust himself into the state, where being soon filled with
+affairs and glory, when he sought to desist and desired change and
+repose, he could not (so great was it grown) find how to lay down his
+authority, but perished with it. And as for those who through emulation
+frame themselves for the public as actors for the stage, they must
+needs repent of their design, finding themselves under a necessity of
+either serving those whom they think themselves worthy to govern, or
+disobliging those whom they desire to please. Now I am of opinion, that
+those who by chance and without foresight stumble upon policy, falling
+as it were into a pit, cannot but be troubled and repent; whereas they
+that go leisurely into it, with preparation and a good resolution,
+comfort themselves moderately in all occurrences, as having no other
+end of their actions but the discharging of their duty with honor.</p>
+
+<p>3. Now they that have thus grounded their choice within themselves, and
+rendered it immovable and difficult to be changed, must set themselves
+to contemplate that disposition of the citizens which, being compounded
+(as it were) of all their natures, appears most prevalent among them.
+For the endeavoring presently to form the manners and change the nature
+of a people is neither easy nor safe, but a work requiring much time
+and great authority. But as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> wine in the beginning is overcome by the
+nature of the drinker, but afterwards, gently warming him and mixing
+itself in his veins, assimilates and changes him who drinks it into its
+own likeness, so must a statesman, till he has by his reputation and
+credit obtained a leading power amongst the people, accommodate himself
+to the dispositions of the subjects, knowing how to consider and
+conjecture those things with which the people are naturally delighted
+and by which they are usually drawn. The Athenians, to wit, are easily
+moved to anger, and not difficultly changed to mercy, more willing to
+suspect quickly than to be informed by leisure; and as they are readier
+to help mean and inconsiderable persons, so do they embrace and esteem
+facetious and merry speeches; they are exceedingly delighted with those
+that praise them, and very little offended with such as jeer them; they
+are terrible even to their governors, and yet courteous to their very
+enemies. Far other is the disposition of the Carthaginians, severe,
+rigid, obsequious to their rulers, harsh to their subjects, most abject
+in their fear, most cruel in their anger, firm in their resolutions,
+untractable, and hard to be moved by sportive and pleasant discourse.
+Should Cleon have requested them to defer their assembly, because he
+had sacrificed to the Gods and was to feast certain strangers, they
+would not have risen up, laughing and clapping their hands for joy;
+nor, if Alcibiades, as he was making an harangue to them, had let
+slip a quail from under his cloak, would they have striven who should
+catch her and restore her to him again, but would rather have killed
+them both on the place, as contemning and deriding them; since they
+banished Hanno for making use of a lion to carry his baggage to the
+army, accusing him of affecting tyranny. Neither do I think, that the
+Thebans, if they had been made masters of their enemies’ letters, would
+have foreborne looking into them, as did the Athenians, when, having
+taken the messengers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> Philip who were carrying a letter superscribed
+to Olympias, they would not so much as open it, or discover the
+conjugal secrets of an absent husband, written to his wife. Nor yet do
+I believe that the Athenians on the other side would have patiently
+suffered the haughtiness and disdain of Epaminondas, when, refusing to
+answer an accusation brought against him, he rose up from the theatre,
+and went away through the midst of the assembly to the place of public
+exercises. And much less am I of opinion that the Spartans would have
+endured the contumely and scurrility of Stratocles, who persuaded the
+people to offer sacrifices of thanksgiving to the Gods, as having
+obtained the victory, and afterwards, when, being truly informed of
+the loss they had received, they were angry with him, asked them what
+injury they had sustained in having through his means spent three days
+merrily.</p>
+
+<p>Courtly flatterers indeed, like to quail-catchers, by imitating the
+voices and assimilating themselves to the manners of kings, chiefly
+insinuate into their favors and entrap them by deceit; but it is not
+convenient for a statesman to imitate the people’s manners, but to know
+them, and make use of those things toward every person by which he is
+most likely to be taken. For the ignorance of men’s humors brings no
+less disorders and obstacles in commonweals than in the friendships of
+kings.</p>
+
+<p>4. When therefore you shall have already gotten power and authority
+amongst the people, then must you endeavor to reform their disposition,
+treating them gently, and by little and little drawing them to what is
+better. For the changing of a multitude is a difficult and laborious
+work. But as for your own manners and behavior, so compose and adorn
+them, as knowing that you are henceforth to lead your life on an open
+stage; and if it is no easy task for you wholly to extirpate vice out
+of your soul, at least take away and retrench those offences which
+are most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> notorious and apparent. For you cannot but have heard how
+Themistocles, when he designed to enter upon the management of public
+affairs, withdrew himself from drinking and revelling, and fell to
+watching, fasting, and studying, saying to his intimate friends, that
+Miltiades’s trophy suffered him not to sleep. And Pericles also so
+changed himself, both as to the comportment of his body and his manner
+of living, that he walked gravely, discoursed affably, always showed
+a staid and settled countenance, continually kept his hand under his
+robe, and went only that way which led to the assembly and the senate.
+For a multitude is not so tractable as that it should be easy for every
+one to take it with safety, but it is a service much to be valued, if,
+being like a suspicious and skittish beast, it can be so managed that,
+without being frighted either by sight or voice, it will submit to
+receive instruction.</p>
+
+<p>These things therefore are not slightly to be observed; nor are we to
+neglect taking such care of our own life and manners that they may
+be clear from all stain and reprehension. For statesmen are not only
+liable to give an account of what they say or do in public; but there
+is a busy enquiry made into their very meals, beds, marriages, and
+every either sportive or serious action. For what need we speak of
+Alcibiades, who, being of all men the most active in public affairs,
+and withal an invincible commander, perished by his irregularity in
+living and his audaciousness, and who by his luxury and prodigality
+rendered the state unbenefited by all his other good qualities?—since
+the Athenians blamed Cimon’s wine; the Romans, having nothing else to
+cavil at, found fault with Scipio’s sleeping; and the enemies of Pompey
+the Great, having observed that he scratched his head with one finger,
+upbraided him with it. For as a freckle or wart in the face is more
+prejudicial than stains, maims, and scars in the rest of the body; so
+little faults, discerned in the lives<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> of princes and statesmen, appear
+great, through an opinion most men have conceived of government and
+policy, which they look on as a great and excellent thing, and such
+as ought to be pure from all absurdity and imperfection. Therefore
+not unjustly is Livius Drusus commended, who, when several parts of
+his house lay open to the view of his neighbors, being told by a
+certain workman that he would for the expense only of five talents
+alter and remedy that fault, said: I will give thee indeed ten, to
+make my whole house so transparent that all the city may see how I
+live. For he was a temperate and modest man. And yet perhaps he had
+no need of this perspicuity; for many persons pry into those manners,
+counsels, actions, and lives of statesmen which seem to be most deeply
+concealed, no less loving and admiring one, and hating and despising
+another, for their private than for their public transactions. What
+then! perhaps you may say: Do not cities make use also of such men
+as live dissolutely and effeminately? True; for as women with child
+frequently long for stones and chalk, as those that are stomach-sick
+do for salt-fish and such other meats, which a little after they spit
+out again and reject; so also the people sometimes through wantonness
+and petulancy, and sometimes for want of better guides, make use of
+those that come first to hand, though at the same time detesting and
+contemning them, and after rejoice at such things spoken against them
+as the comedian Plato makes the people themselves to say,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Quick, take me by the hand, and hold me fast,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Or I’ll Agyrrius captain choose in haste.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And again he brings them in, calling for a basin and feather that they
+may vomit, and saying,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">A chamber-pot by my tribunal stands.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And a little after,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">It feeds a stinking pest, foul Cephalus.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p>
+<p>And the Roman people, when Carbo promised them something, and (to
+confirm it) added an oath and execration, unanimously swore on the
+contrary that they would not believe him. And in Lacedaemon, when a
+certain dissolute man named Demosthenes had delivered a very convenient
+opinion, the people rejected it; but the Ephori, who approved of his
+advice, having chosen by lot one of the ancient senators, commanded him
+to repeat the same discourse, pouring it (as it were) out of a filthy
+vessel into a clean one, that it might be acceptable to the multitude.
+Of so great moment either way in political affairs is the belief
+conceived of a person’s disposition and manners.</p>
+
+<p>5. Yet are we not therefore so to lay the whole stress on virtue,
+as utterly to neglect all gracefulness and efficacy of speech; but
+esteeming rhetoric, though not the worker, yet a coadjutor and
+forwarder of persuasion, we should correct that saying of Menander,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The speaker’s manners, not his speech, persuade.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For both manners and language ought to concur, unless any one forsooth
+shall say that—as it is the pilot who steers the ship, and not the
+rudder, and the rider that turns the horse, and not the bridle—so
+political virtue, using not eloquence but manners as an helm and
+bridle, persuades and guides a city, which is (to speak with Plato)
+an animal most easy to be turned, managing and directing it (as
+it were) from the poop. For since those great and (as Homer calls
+them) Jove-begotten kings, setting themselves out with their purple,
+sceptres, guards, and the very oracles of the Gods, and subjecting to
+them by their majesty the multitude, as if they were of a better nature
+and more excellent mould than other men, desired also to be eloquent
+orators, and neglected neither the gracefulness of speech,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor public meeting, that more perfect they</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
+<div class="verse indent0">Might be for feats of war,<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>not only venerating Jupiter the counsellor, Mars the slaughterer, and
+Pallas the warrior, but invocating also Calliope,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Who still attends on regal Majesty,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>by her persuasive oratory appeasing and moderating the fierceness
+and violence of the people; how is it possible that a private man
+in a plebeian garb and with a vulgar mien, undertaking to conduct a
+city, should ever be able to prevail over and govern the multitude,
+if he is not endowed with alluring and all-persuading eloquence? The
+captains indeed and pilots of ships make use of others to deliver their
+commands; but a statesman ought to have in himself not only a spirit
+of government, but also a commanding faculty of speech, that he may
+not stand in need of another’s voice, nor be constrained to say, as
+did Iphicrates when he was run down by the eloquence of Aristophon,
+“My adversaries have the better actors, but mine is the more excellent
+play,” nor yet be often obliged to make use of these words of Euripides,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">O that the race of miserable men</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Were speechless!</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and again,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Alas! Why have not men’s affairs a tongue,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">That those fine pleaders who of right make wrong</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Might be no longer in request?<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For to these evasions perhaps might an Alcamenes, a Nesiotes, an
+Ictinus, and any such mechanical persons as get their bread by their
+hands, be permitted on their oath to have recourse. As it sometime
+happened in Athens, where, when two architects were examined about
+the erecting a certain public work, one of them, who was of a free
+and voluble speech and had his tongue (as we say) well <span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>hung, making
+a long and premeditated harangue concerning the method and order of
+raising such a fabric, greatly moved the people; but the other, who was
+indeed the better workman though the worse speaker, coming forth into
+the midst, only said, “Ye men of Athens, what this man has spoken, I
+will do.” For those men venerate only Minerva surnamed Ergane (or the
+Artisan), who, as Sophocles says of them,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Do on the massy anvil lay</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A lifeless iron bar, where they</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With blows of heavy hammer make</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">It pliant to the work they undertake.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But the prophet or minister of Minerva Polias (that is, the protectress
+of cities) and of Themis (or Justice) the counsellor,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Who both convenes assemblies, and again</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Dissolves them,<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>making use of no other instrument but speech, does, by forming and
+fashioning some things and smoothing and polishing others that, like
+certain knots in timber or flaws in iron, are averse to his work,
+embellish and adorn a city. By this means the government of Pericles
+was in name (as Thucydides<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> says) a democracy, but in effect
+the rule of one principal man through the power of his eloquence.
+For there were living at the same time Cimon, and also Ephialtes
+and Thucydides,<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> all good men; now Thucydides, being asked by
+Archidamus, king of the Spartans, whether himself or Pericles were the
+better wrestler, thus answered: “That is not easily known; for when I
+in wrestling overthrow him, he, by his words persuading the spectators
+that he did not fall, gains the victory.” And this did not only bring
+glory to himself, but safety also to the city; for being persuaded
+by him, it preserved the happiness it had gotten, and abstained from
+intermeddling <span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>with foreign affairs. But Nicias, though having the
+same design, yet falling short in the art of persuasion, when he
+endeavored by his speech, as by a gentle curb, to restrain and turn
+the people, could not compass it or prevail with them, but was fain to
+depart, being violently hurried and dragged (as it were) by the neck
+and shoulders into Sicily. They say, that a wolf is not to be held by
+the ears; but a people and city are chiefly to be drawn by the ears,
+and not as some do who, being unpractised in eloquence, seek other
+absurd and unartificial ways of taking them, and either draw them by
+the belly, making them feasts and banquets, or by the purse, bestowing
+on them gifts and largesses, or by the eye, exhibiting to them masks
+and prizes or public shows of dancers and fencers,—by which they do
+not so much lead as cunningly catch the people. For to lead a people
+is to persuade them by reason and eloquence; but such allurements of
+the multitude nothing differ from the baits laid for the taking of
+irrational animals.</p>
+
+<p>6. Let not yet the speech of a statesman be youthful and theatrical,
+as if he were making an harangue composed, like a garland, of curious
+and florid words; nor again—as Pytheas said of an oration made by
+Demosthenes, that it smelt of the lamp and sophistical curiosity—let
+it consist of over-subtle arguments and periods, exactly framed by
+rule and compass. But as musicians require that the strings of their
+instruments should be sweetly and gently touched, and not rudely
+thrummed or beaten; so in the speech of a statesman, both when he
+counsels and when he commands, there should not appear either violence
+or cunning, nor should he think himself worthy of commendation for
+having spoken formally, artificially, and with an exact observation of
+punctualities; but his whole discourse ought to be full of ingenuous
+simplicity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> true magnanimity, fatherly freedom, and careful providence
+and understanding, joined with goodness and honesty, gracefulness
+and attraction, proceeding from grave expressions and proper and
+persuasive sentences. Now a political oration does much more properly
+than a juridical one admit of sententious speeches, histories, fables,
+and metaphors, by which those who moderately and seasonably use them
+exceedingly move their hearers; as he did who said, Make not Greece
+one-eyed; and Demades, when he affirmed of himself, that he was to
+manage the wreck of the state; and Archilochus, when he said</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor let the stone of Tantalus</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Over this isle hang always thus;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and Pericles, when he commanded the eyesore<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> of the Piraeus to be
+taken away; and Phocion, when he pronounced of Leosthenes’s victory,
+that the beginning or the short course of the war was good, but that he
+feared the long race that was to follow. But in general, majesty and
+greatness more benefit a political discourse, a pattern of which may be
+the Philippics, and (amongst the orations set down by Thucydides) that
+of Sthenelaidas the Ephor, that of Archidamus at Plataea, and that of
+Pericles after the plague. But as for those rhetorical flourishes and
+harangues of Ephorus, Theopompus, and Anaximenes, which they made after
+they had armed and set in order the battalions, it may be said of them,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">None talks thus foolishly so near the sword.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>7. Nevertheless, both taunts and raillery may sometimes be part of
+political discourse, so they proceed not to injury or scurrility, but
+are usefully spoken by him who either reprehends or scoffs. But these
+things seem most to be allowed in answers and replies. For in that
+manner to begin a discourse as if one had purposely prepared himself
+for it, is the part of a common jester, and carries with it <span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>an opinion
+of maliciousness; as was incident to the biting jests of Cicero, Cato
+the Elder, and Euxitheus, an intimate acquaintance of Aristotle,—all
+of whom frequently began first to jeer; but in him, who does it only in
+revenge, the seasonableness of it renders it not only pardonable but
+also graceful. Such was the answer of Demosthenes, when one that was
+suspected of thievery derided him for writing by night: I know that
+the keeping my candle burning all night is offensive to you. So when
+Demades bawled out, Demosthenes forsooth would correct me: thus would
+the sow (as the proverb has it) teach Minerva;—That Minerva, replied
+Demosthenes, was not long since taken in adultery. Not ungraceful also
+was that of Xenaenetus to those citizens who upbraided him with flying
+when he was general, ’Twas with you, my dear hearts. But in raillery
+great care is to be taken for the avoiding of excess, and of any thing
+that may either by its unseasonableness offend the hearers or show the
+speaker to be of an ungenerous and sordid disposition;—such as were
+the sayings of Democrates. For he, going up into the assembly, said
+that, like the city, he had little force but much wind; and after the
+overthrow at Chaeronea, going forth to the people, he said: I would
+not have had the state to be in so ill a condition that you should
+be contented to hear me also giving you counsel. For this showed a
+mean-spirited person, as the other did a madman; but neither of them
+was becoming a statesman. Now the succinctness of Phocion’s speech was
+admired; whence Polyeuctus affirmed, that Demosthenes was the greatest
+orator, but that Phocion spake most forcibly, for that his discourse
+did in very few words contain abundance of matter. And Demosthenes, who
+contemned others, was wont, when Phocion stood up, to say, The hatchet
+(or pruning-knife) of my orations arises.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p>
+
+<p>8. Let your chief endeavor therefore be, to use to the multitude a
+premeditated and not empty speech, and that with safety, knowing that
+Pericles himself, before he made any discourse to the people, was
+wont to pray that there might not a word pass from him foreign to
+the business he was to treat of. It is requisite also, that you have
+a voluble tongue, and be exercised in speaking on all occurrences;
+for occasions are quick, and bring many sudden things in political
+affairs. Wherefore also Demosthenes was, as they say, inferior to many,
+withdrawing and absconding himself when sudden occasion offered. And
+Theophrastus relates that Alcibiades, desirous to speak not only what
+he ought but as he ought, often hesitated and stood still in the midst
+of his speech, seeking and composing expressions fit for his purpose.
+But he who, as matters and occasions present themselves, rises up to
+speak, most of all moves, leads, and disposes of the multitude. Thus
+Leo Byzantius came to make an harangue to the Athenians, being then at
+dissension amongst themselves; by whom when he perceived himself to
+be laughed at for the littleness of his stature, What would you do,
+said he, if you saw my wife, who scarce reaches up to my knees? And
+the laughter thereupon increasing, Yet, went he on, as little as we
+are, when we fall out with one another, the city of Byzantium is not
+big enough to hold us. So Pytheas the orator, who declaimed against
+the honors decreed to Alexander, when one said to him, Dare you, being
+so young, discourse of so great matters? made this answer, And yet
+Alexander, whom you decree to be a God, is younger than I am.</p>
+
+<p>9. It is requisite also for the champion of the commonweal to bring to
+this not slight but all-concerning contest a firm and solid speech,
+attended with a strong habit of voice and a long lasting breath, lest,
+being tired and spent with speaking, he chance to be overcome by</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Some ravening crier, with a roaring voice,</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>
+<div class="verse indent0">Loud as Cycloborus.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cato, when he had no hopes of persuading the people or senate, whom
+he found prepossessed by the courtships and endeavors of the contrary
+party, was wont to rise up and hold them a whole day with an oration,
+by that means depriving his adversaries of their opportunity. And thus
+much concerning the preparation and use of speech may be sufficient for
+him who can of himself find out and add what necessarily follows from
+it.</p>
+
+<p>10. There are, moreover, two avenues or ways of entering into the
+government of the state; the one short and expeditious to the lustre
+of glory, but not without danger; the other more obscure and slow, but
+having also greater security. For some there are who, beginning with
+some great and illustrious action which requires a courageous boldness,
+do, like to those that from a far extended promontory launch forth
+into the deep, steer directly into the very midst of public affairs,
+thinking Pindar to have been in the right when he said,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">If you a stately fabric do design,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Be sure that your work’s front with lustre shine.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the multitude do, through a certain satiety and loathing of those
+to whom they have been accustomed, more readily receive a beginner;
+as the beholders do a fresh combatant, and as those dignities and
+authorities which have a splendid and speedy increase dazzle and
+astonish envy. For neither does that fire, as Ariston says, make a
+smoke, nor that glory breed envy, which suddenly and quickly shines
+forth; but of those who grow up slowly and by degrees, some are
+attacked on this side, others on that; whence many have withered away
+about the tribunal, before ever they came to flourish. But when, as
+they say of Ladas,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The sound o’ th’ rope<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> yet rattled in his ear,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">When Ladas having finished his career</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Was crowned,</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span></p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>any one suddenly and gloriously performs an embassy, triumphs, or leads
+forth an army, neither the envious nor the disdainful have like power
+over him as over others. Thus did Aratus ascend to glory, making the
+overthrow of the tyrant Nicocles his first step to the management of
+the commonweal. Thus did Alcibiades, settling the alliance with the
+Mantineans against the Lacedaemonians. Pompey also required a triumph,
+being not yet admitted into the senate; and when Sylla opposed it, he
+said to him, More adore the rising than the setting sun; which when
+Sylla heard, he yielded to him. And the people of Rome on a sudden,
+contrary to the ordinary course of the law, declared Cornelius Scipio
+consul, when he stood candidate for the aedileship, not from any vulgar
+reason, but admiring the victory he had got, whilst he was but a youth,
+in a single combat fought in Spain, and his conquests a little after,
+performed at Carthage, when he was a tribune of foot; in respect of
+which Cato the Elder cried out with a loud voice,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">He only’s wise, the rest like shadows fly.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now then, since the affairs of the cities have neither wars to be
+managed, tyrannies to be overthrown, nor leagues and alliances to be
+treated, what can any one undertake for the beginning of an illustrious
+and splendid government? There are yet left public causes and embassies
+to the emperor, which require the courage and prudence of an acute and
+cautious person. There are also in the cities many good and laudable
+usages neglected, which may be restored, and many ill practices
+brought in by custom, to the disgrace or damage of the city, which
+may be redressed, to gain him the esteem of the people. Moreover, a
+great <span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>suit rightly determined, fidelity in defending a poor man’s
+cause against a powerful adversary, and freedom of speech in behalf of
+justice to some unjust nobleman, have afforded some a glorious entrance
+into the administration of the state. Not a few also have been advanced
+by enmity and quarrels, having set themselves to attack such men whose
+dignity was either envied or terrible. For the power of him that is
+overthrown does with greater glory accrue to his overthrower. Indeed,
+through envy to contend against a good man, and one that has by virtue
+been advanced to the chiefest honor,—as Simmias did against Pericles,
+Alcmaeon against Themistocles, Clodius against Pompey, and Meneclides
+the orator against Epaminondas,—is neither good for one’s reputation
+nor otherwise advantageous. For when the multitude, having outraged
+some good man, soon after (as it frequently happens) repent of their
+indignation, they think that way of excusing this offence the easiest
+which is indeed the justest, to wit, the destroying of him who was the
+persuader and author of it. But the rising up to humble and pull down
+a wicked person, who has by his audaciousness and cunning subjected
+the city to himself (such as heretofore Cleon and Clitophon were in
+Athens), makes a glorious entrance to the management of public affairs,
+as it were to a play. I am not ignorant also that some, by opposing—as
+Ephialtes did at Athens, and Phormio amongst the Eleans—an imperious
+and oligarchical senate, have at the same time obtained both authority
+and honor; but in this there is great danger to him who is but entering
+upon the administration of state. Wherefore Solon took a better
+beginning; for the city of Athens being divided into three parts, the
+Diacrians (or inhabitants of the hill), the Pedieans (or dwellers on
+the plain), and the Paralians (or those whose abode was by the water
+side), he, joining himself with none of them, but acting for the common
+good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> of them all, and saying and doing all things for to bring them to
+concord, was chosen the lawgiver to take away their differences, and by
+that means settled the state.</p>
+
+<p>Such then and so many beginnings has the more splendid way of entering
+upon state affairs.</p>
+
+<p>11. But many gallant men have chosen the safe and slow method, as
+Aristides, Phocion, Pammenes the Theban, Lucullus in Rome, Cato, and
+Agesilaus the Lacedaemonian. For as ivy, twining about the strongest
+trees, rises up together with them; so every one of these, applying
+himself, whilst he was yet young and inglorious, to some elder and
+illustrious personage, and growing up and increasing by little and
+little under his authority, grounded and rooted himself in the
+commonweal. For Clisthenes advanced Aristides, Chabrias preferred
+Phocion, Sylla promoted Lucullus, Maximus raised Cato, Pammenes
+forwarded Epaminondas, and Lysander assisted Agesilaus. But this last,
+injuring his own reputation through an unseasonable ambition and
+jealousy, soon threw off the director of his actions; but the rest
+honestly, politically, and to the end, venerated and magnified the
+authors of their advancement,—like bodies which are opposed to the
+sun,—by reflecting back the light that shone upon them, augmented
+and rendered more illustrious. Certainly those who looked asquint
+upon Scipio called him the player, and his companion Laelius the
+poet or author of his actions; yet was not Laelius puffed up by any
+of these things, but continued to promote the virtue and glory of
+Scipio. And Afranius, the friend of Pompey, though he was very meanly
+descended, yet being at the very point to be chosen consul, when he
+understood that Pompey favored others, gave over his suit, saying that
+his obtaining the consulship would not be so honorable as grievous
+and troublesome to him, if it were against the good-will and without
+the assistance of Pompey. Having therefore delayed but one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> year, he
+enjoyed the dignity and preserved his friendship. Now those who are
+thus by others led, as it were, by the hand to glory do, in gratifying
+one, at the same time also gratify the multitude, and incur less odium,
+if any inconvenience befalls them. Wherefore also Philip (king of
+Macedon) exhorted his son Alexander, whilst he had leisure during the
+reign of another, to get himself friends, winning their love by kind
+and affable behavior.</p>
+
+<p>12. Now he that begins to enter upon the administration of state
+affairs should choose himself a guide, who is not only a man of credit
+and authority but is also such for his virtue. For as it is not every
+tree that will admit and bear the twining of a vine, there being some
+which utterly choke and spoil its growth; so in states, those who are
+no lovers of virtue and goodness, but only of honor and sovereignty,
+afford not young beginners any opportunities of performing worthy
+actions, but do through envy keep them down and let them languish
+whom they regard as depriving them of their glory, which is (as it
+were) their food. Thus Marius, having first in Afric and afterwards in
+Galatia done many gallant exploits by the assistance of Sylla, forbare
+any farther to employ him, and utterly cast him off, being really vexed
+at his growing into repute, but making his pretence the device engraven
+on his seal. For Sylla, being paymaster under Marius when he was
+general in Afric, and sent by him to Bocchus, brought with him Jugurtha
+prisoner; but as he was an ambitious young man, who had but just
+tasted the sweetness of glory, he received not his good fortune with
+moderation; but having caused the representation of the action to be
+engraven on his seal, wore about him Jugurtha delivered into his hands;
+and this did Marius lay to his charge, when he turned him off. But
+Sylla, passing over to Catulus and Metellus, who were good men and at
+difference with Marius, soon after in a civil war drove away and ruined
+Marius, who wanted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> but little of overthrowing Rome. Sylla indeed, on
+the contrary, advanced Pompey from a very youth, rising up to him and
+uncovering his head as he passed by, and not only giving other young
+men occasions of doing captain-like actions, but even instigating some
+that were backward and unwilling. He filled the armies with emulation
+and desire of honor; and thus he had the superiority over them all,
+desiring not to be alone, but the first and greatest amongst many
+great ones. These therefore are the men to whom young statesmen ought
+to adhere, and with these they should be (as it were) incorporated,
+not stealing from them their glory,—like Aesop’s wren, which, being
+carried up on the eagle’s wings, suddenly flew away and got before
+her,—but receiving it of them with friendship and good-will, since
+they can never, as Plato says, be able to govern aright, if they have
+not been first well practised in obedience.</p>
+
+<p>13. After this follows the judgment that is to be had in the choice
+of friends, in which neither the opinion of Themistocles nor that of
+Cleon is to be approved. For Cleon, when he first knew that he was to
+take on him the government, assembling his friends together, brake
+off friendship with them, as that which often disables the mind, and
+withdraws it from its just and upright intention in managing the
+affairs of the state. But he would have done better, if he had cast
+out of his soul avarice and contention, and cleansed himself from
+envy and malice. For cities want not men that are friendless and
+unaccompanied, but such as are good and temperate. Now he indeed drove
+away his friends; but a hundred heads of fawning flatterers were, as
+the comedian speaks, licking about him;<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> and being harsh and severe
+to those that were civil, he again debased himself to court the favor
+of the multitude, doing all things to humor them in their dotage, and
+taking rewards at every man’s hand,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>joining himself with
+the worst and most distempered of the people against the best. But
+Themistocles, on the contrary, said to one who told him that he would
+govern well if he exhibited himself alike to all: May I never sit on
+that throne on which my friends shall not have more power with me than
+those who are not my friends. Neither did he well in pinning the state
+to his friendship, and submitting the common and public affairs to his
+private favors and affections. And farther, he said to Simonides, when
+he requested somewhat that was not just: Neither is he a good poet or
+musician, who sings against measure; nor he an upright magistrate, who
+gratifies any one against the laws. And it would really be a shameful
+and miserable thing, that the pilot should choose his mariners, and the
+master of a ship the pilot,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Who well can rule the helm, and in good guise</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Hoist up the sails, when winds begin to rise,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and that an architect should make choice of such servants and workmen
+as will not prejudice his work, but take pains in the best manner to
+forward it; but that a statesman—who, as Pindar has it,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The best of artists and chief workman is</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Of equity and justice—</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>should not presently choose himself like-affected friends and
+ministers, and such as might co-inspire into him a love of honesty;
+but that one or other should be always unjustly and violently bending
+him to other uses. For then he would seem to differ in nothing from a
+carpenter or mason who, through ignorance or want of experience, uses
+such squares, rules, and levels as will certainly make his work to
+be awry. Since friends are the living and intelligent instruments of
+statesmen, who ought to be so far from bearing them company in their
+slips and transgressions, that they must be careful they do not, even
+unknown to them, commit a fault.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span></p>
+
+<p>And this it was, that disgraced Solon and brought him into disrepute
+amongst his citizens; for he, having an intention to ease men’s debts
+and to bring in that which was called at Athens the Seisachtheia (for
+that was the name given by way of extenuation to the cancelling of
+debts), communicated this design to some of his friends, who thereupon
+did a most unjust act; for having got this inkling, they borrowed
+abundance of money, and the law being a little after brought to light,
+they appeared to have purchased stately houses, and great store of land
+with the wealth they had borrowed; and Solon, who was himself injured,
+was accused to have been a partaker of their injustice. Agesilaus also
+was most feeble and mean-spirited in what concerned the suits of his
+friends, being like the horse Pegasus in Euripides,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Who, frighted, bowed his back, more than his rider would,<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>so that, being more ready to help them in their misfortunes than was
+requisite, he seemed to be privy to their injustices. For he saved
+Phoebidas, who was accused for having without commission surprised
+the castle of Thebes, called Cadmea, saying that such enterprises
+were to be attempted without expecting any orders. And when Sphodrias
+was brought to trial for an unlawful and heinous act, having made
+an incursion into Attica at such time as the Athenians were allies
+and confederates of the Spartans, he procured him to be acquitted,
+being softened by the amorous entreaties of his son. There is also
+recorded a short epistle of his to a certain prince, written in
+these words: If Nicias is innocent, discharge him; if he is guilty,
+discharge him for my sake; but however it is, discharge him. But
+Phocion (on the contrary) would not so much as appear in behalf of his
+son-in-law Charicles, when he was accused <span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>for having taken money of
+Harpalus; but having said, Only for acts of justice have I made you
+my son-in-law,—went his way. And Timoleon the Corinthian, when he
+could not by admonitions or requests dissuade his brother from being a
+tyrant, confederated with his destroyers. For a magistrate ought not to
+be a friend even to the altar (or till he comes to the point of being
+forsworn), as Pericles sometime said, but no farther than is agreeable
+to all law, justice, and the utility of the state; any of which being
+neglected brings a great and public damage, as did the not executing of
+justice on Sphodrias and Phoebidas, who did not a little contribute to
+the engaging of Sparta in the Leuctrian war.</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise, reason of state is so far from necessitating one to show
+himself severe on every peccadillo of his friends, that it even permits
+him, when he has secured the principal affairs of the public, to assist
+them, stand by them, and labor for them. There are, moreover, certain
+favors that may be done without envy, as is the helping a friend to
+obtain an office, or rather the putting into his hands some honorable
+commission or some laudable embassy, such as for the congratulating or
+honoring some prince or the making a league of amity and alliance with
+some state. But if there be some difficult but withal illustrious and
+great action to be performed, having first taken it upon himself, he
+may afterwards assume a friend to his assistance, as did Diomedes, whom
+Homer makes to speak in this manner:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Since a companion you will have me take,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">How can I think a better choice to make,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Than the divine Ulysses?<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And Ulysses again as kindly attributes to him the praise of the
+achievement, saying:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">These stately steeds, whose country you demand,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Nestor, were hither brought from Thracian land,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Whose king, with twelve of his best friends, lies dead,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">All slain by th’ hand of warlike Diomed.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For this sort of concession no less adorns the praiser than the
+praised; but self-conceitedness, as Plato says, dwells with solitude.
+He ought moreover to associate his friends in those good and kind
+offices which are done by him, bidding those whom he has benefited
+to love them and give them thanks, as having been the procurers and
+counsellors of his favors to them. But he must reject the dishonest and
+unreasonable request of his friends, yet not churlishly but mildly,
+teaching and showing them that they are not beseeming their virtue
+and honor. Never was any man better at this than Epaminondas, who,
+having denied to deliver out of prison a certain victualler, when
+requested by Pelopidas, and yet a little after dismissing him at the
+desire of his miss, said to his friend, These, O Pelopidas, are favors
+fit for wenches to receive, and not for generals. Cato on the other
+side acted morosely and insolently, when Catulus the censor, his most
+intimate and familiar friend, interceded with him for one of those
+against whom he, being quaestor, had entered process, saying: It would
+be a shame if you, who ought to reform young men for us, should be
+thrust out by our servants. For he might, though in effect refusing
+the requested favor, have yet forborne that severity and bitterness
+of speech; so that his doing what was displeasing to his friend might
+have seemed not to have proceeded from his own inclination, but to
+have been a necessity imposed upon him by law and justice. There are
+also in the administration of the state methods, not dishonorable, of
+assisting our poorer friends in the making of their fortune. Thus did
+Themistocles, who, seeing after a battle one of those which lay dead
+in the field adorned with chains of gold and jewels, did himself pass
+by him; but turning back to a friend of his, said,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> Do you take these
+spoils, for you are not yet come to be Themistocles. For even the
+affairs themselves do frequently afford a statesman such opportunities
+of benefiting his friends; for every man is not a Menemachus. To one
+therefore give the patronage of a cause, both just and beneficial; to
+another recommend some rich man, who stands in need of management and
+protection; and help a third to be employed in some public work, or
+to some gainful and profitable farm. Epaminondas bade a friend of his
+go to a certain rich man, and ask him for a talent by the command of
+Epaminondas, and when he to whom the message was sent came to enquire
+the reason of it; Because, said Epaminondas, he is a very honest man
+and poor; but you, by converting much of the city’s wealth to your own
+use, are become rich. And Xenophon reports, that Agesilaus delighted in
+enriching his friends, himself making no account of money.</p>
+
+<p>14. Now since, as Simonides says, all larks must have a crest, and
+every eminent office in a commonweal brings enmities and dissensions,
+it is not a little convenient for a statesman to be forewarned also
+of his comportment in these rencounters. Many therefore commend
+Themistocles and Aristides, who, when they were to go forth on an
+embassy or to command together the army, laid down their enmity at
+the confines of the city, taking it up again after their return. Some
+again are highly pleased with the action of Cretinas the Magnesian. He,
+having for his rival in the government one Hermias, a man not powerful
+and rich, but ambitious and high-spirited, when the Mithridatic war
+came on, seeing the city in danger, desired Hermias either to take the
+government upon himself and manage the affairs whilst he retired, or,
+if he would have him take the command of the army, to depart himself
+immediately, lest they should through their ambitious contention
+destroy the city. The proposal pleased Hermias,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> who, saying that
+Cretinas was a better soldier than himself, did with his wife and
+children quit the city. Cretinas then escorted him as he went forth,
+furnishing him out of his own estate with all such things as are more
+useful to those that fly from home than to those that are besieged; and
+excellently defending the city, unexpectedly preserved it, being at
+the point to be destroyed. For if it is generous and proceeding from a
+magnanimous spirit to cry out,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">I love my children, but my country more,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>why should it not be readier for every one of them to say, I hate this
+man, and desire to do him a diskindness, but the love of my country
+has greater power over me? For not to condescend to be reconciled to
+an enemy for those very causes for which we ought to abandon even a
+friend, is even to extremity savage and brutish. But far better did
+Phocion and Cato, who grounded not any enmity at all on their political
+differences, but being fierce and obstinate only in their public
+contests not to recede from any thing they judged convenient for the
+state, did in their private affairs use those very persons friendly and
+courteously from whom they differed in the other. For one ought not to
+esteem any citizen an enemy, unless it be one like Aristion, Nabis, or
+Catiline, the disease and plague of the city: but as for those that
+are otherwise at discord, a good magistrate should, like a skilful
+musician, by gently setting them up or letting them down, bring them to
+concord; not falling angrily and reproachfully upon those that err, but
+mildly reprehending them in such like terms as these of Homer’s,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Good friend, I thought you wiser than the rest;<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and again,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">You could have told a better tale than this;<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>nor yet repining at their honors, or sparing to speak freely in
+commendation of their good actions, if they say or do any thing
+advantageous to the public. For thus will our <span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>reprehension, when it
+is requisite, be credited, and we shall render them averse to vice,
+increasing their virtue, and showing, by comparing them, how much the
+one is more worthy and beseeming them than the other.</p>
+
+<p>But I indeed am also of opinion, that a statesman should in just causes
+give testimony to his enemies, stand by them when they are accused by
+sycophants, and discredit imputations brought against them if they are
+repugnant to their characters; as Nero himself, a little before he put
+to death Thraseas, whom of all men he both most hated and feared, when
+one accused him for giving a wrong and unjust sentence, said: I wish
+Thraseas was but as great a lover of me, as he is a most upright judge.
+Neither is it amiss for the daunting of others who are by Nature more
+inclined to vice, when they offend, to make mention of some enemy of
+theirs who is better behaved, and say, Such a one would not have spoken
+or acted thus. And some again, when they transgress, are to be put in
+mind of their virtuous progenitors. Thus Homer says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Tydeus has left a son unlike himself.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And Appius, contending in the Comitia with Scipio Africanus, said, How
+deeply, O Paulus, wouldst thou sigh amongst the infernal shades, wert
+thou but sensible that Philonicus the publican guards thy son, who is
+going to stand for the office of censor. For such manner of speeches do
+both admonish the offender, and become their admonishers. Nestor also
+in Sophocles, being reproached by Ajax, thus politicly answers him:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">I blame you not, for you act well, although</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">You speak but ill.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And Cato, who had opposed Pompey in his joining with Caesar to force
+the city, when they fell to open wars, gave <span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>his opinion that the
+conduct of the state should be committed to Pompey, saying, that those
+who are capable to do the greatest mischiefs are fittest to put a
+stop to them. For reprehension mixed with praise, and accompanied not
+with opprobriousness but liberty of speech, working not animosity but
+remorse and repentance, appears both kind and salutary; but railing
+expressions do not at all beseem statesmen. Do but look into the
+speeches of Demosthenes against Aeschines, and of Aeschines against
+him; and again into what Hyperides has written against Demades,
+and consider whether Solon, Pericles, Lycurgus the Lacedaemonian,
+or Pittacus the Lesbian would have spoken in that manner. And yet
+Demosthenes used this reproachful manner of speaking only in his
+juridical orations or pleadings; for his Philippics are clean and free
+from all scoffing and scurrility. For such discourses do not only more
+disgrace the speakers than the hearers, but do moreover breed confusion
+in affairs, and disturb counsels and assemblies. Wherefore Phocion did
+excellently well, who, having broken off his speech to give way to one
+that railed against him, when the other with much ado held his peace,
+going on again where he had left off, said: You have already heard what
+has been spoken of horsemen and heavy armed foot; I am now to treat of
+such as are light armed and targeteers.</p>
+
+<p>But since many persons can hardly contain themselves on such occasions,
+and since railers have often their mouths not impertinently stopped
+by replies; let the answer be short and pithy, not showing any
+indignation or bitterness of anger, but mildness joined with raillery
+and gracefulness, yet somewhat tart and biting. Now such especially are
+the retortings of what has been spoken before. For as darts returning
+against their caster seem to have been repulsed and beaten back by a
+certain strength and solidity in that against which they were thrown;
+so what was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> spoken seems by the strength and understanding of the
+reproached to have been turned back upon the reproacher. Such was that
+reply of Epaminondas to Callistratus, who upbraided the Thebans with
+Oedipus, and the Argives with Orestes,—one of which had killed his
+father and the other his mother,—Yet they who did these things, being
+rejected by us, were received by you. Such also was the repartee of
+Antalcidas the Spartan to an Athenian, who said to him, We have often
+driven you back and pursued you from the Cephissus; But we (replied
+Antalcidas) never yet pursued you from the Eurotas. Phocion also, when
+Demades cried out, The Athenians if they grow mad, will kill thee;
+elegantly replied, And thee, if they come again to their wits. So, when
+Domitius said to Crassus the orator, Did not you weep for the death of
+the lamprey you kept in your fish-pond?—Did not you, said Crassus to
+him again, bury three wives without ever shedding a tear? These things
+therefore have indeed their use also in other parts of a man’s life.</p>
+
+<p>15. Moreover, some, like Cato, thrust themselves into every part of
+polity, thinking a good citizen should not omit any care or industry
+for the obtaining authority. And these men greatly commend Epaminondas;
+for that being by the Thebans through envy and in contempt appointed
+telearch, he did not reject it, but said, that the office does not show
+the man, but the man also the office. He brought the telearchate into
+great and venerable repute, which was before nothing but a certain
+charge of the carrying the dung out of the narrow streets and lanes
+of the city, and turning of watercourses. Nor do I doubt but that I
+myself afford matter of laughter to many who come into this our city,
+being frequently seen in public employed about such matters. But
+that comes into my assistance which is related of Antisthenes; for,
+when one wondered to see him carry a piece of stock-fish through the
+market, ’Tis for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> myself, said he. But I, on the contrary, say to
+those who upbraid me for being present at and overseeing the measuring
+of tiles, or the bringing in and unloading of clay and stones: It is
+not for myself, but for my country, that I perform this service. For
+though he who in his own person manages and does many such things for
+himself may be judged mean-spirited and mechanical, yet if he does them
+for the public and for his country, he is not to be deemed sordid;
+but on the contrary, his diligence and readiness, extending even to
+these small matters, is to be esteemed greater and more highly to be
+valued. But others there are, that hold Pericles’s manner of acting
+to have been more magnanimous and august; amongst which Critolaus the
+Peripatetic, who is of opinion that, as at Athens the Salaminian ship
+and the Paralus were not launched forth for every service, but only on
+necessary and great occasions, so a statesman ought to employ himself
+in the chiefest and greatest affairs, like the King of the universe,
+who, as Euripides says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Reserves great things for his own government,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But small things leaves to Fortune’s management.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For neither do we approve the excessively ambitious and contentious
+spirit of Theagenes, who, having obtained the victory not only through
+the whole course of public games, but also in many other contests, and
+not only in wrestling but in buffeting and running of long races, at
+last, being at the anniversary festival supper of a certain hero, after
+every one was served, according to the custom, he started up, and fell
+to wrestling, as if it were necessary that no other should conquer when
+he was present; whence he got together twelve hundred coronets, most of
+which one would have taken for rubbish.</p>
+
+<p>Now nothing do they differ from him, who strip themselves for every
+public affair, and render themselves reprehensible by many, becoming
+troublesome, and being, when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> they do well, the subject of envy, and
+when they do ill, of rejoicing. And that industry which was at the
+beginning admired turns afterwards to contempt and laughter. In this
+manner it was said; Metiochus leads forth the army, Metiochus oversees
+the highways, Metiochus bakes the bread, Metiochus bolts the meal,
+Metiochus does all things, Metiochus shall suffer for it at last. This
+Metiochus was a follower of Pericles, and made use, it seems, of the
+power he had with him invidiously and disdainfully. For a statesman
+ought to find the people when he comes to them (as they say) in love
+with him, and leave in them a longing after him when he is absent;
+which course Scipio Africanus also took, dwelling a long time in the
+country, at the same time both removing from himself the burthen of
+envy, and giving those leisure to breathe, who seemed to be oppressed
+by his glory. But Timesias the Clazomenian, who was otherwise a good
+commonwealths-man, was ignorant of his being envied and hated for
+doing all things by himself, till the following accident befell him.
+It happened that, as he passed by where certain boys were striking
+a cockal-bone out of an hole, some of them said, that the bone was
+still left within; but he who had stricken it cried out, I wish I had
+as certainly beaten out Timesias’s brains, as this bone is out of the
+hole. Timesias, hearing this, and thereby understanding the envy and
+spite borne him by every one, returned home, where he imparted the
+matter to his wife, and having commanded her to pack up all and follow
+him, immediately left both his house and the city. And Themistocles
+seems to have been in some such condition amongst the Athenians, when
+he said: How is it, O ye blessed ones, that you are tired with the
+frequent receiving of benefits?</p>
+
+<p>Now some of those things have indeed been rightly spoken, others not
+so well. For a statesman ought not to withdraw his affection and
+providential care from any public<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> affair whatever, nor reserve himself
+sacred, like the anchor in a ship, for the last necessities and hazards
+of the state. But as the masters of ships do some things with their
+own hands, and perform others, sitting afar off, by other instruments,
+turning and winding them by the hands of others, and making use of
+mariners; boatswains, and mates, some of which they often call to the
+stern, putting the helm into their hands; so it is convenient for a
+statesman sometimes to yield the command to his companions, and to
+invite them kindly and civilly to the tribunal, not managing all the
+affairs of the commonweal by his own speeches, decrees, and actions,
+but having good and faithful men, to employ every one of them in that
+proper and peculiar station which he finds to be most suitable for him.
+Thus Pericles used Menippus for the conduct of the armies, by Ephialtes
+he humbled the council of the Areopagus, by Charinus he passed the law
+against the Megarians, and sent Lampon to people the city of Thurii.
+For not only is the greatness of authority less liable to be envied by
+the people, when it seems to be divided amongst many; but the business
+also is more exactly done. For as the division of the hand into fingers
+has not weakened it, but rendered it more commodious and instrumental
+for the uses to which it serves; so he who in the administration of
+a state gives part of the affairs to others renders the action more
+efficacious by communicating it. But he who, through an unsatiable
+desire of glory or power, lays the whole burthen of the state upon his
+own shoulders, and applies himself to that for which he is neither
+fitted by nature nor exercise,—as Cleon did to the leading forth
+of armies, Philopoemen to the commanding of navies, and Hannibal to
+haranguing the people,—has no excuse for his errors; but hears that of
+Euripides objected against him,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Thou, but a carpenter, concernd’st thyself</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With works not wrought in wood;—</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span></p>
+<p>being no good orator, you went on an embassage; being of a lazy temper,
+you thrust yourself into the stewardship; being ignorant in keeping
+accounts, you would be treasurer; or, being old and infirm, you took
+on you the command of the army. But Pericles divided his authority
+with Cimon, reserving to himself the governing within the city, and
+committing to him the manning of the navy and making war upon the
+barbarians; for the other was naturally fitted for war, and himself for
+civil affairs. Eubulus also the Anaphlystian is much commended, that,
+having credit and authority in matters of the greatest importance,
+he managed none of the Grecian affairs, nor betook himself to the
+conducting of the army; but employing himself about the treasure, he
+augmented the public revenues, and greatly benefited the city by them.
+But Iphicrates, practising to make declamations at his own house in
+the presence of many, rendered himself ridiculous; for though he had
+been no bad orator but an excellently good one, yet ought he to have
+contented himself with the glory got by arms, and abstaining from the
+school, to have left it to the sophisters.</p>
+
+<p>16. But since it is incident to every populacy to be malicious and
+desirous to find fault with their governors, and since they are apt
+to suspect that many, even useful things, if they pass without being
+opposed or contradicted, are done by conspiracy, and since this
+principally brings societies and friendships into obloquy; they must
+not indeed leave any real enmity or dissension against themselves,
+as did Onomademus, a demagogue of the Chians, who, having mastered a
+sedition, suffered not all his adversaries to be expelled the city;
+lest, said he, we should begin to differ with our friends, when we
+are wholly freed from our enemies; for this would be indeed a folly.
+But when the multitude shall have conceived a suspicion against
+any important beneficial project, they must not, as if it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> were by
+confederacy, all deliver the same opinion; but two or three of them
+must dissent, and mildly oppose their friend, and afterwards, as if
+they were convinced by reason, change their sentiments; for by this
+means they draw along with them the people, who think them moved by
+the beneficialness of the thing. But in small matters, and such as are
+of no great consequence, it is not amiss to suffer his friends really
+to differ, every one following his own private reason; that so in the
+principal and greatest concerns, they may not seem to act upon design,
+when they shall unanimously agree to what is best.</p>
+
+<p>17. The politician therefore is by nature always the prince of the
+city, as the king among the bees; and in consideration of this, he
+ought always to have the helm of public affairs in his hand. But as
+for those dignities and offices to which persons are nominated and
+chosen by the suffrages of the people, he should neither too eagerly
+nor too often pursue them,—the seeking after offices being neither
+venerable nor popular,—nor yet should he reject them, when the people
+legally confer them on him and invite him to them, but even though they
+are below his reputation, he should accept them and willingly employ
+himself in them; for it is but just that they who have been honored by
+offices of greater dignity should in return grace those of inferior
+rank. And in those more weighty and superior employs, such as are the
+commanding of the armies in Athens, the Prytania in Rhodes, and the
+Boeotarchy amongst us, he should carry himself with such moderation
+as to remit and abate something of their grandeur, adding somewhat of
+dignity and venerableness to those that are meaner and less esteemed,
+that he may be neither despised for these nor envied for those.</p>
+
+<p>Now it behooves him that enters upon any office, not only to have at
+hand those arguments of which Pericles put himself in mind when he
+first received the robe of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> state: Bethink thyself, Pericles, thou
+govern’st freemen, thou govern’st Grecians, yea, citizens of Athens;
+but farther also, he ought to say thus with himself: Thou, being a
+subject, govern’st a city which is under the obedience of Caesar’s
+proconsul or lieutenant. Here is no fight in a fair field, this is not
+the ancient Sardis, nor is this the puissance of the Lydians. Thou must
+make thy robe scantier, look from the pavilion to the tribunal, and not
+place too great confidence in thy crown, since thou see’st the Roman’s
+shoes over thy head. But in this the stage-players are to be imitated,
+who add indeed to the play their own passionate transports, behavior,
+and countenance, suitable to the person they represent, but yet give
+ear to the prompter, and transgress not the rhyme and measures of the
+faculty granted them by their masters. For an error in government
+brings not, as in the acting of a tragedy, only hissing and derision;
+but many have by this means subjected themselves to that</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Severe chastiser, the neck-cutting axe.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As it befell your countryman Pardalas, when he forgot the limits of
+his power. Another, being banished from home and confined to a little
+island, as Solon has it,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Became at last from an Athenian</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A Pholegandrian or Sicinitan.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For we laugh indeed, when we see little children endeavoring to fasten
+their father’s shoes on their own feet, or setting their crowns on
+their own heads in sport. But the governors of cities, foolishly
+exhorting the people to imitate those works, achievements, and actions
+of their ancestors which are not suitable to the present times and
+affairs, elevate the multitude, and although they do things that are
+ridiculous, they yet meet with a fate which is not fit to be laughed
+at, unless they are men altogether despised. For there are many other
+facts of the ancient Greeks, the recital<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> of which to those who are
+now living may serve to form and moderate their manners; as would be
+the relating at Athens, not the warlike exploits of their progenitors,
+but (for example) the decree of amnesty after the expulsion of the
+Thirty Tyrants; the fining of Phrynicus, who represented in a tragedy
+the taking of Miletus; how they wore garlands on their heads when
+Cassander rebuilt Thebes; how, having intelligence of the Scytalism (or
+slaughter) at Argos in which the Argives put to death fifteen hundred
+of their own citizens, they commanded a lustration (or expiatory
+sacrifice) to be carried about in a full assembly; and how, when
+they were searching of houses for those that were confederated with
+Harpalus, they passed by only one, which was inhabited by a man newly
+married. For by the imitating of such things as these, they may even
+now resemble their ancestors; but the fights at Marathon, Eurymedon,
+and Plataea, and whatever examples vainly puff up and heighten the
+multitude, should be left to the schools of the sophisters.</p>
+
+<p>18. Now a statesman ought not only to exhibit himself and his country
+blameless to the prince, but also to have always for his friend some
+one of those that are most powerful above, as a firm support of polity;
+for the Romans are of such a disposition, that they are most ready to
+assist their friends in their political endeavors. It is good also,
+when we have received benefit from friendship with princes, to apply
+it to the advancement of our country; as did Polybius and Panaetius,
+who through the favor of Scipio to them greatly advantaged their
+countries for the obtaining felicity. So Caesar Augustus, when he had
+taken Alexandria, made his entry into it, holding Arius by the hand,
+and discoursing with him alone of all his familiars; after which he
+said to the Alexandrians, who expecting the utmost severity supplicated
+his favor, that he pardoned them first for the greatness of their
+city,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> secondly for its builder, Alexander, and thirdly, added he, to
+gratify this my friend. Is it then fit to compare to this benefit those
+exceeding gainful commissions and administrations of provinces, in
+the pursuit of which many even grow old at other men’s doors, leaving
+their own domestic affairs in the mean time unregarded? Or should we
+rather correct Euripides, singing and saying that, if one must watch
+and sue at another’s court and subject one’s self to some great man’s
+familiarity, it is most commendable so to do for the sake of one’s
+country; but otherwise, we should embrace and pursue friendships on
+equal and just conditions.</p>
+
+<p>19. Yet ought not he who renders and exhibits his country obsequious
+to potent princes to contribute to the oppressing of it, nor having
+tied its legs to subject also its neck, as some do who, referring all
+things both great and little to these potentates, upbraid it with
+servitude, or rather wholly take away the commonwealth, rendering it
+astonished, timorous, and without command of any thing. For as those
+who are accustomed neither to sup nor bathe without the physician do
+not make so much use of their health as Nature affords them; so they
+who introduce the prince’s judgment into every decree, council, favor,
+and administration, necessitate the princes to be more masters of them
+than they desire. Now the cause of this is principally the avarice
+and ambition of the chief citizens. For either, by injuring their
+inferiors, they compel them to fly out of the city; or in such things
+wherein they differ from one another, disdaining to be worsted by their
+fellow-citizens, they bring in such as are more powerful, whence both
+the council, people, courts of judicature, and whole magistracy lose
+their authority. But he ought to appease private citizens by equality,
+and mightier men by mutual submissions, so as to keep peace within the
+commonweal, and coolly to determine their affairs; making for these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span>
+things, as it were for secret diseases, a certain political medicine,
+both being himself rather willing to be vanquished amongst his
+fellow-citizens, than to get the better by the injury and dissolution
+of his country’s rights, and requesting the same of every one else,
+and teaching them how great a mischief this obstinacy in contending
+is. But now, rather than they will with honor and benignity mutually
+yield to their fellow-citizens, kinsmen, neighbors, and colleagues in
+office, they do, with no less prejudice than shame, carry forth their
+dissensions to the doors of the pleaders, and put them into the hands
+of pragmatical lawyers.</p>
+
+<p>Physicians indeed turn and drive forth into the superficies of the
+body such diseases as they are not able utterly to extirpate; but a
+statesman, though he cannot keep a city altogether free from internal
+troubles, yet should, by concealing its disturbance and sedition,
+endeavor to cure and compose it, so that it may least stand in need of
+physicians and medicines from abroad. For the intention of a statesman
+should be fixed upon the public safety, and should shun, as has been
+said, the tumultuous and furious motion of vain-glory; and yet in his
+disposition there should be magnanimity,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">And undaunted courage,—as becomes</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The men, who are for their dear country’s right</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Prepared till death ’gainst stoutest foes to fight,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and who are bravely resolved, not only to hazard their lives against
+the assaults of invading enemies, but also to struggle with the most
+difficult affairs, and stem the torrent of the most dangerous and
+impetuous times. For as he must not himself be a creator of storms and
+tempests, so neither must he abandon the ship of the state when they
+come upon it; and as he ought not to raise commotions and drive it into
+danger, so is he obliged, when it <span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>is tossed and is in peril, to give
+it his utmost assistance, putting forth all his boldness of speech, as
+he would throw out a sacred anchor when affairs are at the greatest
+extremity.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the difficulties that befell the Pergamenians under Nero, and
+the Rhodians lately under Domitian, and the Thessalians heretofore in
+the time of Augustus, when they burned Petraeus alive.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">You shall not in this case demurring see,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>or starting back for fear, any one who is truly a statesman; neither
+shall you find him accusing others and withdrawing himself out of
+harm’s way; but you shall have him rather going on embassies, sailing
+to foreign parts, and not only saying first,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">We’re here, Apollo, who the murther wrought,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">No longer plague our country for our fault,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>but also ready to undergo perils and dangers for the multitude, even
+though he has not been at all partaker of their crime. For this indeed
+is a gallant action; and besides its honesty, one only man’s virtue and
+magnanimity has often wonderfully mitigated the anger conceived against
+a whole multitude, and dissipated the terror and bitterness with which
+they were threatened. Such an influence with a king of Persia had the
+deportment of Sperchis and Bulis, two noble Spartans; and equally
+prevalent was the speech of Stheno with Pompey, when, being about to
+punish the Mamertines for their defection, he was told by Stheno, that
+he would not act justly if he should for one guilty person destroy
+abundance of innocents; for that he himself had caused the revolt of
+the city, by persuading his friends and forcing his enemies to that
+attempt. This speech did so dispose Pompey, that he both pardoned the
+city and courteously treated Stheno. But Sylla’s host, having used the
+like virtue towards an unlike person, generously ended his <span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>days. For
+when Sylla, having taken the city of Praeneste, determined to put all
+the rest of the inhabitants to the sword, and to spare only him for the
+hospitality that had been between them, he, saying that he would not be
+indebted for his preservation to the destroyer of his country, thrust
+himself in amongst his fellow-citizens, and was massacred with them. We
+ought therefore indeed to deprecate such times as these, and hope for
+better things.</p>
+
+<p>20. Moreover, we should honor, as a great and sacred thing, every
+magistracy and magistrate. Now the mutual concord and friendship of
+magistrates with one another is a far greater honor of magistracy
+than their diadems and purple-garded robes. Now those who lay for a
+foundation of friendship their having been fellow-soldiers or having
+spent their youth together, and take their being joint commanders or
+co-magistrates for a cause of enmity, cannot avoid being guilty of
+one of these three evils. For either, regarding their colleagues in
+government as their equals, they brangle with them; or looking on them
+as their superiors, they envy them; or esteeming them their inferiors,
+they despise them; whereas, indeed, one ought to court his superior,
+advance his inferior, honor his equal, and love and embrace all, as
+having been made friends, not by eating at the same table, drinking
+in the same cup, or meeting at the same solemn feast, but by a common
+and public bond, and having in some sort an hereditary benevolence
+derived from their country. Scipio therefore was ill spoken of in
+Rome, for that, making a feast for his friends at the dedication of a
+temple to Hercules, he invited not to it his colleague Mummius; for,
+though in other things they took not one another for friends, yet
+in such occurrences as these they should have mutually honored and
+caressed each other, for the sake of their common magistracy. If then
+the omission of so small a civility brought Scipio, who was otherwise
+an admirable man, under a suspicion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> of arrogancy; how can he who
+seeks to impair the dignity of his colleague, or to obfuscate the
+lustre of his actions, or through insolency to draw and attribute all
+things to himself, taking them wholly from his companion, be esteemed
+reasonable and moderate? I remember that, when I was yet but a young
+man, being jointly with another sent on an embassy to the proconsul,
+and my companion—I know not on what occasion—stopping by the way, I
+went on alone and performed the affair. Now when at my return I was to
+render an account of my charge, my father, taking me aside, admonished
+me not to say <i>I went</i> but <i>We went</i>, not <i>I spoke</i>
+but <i>We spoke</i>, and so through all the rest to make my report by
+associating my companion, and rendering him a sharer in my actions.
+For this is not only decent and courteous, but also takes from glory
+what is offensive, that is, envy. Whence it is that great men generally
+co-ascribe their most glorious actions to their Daemon or Fortune; as
+did Timoleon, who having destroyed the tyrannies in Sicily, consecrated
+a temple to Chance; and Python, when, being admired and honored by the
+Athenians for having slain Cotys, he said, God did this, making use of
+my hand. But Theopompus, king of the Lacedaemonians, when one said that
+Sparta was preserved because its kings were well skilled in governing,
+replied: ’Tis rather because the people are well versed in obeying.</p>
+
+<p>21. These two things then are affected by each other; yet most men both
+say and think that the business of political instruction is to render
+the people pliable to be governed. For there are in every city more
+governed than governors, and every one who lives in a democracy rules
+only a short time, but is subject all his life, so that it is the most
+excellent and useful lesson we can learn, to obey those who are set
+over us, though they are less furnished with authority and reputation.</p>
+
+<p>For it is absurd that a Theodorus or a Polus, the principal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> actor in
+a tragedy, should often obey a hireling who plays the third part, and
+speak humbly to him because he wears a diadem and a sceptre; and that
+in real actions and in the government of the state, a rich and mighty
+man should undervalue and contemn a magistrate because he is simple
+and poor, thus injuring and degrading the dignity of the commonweal by
+his own; whereas he should rather by his own reputation and authority
+have increased and advanced that of the magistrate. As in Sparta the
+kings rose up out of their thrones to the ephors, and whoever else
+was sent for by them did not slowly obey, but running hastily and
+with speed through the forum, gave a pattern of obedience to his
+fellow-citizens, whilst he gloried in honoring the magistrates; not
+like to some ill-bred and barbarous persons, who, priding themselves in
+the abundance of their power, affront the judges of the public combats,
+revile the directors of the dances in the Bacchanals, and deride
+military commanders and these that preside over the exercises of youth,
+neither knowing nor understanding that to honor is sometimes more
+glorious than to be honored. For to a man of great authority in a city,
+his accompanying and attending on the magistrate is a greater grace
+than if he were himself accompanied and attended on by him; or rather
+this indeed would bring trouble and envy, but that brings real glory,
+and such as proceeds from kindness and good-will. And such a man, being
+seen sometimes at the magistrate’s door, and saluting him first, and
+giving him the middle place in walking, does, without taking any thing
+from himself, add ornament to the city.</p>
+
+<p>22. It is also a popular thing and wins greatly on the multitude, to
+bear patiently the reproaches and indignation of a magistrate, saying
+either with Diomedes,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Great glory soon will follow this,<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>or this, which was sometime said by Demosthenes,—that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>he is not now
+Demosthenes only, but a magistrate, or a director of public dances,
+or a wearer of a diadem. Let us therefore lay aside our revenge for a
+time; for either we shall come upon him when he is dismissed from his
+office, or shall by delaying gain a cessation of anger.</p>
+
+<p>23. Indeed one should in diligence, providence, and care for the public
+always strive with every magistrate, advising them,—if they are
+gracious and well behaved,—of such things as are requisite, warning
+them, and giving them opportunities to make use of such things as
+have been rightly counselled, and helping them to advance the common
+good; but if there is in them any sloth, delay, or ill-disposedness
+to action, then ought one to go himself and speak to the people, and
+not to neglect or omit the public on pretence that it becomes not one
+magistrate to be curious and play the busybody in another’s province.
+For the law always gives the first rank in government to him who
+does what is just and knows what is convenient. “There was,” says
+Xenophon,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> “one in the army named Xenophon, who was neither general
+nor inferior commander;” but yet this man, by his skill in what was fit
+and boldness in attempting, raising himself to command, preserved the
+Grecians. Now of all Philopoemen’s deeds this is the most illustrious,
+that Agis<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> having surprised Messene, and the general of the Achaeans
+being unwilling and fearful to go and rescue it, he with some of the
+forwardest spirits did without a commission make an assault and recover
+it. Yet are we not to attempt innovations on every light or trivial
+occasion; but only in cases of necessity, as did Philopoemen, or for
+the performance of some honorable actions, as did Epaminondas when he
+continued in the Boeotarchy four months longer than was allowed by
+the law, during which he brake into Laconia and re-edified <span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>Messene.
+Whence, if any complaint or accusation shall on this occasion happen,
+we may in our defence against such accusation plead necessity, or have
+the greatness and gallantry of the action as a comfort for the danger.</p>
+
+<p>24. There is recorded a saying of Jason, monarch of the Thessalians,
+which he always had in his mouth when he outraged or molested any, that
+there is a necessity for those to be unjust in small matters who will
+act justly in great ones. Now that speech one may presently discern
+to have been made by a despot. But more political is this precept, to
+gratify the populacy with the passing over small things, that we may
+oppose and hinder them when they are like to offend in greater. For
+he that will be exact and earnest in all things, never yielding or
+conniving, but always severe and inexorable, accustoms the people to
+strive obstinately, and behave themselves perversely towards him.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">But when the waves beat high, the sheet should be</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A little slackened,—</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>sometimes by unbending himself and sporting graciously with them, as in
+the celebrating of festival sacrifices, assisting at public games, and
+being a spectator at the theatres, and sometimes by seeming neither to
+see nor hear, as we pass by the faults of such children in our houses;
+that the faculty of freely chastising and reprehending, being—like
+a medicine—not antiquated or debilitated by use, but having its
+full vigor and authority, may more forcibly move and operate on the
+multitude in matters of greater importance.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander, being informed that his sister was too familiarly acquainted
+with a certain handsome young man, was not displeased at it, but said,
+that she also must be permitted to have some enjoyment of the royalty;
+acting in this concession neither rightly nor as beseemed himself;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> for
+the dissolution and dishonoring of the state ought not to be esteemed
+an enjoyment. But a statesman will not to his power permit the people
+to injure any private citizens, to confiscate other men’s estates,
+or to share the public stock amongst them; but will by persuading,
+instructing, and threatening oppugn such irregular desires, by the
+feeding and increasing of which Cleon caused many a stinging drone, as
+Plato says, to breed in the city. But if the multitude, taking occasion
+from some solemn feast of the country or the veneration of some God,
+shall be inclined either to exhibit some show, to make some small
+distribution, to bestow some courteous gratification, or to perform
+some other magnificence, let them in such matters have an enjoyment
+both of their liberality and abundance. For there are many examples of
+such things in the governments of Pericles and Demetrius; and Cimon
+adorned the market-place by planting rows of plane-trees and making
+of walks. Cato also, seeing the populacy in the time of Catiline’s
+conspiracy put in a commotion by Caesar, and dangerously inclined to
+make a change in the government, persuaded the senate to decree some
+distributions of money amongst the poor, and this being done appeased
+the tumult and quieted the sedition. For, as a physician, having taken
+from his patient great store of corrupt blood, gives him a little
+innocent nourishment; so a statesman, having taken from the people some
+great thing which was either inglorious or prejudicial, does again by
+some small and courteous gratuity still their morose and complaining
+humor.</p>
+
+<p>25. It is not amiss also dexterously to turn aside the eager desires
+of the people to other useful things, as Demades did when he had the
+revenues of the city under his management. For they being bent to
+send galleys to the assistance of those who were in rebellion against
+Alexander, and commanding him to furnish out money for that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> purpose,
+he said to them: You have money ready, for I have made provision
+against the Bacchanals, that every one of you may receive half a mina;
+but if you had rather have it employed this way, make use as you
+please of your own. And by this means taking them off from sending
+the fleet, lest they should be deprived of the dividend, he kept the
+people from offending Alexander. For there are many prejudicial things
+to which we cannot directly put a stop, but we must for that end make
+use of turning and winding; as did Phocion, when he was required at an
+unseasonable time to make an incursion into Boeotia. For he immediately
+caused proclamation to be made, that all from sixteen years of age to
+sixty should prepare to follow him; and when there arose upon it a
+mutiny amongst the old men, he said: There is no hardship put upon you,
+for I, who am above fourscore years old, shall be your general. In this
+manner also is the sending of embassies to be put off, by joining in
+the commission such as are unprepared; and the raising of unprofitable
+buildings, by bidding them contribute to it; and the following of
+indecent suits, by ordering the prosecutors to appear together and go
+together from the court. Now the proposers and inciters of the people
+to such things are first to be drawn and associated for the doing them;
+for so they will either by their shifting it off seem to break the
+matter, or by their accepting of it have their share in the trouble.</p>
+
+<p>26. But when some great and useful matter, yet such as requires much
+struggling and industry, is to be taken in hand, endeavor to choose
+the most powerful of your friends, or rather the mildest of the most
+powerful; for they will least thwart you and most co-operate with you,
+having wisdom without a contentious humor. Nevertheless, thoroughly
+understanding your own nature, you ought, in that for which you are
+naturally less fit, rather to make choice of such as are of suitable
+abilities, than of such as are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> like yourself; as Diomedes, when he
+went forth to spy, passing by the valiant, took for his companion
+one that was prudent and cautious. For thus are actions better
+counterpoised, and there is no contention bred betwixt them, when they
+desire honor from different virtues and qualities. If therefore you are
+yourself no good speaker, choose for your assistant in a suit or your
+companion in an embassy an eloquent man, as Pelopidas did Epaminondas;
+if you are unfit to persuade and converse with the multitude, being too
+high-minded for it, as was Callicratidas, take one that is gracious
+and courtly; if you are infirm of body and unable to undergo fatigues,
+make choice of one who is robust and a lover of labor, as Nicias did
+of Lamachus. For thus Geryon would have become admirable, having many
+legs, hands, and eyes, if only they had been all governed by one
+soul. But it is in the power of statesmen—by conferring together, if
+they are unanimous, not only their bodies and wealth, but also their
+fortunes, authorities, and virtues, to one common use—to perform
+the same action with greater glory than any one person; not as did
+the Argonauts, who, having left Hercules, were necessitated to have
+recourse to female subtleties and be subject to enchantments and
+sorceries, that they might save themselves and steal away the fleece.</p>
+
+<p>Men indeed entering into some temples leave their gold without; but
+iron, that I may speak my mind in a word, they never carry into any.
+Since then the tribunal is a temple common to Jupiter the counsellor
+and protector of cities, to Themis, and to Justice, from the very
+beginning, before thou enterest into it, stripping thy soul of avarice
+and the love of wealth, cast them into the shops of bankers and usurers,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">And from them turn thyself,<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>esteeming him who heaps up treasures by the management <span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>of public
+affairs to rob the temples, plunder graves, and steal from his friends,
+and enriching himself by treachery and bearing of false witness, to be
+an unfaithful counsellor, a perjured judge, a bribe-taking magistrate,
+and in brief, free from no injustice. Whence it is not necessary to say
+much concerning this matter.</p>
+
+<p>27. Now ambition, though it is more specious than covetousness, brings
+yet no less plagues into a state. For it is usually more accompanied
+with boldness, as being bred, not in slothful and abject spirits,
+but chiefly in such as are vigorous and active; and the vogue of the
+people, frequently extolling it and driving it by their praises,
+renders it thereby headstrong and hard to be managed. As therefore
+Plato advised, that we should even from our infancy inculcate into
+young people, that it is not fit for them to wear gold about them
+abroad nor yet to be possessors of it, as having a peculiar treasure
+of their own, immixed with their souls,—enigmatically, as I conceive,
+insinuating the virtue propagated in their natures from the race
+or stock of which they are descended,—so let us also moderate our
+ambition by saying, that we have in ourselves uncorrupted gold, that
+is, honor unmixed, and free from envy and reprehension, which is still
+augmented by the consideration and contemplation of our acts and jests
+in the service of the commonweal. Wherefore we stand not in need of
+honors painted, cast, or engraven in brass, in which what is most
+admired frequently belongs to another. For the statue of a trumpeter
+or halberdier is not commended or esteemed for the sake of the person
+whom it is made to represent, but for that of the workman by whom it is
+made. And Cato, when Rome was in a manner filled with statues, would
+not suffer his to be erected, saying, I had rather men should ask why
+my statue is not set up, than why it is. For such things are subject
+to envy, and the people think themselves obliged to those who have
+not received<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> them; whereas those who have received them are esteemed
+burthensome, as seeking public employs for a reward. For as he does
+no great or glorious act who, having without danger sailed along the
+Syrtis, is afterwards cast away in the harbor; so he who, having kept
+himself safe in passing through the treasury and the management of
+the public revenues, is caught with a presidency or a place in the
+Prytaneum, not only dashes against an high promontory, but is likewise
+drowned.</p>
+
+<p>He then is best, who desires none of these things, but shuns and
+refuses them all. But if perhaps it is not easy wholly to decline a
+favor or testimonial of the people’s amity, when they are fully bent to
+bestow it, yet for those who have in the service of the state contended
+not for silver or presents, but have fought a fight truly sacred and
+deserving a crown, let an inscription, a tablet, a decree, or a branch
+of laurel or olive suffice, such as Epimenides received out of the
+castle of Athens for having purified the city. So Anaxagoras, putting
+back the other honors that were given him, desired that on the day of
+his death the children might have leave to play and intermit their
+studies. And to the seven Persians who killed the Magi it was granted
+that they and their posterity should wear their turban on the fore part
+of the head; for this, it seems, they had made the signal, when they
+went about that attempt. The honor also which Pittacus received had
+something political; for being bid to take what portion he would of the
+land he had gotten for his citizens, he accepted as much as he could
+reach with the cast of his dart. So Cocles the Roman took as much as he
+himself, being lame, could plough in a day. For the honor should not be
+a recompense of the action, but an acknowledgment of gratitude, that
+it may continue also long, as those did which we have mentioned. But
+of the three hundred statues erected to Demetrius Phalereus, not one
+was eaten into by rust or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> covered with filth, they being all pulled
+down whilst himself was yet alive; and those of Demades were melted
+into chamber-pots. Many other honors also have undergone the like fate,
+being regarded with an ill eye, not only for the wickedness of the
+receiver, but also for the greatness of the gift. A moderation in the
+expense is therefore the best and surest preservative of honors; for
+such as are great, immense, and ponderous are like to unproportioned
+statues, soon overthrown.</p>
+
+<p>28. Now I here call those honors which the people,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Whose right it is, so name; with them I speak:</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Empedocles has it; since a wise statesman will not despise true
+honor and favor, consisting in the good-will and friendly disposition
+of those who gratefully remember his services; nor will he contemn
+glory by shunning to please his neighbors, as Democritus would have
+him. For neither the fawning of dogs nor the affection of horses is to
+be rejected by huntsmen and jockeys; nay, it is both profitable and
+pleasant to breed in those animals which are brought up in our houses
+and live with us, such a disposition towards one’s self as Lysimachus’s
+dog showed to his master, and as the poet relates Achilles’s horses to
+have had towards Patroclus.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> And I am of opinion that bees would
+fare better if they would make much of those who breed them and look
+after them, and would admit them to come near them, than they do by
+stinging them and driving them away; for now their keepers punish
+them by smothering them with smoke; so they tame unruly horses with
+short bits; and dogs that are apt to run away, by collaring them and
+fastening them to clogs. But there is nothing which renders one man
+so obsequious and submissive to another, as the confidence of his
+good-will, and the opinion of his integrity and justice. Wherefore
+Demosthenes <span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>rightly affirmed, that the greatest preservative of
+states against tyrants is distrust. For the part of the soul by which
+we believe is most apt to be caught. As therefore Cassandra’s gift of
+prophecy was of no advantage to the citizens of Troy, who would not
+believe her:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The God (says she) would have me to foretell</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Things unbelieved; for when the people well</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Have smarted, groaning under pressures sad,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">They style me wise, till then they think me mad;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>so the confidence the citizens had in Archytas, and their good-will
+towards Battus, were highly advantageous to those who would make use of
+them through the good opinion they had of them.</p>
+
+<p>Now the first greatest benefit which is in the reputation of statesmen
+is the confidence that is had in them, giving them an entrance into
+affairs; and the second is, that the good-will of the multitude is an
+armor to the good against those that are envious and wicked; for,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">As when the careful mother drives the flies</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">From her dear babe, which sweetly sleeping lies,<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>it chases away envy, and renders the plebeian equal in authority
+to the nobleman, the poor man to the rich, and the private man to
+the magistrates; and in a word, when truth and virtue are joined
+with it, it is a strange and favorable wind, directly carrying men
+into government. And on the other side behold and learn by examples
+the mischievous effects of the contrary disposition. For those of
+Italy slew the wife and children of Dionysius, having first violated
+and polluted them with their lusts; and afterwards burning their
+bodies, scattered the ashes out of the ship into the sea. But when
+one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died
+afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated
+his funeral; but coming to a contest about his relics, they <span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>were
+difficultly at last brought to this agreement, that his ashes being
+distributed, every one of them should carry away an equal share, and
+they should all erect monuments to him. Again, the Agrigentines,
+being got rid of Phalaris, made a decree, that none should wear a
+blue garment; for the tyrant’s attendants had blue liveries. But the
+Persians, because Cyrus was hawk-nosed, do to this day love such men
+and esteem them handsomest.</p>
+
+<p>29. That is of all loves the strongest and divinest, which is by cities
+and states borne to any man for his virtue. But those false-named
+honors and false testimonials of amity, which have their rise from
+stage-plays, largesses, and fencings, are not unlike the flatteries
+of whores; the people always with smiles bestowing an unconstant and
+short-lived glory on him that presents them and gratifies them.</p>
+
+<p>He therefore who said, the people were first overthrown by him which
+first bestowed largesses on them, very well understood that the
+multitude lose their strength, being rendered weaker by receiving. But
+these bestowers must also know that they destroy themselves, when,
+purchasing glory at great expenses, they make the multitude haughty and
+arrogant, as having it in their power to give and take away some very
+great matter.</p>
+
+<p>30. Yet are we not therefore to act sordidly in the distribution of
+honorary presents, when there is plenty enough. For the people more
+hate a rich man who gives nothing of his own, than they do a poor man
+that robs the public treasury; attributing the former to pride and a
+contempt of them, but the latter to necessity. First, therefore, let
+these largesses be made gratis, for so they more oblige the receivers,
+and strike them with admiration; then, on some occasion that has a
+handsome and laudable pretence, with the honor of some God wholly
+drawing the people to devotion; for so there is at the same time bred
+in them a strong apprehension and opinion that the Deity is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> great
+and venerable, when they see those whom they honor and highly esteem
+so bountifully and readily expending their wealth upon his honor. As
+therefore Plato forbade young men who were to be liberally educated
+to learn the Lydian and Phrygian harmony,—one of which excites the
+mournful and melancholy part of our soul, whilst the other increases
+its inclination to pleasure and sensual delight,—so do you, as much
+as possibly you can, drive out of the city all such largesses as
+either foster and cherish brutality and savageness, or scurrility and
+lasciviousness; and if that cannot be, at least shun them, and oppose
+the many when they desire such spectacles; always making the subjects
+of our expenses useful and modest, having for their end what is good
+and necessary, or at least what is pleasant and acceptable, without any
+prejudice or injury.</p>
+
+<p>31. But if your estate be but indifferent, and by its centre and
+circumference confined to your necessary use, it is neither ungenerous
+nor base to confess your poverty and give place to such as are provided
+for those honorary expenses, and not, by taking up money on usury,
+to render yourself at the same time both miserable and ridiculous by
+such services. For they whose abilities fall short cannot well conceal
+themselves, being compelled either to be troublesome to their friends,
+or to court and flatter usurers, so that they get not any honor or
+power, but rather shame and contempt by such expenses. It is therefore
+always useful on such occasions to call to mind Lamachus and Phocion.
+For Phocion, when the Athenians at a solemn sacrifice called upon him,
+and often importuned him to give them something, said to them, I should
+be ashamed to give to you, and not pay this Callicles,—pointing to an
+usurer who was standing by. And as for Lamachus, he always put down in
+his bill of charges, when he was general, the money laid out for his
+shoes and coat. And to Hermon, when he refused the undertaking of an
+office<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> because of his poverty, the Thessalians ordained a puncheon of
+wine a month, and a bushel and a half of meal every four days. It is
+therefore no shame to confess one’s poverty; nor are the poor in cities
+of less authority than those who feast and exhibit public shows, if
+they have but gotten freedom of speech and reputation by their virtue.</p>
+
+<p>A statesman ought therefore chiefly to moderate himself on such
+occasions, and neither, being himself on foot, go into the field
+against well-mounted cavaliers, nor, being himself poor, vie with those
+that are rich about race matches, theatrical pomps, and magnificent
+tables and banquets; but he should rather strive to be like those who
+endeavor to manage the city by virtue and prudence, always joined with
+eloquence; in which there is not only honesty and venerableness, but
+also a gracefulness and attractiveness,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Far more to be desired than Croesus’ wealth.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For a good man is neither insolent nor odious; nor is a discreet person
+self-conceited,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor with a look severe walks he amongst</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">His fellow-citizens;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>but he is, on the contrary, courteous, affable, and of easy access
+to all, having his house always open, as a port of refuge to those
+that will make use of him, and showing his care and kindness, not
+only by being assistant in the necessities and affairs of those that
+have recourse to him, but also by condoling with those that are in
+adversity, and congratulating and rejoicing with such as have been
+successful; neither is he troublesome or offensive by the multitude and
+train of domestics attending him at bath, or by taking up of places
+in the theatres, nor remarkable by things invidious for luxury and
+sumptuousness; but he is equal and like to others in his clothes, diet,
+education<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> of his children, and the garb and attendance of his wife, as
+desiring in his comportment and manner of living to be like the rest
+of the people. Then he exhibits himself an intelligent counsellor, an
+unfeed advocate and courteous arbitrator between men and their wives,
+and friends at variance amongst themselves; not spending a small part
+of the day for the service of the commonweal at the tribunal or in the
+hall of audience, and employing all the rest, and the whole remainder
+of his life, in drawing to himself every sort of negotiations and
+affairs, as the north-east wind does the clouds; but always employing
+his cares on the public, and reputing polity (or the administration
+of the state) as a busy and active life, and not, as it is commonly
+thought, an easy and idle service; he does by all these and such
+like things turn and draw the many, who see that all the flatteries
+and enticements of others are but spurious and deceitful baits, when
+compared to his care and providence. The flatterers indeed of Demetrius
+vouchsafed not to give the other potentates of his time, amongst
+whom Alexander’s empire was divided, the title of kings, but styled
+Seleucus master of the elephants, Lysimachus treasurer, Ptolemaeus
+admiral, and Agathocles governor of the isles. But the multitude,
+though they may at the beginning reject a good and prudent man, yet
+coming afterwards to understand his veracity and the sincerity of his
+disposition, esteem him a public-spirited person and a magistrate; and
+of the others, they think and call one a maintainer of choruses, a
+second a feaster, and a third a master of the exercises. Moreover, as
+at the banquets made by Callias or Alcibiades, Socrates only is heard,
+and to Socrates all men’s eyes are directed; so in sound and healthy
+states Ismenias bestows largesses, Lichas makes suppers, and Niceratus
+provides choruses; but it is Epaminondas, Aristides, and Lysander
+that govern, manage the state, and lead forth the armies. Which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> if
+any one considers, he ought not to be dejected or amazed at the glory
+gotten amongst the people from theatres, banqueting-halls, and public
+buildings; since it lasts but a short time, being at an end as soon as
+the prizes and plays are over, and having in them nothing honorable or
+worthy of esteem.</p>
+
+<p>32. Those that are versed in the keeping and breeding of bees look
+on that hive to be healthiest and in best condition, where there is
+most humming, and which is fullest of bustle and noise; but he to
+whom God has committed the care of the rational and political hive,
+reputing the felicity of the people to consist chiefly in quietness
+and tranquillity, will receive and to his power imitate the rest of
+Solon’s ordinances, but will doubt and wonder what it was that induced
+him to decree, that he who, when there arises a sedition in the city,
+adheres to neither party should be reputed infamous. For in the body,
+the beginning of its change from sickness to health is not wrought by
+the parts that are infected with the disease, but when the temperature
+of such parts as are sound, growing powerful, drives away what is
+contrary to nature; and in a state, where the people are disturbed by
+a sedition not dangerous and mortal, but which will after a while be
+composed and allayed, it is of necessity that there be a mixture of
+much that is uninfected and sound, and that it continue and cohabit in
+it. For thither flows from the wise what is fit and natural, and passes
+into the part that is diseased. But when cities are in an universal
+commotion, they are in danger of being utterly destroyed, unless, being
+constrained by some necessity and chastisement from abroad, they are by
+the force of their miseries reduced to wisdom. Yet does it not become
+you in the time of a sedition to sit as if you were neither sensible
+nor sorry, praising your own unconcernedness as a quiet and happy
+life, and taking delight in the error of others. But on such occasions
+chiefly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> should you put on the buskin of Theramenes, and conferring
+with both parties, join yourself to neither. For you will not seem a
+stranger by not being a partaker in injustice, but a common friend
+to them all by your assistance; nor will you be envied for your not
+sharing in the calamity, when you appear equally to condole with every
+one of them. But the best is, by your providential care to prevent
+the raising of any sedition; and in this consists the greatest and
+most excellent point, as it were, of the political art. For you are
+to consider that, the greatest benefits a city can enjoy being peace,
+liberty, plenty, abundance of men, and concord, the people have at this
+time no need of statesmen for the procuring of peace; since all war,
+whether with Greeks or barbarians, is wholly taken away and banished
+from us. As for liberty, the people have as much as the emperors think
+fit to grant them, and more perhaps would not be expedient. The prudent
+man therefore will beg the Gods to grant to his fellow-citizens the
+unenvied plenty of the earth, and the kind temper of the seasons, and
+that wives may bear “children like to their parents,”<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> and also
+safety for all that is born and produced.</p>
+
+<p>There remains therefore to a statesman, of all those things that are
+subject to his charge, this alone, which is inferior to none of the
+other benefits, the keeping of those who are co-inhabitants of the
+same city in perpetual concord and friendship, and the taking away of
+all contentions, animosities, and heart-burnings. In which he shall,
+as in the differences between friends, so converse with the party
+appearing to be most injured, as if he himself seemed also a sharer
+in the injury and equally offended at it, endeavoring afterwards so
+to appease him, by showing him how much those who pass by injuries
+excel such as strive to contend and conquer, not only in good-nature
+and sweetness of disposition, but also in prudence and magnanimity,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>and how, by remitting a little of their right in small matters, they
+get the better in the greatest and most important. He shall afterwards
+admonish them both in general and apart, instructing them in the
+weakness of the Grecian affairs, which it is better for intelligent men
+to make the best of, and to live in peace and concord, than to engage
+in a contest for which fortune has left no reward. For what authority,
+what glory is there remaining for the conquerors? What power is there,
+which the least decree of a proconsul cannot abolish or transfer
+elsewhere, and which, though it should continue, would yet have any
+thing worth our pains? But since, as a conflagration in a town does not
+frequently begin in sacred and public places, but a lamp negligently
+left in a house, or the burning of a little trash or rubbish, raises a
+great fire and works a common mischief; so sedition in a state is not
+always kindled by contentions about public affairs, but oftentimes the
+differences arising from private concerns and jangles, being propagated
+into the public, have disturbed a whole city. It is no less becoming
+a statesman to remedy and prevent all these, so that some of them may
+never have any being, others may quickly be extinguished, and others
+hindered from increasing or taking hold of the public, and confined
+amongst the adversaries themselves. And as himself ought to take care
+for this, so should he advertise others, that private disturbances are
+the occasion of public ones, and little of great ones, if they are
+neglected and suffered to proceed without taking care to apply fit
+remedies to them in the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner is the greatest and most dangerous disturbance that
+ever happened in Delphi said to have been occasioned by Crates, whose
+daughter Orgilaus, the son of Phalis, being about to marry, it happened
+that the cup they were using in the espousals brake asunder of itself;
+which he taking for an ill omen, left his bride, and went<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> away with
+his father. Crates a little after, charging them with taking away a
+certain golden vessel, used in the sacrifices, caused Orgilaus and his
+brother, unheard, to be precipitated from the top of a rock to the
+bottom, and afterwards slew several of their most intimate friends,
+as they were at their devotions in the temple of Providence. After
+many such things were perpetrated, the Delphians, putting to death
+Crates and his companions in the sedition, out of their estates which
+they called excommunicated, built the temples in the lower part of
+the town. In Syracuse also there were two young men, betwixt whom
+there was an extraordinary intimacy, one of which, having taken into
+his custody his friend’s catamite, vitiated him in his absence. The
+other at his return, by way of retaliation, debauched his companion’s
+wife. Then one of the ancient senators, coming into the council,
+proposed the banishing of them both before the city was ruined by
+their filling it with enmity. Yet did not he prevail; but a sedition
+arising on this occasion by very great calamities overturned a most
+excellently constituted commonweal. You have also a domestical example
+in the enmity between Pardalus and Tyrrhenus, which wanted little of
+destroying Sardis by embroiling it in revolt and war on little and
+private differences. A statesman therefore is not to slight the little
+offences and heart-burnings which, as diseases in a body, pass speedily
+from one to another, but to take them in hand, suppress, and cure them.
+For, as Cato says, by attention and carefulness great matters are made
+little, and little ones reduced to nothing. Now there is no better
+artifice of inuring men to this, than the showing one’s self easily
+pacified in his own private differences, persisting without rancor in
+matters of the first importance, and managing none with obstinacy,
+contending wrath, or any other passion, which may work sharpness or
+bitterness in necessary disputes. For as they bind certain round
+muffles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> about the hands of those who combat at buffets, that in their
+contests there may not arrive any fatal accident, the blows being soft
+and such as can do no great harm; so in such suits and processes with
+one’s fellow-citizens, it is best to manage the dispute by making use
+of pure and simple pretences, and not by sharpening and empoisoning
+matters, as if they were weapons, with calumnies, malice, and threats,
+to render them pernicious, great, and public. For he who in this
+manner carries himself with those with whom he has affairs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> will have
+others also subject to him. But contentions about public matters,
+where private grudges are taken away, are soon appeased, and bring no
+difficult or fatal mischiefs.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WHICH_ARE_THE_MOST_CRAFTY">WHICH ARE THE MOST CRAFTY, WATER-ANIMALS OR THOSE CREATURES THAT
+BREED UPON THE LAND?
+</h2></div>
+
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">AUTOBULUS, SOCLARUS, OPTATUS, PHAEDIMUS, ARISTOTIMUS, HERACLEO.</h3></div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> Leonidas, being asked the question what he
+thought of Tyrtaeus, made answer, that he was a good poet to whet minds
+of young men; as a person who, by the vigor and spirit of his poetical
+raptures, kindled that wrathful indignation and ambition of honor,
+which emboldened them in combat to the contempt of death and danger.
+Which makes me afraid, my dearest friends, lest the encomium of hunting
+yesterday recited may have inflamed our young gentlemen beyond the
+bounds of moderation, so as to deem all other things fruitless and of
+little worth, while they rendezvous from all parts to this exercise.
+So much the rather, because I myself, when I was but very young,
+even beyond the strength of my age, seemed to be more than became
+me addicted to this sport, and to be over desirous with Phaedra in
+Euripides,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">With hounds and horn and merry hollow,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The spotted hart and hind to follow</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>So did that discourse affect me, fortified with many and probable
+arguments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> You say very truly, Autobulus. For that same poet
+seems to me to have awakened the force of rhetoric, for a long time
+lulled asleep, to gratify the inclinations of the youthful gentry, and
+to make himself their spring companion. But I am most pleased with him
+for introducing the example of single combatants, from whence he takes
+occasion to praise the sport of hunting, as being that which for the
+most part draws to itself whatever is natural in us, or what we have by
+use acquired, of that delight which men take in fighting with single
+weapons one against another, thus affording an evident prospect of
+artifice and daring courage, endued with understanding, encountering
+brutish force and strength, and applauding that of Euripides:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Small is the nerveless strength of feeble man,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Yet through the cunning of his reaching brain,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">By various slights and sundry stratagems,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Whatever land or th’ Ocean breeds he tames.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> And hence it was, as they say, my dearest
+Soclarus, that men at first became insensible and inhuman, having once
+tasted of murder, and being all accustomed, by hunting and following
+the chase, not only to behold without remorse the wounds and blood of
+wild beasts, but to rejoice at their being killed and slaughtered.
+Afterwards, as at Athens, some sycophant was by the Thirty Tyrants
+set apart for death, as a proper object of capital punishment, then
+a second, and a third; till, proceeding by degrees, they seized upon
+good men, and at length spared not the best and most worthy citizens.
+In like manner the first that slew a bear or a wolf obtained applause,
+then the ox and hog were appointed to be killed, under pretence of
+having tasted the sacred things that lay before them. Next to them
+deer, hares, and goats were made use of for food, and in some places
+the flesh of sheep, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>dogs, and horses grew familiar to human taste.
+The tame goose also and pigeon, man’s familiar domestic, according
+to Sophocles,—not for nourishment or to assuage hunger, as cats and
+weasels do, but to indulge voluptuous appetites,—they dressed and
+mangled to pieces. This gave strength and vigor to whatever was in
+nature bloodthirsty and savage, and rendering the disposition of man
+inflexible to pity, had almost erased out of his breast whatever was
+inclinable to humanity and mildness. Whereas, on the other side, the
+Pythagoreans, that they might accustom men to the love of humanity
+and compassion, still inculcated into their minds a particular care
+of being mild and gentle towards beasts. For there is nothing more
+powerful than custom to win upon all the affections of man, and to
+draw them from moderation to extremity. But I know not how it comes
+to pass, that being entered into this discourse, we have forgot not
+only the subject we were yesterday upon, but what we had also this day
+agreed to make the theme of our colloquy. For yesterday, as you well
+know, having thrown out a proposition, that all creatures were in some
+manner partakers of understanding and reason, we gave an occasion to
+you, young huntsmen, for a fair dispute, which of the two excelled in
+craft and cunning, the land animals, or the creatures that breed in the
+sea? Which, if you please, we will determine this day, if Aristotimus
+and Phaedimus will stand to their agreement; of which two gentlemen,
+the one has offered himself to his friends to be the patron of the land
+animals, the other reserves the honor of being more crafty to those of
+the sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> They will be as good as their words, I assure you,
+Autobulus, and will be here presently; for I saw them both early this
+morning preparing for the combat. In the mean time, if you please,
+before they begin, let us resume something of what was yesterday not
+so fully discoursed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> of for want of time, or not so carefully argued
+in our wine, as it ought to have been. For there seemed a dispute
+to resound in my ears from the Stoics’ portico, that, as immortal
+is opposite to mortal, incorruptible to corruptible, incorporeal to
+corporeal, in like manner things void of reason ought to be opposed to
+those beings that are endued with reason, lest among so many pairs of
+contraries this alone should be found maimed and imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> Good now, friend Soclarus, who was he that
+maintained that, because there are certain beings endued with reason,
+therefore there is nothing void of reason? For we abound with examples
+in all things that are destitute of a soul; nor do we want any other
+antithesis to irrational, but only to oppose whatever is deprived of
+a soul—as being void of reason and understanding—to that which is
+endued with reason and understanding together with a soul. But if any
+one will assert, that Nature is not defective, and that therefore
+animated Nature is partly rational, partly without reason; another
+may at the same time allege, that animated Nature is partly endued
+with imagination, partly deprived of it; partly sensible, partly
+insensible; to the end that Nature may not want these opposite habits
+and privations, as it were, equally balanced in the same kind. For, as
+it would be absurd to expect to find some living creatures sensible
+and others without sense, and equally ridiculous to grant imagination
+to some living creatures and not allow it to others,—since there is
+no living creature that comes into the world but what is presently
+endued with sense and imagination,—thus would he be as much out of
+the way, who should require one living creature to be rational and
+another void of reason, and that too when he is disputing with men
+who hold that nothing whatever can partake of sense which does not
+also partake of understanding, and that there is no animal not endued
+by Nature with opinion <span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>and ratiocination, as well as with sense and
+instinct. For Nature, which, as they truly say, made all things for the
+sake of something and to some end, did not make a sensible creature to
+be merely sensible of barely suffering something; but since there are
+many things familiar and agreeable, and other things as baneful and
+pernicious, no one of them could survive for a moment, did they not
+learn to avoid some things and covet the use and benefit of others.
+Sense it is, therefore, that affords to every creature the knowledge
+both of useful and hurtful; but the discretion which accompanies the
+said sense, choosing and seizing upon things profitable, and discerning
+and avoiding things pernicious or troublesome, can never be thought to
+reside in any creature not capable to reason, to judge, remember, and
+consider. Therefore, if you will deprive the creatures of expectation,
+memory, design, preparation, hope, fear, desire, and grief, you must at
+the same time deny them the use either of eyes or ears, and indeed of
+all sense and imagination; which it is better for them to be without,
+since they cannot make use of them, than to labor under grief and pain,
+with no means present of averting them.</p>
+
+<p>There is an oration of Strato the philosopher, demonstrating that
+without sense there can be no understanding. For many times letters
+cursorily glanced upon by the eye, and speeches little regarded by the
+ear, escape our knowledge, our minds being intent on other matters.
+Afterwards by recollection the same things return into our mind, for us
+to run through and pursue them in our thoughts as we please. Whence we
+say proverbially, “The mind sees, the mind hears; all other things are
+deaf and blind,” in regard there can be no sense in the eyes and ears,
+if understanding be wanting. Therefore King Cleomenes, after great
+commendations given to a copy of verses recited at a banquet where he
+was present, being asked whether it were not an admirable piece, bid
+them that heard it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> give their judgment, for that his mind was in the
+Peloponnesus. Therefore of necessity, whatever creatures are capable of
+sense must also be capable of understanding, if we can no otherwise be
+sensible than by the force of understanding.</p>
+
+<p>But suppose we should grant that sense has no need of the understanding
+for the performance of the duty incumbent upon it; nevertheless, when
+that same sense which has shown an animal the difference between what
+is grateful and what is averse to Nature has departed, where is that
+faculty which retains this difference in the memory,—dreading things
+that are abominable, and longing after things that are useful, and
+if they are wanting, seeking means to compass them,—which provides
+animals receptacles and places of refuge, that they may look out after
+their prey, and avoid the snares and gins of the hunters? And yet those
+very authors inculcate these things in their introductions, even to the
+teasing our ears: defining purpose to be an indication that something
+is to be brought to completion; design to be an impulse before an
+impulse; preparation to be an action before an action; memory to be
+the comprehension of some certain past impression, which at first was
+apprehended by sense. In all which things there is nothing which may
+not rightly be said to partake of reason, and yet all these things
+are common to all creatures; as indeed are certainly all cogitations;
+which, while they lie concealed in the brain, we call thoughts, but
+when they come to be in motion, we name conceptions. In the mean time
+they acknowledge all passions and perturbations of the mind to be
+false judgments and erroneous opinions; so that it is a wonder to me,
+that the same men should oversee so many operations and motions, some
+of desire, others of fear, nay, by Jupiter, many times of envy and
+emulation itself. And many times they themselves punish their dogs
+and horses when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> they commit a fault, and this not to no purpose, but
+to chastise them by causing in them through pain that trouble of mind
+which we call repentance. Now the tickling the ear by pleasing sounds
+is called enchantment, but the bewitching the eye is called bewitching;
+both which we make use of in the domesticating of wild beasts. Harts
+and horses are allured by the sounds of pipes and flutes. And there
+are a sort of crabs which are charmed out of their holes by fifes; and
+it is reported that the shadfish are drawn to show themselves above
+water by singing and clapping of hands. The otus also, which is a bird
+not much unlike a night-raven, is taken by allurement of the sight;
+for that while he stands staring upon the fowlers dancing before him
+in measure and figure, and out of affection will be striving to act
+his part by aping their motions with his wings and shoulders, he is
+frequently surprised and taken.</p>
+
+<p>But as for those that more foolishly affirm that beasts are not
+affected with joy or anger or fear, that the swallow does not build,
+that the bee does not remember, that the lion is not angry, that the
+hart is not timorous, but that they do all these things only as it were
+and apparently; I would fain know what answer they will make to those
+who say, that beasts neither see nor hear, but as it were see and as it
+were hear; that they neither neigh nor bleat, but as it were send forth
+a certain sound; lastly, that they do not absolutely live, but live
+as it were? For, in my opinion, to aver this is as contrary to plain
+demonstration as the rest.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> Well then, Autobulus, suppose me to be one of
+those that affirm these things. For it is great folly for men to
+compare the actions of beasts with the customs, actions, and manner
+of living men, and above all, to deny that beasts have the least
+inclination or aim at any progress towards virtue, to which we bent our
+discourse. Indeed, I doubt whether Nature gave them a beginning or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> no,
+since they are so incapable to attain the end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> Why truly, Soclarus, this is not a thing that seems
+so absurd to those men. For that while they assert the extreme love
+of parents towards their children to be the principle of society and
+justice, and find at the same time this virtue apparent and surpassing
+in brute animals, yet they will not allow them in the least to partake
+of justice; like mules, which, though they are furnished with genital
+parts, as wanting neither privities nor wombs, and mixing with delight
+and pleasure, yet cannot attain the end of generation. But then again
+I would have you consider, whether they be not ridiculous, that
+affirm Socrates or Plato to be no less vicious than the meanest of
+slaves,—nay more, that they were fools, intemperate, and unjust,—and
+then find fault with the nature of beasts, as being impure and no way
+accurately framed for the reception of virtue; as if this were proof of
+utter want of reason, and not of depravedness and imbecility of reason.
+And all the while, they acknowledge that there are vices of reason,
+of which all brute beasts are guilty; many of which we plainly find
+to be intemperate, fearful, malicious, and unjust. Therefore he that
+denies that reason exists by Nature in a creature, because it is not
+framed by Nature to attain to the perfection of reason, little differs
+from one that should deny a monkey to partake of deformity by Nature,
+or a tortoise of slowness, as being neither susceptible of beauty or
+swiftness. Nor do they observe the distinction that lies before their
+eyes. For reason is in the creature by Nature, but right and perfect
+reason is attained by industry and education; so that naturally all
+creatures may be said to be rational. But if they look for perfection
+of reason and true wisdom, they will hardly find those perfections
+in any man whatever. For as there is a difference between sight and
+sight, and between flight and flight,—for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> hawks and grasshoppers
+do not see alike, neither do eagles and partridges fly with equal
+swiftness,—so neither in all rational creatures is there to be found
+the same perfection of cunning and acuteness. For as there are many
+examples to be produced of several brute creatures, excelling in the
+observance of society, fortitude, and foresight as to their particular
+economy and making provision for themselves; so on the other side,
+there may be found among them as many of injustice, cowardice, and
+folly. Which is evident from the present contest wherein these young
+gentlemen have engaged themselves, while the one has undertaken to
+maintain that land-animals, the other that creatures bred in the
+sea, are most inclined to virtue. Which is plainly demonstrated by
+comparing river-horses with storks. For the one support and cherish
+their fathers, the others kill them that they may enjoy their dams. So
+likewise, if you compare doves with partridges. For the cock partridge
+will not suffer the hen to sit, but breaks her eggs and throws them
+out of the nest if she refuses to be trod. But the cock pigeon takes
+upon him part of the female’s duty, in brooding over the eggs and
+feeding the young ones; and if the hen happens to be too long absent,
+he corrects her with his bill, till he forces her to return to her
+nest. So that, while Antipater found fault with sheep and asses for
+their nastiness, I wonder how he came to pass by lynxes and swallows,
+of which the one are so cleanly that they always remove and hide their
+excrements, the others teach their young ones to turn their tails out
+of their nest, before they let fall their defilement. And indeed, why
+may we not say that one tree is more docible than another, as dogs are
+more docible than sheep; or one pot-herb more timorous than another,
+as harts are more fearful than lions? Or otherwise, as among things
+immovable, there is not one thing slower in motion than another; nor
+among things that are mute, one thing more vocal than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> another; so
+neither, among things to which Nature has not afforded a faculty of
+understanding, is there one thing more timorous, more slothful, or more
+intemperate than another. But as to those creatures where that faculty
+is present, the difference is manifest in the degrees of more or less.</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> However, it is a wonderful thing to observe, how
+much man differs from all other creatures in probity of manners, in
+industry, and in all those things that relate to justice and common
+society.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> Nevertheless, my dear friend, this cannot be
+denied, that there are many brute beasts that surpass men both in bulk
+and swiftness, others that far surpass him in strength of sight and
+exactness of hearing; and yet for all this we are not to say that man
+is blind, without strength, or wants ears. For Nature has not deprived
+us either of hands or eyes or strength or bulk, though we must not
+compare with camels or elephants. In like manner we must not say that
+brute beasts are altogether deprived of reason and understanding,
+because they are more dull of understanding, and not so quick at
+ratiocination as we are, as only enjoying a weak and muddy sort of
+reason, like a dim and clouded eye. And did I not presently expect
+these young gentlemen, being persons both studious and learned, to
+bring together an infinite number of examples in reference to both land
+and sea-animals, I could produce a thousand examples of docility and a
+thousand more of good nature in beasts, which the famous city of Rome
+has given us an opportunity to fetch from her imperial theatres; but we
+will leave these things fresh and untouched, for them to embellish with
+their eloquent discourse.</p>
+
+<p>In the mean time I have something to offer by the by, which is this,
+that I am of opinion that there is a mutilation, disease, and defect
+peculiar to every part and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> faculty,—as blindness of the eye, lameness
+of the leg, and stuttering of the tongue,—which defects cannot be
+appropriated to any other members. For that blindness can never be
+attributed to that which was never created to see, nor lameness to that
+which never could go, nor can any thing be said to stammer that wants
+a tongue, or to lisp or stutter that has not a vocal utterance. And
+nothing can be said to be a changeling or beside his wits or mad, to
+which Nature never gave the use of thought, reason, and understanding;
+for it is impossible to be so without some faculty that can suffer
+either privation or mutilation or some other defect. But you have seen
+dogs that were mad, and I have seen horses under the same predicament;
+and some there are who say that bulls and foxes will be mad. But the
+example of dogs is sufficient, which is unquestionable. This makes it
+evident, that those creatures have a sort of reason and understanding
+not to be despised, which being once confused and troubled, the
+affection arises which is called madness. For we do not find either
+their sight or their hearing diminished. Now, as when a man is affected
+with hypochondriac melancholy, or in a delirium, it would be absurd
+to say that he was not beside himself, or that his sense, reason, and
+memory were not disturbed,—for custom tells that they who are in a
+raving condition are not in their right senses, but are fallen from
+their reason,—so whoever believes that there is any other cause why
+dogs run mad, but only that their natural senses, reason, and memories
+are disturbed, while they cease to know faces the most familiar to them
+before, and abandon their most usual food, and overlook what is just
+before their eyes, such a man, I say, seems to me either to overlook
+what is just before his eyes, or else, seeing the conclusions that
+follow, to fight against the truth itself.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> You seem to me to be very much in the right, for
+the Stoics and Peripatetics are led to affirm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> the contrary upon this
+supposition, that justice could have no certain original, but would
+be altogether incomprehensible and inexistent if all brute creatures
+should partake of reason. For either of necessity we must do a very
+great piece of injustice when we devour and feed upon them; or if we
+forbear the use of them, it will be impossible for us to live, or
+rather we shall in some measure live the lives of beasts, rejecting the
+use of brute creatures. I pass by those innumerable myriads of nomades
+and Troglodytes that know no other food but flesh. But as for us that
+seem to live lovingly and in friendship together, what necessity would
+there be of laboring on the earth, toiling upon the sea, or mining in
+the mountains, what ornament would there be in our life, if it were so
+that we must be bound to live, as it would then become us, not only
+without injury but rather with all civility and humanity toward all
+the sorts of beasts, as being our fellow rational creatures? We have
+no cure, no remedy for an unquestionable necessity that deprives us
+either of life or justice, unless we observe that ancient bound and
+dispensation which, according to Hesiod, distinguishing natures and
+separating every kind by themselves, commands</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The fish, wild beasts, and all the winged fowl,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">To prey upon their kinds without control,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">For among them no law nor justice reigns;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Only by justice man from man abstains.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And therefore, as brutes can extend no act of justice to us, so neither
+can we commit any act of injustice against them. Which argument they
+who reject have left us no benefit of life, nor any the smallest
+entrance for justice into the world.</p>
+
+<p>7. <span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> These things, dear friend, you utter as the
+opinion of those people. But we are not to allow philosophers a remedy
+to procure easy delivery, as they do <span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>to women that are subject to hard
+labors, merely that they may bring us forth justice without any pain
+or trouble. For the same persons, even in the greatest matters, will
+not allow to Epicurus so small and pitiful a thing as the slightest
+inclination of one only atom, for to make way for the stars and
+living creatures and Fortune to come into the world, and that thereby
+our free will might be saved. For we ought either to prove what is
+doubtful or to assume what of itself is manifest; so we ought not to
+take for granted this doctrine touching beasts as regards justice,
+unless it is either confessed or otherwise proved by demonstration. For
+justice has another way to establish itself, neither so steep nor so
+slippery, nor leading to the subversion of evident truths; but which,
+according to Plato’s instruction, my son and thy friend, Soclarus,
+has showed to such as are not captiously contentious but willing to
+learn. For certain it is, that both Empedocles and Heraclitus held it
+for a truth, that man could not be altogether cleared from injustice
+in dealing with beasts as he now does; often bewailing and exclaiming
+against Nature, as if she were nothing else but necessity and war,
+having neither any thing unmixed nor any thing truly pure, but still
+arriving at her end by many, and those unjust and unlawful passions.
+Whence they affirm that generation itself originally proceeded from
+injustice by the conjunction of immortal with mortal, and that the
+thing engendered is still contrary to Nature delighted with the parts
+of that which engenders, dismembered from the whole. But this seems to
+be too luxuriant and severe an accusation of Nature. For there is yet a
+more moderate excuse, which does not altogether deprive the beasts of
+reason, yet justifies the necessary and convenient use of them; which
+when the ancients introduced, they detested and utterly discountenanced
+voracious and voluptuous gluttony. Pythagoras also resumed the
+argument, teaching how we might reap<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> the benefit of the creatures
+without doing injustice. For they do no injustice, that chastise and
+kill such savage beasts that are both hurtful to man and never will be
+tame. But taming such as are gentle and loving to men, they thereby
+make them assistant in the several uses to which they were ordained,—</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The horse and ass, that backs to load resign,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And race of bulls,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>which, as Prometheus in Aeschylus<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> observes,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Kind Heaven vouchsafed to men by toil distrest,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With servile limbs his labors to assist.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus we make use of dogs to guard our goats and sheep, while they are
+milked and shorn. For life does not presently forsake a man unless he
+have his platters of fish or livers of geese, or unless he may kill
+whole oxen or kids to supply his banquets, or unless—that he may
+disport himself in the theatre or take his pleasure in hunting—he may
+compel some beasts to be daring and to fight against their wills, and
+kill others whom Nature has not armed to defend themselves. For, in my
+opinion, he that is for sport and pastime ought to seek out for such
+as will sport and be merry with him. And as it was the saying of Bion,
+that, though boys throw stones at frogs in sport, yet the frogs do not
+die in sport but in earnest; so in hunting and fishing, the fault is
+in the men delighting in the torments and cruel deaths of beasts, and
+tearing them without compassion from their whelps and their young ones.
+For it is not in the making use of beasts that men do them wrong, but
+in the wastefully and cruelly destroying them.</p>
+
+<p>8. <span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> Contain yourself, my dearest Autobulus, and
+forbear these accusations; for here are several gentlemen coming, all
+great huntsmen, whom it will be very difficult to bring over to your
+opinion; neither is it convenient <span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>to offend them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> You give me good advice. However, I
+know Eubiotus very well, and my kinsman Ariston; nor am I less
+acquainted with Aeacides and Aristotimus, the sons of Dionysius the
+Delphian, as also with Nicander the son of Euthydamus, all expert in
+the chase by land, as Homer expresses it; and therefore likely to
+take part with Aristotimus. On the other side, yonder comes Phaedimus
+too, bringing along with him the islanders and neighbors to the sea,
+Heracleon of Megara, and Philostratus of Euboea,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Whose whole delight is all the day</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The toilsome pastime of the sea.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But as for Optatus, our equal in years (like Tydides),—</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Which of the sides to range him well,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">So versed in both, we cannot tell.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For he is one that offers as well the first-fruits of his fishery to
+Dictynna, as of his forest spoils to Diana; so that it is apparent
+he comes among us as one that intends not to be partial to one side
+more than the other; or else our conjecture is amiss, dear Optatus,
+that your design is only to be an impartial umpire between these young
+gentlemen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Optatus.</span> You conjecture very truly, Autobulus. For the ancient
+law of Solon is out of date, that punished those who stood neuters and
+refused to adhere to either side.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Autobulus.</span> Seat yourself then here by us, that if there should
+be any occasion for a testimony, we may not be troubled to run to
+Aristotle’s writings, but acquiescing in your experience, may give our
+suffrages according to what you aver for truth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Optatus.</span> Go to then, young gentlemen: are ye agreed upon the
+method and order of the dispute?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phaedimus.</span> Truly, worthy Soclarus, that very thing
+occasioned a great debate among us; but at length, according to that of
+Euripides,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The child of Fortune, Chance, the point agreed,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And fixed the method how we should proceed,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>by giving the precedence to the land animals to plead their cause
+before marine creatures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> Then, Aristotimus, it is high time for you to speak
+and for us to hear.</p>
+
+<p>9. <span class="smcap">Aristotimus.</span> The court is open to all concerned in the
+controversy.... Others there are that kill their young ones by leaping
+the females at the very instant of their bringing forth. There are a
+sort of mullets, called pardiae, that feed upon their own slime. But
+the polypus sits all the winter feeding upon itself,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">In fireless house, and domicils forlorn;<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>so slothful, or so stupid, or so given to his gut he is, or else so
+abandoned to all those vices together. And therefore Plato again and
+again forbids, or rather makes it his wish, in his laws, that young
+men might not be permitted to addict themselves to marine fishery,
+wherein there is no exercise of strength, no cogitation of wisdom,
+nor any thing that contributes to fortitude, swiftness, or agility,
+in combating against pikes, congers, or scates; whereas, in the chase
+of wild beasts, the fiercer sort accustom the huntsman to contempt
+of danger, the more subtle sort exercise and sharpen his wit and
+cunning, the swifter sort exercise his strength, and render him more
+apt to endure labor. These are the advantages that accrue to a man by
+hunting; but in fishing, there is nothing worth his while. For never
+any of the Gods got honor by the surname of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>a conger-killer; as Apollo
+was surnamed the wolf-slayer; never any of the Deities gloried in
+being a darter of mullets, as Diana is honored with the addition of
+hart-darting.</p>
+
+<p>And what wonder is it, when it is accounted more noble for a man to
+kill than to buy a wild boar, a hart, a goat, or a hare, but more
+honorable to buy a tunny, a lobster, or an amy, than to kill one?
+And therefore, because there is nothing in fishing that is noble, no
+using of gins and slight of cunning, it is accounted a sorry, pitiful
+exercise, not worth a man’s labor.</p>
+
+<p>10. In general then, since the usual arguments by which
+philosophers demonstrate that beasts partake of reason are these
+following,—purpose, contrivance, memory, passions, care of their
+young ones, gratefulness to those from whom they receive kindnesses,
+and the remembrance of shrewd turns, to which we may add the search
+after and choice of what is needful and beneficial for them, together
+with apparent shows of virtue, as of fortitude, society, continence,
+and magnanimity,—if we consider the marine creatures, we shall not
+find that our strictest observation can perceive in them any of these
+excellences, or at best they are such obscure and imperfect glimmerings
+as are scarce discernible. But in terrestrial and land animals, there
+is not any man but may behold the most luculent, the most evident and
+uncontrollable demonstrations in the world of all that has been said.
+In the first place, observe the designs and preparations of bulls
+provoked to combat, and of wild boars whetting their teeth. Again,
+elephants—since, by digging up or tearing down the trees which they
+intend to feed upon, they blunt and wear out their tushes—make use
+of only one for those purposes, but reserve the other strong and
+sharp for their own defence. The lion also always walks with his feet
+inverted, hiding his claws withinside his paw, to prevent the hunter
+from tracing him easily by his footing. For the track of a lion’s claw<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span>
+is not easily to be found, so that the hunters are frequently at a
+loss, and wander after the obscure and scarce discernible footsteps of
+those beasts. You have heard also, I suppose, of the ichneumon, how
+that he arms himself as completely as a soldier with his breastplate
+and cuirass prepared for battle; in such a manner does that creature
+surround and wrap himself about with a coat of mail, when he attacks
+the crocodile.</p>
+
+<p>Admirable are the preparations of swallows before they go to lay
+their eggs, how they place the more solid stubble for foundations,
+and upon that build up the slighter straws; and if they perceive that
+the nest wants mud to serve as glue, you may observe how they fly to
+the next lake or sea, and after they have skimmed the superficies of
+the water with their wings,—so as to make them moist, yet not heavy
+with wet,—they lick up the dust, and so daub and bind together the
+loose and ill-cohering parts of the nest. As for the form of their
+architecture, it is composed neither of angles nor of many sides, but
+smooth and, as much as may be, spherical; for that such a figure is
+lasting and capacious, and not easily affording entrance to creatures
+that lie in wait for their destruction from without.</p>
+
+<p>Who is there that does not admire, for more reasons than one, the labor
+of the spiders, which seems as pattern for the threads that women spin
+and the nets that are used in hunting? For the extraordinary fineness
+of the spinning, and the evenness of the thread, not discontinued or
+snapped off like the yarn upon a quill, but having the smooth and
+subtle texture of a thin membrane, and knit and spun together with a
+certain clammy moisture imperceptibly mixed; besides the tincture of
+it, causing a kind of airy and misty color, the better to deceive; but
+above all, the conduct and governing of this little engine, in which
+when any thing happens to be entangled, you see<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> how presently, like
+an expert huntsman, the subtle artist contracts her net and binds her
+prey within it;—all this being every day obvious to our sight and
+contemplation gives credit to my discourse, which otherwise might be
+accounted no less fabulous than what is reported of certain Libyan
+crows, that, when they are a-thirsty, throw stones into the water, by
+that means to raise it to such a height that they may be able to reach
+it with their bills. Then again, when I saw a ship dog, in the absence
+of the seamen, putting in stones in a half-empty jar of oil, it was to
+me a wonder how that dog should understand that the pressure of the
+heavier weight would make the lighter rise.</p>
+
+<p>And the same artifices are reported of Cretan bees and Cilician geese.
+For the first of these, being to take their flight about some windy
+promontory, ballast themselves with little stones, to prevent their
+being carried away by the stronger blasts. And as for the geese, they
+being afraid of the eagles, every time they cross the mountain Taurus,
+carry great stones in their mouths, to the end that by that means (as
+it were) bridling their gaggling tongues, they may cross the mountain
+in silence, without alarming their enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Extraordinary also is the caution which the cranes observe in their
+flight. For they fly, when the wind is very high and the air very
+tempestuous, not as in fair weather, all afront or in manner of the
+half-moon; but forming a triangular body, with the sharp angle of that
+figure they penetrate the wind that ruffles round about them, and by
+that means preserve their order unbroken. On the other side, when they
+fall upon the ground, those that are upon the night-watch stand with
+the whole weight of their bodies upon one leg, holding a stone in the
+claw of the other foot. For the holding of the stone keeps them awake
+for a long time together, and wakes them again with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> noise of the
+fall if they happen to drop asleep. So that it was no wonder that
+Hercules laid his quiver under his arm-pit, and with his strenuous arm
+embracing his bow,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Slept all the night, where’er he laid his load,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With his right-handed weight upon the wood.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nor do I so much admire at him who was the first that hit upon the way
+to open an oyster, when I meet with and consider the artifices of the
+herons. For a heron, when he has swallowed a closed oyster, endures
+the trouble and vexation of it for so long time, till he perceives it
+soften and relaxed by the heat of his stomach; then casting it up again
+gaping and divided, he takes out that which is fit for food.</p>
+
+<p>11. But as it is a task of great labor accurately to relate the
+economy and contrivances of the emmets, so it would argue too much of
+negligence to pass them over in silence. For there is not in Nature a
+smaller creature; and yet it is a most absolute mirror of the greatest
+and most noble performances, and (as it were) in a transparent drop
+the appearance of all virtue. There is friendship to be discerned in
+their mutual society. There is the image of fortitude in the patient
+undergoing of labor. In them are to be seen many seeds of continence,
+many of wisdom and justice. Insomuch that Cleanthes, who denied that
+beasts were endued with reason, could not forbear reporting how he met
+with the following accident of a crowd of emmets, that came to another
+ant-hill, bringing along with them a dead emmet. Presently other emmets
+ascending out of their ant-hill seemed (as it were) to meet them, and
+then disappeared again; and this was done twice or thrice. Till at
+length the one side brought up from under ground a worm, as the price
+of the dead emmet’s redemption, which the other party of pismires
+receiving, delivered the dead emmet, and so departed. But that which
+is apparent to all is their equity to each other when they meet one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
+another, while they that carry nothing always give way to those that
+are burdened; nor are their divisions and partitions of things too
+weighty for single carriage less remarkable, to the end the burdens may
+be divided among many. But when they bring forth their little eggs and
+expose them to the cold, Aratus makes it a sign of rainy weather.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When from her hollow cells th’ industrious ant</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Her hidden store of eggs brings forth</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For in that sense many read <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἤια</span></span> (<i>provision</i>) for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὤεα</span>
+(<i>eggs</i>), referring it to the providence of those little
+creatures, who, when they find their provision in their magazines to
+begin to taint and grow rotten, bring it forth and expose it to the
+open air, to prevent the progress of the putrefaction. But that which
+above all things demonstrates the surpassing excellency of their
+understanding is their pre-apprehension of the germinating of wheat.
+For the wheat does not remain dry and void of putrefaction, but grows
+moist and turns into a kind of milky substance, when it changes from
+seed to become an herb. For fear therefore that preserving the quality
+it should become useless for food, they eat out the very principal part
+of the grain, from whence the wheat sends forth its blossom. I must
+confess, I do not approve of those who dig up ant-hills on purpose to
+improve their learning (as it were) by anatomy. However, they tell us
+by virtue of that cruel information, that the passage or descent from
+the top of the hill to the nest is not directly straight nor easily
+penetrated by any other creature, but intercepted with several turnings
+and windings, leading through several underminings and perforations
+into three cavities; of which the one is the common place of feeding
+and converse for the whole community, the next is the general magazine
+of their provision, and the third is the apartment where they dispose
+of their dead.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span></p>
+
+<p>12. I am afraid you may deem me too impertinent in joining elephants
+with pismires, and yet I cannot but think it seasonable to show the
+nature and force of understanding, as well in the smallest as in the
+greatest bodies, neither obscured in the one nor deficient in the other.</p>
+
+<p>Some there are that admire in an elephant his aptness to learn and to
+be taught, and the many various postures and alterations of movement
+which he shows upon the theatres, not easily to be equalled by human
+assiduity, as subtle and abounding in memory and retention as man is.
+But for my part, I rather choose to prove his evident understanding
+from the passions and inclinations of the creature, that were never
+taught him, but only infused by Nature, as being altogether unmixed and
+pure without the help of art.</p>
+
+<p>At Rome, not very long ago, there were many elephants that were taught
+many dangerous postures, many windings and turnings and circular
+screwings of their bulky bodies, hard to be expressed; among which
+there was one, which, being duller than the rest, and therefore often
+rated and chastised for his stupidity, was seen in the night-time, by
+moonlight, without being forced to it, to practise over his lessons
+with all the industry imaginable.</p>
+
+<p>Agno tells a story of an elephant in Syria, that was bred up in a
+certain house, who observed that his keeper took away and defrauded him
+every day of half the measure of his barley; only that once, the master
+being present and looking on, the keeper poured out the whole measure;
+which was no sooner done, but the elephant, extending his proboscis,
+separated the barley and divided it into two equal parts, thereby
+ingeniously discovering, as much as in him lay, the injustice of his
+keeper.</p>
+
+<p>Another in revenge that his keeper mixed stones and dirt with his
+barley, as the keeper’s meat was boiling upon the fire, took up the
+ashes and flung them into the pot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p>
+
+<p>Another being provoked by the boys in Rome, that pricked his proboscis
+with the sharp ends of their writing steels, caught one of them in his
+proboscis, and mounted him up into the air, as if he intended to have
+squashed out his guts; but upon the loud outcries of the spectators,
+set him gently down again upon his feet, and so went on, believing he
+had sufficiently punished the boy in scaring him. Many other things are
+reported of the wild elephants that feed without control, but nothing
+more to be admired than their passing of great rivers. For first of
+all the youngest and the least flounces into the stream; whom the rest
+beholding from the shore, if they see that the less bulky leader keeps
+steady footing with his back above water, they are then assured and
+confident that they may boldly adventure without any danger.</p>
+
+<p>13. Having thus far proceeded in our discourse, I cannot think it well
+done to pass by the cunning of the fox, by reason of the similitude
+it has with the former. The mythologists tell us that the dove which
+Deucalion sent out of his ark, returning back again, was to him a
+certain sign of the storm not ceased; but of serene and fair weather,
+when she flew quite away. But the Thracians to this day, when they
+design to pass a river that is frozen over, make use of a fox to try
+whether the ice will bear or no. For the fox, treading gently, lays
+his ear to the ice, and if he perceive by the noise of the water that
+the stream runs very close underneath, conjecturing from thence that
+the congelation is not deep but thin, and no way steadfastly solid,
+he makes a stop, and if he be suffered, returns back again; but if he
+perceive no noise, he goes on boldly. Nor can we say that this is only
+an exquisiteness of sense without reason; but it is a syllogistical
+deduction from sense, concluding that whatever makes a noise is moved;
+whatever is moved, cannot be frozen; what is not frozen, is moist; what
+is moist, gives way. The logicians say<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> that a dog, making use of the
+argument drawn from many disjunctive propositions, thus reasons with
+himself, in places where several highways meet: Either the wild beast
+is gone this way, or that, or that way; but not that way, nor that way,
+therefore this way: the force of sense affording nothing but the minor
+premise, but the force of reason affording the major proposition, and
+inferring the conclusion of the assumption. But a dog stands in no need
+of any such testimonial; in regard it is both false and adulterate.
+For sense itself shows which way the beast is fled, by his tracks and
+footsteps, bidding farewell to disjunctive and copulative propositions.
+The nature of dogs is palpably to be discerned by many other actions,
+affections, and dutiful service, neither the effects of hearing or
+seeing, but practicable only by reason and understanding. It would
+be ridiculous for me to discourse of the continence, obedience, and
+industry of dogs in hunting, to you that are so well confirmed in the
+knowledge of those things by daily experience and practice.</p>
+
+<p>There was a Roman named Calvus, slain in the civil wars, whose head
+nobody durst cut off before they killed the dog that guarded his body
+and fought in defence of his master. It happened that King Pyrrhus,
+travelling one day, lit upon a dog watching over the carcass of a
+person slain; and hearing that the dog had been there three days
+without meat or drink, yet would not forsake his dead master, ordered
+that the man should be buried, but that the dog should be preserved and
+brought to him. A few days after, there was a muster of the soldiers,
+so that they were forced to march all in order by the king, with
+the dog quietly lying by him for a good while. But when he saw the
+murderers of his master pass by him, he flew upon them with a more than
+ordinary fury, barking and baying and tearing his throat, and ever and
+anon turning about to the king; which did not only rouse the king’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
+suspicion, but the jealousy of all that stood about him. Upon which the
+men were presently apprehended; and though the circumstances were very
+slight which otherwise appeared against them, yet they confessed the
+fact and were executed.</p>
+
+<p>The same thing is reported to have been done by a dog that belonged to
+Hesiod, surnamed the wise, which discovered the sons of Ganyctor the
+Naupactian, by whom Hesiod was murdered. But that which came to the
+knowledge of our parents, when they were students at Athens, is yet
+more evident than any thing we have said. For a certain person getting
+into the temple of Aesculapius, after he had stolen all the massy
+offerings of gold and silver, made his escape, not believing he was
+discovered. But the dog which belonged to the temple, who was called
+Capparus, when he found that none of the sacristans took any notice
+of his barking, pursued himself the sacrilegious thief; and though at
+first the fellow pelted him with stones, he could not beat him off.
+So soon as it was day, the dog still followed him, though at such a
+distance that he always kept him in his eyes. When the fellow threw
+him meat he refused it; when the thief went to bed, the dog watched at
+his door; and when he rose in the morning, the dog still followed him,
+fawning upon the passengers on the road, but still barking and baying
+at the heels of the thief. These things when they who were in pursuit
+of the sacrilegious person heard, and were told withal by those they
+met the color and bigness of the dog, they were the more vigorous in
+the pursuit; and by that means overtaking the thief, brought him back
+from Crommyon, while the dog ran before, leaping and capering and
+full of joy, as it were challenging to himself the praise and reward
+of apprehending the temple-robber. And indeed the Athenians were so
+grateful to him, that they decreed him such <span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>a quantity of meat to
+be publicly measured to him, and ordered the priests to take care to
+see it done; in imitation of the kindness of the ancient Athenians in
+rewarding the mule.</p>
+
+<p>For when Pericles built the temple Hecatompedon (or Parthenon) in the
+tower of Athens, it so fell out that the stones were to be fetched
+every day many furlongs off, and a world of carriages were made use
+of for that purpose. Among the rest of the mules that labored hard in
+this employment, there was one that, though dismissed by reason of
+age, would still go down to the Ceramicus, and meeting the carts that
+brought the stones, would be always in their company running by their
+sides, as it were by the way of encouragement and to excite them to
+work cheerfully. So that the people, admiring the zeal of the mule,
+ordered him to be fed at the public charge, as they were wont to decree
+public alms to the superannuated wrestlers.</p>
+
+<p>14. And therefore they who deny that there is any thing of justice
+due from us towards dumb animals may be said to speak true, so far
+as concerns them that live in the sea and haunt the abysses of the
+deep. For those kind of creatures are altogether unsociable, without
+affection for their young ones, void of all softness of disposition;
+and therefore it was well said of Homer, speaking to a person whom he
+looked upon as a mere savage,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">But as for thee, so little worth,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The gleaming sea did bring thee forth;<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>in regard the sea brings forth nothing friendly, nothing mansuete or
+gentle. But he that uses the same discourse and arguments against
+land animals is himself a brute and savage creature; unless any man
+will affirm that there was nothing of justice due from Lysimachus to
+the Hyrcanian dog, that would not stir from the body of his deceased
+master, and when he saw his master’s carcass burning, ran and threw
+himself into the flames. The same is reported <span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span>to have been done by the
+dog Astus, that was kept by one Pyrrhus, not the king, but a private
+person of that name. For upon the death of his master, he would not
+stir from the body, but when it was carried forth, leaped upon the
+bier, and at length threw himself into the funeral pile, and was burnt
+alive with his master’s body.</p>
+
+<p>The elephant also which carried King Porus, when the king was wounded
+in the battle against Alexander, pulled out several darts out of his
+wounds with his proboscis, with no less tenderness and care than the
+chirurgeon could have done; and though the elephant himself was but in
+a very bad condition, yet would he not give over till he perceived the
+king was ready to reel and sink down by reason of the blood which he
+had lost; and then fearing lest the king should fall, he stooped down
+gently, to ease the king in sliding to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the humor of Bucephalus, who, before he was accoutred, would
+suffer his groom to back him, but when he had all his royal trappings
+and housings about him, would permit nobody but Alexander to bestride
+him. But if any other persons approached him in curiosity to try what
+they could do, he encountered them open-mouthed, and neighing out his
+fury, leaped upon their shoulders, bore them down, and trampled them
+under his feet, unless prevented by keeping at a distance or by speedy
+flight.</p>
+
+<p>15. Nor am I ignorant but that there is something of variety in every
+one of these examples, which you must acknowledge. And indeed it is not
+easy to find out the natural dexterity of any one ingenious and docible
+animal, which is not accompanied with more than one single virtue.
+Thus, where there is affection toward their young ones, there is desire
+of praise. Where there is generosity, there is also moderation of
+anger. Cunning likewise and understanding are rarely parted from daring
+boldness and fortitude. But as for those that rather choose to divide
+and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> distinguish every one of these virtues particularly by themselves,
+they shall find in dogs a fair demonstration of a gentle and yet lofty
+mind at the same time, in turning away from such as sit quietly upon
+the ground; according to that of Homer,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">With hideous noise the dogs upon him flew;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But sly Ulysses, who the danger knew,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Sate husht and still, and from his royal hand</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">His sceptre dropt, as useless in command.<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For dogs never bite or worry those that prostrate themselves at their
+mercy and put on a face of humility. Thus they say the bravest of those
+Indian dogs that fought against Alexander never stirred or so much
+as looked about them upon the letting loose of a hart, a boar, and a
+bear; but when they saw a lion, then they began to rouse, to shake,
+and prepare themselves for the combat. By which it was plain that
+they thought only the lion an antagonist worthy of their courage, but
+despised all the rest as below their anger.</p>
+
+<p>Your hounds that usually hunt hares, if they kill the hares themselves,
+take great delight in tearing them to pieces and lapping up the blood.
+But if the hare despairing of her life, as many times it happens, runs
+herself to death, the hounds finding her dead will never touch her, but
+stand wagging their tails, as if they did hunt not so much for the love
+of the food as for victory and triumph’s sake.</p>
+
+<p>16. There are many examples of cunning and subtlety abounding in
+land creatures; but to omit slights and artifices of foxes, cranes,
+and jackdaws, of which I shall say nothing, because they are things
+already so well known, I shall make use of the testimony of Thales, the
+ancientest of our philosophers, who is reported to have chiefly admired
+the most excellent in any art or cunning.</p>
+
+<p>A certain mule that was wont to carry salt, in fording a <span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>river, by
+accident happened to stumble, by which means the water melting away the
+salt, when the mule rose again he felt himself much lighter; the cause
+of which the mule was very sensible of, and laid it up in his memory,
+insomuch that every time he forded the same river, he would always
+stoop when he came into the deepest part, and fill his vessels with
+water, crouching down, and leaning sometimes to one side, sometimes to
+the other. Thales hearing this, ordered the vessels to be well filled
+with wool and sponges, and to drive the mule laden after that manner.
+But then the mule, as he was wont, filling his burthens with water,
+reasoned with himself that he had ill consulted his own benefit, and
+ever afterwards, when he forded the same river, was so careful and
+cautious, that he would never suffer his burthens so much as to touch
+the water by accident.</p>
+
+<p>Another piece of cunning, joined with an extraordinary affection to
+their young ones, is to be observed in partridges, which instruct
+their young ones, ere they are able to fly, when they are pursued by
+the fowlers, to lay themselves upon their backs, their breasts covered
+with some clod of earth or little heap of dirt, under which they may
+lie concealed. On the other side, the old partridges do deceive the
+fowlers, and draw them quite a contrary way, make short flights from
+one place to another, thereby enticing the fowlers to follow them; till
+thus allured from their young ones, the fowlers give over all hopes of
+being masters of their game.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, hares returning to their forms dispose their leverets
+one to one place, another to another, at the distance many times of
+an acre of ground; so that, upon the tracing either of men or hounds,
+they are sure not to be all in danger at one time,—themselves in the
+mean time not easy to be tracked, by reason of the various windings and
+turnings which they make, until at length, by giving a large leap, they
+discontinue the print<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> of their feet, and so betake themselves to their
+rest.</p>
+
+<p>A bear, when she perceives her winter sleep coming upon her, before
+she grows stiff and unwieldy, cleanses the place where she intends
+to conceal herself, and in her passage thither lifts up her paws as
+high as she can, and treads upon the ground with the top of her toes,
+and at length turning herself upon her back, throws herself into her
+receptacle.</p>
+
+<p>Your hinds generally calve at a distance from all places frequented by
+flesh-devouring beasts; and stags, when they find themselves unwieldy
+through surplusage of flesh and fat, get out of the way and hide
+themselves, hoping to secure themselves by lurking, when they dare not
+trust to their heels.</p>
+
+<p>The means by which the land hedge-hogs defend and guard themselves
+occasioned the proverb,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Many sly tricks the subtle Reynard knows,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But one the hedge-hog greater than all those</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the hedge-hog, as Ion the poet says,<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> when he spies the fox
+coming,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Round as a pine-nut, or more sphere-like ball,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Lies with his body palisaded all</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With pointed thorns, which all the fox’s slight</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Can find no way to touch, much less to bite.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But the provision which the hedge-hogs make for their young ones is
+much more ingenious. For when autumn comes, they creep under vines, and
+shake off the grapes with their feet; which done they roll themselves
+up and down, and take them up with their prickles, so that when they
+creep away again, you would think it a walking cluster (and this we
+have looked on and seen them do); after which returning to their holes,
+they lay themselves down for their young ones to feed. Their holes have
+two openings, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>one to the south, the other to the north. So that when
+they perceive the alteration of the air, like pilots shifting their
+sails, they stop up that which lies to the wind and open the other.
+Which a certain person that lived at Cyzicus observing, took upon him
+from thence at any time to tell in what corner the wind would sit.</p>
+
+<p>17. As for love and observance of society joined with understanding
+and prudence, Juba produces many examples of it in elephants. For it
+is the usual practice of the elephant-hunters to dig large pits in the
+elephants’ walks, and cover them slightly over with dry twigs or other
+materials; into which if any elephant happens to fall, the rest fetch
+wood and stones to fill up the cavity of the pit, that the other may
+the more easily get out again. And some report of the elephants, that
+they make prayers to the Gods by natural instinct, that they perform
+divine ceremonies to the sea, and worship the rising sun, lifting up
+the proboscis to heaven instead of hands. For which reason they are
+creatures the most beloved of any by the Gods, as Ptolemy Philopator
+testified. For having vanquished Antiochus, and being desirous to pay
+a more than ordinary honor to the Deity, among many other oblations
+of thanksgivings for his victory, he sacrificed four elephants. After
+which being terrified with a dream, which threatened him with the wrath
+of the Deity for that prodigious sacrifice, he sought out several ways
+to expiate his offence, and among the rest by way of propitiation, he
+erected four elephants of brass to atone for the four elephants he had
+slaughtered.</p>
+
+<p>Examples not inferior of the observance of society are to be found
+among lions. For the younger carry forth the slow and aged, when they
+hunt abroad for their prey. When the old ones are weary and tired, they
+rest and stay for the younger that hunt on; who, when they have seized
+upon any thing, call to the old ones, making a noise like the bleating
+of a calf. They presently hear, and so meeting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> all together, they feed
+in common upon the prey.</p>
+
+<p>18. In the amours of many animals there is much variety. Some are
+furious and mad; others observe a kind of human decency, and tricking
+of themselves to set off their beauty, not without a courtly kind
+of conversation. Such was the amour of the elephant at Alexandria,
+that rivalled Aristophanes the grammarian. For they were both in love
+with a girl that sold garlands; nor was the elephant’s courtship
+less conspicuous than the other’s. For as he passed through the
+fruit-market, he always brought her apples, and stayed with her for
+some time, and thrusting his proboscis within her waistcoat, instead of
+a hand, took great delight in gently feeling her breasts.</p>
+
+<p>No less remarkable was the serpent in love with the Aetolian woman.
+He came to her in the night, and getting under her garments to her
+very skin, embraced her naked body; and never either willingly or
+unwillingly did he do her any harm, but always about break of day
+departed; which the kindred of the woman observing to be the common
+custom of the animal, removed her a great way off. After that, the
+serpent came not again for three or four days together, being all the
+while, as it seemed, wandering about in search of her. But at length,
+having with much ado found her out, he did not approach her with that
+mildness as he was wont to do, but after a rougher manner; with his
+folds having first bound her hands to her body, with the end of his
+tail he lashed the calves of her legs; expressing thereby a gentle and
+loving anger, which had more in it of indulgent expostulation than
+punishment.</p>
+
+<p>I say nothing of a goose in Egypt in love with a boy, nor of the ram
+in love with Glauce who played on the harp; for the stories are in all
+people’s mouths. And besides, I am apt to think you are satiated with
+examples of this nature.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></p>
+
+<p>19. But as for starlings, magpies, and parrots, that learn to talk,
+and afford their teachers such a spirit of voice, so well tempered and
+so adapted for imitation, they seem to me to be patrons and advocates
+in behalf of other creatures, by their talent of learning what they
+are taught; and in some measure to teach us that those creatures also,
+as well as we, partake of vocal expression and articulate sound. From
+whence I conclude it a most ridiculous thing in them that would compare
+these creatures with a sort of mute animals, I mean the fish, that
+have not voice enough to howl or make a mournful noise. Whereas, in
+the natural and untaught notes of these creatures, what music, what a
+charming grace do we observe! To which the famous poets and choicest
+singers among men bear testimony, while they compare their sweetest
+odes and poems to the singing of swans and melody of nightingales. Now
+in regard there is more of reason in teaching than in learning, we
+are to believe Aristotle,<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> who assures us that terrestrial animals
+do that likewise, in regard that nightingales have been observed
+instructing their young ones to sing. Of which this may be a sufficient
+proof, that such nightingales are known to sing worse that are taken
+very young from the nest and deprived of the education of the old one.
+For they both learn and are taught from the old one, not for hire
+or to get reputation, but merely out of a delight in mixing their
+notes together, and because they have a greater love for that which
+is excellent and curious in the voice than for what is profitable.
+Concerning which I have a story to tell you, which I heard from several
+Greeks and Romans, who were eye-witnesses of the thing.</p>
+
+<p>A certain barber in Rome, who had a shop right against the temple which
+is called the Greeks’ Market, bred in his house a kind of a prodigy of
+a magpie, whose tongue <span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>would be always going with the greatest variety
+imaginable, sometimes imitating human speech, sometimes chattering her
+wild notes, and sometimes humoring the sounds of wind instruments;
+neither was this by any constraint, but as she accustomed herself, with
+a more than ordinary ambition, to leave nothing unspoken, nothing that
+her imitation should not master.</p>
+
+<p>It happened a certain person of the wealthier sort, newly dead in the
+neighborhood, was carried forth to be buried with a great number of
+trumpets before him. Now in regard it was the custom of the bearers
+to rest themselves before the barber’s shop, the trumpeters being
+excellent in their art, and withal commanded so to do, made a long
+stop, sounding all the while.</p>
+
+<p>After that day the magpie was altogether mute, not so much as uttering
+her usual notes by which she called for what she wanted, insomuch that
+they who before admired as they passed to and fro at the chattering and
+prating of the bird now much more wondered at her sudden silence; and
+many suspected her to have been poisoned by some that affected peculiar
+skill in teaching this kind of birds. But the greatest number were of
+opinion, that the noise of the trumpets had stupefied her hearing,
+and that by the loss of her hearing the use of her voice was likewise
+extinguished. But her unusual silence proceeded from neither of these
+causes, but from her retiring to privacy, by herself to exercise the
+imitation of what she had heard, and to fit and prepare her voice as
+the instrument to express what she had learned. For soon after she came
+of a sudden to sight again, but had quitted all her former customary
+imitations, and sounded only the music of the trumpets, observing all
+the changes and cadences of the harmony, with such exactness of time as
+was not to be imagined; an argument, as I have said before, that the
+aptness in those creatures to learn of themselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> is more rational
+than readiness to be taught by others. Nor do I think it proper to pass
+by in silence one wonderful example of the docility of a dog, of which
+I myself was a spectator at Rome. This dog belonged to a certain mimic,
+who at that time had the management of a farce wherein there was great
+variety of parts, which he undertook to instruct the actors to perform,
+with several imitations proper for the matters and passions therein
+represented. Among the rest there was one who was to drink a sleepy
+potion, and after he had drunk it, to fall into a deadly drowsiness and
+counterfeit the actions of a dying person. The dog, who had studied
+several of the other gestures and postures, more diligently observing
+this, took a piece of bread that was sopped in the potion, and after
+he had ate it, in a short time counterfeited a trembling, then a
+staggering, and afterwards a drowsiness in his head. Then stretching
+out himself, he lay as if he had been dead, and seemed to proffer
+himself to be dragged out of the place and carried to burial, as the
+plot of the play required. Afterwards understanding the time from what
+was said and acted, in the first place he began gently to stir, as
+it were waking out of a profound sleep, and lifting up his head, he
+gazed about him. Afterwards to the amazement of the beholders, he rose
+up, and went to his master to whom he belonged, with all the signs
+of gladness and fawning kindness, insomuch that all the spectators,
+and even Caesar himself (for old Vespasian was present in Marcellus’s
+theatre) were taken with the sight.</p>
+
+<p>20. But perhaps we may seem ridiculous for signalizing beasts in this
+manner because they learn, since we find that Democritus affirms us
+to have been their scholars in the greatest matters;—of the spider,
+in weaving and repairing what we tear or wear out; of the swallow, in
+building houses; and of the mournful swan and nightingale, in singing
+and imitation. Moreover in others we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> observe a threefold practice of
+physic, both natural and inbred. For tortoises make use of marjoram
+and weasels eat rue, when they have devoured a serpent; and dogs purge
+themselves from abounding gall with a certain sort of grass. The dragon
+quickens the dimness of his sight with fennel; and the bear, coming
+forth of her cave after long emaciation, feeds upon the wild arum,
+for the acrimony of that herb opens and separates her guts when clung
+together. At other times, being overcloyed with food, she repairs to
+the emmet-hills, and thrusting forth her tongue all soft and unctuous,
+by reason of the sweet kind of slime that all besmears it, till it be
+crowded with emmets, at length swallows them down her throat, and so
+recovers. And it is reported that the Egyptians observe and imitate the
+bird called ibis, in purging and cleansing her bowels with the briny
+sea-water. For which reason the priests, when they hallow themselves,
+make use of the water of which the ibis has drunk; for that those birds
+will not drink the water, if it be medicinal or otherwise infected.
+Some beasts there are that cure themselves by abstinence; as wolves and
+lions, who, when they are gorged with flesh, lie still and digest their
+crudities by the warmth of one another’s bodies. It is reported also
+of the tiger, that if a kid be thrown to her, she will not eat in two
+days; but growing almost famished the third day, if she be not supplied
+with another, she will tear down the cage that holds her, if she have
+strength enough; yet all this while she will not meddle with the first
+kid, as being her companion and fellow-housekeeper.</p>
+
+<p>More than this, the elephants are said to make use of chirurgery; for
+that being brought to persons wounded, they will draw forth the heads
+of spears and arrows out of their bodies with little pain, and without
+dilacerating and mangling the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The Cretan goats, which by eating dittany expel the arrows shot into
+their bodies, taught women with child<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> to understand the virtue of that
+herb, so prevalent to expel the birth. For those goats being wounded
+seek no other cure, but presently seek out and hunt for dittany.</p>
+
+<p>21. But these things, though wonderful, are not so much to be admired
+as are those beasts that understand the use of numbers and have the
+power of reckoning, like the oxen about Susa. For there are oxen in
+that place that water the king’s gardens with portable buckets, of
+which the number is fixed. For every ox carries a hundred buckets every
+day, and more you cannot force them to take or carry, would you never
+so fain; insomuch that, when constraint has been used for experiment’s
+sake, nothing could make them stir after they had carried their full
+number. Such an accurate account do they take, and preserve the same in
+their memory, as Ctesias the Cnidian relates it.</p>
+
+<p>The Libyans deride the Egyptians for the fables which they report of
+the oryx, which, as they say, makes a great noise upon the same day,
+at the very hour, when the Dog-star, which they call Sothes, rises.
+However, this is certain, that all their goats, when that star rises
+truly with the sun, turn themselves and stand gazing toward the east;
+which is a most unquestionable argument of that star’s having finished
+its course, and agrees exactly with the astronomer’s observations.</p>
+
+<p>22. But that my discourse may draw to a conclusion, let us (as the
+saying is) move the stone over the sacred line, and add something
+concerning the divinity and prophetic nature with which our terrestrial
+creatures are endued. Which when we consider, we shall find that that
+part of soothsaying which is founded upon the observation of birds is
+not the meanest or most ignoble, but very ancient and in great esteem.
+For the smartness and intelligible faculty of birds, together with
+their capability to receive all impressions of fancy, afford the Deity
+a convenience to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> make use of those faculties as instruments, that he
+may turn them into motion, sounds, chirpings, and forms, now to stop
+and stay, anon to drive forward like the winds; by means of some of
+these stopping short, by the means of others directing to their end,
+the actions and impetuous impulses of men. Therefore Euripides in
+general calls birds the criers of the Gods; and particularly Socrates
+styles himself a fellow-servant with the swans. As among princes,
+Pyrrhus was pleased with the surname of Eagle; and Antiochus loved to
+be called Antiochus the Falcon. But they who deride men as insipid
+and void of ingenuity call them by the names of fish. And whereas we
+can produce millions of things and accidents which are foretold us by
+land and flying creatures, there is not any one such example that the
+patrons of water-animals can produce in their behalf; but being all
+void of hearing, perfectly sottish, and without any sight, discerning,
+or providence, they are all thrown apart into that same place, unblest
+and hideous, called the sea, as it were into the region of the ungodly,
+where the rational and intellectual part of the soul is extinguished;
+being animated with only some diminutive portion, the lowest that may
+be imagined, of a confused and overwhelmed sense, so that they rather
+seem to palpitate than breathe.</p>
+
+<p>23. <span class="smcap">Heracleo.</span> Pluck up your brows then, friend Phaedimus;
+after all this, it is time to rouse thyself in the defence of the
+islanders, and others that live by the seaside. For this has been no
+frivolous discourse, but a hard fought contest, and a continued piece
+of rhetoric that wanted only lattices and a pulpit to give it the honor
+it deserved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phaedimus.</span> Therefore, you see, it is plain here has been
+foul play and treachery in the case, for a person sober and upon
+premeditation to set upon us when we were stomach-sick and dozed with
+our last night’s compotation. But there is no way to avoid the combat;
+for that, being an imitator of Pindar, it shall never be said of me.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p><div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Combats refused, when nobly set upon,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Have virtue into deepest darkness thrown.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For we have leisure enough, as having not only allowed ourselves a
+vacation from jollity and balls, but our hounds and horses a relaxation
+from their labors, and withal having hung up our drag-nets and spears,
+as having also this day granted, for disputation’s sake, a general
+truce to all creatures, as well upon the land as in the sea. However,
+fear not; for I will use it moderately, without producing either
+the opinions of philosophers or the fables of the Egyptians, or the
+relations either of the Indians or Libyans, wanting testimony; but
+such as shall be verified by good witnesses, who have made it their
+business to toil upon the ocean, and such as are evident to the eye.
+For to say truth, there is not any one of those examples produced from
+the land which is not apparent and openly manifested to our sense.
+Whereas the sea affords few but such as are difficult to be discerned,
+as concealing the generation and nourishment of most of her creatures,
+their antipathies, and ways of preserving themselves; in reference to
+which many acts of understanding, memory, and community are unknown
+to us, so that we cannot be so copious in our discourse. Then again,
+land animals, by reason of their familiarity and cohabitation, being
+in some measure accustomed to the conditions of men, become capable of
+their nutriture, education, and imitation; which sweetens and allays
+all their acerbity and moroseness, like the mixture of fresh water
+with sea brine, and awakening that which is slow and disordered in
+them, inflames it with human motions. Whereas the living of sea animals
+being by many degrees remote from the converse of men, and having
+nothing adventitious or that may be said to be acquired by custom and
+familiarity, is altogether peculiar, genuine, and unmixed with manners
+strange and foreign to them; which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> proceeds not from Nature, but
+from the place itself. For Nature, receiving and cherishing whatever
+knowledge comes to herself, affords it also to fish, and makes many
+eels tame and familiar to men, which for that reason are called sacred,
+like those in the fountain Arethusa; so that in many places there are
+fish that will hear and obey when called by their names, as the story
+goes of Crassus’s mullet, upon the death of which he wept. For which
+when Domitius twitted him in these words, Did not you weep when your
+mullet died?—he retorted upon him again, Did you not bury three wives
+and never weep at all? The crocodiles belonging to the priests not only
+know the voices of those that call them, and suffer themselves to be
+stroked and handled, but gaping hold out their teeth to be cleansed and
+wiped by the hands of the priests.</p>
+
+<p>Lately Philinus, after he had been long travelling in Egypt, returning
+to us, told us how he saw, in the city which derives its name from
+Anteus, an old woman sleeping by the side of a crocodile, upon a low
+soft bed well and decently dressed up.</p>
+
+<p>In ancient histories we find that when King Ptolemy called the sacred
+crocodile, and when the crocodile neither vouchsafed to appear at his
+call nor would answer to the earnest expostulations of the priests, it
+was looked upon as a prognostication of the death of the king, which
+happened soon after. Which shows that the race of water-animals is
+neither without a share of that inestimable thing called prophetic
+signification, nor undeserving those honors ascribed to land creatures.
+For that about Sura, which is a village in Lycia between Phellus and
+Myra, I have heard it credibly reported, that there are certain persons
+who make it their business to watch the turns, flights, and pursuits
+of the fish, whence, by a certain art which they have, they gather
+predictions, as others from the observation of birds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span></p>
+
+<p>24. But let these examples suffice to show, that fish are not
+altogether strangers to mankind, nor altogether void of human
+affection. But for a great and common demonstration of their unmixed
+and natural understanding, we find that there is not any fish that
+swims, unless they be such as stick and cling to the rocks, which is so
+easily taken by men, as asses are seized by wolves, bees by bee-eaters,
+grasshoppers by swallows, serpents by harts. And these last are
+therefore called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔλαφοι</span>, not from their swiftness (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐλαφρότης</span>), but from
+a faculty which they have of drawing serpents to them (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἕλκειν ὄφεις</span>).
+So sheep call the wolf by the sound of their feet, and the panther
+allures to her paws both apes and other creatures by the fragrant smell
+of her body. But so suspicious is the sense of all water animals, and
+so watchful are they to avoid all baits and treacheries against them,
+by reason of their extraordinary cunning, that fishing thereby becomes
+no easy or single labor, but a toil that requires various instruments
+and many tricks of human cunning and deceit. This is apparent from
+examples near at hand. For no man desires an angling-rod too thick,
+though strong enough to hold against the twitches of the fish when
+taken; but rather they require it slender, lest by casting too great a
+shadow upon the water, it should frighten the suspicious creature. In
+the next place, they never knit too many knots in the line, but make it
+as smooth as may be, for that would too much discover the deceit; and
+then for the hairs which are next the hook, they endeavor to get the
+whitest they can meet with; for so, by reason of the likeness of color,
+they lie the more easily concealed in the water. Therefore some there
+are who, wrongly expounding the following verses of Homer,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">She to the bottom quickly sinks, like lead,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Which fixt to horn<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> of rustic ox descends,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And brings destruction to the greedy fish,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span></p>
+
+<p>believe that the ancients made use of ox-hair for their lines with
+which they angled, alleging that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρας</span> then signified hair,—from
+whence <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κείρασθαι</span>, <i>to be shaved</i>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κουρά</span>, <i>shaving</i>,—and
+that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κεροπλάστης</span> in Archilochus signified one who takes delight in
+trimming and decking the hair. But this is an error. For they made
+use of horse-hair, more especially that of male horses. For mares,
+by moistening their tails with their urine, render the hair weak and
+brittle. Though Aristotle will not allow any thing to be said in all
+this that requires such extraordinary subtlety. Only he says, that
+the lower piece of the line was fortified with a little hollow piece
+of horn, lest the fish should come at the line itself and bite it
+off; moreover, that they made use of round hooks to catch mullets and
+tunnies, in regard they had but small mouths, for that they were afraid
+of a straight hook. He also further says, that the mullet many times
+suspecting the round hook, will swim round about it, flapping the bait
+with his tail, and then turning round, secures to himself so much as he
+has broken off. Or if he cannot do that, he shuts his mouth close; and
+with the extremities of his lips nibbles off some part of the bait.</p>
+
+<p>The fish called labrax behaves himself more stoutly than the elephant;
+for when he perceives himself struck with the hook, without assistance
+he sets himself at liberty, widening the wound by flinging his head to
+and fro, and enduring the painful twingings of the hook, till he have
+freed himself from it with the loss of his flesh. The sea fox (or the
+fish called alopex) seldom bites, but avoids the deceit; but if he
+chance to be taken, he presently turns the inside of his body outward.
+For by reason of the strength and moisture of his body, he has a
+peculiar faculty to turn it so that, the inside coming to be outermost,
+the hook falls off. These things demonstrate understanding, and a
+subtle and extraordinary use of it in the nick and juncture of time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span></p>
+
+<p>25. Other examples there are which show not only this same
+understanding and knowledge, but the community and mutual affection of
+fish. Thus, if one scate happen to swallow the hook, all the rest of
+the scates that are in the same shoal presently crowd together and bite
+the line in pieces. The same scates, if any of their companions fall
+into the net, give the prisoners their tails to take hold of with their
+teeth, and so draw them forth by main force.</p>
+
+<p>But the fish called anthiae with far more courage assist their fellows
+in distress. For getting under the line with their backs, and setting
+up their fins, with these, as with sharp saws, they endeavor to cut it
+in two.</p>
+
+<p>Now we know no land animal that will assist and defend his kind in
+danger; neither the bear, nor the wild boar, nor the lion, nor the
+panther. True it is that, when they are in herds together, they will
+gather into a circle and defend each other in common; but no single
+land animal either knows or cares to assist a single companion, but
+flies and shifts for himself as far off as he can from the beast that
+is wounded and lies a dying. For as for that old story of elephants
+filling up the ditches with heaps of adjoining materials, whether wood
+or earth, for the unfortunate elephant the more easily to get up again,
+this, my good friend, is extremely uncouth and foreign to us, as if we
+were bound to believe Juba’s books by virtue of a royal edict. However,
+if it is true, it does but serve to show that many of the marine
+creatures are nothing inferior in understanding and community to the
+most intelligent of the land animals. But as for their mutual society,
+we shall discourse apart of that by itself.</p>
+
+<p>26. Now the fishermen, observing how that most fish <span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>avoided the casts
+of their hooks by cunning or by striving with the tackling, betook
+themselves to force,—as the Persians use to serve their enemies in
+their wars,<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a>—making use of nets, that there might be no escape
+for those that were caught either by the help of reason or subtlety.
+Thus mullets and the fish called julides are taken with sweep-nets and
+drag-nets, as are also several other sorts of fish called mormuri,
+sargi, gobii, and labraces; those that are called casting-nets catch
+the mullet, the gilthead, and the scorpion fish; and therefore Homer
+calls this sort of net <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πανάγρα</span>, or the <i>all-sweeper</i>.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> And
+yet there are some fish that are too cunning for these nets. Thus the
+labrax, perceiving the drawing of the sweep-net, with the force of his
+body beats a hollow place in the mud, where he lays himself close till
+the net be gone over him. But as for the dolphin, when he finds himself
+taken and in the midst of the net, he remains there without being in
+the least perplexed, but falls to with a great deal of joy, and feasts
+upon the numerous fry within the meshes; but so soon as he comes near
+the shore, he bites his way through the net with his teeth and swims
+away. Or if he chance to be taken, the fishermen do him no other harm
+the first time, but only sew a sort of large bulrush to the finny crown
+upon his head, and so let him go. If they take him a second time, they
+punish him with stripes, well knowing him again by the prints of the
+needle. But that rarely happens. For having got pardon the first time,
+for the most part of them, they acknowledge the favor, and abstain from
+spoil for the future.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, among the many examples that make evident the wariness of
+fish in avoiding the deceits and craft of the fishermen, it would
+not be convenient to pass by that of the cuttle-fish. For this fish,
+carrying near his neck a certain black and inky sort of liquor, so
+soon as he perceives <span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>himself discovered, throws that liquor forth,
+and darkens all the water round about him in such a manner that, the
+fisherman losing sight of him, by that means he makes his escape;
+imitating therein Homer’s Deities, who, when they had a mind to save
+any of their heroes, hid them in an azure cloud. But of this enough.</p>
+
+<p>27. Now for the extraordinary subtlety of fish in hunting and catching
+their own prey, we shall meet with several examples of it in several
+fish. Particularly the star-fish, understanding his own nature to be
+such that whatever he touches dissolves and liquefies, readily offers
+his body, and permits himself to be touched by all that come near him.</p>
+
+<p>You know yourself the property of the torpedo or crampfish, which not
+only benumbs all those that touch it, but also strikes a numbness
+through the very net into the hands of them that go about to take him.
+And some that have had greater experience of this fish report that,
+if it happen to fall alive upon the land, they that pour water upon
+it shall presently perceive a numbness seizing upon their hands and
+stupefying their feeling, through the water affected with the quality
+of the fish. And therefore, having an innate sense of this faculty, it
+never makes any resistance against any thing, nor ever is it in danger.
+Only swimming circularly about his prey, he shoots forth the effluviums
+of his nature like so many darts, and first infects the water, then the
+fish through the water, which is neither able to defend itself nor to
+escape, being (as it were) held in chains and frozen up.</p>
+
+<p>The fish called the fisherman is well known to many, who has his name
+given him from his manner of catching fish; whose art, as Aristotle
+writes, the cuttle-fish makes use of, for he lets down, like a line, a
+certain curl which Nature has given him, so ordered as to let it run
+out at length or draw it to him again, as he sees occasion. This, when
+he sees any of the lesser fish approach, he offers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> them to bite, and
+then by degrees pulls the curl nearer and nearer by virtue of the bait,
+till he has drawn his prey within the reach of his mouth. And as for
+the polypus’s changing his color, Pindar has made it famous in these
+words:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">In any city may that man expose</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">His safety, who well knows</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Like sea-bred polypus to range,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And vary color upon every change.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In like manner Theognis:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Change manners with thy friends, observing thus</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The many-colored, cunning polypus;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Who let him stick to whatsoever rock,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Of the same color does his body look.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is true the chameleon changes color, not out of any design or
+to conceal himself, but out of fear, being naturally timorous and
+trembling at every noise he hears. And this is occasioned by the
+extraordinary abundance of breath which he enjoys, as Theophrastus
+affirms. For the whole body of this creature wants but little of being
+nothing else but lungs; which demonstrates him to be full of spirits,
+and consequently apt to change. But this same change of the polypus
+is no product of any affection of the mind, but a kind of action.
+For he changes on purpose, making use of this artifice to escape
+what he fears, and to get the food which he lives by. For by fraud,
+those things that he will take never avoid him, and those things he
+will escape pass him by without taking any notice of him. For that
+he devours his own claws is an untruth, but that he is afraid of
+the lamprey and conger is certain; for by these he is ill treated,
+not being able to return them any injury, by reason of their being
+so slippery. Though on the other side the crawfish, having once got
+them within his claws, holds them with ease. For slenderness affords
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>no help against roughness; but when the polypus comes to thrust his
+horns into the body of the crawfish, then also the crawfish dies.
+And this same vicissitude of avoiding and pursuing one another has
+Nature infused into them on purpose to exercise their subtlety and
+understanding.</p>
+
+<p>28. Then again we have heard Aristotimus relating how the land
+hedge-hog had a perception of the rising of the wind, and praising the
+trigonal flight of cranes. But for my part, I produce no particular
+hedge-hog of Cyzicus or Byzantium, but all the sea hedge-hogs in
+general; who, when they perceive a storm coming, ballast themselves
+with little stones, lest they should be overturned by reason of their
+lightness or carried away by the rolling of the waves, which they
+prevent by the weight of their little stones.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side, the cranes’ order in their flight against the wind
+is not of one sort. But this is a general notion among all fish, that
+they always swim against the waves and the tide, and always take care
+lest the wind being in their tails should force their fins from their
+backs, and leave their naked bodies exposed to the cold and other
+inconveniences; and therefore they still oppose the prows of their
+bodies against the waves. For that while they thus cleave the waves at
+the top, the sea keeps their fins close, and lightly flowing over the
+superficies of their bodies, becomes less burdensome, besides that it
+suffers not their scales to rise.</p>
+
+<p>This, I say, is common to all fish, except that fish which is called
+ellops; which, as they report, always swims with the wind and tide, not
+minding the erection or opening of the scales, which do not lie towards
+the tail, as in other fish.</p>
+
+<p>29. Moreover, the tunny is so sensible of the equinoxes and solstices,
+that he teaches even men themselves without the help of any
+astrological table. For where the winter solstice overtakes him, there
+he remains till the vernal equinox.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p>
+
+<p>As for that same artifice of the cranes, that keep themselves waking
+by clutching a stone in their claws, how much more cunningly done is
+that of the dolphin, for whom it is not lawful to stand still or to
+be out of motion. For it is the nature of the dolphins to be always
+in motion; so that, when they cease to move, they also cease to live.
+And therefore when sleep seizes them, they raise their bodies to the
+superficies of the sea, and so sinking down again with their bellies
+upward, are carried along with the tide till they touch again the
+shore. Wakened in that manner, with an impetuous noise they mount
+upward again, designing thus a kind of rest still intermixed with
+motion. And the same thing is reported of the tunnies for the same
+reason.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus concluded their mathematical foreknowledge of the mutations
+of the sun, of which Aristotle gives testimony, let me now relate their
+skill in arithmetic; but first of all, their knowledge in optics, of
+which Aeschylus seems not to have been altogether ignorant. For these
+are his words:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Casting a squint-eye like the tunny.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For tunnies seem to be dim-sighted of one eye. And therefore, when they
+enter the Euxine Sea, they coast along the land on the right side, and
+contrariwise when they come forth; prudently committing the care of
+their bodies to the best eye.</p>
+
+<p>But wanting arithmetic in order to the preservation of mutual love
+and society one with another, they arrive in such a manner to the
+perfection of that science, that, in regard they are extremely desirous
+to enjoy the society of each other, they always make up their whole
+fry into the form of a cube, and make a solid of the whole number
+consisting of six equal planes; and then they swim in such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> order as to
+present an equal front in each direction. So then, if the observer of
+the tunnies does but exactly take the number of the side that he sees,
+he knows the whole number of the shoal; well knowing that the depth is
+equal to the breadth and length.</p>
+
+<p>30. The fish amiae, which are another sort of tunnies, are so called,
+because they swim in shoals, as also the pelamydes or summer whitings.
+As for the rest that are seen to swim in shoals and to observe a mutual
+society, their number is not to be expressed. And therefore let us
+proceed to those that observe a kind of private and particular society
+one with another. Among which is the pinoteras of Chrysippus, upon
+which he has expended so much ink, that he gives it the precedency in
+all his books, both physical and ethical. For Chrysippus never knew the
+spongotera, for he would not have passed it over out of negligence.</p>
+
+<p>The pinoteras is so called, from watching the fish called pina or the
+nacre, and in shape resembles a crab; and cohabiting with the nacre,
+he sits like a porter at his shell-side, which he lets continually to
+stand wide open until he spies some small fishes gotten within it,
+such as they are wont to take for their food. Then entering the shell,
+he nips the flesh of the nacre, to give him notice to shut his shell;
+which being done, they feed together within the fortification upon the
+common prey.</p>
+
+<p>The sponge is governed by a certain little creature more like a spider
+than a crab. For the sponge wants neither soul nor sense nor blood;
+but growing to the stones, as many other things do, it has a peculiar
+motion from itself and to itself, which nevertheless stands in need as
+it were of a monitor or instructor. For being otherwise of a substance
+loose and open, and full of holes and hollowness, by reason of the
+sloth and stupidity of it the sponge-watcher assists to give notice
+when any thing of food enters the cavities of it, at which time the
+sponge contracts itself and falls to feeding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span></p>
+
+<p>But if a man approach and touch it, being nipped and admonished by the
+sponge-watcher, it seems to shudder and shut up the body of it, closing
+and condensing it in such a manner as makes it no easy thing to cut it
+from the place where it grows.</p>
+
+<p>The purple shell-fish also, called porphyrae, clustering together in
+a kind of mutual society, build up little combs for themselves like
+bees, wherein they are said to generate; and culling out the choicest
+substance of the moss and seaweed that stick to their shells, they seem
+to be in a circular commons among themselves, feeding the one upon the
+other’s nourishment.</p>
+
+<p>31. But why should we admire society in these creatures, when the most
+savage and most unsociable of all creatures which either lakes, rivers,
+or the ocean nourishes, the crocodile, shows himself the most sociable
+and grateful of water monsters in the banquets which he bestows upon
+the trochilus? For the trochilus is a bird that haunts marshes and
+rivers, and he guards and watches over the crocodile, not as one
+that feeds at his table, but as one that lives upon his scraps and
+leavings only. For when this bird observes the crocodile asleep, and
+the ichneumon ready to assail him, smeared with mud for the conflict
+like a wrestler covered with dust, he never leaves crying and pecking
+him with his beak, till he rouse the drowsy monster. In return of which
+the crocodile is so tame and gentle towards this bird, that he permits
+him to enter his yawning chaps, and is pleased with his pecking out and
+cleansing away with his beak the remainders of the devoured flesh that
+sticks between his teeth. And when the monster has an inclination to
+shut his mouth, he gives the bird notice by a gentle lowering of his
+jaw, nor will he close his chaps till he finds that the bird is flown
+away. The fish which the Greeks call hegemon (or the captain or leader)
+is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> a small fish, in bigness and shape not much unlike a gudgeon, but
+by reason of the roughness of his scales is said to resemble a bird
+when she shakes her feathers. This fish always keeps company with one
+of the huge whales, and swims before him to direct his course, lest he
+should bruise himself upon the shallows, or fall into any marshy place
+or narrow haven whence he could not easily get out again. Therefore the
+whale follows him, as the ship follows the helm, directing his course
+with confidence. All other things whatever, whether skiff, whether
+beast or stone, that chance to light into the gaping gulf of the
+whale’s mouth, immediately perish, being swallowed by the monster; but
+acknowledging his conductor, he receives him and lodges him, like an
+anchor, safely in his jaws. There he sleeps; and all the while he takes
+his rest, the whale lies still, as if he were at anchor; and when his
+guide comes forth again, the whale proceeds, never forsaking him night
+or day; or if he wander without his leader, the monster shipwrecks,
+like a vessel cast upon a rock without a helm. And this we saw not long
+ago near Anticyra, where they report that in former times a whale being
+cast and putrefying caused a pestilence.</p>
+
+<p>Is it worth while then to compare these observations of community and
+association with those sympathies which, as Aristotle relates, exist
+between foxes and serpents because the eagle is an enemy to both?
+Or with those of the horn-owls with horses, whose dung they love to
+scrape about the field? For my part I observe no such care of one
+another in bees and emmets, which, by reason of their multitude, carry
+on and perfect their work in common, but have no particular care or
+consideration one of another.</p>
+
+<p>32. We shall observe this difference more evidently, if we direct our
+discourses upon the most ancient and greatest works of common society,
+which are the works of generation and procreation of offspring. For in
+the first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> place, those fish that frequent the shores next adjoining to
+vast lakes or great rivers, when they are near their time of bringing
+forth, retire up into those places, seeking the fresh waters which are
+more gentle and void of brine. For tranquillity is most convenient
+for such as bring forth, and there is most safety in rivers and lakes
+for their young ones, as being freest from the devouring monsters of
+the sea. Which is the reason that there is the greatest plenty of
+fish about the Euxine Sea, where there are no whales, but only small
+sea-calves or little dolphins. Besides, the mixture of rivers, many
+in number, and those very large, that fall into the Pontus, make the
+temperature more kindly and proper for breeding and bringing forth.
+And that is most wonderful which is reported of the anthias, which
+Homer<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> calls the sacred fish, though some interpret sacred to
+signify great in that place, as we call a certain great bone <i>os
+sacrum</i>, and the epilepsy, being a great disease, the <i>sacred
+disease</i>, though others interpret that to be sacred which ought not
+to be touched, as being dedicated to holy use. And Eratosthenes seems
+to take the gilthead, so called from the golden hair about his eyes,
+for the sacred fish; though many believe it to be the ellops,—a fish
+seldom seen and difficult to be caught, yet many times it appears in
+the rivers of Pamphylia. So they that catch them are crowned, and their
+boats are also adorned with garlands, and as they pass along they are
+received and honored with loud shouts and clapping of hands. However
+it be, most people take the anthias to be a sacred fish, because
+that where the anthias appears, there are no sea-monsters, but the
+sponge-cutters dive boldly, and the fish as fearlessly spawn, as having
+a pledge for their security. And the reason is twofold, either because
+the sea-monsters dread the anthias, as elephants dread a hog, and lions
+a cock; or else it is a sign that there are no sea-monsters <span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>in those
+places, which the anthias knows and observes, as being an intelligent
+fish, endued with sense and a good memory.</p>
+
+<p>33. Then again, the care of their young is common to both sexes. For
+the males never devour their offspring, but remain and abide constantly
+by the spawn, protecting it with a diligent watchfulness, as Aristotle
+relates; and those that accompany the females moisten the spawn with
+a small quantity of milky seed; for that otherwise the spawn will not
+grow, but remains imperfect and never arrives at the due proportion.
+Particularly the fish called phycides make themselves nests in the
+seaweed to preserve their spawn from the waves.</p>
+
+<p>But the love of the galeus toward her young ones is beyond the
+affection and clemency of any the tamest of creatures; for they lay
+an egg, which being hatched, they nourish and carry the young about
+not outwardly, but within their own bowels, as if they could not breed
+their young without a second birth.</p>
+
+<p>When the young ones are somewhat grown, they put them forth again, and
+teach them to swim close by themselves, then resume them again through
+their mouths into their bellies, and afford them nourishment and safe
+retirement in their bodies, till they are able to shift for themselves.</p>
+
+<p>No less admirable is the care of the tortoise, as to the bringing
+forth and preserving her young. For she retires out of the sea to lay;
+but not being able to stay long upon the land, she hides her eggs in
+the sand, covering them over gently with the lightest of the gravel;
+and when she has thus sufficiently and assuredly concealed them, some
+report that she marks and streaks the place with her feet, that she may
+be able to know it again; others affirm that the female, being turned
+upon her back upon the sand by the male, leaves her particular marks
+and signatures behind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> her. However it be, this is most wonderful,
+that after waiting forty days (for in so many the eggs come to break)
+she returns, and knowing where the treasure lies, as well as any man
+understands where he hides his gold, she opens them with great joy and
+alacrity.</p>
+
+<p>34. Many observations like to these are made of the crocodile. But such
+is its skill in choosing a place for breeding, that no man can explain
+it by reason or conjecture. Whence it comes that the foreknowledge of
+this creature is imputed more to divinity than reason. For neither
+farther nor nearer, but just so far as the Nile that year will increase
+and cover the land, thither she goes forth and lays her eggs; which the
+countrymen finding, are able to tell one another how far the river will
+overflow that year. So truly does that animal measure for herself, that
+though she live in the water, she may lay her eggs dry. But the young
+ones being hatched, whichsoever of them, so soon as they are come to
+life, does not seize whatever comes next—either upon a fly, or a worm,
+or a straw, or a tuft of grass—with his mouth, the dam presently tears
+him to pieces with her teeth. But those that are fierce and active
+she loves and cherishes, according to the judgment of the wisest men,
+imparting her affection by the rules of judgment, not by the sway of
+passion.</p>
+
+<p>The sea-calves also bring forth upon the dry lands; but then fetching
+out their young ones by degrees, they give them a taste of the
+sea-water, and presently lead them out again; and this they often do,
+till custom has made them bold, and brought them to love a sea life.</p>
+
+<p>Frogs when they couple use a certain croaking invitation, which is
+commonly called ololygon; and when the male has thus enticed the
+female, they abide together all night. For in the water they cannot,
+and in the daytime they are afraid to engender upon the land, which in
+the night-time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> they do without control. At other times they croak more
+shrill and loud; and this is a sign of rain, and holds among the most
+assured prognostics of wet weather.</p>
+
+<p>35. But what absurdity, dearest Neptune, would this passion of mine
+lead me into! How ridiculous should I appear, if trifling among
+sea-calves and frogs, I should omit one of the marine animals, the
+wisest and most beloved by the Gods! For what nightingales are to be
+compared with the halcyon for music? or who will presume to prefer the
+swallow’s love of offspring, the dove’s love of her mate, or the art
+and curiosity of the bees, to those virtues ascribed to the halcyon?
+One only island, as history tells us, received and entertained Latona
+when she gave birth; which island, floating before, was then made firm
+land. But when the halcyon brings forth, about the winter solstice, the
+whole ocean remains calm and undisturbed without the wrinkle of a wave.
+So that there is not any other creature for which man has so great an
+affection, seeing that for her sake for seven days and seven nights
+together, in the depth of winter, they sail without fear of shipwreck,
+and make their voyages upon the sea with greater safety than they
+travel upon the land.</p>
+
+<p>But if it be required that we should make a brief recital of her
+particular virtues, she is so great an example of conjugal affection,
+that she does not keep company with her mate for a single season, but
+for the whole year together, and that not for wantonness (for she never
+couples but with her own), but out of affection and friendship, like
+a truly virtuous married wife. And when her mate through age becomes
+infirm and not able to bear her company, she takes care of him, and
+feeds and carries him about in his old age, never forsaking nor leaving
+him alone, but taking him upon her shoulders, carries him from place to
+place, never abandoning him till death.</p>
+
+<p>As to her affection towards her young ones and care of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> their
+preservation, so soon as she perceives herself near the time of her
+bringing forth, she presently betakes herself to the making of her
+nest. For the building of which, she neither makes use of mud and dirt
+nor props it up with walls and rafters, like the swallows; nor does
+she use several members of her body to work with, like the bees, that
+employ their whole body to enter the wax and open their cells, with
+their six feet fashioning their six-sided apartments. For the halcyon
+having but one single instrument, one single tool, which is her bill,
+nor any other help to assist her in labor and her care of her young
+ones, what a wonderful master-piece of workmanship does she erect?
+Insomuch that it is a difficult thing for them that have not well
+considered it to believe their eyesight; her workmanship seeming rather
+the art of a shipwright than of a common builder; of all inventions
+being the only form not to be overwhelmed and washed by the waves. To
+this purpose she gathers together the thorns of the sea-needle—some
+straight, others oblique, like the woof in the loom—and twists
+and binds them where the thread and yarn are interwoven one within
+another, till she has framed a nest round and oblong, resembling the
+usual fisher-boats. This when she has finished she launches into the
+sea, where the waves beating gently upon it direct to reform what is
+amiss, by consolidating the loose and ill compacted parts, where the
+water has forced any entrance; insomuch that at length she fastens and
+strengthens what she has put together in such a manner, that it is not
+to be broken or pierced either by stones or steel. Nor is the symmetry
+and form of the inside and cavity of the nest less to be admired. For
+it is so contrived as only to receive herself; the entrance into it not
+being to be found by any other creature, nor can the sea itself find a
+way into it. I am apt to believe that there is none of you who never
+saw this nest. But for my own part, that have often seen and handled
+one of them, I may safely say, that I</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span></p><div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">In Delos’ temple near Apollo’s shrine,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Something like this, a fabric most divine,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>have seen. That is to say, the horned altar, celebrated for one of the
+seven wonders of the world, which without the help of parget, glue,
+soder, paste, or any other binding, is framed only of horns that grew
+on the right side of the head of the beast.</p>
+
+<p>Now may the Deity that is somewhat musical and an islander be
+propitious to me, ... while I deride the questions which those scoffers
+put,—wherefore Apollo may not be called mullet-shooter, when we
+find that Venus is called the mullet-protectrix; for which reason
+she is honored with temples adjoining to the sea, and sacred rights;
+and certain it is, that she is displeased when any mullet is killed.
+Therefore at Leptis the priests of Neptune never eat any thing that
+breeds in the sea; and you know the mullet is in great veneration
+among the professors of the Eleusinian mysteries; moreover, that
+the priestess of Juno at Argos abstains from the same fish; and the
+reason is because the mullets kill and destroy the sea-hare, which is
+pernicious to man, and therefore they spare those creatures that are
+kind and beneficial to him.</p>
+
+<p>36. Then again, we find among many of the Greeks temples and altars
+frequently dedicated to Diana Dictynna (so called from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δίκτυον</span>, <i>a
+net</i>) and Delphinian Apollo. And that same place which Apollo has
+peculiarly chosen for himself was first of all inhabited by Cretans,
+having a dolphin for their leader. For the Deity did not swim before
+his army in another shape (as the mythologists dream), but sending a
+dolphin to direct them in their course, the dolphin brought them to
+Cirrha. Story also tells us that Soteles and Dionysius, who were sent
+to Sinope by Ptolemy Soter to fetch from thence Serapis, were driven by
+contrary winds beyond Cape Malea, having the Peloponnesus upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> their
+right hands; while they were thus wandering and out of their course,
+a dolphin appeared before the prow of the headmost vessel, and (as
+it were) kindly inviting them, conducted them into safe harbors and
+roads, till by his good guidance and leading them he at length brought
+the whole fleet to Cirrha. There, when they came to offer the usual
+sacrifices for their safe landing, they came to understand that, of
+two statues which were in the place, they were to take that of Pluto
+and carry it along with them; but as for that of Proserpina, they were
+only to take the mould and leave the statue itself behind. Probable it
+is that the Deity had a kindness for the dolphin, considering how much
+he delights in music. For which reason Pindar likens himself to the
+dolphin, and confesses himself to be moved in the same manner as that
+noble creature,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Which flutes’ beloved sound</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Excites to play,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Upon the calm and placid sea.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though it is very probable that his affection to men is more pleasing
+to the Deity, he being the only creature that bears an affection to man
+as man. For as for the land animals, some kinds there are that fly him
+altogether, and the tamest and most gentle follow him and are familiar
+with him, only for the benefit and nourishment which they receive from
+him; as the dog, the horse, and elephant. The swallows, by necessity
+constrained, build in houses, seeking shade and security, but are no
+less afraid of men than of the wild beasts. Only to the dolphin has
+Nature bequeathed that excellent quality, so much sought for by the
+best of philosophers, to love for no advantage; for that having no
+need at all of man, he is a kind friend to all men, and has lent his
+assistance to many. There is no man that is ignorant of the famous
+story of Arion. And you, my dear friend, have seasonably put us in mind
+of Hesiod; but</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Thou didst not by a legal course</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span>
+<div class="verse indent0">Rightly conclude thy long discourse.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For when you had spoken so much in praise of the dog, you should not
+have passed by the dolphin. For it would have been a blind story of the
+dog that barked and flew with violence upon the murderers, had it not
+been for the dolphins, that took the carcass of Hesiod, floating in the
+sea near Nemeum, and readily receiving it from one another, landed it
+at Rhium, whereby the murder came to be known.</p>
+
+<p>Myrtilus the Lesbian writes, that Enalus the Aeolian, being in love
+with the daughter of Phineus, who, by the command of the oracle of
+Amphitrite was cast into the sea by the Penthilidae, when he understood
+it, threw himself also into the sea, but was saved by a dolphin, and
+carried to Lesbos.</p>
+
+<p>But the gentleness and kindness of the dolphin towards the lad of Jasus
+was so extraordinary that it might be said to amount even to amorous
+love. For he played and swam with him in the daytime, and suffered
+himself to be handled and bestrid by him; nor did he swim away with
+him, but joyfully carried him which way soever the lad by the motion
+of his body turned him, while the Iasians flocked from all parts to
+the shore to behold the sight. At length the lad, being thrown from
+the dolphin’s back by a terrible shower of rain and hail, was drowned.
+Which the dolphin perceiving took up the dead youth, and threw himself
+upon the land together with the body, from which he never stirred till
+he died out of his own element; deeming it but just to partake of that
+end of which he seemed to have been the occasion to his friend and
+playfellow. Nor can the Iasians forget the accident, but keep it still
+in remembrance by the stamp upon their coin, which is a lad upon a
+dolphin’s back.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span></p>
+
+<p>And from hence it was that the fabulous stories of Coeranus gained
+credit. He was a Parian by birth, who residing at Byzantium, when a
+draught of dolphins caught in a net were exposed to sale and in danger
+of slaughter, bought them up all, and put them into the sea again. It
+happened not long after that Coeranus took a voyage in a vessel of
+fifty oars, carrying, as the story goes, several pirates. But between
+Naxos and the Bay of Paros he suffered shipwreck; and when all the rest
+were drowned, he alone was taken up by a dolphin that hastened to his
+succor, and carried to Sicynthus, and set ashore near the cave which to
+this day bears the name of Coeraneum. Upon which Archilochus is said to
+have made these lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Of fifty men, great Neptune gentle grown</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Left courteous Coeranus alive alone.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some years after Coeranus dying, his relations burnt his body near the
+seaside; at what time several dolphins appeared near the shore, as if
+they had come to his funeral; nor would they stir till the funeral was
+over. Moreover Stesichorus writes that Ulysses bore a dolphin painted
+upon his shield; and for what reason the Zacynthian records tell us,
+as Critheus testifies. For they say that Telemachus, when he was but
+a boy, falling into the sea, was saved by the dolphins that took him
+up and set him ashore. And therefore he made use of a dolphin for the
+impression of his seal and the ornament of his shield. But having
+promised before that I would produce no fabulous stories, and yet being
+carried, I know not how, to discourse beyond probability of dolphins
+by this repetition of the stories of Coeranus and Ulysses, I will do
+justice upon myself by concluding here.</p>
+
+<p>37. <span class="smcap">Aristotimus.</span> Now, gentlemen, it lies on your part that are
+judges, to pronounce sentence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soclarus.</span> Assuredly then, for our parts, we shall give the
+same judgment in this, as Sophocles did in another case:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Discourse upon discording arguments</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span>
+<div class="verse indent0">Is then determined best, when what was said</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Is duly weighed and stated on both sides.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For thus comparing what you have both discoursed one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> against another,
+it will be found that you have acquitted yourselves on both sides like
+true champions against those that would deprive brute animals of sense
+and understanding.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THAT_BRUTE_BEASTS_MAKE_USE_OF_REASON">THAT BRUTE BEASTS MAKE USE OF REASON<br>
+<br>
+
+<span class="smaller">ULYSSES, CIRCE, GRYLLUS.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> All these things, Circe, I believe that I have
+learned and well remember. But I would willingly ask thee, whether thou
+hast any Grecians here, which being men thou hast transformed into
+wolves and lions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circe.</span> Very many, dearest Ulysses, but wherefore do you ask
+the question?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Because in good truth I am of opinion I should gain a
+high reputation among the Greeks, if by thy favor I could restore these
+men to human shape again, and not suffer them through any negligence of
+mine to wax old in the bodies of beasts, where they lead a miserable
+and ignominious life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circe.</span> Surely, this man, fool as he is, believes it requisite
+that his ambition should be unfortunate not only to himself and his
+friends, but to those that nothing belong to him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Thou art now jumbling and mixing another villanous
+potion of twittle twattle, and wouldst plainly turn me into a beast
+too, if thou couldst make me believe that it were a misfortune to be
+transformed from a beast to a man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circe.</span> What hast thou made thyself better than a beast, who,
+forsaking an immortal life, free from the miseries of old age, with me,
+art making such haste through a thousand threatening calamities to a
+mortal and (as I may say) old wife, pursuing an empty good and a shadow
+instead of real truth, and all this, thinking to be more conspicuous
+and famous than thou art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Well, Circe, let it be as thou sayest; for why should
+we be always contending about the same thing? However, do me the favor
+to restore these men, and give them into my custody.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circe.</span> By Hecate, not so fast neither; these are no ordinary
+fellows. But ask them first whether they are willing. If they refuse,
+do you, being such an eloquent gentleman, discourse them and persuade
+them; if you cannot persuade them, being too hard for ye at your own
+weapon, then let it suffice ye that you have ill consulted your own and
+the good of your friends.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Blessed woman, wherefore dost thou mock me thus? For
+how can they either talk or hear reason, so long as they are asses,
+hogs, and lions?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circe.</span> Be of good comfort, most ambitious of men; I will so
+order the business, that they shall both understand and discourse; or
+rather, let one suffice to hear and return answers instead of all the
+rest. Look ye, here is one at hand; pray talk to him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Prithee, Circe, by what name shall we call him? Who
+is this fellow of all the men in the world?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circe.</span> What’s this to the purpose? Call him Gryllus, if you
+please; and for my part, I’ll leave ye together, that ye may not
+suspect him for speaking contrary to his mind to please me.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Save ye, Mr. Ulysses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> And you too, by Jove, Mr. Gryllus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> What is’t your worship would have with me?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Knowing you were all born men, I pity the condition
+ye are now in; and I pity ye the more, for that being Greeks ye are
+fallen under this misfortune; and therefore I made it my request to
+Circe that she would restore ye again to your former shape, as many of
+you as were desirous, to the end ye might return home again with us.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Hold, Mr. Ulysses, not a word more of this, I beseech
+your worship. For we all contemn thee, as one that none but fools call
+cunning, and as vainly vauntest thyself to be wiser than other men, and
+yet art afraid of being changed from worse to better; like children
+that are frightened at physician’s doses and hate going to school,
+although the medicines and the precepts make them healthy and learned
+of diseased and fools; just so thou refusest to be transformed out of
+one thing into another. And now thy bones rattle in thy skin for dread
+of living with Circe, lest she should transform thee into a hog or a
+wolf; and thou wouldst persuade us living in plenty of all enjoyments
+not only to forsake these blessings, but to abandon her that has so
+well provided for us, to sail along with thee, and to become men again,
+the most miserable of all creatures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> In my opinion, Gryllus, this same wicked cup has
+not only deprived thee of thy shape, but of thy sense and reason too;
+or else thou art got drunk with those opinions which are everywhere
+exploded as nasty and villanous, unless some voluptuous pleasure of
+custom and habit has bewitched thee to this body.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Neither of these, O king of the Cephallenians. But if
+thou art come hither to dispute, and not to rail and swagger, we shall
+soon convince thee, having experience of both manners of living, that
+our way is to be preferred before that which thou so much applaudest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Nay, then go on; I’ll listen with both ears<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> to hear
+this paradox discussed.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Have at ye then, sir. But it behooves us to
+begin first with those virtues which you so presumptuously assume to
+yourselves, and for which you so highly advance yourselves before the
+beasts, such as justice, prudence, fortitude, &amp;c. Now answer me, thou
+the wisest among mortals; for I have heard thee telling a story to
+Circe of the territory of the Cyclops, that being neither ploughed nor
+planted by any person, it is so fertile and generously productive,
+that it bears all sorts of fruits and herbs spontaneously. Now which
+do you prefer, this country, or your own goat-feeding stony Ithaca,
+which being cultivated with great labor and hardship, yet answers the
+expectations of the husbandmen with only a mean and scanty return? Now
+take it not amiss that I forewarn ye lest your love to your country
+sway ye to give an answer contrary to truth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> No, no, I will not lie for the matter; I must confess
+I love and honor my own country more; but I applaud and admire theirs
+far beyond it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Hence we must conclude that it is so as the wisest
+of men has affirmed; that there are some things to be praised and
+approved, others to be preferred by choice and affection. And I suppose
+you believe the same concerning the soul. For the same reasons hold in
+reference to the soul as to the ground; that such a soul should be the
+best, that produces virtue like spontaneous fruit, without labor and
+toil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Grant all this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Then you confess that the souls of beasts are the
+more perfect, and more fertilely endued for the production of virtue;
+seeing that without any command or instruction—as it were without
+sowing or ploughing—it produces and increases that virtue which is
+requisite for every one.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Prithee, Gryllus, don’t rave, but tell me what those
+virtues are that beasts partake of?</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Rather what virtues do they not partake of in a
+higher degree than the wisest of men? Look upon fortitude in the first
+place, of which you vaunt and brag to have such a terrible share,
+being not ashamed of the magnificent titles of Ulysses the bold and
+city-stormer, when indeed, like a pitiful knave as thou art, thou dost
+only circumvent by tricks and artifices men that understand only the
+simple and generous way of making war, ignorant altogether of fraud and
+faith-breaking, and by that means coverest thy deceit with the name
+of virtue, which never admits of any such coney-catching devices. But
+do you observe the combats and warfare of beasts, as well one against
+another as against yourselves, how free from craft and deceit they
+are, and how with an open and naked courage they defend themselves by
+mere strength of body; and how, neither afraid of the law that calls
+them forth to battle nor the severe edicts against deserters, but only
+out of scorn to be overcome, they fight with obstinacy to the last for
+conquest and victory. For they are not vanquished when their bodies are
+worsted, neither does despair cowardize them, but they die upon the
+spot. And you shall see many times that the strength of many, while
+they are expiring, being retired and crowded together in some part of
+the body, still makes resistance against the victor, and pants and
+fumes till at length it fails like extinguished fire that goes out for
+want of fuel. But there is no crying for quarter, no begging of mercy,
+no acknowledgment of being beaten; nor will the lion be a slave to the
+lion, nor the horse to the horse, as one man is a slave to another,
+willingly and patiently embracing servitude, which derives its name
+(<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δουλεία</span>) from that of cowardice (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δειλία</span>). On the other side, such
+beasts as men by nets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> and treacherous snares get into their power, if
+fully grown, rather choose to die than serve, refusing nourishment and
+suffering extremity of drought. But as for their young ones,—being
+tractable and supple by reason of their age, and fed with the deceitful
+mixtures and food that men provide for them, their inbred fierceness
+languishing through the taste of preternatural delights,—they suffer
+that which is called domestication, which is only an effeminating of
+their natural fury.</p>
+
+<p>Whence it is apparent that beasts are naturally inclined to be
+courageous and daring, but that the martial confidence of men is
+preternatural. Which, most noble Ulysses, you may chiefly observe from
+hence; for that in beasts Nature keeps an equal balance of strength;
+so that the female, being but little inferior to the male, undergoes
+all necessary toils, and fights in defence of her young ones. And thus
+you hear of a certain Cromyonian sow, which, though a female, held
+Theseus tack, and found him work sufficient. Neither had the wisdom of
+that same female Sphinx that sat on Phicium, with all her riddles and
+enigmas, availed her, had she not far excelled the Cadmeans in strength
+and fortitude. Not far from whence the Telmesian fox had his den, a
+great propounder of questions also; not to omit the female serpent that
+fought with Apollo for his oracle at Delphi. Your king also took the
+mare Aetha from the Sicyonian, as a bribe to discharge him from going
+to the wars; and he did well, thereby showing how much he esteemed a
+valiant and generous mare above a timorous coward. You yourself have
+also seen female panthers and lionesses little inferior to the males
+in strength and courage; when your own wife, though a Lacedaemonian,
+when you were hectoring and blustering abroad, sat at home in the
+chimney-corner, not daring to do so much as the very swallows in
+encountering those who plagued both her and her family. Why need I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
+still speak of the Carian and Maeonian women? Whence it is apparent
+that fortitude is not natural to men, for then the women would partake
+of the same strength with men. So that the fortitude which you exercise
+is only constrained by law, not natural and voluntary, but subservient
+to the manners of the place and enslaved to reproach, a thing made up
+only of glorious words and adventitious opinion. And you undergo labor
+and throw yourself into danger, not out of real valor and boldness, but
+because ye are more afraid of other things. Therefore, as among thy own
+companions he that first makes haste to snatch up the light oar does
+it not because he contemns it, but because he is loath to be troubled
+with the more heavy; so he that endures a blow to avoid a wound, and
+defends himself against an enemy to preserve himself from wounds and
+death, does it not out of daring courage against the one, but out of
+fear of the other. Thus your fortitude is only a prudent fear; and your
+courage a knowing timidity, which understandingly does one thing to
+avoid another.</p>
+
+<p>In short, if you believe yourselves superior to the beasts in
+fortitude, why do your poets call those that behave themselves most
+valiantly against their enemies wolf-breasted, lion-hearted, and
+compare them to wild boars; but never call the courage of lions
+man-like, or resemble the strength of a wild boar to that of a man? But
+as they call the swift wind-footed, and the beautiful Godlike-formed,
+hyperbolizing in their similes; so when they extol the gallantry of
+the stout in battle, they derive their comparisons from the superior
+in bravery. The reason is, because courage is as it were the tincture
+and edge of fortitude; which the beasts make use of unmixed in their
+combats, but in you being mixed with reason, like wine diluted with
+water, it gives way to danger and loses the opportunity. And some
+of you there are who deny that courage is requisite in battle, and
+therefore laying it aside<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> make use of sober reason; which they do well
+for their preservation, but are shamefully beside the cushion, in point
+of strength and revenge. How absurd is it therefore for you to complain
+of Nature, because she did not furnish your bodies with goads and teeth
+and crooked claws to defend yourselves, when at the same time you would
+disarm the soul of her natural weapons?</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> In good truth, Gryllus, you are grown, in my
+conceit, a notable sophister, to discourse at this rate out of a hog’s
+snout, and yet to handle your argument so strenuously. But why have you
+not all this while spoke a word of temperance?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Because I thought you would have contradicted first
+what I have already said. But you are in haste to hear what I have to
+say concerning temperance, because that, being the husband of a most
+temperate and chaste wife, you believe you have set us an example of
+temperance by abstaining from Circe’s embraces. And yet in this you
+differ nothing from all the beasts; for neither do they desire to
+approach their superiors, but they pursue their pleasures and amours
+among those of their own tribe. No wonder is it then, if—like the
+Mendesian goat in Egypt, which is reported to have been shut up with
+several most beautiful women, yet never to have offered copulation
+with them, but when he was at liberty, with a lustful fury flew upon
+the she-goats—so thou, though a man addicted greatly to venereal
+pleasures, yet being a man, hast no desire to sleep with a goddess. And
+for the chastity of thy Penelope, the ten thousand rooks and daws that
+chatter it abroad do but make it ridiculous and expose it to contempt,
+their being not one of those birds but, if she looses her mate,
+continues a widow, not for a small time, but for nine ages of men; so
+that there is not one of those female rooks that does not surpass in
+chastity thy fair Penelope above nine times.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span></p>
+
+<p>6. But because thou believest me to be a sophister, I shall observe
+a certain order in my discourse, first giving thee the definition of
+temperance, and then dividing desire according to the several kinds of
+it. Temperance then is the contracting and well governing our desires,
+pruning off those that are superfluous and encroaching upon our wills,
+and ruling those that are necessary by the standards of reason and
+moderation. Now in desires you observe a vast number of distinctions.
+For it is both natural and necessary to drink; but as for venereal
+desires, which derive their originals from Nature, there is a time when
+they may be restrained without any inconvenience; these are therefore
+called natural but not necessary. But there is another sort, which are
+neither natural nor necessary, but infused from without by vain opinion
+through the mistake of right and true; and it is these that want but
+very little of ruining all your natural desires with their number, like
+a multitude of foreigners outnumbering the natives and expelling them
+from their habitations. But the beasts, having their souls unmixed and
+not to be overcome by these adventitious passions, and living lives
+as distant from vain opinion as from the sea, are inferior to you in
+living elegantly and superfluously, but they are extremely wary in
+preserving temperance and the right government of their desires, as
+being neither troubled with many, nor those foreign to their natures.
+And therefore formerly I was no less smitten with the glister of gold
+than thou art now, as believing nothing else that a man could possess
+to be comparable to it. Silver also and ivory inveigled me with the
+same desires; and he that enjoyed these things in the greatest measure
+seemed to be a man most happy and beloved of God, whether a Phrygian or
+a Carian, whether more meanly descended than Dolon or more miserable
+than Priam. From thenceforward being altogether swayed by my desires,
+I reaped no other pleasure nor delight in any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> other blessings of my
+life, with which I abounded, believing that I wanted still and missed
+my share of those that were the chiefest and the greatest. Therefore,
+I remember, when I beheld thee in Crete, at some solemnity, most
+pompously attired, I neither envied thy wisdom nor thy virtue; but
+the extraordinary fineness and exquisite workmanship of thy tunic,
+and the glistering of thy purple upper garment, and the beauty of the
+ornaments struck me with admiration. And the golden clasp, methought,
+was a pretty toy that had something of extraordinary graving in it; and
+bewitched with these baubles, I followed thee as the women did. But
+now being altogether estranged from those vain opinions, and having
+my understanding purified, I tread both gold and silver under my feet
+as I do the common stones; nor did I ever sleep more soundly upon thy
+carpets and tapestries, than now I do, rolled over head and ears in
+the deep and soft mud. None of those adventitious desires reside in
+our souls, but for the most part our manner of living is accustomed
+to necessary pleasures and desires; and as for those pleasures which
+are not necessary but only natural, we make such a use of them as is
+neither without order nor moderation.</p>
+
+<p>7. And therefore let us consider these in the first place. The pleasure
+then that affects the sense of smelling with sweet odors and fragrant
+exhalations, besides that it has something in it which is pure in
+itself, and as it were bestowed upon us gratis, contributes also in
+some measure to the distinction of nourishment. For the tongue is said
+to be the judge of sweet, sour, and tart, only when the juices have
+come to be mingled and concorporate with the tasting faculty, and not
+before. But our smell, before the taste, becoming sensible of the
+virtue and qualities of every thing, and being more accurate than the
+tasters attending upon princes, admits what is familiar to Nature, and
+expels whatever is disagreeable to it; neither will it suffer it to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
+touch or molest the taste, but accuses and declares the offensiveness
+of the thing smelt, before it do any harm. As to other things, it
+troubles us not at all as it does you whom it constrains for the sake
+of the sweet scents of cinnamon nard, malobathrum, and Arabian reed,
+to seek out for things dissimilar, and to jumble them together with a
+kind of apothecary’s or perfumer’s art, and at vast expense to purchase
+an unmanly and effeminate delight, for nothing profitable or useful.
+Now being such, this sense of smelling has not only corrupted all the
+female sex but the greatest part of men, insomuch that they care not to
+converse with their own wives, unless perfumed with precious ointments
+and odoriferous compositions. Whereas sows, she-goats, and other
+females attract the boars, he-goats, and the males of their own kind,
+by their own proper scents; and smelling of the pure dew, the meadows,
+and the fresh grass, they are incited to copulation out of common
+affection; the females without the coynesses of women, or the practice
+of little frauds and fascinations, to inflame the lust of their
+mates; and the males, not with amorous rage and frenzy stimulated,
+and enforced to purchase the act of generation with expensive hire
+or servile assiduity, but enjoying their seasonable amours without
+deceit or purchase of the satisfaction of their venery. For Nature in
+the spring-time, even as she puts forth the buds of plants, likewise
+awakens the desires of animals, but presently quenches them again,
+neither the female admitting the male nor the male attempting the
+female after conception. And thus pleasure has but a small and slender
+esteem among us; but Nature is all in all. So that even to this very
+day, we beasts were never yet tainted with coupling male with male, and
+female with female. Of which nevertheless there are many examples to be
+produced among the greatest and most celebrated persons; for I pass by
+those not worth remembrance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p>
+
+<p>Agamemnon hunted all Boeotia in pursuit of Argynnus, who fled his
+embraces; and after he had falsely accused the sea and winds, bravely
+flung himself into the lake Copais, to quench his love and free himself
+from the ardor of his lust.</p>
+
+<p>Hercules in like manner pursuing his beardless friend, forsook his
+choicest associates and abandoned the fleet.</p>
+
+<p>In the vaulted room belonging to Apollo surnamed Ptous, one of
+you men secretly wrote this inscription, Achilles the fair; when
+Achilles at that time had a son. [And I hear the inscription is still
+remaining.]<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> Yet if a cock tread a cock in the absence of the
+hen, he is burned alive, upon the signification of the soothsayer
+that it portends some fatal calamity. This is a plain confession in
+men themselves, that the beasts excel them in chastity, and that
+force is not to be put upon Nature for the sake of pleasure. But
+your incontinence is such, that Nature, though she have the law to
+assist her, is not able to keep it within bounds; insomuch that, like
+a rapid inundation, those inordinate desires overwhelm Nature with
+continual violence, trouble, and confusion. For men have copulated with
+she-goats, sows, and mares; and women have run mad after male beasts.
+And from such copulations sprang the Minotaurs and Silvans, and, as
+I am apt to believe, the Sphinxes and Centaurs. It is true, that
+sometimes, constrained by hunger, a dog or a bird has fed upon human
+flesh; but never yet did any beast attempt to couple with human kind.
+But men constrain and force the beasts to these and many other unlawful
+pleasures.</p>
+
+<p>8. Now being thus wicked and incontinent in reference to the aforesaid
+lustful desires, it is no less easy to be proved that men are more
+intemperate than beasts, even in those things which are necessary, that
+is to say, in eating <span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>and drinking, the pleasure of which we always
+enjoy with some benefit to ourselves. But you pursuing the pleasures
+of eating and drinking beyond the satisfaction of nature, are punished
+with many and tedious diseases, which, arising from the single fountain
+of superfluous gormandizing, fill your bodies with all manner of wind
+and vapors not easy for purgation to expel. In the first place, all
+sorts of beasts, according to their kind, feed upon one sort of food,
+which is proper to their natures; some upon grass, some upon roots, and
+others upon fruits. They that feed upon flesh never mind any other sort
+of food. Neither do they rob the weaker animals of their nourishment.
+But the lion suffers the hart, and the wolf the sheep, to feed upon
+what Nature has provided for them. But man, such is his voracity, falls
+upon all, to satisfy the pleasures of his appetite; tries all things,
+tastes all things; and, as if he were yet to seek what was the most
+proper diet and most agreeable to his nature, among all the creatures
+is the only all-devourer. And first he makes use of flesh, not for
+want, as having the liberty to take his choice of herbs and fruits,
+the plenty of which is inexhaustible; but out of luxury and being
+cloyed with necessaries, he seeks after inconvenient and impure diet,
+purchased by the slaughter of living creatures; by that means showing
+himself more cruel than the most savage of wild beasts. For blood,
+murder, and flesh are proper to nourish the kite, the wolf, and dragon;
+but to men they are delicious viands. Then making use of all, he does
+not do like the beasts, which abstain from most creatures and are at
+enmity only with a few, and that only compelled by the necessities of
+hunger; but neither fowl nor fish nor any thing that lives upon the
+land escapes your tables, though they bear the epithets of human and
+hospitable.</p>
+
+<p>9. Let it be so, that nothing will serve ye but to devour whatever
+comes near ye, to pamper and indulge your<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> voracious appetites. Yet
+where is the benefit and pleasure of all this? But such is the prudence
+of the beasts, as not to admit of any vain and unprofitable arts. And
+as for those that are necessary, they do not acquire them, as being
+introduced by others or taught for reward; neither do they make it
+their study to soder and fasten one contemplation to another, but they
+are supplied by their own prudence with such as are true-born and
+genuine. It is true, we hear the Egyptians are generally physicians.
+But the beasts are not only every one of them notionally endued with
+knowledge and art which way to cure themselves, but also to procure
+their food and repair their strength, to catch their prey by slight
+and cunning, to guard themselves from danger; neither are some of them
+ignorant how to teach the science of music so far as is convenient
+for them. For from whom did we hogs learn to run to the rivers, when
+we are sick, to search for crawfish? Who taught the tortoises, when
+they have eaten vipers, to physic themselves with origanum? Who taught
+the Cretan goats, when shot with arrows that stick in their bodies,
+to betake themselves to dittany, which they have no sooner eaten, but
+the heads of the darts fall out of the wound? Now if you say that
+Nature is the schoolmistress that teaches them these things, you
+acknowledge the prudence of beasts to be derived from the chiefest and
+wisest original of understanding; which if you think not proper to
+call reason and wisdom, it is time for ye to find out a more glorious
+and honorable name for it. Indeed by its effects it shows itself to
+be greater and more wonderful in power; not illiterate or without
+education, but instructed by itself and wanting nothing from without;
+not weak and imperfect, but, through the vigor and perfection of its
+natural virtue, supporting and cherishing that natural contribution of
+understanding which others attain to by instruction and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> education. So
+that, whatever men acquire and contemplate in the midst of their luxury
+and wantonness, those things our understanding attains to through the
+excellency of our apprehensions, even contrary to the nature of the
+body. For not to speak of whelps that learn to draw dry foot, and colts
+that will practise figure-dances; there are crows that will speak, and
+dogs that will leap through hoops as they turn around. You shall also
+see horses and bulls upon the theatres lie down, dance, stop, and move
+their bodies after such a manner as would puzzle even men to perform
+the same things; which, though they are of little use, yet being
+learned and remembered by beasts, are great arguments of their docility.</p>
+
+<p>If you doubt whether we learn arts, be convinced that we teach them.
+For partridges teach their young ones to hide themselves by lying upon
+their backs just before a clod of earth, to escape the pursuit of the
+fowlers. And you shall observe the old storks, when their young ones
+first begin to take wing, what care they take to instruct them upon
+the tops of houses. Nightingales also teach their young ones to sing;
+insomuch that nightingales taken young out of the nest, and bred up
+by hand in cages, sing worse, as being deprived of their instructors
+before their time. So that after I had been a while transformed into
+this shape, I admired at myself, that I was so easily persuaded by idle
+arguments of the sophisters to believe that all other creatures were
+void of sense and reason except man.</p>
+
+<p>10. <span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> What then, Gryllus? Does your transmutation
+inform ye also that sheep and asses are rational creatures?</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> From these very creatures, most worthy and best of
+men, Ulysses, the nature of beasts is chiefly to be discerned to be as
+it is, neither void of reason nor understanding. For as one tree is
+neither more or less than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> another without a soul, but all are together
+in the same condition of insensibility (for there is no tree that is
+endued with a soul); so neither would one animal seem to be more slow
+to understand or more indocible than another, if all did not partake
+of reason and understanding, though some in a less, some in a greater
+measure. For you must consider that the stupidity and slothfulness of
+some is an argument of the quickness and subtlety of others, which
+easily appears when you compare a fox, a wolf, or a bee with a sheep
+or ass; as if thou shouldest compare thyself to Polyphemus, or thy
+grandfather Autolycus with the Corinthian [mentioned in] Homer. For I
+do not believe there is such difference between beast and beast, in
+point of reason and understanding and memory, as between man and man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span> Have a care, Gryllus; it is a dangerous thing to
+allow them reason that have no knowledge of a Deity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gryllus.</span> Must we then deny that thou, most noble Ulysses,
+being so wise and full of stratagems as thou art, wast begotten by
+Sisyphus?...</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="OF_THE_FACE">OF THE FACE APPEARING WITHIN THE ORB OF THE MOON.</h2></div>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak">LAMPRIAS, APOLLONIDES, LUCIUS, PHARNACES, SYLLA, ARISTOTELES, THEON,
+MENELAUS</h3></div>
+
+<p class="small">[<i>The beginning of this discourse is lost.</i>]</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">These</span> things then, said Sylla, agree with my story, and are taken
+thence. But I should first willingly ask, what need there is of making
+such a preamble against these opinions, which are at hand and in every
+man’s mouth, concerning the face that is seen within the orb of the
+moon. Why should we not, said I, being, by the difficulty there is
+in these discourses, forced upon those? For, as they who have long
+lain lingering under chronical diseases, after they have been worn
+out and tired with experimenting all ordinary remedies and the usual
+rules of living and diet, have at last recourse to lustrations and
+purifications, to charms and amulets fastened about the neck, and to
+the interpretation of dreams; so in such obscure and abstruse questions
+and speculations, when the common, apparent, and ordinary reasons are
+not satisfactory, there is a necessity of trying such as are more
+extravagant, and of not contemning but enchanting ourselves (as one may
+say) with the discourses of the ancients, and endeavoring always to
+find out the truth.</p>
+
+<p>2. For you see at the very first blush, how impertinent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> his opinion
+is who said, that the form appearing in the moon is an accident of our
+sight, by its weakness giving way to her brightness, which we call the
+dazzling of our eyes; for he perceives not that this should rather
+befall our looking against the sun, whose lustre is more resplendent,
+and whose rays are more quick and piercing; as Empedocles also in a
+certain passage of his has not unpleasantly noted the difference of
+these two planets, saying,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The sharp-rayed sun, and gently shining moon.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For thus does he call her alluring, favorable, and harmless light. No
+less absurd appears the reason he afterwards gives why dull and weak
+eyes discern no difference of form in the moon, her orb appearing to
+them plain and smooth, whereas those whose sight is more acute and
+penetrating better descry the lineaments and more perfectly observe the
+impressions of a face, and more evidently distinguish its different
+parts. For it should, in my opinion, be quite contrary, if this were
+a fancy caused by the weakness of the vanquished sight; so that where
+the patient’s eye is weaker, the appearance would be more express and
+evident. Moreover, the inequality every way confutes this reason; for
+this face is not seen in a continuance and confused shadow, but the
+poet Agesianax not unelegantly describes it, saying,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">With shining fire it circled does appear,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And in the midst is seen the visage clear</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Of a young maid, whose eyes more gray than blue,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Her brow and cheeks a blushing red do show.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For indeed dark and shady things, encompassed with others that are
+bright and shining, sink underneath and reciprocally rise again,
+being repelled by them; and in a word, they are so interlaced one
+within another, that they represent the figure of a face painted to
+the life; and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>there seems to have been great probability in that
+which was spoken against your Clearchus, my dear Aristotle. For he
+appears not inconveniently to be called yours, for he was intimately
+acquainted with the ancient Aristotle, although he perverted many of
+the Peripatetic doctrines.</p>
+
+<p>3. Then Apollonides taking up the discourse, and asking what that
+opinion of Clearchus was; It would more, said I, beseem any man than
+you to be ignorant of this discourse, as being grounded on the very
+fundamental principles of geometry. For he affirms, that what we call
+a face, is the image and figure of the great ocean, represented in
+the moon as in a mirror. For the circumference of a circle, when it
+is reflected back,<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> is wont in many places to touch objects which
+are not seen in a direct line. And the full moon is for evenness and
+lustre the most beautiful and purest of all mirrors. As then you hold,
+that the heavenly bow appears, when the ray of light is reflected back
+towards the sun, in a cloud which has got a little liquid smoothness
+and consistence; so, said he, there is seen in the moon the surface of
+the sea, not in the place where it is situated, but from whence the
+reflection gives a sight of it by its reverberated and reflexed light,
+as Agesianax again says in another passage,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">This flaming mirror offers to your eyes</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The vast sea’s figure, as beneath it lies</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Foaming with raging billows.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. Apollonides therefore, being delighted with this, said: A singular
+opinion indeed is this of his, and (to speak in a word) strangely and
+newly invented by a man sufficiently presumptuous, but not void of
+learning and wit. But how, I pray, was it refuted?</p>
+
+<p>First, said I, the superficies of the sea is all of a nature, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>the
+current of it being uniform and continuous; but the appearance of those
+black and dark spots which are seen in the face of the moon is not
+continued, but has certain isthmuses or partitions clear and bright,
+which divide and separate what is dark and shady. Whence every place
+being distinguished and having its own limits apart, the conjunctions
+of the clear with the obscure, taking a resemblance of high and low,
+express and represent the similitude of a figure seeming to have eyes
+and lips; so that we must of necessity suppose, either that there are
+main oceans and main seas, distinguished by isthmuses and continents
+of firm land, which is evidently absurd and false; or that if there
+is but one, it is not credible its image should appear so distracted
+and dissipated into pieces. And as for this, there is less danger in
+asking than in affirming in your presence, whether, since the habitable
+earth has both length and breadth, it is possible that the sight of all
+men, when it is reflected by the moon, should equally touch the ocean,
+even of those that sail and dwell in it, as do the Britons; especially
+since the earth, as you have maintained, has but the proportion of a
+point, if compared to the sphere of the moon. This therefore, said I,
+it is your business to observe, but the reflection of the sight against
+the moon belongs neither to you nor Hipparchus. And yet, my friend
+Lamprias, there are many naturalists, who approve not this doctrine
+of his touching the driving back of the sight, but affirm it to be
+more probable that it has a certain obedient and agreeing temperature
+and compactness of structure, than such beatings and repercussions as
+Epicurus feigned for his atoms.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> Nor am I of opinion that Clearchus
+would have us suppose the moon to be a massy and weighty body, but a
+celestial and light-giving star, as you say it is, which must have the
+property of breaking and turning aside the sight; so that <span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>all this
+reflection would come to nothing. But if we are desired to receive
+and admit it, we shall ask why this face or image of the sea is to be
+seen only in the body of the moon; and not in any of the other stars?
+For the laws of probability require that the sight should suffer this
+equally in all, or else in none.</p>
+
+<p>But pray, sir, said I, casting mine eyes upon Lucius, call a little to
+mind what was said at first by those of our party.</p>
+
+<p>5. Nay rather, answered he,—lest we should seem too injurious to
+Pharnaces, in thus passing by the opinion of the Stoics, without
+opposing any thing against it,—let us make some reply to this man, who
+supposes the moon to be wholly a mixture of air and mild fire, and then
+says that, as in a calm there sometimes arises on a sudden a breeze of
+wind which curls and ruffles the superficies of the sea, so, the air
+being darkened and rendered black, there is an appearance and form of a
+face.</p>
+
+<p>You do courteously, Lucius, said I, thus to veil and cover with
+specious expressions so absurd and false an opinion. But so did not
+our friend; but he said, as the truth is, that the Stoics disfigured
+and mortified the moon’s face, filling it with stains and black spots,
+one while invocating her by the name of Diana and Minerva, and another
+while making her a lump and mixture of dark air and charcoal-fire, not
+kindling of itself or having any light of its own, but a body hard to
+be judged and known, always smoking and ever burning, like to those
+thunders which by the poets are styled lightless and sooty. Now that a
+fire of coals, such as they would have that of the moon to be, cannot
+have any continuance nor yet so much as the least subsistence, unless
+it meets with some solid matter fit to maintain it, keep it in, and
+feed it, has, I think, far better than it is by these philosophers,
+been understood by those poets who in merriment affirm that Vulcan was
+therefore said to be lame because fire can no more go forward without
+wood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> or fuel than a cripple without a crutch. If then the moon is
+fire, whence has it so much air? For that region above, which is with
+a continual motion carried round, consists not of air, but some more
+excellent substance, whose nature it is to subtilize and set on fire
+all other things. And if it has been since engendered there, how comes
+it that it does not perish, being changed and transmuted by the fire
+into an ethereal and heavenly substance? And how can it maintain and
+preserve itself, cohabiting so long with the fire, as a nail always
+fixed and fastened in one and the same place? For being rare and
+diffused, as by Nature it is, it is not fitted for permanency and
+continuance, but for change and dissipation. Neither is it possible
+that it should condense and grow compact, being mixed with fire, and
+utterly void of water and earth, the only two elements by which the
+nature of the air suffers itself to be brought to a consistency and
+thickness. And since the swiftness and violence of motion is wont to
+inflame the air which is in stones, and even in lead itself, as cold as
+it is; much more will it that which, being in fire, is with so great
+an impetuosity whirled about. For they are displeased with Empedocles
+for making the moon a mass of air congealed after the manner of hail,
+included within a sphere of fire. And yet they themselves say, that the
+moon, being a globe of fire, contains in it much air dispersed here
+and there,—and this, though it has neither ruptures, concavities,
+nor depths (which they who affirm it to be earthly admit), but the
+air lies superficially on its convexity. Now this is both against the
+nature of permanency, and impossible to be accorded with what we see
+in full moons; for it should not appear separately black and dark, but
+either be wholly obscured and concealed or else co-illuminated, when
+the moon is overspread by the sun. For with us the air which is in
+the pits and hollows of the earth, whither the rays of the sun cannot
+penetrate, remains dark and lightless; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> that which is spread over
+its exterior parts has clearness and a lightsome color. For it is by
+reason of its rarity easily transformed into every quality and faculty,
+but principally that of light and brightness, by which, being never
+so little touched, it incontinently changes and is illuminated. This
+reason therefore, as it seems greatly to help and maintain the opinion
+of those who thrust the air into certain deep valleys and caves in the
+moon, so confutes you, who mix and compose her sphere, I know not how,
+of air and fire. For it is not possible that there should remain any
+shadow or darkness in the superficies of the moon, when the sun with
+his brightness clears and enlightens whatsoever we can discern of her
+and ken with our sight.</p>
+
+<p>6. Whilst I was yet speaking, Pharnaces interrupting my discourse
+said: See here again the usual stratagem of the Academy brought into
+play against us, which is to busy themselves at every turn in speaking
+against others, but never to afford an opportunity for reproving what
+they say themselves; so that those with whom they confer and dispute
+must always be respondents and defendants, and never plaintiffs or
+opponents. You shall not therefore bring me this day to give you an
+account of those things you charge upon the Stoics, till you have first
+rendered me a reason for your turning the world upside down.</p>
+
+<p>Then Lucius smiling said: This, good sir, I am well contented to do,
+provided only that you will not accuse us of impiety, as Cleanthes
+thought that the Greeks ought to have called Aristarchus the Samian
+into question and condemned him of blasphemy against the Gods,
+as shaking the very foundations of the world, because this man,
+endeavoring to save the appearances, supposed that the heavens remained
+immovable, and that the earth moved through an oblique circle, at the
+same time turning about its own axis. As for us therefore, we say
+nothing that we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> take from them. But how do they, my good friend, who
+suppose the moon to be earth, turn the world upside down more than you,
+who say that the earth remains here hanging in the air, being much
+greater than the moon, as the mathematicians measure their magnitude by
+the accidents of eclipses, and by the passages of the moon through the
+shadow of the earth, gathering thence how great a space it takes up?
+For the shadow of the earth is less than itself, by reason it is cast
+by a greater light. And that the end of this shadow upwards is slender
+and pointed, they say that Homer himself was not ignorant, but plainly
+expressed it when he called the night <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θοή</span> (that is, <i>acute</i>) from
+the sharp-pointedness of the earth’s shadow. And yet the moon in her
+eclipses, being caught within this point of the shadow; can scarce get
+out of it by going forward thrice her own bigness in length. Consider
+then, how many times the earth must needs be greater than the moon,
+if it casts a shadow, the narrowest point of which is thrice as broad
+as the moon. But you are perhaps afraid lest the moon should fall, if
+it were acknowledged to be earth; but as for the earth, Aeschylus has
+secured you, when he says that Atlas</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Stands shouldering the pillar of the heaven and earth,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A burden onerous.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If then there runs under the moon only a light air, not firm enough
+to bear a solid burthen, whereas under the earth there are, as Pindar
+says, columns and pillars of adamant for its support, therefore
+Pharnaces himself is out of all dread of the earth’s falling, but he
+pities the Ethiopians and those of Taprobane, who lie directly under
+the course of the moon, fearing lest so ponderous a mass should tumble
+upon their heads. And yet the moon has, for an help to preserve her
+from falling, her motion and the impetuosity of her revolution; as
+stones, pebbles, and other <span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>weights, put into slings, are kept from
+dropping out whilst they are swung round, by the swiftness of their
+motion. For every body is carried according to its natural motion,
+unless it be diverted by some other intervening cause. Wherefore
+the moon does not move according to the motion of her weight, her
+inclination being stopped and hindered by the violence of a circular
+revolution. And perhaps there would be more reason to wonder, if
+the moon continued always immovable in the same place, as does the
+earth. But now the moon has a great cause to keep herself from tending
+hither downwards; but for the earth, which has no other motion, it is
+probable that it has also no other cause of its settlement but its
+own weight. For the earth is heavier than the moon, not only because
+it is greater, but also because the moon is rendered lighter by the
+heat and inflammation that is in it. In brief, it appears by what you
+say, if it is true that the moon is fire, that it stands in need of
+earth or some other matter, which it may rest on and cleave to, for
+the maintaining and nourishing of its power. For it is not possible to
+imagine how a fire can be preserved without some combustible matter.
+And you yourselves say that the earth continues firm without any basis
+or pedestal to support it.</p>
+
+<p>Yes surely, said Pharnaces, being in its proper and natural place, the
+very middle and centre of the universe. For this it is to which all
+heavy and ponderous things do from every side naturally tend, incline,
+and aspire, and about which they cling and are counterpoised. But every
+superior region, though it may perhaps receive some earthly and weighty
+thing sent by violence up into it, immediately repels and casts it down
+again by force, or (to speak better) lets it follow its own proper
+inclination, by which it naturally tends downwards.</p>
+
+<p>7. For the refutation of which, being willing to give Lucius time for
+the calling to mind his arguments, I addressed myself to Theon, and
+asked him which of the tragic poets it was who said that physicians</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">With bitter med’cines bitter choler purge.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And Theon having answered me that it was Sophocles; This, said I to
+him, we must of necessity permit them to do; but we are not to give
+ear to those philosophers who would overthrow paradoxes by assertions
+no less strange and paradoxical, and for the oppugning strange and
+extravagant opinions, devise others yet more wonderful and absurd;
+as these men do, who broach and introduce this doctrine of a motion
+tending towards the middle, in which what sort of absurdity is
+there not to be found? Does it not thence follow, that the earth is
+spherical, though we nevertheless see it to have so many lofty hills,
+so many deep valleys, and so great a number of inequalities? Does it
+not follow that there are antipodes dwelling opposite to another,
+sticking on every side to the earth, with their heads downwards and
+their heels upwards, as if they were woodworms or lizards? That we
+ourselves go not on the earth straight upright, but obliquely and
+bending aside like drunken men? That if bars and weights of a thousand
+talents apiece should be let fall into the hollow of the earth, they
+would, when they were come to the centre, stop and rest there, though
+nothing came against them or sustained them; and that, if peradventure
+they should by force pass the middle, they would of themselves return
+and rebound back thither again? That if one should saw off the two
+trunks or ends of a beam on either side of the earth, they would not
+be always carried downwards, but falling both from without into the
+earth, they would equally meet, and hide themselves together in the
+middle? That if a violent stream of water should run downwards into
+the ground, it would, when it came to the centre of the earth, which
+they hold to be an incorporeal point, there gather together, and turn
+round like a whirlpool, with <span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>a perpetual and endless suspension?
+Some of which positions are so absurd, that none can so much as force
+his imagination, though falsely, to conceive them possible. For
+this is indeed to make that which is above to be below; and to turn
+all things upside down, by making all that is as far as the middle
+to be <i>downwards</i>, and all that is beyond the middle to be
+<i>upwards</i>; so that if a man should, by the sufferance and consent
+of the earth, stand with his navel just against her centre, he would
+by this means have his feet and head both upwards; and if one, having
+digged through that place which is beyond the middle, should come to
+pull him out from thence, that part which is below would at one and the
+same time be drawn upwards, and that which is above, downwards. And
+if another should be imagined to stand the contrary way, their feet,
+though the one’s were opposite to the other’s, would both be and be
+said to be upwards.</p>
+
+<p>8. Bearing then upon their shoulders, and drawing after them, I do
+not say a little bag or box, but a whole pack of juggler’s boxes,
+full of so many absurdities, with which they play the hocus-pocus in
+philosophy, they nevertheless accuse others of error for placing the
+moon, which they hold to be earth, on high, and not in the middle or
+centre of the world. And yet, if every heavy body inclines towards
+the same place, and does from all sides and with every one of its
+parts tend to its own centre, the earth certainly will appropriate and
+challenge to itself these ponderous masses—which are its parts—not
+because it is the centre of the universe, but rather because it is the
+whole; and this gathering together of heavy bodies round about it will
+not be a sign showing it to be the middle of the world, but an argument
+to prove and testify that these bodies which had been plucked from it
+and again return to it have a communication and conformity of nature
+with the earth. For as the sun draws into himself the parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> of which
+he is composed, so the earth receives a stone as a part belonging to
+it, in such manner that every one of such things is in time united and
+incorporated with it. And if peradventure there is some other body
+which was not from the beginning allotted to the earth nor has been
+separated from it, but had its own proper and peculiar consistence
+and nature apart, as these men may say of the moon, what hinders but
+it may continue separated by itself, being kept close, compacted, and
+bound together by its own parts? For they do not demonstrate that the
+earth is the middle of the universe; and this conglomeration of heavy
+bodies which are here, and their coalition with the earth, show us
+the manner how it is probable that the parts which are assembled in
+the body of the moon continue also there. But as for him who drives
+and ranges together in one place all earthly and ponderous things,
+making them parts of one and the same body, I wonder that he does not
+attribute also the same necessity and constraint to light substances,
+but leaves so many conglomerations of fire separated one from another;
+nor can I see why he should not amass together all the stars, and think
+that there ought to be but one body of all those substances which fly
+upwards.</p>
+
+<p>9. But you mathematicians, friend Apollonides, say that the sun is
+distant from our upper sphere infinite thousands of miles, and after
+him the day-star or Venus, Mercury, and other planets, which being
+situated under the fixed stars, and separated from one another by great
+intervals, make their revolutions; and in the mean time you think that
+the world affords not to heavy and terrestrial bodies any great and
+large place or distance one from another. You plainly see, it would
+be ridiculous, if we should deny the moon to be earth because it is
+not seated in the lowest region of the world, and yet affirm it to
+be a star, though so many thousands of miles remote from the upper
+firmament,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> as if it were plunged into some deep gulf. For she is so
+low before all other stars, that the measure of the distances cannot be
+expressed, and you mathematicians want numbers to compute and reckon
+it; but she in a manner touches the earth, making her revolution so
+near the tops of the mountains, that she seems, as Empedocles has it,
+to leave even the very tracks of her chariot-wheels behind her. For
+oftentimes she surpasses not the shadow of the earth, which is very
+short through the excessive greatness of the sun that shines upon it,
+but seems to turn so near the superficies, and (as one may say) between
+the arms and in the bosom of the earth, that it withholds from her the
+light of the sun, because she mounts that shady, earthly, and nocturnal
+region which is the lot and inheritance of the earth. And therefore I
+am of opinion, we may boldly say that the moon is within the limits and
+confines of the earth, seeing she is even darkened by the summits of
+its mountains.</p>
+
+<p>10. But leaving the stars, as well erring as fixed, see what
+Aristarchus proves and demonstrates in his treatise of magnitudes and
+distances; that the distance of the sun is above eighteen times and
+under twenty times greater than that of the moon from us. And yet they
+who place the moon lowest say that her distance from us contains six
+and fifty of the earth’s semidiameters, that is, that she is six and
+fifty times as far from us as we are from the centre of the earth;
+which is forty thousand stadia, according to those that make their
+computation moderately. Therefore the sun is above forty millions and
+three hundred thousand stadia distant from the moon; so far is she from
+the sun by reason of her gravity, and so near does she approach to the
+earth. So that if substances are to be distinguished by places, the
+portion and region of the earth challenges to itself the moon, which,
+by reason of neighborhood and proximity, has a right to be reputed
+and reckoned amongst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> the terrestrial natures and bodies. Nor shall
+we, in my opinion, do amiss if, having given so vast an interval and
+distance to these bodies which are said to be above, we leave also to
+those which are below some space and room to turn them in, such as
+is that between the earth and the moon. For neither is he who calls
+only the utmost superficies of the heaven <i>above</i> and all the
+rest <i>beneath</i> moderate or tolerable; nor is he to be endured who
+confines <i>beneath</i> only to the earth, or rather to its centre;
+seeing the vast greatness of the world may afford means for the
+assigning farther to this lower part some such space as is necessary
+for motion. Now against him who holds that whatever is above the earth
+is immediately high and sublime, there is presently another opposition
+to encounter and contradict it, that whatever is beneath the sphere of
+the fixed stars ought to be called low and inferior.</p>
+
+<p>11. In a word, how is the earth said to be the middle, and of what
+is it the middle? For the universe is infinite; and infiniteness
+having neither beginning nor end, it is convenient also that it should
+not have any middle; for the middle is a certain end or limit, but
+infiniteness is a privation of all sorts of limits. Now he that affirms
+the earth to be the middle, not of the universe but of the world, is
+certainly a pleasant man, if he does not think that the world itself
+is subject to the same doubts and difficulties. For the universe has
+not left a middle even to the very world, but this being without any
+certain seat or foundation, it is carried in an infinite voidness to no
+proper end; or if perhaps it has stopped, it has met with some other
+cause or stay, not according to the nature of the place. As much may be
+conjectured of the moon, that by the means of another soul and another
+Nature, or (to say better) of another difference, the earth continues
+firm here below, and the moon moves. Besides this, see whether they
+are not ignorant of a great inconvenience and error.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> For if it is
+true that all which is without the centre of the earth, however it
+be, is above, there will then be no part of the world below; but the
+earth and all that is upon it will be above; and in brief, every body
+that shall be placed about the centre will be above, and there will
+be nothing below or underneath, but one only point which has no body,
+which will of necessity make head against and oppose all the rest of
+the world’s nature, if <i>above</i> and <i>beneath</i> are naturally
+opposite to one another. Nor is this the only absurdity that will
+follow; but all heavy and ponderous bodies will also lose the cause for
+which they move and tend downwards hither, for there will be no body
+below to which they should move; and as for that which is incorporeal,
+it is not probable, neither will they themselves allow, that it should
+be so forcible as to draw and retain all things about itself. But if
+it is unreasonable and contrary to Nature that the whole world should
+be above, and that there should be nothing below but an incorporeal
+and indivisible term or limit, then is this, as we say, yet more
+reasonable, that the region above and that below being divided the one
+from the other, have nevertheless each of them a large and spacious
+room.</p>
+
+<p>12. Nevertheless, supposing, if you please, that it is against Nature
+for earthly bodies to have any motions in heaven, let us consider
+leisurely and mildly—and not violently, as is done in tragedies—that
+this is no proof of the moon’s not being earth, but only that earth
+is in a place where by nature it should not be; for the fire of Mount
+Aetna is indeed against nature under ground, nevertheless it ceases not
+to be fire. And the wind contained within bottles is indeed of its own
+nature light and inclined to ascend, but is yet by force constrained to
+be there where naturally it should not be. And is not our very soul, I
+beseech you in the name of Jupiter, which, as yourselves say, is light,
+of a fiery substance, and imperceptible to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> sense, included within
+the body, which is heavy, cold, and palpable? Yet do we therefore say
+that the soul does not belong to the body; or that it is not a divine
+substance under a gross and heavy mass, or that it does not in a moment
+pass through heaven, earth, and sea, pierce into the flesh, nerves,
+and marrow, and into the humors which are the cause of a thousand
+passions? And even your Jupiter, such as you imagine him and depaint
+him to be, is he not of his own nature a great and perpetual fire?
+Yet now he submits, is pliable, and transformed into all things by
+several mutations. Take heed therefore, good sir, lest, by transferring
+and reducing every thing to the place assigned it by Nature, you so
+philosophize as to bring in a dissolution of the whole world, and put
+all things again into that state of enmity mentioned by Empedocles, or
+(to speak more properly) lest you raise up again those ancient Titans
+and Giants to put on arms against Nature, and endeavor to introduce
+again that fabulous disorder and confusion, where all that is heavy
+goes one way apart, and all that is light another;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Where neither sun’s bright face is seen,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor earth beheld, spread o’er with green,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor the salt sea,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Empedocles has it. Then the earth felt no heat, nor the sea any
+wind; no heavy thing moved upwards, nor any light thing downwards;
+but the principles of all things were solitary, without any mutual
+love or dilection one to another, not admitting any society or
+mixture together; but shunning and avoiding all communication, moving
+separately by particular motions, as being disdainful, proud, and
+altogether carrying themselves in such manner as every thing does
+from which (as Plato says) God is absent; that is, as those bodies
+do in which there is neither soul nor understanding; till such time
+as, by Divine Providence, desire coming into Nature engendered mutual
+amity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> Venus, and Love,—as Empedocles, Parmenides, and Hesiod have
+it,—to the end that changing their natural places, and reciprocally
+communicating their faculties, some being by necessity bound to motion,
+others to quiet and rest, and all tending to the better, every thing
+remitting a little of its power and yielding a little from its place,
+... they might make at length a harmony, accord, and society together.</p>
+
+<p>13. For if there had not been any other part of the world against
+Nature, but every thing had been in the same place and quality it
+naturally ought to be, without standing in need of any change or
+transposition or having had any occasion for it from the beginning, I
+know not what the work of Divine Providence is or in what it consists,
+or of what Jupiter has been the father, creator, or worker. For there
+would not in a camp be any need of the art of ranging and ordering of
+battles, if every soldier of himself knew and understood his rank,
+place, and station, and the opportunity he ought to take and keep; nor
+would there be any want of gardeners or builders, if water were of
+itself framed to flow where it is necessary, and irrigate such plants
+as stand in need of watering, or if bricks, timber, and stones would of
+their own inclinations and natural motion range and settle themselves
+in due and fitting places and orders. Now if this discourse manifestly
+takes away Providence, and if the ordering and distinction of things
+that are in the world belongs to God, why should we wonder at Nature’s
+having been so disposed and ordained by him, that the fire should be
+here, and the stars there, and again the earth should be situated here
+below, and the moon above, lodged in a prison found out by reason,
+more sure and straight than that which was first ordained by Nature?
+For if it were of absolute necessity that all things should follow
+their natural instinct and move according to the motion given them by
+Nature,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> neither the Sun, Venus, nor any other planet would any more
+run a circular course; for light and fiery substances have by Nature
+their motion directly upwards. And if perhaps Nature itself receives
+this permutation and change by reason of the place, so that fire should
+here in a direct line tend upwards, but being once arrived at heaven,
+should turn round with the revolution of the heavens; what wonder would
+it be, if heavy and terrestrial bodies, being in like manner out of
+their natural place, were vanquished by the ambient air, and forced
+to take another sort of motion? For it cannot with any reason be said
+that heaven has by Nature the power to take away from light things the
+property of mounting directly upwards, and cannot likewise have the
+force to overcome heavy things and such as tend downwards; but that
+sometimes making use of this power, and sometimes of the proper nature
+of the things, it still orders every thing for the best.</p>
+
+<p>14. But if, laying aside those servile habits and opinions to which
+we have enslaved ourselves, we must frankly and fearlessly deliver
+our judgment, it seems clear to me, that there is not any part of the
+universe which has a peculiar and separate rank, situation, or motion,
+that can simply be said to be natural to it. But when every thing
+exhibits and yields up itself to be moved, as is most profitable and
+fit for that for whose sake it was made and to which it is by Nature
+appointed,—suffering, doing, or being disposed, as is most expedient
+and meet for the safety, beauty, and power of the same,—then it
+appears to have its place, motion, and disposition according to Nature.
+As a proof of this, we may observe that man, who, if any thing in the
+world be so, is made and disposed according to Nature, has upwards,
+especially about his head, heavy and terrestrial things, and about
+the middle of his body such as are hot and participate of fire; of
+his teeth also some grow upwards and some downwards, and yet neither
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> one nor the other are contrary to Nature; neither is the fire
+which shines in his eyes according to Nature, and that which is in his
+heart and stomach against it; but it is in each place properly and
+beneficially seated. Moreover, consider the nature of all shell-fishes;
+and, that I may use the words of Empedocles,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Look on the crabs, the oysters of the sea,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">And shell-fish all, which heavy coats enfold,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The tortoise too with arched back, whom we</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Covered with crust, as hard as stone, behold.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">View them but well, and plain it will appear,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">They hardened earth above their bodies bear.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And yet this crust, stone-like, hard, and heavy, as it is thus placed
+over their bodies, does not press and crush their natural habit, nor on
+the contrary does their heat fly upwards by reason of its lightness,
+and vanish away, but they are mingled and composed one with another,
+according to the nature of each one.</p>
+
+<p>15. Wherefore it is also probable that the world, if it is an animal,
+has in many parts of its body earth, and in as many fire and water and
+air, not thrust and driven into it by force, but ordered and disposed
+by reason. For neither was the eye by its lightness forced into that
+part of the body where it is, nor the heart by its gravity pressed
+down into the breast; but both the one and the other were thus placed
+because it was better and more expedient. In like manner we ought not
+to think of the parts of the world, either that the earth settled where
+it is, being beaten down thither by its ponderosity; or that the sun
+was carried upwards by its levity, like a bottle or bladder full of
+wind (which, being plunged into the bottom of the water, immediately
+rises up again), as Metrodorus of Chios was persuaded; or that the
+other stars, as if they had been put into a balance, were swayed this
+way or that way, according to their weight or lightness, and so mounted
+higher or lower to the places they now possess. But reason having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
+prevailed in the constitution of the world, the stars have like to
+glittering eyes, been fixed in the firmament, as it were in the face
+of the universe, there to turn continually about; and the sun, having
+the force and vigor of the heart, sends and distributes its heat and
+light, like blood and spirits, throughout all; the earth and sea are in
+the world, as the paunch and bladder in the body of a living creature;
+and the moon placed between the sun and the earth, as the liver, or
+some other soft entrail between the heart and the belly, transmits down
+thither the heat of the superior bodies, and draws round about her the
+vapors which arise from hence, subtilizing them by way of concoction
+and purification. And whether its solid and terrestrial quality has
+any other property serving for some profitable use, is indeed unknown
+to us; but everywhere that which is better prevails over what is by
+necessity. For what probability can we draw from that which they
+affirm? They say, that the most subtile and luminous part of the air,
+by reason of its rarity, became heaven; but what was thickened and
+closely driven together was made into stars, of which the moon being
+the heaviest is compacted of the grossest and muddiest matter. And yet
+it is plainly to be seen, that the moon is not separated or divided
+from the air, but moves and makes her revolution through that which
+is about her, to wit, the region of the winds, and where the comets
+are engendered and keep their course. These bodies then were not by a
+natural inclination thus placed and situated as they are, but have by
+some other reason been so ordered and disposed.</p>
+
+<p>16. These things being said, as I was giving Lucius his turn to follow
+and continue the discourse,—there being nothing left to be added but
+the demonstrations of this doctrine,—Aristotle smiling said: I am a
+witness, that you have directed all your contradictions and all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> your
+refutations against those who, supposing the moon to be half fire,
+affirm in general that all bodies do of their own accord tend either
+upwards or downwards; but if there is any one who holds that the stars
+have of their own nature a circular motion, and that they are of a
+substance wholly different from the four elements, you have not thought
+of saying any thing, so much as accidentally or by the way, against
+him; and therefore I am wholly unconcerned in your discourse.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, good sir, said Lucius, if you should suppose the other stars,
+and the whole heaven apart, to be of a pure and sincere nature, free
+from all change and alteration of passion, and should bring in also
+a circle, in which they make their motion by a perpetual revolution,
+you would not perhaps find any one now to contradict you, though there
+are in this infinite doubts and difficulties. But when the discourse
+descends so far as to touch the moon, it cannot maintain in her that
+perfection of being exempt from all passion and alteration, nor that
+heavenly beauty of her body. But to let pass all other inequalities
+and differences, the very face which appears in the body of the
+moon necessarily proceeds from some passion of her own substance or
+the mixture of another; for what is mixed suffers, because it loses
+its first purity, being filled by force with that which is worse.
+Besides, as for the slowness and dulness of her course, her feeble and
+inefficacious heat, by which, as Ion says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The black grape comes not to maturity,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>to what shall we attribute them but to her weakness and passion, if an
+eternal and celestial body can be subject to passion?</p>
+
+<p>In brief, my friend Aristotle, if the moon is earth, she is a most fair
+and admirable thing, and excellently well adorned; but if you regard
+her as a star or light or a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> certain divine and heavenly body, I am
+afraid she will prove deformed and foul, and disgrace that beautiful
+appellation, if of all bodies, which are in heaven so numerous, she
+alone stands in need of light borrowed of another, and, as Parmenides
+has it,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Looks always backwards on the sun’s bright rays.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our friend therefore indeed, having in a lecture of his demonstrated
+this proposition of Anaxagoras, that the sun communicates to the moon
+what brightness she has, was well esteemed for it. As for me, I will
+not say what I have learned of you or with you, but having taken it
+for granted, will pass on to the rest. It is then probable that the
+moon is illuminated, not like a glass or crystal, by the brightness
+of the sun’s rays shining through her, nor yet again, by a certain
+collustration and conjunction of light and brightness, as when many
+torches set together augment the light of one another. For so she
+would be no less full in her conjunction or first quarter than in her
+opposition, if she did not obstruct or repel the rays of the sun, but
+let them pass through her by reason of her rarity, or if he did by a
+contemperature shine upon her and kindle the light within her. For we
+cannot allege her declinations and aversions in the conjunction or new
+moon, as when it is half-moon or when she appears crescent or in the
+wane; but being then perpendicularly (as Democritus says) under him
+that illuminates her, she receives and admits the sun; so that then it
+is probable she should appear, and he shine through her. But this she
+is so far from doing, that she is not only then unseen, but also often
+hides the sun, as Empedocles has it:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The sun’s bright beams from us she turns aside,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And of the earth itself as much doth hide,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">As her orb’s breadth can cover;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as if the light of the sun fell not upon another star, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span> upon night
+and darkness. And as for what Posidonius says, that the depth of the
+moon’s body is the cause why the light of the sun cannot pierce through
+her to us, this is evidently refuted; for the air, which is infinite
+and of a far greater depth than the body of the moon, is nevertheless
+all over illustrated and enlightened by the rays of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>It remains then that, according to the opinion of Empedocles, the
+light of the moon which appears to us comes from the repercussion
+and reflection of the sun’s beams. And for this reason it comes not
+to us hot and bright, as in all probability it would, if her shining
+proceeded either from inflammation or the commixtion of two lights. But
+as voices reverberated cause an echo more obscure and less express than
+the speech that was pronounced, and as the blows of darts and arrows,
+rebounding from some wall against which they are shot, are more mild
+and gentle;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">So Titan’s lustre, smiting the moon’s orb,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>yields but a faint and feeble reflection and repercussion of brightness
+upon us, its force being abated and weakened by the refraction.</p>
+
+<p>17. Sylla then, taking up the discourse, said: There is indeed a
+great deal of probability in all that you have spoken. But as to the
+strongest objection that is brought against it, has it, think you, been
+any way weakened by this discourse? Or has our friend quite passed it
+over in silence?</p>
+
+<p>What opposition do you mean, said Lucius? Is it the difficulty about
+the moon, when one half of her appears enlightened?</p>
+
+<p>The very same, answered Sylla. For there is some reason, seeing that
+all reflection is made by equal angles, that when the half-moon is
+in the midst of heaven, the light proceeding from her should not be
+carried upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> earth, but glance and fall beyond and on one side of
+it. For the sun, being placed in the horizon, touches the moon with
+its beams; which, being equally reflected, will therefore necessarily
+fall on the other bound of the horizon, and not send their light down
+hither; or else there will be a great distortion and difference of the
+angle, which is impossible.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, by Jupiter, replied Lucius, this has not been forgotten or
+overpassed, but already spoken to. And casting his eye, as he was
+discoursing, upon the mathematician Menelaus; I am ashamed, said
+he, in your presence, dear Menelaus, to attempt the subverting and
+overthrowing of a mathematical position, which is supposed as a basis
+and foundation to the doctrine of the catoptrics concerning the causes
+and reasons of mirrors. And yet of necessity I must. For it neither
+appears of itself nor is confessed as true, that all reflections are at
+equal angles; but this position is first checked and contradicted in
+concave mirrors, when they represent the images of things, appearing
+at one point of sight, greater than the things themselves. And it is
+also disproved by double mirrors, which being inclined or turned one
+towards the other, so that an angle is made within, each of the glasses
+or plain superficies yields a double resemblance; so that there are
+four images from the same face, two answerable to the object without
+on the left side, and two others obscure and not so evident on the
+right side in the bottom of the mirror. Of which Plato renders the
+efficient cause; for he says, that a mirror being raised on the one
+and the other side, the sight varies the reflection, falling from one
+side to the other. And therefore, since of the views or visions some
+immediately have recourse to us, and others, sliding to opposite parts
+of the mirror, do again return upon us from thence, it is not possible
+that all reflections should be made at equal angles. Though those who
+closely impugn our opinion contend that, by these reflections of light
+from the moon upon the earth, the equality of angles is taken away,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span>
+thinking this to be much more probable than the other.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, if we must of necessity yield and grant thus much to our
+dearly beloved geometry, first, this should in all likelihood befall
+those mirrors which are perfectly smooth and exquisitely polished;
+whereas the moon has many inequalities and roughnesses, so that the
+rays proceeding from a vast body, and carried to mighty altitudes,
+receive one from another and intercommunicate their lights, which,
+being sent to and fro and reciprocally distributed, are refracted and
+interlaced all manner of ways, and the counter-lights meet one another,
+as if they came to us from several mirrors. And then, though we should
+suppose these reflections on the superficies of the moon to be made
+at equal angles, yet it is not impossible that the rays, coming down
+unto us by so long an interval, may have their flexions, fractions, and
+delapsions, that the light being compounded may shine the more. Some
+also there are who prove by lineary demonstration, that many lights
+send a ray down by a line drawn below the line of reflection; but to
+make the description and delineation of it publicly, especially where
+there were many auditors, would not be very easy.</p>
+
+<p>18. But in brief, said he, I wonder how they come thus to allege
+against us the half-moon, there being the same reason when she is
+gibbous and crescent. For if the sun enlightened the moon, as a mass of
+ethereal or fiery matter, he would never surely leave one hemisphere,
+or half of her globe always appearing dark and shadowy to sense, as it
+is seen to be; but how little soever he touched her superficies, it
+would be agreeable to reason that it should be wholly replenished and
+totally changed by that light of his, which by reason of its agility
+and swiftness so easily spreads and passes through all. For, since wine
+touching water only in one point, or one drop of blood falling into
+any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> liquor, dyes and colors it all with a red or purple color; and
+since they say, that the very air is altered and changed with light,
+not by any defluxions or beams intermingled, but by a sudden conversion
+and change made in one only point; how can they imagine that one star
+touching another star, and one light another light, should not be
+immediately mingled, nor make any thorough confusion or change, but
+only exteriorly illuminate that whose superficies it touches? For that
+circle which the sun makes by fetching a compass and turning towards
+the moon,—sometimes falling upon the very line that distinguishes her
+visible part from her invisible, and sometimes rising up directly, so
+that it cuts her in two and is reciprocally cut by her, causing in her,
+by several inclinations and habitudes of the luminous to the dark,
+those various forms by which she appears gibbous and crescent,—that
+more than any thing else demonstrates, that all this illumination
+of the moon is not a mixture, but only a touching; nor a conflux or
+gathering together of sundry lights, but only an illustration round
+about.</p>
+
+<p>But forasmuch as she is not only enlightened herself, but also sends
+back hither the image of her illumination, this confirms us yet
+further in what we say touching her substance. For reflections and
+reverberations are not made upon any thing which is rare, and of thin
+and subtile parts; nor is it easily to be imagined how light can
+rebound from light, or one fire from another. But that which is to make
+the reverberation or reflection must be solid and firm, that a blow
+may be given against it and a rebounding made from it. As a proof of
+this, we see that the air transmits the sun, and gives him a way to
+pierce quite through it, not obstructing or driving back his rays; but
+on the contrary from wood, stones, or clothes put in the sun, there are
+made many reflections of light and many illuminations round about. So
+we see that the earth is illuminated by him, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span> to the very bottom,
+as the water, nor thoroughly and all over, as the air, through which
+the beams of the sun have a clear passage; but just such a circle as
+surrounds the moon surrounds also the earth; and as much of the earth
+as this circle includes, so much does the sun enlighten, the rest being
+left without light; for what is illuminated both in the one and in the
+other is little more than an hemisphere. Permit me therefore now to
+conclude after the manner of geometricians by proportions. If there are
+three things which the light of the sun approaches, the air, the moon,
+and the earth, and if we see that the moon is enlightened by him, not
+as the air, but as the earth, it is of necessity that those two things
+must have one and the same nature, which of one and the same cause
+suffer the same effects.</p>
+
+<p>19. Now when all the company began highly to commend Lucius’s harangue;
+This is excellently well done of you, Lucius (said I to him), that you
+have to so fine a discourse added as fine a proportion, for you must
+not be defrauded of that which is your due.</p>
+
+<p>Then Lucius, smiling, thus went on: I have yet a second proportion to
+be added to the former, by which we will clearly demonstrate that the
+moon altogether resembles the earth, not only because they suffer and
+receive the same accidents from the same cause, but because they work
+the same effect on the same object. For you will without difficulty,
+I suppose, grant me that, of all the accidents which befall the sun,
+there is none so like to his setting as his eclipse, especially if you
+but call to mind that recent conjunction which, beginning at noonday,
+showed us many stars in many places of the heavens, and wrought a
+temperature in the air like that of the twilight. But if you will not
+grant me this, our friend Theon here will bring us a Mimnermus, a
+Cydias, an Archilochus, and besides these, a Stesichorus and a Pindar,
+lamenting that in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> eclipses the world is robbed of its brightest light,
+and saying that night comes on in the midst of the day, and that the
+rays of the sun wander in the path of darkness; but above all he will
+produce Homer, saying that the faces of men are in eclipses seized upon
+by night and darkness, and the sun is quite lost out of heaven by the
+conjunction of the moon. And ... it is natural that this should happen,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When one moon’s going, and another comes.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the rest of the demonstration is, in my opinion, as certain and
+exactly concluding, as are the acute arguments of the mathematics. As
+night is the shadow of the earth, so the eclipse of the sun is the
+shadow of the moon, when it stands in the way of our sight. For the
+sun is at his setting kept from our sight by the interposition of the
+earth, and at his eclipse by that of the moon. Now both of these are
+obscurations; but that of his setting is from the earth, and that of
+his being eclipsed from the moon, their shadows intercepting our sight.
+Now the consequences of these things are easily understood. For if the
+effect is alike, the efficient causes are also alike; because it is
+of necessity that the same effects, happening in the same subjects,
+proceed from the same efficients. Now if the darkness in eclipses is
+not so profound, nor does so forcibly and entirely seize the air, as
+does the night, we are not to wonder at it; for the substance of the
+body which makes the night, and of that which causes the eclipse,
+is indeed the same, though their greatness is not equal. For the
+Egyptians, if I am not mistaken, hold that the moon is in bigness the
+two and seventieth part of the earth; and Anaxagoras says, she is as
+big as Peloponnesus. And Aristarchus shows the overthwart line or
+diameter of the moon to have a proportion to that of the earth which
+is less than if sixty were compared to nineteen, and somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> greater
+than an hundred and eight compared to forty and three. Whence it
+happens that the earth, by reason of its greatness, wholly withdraws
+the sun from our sight, for it is a great obstacle and opposition, and
+lasts all the night. But although the moon sometimes hides all the
+sun, yet that eclipse continues not so long nor is so far extended,
+but there always appears about the circumference a certain brightness,
+which permits not the darkness to be black, deep, and perfectly obscure.</p>
+
+<p>And Aristotle (I mean the ancient philosopher of that name) rendering
+the reason why there are oftener seen to happen eclipses of the moon
+than of the sun, among other causes alleges this, that the sun is
+eclipsed by the interposition of the moon, and the moon by that of the
+earth, which is much greater and consequently oftener opposes itself.
+And Posidonius thus defines this accident: The eclipse of the sun is
+the conjunction of the sun and moon, the shadow of which darkens our
+sight.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> For there is no eclipse except to those whose sight the
+shadow of the moon intercepting hinders them from seeing the sun. Now
+in confessing that the shadow of the moon descends down to us, I know
+not what he has left himself to say. It is certainly impossible for a
+star to cast a shadow; for that which is not enlightened is called a
+shadow, and light makes no shadow, but on the contrary drives it away.</p>
+
+<p>20. But what arguments, said he, were alleged after this?</p>
+
+<p>The moon, answered I then, suffered the same eclipse.</p>
+
+<p>You have done well, replied he, to put me in mind of it. But would
+you have me go on and prosecute the rest of the discourse, as if you
+had already supposed and granted that the moon is eclipsed, being
+intercepted within the shadow of the earth? Or shall I take for
+the subject of a declamation the making a demonstration of it, by
+rehearsing to you all the arguments, one after another?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span></p>
+
+<p>Nay, by Jove, said Theon, let this be the argument of your discourse.
+For I indeed stand in need of some persuasion, having only heard that
+when these three bodies, the earth, the moon, and the sun, are in a
+direct line, then eclipses happen; for that either the earth takes the
+sun from the moon, or the moon takes him from the earth. For the sun
+suffers an eclipse when the moon, and the moon when the earth, is in
+the midst of the three; of which the one happens in the conjunction or
+new moon, and the other in the opposition or when the moon is full.</p>
+
+<p>Then said Lucius: These are the principal points, and the summary of
+what is said. But in the first place, if you please, take the argument
+drawn from the form and figure of the shadow. For this is a cone, as it
+must be when a great fire or light that is spherical encompasses a mass
+that is also globular but less; whence it comes that, in the eclipses
+of the moon, the circumscriptions of the black and dark from the clear
+and luminous have their sections always round. For the sections given
+or received by one round body applied to another, which way soever they
+go, do by reason of the similitude always keep a circular form. Now as
+for the second argument, I suppose you understand that the first part
+which is eclipsed in the moon is always that which looks towards the
+east, and in the sun that which regards the west. Now the shadow of the
+earth moves from the east to the west, but the sun and moon from the
+west eastward. The experience of the appearances gives us a visible
+knowledge of this, nor is there need of many words to make us fully
+understand it; and from these suppositions the cause of the eclipse is
+confirmed. For, inasmuch as the sun is eclipsed by being overtaken, and
+the moon by meeting that which makes the eclipse, it probably or rather
+necessarily follows that the one is surprised behind, and the other
+before.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> For the obstruction begins on that side whence that which
+causes it first approaches. Now the moon comes upon the sun from the
+west, as striving in course with him and hastening after him; but the
+shadow of the earth comes from the east, as that which has a contrary
+motion.</p>
+
+<p>The third argument is taken from the time and greatness of the
+eclipses. For the moon, if she is eclipsed when she is on high in her
+apogee (or at her farthest distance from the earth), continues but a
+little while in her defect or want of light; but when she suffers the
+same accident being low and in her perigee (or near the earth), she
+is very much oppressed, and slowly gets out of the shadow; and yet,
+when she is low, she moves swifter, and when high, slower. But the
+cause of the difference is in the shadow, which is, like pyramids,
+broadest at the bottom or basis; and, growing still narrower by little
+and little, terminates in a sharp point at the top. Whence it comes,
+that when she is low, she is embarrassed within greater circles,
+traversing the bottom of the shadow and what is most obscure and dark;
+but when she is high, being through the narrowness of the shadow
+(as it were) but in a shallow puddle, by which she is sullied, she
+immediately gets out again. I omit what was said particularly about
+the bases and disposition of parts, for these admit of a rational
+explanation, so far as this is possible; but I return to the subject
+properly before us, which has its foundation in our senses. For we
+see that fire shines forth and appears brighter out of a dark and
+shady place, through the thickness of the caliginous air, which admits
+no effluxions or diffusions of the fire’s virtue, but keeps in and
+contains its substance within itself. Or rather,—if this is a passion
+of the senses,—as hot things, when near to cold ones, are felt to be
+hotter, and pleasures immediately after pains are found more vehement,
+so things that are bright appear better when they are near to such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> as
+are obscure, the imagination being more strained and extended by means
+of different passions. But there seems to be a greater appearance of
+probability in the first reason. For in the sun, all the nature of fire
+not only loses its faculty of illuminating, but is also rendered duller
+and more unapt to burn, because the heat of the sun dissipates and
+scatters all its force.</p>
+
+<p>If it were then true that the moon, being, as the Stoics say, a muddy
+and troubled star, has a weak and duskish fire, it would be meet that
+she should suffer none of these accidents which she is now seen to
+suffer, but altogether the contrary; to wit, that she should be seen
+when she is hidden, and absconded when she appears; that is, she should
+be concealed all the rest of the time, being obscured by the environing
+air, and again shine forth and become apparent and manifest for six
+months together, and afterwards disappear again five months, entering
+into the shadow of the earth. For of four hundred and sixty-five
+revolutions of ecliptic full moons, four hundred and four are of six
+months’ duration, and the rest of five. The moon then should all this
+time appear shining in the shadow; but on the contrary we see, that in
+the shadow she is eclipsed and loses her light, and recovers it again
+after she is escaped and got forth of the shadow. Nay, she appears
+often in the daytime, so that she is rather any thing else than a fiery
+and starry body.</p>
+
+<p>21. As soon as Lucius had said these things, Pharnaces and Apollonides
+ran both together upon him, to oppugn and refute his discourse; and
+then Apollonides giving him way, Pharnaces said: This it is that
+principally shows the moon to be a star and of a fiery nature, that in
+her eclipses she is not wholly obscured and disappearing, but shows
+herself with a certain coal-resembling color, terrible to the sight,
+yet such as is proper to her.</p>
+
+<p>As for Apollonides, he insisted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> much in opposition to the word shadow,
+saying, that the mathematicians always give that name to the place
+which is not enlightened, and that heaven admits no shadow.</p>
+
+<p>To this I thus answered: This instance is rather alleged obstinately
+against the name, than naturally or mathematically against the thing.
+For if one will not call the place obfuscated by the opposition of
+the earth a shadow, but a place deprived of light, yet be it what
+it will, you must of necessity confess that the moon being there
+becomes obscure; and every way, said I, it is a folly to deny that
+the shadow of the earth reaches thither from whence the shadow of the
+moon, falling upon our sight here on earth, causes the eclipse of the
+sun. And therefore I now address myself to you, Pharnaces; for this
+coal-like and burnt color of the moon, which you affirm to be proper
+to her, belongs to a body that has thickness and depth. For there is
+not wont to remain any relic, mark, or print of flame in a body that
+is rare, nor can a coal be made where there is not a solid body which
+may receive into it the heat of the fire; as Homer himself shows in a
+certain passage, where he says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Then, when the languid flames at length subside,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">He strows a bed of glowing embers wide.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the coal seems not properly a fire, but a body enkindled and
+altered by the fire, which stays and remains in a solid firmly rooted
+mass; and whereas flames are the setting on fire and fluxions of a
+nutriment and matter, which is of a rare substance, and by reason of
+its weakness quickly dissolved and consumed; so that there could not
+be any more evident and plain argument to demonstrate that the moon is
+solid and earthly, than if her proper color were that of a coal. But
+it is not so, my friend Pharnaces; but in her eclipses she diversely
+changes her colors, which the mathematicians, determining with respect
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span>to the time and hour, thus distinguish. If she is eclipsed in the
+evening, she appears horribly black until the middle of the fourth
+hour of the night; if about midnight, she sends forth this reddish and
+fire-resembling color, and after the middle of the eighth hour, the
+redness disappears; and finally, if about the dawning of the morning,
+she takes a blue or grayish color; which is the cause why she is by the
+poets, and particularly by Empedocles, called Glaucopis.</p>
+
+<p>Since then they clearly see that the moon changes into so many colors
+in the shadow, they do ill to attribute to her only that of a burning
+coal, which may be said to be less proper to her than any other, being
+only a small remnant and semblance of light, appearing and shining
+through a shadow, her own proper color being black and earthy. And
+since that here below, red and purple garments, and rivers and lakes,
+which receive the rays of the sun, cause neighboring shady places to
+take the same appearances of colors and to be illuminated by them,
+casting and sending back by reason of reflections several rebated
+splendors; what wonder is it if a copious flux of shadow, falling as it
+were into an immense celestial sea of light, not steady and quiet, but
+agitated by innumerable stars, and besides admitting several mixtures
+and mutations in itself, takes from the moon the impression sometimes
+of one color, sometimes of another, and sends them hither to us? For it
+is not to be denied but that a star of fire cannot appear in a shadow
+black, gray, or violet; but there are seen upon hills, plains, and
+seas, several various resemblances of colors, caused by the reflection
+of the sun, which are the very tinctures that brightness mixed with
+shadows and mists, as if it were with painters’ colors, brings upon
+them. And as for the tincture or colors of the sea, Homer has indeed
+in some sort endeavored to name and express them, when he sometimes
+terms the sea violet-colored<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> or red as wine, at other times the
+waves purple, and again the sea blue, and the calm white. As for the
+diversities of tinctures and colors appearing upon the earth, he has, I
+suppose, omitted them, because they are in number infinite. Now it is
+not probable that the moon has but one superficies all plain and even,
+as the sea; but rather that of its nature it principally resembles the
+earth, of which old Socrates in Plato seemed to mythologize at his
+pleasure; whether it were, that under covert and enigmatical speeches
+he meant it of the moon, or whether he spake it of some other. For it
+is neither incredible nor wonderful, if the moon, having in herself
+nothing corrupt or muddy, but enjoying a pure and clear light from
+heaven, and being full of heat, not of a burning and furious fire, but
+of such as is mild and harmless, has in her places admirably fair and
+pleasant, resplendent mountains, purple-colored cinctures or zones,
+and store of gold and silver, not dispersed here and there within her
+bowels, but flourishing in great abundance on the superficies of her
+plains, or spread all over her smooth hills and mountains.</p>
+
+<p>And if the sight of all these things comes to us through a shadow,
+sometimes in one manner and sometimes in another, by reason of the
+diversity and different change of the ambient air, the moon does
+not therefore lose the venerable persuasion that is had of her, or
+the reputation of divinity; being esteemed by men a heavenly earth,
+or rather (as the Stoics say) a troubled, thick, and dreggish fire.
+For even the fire itself is honored with barbarian honors among the
+Assyrians and Medes, who through fear serve and adore such things as
+are hurtful, hallowing them even above such things as are of themselves
+indeed holy and honorable. But the very name of the earth is truly dear
+and venerable to every Greek, and there is through all Greece a custom
+received of adoring and revering it, as much as any of the Gods. And
+we are very far from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> thinking that the moon, which we hold to be a
+heavenly earth, is a body without soul and spirit, exempt and deprived
+of all that is to be offered to the Gods. For both by law we yield her
+recompenses and thanksgivings, for that we receive of her and by nature
+we adore what we acknowledge to be of a more excellent virtue and a
+more honorable power; and therefore we do not think that we offend in
+supposing the moon to be earth.</p>
+
+<p>Now as to the face which appears in her, as this earth on which we
+are has in it many great sinuosities and valleys, so it is probable
+that the moon also lies open, and is cleft with many deep caves and
+ruptures, in which there is water or very obscure air, to the bottom of
+which the sun cannot reach or penetrate, but failing there, sends back
+a dissipated reflection to us here below.</p>
+
+<p>22. Here Apollonides, taking up the discourse, said: Tell me then,
+I beseech you, good sir, even by the moon herself, do you think it
+possible that there should be there shadows of caves and chinks, and
+that the sight of them should come even to our eyes? Or do you not
+regard what will come of it? And must I tell you what it is? But
+hearken to me, although you are not ignorant of it. The diameter of the
+moon, according to that bigness which appears to us when she is in her
+mean and ordinary distances, is twelve digits, and every one of these
+black and shady spots is above half a digit, that is above the four and
+twentieth part of the diameter. Now if we suppose the circumference of
+the moon to be only thirty thousand stadia; and the diameter according
+to that supposition to be ten thousand, every one of these shadowy
+marks within her will not be less than five hundred stadia. Consider
+then, first, whether there can possibly be in the moon such great gaps
+and such inequalities as may make such a shadow? And then how is it
+possible that, being so great, they are not seen by us?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span></p>
+
+<p>At this I, smiling upon him, said: You have done me a pleasure, dear
+Apollonides, in having found out such a demonstration by which you
+will prove that you and I shall be bigger than those giant sons of
+Aloeus,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a>—not indeed every hour of the day, but principally morning
+and evening,—if indeed you think that, when the sun makes our shadows
+so long, he suggests to our minds this goodly argument; if that which
+is shadowed is great, that which shadows must of necessity be yet
+excessively greater. I know well that neither you nor I have ever been
+in Lemnos; yet we have often heard that Iambic verse, so frequent in
+every one’s mouth:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Mount Athos’ shade shall hide the Lemnian cow.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the shadow of that mountain falls, as it seems, on the image of a
+brazen heifer which is in Lemnos, extending itself in length over the
+sea not less than seven hundred stadia.... The mountain which makes the
+shadow causes it, because the distance of the light renders the shadow
+of bodies manifoldly greater than the bodies themselves. Consider then
+here, that when the moon is in the full, and shows us the form of a
+visage most expressly, by reason of the profundity of the shadow, it is
+then that she is most remote from the sun; for it is the distance of
+the light that makes the shadow bigger, and not the greatness of the
+inequalities which are on the superficies of the moon. And you moreover
+see, that the brightness of the sun’s beams suffers not the tops of the
+mountains to be discerned in open day; but on the contrary, the deep
+hollow and shadowy parts appear from afar. It is not therefore any way
+absurd or strange, if we cannot so exactly see how the illumination of
+the moon and her reception of the sunbeams take place, while yet the
+conjunction of things that are obscure and dark to such as are clear
+and shining is by reason of this diversity apparent to our <span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>sight.</p>
+
+<p>23. But this, said I, seems rather to refute and check
+the reflection and reverberation which is said to rebound from the
+moon; because those who are within retorted rays do not only see that
+which is enlightened, but also that which enlightens. For when, at
+the resulting of light from water upon a wall, the sight falls upon
+the place which is thus illuminated by the reflection, the eye there
+beholds three things, to wit, the ray or light that is driven back,
+the water which makes the reflection, and the sun himself, whose
+light, falling on the superficies of the water, is repulsed and sent
+back. This being confessed, as what is evidently seen, it is required
+of those who say that the earth is enlightened from the moon by the
+reflections of the sun’s rays upon it, that they show us by night the
+sun appearing upon the superficies of the moon, in the same manner as
+he may be seen by day appearing in the water on which he shines when
+there is the said reflection of his beams. But since the sun does not
+so appear, they thence infer that the moon receives her illumination by
+some other means, and not by reflection; and if there is no reflection,
+the moon then is not earth.</p>
+
+<p>What answer then is to be made them, said Apollonides? For the argument
+of this objection against reflection is common also to us.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed, answered I, in some sort common, and in some sort not.
+But first consider the comparison, how perversely and against the
+stream they take it. For the water is here below on the earth, and the
+moon there above in heaven. So that the reflected and reverberated rays
+make the form of their angles quite opposite one to the other, the one
+having their point upwards towards the superficies of the moon, and the
+other downwards toward the earth. Let them not then require that from
+every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> form of mirror, nor that from every distance and remoteness,
+there should be a like and semblable reflection; for so doing they
+would repugn notorious and apparent evidence. And as for those who
+hold the moon to be a body not smooth, even, and subtile as the water,
+but solid, massy, and terrestrial, I cannot conceive why they should
+require to see the image of the sun in her as in a glass. For neither
+does milk itself render such peculiar images, nor cause reflection of
+the sight, by reason of the inequality and ruggedness of its parts.
+How then is it possible that the moon should send back the sight from
+her superficies, as mirrors do that are more polished? And if in these
+also there is any scratch, filth, or dulness on their superficies
+whence the reflected sight is wont to receive a form, they are dimmed,
+and although the mirrors may be seen, they yield no counterlight. He
+then who requires that either the sun should appear in the moon, or
+else the moon should not reflect the sun’s light to us, might as well
+require that the eye be the sun, the sight light, and man heaven. For
+it is probable, that the reflection of the sun’s beams which is made
+upon the moon does, by reason of their vehemence and great brightness,
+rebound with a stroke upon us. But our sight being weak and slender,
+what wonder is it, if it neither give such a stroke as may rebound, or
+if it rebounds, that it does not maintain its continuity, but is broken
+and fails, as not having such abundance of light that it should not
+disgregate and be dissipated within those inequalities and asperities?
+For it is not impossible, that the reflection upon water or other sorts
+of mirrors, being yet strong, powerful, and near its origin, should
+from thence return upon the eye; but though there may perhaps from the
+moon be some glimmerings, yet they still will be weak and obscure, and
+will fail in the way, by reason of so long a distance. For otherwise
+hollow and concave mirrors send back the reverberated and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> reflected
+rays stronger than they came, so that they frequently burn and set on
+fire; and those that are convex and embossed like a bowl, because they
+beat them not back on all sides, render them dark and feeble. You see
+for certain, when two rainbows appear together in the heaven, one cloud
+comprehending another, that the rainbow which outwardly environs the
+other yields dim colors, and such as are not sufficiently distinguished
+and expressed, because the exterior cloud, being more remote, makes not
+a strong and forcible reflection. And what needs there any more to be
+said, seeing that the very light of the sun, reverberated and sent back
+by the moon, loses all its heat; and of his brightness, there comes to
+us with much ado but a small remainder, and that very languishing and
+weak? Is it then possible, that our sight, turning the same course,
+should bring back any part of the solar image from the moon? I for my
+part think it is not. But consider, I said, yourselves, that if our
+sight were in one and the same manner affected and disposed towards the
+water and towards the moon, the full moon would of necessity represent
+to us the images of the earth, plants, men, and stars, as is done by
+the water and all other sorts of mirrors. And if there is no such
+reflection of our sight as to bring us back these images, either by
+reason of our said sight’s weakness, or through the rugged inequality
+of the moon’s superficies, let us no longer require that it should
+rebound against the sun.</p>
+
+<p>24. We have then, said I, related, as far as our memory would carry
+it away, whatever was there said. It is now time to desire Sylla, or
+rather to exact of him, that he would make us his narration, as being
+on such condition admitted to hear all this discourse. If you think
+good therefore, let us give over walking, and sitting down on these
+seats, make him a quiet and settled audience.</p>
+
+<p>Every one approved this motion. And therefore, when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span> we had seated
+ourselves, Theon thus began: I am indeed, O Lamprias, as desirous as
+any of you can be to hear what shall be said; but I would gladly first
+understand something concerning those who are said to dwell in the
+moon; not whether there are any persons inhabiting it, but whether
+it is impossible there should be any; for if it is not possible for
+the moon to be inhabited, it is also unreasonable to say that she is
+earth; otherwise she would have been created in vain and to no end, not
+bearing any fruits, not affording a place for the birth or education
+of any men, for which causes and ends this earth wherein we live was
+made and created, being (as Plato says) our nurse and true guardian,
+producing and distinguishing the day from the night. Now you know, that
+of this matter many things have been said, as well merrily and in jest
+as seriously and in earnest. For of those who dwell under the moon,
+it is said that she hangs over their heads, as if they were so many
+Tantaluses; and on the contrary, of those who inhabit her, that being
+tied and bound to her, like a sort of Ixions, they are with violence
+turned and whirled about. Nor is the moon indeed moved by one only
+motion, but is, as they were wont to call her, Trivia, or Three-wayed;
+performing her course together according to length, breadth, and depth
+in the Zodiac; the first of which motions mathematicians call a direct
+revolution, the second volutation, or an oblique winding and wheeling
+in and out; and the third (I know not why) an inequality; although they
+see that she has no motion uniform, settled, and certain, in all her
+circuits and reversions. Wherefore it is not greatly to be admired, if
+through violence of her motion there sometime fell a lion from her into
+Peloponnesus, but it is rather to be wondered, that we do not daily
+see ten thousand falls of men and women and shocks of other animals
+tumbling down thence with their heels upwards on our heads; for it
+would be a mockery to dispute<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> about their habitation there, if they
+can have there neither birth nor existence. For seeing the Egyptians
+and the Troglodytes, over whose heads the sun directly stands only one
+moment of one day in the solstice, and then presently retires, can
+hardly escape being burnt, by reason of the air’s excessive dryness;
+is it credible that those who are in the moon can bear every year
+twelve solstices, the sun being once a month just in their zenith,
+when the moon is full? As for winds, clouds, and showers, without
+which the plants can neither come up nor, when they are come up, be
+preserved, it cannot be so much as imagined there should be any, where
+the ambient air is so hot, dry, and subtile; since even here below,
+the tops of mountains never feel those hard and bitter winters, but
+the air, being there pure and clear, without any agitation, by reason
+of its lightness, avoids all that thickness and concretion which is
+amongst us; unless, by Jupiter, we will say that, as Minerva instilled
+nectar and ambrosia into the mouth of Achilles, when he received no
+other food, so the moon, which both is called and indeed is Minerva,
+nourishes men, producing for them and sending them every day ambrosia,
+with which, as old Pherecydes was wont to say, the Gods themselves are
+fed. For as touching that Indian root, which, as Megasthenes says, some
+people in those parts, who neither eat nor drink, but have pure mouths,
+burn and smoke, living on the smell of its perfume; whence should they
+have any of it there, the moon not being watered or refreshed with rain?</p>
+
+<p>25. When Theon had spoken these things; You have very dexterously
+and gently, said I to him, by this facetiousness of yours smoothed
+as it were the brow, and taken off the chagrin and sourness of this
+discourse; which encourages and emboldens us to return an answer,
+since, however we may chance to fail, we expect not any severe or
+rigorous chastisement. For, to speak the truth, they who are extremely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>
+offended with these things and wholly discredit them, not being willing
+mildly to consider what probability and possibility there may be in
+them, are not much less in fault than those that are too excessively
+persuaded of them. First then, I say, it is not necessary that the moon
+must have been made in vain and to no end or purpose, if there are not
+men who dwell in it; for we see that this very earth here is not all
+cultivated or inhabited, but that only a small part of it, like so many
+promontories or demi-islands arising out of the deep, engenders, brings
+forth, and breeds plants and animals; the rest being through excessive
+cold or heat wholly desert and barren, or (which is indeed the greatest
+share of it) covered and plunged under the vast ocean. But you, who
+are always so great a lover and admirer of Aristarchus, give no ear to
+Crates when he reads in Homer,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The sea, which gave to Gods and men their birth,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Covers with waves the most part of the earth.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And yet those parts are far from having been made in vain. For the sea
+exhales and breathes out mild vapors; and the snow, leisurely melting
+from the cold and uninhabited regions, sends forth and spreads over all
+our countries those gentle breezes which qualify the scorching heat
+of summer; and in the midst, as Plato says, is placed the faithful
+guardian and operator of night and day. There is then nothing to
+hinder but that the moon may be without living creatures, and yet
+give reflections to the light that is diffused about her, and afford
+a receptacle to the rays of the stars, which have their confluence
+and temperature in her, for to digest the evaporation rising from the
+earth and moderate the over-violent and fiery heat of the sun. And
+attributing much to ancient fame, we will say that she is styled Diana,
+as being a virgin and fruitless, but otherwise <span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span>greatly salutary,
+helpful, and profitable to the world. Moreover, of all that has been
+said, my friend Theon, there is nothing which shows it impossible for
+the moon to be inhabited. For her turning about, being gentle, mild,
+and calm, dulcifies and polishes the ambient air, and distributes it in
+so good order about her, that there is no occasion to fear the falling
+or slipping out of those who live in her. And as to the diversity and
+multiplicity of her motion, it proceeds not from any inequality, error,
+or uncertainty, but the astrologers show in this an admirable order
+and course, enclosing her within circles, which are turned by other
+circles; some supposing that she herself stirs not, others making her
+always move equally, smoothly, and with the same swiftness. For it is
+these ascensions of divers circles, with their turnings and habitudes,
+one towards another and with respect to us, which most exactly make
+those heights, depths, and depressions, that appear to us in her
+motion, and her digressions in latitude, all joined with the ordinary
+revolution she makes in longitude. As to the great heat and continual
+inflammation of the sun, you will cease to fear it, if first to the
+eleven estival conjunctions you oppose the full moons, and then to
+the excesses the continuity of change which permits them not to last
+long, reducing them to a proper and peculiar temperature, and taking
+from them both what is over much; for the middle, or what is between
+them, it is probable, has a season most like to the spring. And,
+moreover, the sun sends his beams to us through a gross and troubled
+air, and casts on us an heat fed by exhalation; whereas the air, being
+there subtile and transparent, dissipates and disperses his lustre,
+which has no nourishment nor body on which it may settle. Trees and
+fruits are here nourished by showers; but elsewhere, as in the higher
+countries with you about Thebes and Syene, the earth drinking in
+not aerial but earth-bred water, and being assisted with refreshing
+winds and dew, will not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> (such is the virtue and temperature of the
+soil) yield the first place for fertility to the best watered land in
+the world. And the same sorts of trees which in our country, having
+suffered a long and sharp winter, bring forth abundance of good fruit,
+are in Africa and with you in Egypt soon offended with cold and very
+fearful of the winter. And the provinces of Gedrosia and Troglodytis,
+which lie near the ocean sea, being by reason of drought barren and
+without any trees, there grow nevertheless in the adjacent sea trees
+of a wonderful height and bigness, and green even to the very bottom;
+some of which they call olive-trees, others laurels, and others the
+hair of Isis. And those plants which are named anacampserotes, being
+hanged up after they are plucked out of the ground, not only live,
+but—which is more—bud and put forth green leaves. Some seeds are sown
+in winter; and others in the heat of summer, like sesame and millet.
+And thyme or centaury, if it is sown in a rich and fat earth, and
+there well drenched and watered, degenerates from its natural quality
+and all its virtue, because it loves dryness and thrives in its own
+proper natural soil. Others cannot bear so much as the least dew, of
+which kind are the most part of the Arabian plants, and if they are
+but once wet, they wither, fade, and die. What wonder is it then, if
+there grow in the moon roots, seeds, and plants which have no need
+of rains or winter colds, and are appropriated to a dry and subtile
+air, such as is that of summer? And why may it not be probable that
+the moon sends forth warm winds, and that her shaking and agitation,
+as she moves, is accompanied by comfortable breezes, fine dews, and
+gentle moistures, which are everywhere dispersed to furnish nutriment
+for the verdant plants?—seeing she is not of her temperature ardent
+or parched with drought, but rather soft, moist, and engendering all
+humidity. For there come not from her to us any effects of dryness,
+but many of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> feminine moisture and softness, such as are the growing
+of plants, the putrefaction of flesh, the changing and flatness of
+wines, the tenderness and rotting of wood, and the easy deliveries of
+child-bearing women. But because I am afraid of irritating again and
+provoking Pharnaces—who all this while speaks not a word—if I should
+allege the flowing and ebbing of the great ocean (as they themselves
+say), and the increasings of the friths and straits, which swell and
+rise by the moon augmenting the moisture; therefore I will rather turn
+myself to you, my friend Theon. For you, interpreting this verse of the
+poet Alcman,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Such things as dew, Jove’s daughter and the moon’s,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Does nourish,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>tell us, that in this place he calls the air Jupiter, which, being
+moistened by the moon, is by Nature changed into dew. For she seems,
+my good friend, to be of a nature almost wholly contrary to the sun,
+not only in that she is wonted to moisten, dissolve, and soften what
+he thickens, dries, and hardens; but moreover, in that she allays and
+cools his heat, when it lights upon her and is mingled with her.</p>
+
+<p>Those then who think the moon to be a fiery and burning body are in
+an error; and in like manner those who would have all such things to
+be necessary for the generation, life, food, and entertainment of the
+animals dwelling there as are requisite to those that are here below,
+consider not the vast diversity and inequality there is in Nature; in
+which there are found greater varieties and differences between animals
+and animals, than there are between animals and other subjects that are
+not animated. There are surely not in the world any men of such pure
+mouths that they feed only on smells.... But that power of Nature which
+Ammonius himself has shown us, and which Hesiod has obscurely signified
+in these words,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor how great virtue is in asphodels and mallows,<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p>
+<p>Epimenides has made plain to us in effect, teaching us that
+Nature sustains a living creature with very little food, and that,
+provided it has but the quantity of an olive, it stands in need of
+no other nourishment. Now, if any, those surely who dwell within the
+moon should be active, light, and easy to be nourished with any thing
+whatsoever; since they affirm that the moon herself, as also the sun,
+which is a fiery animal, and manifoldly greater than the earth, is
+nourished and maintained by the moistures that come from the earth, as
+are also all the other stars, whose number is in a manner infinite;
+such light and slender animals do they assign to the upper region, and
+with so small necessaries do they think them contented and satisfied.
+But we neither see these things, nor consider that a quite different
+region, nature, and temperature is accommodated to those lunar men.</p>
+
+<p>As therefore, if we were unable to come near and touch the sea, but
+could only see it at a distance, and had heard that its water is
+brackish, salt, and undrinkable, any one who should tell us that there
+are in its depths many and great animals of various forms and shapes,
+and that it is full of great and monstrous beasts who make the same
+use of the water as we do of the air, would be thought only to relate
+a parcel of strange and uncreditable stories, newly found out and
+invented for delight and amusement; in the same manner we seem to be
+affected and disposed towards the moon, not believing that there are
+any who inhabit it. And I am of opinion, that they themselves do much
+more wonder, when they behold the earth,—which is, as it were, the
+dregs and mud of the universe, appearing to them through moist and
+foggy clouds and mists, a little place, a low, abject, and immovable
+thing without any brightness or light whatever,—how this pitiful
+inconsiderable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> thing should be able to produce, nourish, and maintain
+animals that have motion, respiration, and heat. And if peradventure
+they had ever heard these verses of Homer,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">A filthy squalid place, abhorred even by</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The Gods themselves;<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and again,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Hell is as far beneath, as heaven above</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The earth;<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>they would certainly think them to have been written of this place
+where we live, and that here is hell and Tartarus, and that the earth
+which is equally distant from heaven and hell is only the moon.</p>
+
+<p>26. I had not well ended my discourse, when Sylla interrupting me said:
+Forbear Lamprias, and put a stop to your discourse, lest running (as
+they say) the vessel of your story on ground, you confound and spoil
+all the play, which has at present another scene and disposition. I
+myself therefore shall be the actor, but shall, before I enter upon
+my part, make known to you the poet or author; beginning, if there is
+nothing to hinder, with that of Homer,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">An isle Ogygia lies in Ocean’s arms,<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>distant about five days’ sail westward from Britain; and before it
+there are three others, of an equal distance from one another and also
+from that, bearing north-west, where the sun sets in summer. In one of
+these the barbarians feign that Saturn is detained prisoner by Jupiter,
+who, as his son, having the guard or keeping of those islands and the
+adjacent sea, named the Saturnian, has his seat a little below; and
+that the continent, by which the great sea is circularly environed, is
+distant from Ogygia about five thousand stadia, but from the others
+not so far, men using to row thither in galleys, the sea being there
+low and ebb, and difficult to be passed by great vessels because of
+the mud brought thither by a multitude of rivers, which, coming <span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>from
+the mainland, discharge themselves into it, and raise there great bars
+and shelves that choke up the river and render it hardly navigable;
+whence anciently there arose an opinion of its being frozen. Moreover,
+the coasts of this continent lying on the sea are inhabited by the
+Greeks about a bay not much smaller than the Maeotic, the mouth of
+which lies in a direct line over against that of the Caspian Sea. These
+name and esteem themselves the inhabitants of the firm land, calling
+all us others islanders, as dwelling in a land encompassed round about
+and washed by the sea. And they think that those who heretofore came
+thither with Hercules and were left there by him, mixing themselves
+with the people of Saturn, raised up again the Greek nation, which was
+well near extinguished, brought under and supplanted by the language,
+laws, and manners of the barbarians, and made it again flourish and
+recover its pristine vigor. And therefore in that place they give the
+first honor to Hercules, and the second to Saturn. Now when the star of
+Saturn, by us called Phaenon and by them Nycturus, comes to the sign
+of Taurus, as it does once in the time of thirty years, they, having
+been a long time preparing what is necessary for a solemn sacrifice and
+a long voyage or navigation, send forth those on whom the lots fall
+to row in that vast sea, and make their abode for a great while in
+foreign countries. These men then, being embarked and departed, meet
+with different adventures, some in one manner, others in another. Now
+such as have in safety passed the danger of the sea go first ashore in
+those opposite, islands, which are inhabited by the Greeks, where they
+see that the sun is scarce hidden one full hour during the space of
+thirty days, and that this is their night, of which the darkness is but
+small, as having a twilight from the going down of the sun not unlike
+the dawning of the day; that having continued<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> there ninety days,
+during which they are highly caressed and honored, as being reputed
+and termed holy men, they are afterwards conducted by the winds,
+and transported into the isle of Saturn, where there are no other
+inhabitants but themselves and such as have been sent thither before
+them. For though it is lawful for them, after they have served Saturn
+thirty years, to return home to their own countries and houses, yet
+most of them choose rather to remain quietly there; some, because they
+are already accustomed to the place; others, because without any labor
+and trouble they have abundance of all things, as well for the offering
+of sacrifices and holding festival solemnities, as to support the
+ordinary expenses of those who are perpetually conversant in the study
+of learning and philosophy. For they affirm the nature of the island
+and the mildness of the air which environs it to be admirable; and that
+there have been some persons who, intending to depart thence, have been
+hindered by the Divinity or Genius of the place showing himself to
+them, as to his familiar friends and acquaintance, not only in dreams
+and exterior signs, but also visibly appearing to them by the means of
+familiar spirits discoursing and conversing with them. For they say,
+that Saturn himself is personally there, lying asleep in the deep cave
+of an hollow rock, shining like fine gold, Jupiter having prepared
+sleep instead of fetters and shackles to keep him from stirring;
+but that there are on the top of this rock certain birds, which fly
+down and carry him ambrosia; that the whole island is filled with an
+admirable fragrancy and perfume, which is spread all over it, arising
+from this cave, as from an odoriferous fountain; that these Daemons
+serve and minister to Saturn, having been his courtiers and nearest
+attendants when he held the empire and exercised regal authority
+over men and Gods; and that having the science of divining future
+occurrences,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> they of themselves foretell many things; but the greatest
+and of the highest importance, when they return from assisting Saturn,
+and reveal his dreams; for whatever Jupiter premeditates, Saturn
+dreams; but his awakenings are Titanical passions or perturbations of
+the soul in him, which sleep altogether controls, in order that the
+royal and divine nature may be pure and incontaminate in itself.</p>
+
+<p>This stranger then, having been brought thither, and there serving the
+God in repose and at his ease, attained to as great skill in astrology
+as it is possible for any one to do that has made the greatest progress
+in geometry; as for the rest of philosophy, having given himself to
+that which is called natural, he was seized with an extraordinary
+desire and longing to visit and see the great island; for so they
+call the continent inhabited by us. After therefore his thirty years
+were passed and his successors arrived, having taken leave of all his
+relations and friends, he put to sea, in other respects soberly and
+moderately equipped, but having good store of voyage-provision in
+vessels of gold. Now one day would not suffice to relate unto you in
+particular what adventures befell him, how many nations he visited,
+through how many countries he passed, how he searched into sacred
+writings, and was initiated in all holy confraternities and religious
+societies, as he himself recounted it to us, exactly particularizing
+every thing. But give ear, I pray you, to what concerns the present
+dispute. For he continued no small time at Carthage, a city not a
+little also esteemed by us, where he found certain sacred skins of
+parchment, which had been secretly conveyed thither when the old town
+was sacked, and had there long lain hidden under ground. Now he told me
+that, of all the Gods which appear to us in heaven, we ought chiefly to
+honor the Moon, and earnestly exhorted me to be diligent in venerating
+of her, as having the principal influence and dominion over our life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p>
+
+<p>27. At these things when I was amazed, and entreated him to declare and
+explain them a little more fully to me, he said: The Greeks, O Sylla,
+deliver many things concerning the Gods, but they are not always in
+the right. For first, when they tell us that there is a Ceres and a
+Proserpine, they say well; but not so well, when they put them both in
+one and the same place. For one, to wit Ceres, is on the earth, and the
+lady and mistress of all earthly things. The other, to wit Proserpine,
+is in the moon, and the mistress of all lunar things; and she is called
+both Cora and Persephone; Persephone, as being a bringer of light and
+brightness, and Cora, because the apple of the eye, in which the image
+of him who looks into it is represented, as the brightness of the sun
+appears in the moon, is by the Greeks called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κόρη</span>. And as to what they
+say concerning the wandering about of Ceres and Proserpine, and their
+mutual seeking of one another, there is in it somewhat of truth, for
+they long after each other, being separated, and often embrace in
+shadow. And that Cora is sometimes in heaven and light, and sometimes
+in darkness and night, is not untrue; only there is some error in the
+computation of the time. For we see her not six whole months, but every
+sixth month, caught in the shadow by the earth, as by her mother; and
+this rarely happens within five months, because it is impossible she
+should forsake Pluto (Hades), being herself the bound or limit of
+Hades; which Homer also covertly but not unelegantly signified, when he
+said,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Into th’ Elysian fields, earth’s utmost bounds,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The Gods will bring thee;<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>for he has there placed the end and boundary of the earth, where the
+shadow ceases and goes no farther. Now into that place no wicked or
+impure person can have access. But good folks, being after their
+decease carried thither, lead there indeed an easy and quiet, but yet
+not a blessed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span>and divine life, till the second death.</p>
+
+<p>28. But what is that, O Sylla? said I. Ask me not, he
+replied, for I am of myself going to declare it to you. The common
+opinion, which most persons hold, is that man is a compound subject,
+and this they have reason to believe. But they are mistaken in thinking
+him to be compounded of two parts only. For they imagine that the
+understanding is a part of the soul, but they err in this no less than
+those who make the soul to be a part of the body; for the understanding
+as far exceeds the soul, as the soul is better and diviner than the
+body. Now this composition of the soul with the understanding makes
+reason; and with the body, passion; of which the one is the beginning
+or principle of pleasure and pain, and the other of virtue and vice.
+Of those three parts conjoined and compacted together, the earth has
+given the body, the moon the soul, and the sun the understanding to
+the generation of man, ... as therefore brightness to the moon. Now
+of the deaths we die, the one makes man two of three, and the other
+one of two. And the former indeed is in the region and jurisdiction of
+Ceres, whence the name given to her mysteries (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελεῖν</span>) resembles that
+given to death (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τελευτᾶν</span>). The Athenians also heretofore called the
+deceased sacred to Ceres. As for the other death, it is in the moon,
+or region of Proserpine. And as with the one the terrestrial, so with
+the other the celestial Mercury doth dwell. This suddenly and with
+force and violence plucks the soul from the body; but Proserpine mildly
+and in a long time disjoins the understanding from the soul. And for
+this reason is she called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Μονογενής</span>, that is, <i>only begotten</i>,
+or rather, <i>begetting one alone</i>; for the better part of man
+becomes alone when it is separated by her. Now both the one and the
+other happens thus according to Nature. It is ordained by Fate that
+every soul, whether with or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> without understanding, when gone out of
+the body, should wander for a time, though not all for the same, in
+the region lying between the earth and the moon. For those that have
+been unjust and dissolute suffer there the punishments due to their
+offences; but the good and virtuous are there detained till they are
+purified, and have by expiation purged out of them all the infections
+they might have contracted from the contagion of the body, as if from
+foul breath, living in the mildest part of the air, called the meadows
+of Pluto, where they must remain for a certain perfixed and appointed
+time. And then, as if they were returning from a wandering pilgrimage
+or long exile into their country, they have a taste of joy, such as
+they principally receive who are initiated in sacred mysteries, mixed
+with trouble, admiration, and each one’s proper and peculiar hope. For
+the moon drives and chases out many souls which already long after it.
+And some who are already come thither, and yet take pleasure in things
+below, are seen descending down as it were into an abyss. But those
+that are got on high, and are there securely seated, first go about as
+victors, crowned with garlands called the wings of constancy, because
+in their lives they restrained the unreasonable and passible part of
+their soul, rendering it subject and obedient to the curb of reason.
+Secondly, they are like to the rays of the sun in appearance, and like
+to fire in their soul, which is borne aloft by the clear air which is
+about the moon,—like fire here on the earth,—from which they gather
+strength and solidity, as iron and steel do by their being tempered
+and plunged in water. For that which was hitherto rare and loose is
+compacted and made firm, and becomes bright and transparent; so that it
+is nourished with the least exhalation in the world. And this is what
+Heraclitus meant, when he said that the souls in Pluto’s region have
+their smell exceeding quick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span></p>
+
+<p>29. Now they first see the moon’s greatness, beauty, and nature, which
+is not simple nor unmixed, but a composition as it were of earth and
+star. For as the earth mixed with wind and moisture becomes soft, and
+as the blood tempered with the flesh gives it sense; so they say that
+the moon, being mingled with an ethereal quintessence even to the very
+bottom, is animated, becomes fruitful, and generative, and is equally
+counterpoised with ponderosity and lightness. For even the world
+itself, being composed of some things naturally moving upwards and
+others by nature tending downwards, is exempt from all local motion or
+change of place. These things also Xenocrates seems by a certain divine
+reasoning to have understood, having taken his first light from Plato.
+For Plato it was who first affirmed that every star is compounded of
+fire and earth, by the means of certain intermediate natures given in
+proportion; forasmuch as nothing can be an object of human sense which
+has not in some proportion a mixture of earth and light. Now Xenocrates
+says that the stars and the sun are composed of fire and the first or
+primitive solid; the moon of the second solid and its own peculiar
+air; and the earth, of water, fire, and the third solid. For neither
+is the solid alone by itself, nor the rare alone by itself, capable or
+susceptible of a soul. And let thus much suffice for the substance of
+the moon.</p>
+
+<p>Now as to her breadth and magnitude, it is not such as the
+geometricians deliver, but manifoldly greater. And she seldom measures
+the shadow of the earth by her greatness, not because she is small, but
+because she adds to her motion by heat, that she may quickly pass the
+shady place, carrying with her the souls of the blessed, which make
+haste and cry. For when they are in the shadow, they can no longer hear
+the harmony of the heavenly bodies. And withal, the souls of the damned
+are from below presented to them, lamenting and wailing through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span> this
+shadow. Wherefore also in eclipses, many are wont to ring vessels of
+brass, and to make a noise and clattering to be heard by these souls.
+Moreover, that which is called the face of the moon affrights them
+when they draw near it, seeming to them a dreadful and terrible sight;
+whereas indeed it is not so. But as our earth has deep and great bays,
+one here running between Hercules’s pillars into the land to us, and
+others without, as the Caspian, and those about the Red Sea; so in
+the moon also there are hollows and great depths. Now of these, the
+greatest they call the gulf of Hecate, where the souls punish or are
+punished according to the evils they suffered or did whilst they were
+Daemons. The two others are long passages, through which the soul must
+go sometimes to that part of the moon which is towards heaven, and
+sometimes to that which is towards earth. Now that part of the moon
+which is towards heaven is called the Elysian fields; and that which
+is towards the earth, the fields of Proserpine that is opposite to the
+earth.</p>
+
+<p>30. The Daemons do not always stay in the moon, but sometimes descend
+down here below, to have the care and superintendency of oracles. They
+are assistant also, and join in celebrating the sublimest ceremonies,
+having their eye upon misdeeds, which they punish, and preserving the
+good as well in perils of war as of the sea. And if in the performance
+of this charge they commit any fault, either through anger, envy, or
+any unjust grace or favor, they smart for it; for they are again thrust
+down to the earth, and tied to human bodies. Now those who were about
+Saturn said, that themselves were some of the better of these Daemons;
+as were formerly those that were heretofore in Crete called Dactyli
+Idaei, the Corybantes in Phrygia, and the Trophoniades in Lebadea, a
+city of Boeotia, and infinite others in several places of the habitable
+earth, whose names, temples, and honors continue to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> this day. But the
+powers of some fail, being by a most happy change translated to another
+place; which translations some obtain sooner, others later, when the
+understanding comes to be separated from the soul; which separation is
+made by the love and desire to enjoy the image of the sun, in which and
+by which shines that divine, desirable, and happy beauty, which every
+other nature differently longs after and seeks, one after one manner,
+another after another. For the moon herself continually turns, through
+the desire she has to be joined with him. But the nature of the soul
+remains in the moon, retaining only some prints and dreams of life. And
+of this I think it to have been well and truly said,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The soul, like to a dream, flies quick away;<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>which it does not immediately, as soon as it is separated from
+the body, but afterwards, when it is alone and divided from the
+understanding. And of all that Homer ever writ, there is not any
+passage more divine than that in which, speaking of those who are
+departed this life, he says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Next these, I saw Alcides’ image move;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Himself is with th’ immortal Gods above.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For every one of us is neither courage, nor fear, nor desire,—no more
+than flesh or humors,—but the part by which we think and understand.
+And the soul being moulded and formed by the understanding, and itself
+moulding and forming the body, by embracing it on every side, receives
+from it an impression and form; so that although it be separated both
+from the understanding and the body, it nevertheless so retains still
+its figure and semblance for a long time, that it may with good right
+be called its image.</p>
+
+<p>And of these souls (as I have already said) the moon is the element,
+because souls resolve into her, as the bodies of the deceased do into
+earth. Those indeed who have been virtuous and honest, living a quiet
+and philosophical <span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span>life without embroiling themselves in troublesome
+affairs, are quickly resolved; because being left by the understanding,
+and no longer using corporeal passions, they incontinently vanish
+away. But the souls of the ambitious and such as have been busied
+in negotiations, of the amorous and such as have been addicted to
+corporeal pleasures, as also of the angry and revengeful, calling to
+mind the things they did in their lives, as dreams in their sleep, walk
+wandering about here and there, like that of Endymion; because their
+inconstancy and their being over-subject to passions transports them,
+and draws them out of the moon to another generation, not letting them
+rest, but alluring them and calling them away. For there is nothing
+small, staid, constant, and accordant, after that being forsaken by
+the understanding, they come to be seized by corporeal passions. And
+of such souls, destitute of reason and suffering themselves to be
+carried away by the proud violence of passion, were bred the Tityi and
+Typhons; and particularly that Typhon who, having by force and violence
+seized the city of Delphi, overturned the sanctuary of the oracle
+there. Nevertheless, after a long tract of time the moon receives those
+souls and recomposes them; and the sun inspiring again and sowing
+understanding in them, the moon receives them by its vital power, and
+makes them new souls; and the earth in the third place gives them a
+body. For she gives nothing ... after death of all that she takes to
+generation. And the sun takes nothing, but reassembles and receives
+again the understanding which he gave. But the moon gives and receives,
+joins and disjoins, unites and separates, according to divers faculties
+and powers; of which the one is named Ilithyia or Lucina (to wit,
+that which joins), and the other Artemis or Diana (to wit, that which
+separates and divides). And of the three fatal Goddesses or Parcae, she
+which is called Atropos<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> is placed in the sun, and gives the principle
+of generation; and Clotho, being lodged in the moon, is she who joins,
+mingles, and unites; and the last, named Lachesis, is on the earth,
+where she adds her helping hand, and with her does Fortune very much
+participate. For that which is without a soul is weak in itself and
+liable to be affected by others. The understanding is sovereign over
+all the rest, and cannot be made to suffer by any. Now the soul is a
+certain middle thing mixed of them both; as the moon was by God made
+and created a composition and mixture of things high and low, having
+the same proportion to the sun as the earth has to her.</p>
+
+<p>This (said Sylla) is what I understood from this guest of mine, who
+was a stranger and a traveller;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> and this he said he learned from the
+Daemons who served and ministered to Saturn. And you, O Lamprias, may
+take my relation in such part as you please.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="OF_FATE">OF FATE.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">I will</span> endeavor, my dearest Piso, to send you my opinion concerning
+Fate, written with all the clearness and compendiousness I am capable
+of; since you, who are not ignorant how cautious I am of writing, have
+thought fit to make it the subject of your request.</p>
+
+<p>1. You are first then to know that this word Fate is spoken and
+understood two manner of ways; the one as it is an energy, the other
+as it is a substance. First therefore, as it is an action, Plato<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a>
+has under a type described it, saying thus in his dialogue entitled
+Phaedrus: “And this is a sanction of Adrastea (or an inevitable
+ordinance), that whatever soul being an attendant on God,” &amp;c. And
+in his treatise called Timaeus: “The laws which God in the nature of
+the universe has established for immortal souls.” And in his book of
+a Commonweal he calls Fate “the speech of the virgin Lachesis, who is
+the daughter of Necessity.” By which sentences he not tragically but
+theologically shows us what his sentiments are in this matter. Now if
+any one, translating the fore-cited passages, would have them expressed
+in more familiar terms, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span>the description in Phaedrus may be thus
+explained: That Fate is a divine sentence, intransgressible because
+its cause cannot be divested or hindered. And according to what he has
+said in his Timaeus, it is a law ensuing on the nature of the universe,
+according to which all things that are done are transacted. For this
+does Lachesis effect, who is indeed the daughter of Necessity,—as we
+have both already related, and shall yet better understand by that
+which will be said in the progress of our discourse. Thus you see what
+Fate is, when it is taken for an action.</p>
+
+<p>2. But as it is a substance, it seems to be the universal soul of
+the world, and admits of a threefold distribution; the first destiny
+being that which errs not; the second, that which is thought to err;
+and the third that which, being under the heaven, is conversant about
+the earth. Of these, the highest is called Clotho, the next Atropos,
+and the lowest, Lachesis; who, receiving the celestial influences
+and efficacies of her sisters, transmits and fastens them to the
+terrestrial things which are under her government. Thus have we
+declared briefly what is to be said of Fate, taken as a substance;
+what it is, what are its parts, after what manner it is, how it is
+ordained, and how it stands, both in respect to itself and to us. But
+as to the particularities of these things, there is another fable in
+his Commonweal, by which they are in some measure covertly insinuated,
+and we ourselves have, in the best manner we can, endeavored to explain
+them to you.</p>
+
+<p>3. But we now once again turn our discourse to Fate, as it is an
+energy. For concerning this it is that there are so many natural,
+moral, and logical questions. Having therefore already in some sort
+sufficiently defined what it is, we are now in the next place to say
+something of its quality, although it may to many seem absurd. I
+say then that Fate, though comprehending as it were in a circle the
+infinity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> of all those things which are and have been from infinite
+times and shall be to infinite ages, is not in itself infinite, but
+determinate and finite; for neither law, reason, nor any other divine
+thing can be infinite. And this you will the better understand, if
+you consider the total revolution and the whole time in which the
+revolutions of the eight circles (that is, of the eight spheres of the
+fixed stars, sun, moon, and five planets), having (as Timaeus<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a>
+says) finished their course, return to one and the same point, being
+measured by the circle of the Same, which goes always after one manner.
+For in this order, which is finite and determinate, shall all things
+(which, as well in heaven as in earth, consist by necessity from above)
+be reduced to the same situation, and restored again to their first
+beginning. Wherefore the habitude of heaven alone, being thus ordained
+in all things, as well in regard of itself as of the earth and all
+terrestrial matters, shall again (after long revolutions) one day
+return; and those things that in order follow after, and being linked
+together in a continuity are maintained in their course, shall be
+present, every one of them by necessity bringing what is its own. But
+for the better clearing of this matter, let us understand that whatever
+is in us or about us is not wrought by the course of the heavens and
+heavenly influences, as being entirely the efficient cause both of my
+writing what I now write, and of your doing also what you at present
+do, and in the same manner as you do it. Hereafter then, when the same
+cause shall return, we shall do the same things we now do, and in the
+same manner, and shall again become the same men; and so it will be
+with all others. And that which follows after shall also happen by
+the following cause; and in brief, all things that shall happen in
+the whole and in every one of these universal revolutions shall again
+become the same. By this it appears (as we have said before) that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span>Fate, being in some sort infinite, is nevertheless determinate and
+finite; and it may be also in some sort seen and comprehended, as we
+have farther said, that it is as it were a circle. For as a motion of a
+circle is a circle, and the time that measures it is also a circle; so
+the order of things which are done and happen in a circle may be justly
+esteemed and called a circle.</p>
+
+<p>4. This therefore, though there should be nothing else, almost shows
+us what sort of thing Fate is; but not particularly or in every
+respect. What kind of thing then is it in its own form? It is, as far
+as one can compare it, like to the civil or politic law. For first it
+commands the most part of things at least, if not all, conditionally;
+and then it comprises (as far as is possible for it) all things that
+belong to the public in general; and the better to make you understand
+both the one and the other, we must specify them by an example. The
+civil law speaks and ordains in general of a valiant man, and also of
+a deserter and a coward; and in the same manner of others. Now this
+is not to make the law speak of this or that man in particular, but
+principally to propose such things as are universal or general, and
+consequently such as fall under them. For we may very well say, that
+it is legal to reward this man for having demeaned himself valiantly,
+and to punish that man for flying from his colors; because the law has
+virtually—though not in express terms and particularly yet in such
+general ones as they are comprehended under,—so determined of them.
+As the law (if I may so speak) of physicians and masters of corporal
+exercises potentially comprehends particular and special things within
+the general; so the law of Nature, determining first and principally
+general matters, secondarily and consequently determines such as are
+particular. Thus, general things being decreed by Fate, particular and
+individual things may also in some sort be said to be so, because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span>
+they are so by consequence with the general. But perhaps some one of
+those who more accurately examine and more subtly search into these
+things may say, on the contrary, that particular and individual things
+precede the composition of general things, and that the general exist
+only for the particular, since that for which another thing is always
+goes before that which is for it. Nevertheless, this is not the proper
+place to treat of this difficulty, but it is to be remitted to another.
+However, that Fate comprehends not all things clearly and expressly,
+but only such as are universal and general, let it pass for resolved
+on at present, as well for what we have already said a little before,
+as for what we shall say hereafter. For that which is finite and
+determinate, agreeing properly with divine Providence, is seen more in
+universal and general things than in particular; such therefore is the
+divine law, and also the civil; but infinity consists in particulars
+and individuals.</p>
+
+<p>After this we are to declare what this term “conditionally” means; for
+it is to be thought that Fate is also some such thing. That then is
+said to be conditionally, which is supposed to exist not of itself or
+absolutely, but as really dependent upon and joined to another; which
+signifies a suit and consequence. “And this is the sanction of Adrastea
+(or an inevitable ordinance), that whatever soul, being an attendant
+on God, shall see any thing of truth, shall till another revolution be
+exempt from punishment; and if it is always able to do the same, it
+shall never suffer any damage.”<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> This is said both conditionally
+and also universally. Now that Fate is some such thing is clearly
+manifest, as well from its substance as from its name. For it is called
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἱμαρμένη</span> as being <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰρομένη</span>, that is, dependent and linked; and it is
+a sanction or law, because things are therein ordained and disposed
+consequentially, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>as is usual in civil government.</p>
+
+<p>5. We ought in the next place to consider and treat of mutual
+relation and affection; that is, what reference and respect Fate has to
+divine Providence, what to Fortune, what also to “that which is in our
+power,” what to contingent and other such like things; and furthermore
+we are to determine, how far and in what it is true or false that all
+things happen and are done by and according to Fate. For if the meaning
+is, that all things are comprehended and contained in Fate, it must be
+granted that this proposition is true; and if any would farther have it
+so understood, that all things which are done amongst men, on earth,
+and in heaven are placed in Fate, let this also pass as granted for the
+present. But if (as the expression seems rather to imply) the “being
+done according to Fate” signifies not all things, but only that which
+is an immediate consequent of Fate, then it must not be said that all
+things happen and are done by and according to Fate, though all things
+are so according to Fate as to be comprised in it. For all things that
+the law comprehends and of which it speaks are not legal or according
+to law; for it comprehends treason, it treats of the cowardly running
+away from one’s colors in time of battle, of adultery, and many other
+such like things, of which it cannot be said that any one of them is
+lawful. Neither indeed can I affirm of the performing a valorous act
+in war, the killing of a tyrant, or the doing any other virtuous deed,
+that it is legal; because that only is proper to be called legal, which
+is commanded by the law. Now if the law commands these things, how can
+they avoid being rebels against the law and transgressors of it, who
+neither perform valiant feats of arms, kill tyrants, nor do any other
+such remarkable acts of virtue? And if they are transgressors of the
+law, why is it not just they should be punished? But if this<span
+class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> is not reasonable,
+it must then be also confessed that these things are not legal or
+according to law; but that legal and according to law is only that
+which is particularly prescribed and expressly commanded by the law,
+in any action whatsoever. In like manner, those things only are fatal
+and according to Fate, which are the consequences of causes preceding
+in the divine disposition. So that Fate indeed comprehends all things
+which are done; yet many of those things that are comprehended in
+it, and almost all that precede, should not (to speak properly) be
+pronounced to be fatal or according to Fate.</p>
+
+<p>6. These things being so, we are next in order to show, how “that
+which is in our power” (or free will), Fortune, possible, contingent,
+and other like things which are placed among the antecedent causes,
+can consist with Fate, and Fate with them; for Fate, as it seems,
+comprehends all things, and yet all these things will not happen by
+necessity, but every one of them according to the principle of its
+nature. Now the nature of the possible is to presubsist, as the genus,
+and to go before the contingent; and the contingent, as the matter and
+subject, is to be presupposed to free will; and our free will ought as
+a master to make use of the contingent; and Fortune comes in by the
+side of free will, through the property of the contingent of inclining
+to either part. Now you will more easily apprehend what has been said,
+if you shall consider that every thing which is generated, and the
+generation itself, is not done without a generative faculty or power,
+and the power is not without a substance. As for example, neither the
+generation of man, nor that which is generated, is without a power;
+but this power is about man, and man himself is the substance. Now
+the power or faculty is between the substance, which is the powerful,
+and the generation and the thing generated, which are both possibles.
+There being then these three things, the power, the powerful, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
+possible; before the power can exist, the powerful must of necessity
+be presupposed as its subject, and the power must also necessarily
+subsist before the possible. By this deduction then may in some measure
+be understood what is meant by possible; which may be grossly defined
+as “that which power is able to produce;” or yet more exactly, if to
+this same there be added, “provided there be nothing from without to
+hinder or obstruct it.” Now of possible things there are some which
+can never be hindered, as are those in heaven, to wit, the rising and
+setting of the stars, and the like to these; but others may indeed be
+hindered, as are the most part of human things, and many also of those
+which are done in the air. The first, as being done by necessity, are
+called necessary; the others, which may fall one way or other, are
+called contingent; and they may both thus be described. The necessary
+possible is that whose contrary is impossible; and the contingent
+possible is that whose contrary is also possible. For that the sun
+should set is a thing both necessary and possible, forasmuch as it is
+contrary to this that the sun should not set, which is impossible;
+but that, when the sun is set, there should be rain or not rain, both
+the one and the other is possible and contingent. And then again of
+things contingent, some happen oftener, others rarely and not so often,
+others fall out equally or indifferently, as well the one way as the
+other, even as it happens. Now it is manifest that those are contrary
+to one another,—to wit, those which fall out oftener and those which
+happen but seldom,—and they both for the most part depend on Nature;
+but that which happens equally, as much one way as another, depends on
+ourselves. For that under the Dog it should be either hot or cold, the
+one oftener, the other seldomer, are both things subject to Nature; but
+to walk and not to walk, and all such things of which both the one and
+the other are submitted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> to the free will of man, are said to be in us
+and our election; but rather more generally to be in us. For there are
+two sorts of this “being in our power;” the one of which proceeds from
+some sudden passion and motion of the mind, as from anger or pleasure;
+the other from the discourse and judgment of reason, which may properly
+be said to be in our election. And some reason there is to believe that
+this possible and contingent is the same thing with that which is said
+to be in us and according to our free will, although differently named.
+For in respect to the future, it is styled possible and contingent; and
+in respect of the present, it is named “in our power” and “in our free
+will.” So that these things may thus be defined: The contingent is that
+which is itself—as well as its contrary—possible; and “that which is
+in our power” is one part of the contingent, to wit, that which now
+takes place according to our will. Thus have we in a manner declared,
+that the possible in the order of Nature precedes the contingent, and
+that the contingent subsists before free will; as also what each of
+them is, whence they are so named, and what are the qualities adjoined
+or appertaining to them.</p>
+
+<p>7. It now remains, that we treat of Fortune and casual adventure, and
+whatever else is to be considered with them. It is therefore certain
+that Fortune is a cause. Now of causes, some are causes by themselves,
+and others by accident. Thus for example, the proper cause by itself
+of an house or a ship is the art of the mason, the carpenter, or the
+shipwright; but causes by accident are music, geometry, and whatever
+else may happen to be joined with the art of building houses or ships,
+in respect either of the body, the soul, or any exterior thing. Whence
+it appears, that the cause by itself must needs be determinate and one;
+but the causes by accident are never one and the same, but infinite and
+undetermined. For many—nay, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span>infinite—accidents, wholly different one
+from the other, may be in one and the same subject. Now the cause by
+accident, when it is found in a thing which not merely is done for some
+end but has in it free will and election, is then called Fortune; as is
+the finding a treasure while one is digging a hole to plant a tree, or
+the doing or suffering some extraordinary thing whilst one is flying,
+following, or otherwise walking, or only turning about, provided it be
+not for the sake of that which happens, but for some other intention.
+Hence it is, that some of the ancients have declared Fortune to be
+a cause unknown, that cannot be foreseen by the human reason. But
+according to the Platonics, who have approached yet nearer to the true
+reason of it, it is thus defined: Fortune is a cause by accident,
+in those things which are done for some end, and which are of our
+election. And afterwards they add, that it is unforeseen and unknown
+to the human reason; although that which is rare and strange appears
+also by the same means to be in this kind of cause by accident. But
+what this is, if it is not sufficiently evidenced by the oppositions
+and disputations made against it, will at least most clearly be seen by
+what is written in Plato’s Phaedo, where you will find these words:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phaed.</span> Have you not heard how and in what manner the judgment
+passed? <span class="smcap">Ech.</span> Yes indeed; for there came one and told us of it.
+At which we wondered very much that, the judgment having been given
+long before, it seems that he died a great while after. And what,
+Phaedo, might be the cause of it? <span class="smcap">Phaed.</span> It was a fortune
+which happened to him, Echecrates. For it chanced that, the day before
+the judgment, the stern of the galley which the Athenians send every
+year to the isle of Delos was crowned.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a></p>
+
+<p>In which discourse it is to be observed, that the expression
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span><i>happened to him</i> is not simply to be understood by <i>was
+done</i> or <i>came to pass</i>, but it much rather regards what befell
+him through the concurrence of many causes together, one being done
+with regard to another. For the priest crowned the ship and adorned it
+with garlands for another end and intention, and not for the sake of
+Socrates; and the judges also had for some other cause condemned him.
+But the event was strange, and of such a nature that it might seem
+to have been effected by the providence of some human creature, or
+rather of some superior powers. And so much may suffice to show with
+what Fortune must of necessity subsist, and that there must be first
+some subject of such things as are in our free will: its effect is,
+moreover, like itself called Fortune.</p>
+
+<p>But chance or casual adventure is of a larger extent than Fortune;
+which it comprehends, and also several other things which may of their
+own nature happen sometimes one way, sometimes another. And this, as
+it appears by the derivation of its name, which is in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">αὐτόματον</span>,
+<i>chance</i>, is that which happens of itself, when that which is
+ordinary happens not, but another thing in its place; such as cold
+in the dog-days seems to be; for it is sometimes then cold.... Once
+for all, as “that which is in our power” is a part of the contingent,
+so Fortune is a part of chance or casual adventure; and both the two
+events are conjoined and dependent on the one and the other, to wit,
+chance on contingent, and Fortune on “that which is in our power,”—and
+yet not on all, but on what is in our election, as we have already
+said. Wherefore chance is common to things inanimate, as well as to
+those which are animated; whereas Fortune is proper to man only, who
+has his actions voluntary. And an argument of this is, that to be
+fortunate and to be happy are thought to be one and the same thing. Now
+happiness is a certain well-doing, and well-doing is proper only to
+man, and to him perfect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span></p>
+
+<p>8. These then are the things which are comprised in Fate, to wit,
+contingent, possible, election, “that which is in our power,” Fortune,
+chance, and their adjuncts, as are the things signified by the words
+<i>perhaps</i> and <i>peradventure</i>; all which indeed are contained
+in Fate, yet none of them is fatal. It now remains, that we discourse
+of divine Providence, and show how it comprehends even Fate itself.</p>
+
+<p>9. The supreme therefore and first Providence is the understanding
+or (if you had rather) the will of the first and sovereign God,
+doing good to every thing that is in the world, by which all divine
+things have universally and throughout been most excellently and most
+wisely ordained and disposed. The second Providence is that of the
+second Gods, who go through the heaven, by which temporal and mortal
+things are orderly and regularly generated, and which pertains to the
+continuation and preservation of every kind. The third may probably
+be called the Providence and procuration of the Daemons, which, being
+placed on the earth, are the guardians and overseers of human actions.
+This threefold Providence therefore being seen, of which the first and
+supreme is chiefly and principally so named, we shall not be afraid to
+say, although we may in this seem to contradict the sentiments of some
+philosophers, that all things are done by Fate and by Providence, but
+not also by Nature. But some are done according to Providence,—these
+according to one, those according to another,—and some according to
+Fate; and Fate is altogether according to Providence, while Providence
+is in no wise according to Fate. But let this discourse be understood
+of the first and supreme Providence. Now that which is done according
+to another, whatever it is, is always posterior to that according to
+which it is done; as that which is according to the law is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span>after the
+law, and that which is according to Nature is after Nature, so that
+which is according to Fate is after Fate, and must consequently be more
+new and modern. Wherefore supreme Providence is the most ancient of
+all things, except him whose will or understanding it is, to wit, the
+sovereign author, maker, and father of all things. “Let us therefore,”
+says Timaeus, “discourse for what cause the Creator made and framed
+this machine of the universe. He was good, and in him that is good
+there can never be imprinted or engendered any envy against any thing.
+Being therefore wholly free from this, he desired that all things
+should, as far as it is possible, resemble himself. He therefore,
+who admits this to have been chiefly the principal original of the
+generation and creation of the world, as it has been delivered to us by
+wise men, receives that which is most right. For God, who desired that
+all things should be good, and nothing, as far as possibly might be,
+evil, taking thus all that was visible,—restless as it was, and moving
+rashly and confusedly,—reduced it from disorder to order, esteeming
+the one to be altogether better than the other. For it neither was
+nor is convenient for him who is in all perfection good, to make any
+thing that should not be very excellent and beautiful.”<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> This,
+therefore, and all that follows, even to his disputation concerning
+human souls, is to be understood of the first Providence, which in the
+beginning constituted all things. Afterwards he speaks thus: “Having
+framed the universe, he ordained souls equal in number to the stars,
+and distributed to each of them one; and having set them, as it were,
+in a chariot, showed the nature of the universe, and appointed them the
+laws of Fate.”<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> Who then will not believe, that by these words he
+expressly and manifestly declares Fate to be, as it were, a foundation
+and political constitution of laws, fitted for the souls of men? Of
+which he afterwards renders the cause.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span></p>
+
+<p>As for the second Providence, he thus in a manner explains it, saying:
+“Having prescribed them all these laws to the end that, if there should
+afterwards happen any fault, he might be exempt from being the cause of
+any of their evil, he dispersed some of them upon the earth, some into
+the moon, and some into the other instruments of time. And after this
+dispersion, he gave in charge to the young Gods the making of human
+bodies, and the making up and adding whatever was wanting and deficient
+in human souls; and after they had perfected whatever is adherent and
+consequent to this, they should rule and govern, in the best manner
+they possibly could, this mortal creature, so far as it should not be
+the cause of its own evils.”<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> For by these words, “that he might
+be exempt from being the cause of any of their evil,” he most clearly
+signifies the cause of Fate; and the order and office of the young
+Gods manifests the second Providence; and it seems also in some sort
+to have touched a little upon the third, if he therefore established
+laws and ordinances that he might be exempt from being the cause of any
+of their evil. For God, who is free from all evil, has no need of laws
+or Fate; but every one of these petty Gods, drawn on by the providence
+of him who has engendered them, performs what belongs to his office.
+Now that this is true and agreeable to the opinion of Plato, these
+words of the lawgiver, spoken by him in his Book of Laws, seems to me
+to give sufficient testimony: “If there were any man so sufficient by
+Nature, being by divine Fortune happily engendered and born, that he
+could comprehend this, he would have no need of laws to command him.
+For there is not any law or ordinance more worthy and powerful than
+knowledge; nor is it fitting that Mind, provided it be truly and really
+free by Nature, should be a subject or slave to any one, but it ought
+to command all.”<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></p>
+
+<p>10. I therefore do for mine own part thus understand and interpret
+this sentence of Plato. There being a threefold Providence, the first,
+as having engendered Fate, does in some sort comprehend it; the second,
+having been engendered with Fate, is with it totally comprehended and
+embraced by the first; the third, as having been engendered after Fate,
+is comprehended by it in the same manner as are free will and Fortune,
+as we have already said. “For they whom the assistance of a Daemon’s
+power does aid in their intercourse with me” says Socrates, declaring
+to Theages what is the almost inevitable ordinance of Adrastea
+“are those whom you also mean; for they grow and come forward with
+speed.”<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> In which words, what he says of a Daemon’s aiding some
+is to be ascribed to the third Providence, and the growing and coming
+forward with speed, to Fate. In brief, it is not obscure or doubtful
+but that this also is a kind of Fate. And perhaps it may be found much
+more probable that the second Providence is also comprehended under
+Fate, and indeed all things that are done; since Fate, as a substance,
+has been rightly divided by us into three parts, and the fable of the
+chain comprehends the revolutions of the heavens in the number and
+rank of those things which happen conditionally. But concerning these
+things I will not much contend, to wit, whether they should be called
+conditional, or rather conjoined with Fate, the precedent cause and
+commander of Fate being also fatal.</p>
+
+<p>11. Our opinion then, to speak compendiously, is such. But the contrary
+sentiment does not only include all things in Fate, but affirms them
+all to be done by and according to Fate. It accords indeed in all
+things to the other (the Stoic) doctrine; and that which accords to
+it, ’tis clear, is the same thing with it. In this discourse therefore
+we <span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span>have first spoken of the contingent; secondly, of “that which is
+in our power;” thirdly, of Fortune and chance, and whatever depends on
+them; fourthly, of praise, blame, and whatever depends on them; the
+fifth and last of all may be said to be prayers to the Gods, with their
+services and ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>For the rest, as to those which are called idle and reaping arguments,
+and that which is named the argument against destiny, they are indeed
+but vain subtleties and captious sophisms, according to this discourse.
+But according to the contrary opinion, the first and principal
+conclusion seems to be, that there is nothing done without a cause, but
+that all things depend upon antecedent causes; the second, that the
+world is governed by Nature, and that it conspires, consents, and is
+compatible with itself; the third seems rather to be testimonies,—of
+which the first is divination, approved by all sorts of people, as
+being truly in God; the second is the equanimity and patience of wise
+men, who take mildly and bear patiently whatever befalls, as happening
+by divine ordinance and as it ought; the third is the speech so common
+and usual in every one’s mouth, to wit, that every proposition is true
+or false. Thus have we contracted this discourse into a small number of
+short articles, that we might in few words comprehend the whole matter
+of Fate; into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span> which a scrutiny ought to be made, and the reasons of
+both opinions to be weighed with a most exact balance. But we shall
+hereafter come to discuss particulars.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONCERNING_THE_FIRST_PRINCIPLE_OF_COLD">CONCERNING THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF COLD.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. Is there then, Favorinus, any first or principal power or existence
+of cold, as fire is the principle of heat, by the presence and
+imparting of which all other things of the same nature become cold? Or
+rather is not cold the privation of heat, as they say darkness is the
+privation of light, and rest the privation of motion? In regard that
+cold seems to be firm and stable, and heat always in motion; and for
+that the refrigeration of hot things is not caused by the presence of
+any active power, but by the departure of the heat. For we find the
+heat go off in great quantity, and then that which remains grows cold.
+Thus the vapor which boiling water sends forth ceases also when the
+heat is gone. Therefore refrigeration, expelling the heat, diminishes
+the quantity, while nothing supplies the place of it.</p>
+
+<p>2. First, we might question this way of arguing, as being that which
+would abolish several manifest faculties, as being neither qualities
+nor habits, but the privations of habits and qualities; so as to
+make ponderosity the privation of levity, hardness the privation of
+softness, black of white, bitter of sweet, and so with other things
+which are naturally opposed to each other in their power and not as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> a
+privation to a habit. Or else for this reason, because all privation
+is a thing altogether sluggish and without action, as blindness,
+deafness, silence, and death; for they are the departure of forms, and
+the utter defacings of substances, not being natures nor substances of
+themselves; but cold, wherever it resides, causes no less affections
+and alterations in bodies than heat. For many things are congealed by
+cold, many things thereby condensed. So that whatever is solid in it
+and difficult to be moved cannot be said to be sluggish and void of
+action, but firm and ponderous, as being supported by its own strength,
+which is endued with a power to preserve it in its proper station.
+Wherefore privation is the deficiency and departure of the opposite
+power, but many things are subject to be cold, though abounding with
+heat within themselves. And there are some things which cold the more
+condenses and consolidates the hotter they are, as iron quenched in
+water. The Stoics also affirm, that the spirit which is in the bodies
+of infants is quickened by refrigeration, and changing its Nature,
+turns to a soul. But this is a thing much to be disputed. Neither is it
+rational to believe that cold, which is the productive agent in many
+other things, can be a privation.</p>
+
+<p>3. Besides, no privation is capable of more and less. Neither can
+any man say, that one among those that cannot see is more blind than
+another, or that one among those that cannot speak is more silent than
+another, or that any thing is more dead than another among those things
+that never had life. But in cold things there is more and less, and
+excess and diminution to several degrees; in a word, there is both
+intensity and remission as well as in hot things; because the matter
+suffers in some things more violently, in others more languidly, and
+therefore some things are hotter, some things colder than others,
+according to the nature of the matter. For there is no mixture of habit
+with privation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> Neither does any power admit of privation opposite to
+it, nor associate with it in the same subject, but it withstands it
+altogether. Hot things allow themselves to be mixed with cold things
+to a certain degree, as black with white, heavy with light, and sour
+with sweet,—this community and harmony of colors, sounds, medicaments,
+and sauces generating several tastes and pleasures grateful to the
+senses. But the opposition of privation and habit is an antipathy never
+to be reconciled; the being of the one enforcing the destruction of
+the other. Which destruction, if it fall out seasonably, according to
+the opposition of contrary powers, the arts make great use of, but
+chiefly Nature, not only in her other creations, but especially in the
+alterations of the air, and in all other things of which the Deity
+being the adorner and dispenser obtains the attribute of harmonical and
+musical. Not that those attributes are given him for the disposal of
+deep and shrill, black and white, so as to make them agree together;
+but for his governing in the world the sympathies and antipathies of
+cold and heat in such a manner that they may unite and separate again,
+and for reducing both to a decent order, by taking that which we called
+“the over-much” from both.</p>
+
+<p>4. Then again, we find that there is the same sense and feeling of
+cold as of heat; but privation is neither to be seen, heard, or felt,
+neither is it known to any of the other senses. For the object of sense
+is substance; but where no substance appears, there we understand
+privation to be,—which is a negation of substance, as blindness of
+sight, silence of voice, and vacuity of corporeal substance. For
+there is no sense or perception of vacuity by feeling; but where
+there is no body to be felt, there a vacuity is implied. Neither do
+we hear silence; but where we do not hear any thing at all, there we
+imply silence. In like manner we have no perception of blindness,
+nakedness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> or being unarmed; but we know them from the negation of our
+sense. Therefore if cold were a privation of heat, there would be no
+being sensible of cold; but only where heat ceased to be, there cold
+would be implied. But if, as heat is perceptible by the warmth and
+laxative softness of the flesh, so cold is no less perceptible by the
+contraction and condensation of it, it is from thence apparent, that
+there is some peculiar original and fountain of cold as well as heat.</p>
+
+<p>5. Further then, privation of every kind is something single and
+simply particular; but in substances there are several differences and
+efficacies. For silence is a thing but of one sort; but of sounds there
+are great variety, sometimes molesting, sometimes delightful to the
+sense. There are also the same differences in colors and figures, which
+vary as they occur to the senses. But that which is not to be felt,
+which is without color and void of quality, can never be distinguished,
+but is always like itself.</p>
+
+<p>6. Is cold therefore to be numbered among those privations that are
+not distinguished in their action? Rather the contrary, in regard that
+pleasures very great and beneficial to our bodies arise from cold
+things; as no less terrible mischiefs, pains, and stupefaction on the
+other side; which the heat does not always avoid and give way to, but
+many times enclosed within the body, withstands and opposes. Which
+contention of theirs is called quivering and shaking, at what time, if
+the cold overcome the heat, thence proceed numbness and stiffness of
+the limbs; but if the cold be vanquished by the heat, there follow a
+pleasing warmth and opening of the skin, which Homer expresses by the
+word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἰαίνεσθαι</span>. These things are past dispute; and chiefly by these
+passive qualities it is, that we find cold to be opposite to heat, as
+substance to substance, or passive quality to passive quality, not as
+negation or privation; neither is it the destruction or abolishing
+of hot, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> a kind of nature and power tending to its destruction.
+Otherwise we should exempt the winter out of the seasons, and the north
+winds out of the number of the winds, as being privations of the warmer
+seasons and the southern gales, and not having any proper original.</p>
+
+<p>7. Now in regard there are four first bodies in the universe, which, by
+reason of their number, their being uncompounded, and their efficacy,
+are allowed for the most part to be the principles and beginnings
+of all other,—that is to say, fire and water, air and earth,—is
+there not the same necessity that there should be as many first and
+uncompounded qualities? And what are they but heat and cold, drought
+and moisture, by virtue of which it comes to pass that all the
+principles act and suffer? Thus, as there are in grammar lengthenings
+and shortenings of sounds, in music, deep and acute sounds, though
+not one of them is the privation of the other; we must leave the dry
+opposed to the moist principles, and the hot to the cold, if we intend
+to have the effects answerable to reason and what is visible in Nature.
+Unless, as it was the opinion of the ancient Anaximenes, we will not
+allow either cold or hot to be in substance, but only to be common
+passive qualities accompanying the alterations of the matter. For he
+affirms the contraction and condensation of the matter to be cold; but
+the rarefication and laxation of it (for by that word he calls it)
+to be hot. Whence it may not be improperly said, that a man breathes
+hot and cold at once. For the breath grows cold being compressed and
+thickened by the lips, but coming out of the open mouth it is hot, as
+being rarefied by that emission. But for this, Aristotle convinces the
+same person of ignorance; for that when we blow with the mouth open, we
+blow hot from our own bodies; but when we blow with compressed lips, we
+do not breathe forth the air from ourselves, but the air that is before
+our mouths, being cold, is thrust forward, and lights upon what is next
+it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span></p>
+
+<p>8. But if we must grant that both heat and cold are substances, let us
+proceed a little farther in our discourse, and enquire what sort of
+substance is cold, and what is its first principle and nature.</p>
+
+<p>They then who affirm that there are certain irregular triangular
+figures in our body, and tell us also that shuddering, trembling, and
+quivering, and whatever else we suffer of the same nature, proceed
+from the roughness of those figures, if they mistake in the parts,
+nevertheless derive the beginning from whence they ought. For we ought
+to begin the question—as it were from Vesta—from the substance of all
+things. By which it chiefly appears wherein a philosopher differs from
+a physician, a husbandman, or a piper. For it is sufficient for these
+to contemplate the last causes. For if the consideration of the nearest
+causes of the affection go no farther than to find that the cause of a
+fever is intenseness of heat, or the lighting of some humor where it
+ought not to be, that the cause of blasting is the scorching heat of
+the sun after rain, and that the cause why pipes give a bass sound is
+the inclination of the pipes or the bringing them near one to another;
+this is enough for the artist to know in reference to his business. But
+when a philosopher for contemplation’s sake scrutinizes into the truth,
+the knowledge of remote causes is not the end but the beginning of his
+proceeding in search of the first and ultimate causes. Wherefore Plato
+and Democritus, enquiring after the cause of heat and gravity, did
+not stop at the consideration of earth and fire, but bringing things
+perceptible to sense to beginnings intelligible only by the mind, they
+went on even to the smallest, as it were the seeds of what they sought
+for.</p>
+
+<p>9. But it is much the better way for us in the first place to move
+forward upon those things which are perceptible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> to sense, wherein
+Empedocles, Strato, and the Stoics placed the substances of active
+qualities; the Stoics ascribing primitive cold to the air, Empedocles
+and Strato to the water; and perhaps there might be somebody else who
+might affirm the earth to be the substance of cold. But first let us
+consider the opinions of those already named.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing then that fire is both hot and bright, therefore there must
+be something opposite to fire which is cold and dark. For as dark is
+opposite to light, so is cold to hot. Besides, as dark confounds the
+sight, so cold confounds the feeling. But heat diffuses the sense of
+feeling, as light diffuses the sense of seeing. Therefore that which is
+first dark in nature is first cold. Now that the air is first dark, was
+not unknown to the poets; for that they call the air darkness:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The thickened air the fleet with darkness covered,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor could the moonlight be from heaven discovered.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And again:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Then darkness scattered and the fog dispelled,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The sun brake forth, and all the fight beheld.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>They also call the air, when it is without light <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κνέφας</span>, as being
+as it were <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κενὸν φάους</span> (<i>void of light</i>.) The air collected
+and condensed into a cloud is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νέφος</span>, from its negation of
+light (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νή-φάος</span>). The words also <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀχλύς</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὁμίχλη</span> (<i>mist</i>), and
+whatever else restrains the perception of light from the sense, are but
+distinctions of the air; insomuch that the same part of it which is
+invisible and without color (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀειδές</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄχρωστον</span>) is called Hades and
+Acheron. So that, as the air grows dark when the splendor of it fails,
+in like manner when heat fails, that which is left is no more than
+cold air, which by reason of its coldness is called Tartarus. And this
+Hesiod makes manifest, when he calls it <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τάρταρον ἠερόεντα</span> (or <i>cloudy
+Tartarus</i>); and when a man quakes and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>shivers for cold, he is said
+to tartarize. And so much for this.</p>
+
+<p>10. But in regard corruption is the alteration of those things that
+are corrupted into that which is contrary to every one of them, let
+us consider whether it be a true saying, “The death of fire is the
+generation of air.” For fire dies like a living creature, being
+quenched by force or going out of its own accord. Now quenching makes
+the alteration of it into air more conspicuous. For smoke is a sort
+of air, or, according to Pindar, a fuliginous vapor and exhalation,
+“lashing the air with steaming smoke.”<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> On the other side, when
+fire goes out for want of fuel, as in candles, you shall observe a
+thick and cloudy air ascending from the top of them. Moreover, the
+vapor steaming from our bodies upon the pouring of cold water after
+hot bathing or sweating sufficiently declares the alteration of
+extinguished heat into air, as being naturally opposite to air; whence
+it follows that the air was at first dark and cold.</p>
+
+<p>11. Then again, congelation, which is the most forcible and violent of
+all things that befall our bodies by reason of cold, is the affection
+of water, but the action of air. For water of itself is easily
+diffused, loose in its parts, and not readily congealed together; but
+it is thickened and compressed by the air, by reason of the coldness of
+it. Which is the reason of the proverb:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">But if the southern wind provoke the north,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Snow straight will cover all the earth.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the southern wind preparing the moisture as matter, presently the
+north wind receives and congeals it. And this is manifest from the
+consideration of snow; for ere it falls, you shall observe a thin and
+sharp cold air breathing <span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>before it. Aristotle also tells us, that
+whetstones of lead [?] will melt and run in the winter through excess
+of freezing cold, merely upon the setting of the water near them. For
+it is probable that the air compresses and gripes the bodies so close
+together, that at length it breaks and crumbles them in pieces.</p>
+
+<p>12. And therefore water drawn from a fountain soonest congeals; for
+the more of cold in the air overcomes the less of cold in the water.
+Thus if a man takes cold water out of a well and puts it into a vessel,
+and then lets the vessel down again into the well, so that it may not
+touch the water but hang for some time in the air, the water will be
+much colder. Whence it is apparent, that the coldness of the water is
+not the first cause of coldness, but the coldness of the air. For you
+do not find that any of your great rivers are ever thoroughly frozen,
+by reason of their depth. For the air doth not pierce through the
+whole; only so much as it can seize and embrace with its cold quality
+generally freezes, and no more. Therefore the barbarians never cross
+over frozen rivers till they have sent a fox before to try the depth
+of the ice. For if the ice be not very thick, but only superficial,
+the fox, perceiving it by the noise of the water floating underneath,
+returns. And some there are that melt the ice with hot water to make
+way for their lines, when they go to catch fish in winter. So that
+nothing suffers from cold in the depth of the water. Nevertheless,
+so great has been the alteration of the upper parts of the water by
+congelation, that several vessels riding in the stream have been
+bruised and broken by the forcible compressure and griping of the
+congelation; as we have heard from them who lately had their winter
+quarters with Caesar upon the Danube. And indeed, what happens to
+ourselves is sufficient to demonstrate the truth of this. For after hot
+bathings and sweatings, we are most sensible of cold, at what time,
+our<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> bodies being open and the skin relaxed, we give a freer entrance
+to the cold together with the ambient air. And after the very same
+manner the water itself suffers. For it sooner freezes if it be first
+heated, as being thereby rendered more easy for the air to work upon.
+And therefore they who lade out scalding water, and let it fall again
+from a good height in the air, do it to no other purpose than to mix it
+with a great deal of air. And therefore, Favorinus, the arguments that
+attribute the first power of cold to the air are grounded upon these
+probabilities.</p>
+
+<p>13. Those that allow it to water lean upon principles of the same
+nature. And this was intimated by Empedocles, where he says:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Behold the sun, how warm he is,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">And shining everywhere;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But rain and tempests cold and dark</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">With horror fill the air.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And thus opposing cold to heat, and dark to bright, he gives us to
+understand that black and cold are both of the same substance, as also
+are bright and hot. Now that black is proper to the water and not to
+the air, sense itself bears witness, nothing being darkened by the
+air, all things being clouded and blackened by water. So that if you
+throw the whitest wool that is, or a white garment into the water, it
+comes out black, and so remains, till the moisture be dried up again
+by the heat, or squeezed forth by presses or weights. Also when the
+ground is watered, the places that receive the drops grow black, the
+rest retaining their former color. And therefore the deepest waters,
+by reason of their quantity, always appear blackest, but the parts
+which are next the air afford a lovely and smiling brightness. But
+of all liquids, oil is the most transparent, because of the great
+quantity of air that is in it. And of this, the lightness of it is an
+unquestionable proof; the reason why it swims above all things, as
+carried upward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> by the air. Being poured forth upon the waves, it will
+cause calmness upon the sea, not because it is so slippery that the
+winds can have no power over it, as Aristotle thought, but because the
+waves will fall and sink when smitten by any moist body. And this is
+also peculiar to oil, that it shines and causes a transparency at the
+bottom of the water, while the watery humors are dispersed by the air.
+For being spurted out of the mouth into the sea, not only by those
+that sail in the night, but also by those that dive for sponges to the
+bottom of the sea, it will cast a light in the water. Water therefore
+has more of blackness than the air, but less of cold. Oil therefore,
+partaking more of air than most liquid things, is least cold, nor will
+it easily or suddenly freeze; for the air which is mixed with it will
+not suffer the congelation to grow hard. And therefore, as for needles,
+steel buckles, and such sort of small iron and steel wares, they never
+quench them in water but in oil, fearing lest the over-coldness of the
+water should make them too brittle. And indeed the truth is more truly
+enquired into from the consideration of these experiments, than those
+of colors. For hail, snow, and ice, as they are most transparent, so
+are most cold; and pitch, as it is hotter, so it is blacker and darker
+than honey.</p>
+
+<p>14. This makes me admire at those who affirm the air to be cold because
+it is dark and obscure, unless it be because they find others affirming
+it to be hot because it is light. For dark is not so proper and
+familiar to cold, as heavy and stable; for many things that are void
+of heat partake of splendor and light, but there is nothing cold that
+is light, nimble, or apt to ascend upward. Even the clouds themselves,
+while they preserve the nature of air tower aloft in the sky; but
+changing into moisture, they presently fall down, and having admitted
+coldness, they lose their lightness as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> well as their heat. And so
+on the other side, having regained their heat, they again return to
+motion, their substance being carried upward as soon as it is changed
+into air.</p>
+
+<p>Neither is the argument produced from corruption true. For nothing that
+perishes is corrupted <i>into</i> what is opposite, but <i>by</i> what
+is opposite to it; as fire extinguished by water changes into air.
+And therefore Aeschylus spake not merely like a tragedian but like a
+philosopher, when he said,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The water curb, that punishment of fire.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In like manner Homer opposed in battle Vulcan to the river, and Apollo
+to Neptune, more like a philosopher than a poet or mythologist. And
+Archilochus spoke not amiss of a woman whose thoughts were contrary to
+her words, when he said,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">She, weaving subtle trains and sly vagaries,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Fire in one hand, in th’ other water carries.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the Persians there were several customs of supplication, of
+which the chiefest, and that which would admit of no refusal, was when
+the suppliant, taking fire in his hand and entering into a river,
+threatened, if his supplications were denied, to throw the fire into
+the water. But though his suit were granted him, yet he was punished
+for threatening, as being against the law and contrary to Nature. And
+this is a vulgar proverb in everybody’s mouth, to mix fire with water,
+spoken of those that would attempt impossibilities; to show that water
+is an enemy to fire, and being extinguished thereby, is destroyed and
+punished by it,—not by the air, which, upon the change and destruction
+of it, receives and entertains the substance of it. For if that into
+which the thing destroyed is changed be contrary to it, why does fire
+seem contrary to air more than water? For air changes into water by
+condensation, but into fire by dissipation; as, on the other side,
+water is turned into air by separation, into earth by condensation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>
+Which, in my opinion, happens by reason of the propriety and near
+affinity between both, not from any thing of contrariety and hostility
+one to another. Others there are, that, which way soever they maintain
+it, spoil the argument. For it is most irrational to say that water is
+congealed by the air, when they never saw the air congealed in their
+lives. For clouds, fogs, and mists are no congelations, but thickenings
+and condensations of the air moist and full of vapors; but a dry air
+void of moisture never undergoes refrigeration to such a degree. For
+there are some mountains that never admit of a cloud, nor dew, nor
+mist, their tops being so high as to reach into an air that is pure and
+void of moisture. Whence it is manifest that it is the condensation and
+consistency below, which contributes that cold and moisture to the air
+which is mixed with it.</p>
+
+<p>15. Now that great rivers never freeze downwards is but consentaneous
+to reason. For those parts which are frozen above transmit no
+exhalation outward; for this, being penned up within and forced
+downward, affords heat to the moisture at the bottom. A clear
+demonstration of which is this, that when the ice is dissolved, you
+may observe a steam arising out of the water upwards in a very great
+quantity. And therefore the bodies of living creatures are warmest
+within in the winter, for that the heat is driven inward by the ambient
+cold. Now those upward exhalations and ascensions of the vapors deprive
+the waters not only of their heat but of their coolness. And therefore
+they that vehemently desire their drink to be cold never move the snow
+nor the moisture that is pressed out of it; for motion would deprive
+them both of the virtue which is required from them.</p>
+
+<p>Now that this virtue is not the virtue of air, but of water, a man
+may collect by reasoning thus from the beginning. First, it is not
+probable that the air, which is next the sky,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> and touching the fiery
+substance is also touched by it, should be endued with a contrary
+virtue; for otherwise it is not possible that the extremities of the
+one should touch and be contiguous to the extremities of the other.
+Nor is it agreeable to reason that Nature should constitute that which
+is corrupted next in order to that which corrupts, as if she were not
+the author of community and harmony but of combat and contention.
+For she makes use of contrary things in sustaining the universe; but
+she does not use them pure and unmixed, nor so that they will be in
+hostility; but she uses such as have alternately a certain position and
+order which is not destructive, but which inclines them to communicate
+and co-operate one with another, and to effect a harmony between
+the opposing qualities. And this is the nature of the air, being
+expanded under the fire above the water, contingent and adhering to
+both, neither hot in itself nor cold, but containing an intermixture
+and communion of hot and cold, harmlessly intermixed in herself; and
+lightly cherishing the contrary extremities.</p>
+
+<p>16. Therefore the air is of an equal temper in all places, but winter
+is not in all places alike nor equally cold; but some parts of the
+habitable world are cold and moist, others hot and dry, not by chance,
+but because there is but one substance of heat and dryness. For the
+greatest part of Africa is hot and without water. But they that have
+travelled Scythia, Thrace, and the Pontic regions report them to
+be full of vast lakes, and large and deep rivers. And as for those
+regions lying between, those parts that join upon lakes and marshes
+are most cold by reason of the exhalations from the water. Posidonius
+therefore, affirming the freshness and moistness of the air of marshes
+to be the cause of its cold, has no way disturbed the probability of
+our argument, but rather added to the strength of it; for the air
+would not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> always be the colder the fresher it is, unless cold has its
+original from moisture. And therefore Homer much more truly shows us
+the fountain of cold, when he says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Chill from the river blows the wind</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Before the coming morn.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then again it many times happens that our sense deceives us. So that
+when we feel cold garments or cold wool, we believe we feel them to
+be moist, by reason of the substance which is common to both, and of
+their natures which are coherent and familiar one with another. But in
+climates where the cold is extreme, it oftentimes breaks and cracks
+both pots and vessels, whether made of earth or brass,—none empty, but
+all full, the cold giving force and might to the liquor within,—which
+made Theophrastus say, that the air breaks those vessels, making use of
+the cold as of a hammer; whether more eloquently or more truly spoken,
+I leave you to judge. For then vessels full of pitch or milk should be
+more subject to be broken by the air.</p>
+
+<p>But water seems to be cold of itself, and that primitively too; for
+in respect of the coldness of it, it is opposite to the heat of the
+fire; as to drought in respect of its moisture, and to ponderosity in
+regard of its lightness. Lastly, fire is altogether of a dissipating
+and dividing nature; water, of a nature to fasten and contain, holding
+and joining together by virtue of its moisture. Which was the reason
+why Empedocles called fire “a pernicious contention,” but water a
+“tenacious friendship.” For the nourishment of fire is that which
+changes into fire, and it changes that which is as it were of kin and
+familiar to it. What is contrary to it, as water, cannot be changed by
+it, or at least only with great difficulty. True it is, that as for
+itself, as I may so say, it cannot be burned; but as for <span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>green wood
+and wet straw, it overcomes them with much struggling, while the heat
+and cold contending together, by reason of their moisture and their
+natural antipathy, produce only a dull flame, clouded with smoke, that
+makes little progress upon the materials.</p>
+
+<p>17. Compare these arguments with theirs, and consider them well. But
+Chrysippus, believing the air to be the primitive cold, because it is
+dark, makes mention only of those that say the water lies at farther
+distance from the sky than the air. And being desirous to give some
+answer to them, “If so,” says he, “we may as well affirm the earth to
+be primitively cold, because it is the farthest distant from the sky;”
+rejecting that, as altogether improbable and absurd. But for my part, I
+am of opinion that there might be many probable and rational arguments
+brought for the earth; beginning with that which Chrysippus chiefly
+makes use of for the air. What is this? First, that it is dark. For
+if he, assuming these two contrarieties of faculties, believes that
+the one follows the other of necessity, then there might be produced
+a thousand oppositions and repugnances of the earth in respect of the
+sky, which would of necessity follow upon this which we have mentioned.
+For it is not to be opposed only as heavy to light, or as that which
+tends downward to that which moves upward, or as slow and stable to
+swift and full of motion; but as that which is heaviest to that which
+is most thin, or lastly, as that which is immovable of itself to that
+which moves spontaneously, and as possessing the middle space to that
+which is in a perpetual circular motion. Would it not be absurd to
+aver that the opposition of heat to cold is accompanied with so many
+and such remarkable contrarieties? But fire is bright, the earth is
+dark, nay, the very darkest and most void of light of all things. The
+air first of all participates of light, is soonest altered, and being
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span>replenished with radiancy, diffuses the splendor of it far and near,
+and shows itself a vast body of light. For the sun rising, as one of
+the dithyrambic authors writes,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent24">Presently doth fill</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">The spacious house of the air-prancing winds.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From thence the descending air disposes a part of her brightness to
+the sea and lakes, and the hidden depths of profound rivers laugh and
+smile so far as the air penetrates into them. Only the earth of all
+bodies remains without light, and impenetrable to the beams of the sun
+and moon. But it is cherished and comforted by them, and suffers a
+small part of it to be warmed and softened by entrance of the heat. But
+the solidness of it will not admit the brightness of light, only the
+surface of it is enlightened; but the innermost parts of it are called
+by the names of Darkness, Chaos, and Hades; and Erebus is nothing else
+but that same perpetual darkness and horror in the body of the earth.
+Besides, the mythologists tell us that Night was the daughter of the
+Earth; and the mathematicians show that it is the shadow of the earth
+eclipsing the body of the sun. For the air is filled with darkness by
+the earth, as with light by the sun; and that part of the air which is
+void of all light is that same length of the night which is caused by
+the shadow of the earth. And therefore both men and many beasts make
+use of the exterior air, and ramble in the dark, guided only by some
+footsteps of light and certain effluxes of a dim twinkling that are
+scattered through it; but he that keeps house and shuts himself up in
+his chamber, as being encompassed by the earth, remains altogether
+blind and without light. Also the hides and horns of beasts will not
+admit of light by reason of their solidness; but being burnished and
+shaved, they become transparent, the air being intermixed with them.
+Moreover, I am of opinion that the earth is everywhere by the poets
+said to be black, by <span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span>reason of the darkness of it and want of light.
+So that the antithesis of light and darkness is much more remarkable in
+reference to the earth, than in respect of the air.</p>
+
+<p>18. But this is nothing to the question. For we have shown that there
+are many cold things which are bright and transparent, and many hot
+things which are obscure and dark. But ponderosity, stability, density,
+and immutability are qualities more properly belonging to cold, of
+none of which the air partakes, but of all of which the earth has a
+far greater share than the water. And yet in all these things cold, by
+the judgment of sense itself, appears to be hard, to cause hardness,
+and to make resistance. For Theophrastus tells us of fish that have
+been frozen by extremity of cold, when they have chanced to bounce
+ashore, that their bodies have been broken and crumbled to pieces like
+a vessel of glass or potter’s clay. You yourself have heard at Delphi,
+how that certain persons ascending to the top of Parnassus to succor
+the Thyades that were overtaken with a violent storm of wind and hail,
+their coats were frozen so hard and into a substance so like wood, that
+being spread upon the ground they broke and crumbled to pieces. It also
+stiffens the nerves and deprives the tongue of motion, congealing the
+moist and softer parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>19. This being obvious to sight, let us consider the effect. Every
+faculty, wherever it prevails, changes into itself whatever it
+overcomes. Thus whatever is overcome by heat is set on fire; that which
+is vanquished by wind is changed into air. That which falls into water
+becomes well moistened, unless quickly saved. Of necessity, therefore,
+those things which are violently affected by cold must be changed
+into the primitive cold. For freezing is an excess of refrigeration;
+which congelation ends in alteration and petrifaction, when the cold,
+prevailing every way, congeals the liquid substance and presses forth
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> heat; so that the bottom of the earth is, as it were, a kind of
+congelation, and altogether ice. For there the cold inhabits simple
+and unmixed, and removed hard and rigid at the greatest distance from
+the sky. But as for those things which are conspicuous, as rocks and
+precipices, Empedocles believes them to be thrust forth and supported
+by the fire that burns in the bottom of the earth. Which appears the
+more, in regard that, wherever the heat is pressed forth and vanishes
+away, all those things are congealed or stiffened by the cold; and
+therefore congelations are called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πάγοι</span> (<i>stiffened</i>). And the
+extremities of many things where heat fails, growing black, make
+them look like brands when the fire is out. For cold congeals some
+things more, some things less; more especially such things wherein
+it is primitively existent. For as, if it be the nature of hot to
+render light, that which is hottest is lightest; if of moist to
+soften, that which is moistest is softest; so if it be the nature
+of cold to congeal, of necessity that which is coldest must be most
+congealed,—that is to say the earth,—and that which is most cold must
+be that which is by nature and primitively cold, which is no more than
+what is apparent to sense. For mud is colder than water, and earth
+being thrown upon fire puts it out. Your smiths also, when their iron
+is melted and red hot, strew upon it the dust of marble to cool it and
+stop the running of it too fluidly. Dust also cools the bodies of the
+wrestlers, and dries up their sweat.</p>
+
+<p>20. To go no farther, what means our own yearly practice to alter our
+lodgings and habitations, while we remove in the winter so far as we
+can into the upper parts of our buildings, but in the summer descend
+again and seek convenient refuge in the lower edifices, sometimes
+enjoying ourselves under ground in the very arms of the earth? Do we
+not do it, as being guided by our senses for coolness’s sake to the
+earth, and thereby acknowledging that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> to be the seat of primitive
+cold? And certainly our coveting to live near the sea in winter may be
+thought to be a kind of flight from the earth, since we seem to forsake
+it, as far as we can, by reason of the nipping frosts, and run to
+encircle themselves with the air of the sea for warmth’s sake; and then
+again in the summer, by reason of the scorching heat, we desire the
+earth-born upland air, not because it is cold of itself, but because it
+had its original and blossomed from the primitive natural cold, and is
+imbued with that power which is in the earth, as iron is imbued with
+the virtue of the water wherein it is quenched. Then again, of river
+waters we find those are the coldest that flow upon gravel and stones
+and fall down from mountains; and of well-waters, those which are in
+the deepest wells. For with these the exterior air is no longer mixed,
+by reason of the depth of the wells, and the other arise out of the
+pure and unmixed earth; like the river that falls from the mountain
+Taenarum, which they call the water of Styx, rising out of a rock with
+a parsimonious spring, but so cold that no other vessel except the hoof
+of an ass will hold it; for all other sorts of vessels it breaks and
+cracks to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>21. The physicians also tell us that the nature of all sorts of earth
+is binding and restrictive; and they number up several sorts of metals
+which are made use of in physic by reason of their styptic and binding
+qualities. For the element of earth is fit neither to cut nor to move,
+neither has it any points, neither is it subject to be softened or
+melted, but is firm and stable like a cube; and therefore it has both
+ponderosity and coldness, and the faculty to thicken and condense moist
+things; and it causes tremblings and quiverings in bodies by reason
+of its inequality; and if it get the better by the utter expulsion
+and extinguishing of the heat, it occasions a frozen and deadly habit
+of body. Therefore earth either does not consume<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> by burning, or else
+burns with a very slow and difficult progress. But the air many times
+darts forth flame from itself; and being once set on fire, it grows
+fluid and flashes out in lightning. Heat also feeds upon moisture; for
+it is not the solid part of the wood, but the moist and oily part, that
+is combustible; which being consumed, the solid and dry is left behind
+in the ashes. Neither do they arrive at their mark, who, pretending
+to burn the ashes also, sprinkle them with oil and grease; for when
+the liquid is consumed, the earthy part remains, do what they can.
+Therefore, because the earth is not only of a nature not to be moved
+from its station, but also unalterable in its substance and always
+abiding in the habitation of the Gods, the ancients well called it
+Hestia or Vesta (from <i>standing</i>), by reason of its immobility and
+concretion; of which cold is the bond or ligament, as Archelaus the
+philosopher termed it, which nothing is able to unloosen or soften, as
+not being capable of heat and warmth.</p>
+
+<p>As for those who say they have been sensible of the cold of air and
+water, but never felt the earth so cold, they consider only the surface
+of the earth, which is a mixture of air, water, sun, and heat. They
+are no better than people who deny the aether to be naturally and
+primitively hot, but believe it to be either scalding water or red hot
+iron, because they feel and handle the one, but are not sensible of the
+pure and celestial fire. In like manner, neither do they see the earth
+which lies concealed at the bottom, though that be what is chiefly to
+be taken for the earth, separated from all other things. We may see
+some token of this lower earth in these rocks here about us, which from
+their depths send forth a cold vapor so sharp and vehement that it is
+hard to be endured. They also that desire cool drink throw small flint
+stones into water. For it becomes denser and quicker to the taste,
+through the cold which is carried upward fresh and unmixed from the
+stones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span></p>
+
+<p>22. Therefore it was the opinion of the ancient philosophers and
+learned men, that terrestrial and celestial things were not to be mixed
+together, not so much out of a local consideration of uppermost and
+lowermost, in respect of place, but with a respect to the difference
+of faculties attributing hot and splendent, swift and light to the
+immortal and sempiternal Nature, but believing dark and cold and slow
+to be the unhappy portion of the dead under the shackles of corruption.
+Since the body of a living creature, while it breathes and flourishes
+(as the poets say), enjoys both heat and life; but being deprived of
+these, and only the terrestrial parts remaining, presently cold and
+stiffness take place, as if heat were naturally existent in every thing
+else but only the earth.</p>
+
+<p>23. These things, dear Favorinus, compare with what has been said by
+others; and if they neither come too short of probability nor too much
+exceed it, bid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> all their opinions farewell, as believing it much more
+becoming a philosopher to pause in dubious matters, rather than over
+hastily to side with any one particular party.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WHETHER_WATER_OR_FIRE_BE_MOST_USEFUL">WHETHER WATER OR FIRE BE MOST USEFUL.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. “<span class="smcap">Water</span> is the best of things, but gold is like burning fire,” says
+Pindar<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a>. Therefore he positively assigns the second place to fire;
+with whom Hesiod agrees, where he says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">First of all Chaos being had.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For most believe that by the word chaos he meant water, from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χύσις</span>,
+signifying <i>diffusion</i>. But the balance of argument as to this
+point seems to be equal. For there are some who will have it that fire
+is the principle of all things, and that like sperm it begets all
+things out of itself, and resolves all things again by conflagration.
+Therefore, not to mention the persons, let us consider the arguments on
+both sides, which are to us the most convincing.</p>
+
+<p>2. Now then, is not that the most useful to us, which in all places
+and always and most of all we stand in need of,—like a piece of
+household-stuff or a tool, nay, like a friend that is ready at all
+hours and seasons? But fire is not always useful; for sometimes it is a
+prejudice to us and we avoid it if we can. But water is useful, winter
+and summer, to the healthy and sick, night and day; neither indeed is
+there any time but that a man has need of it. Therefore it is that the
+dead are called <i>alibantes</i>, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>as being without moisture (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιβάς</span>)
+and by that means deprived of life; and man may be without fire, but
+never was any man without water. Besides, that which was existent from
+the beginning and with the first creation of man must be thought more
+useful than what was afterwards invented. From whence it is apparent,
+that Nature bestowed the one upon us as a thing absolutely necessary,
+the other fortune and art found out for superfluity of uses. Nor
+was the time ever known when man lived without water, nor was it an
+invention of any of the Gods or heroes; for it was present almost at
+their generation, and it made their creation possible. But the use of
+fire was a late invention of Prometheus, at what time life was without
+fire, but not without water. And that this is no poetical fiction is
+demonstrable from this, that there are many sorts of people that live
+without fire, without houses, and without hearths, in the open air. And
+Diogenes the Cynic made no use of fire; so that after he had swallowed
+a raw fish, “This hazard,” said he, “do I run for your sakes.” But
+without water no man ever thought it convenient or possible to live.</p>
+
+<p>3. But why do I so meanly confine my discourse to the nature of men,
+seeing there are many, nay, infinite sorts of creatures? The race of
+man is almost the only one that knows the use of fire; the others live
+and feed without fire. Indeed, beasts, birds, and creeping things live
+upon roots, fruits, and raw flesh, without fire; but without water
+neither fish nor fowl nor land animals can subsist. For all beasts that
+feed upon flesh, of which there are some (as Aristotle reports) that
+never drink, nevertheless support life and being merely by moisture. So
+that of necessity that must be most profitable without which no sort of
+life can subsist or endure.</p>
+
+<p>4. Let us therefore make a step from animals that eat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> to things that
+we ourselves make use of, such are plants and fruits; of which some are
+altogether void of heat, others enjoy it but imperfectly and obscurely.
+But moisture causes all things to germinate, increase, and bring
+forth. Why should I stand to reckon up wine and oil, milk and honey,
+and whatever else we reap and bring forth and see before our eyes,
+when wheat itself, which is looked upon as a dry nourishment, grows by
+alteration, putrefaction, and corruption of the moist matter?</p>
+
+<p>5. Then again, that is most useful which is no way detrimental. Now
+fire easily becomes most pernicious, but the nature of water is never
+prejudicial. In the next place, that is most useful which affords
+the benefit which it brings with least expense, and without any
+preparation. But the benefit of fire requires cost and materials, and
+therefore the rich make more use of it than the poor, and princes
+than private persons; but water has that kindness for mankind, that
+it freely offers itself to all alike, a benefit perfect in itself,
+indigent of nothing, and wanting neither tools nor implements.</p>
+
+<p>6. Moreover, that which by augmentation loses its benefit is of least
+use. Such is fire, which like a devouring beast ravages all before it,
+useful rather by art and skilful moderation, than of its own nature.
+But from water there is nothing to be feared. Furthermore, that is
+most useful which may be joined with another. But fire will not admit
+of water, neither is it any way profitable by conjunction with it. But
+water becomes profitable by joining with fire; and therefore hot waters
+are wholesome, and sensibly cure several diseases. Neither shall you
+ever find moist fire; but water both cold and hot is profitable for the
+body of man.</p>
+
+<p>7. Then again, there being four elements, water produces a fifth out
+of itself, which is the sea, no less beneficial than the rest, as well
+for commerce as for many other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> things. So that it may be said, this
+element united and perfected our manner of living, which before was
+wild and unsociable, correcting it by mutual assistance, and creating
+community of friendship by reciprocal exchanges of one good turn for
+another. And as Heraclitus said, If there were no sun, it would be
+perpetual night; so may we say, If there were no sea, man would be the
+most savage and shameless of all creature. But the sea brought the vine
+from India into Greece, and out of Greece transmitted the use of corn
+to foreign parts; from Phoenicia translated the knowledge of letters,
+the memorials that prevent oblivion; furnished the world with wine and
+fruit, and prevented the greatest part of mankind from being illiterate
+and void of education. How is it possible then but that water should be
+the most useful, when it thus furnishes us with an entirely new element?</p>
+
+<p>8. Or can any man speak as follows in defence of the contrary? We
+say then that God, as a master workman, had before him the four
+elements, to complete the fabric of the universe; and these again were
+different one from another. But earth and water were placed at the
+foundation, like matter, to be formed and fashioned, participating of
+form and order and of power to procreate and bring forth, so far as
+they are assisted by air and fire,—the great artificers that mould
+them into various shapes,—and lying dead till roused by them to act
+and generate. Of these two latter, fire is the ruling agent. This is
+manifest by induction. For earth without warmth and heat is altogether
+barren and unfruitful; but fire, by virtue of its rousing and inflaming
+quality, renders it diffusive, and swells it into generation. Nor
+can any man find out any other cause why rocks and the dry tops of
+mountains are not productive, but because they participate either
+nothing at all or very little of fire.</p>
+
+<p>9. Then generally for water, it is so far from being sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> of
+itself for the generation and preservation of other things, that it is
+itself destroyed for want of fire. But fire is that which upholds every
+thing in its proper being, and preserves it in its proper substance,
+as well water itself as all other things; so that when fire leaves
+it, water will stink, and it may be said that the want of fire is the
+death and destruction of water. And thus we find in regard to pools
+and all manner of standing waters, and such as are settled in pits
+and holes without issue, what an offensive and dead stench they send
+forth, and all for want of motion; for this kindles and preserves
+heat in all things, and more especially in running waters and swift
+streams, which being thus agitated and enlivened by heat, we commonly
+say such waters “live.” Why then should not that be accounted the most
+useful of the two, that affords to the other the cause of its being,
+as fire does to water? Moreover, that is the most useful, of which if
+an animal be wholly deprived, it must perish; for it is evident, that
+anything without which an animal cannot live affords the reason and
+cause why it exists. There is moisture also in things after they are
+dead, nor are they altogether dried up; for otherwise moist bodies
+would never putrefy; since putrefaction is the alteration of dry into
+moist, or rather the corruption of moisture in flesh. Neither is death
+any other than an absolute defect and want of heat, and therefore dead
+carcasses are the coldest of all; so that if you do but touch them with
+a razor, they will blunt the edge of it through excess of coldness.
+Also in living creatures, those parts that least partake of heat are
+most insensible, as the bones and hair, and those parts which are most
+distant from the heart. Nay, to some of the most important things the
+absence of fire and the presence of water are destructive. For plants
+and fruits are not produced by moisture, but by the warmth of the
+moisture; and cold waters are most certainly either less productive,
+or altogether<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> barren. For if water were fruitful in itself, it would
+always, and that spontaneously too, bear fruit. But the contrary is
+apparent, and it is rather baneful to generation.</p>
+
+<p>10. Let us begin anew. As to the use of fire, considered as fire, we
+have no need of water. Rather the contrary is to be made out; for water
+extinguishes fire. And as for water, there is no use to be made of it
+in most things without fire. For water heated becomes more useful,
+whereas otherwise it is prejudicial. So that, of the two, that is to
+be accounted best which is profitable of itself without the assistance
+of another. Besides, water is beneficial only to the feeling, when
+you either wash with it or touch it; but fire is profitable to all
+the senses, being not only felt, but also seen at a distance; so that
+you may add this to the rest of the virtues of it, that its uses are
+manifold.</p>
+
+<p>11. Then to say that man did once subsist without fire is a mistake, it
+being impossible that man should be without it. But we must acknowledge
+there are differences in this kind, as well as in other things. Thus
+heat has rendered the sea more beneficial, as having a greater portion
+of heat in it than other waters, from which it otherwise differs not at
+all. And as for those that have no need of outward fire, they do not
+avoid it because they do not want it, but because they abound in heat
+within themselves. So that the use of fire seems to be more excellent
+in this, that water is never in such a condition as not to want
+external aids, but fire, endued with manifold virtues, contents itself
+with its own sufficiency. Therefore, as he is the best commander who
+so manages the affairs of his city as not to have any need of foreign
+assistance, so that element excels that supplies us in such a manner as
+to want the least of other helps from without. And this is to be said
+of other creatures that have no need of external heat.</p>
+
+<p>Now, to argue on the other side, a man may say thus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> that whatever we
+singly and alone make use of is more profitable, since we are by our
+reason best fitted to choose what is best. For what is more useful and
+beneficial to us than reason?... And yet brute animals want fire. What
+then? Is it the less profitable, because found out by foresight of a
+higher power?</p>
+
+<p>12. And since our discourse has brought us to it, what is more
+beneficial to life than art? Yet fire invented and preserves all
+manner of arts. And therefore Vulcan is feigned to be the prince of
+all artificers. Man has allowed him but a little time to live; and
+as Aristo said, sleep, like a toll-gatherer, deprives him of the
+one-half of that too. I would rather say that the darkness does this;
+for a man may watch all night. But he would have no benefit of his
+watchfulness unless fire afforded him all the benefit of the light of
+day, and removed the difference between night and day. Since then there
+is nothing more beneficial to man than life, and this is prolonged
+by fire, why should not fire be accounted the most beneficial of all
+things?</p>
+
+<p>13. Lastly, that is to be thought most profitable, of which the
+temperament of the senses participates most. Now do you find that there
+is any of the senses, which of itself makes use of moisture without
+an intermixture of air and fire? But every sense partakes of fire, as
+being that which quickens the vital faculty; more especially the sight,
+which is the most acute of all the senses in the body, being a certain
+fiery efflux,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> that gave us our first light into the belief of a Deity,
+and by virtue of which we are able, as Plato says, to conform our souls
+to the motions of the celestial bodies.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="AGAINST_COLOTES_THE_DISCIPLE_AND_FAVORITE_OF_EPICURUS">AGAINST COLOTES, THE DISCIPLE AND FAVORITE OF EPICURUS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Colotes</span>, whom Epicurus was wont diminutively and by way of
+familiarity or fondness, to call Colotaras and Colotarion, composed,
+O Saturninus, and published a little book which he entitled, “That
+according to the opinions of the other philosophers one cannot so much
+as live.” This he dedicated to King Ptolemy. Now I suppose that it will
+not be unpleasant for you to read, when set down in writing, what came
+into my mind to speak against this Colotes, since I know you to be a
+lover of all elegant and honest treatises, and particularly of such as
+regard the science of antiquity, and to esteem the bearing in memory
+and having (as much as possible may be) in hand the discourses of the
+ancient sages to be the most royal of all studies and exercises.</p>
+
+<p>2. Not long since therefore, as this book was reading, Aristodemus of
+Aegium, a familiar friend of ours (whom you well know to be one of the
+Academy, and not a mere thyrsus-bearer, but one of the most frantic
+celebrators of Plato’s orgies),<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> did, I know not how, keep himself
+contrary <span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span>to his custom very still all the while, and patiently gave
+ear to it even to the end. But the reading was scarce well over, when
+he said: Well then, whom shall we cause to rise up and fight against
+this man, in defence of the philosophers? For I am not of Nestor’s
+opinion, who, when the most valiant of those nine warriors that
+presented themselves to enter into combat was to be chosen, committed
+the election to the fortune of a lot.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, answered I, you see he so disposed himself in reference to the
+lot, that the choice might pass according to the arbitrament of the
+wisest man;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">And th’ lot drawn from the helmet, as they wished,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">On Ajax fell.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But yet since you command me to make the election,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">How can I think a better choice to make</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Than the divine Ulysses?<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Consider therefore, and be well advised, in what manner you will
+chastise this man.</p>
+
+<p>But you know, replied Aristodemus, that Plato, when highly offended
+with his boy that waited on him, would not himself beat him, but
+requested Speusippus to do it for him, saying that he himself was
+angry. As much therefore may I say to you; Take this fellow to you, and
+treat him as you please; for I am in a fit of choler.</p>
+
+<p>When therefore all the rest of the company desired me to undertake
+this office; I must then, said I, speak, since it is your pleasure.
+But I am afraid that I also shall seem more vehemently transported
+than is fitting against this book, in the defending and maintaining
+Socrates against the rudeness, scurrility, and insolence of this man;
+who, because Socrates affirmed himself to know nothing certainly,
+instead of bread (as one would say) presents him hay, as if he were a
+beast, and asks him why he puts <span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span>meat into his mouth and not into his
+ear. And yet perhaps some would make but a laughing matter of this,
+considering the mildness and gentleness of Socrates; “but for the whole
+host of the Greeks,” that is, of the other philosophers, amongst which
+are Democritus, Plato, Stilpo, Empedocles, Parmenides, and Melissus,
+who have been basely traduced and reviled by him, it were not only a
+shame to be silent, but even a sacrilege in the least point to forbear
+or recede from freedom of speech in their behalf, who have advanced
+philosophy to that honor and reputation it has gotten.</p>
+
+<p>And our parents indeed have, with the assistance of the Gods, given
+us our life; but to live well comes to us from reason, which we have
+learned from the philosophers, which favors law and justice, and
+restrains our concupiscence. Now to live well is to live sociably,
+friendly, temperately, and justly; of all which conditions they leave
+us not one, who cry out that man’s sovereign good lies in his belly,
+and that they would not purchase all the virtues together at the
+expense of a cracked farthing, if pleasure were totally and on every
+side removed from them. And in their discourses concerning the soul and
+the Gods, they hold that the soul perishes when it is separated from
+the body, and that the Gods concern not themselves in our affairs. Thus
+the Epicureans reproach the other philosophers, that by their wisdom
+they bereave man of his life; whilst the others on the contrary accuse
+them of teaching men to live degenerately and like beasts.</p>
+
+<p>3. Now these things are scattered here and there in the writings
+of Epicurus, and dispersed through all his philosophy. But this
+Colotes, by having extracted from them certain pieces and fragments
+of discourses, destitute of any arguments whatever to render them
+credible and intelligible, has composed his book, being like a shop or
+cabinet of monsters and prodigies; as you better know than any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span> one
+else, because you have always in your hands the works of the ancients.
+But he seems to me, like the Lydian, to open not only one gate against
+himself, but to involve Epicurus also in many and those the greatest
+doubts and difficulties. For he begins with Democritus, who receives
+of him an excellent and worthy reward for his instruction; it being
+certain that Epicurus for a long time called himself a Democritean,
+which as well others affirm, as Leonteus, a principal disciple of
+Epicurus, who in a letter which he writ to Lycophron says, that
+Epicurus honored Democritus, because he first attained, though a
+little at a distance, the right and sound understanding of the truth,
+and that in general all the treatise concerning natural things was
+called Democritean, because Democritus was the first who happened
+upon the principles and met with the primitive foundations of Nature.
+And Metrodorus says openly of philosophy, If Democritus had not gone
+before and taught the way, Epicurus had never attained to wisdom. Now
+if it be true, as Colotes holds, that to live according to the opinions
+of Democritus is not to live, Epicurus was then a fool in following
+Democritus, who led him to a doctrine which taught him not to live.</p>
+
+<p>4. Now the first thing he lays to his charge is, that, by supposing
+every thing to be no more of one nature than another, he wholly
+confounds human life. But Democritus was so far from having been of
+this opinion, that he opposed Protagoras the philosopher who asserted
+it, and writ many excellent arguments concluding against him, which
+this fine fellow Colotes never saw nor read, nor yet so much as dreamed
+of; but deceived himself by misunderstanding a passage which is in his
+works, where he determines that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ δέν</span> is no more than <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὸ μηδέν</span>, naming
+in that place the body by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δέν</span>, and the void by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μηδέν</span>, and meaning that
+the void has its own proper nature and subsistence, as well as the
+body.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span></p>
+
+<p>But he who is of opinion that nothing is more of one nature than
+another makes use of a sentence of Epicurus, in which he says that all
+the apprehensions and imaginations given us by the senses are true.
+For if of two saying, the one, that the wine is sour, and the other,
+that it is sweet, neither of them shall be deceived by his sense, how
+shall the wine be more sour than sweet? And we may often see that some
+men using one and the same bath find it to be hot, and others find it
+to be cold; because those order cold water to be put into it, as these
+do hot. It is said that, a certain lady going to visit Berenice, wife
+to King Deiotarus, as soon as ever they approached each other, they
+both immediately turned their backs, the one, as it seemed, not being
+able to bear the smell of perfume, nor the other of butter. If then
+the sense of one is no truer than the sense of another, it is also
+probable, that water is no more cold than hot, nor sweet ointment or
+butter better or worse scented one than the other. For if any one shall
+say that it seems the one to one, and the other to another, he will,
+before he is aware, affirm that they are both the one and the other.</p>
+
+<p>5. And as for these symmetries and proportions of the pores, or little
+passages in the organs of the senses, about which they talk so much,
+and those different mixtures of seeds, which, they say, being dispersed
+through all savors, odors, and colors, move the senses of different
+persons to perceive different qualities, do they not manifestly drive
+them to this, that things are no more of one quality than another? For
+to pacify those who think the sense is deceived and lies because they
+see contrary events and passions in such as use the same objects, and
+to solve this objection, they teach,—that all things being mixed and
+confounded together, and yet one nevertheless being more suitable and
+fitting to one, and another to another, it is not possible that there
+should in all cases be a contact <span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span>and comprehension of one and the same
+quality, nor does the object equally affect all with all its parts,
+every one meeting only those to which it has its sense commensurate
+and proportioned; so that they are to blame so obstinately to insist
+that a thing is either good or bad, white or not white, thinking to
+establish their own senses by destroying those of others; whereas
+they ought neither to combat the senses,—because they all touch some
+quality, each one drawing from this confused mixture, as from a living
+and large fountain, what is suitable and convenient,—nor to pronounce
+of the whole, by touching only the parts, nor to think that all ought
+to be affected after one and the same manner by the same thing, seeing
+that one is affected by one quality and faculty of it, and another by
+another. Let us then seek who those men are which bring in this opinion
+that things are not more of one quality than another, if they are not
+those who hold that every sensible thing is a mixture, composed of all
+sorts of qualities, like a mixture of new wine fermenting, and who
+confess that all their rules are lost and their faculty of judging
+quite gone, if they admit any sensible object that is pure and simple,
+and do not make each one thing to be many?</p>
+
+<p>6. See now to this purpose, what discourse and debate Epicurus makes
+Polyaenus to have with him in his Banquet concerning the heat of wine.
+For when he asked, “Do you, Epicurus, say, that wine does not heat?”
+some one answered, “It is not universally to be affirmed that wine
+heats.” And a little after: “For wine seems not to be universally a
+heater; but such a quantity may be said to heat such a person.” And
+again subjoining the cause, to wit, the compressions and disseminations
+of the atoms, and having alleged their commixtures and conjunctions
+with others when the wine comes to be mingled in the body, he adds this
+conclusion: “It is not universally to be said that wine is endued with
+a faculty of heating; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> that such a quantity may heat such a nature
+and one so disposed, while such a quantity to such a nature is cooling.
+For in such a mass there are such natures and complexions of which cold
+might be composed, and which, joined with others in proper measure,
+would yield a refrigerative virtue. Wherefore some are deceived, who
+say that wine is universally a heater; and others, who say that it is
+universally a cooler.” He then who says that most men are deceived
+and err, in holding that which is hot to be heating and that which is
+cold to be cooling, is himself in an error, unless he should believe
+that his assertion leads to the doctrine that one thing is not more of
+one nature than another. He farther adds afterwards, that oftentimes
+wine entering into a body brings with it thither neither a calefying
+nor refrigerating virtue, but, the mass of the body being agitated and
+disturbed, and a transposition made of the parts, the heat-effecting
+atoms being assembled together do by their multitude cause a heat and
+inflammation in the body, and sometimes on the contrary disassembling
+themselves cause a refrigeration.</p>
+
+<p>7. But it is moreover wholly evident, that we may apply this argument
+to all those things which are called and esteemed bitter, sweet,
+purging, dormitive, and luminous, not any one of them having an entire
+and perfect quality to produce such effects, nor to do rather than
+to suffer when they are in the bodies, but being there susceptible
+of various temperatures and differences. For Epicurus himself, in
+his Second Book against Theophrastus, affirming that colors are not
+connatural to bodies, but are engendered there according to certain
+situations and positions with respect to the sight of man, says: “For
+this reason a body is no more colored than destitute of color.” And
+a little above he writes thus, word for word: “But apart from this,
+I know not how a man may say that those bodies which are in the dark
+have color; although very often,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> an air equally dark being spread
+about them, some distinguish diversities of colors, others perceive
+them not through the weakness of their sight. And moreover, going into
+a dark house or room, we at our first entrance see no color, but after
+we have stayed there awhile, we do. Wherefore we are to say that every
+body is not more colored than not colored. Now, if color is relative
+and has its being in regard to something else, so also then is white,
+and so likewise blue; and if colors are so, so also are sweet and
+bitter. So that it may truly be affirmed of every quality, that it
+cannot more properly be said to be than not to be. For to those who
+are in a certain manner disposed, they will be; but to those who are
+not so disposed, they will not be.” Colotes therefore has bedashed and
+bespattered himself and his master with that dirt, in which he says
+those lie who maintain that things are not more of one quality than
+another.</p>
+
+<p>8. But is it in this alone, that this excellent man shows himself</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">To others a physician, whilst himself</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Is full of ulcers?<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>No indeed; but yet much farther in his second reprehension, without any
+way minding it, he drives Epicurus and Democritus out of this life.
+For he affirms that the saying of Democritus—that the atoms are to
+the senses color by a certain law or ordinance, that they are by the
+same law sweetness, and by the same law concretion<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a>—is at war
+with our senses, and that he who uses this reason and persists in this
+opinion cannot himself imagine whether he is living or dead. I know not
+how to contradict this discourse; but this I can boldly affirm, that
+this is as inseparable from the sentences and doctrines of Epicurus
+as they say figure and weight are from atoms. For what is it that
+Democritus says? “There are substances, in number infinite, called
+atoms (because they cannot be <span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span>divided), without difference, without
+quality, and impassible, which move, being dispersed here and there,
+in the infinite voidness; and that when they approach one another,
+or meet and are conjoined, of such masses thus heaped together, one
+appears water, another fire, another a plant, another a man; and that
+all things are thus really atoms (as he called them), and that there
+is nothing else; for there can be no generation from what is not; and
+of those things which are nothing can be generated, because these
+atoms are so firm, that they can neither change, alter, nor suffer;
+wherefore there cannot be made color of those things which are without
+color, nor nature or soul of those things which are without quality and
+impassible.” Democritus then is to be blamed, not for confessing those
+things that happen upon his principles, but for supposing principles
+upon which such things happen. For he should not have supposed
+immutable principles; or having supposed them, he ought to have seen
+that the generation of all quality is taken away; but having seen the
+absurdity, to deny it is most impudent. But Epicurus says, that he
+supposes the same principles with Democritus, but that he says not that
+color, sweet, white, and other qualities, are by law and ordinance.
+If therefore <i>not to say</i> is merely <i>not to confess</i>, he
+does merely what he is wont to do. For it is as when, taking away
+divine Providence, he nevertheless says that he leaves piety and
+devotion towards the Gods; and when, choosing friendship for the sake
+of pleasure, that he suffers most grievous pains for his friends; and
+supposing the universe to be infinite, that he nevertheless takes
+not away high and low.... Indeed having taken the cup, one may drink
+what he pleases, and return the rest. But in reasoning one ought
+chiefly to remember this wise apophthegm, that where the principles
+are not necessary, the ends and consequences are necessary. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> was
+not then necessary for him to suppose or (to say better) to steal from
+Democritus, that atoms are the principles of the universe; but having
+supposed this doctrine, and having pleased and glorified himself in
+the first probable and specious appearances of it, he must afterwards
+also swallow that which is troublesome in it, or must show how bodies
+which have not any quality can bring all sorts of qualities to others
+only by their meetings and joining together. As—to take that which
+comes next to hand—whence does that which we call heat proceed, and
+how is it engendered, in the atoms, if they neither had heat when they
+came, nor are become hot after their being joined together? For the one
+presupposes that they had some quality, and the other that they were
+fit to receive it. And you affirm, that neither the one nor the other
+must be said to belong to atoms, because they are incorruptible.</p>
+
+<p>9. How then? Do not Plato, Aristotle, and Xenocrates produce gold
+from that which is not gold, and stone from that which is not stone,
+and many other things from the four simple first bodies? Yes indeed;
+but with those bodies immediately concur also the principles for the
+generation of every thing, bringing with them great contributions,
+that is, the first qualities which are in them; then, when they come
+to assemble and join in one the dry with the moist, the cold with the
+hot, and the solid with the soft,—that is active bodies with such as
+are fit to suffer and receive every alteration and change,—then is
+generation wrought by passing from one temperature to another. Whereas
+the atom, being alone, is deprived and destitute of all quality and
+generative faculty, and when it comes to meet with the others, it can
+make only a noise and sound because of its hardness and firmness, but
+nothing else. For they always strike and are stricken, not being able
+by this means to compose or make an animal, a soul, or a nature, nay,
+not so much as a mass or heap of themselves; for that as they beat upon
+one another, so they fly back<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> again asunder.</p>
+
+<p>10. But Colotes, as if he were speaking to some ignorant and unlettered
+king, again attacks Empedocles for breathing forth the same thought:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">I’ve one thing more to say. 'Mongst mortals there</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">No Nature is; nor that grim thing men fear</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">So much, called death. There only happens first</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A mixture, and mixt things asunder burst</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Again, when them disunion does befall.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And this is that which men do Nature call.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For my part, I do not see how this is repugnant and contrary to life or
+living, especially amongst those who hold that there is no generation
+of that which is not, nor corruption of that which is, but that the
+assembling and union of the things which are is called generation, and
+their dissolution and disunion named corruption and death. For that
+he took Nature for generation, and that this is his meaning, he has
+himself declared, when he opposed Nature to death. And if they neither
+live nor can live who place generation in union and death in disunion,
+what else do these Epicureans? Yet Empedocles, gluing, (as it were) and
+conjoining the elements together by heats, softnesses, and humidities,
+gives them in some sort a mixtion and unitive composition; but these
+men who hunt and drive together the atoms, which they affirm to be
+immutable and impassible, compose nothing proceeding from them, but
+indeed make many and continual percussions of them.</p>
+
+<p>For the interlacement, hindering the dissolution, more and more
+augments the collision and concussion; so that there is neither mixtion
+nor adhesion and conglutination, but only a confusion and combat, which
+according to them is called generation. And if the atoms do now recoil
+for a moment by reason of the shock they have given, and then return
+again after the blow is past, they are above<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> double the time absent
+from one another, without either touching or approaching, so as nothing
+can be made of them, not even so much as a body without a soul. But as
+for sense, soul, understanding, and prudence, there is not any man who
+can in the least conceive or imagine how it is possible they should
+be made in a voidness, and of atoms which neither when separate and
+apart have any quality, nor any passion or alteration when they are
+assembled and joined together, especially seeing this their meeting
+together is not an incorporation or congress, making a mixture or
+coalition, but rather percussions and repercussions. So that, according
+to the doctrine of these people, life is taken away, and the being
+of an animal denied, since they suppose principles void, impassible,
+godless, and soulless, and such as cannot admit or receive any mixture
+or incorporation whatever.</p>
+
+<p>11. How then is it, that they admit and allow Nature, soul, and living
+creature? Even in the same manner as they do an oath, prayer, and
+sacrifice, and the adoration of the Gods. Thus they adore by word
+and mouth, only naming and feigning that which by their principles
+they totally take away and abolish. If now they call that which is
+born Nature, and that which is engendered generation,—as those who
+ordinarily call the wood itself wood-work and the voices that accord
+and sound together symphony,—whence came it into his mind to object
+these words against Empedocles? “Why,” says he, “do we tire ourselves
+in taking such care of ourselves, in desiring and longing after certain
+things, and shunning and avoiding others? For we neither are ourselves,
+nor do we live by making use of others.” But be of good cheer, my
+dear little Colotes, may one perhaps say to him: there is none who
+hinders you from taking care of yourself by teaching that the nature
+of Colotes is nothing else but Colotes himself, or who forbids you to
+make use of things (now things<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> with you are pleasures) by showing
+that there is no nature of tarts and marchpanes, of sweet odors, or of
+venereal delights, but that there are tarts, marchpanes, perfumes, and
+women. For neither does the grammarian who says that “the strength of
+Hercules” is Hercules himself deny the being of Hercules; nor do those
+who say that symphonies and roofings are but bare derivations affirm
+that there are neither sounds nor timbers; since also there are some
+who, taking away the soul and prudence, do not yet seem to take away
+either living or being prudent.</p>
+
+<p>And when Epicurus says that the nature of things consists in bodies
+and their place, do we so comprehend him as if he meant that Nature
+were something else than the things which are, or as if he insinuated
+that it is simply the things which are, and nothing else?—as, to wit,
+he is wont to call voidness itself the nature of voidness, and the
+universe, by Jupiter, the nature of the universe. And if any one should
+thus question him; What sayst thou, Epicurus, that this is voidness,
+and that the nature of voidness? No, by Jupiter, would he answer; but
+this community of names is in use by law and custom. I grant it is. Now
+what has Empedocles done else, but taught that Nature is nothing else
+save that which is born, and death no other thing but that which dies?
+But as the poets very often, forming as it were an image, say thus in
+figurative language,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Strife, tumult, noise, placed by some angry God,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Mischief, and malice there had their abode;<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>so do most men attribute generation and corruption to things that
+are contracted together and dissolved. But so far has he been from
+stirring and taking away that which is, or contradicting that which
+evidently appears, that he casts not so much as one single word out of
+the accustomed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>use; but taking away all figurative fraud that might
+hurt or endamage things, he again restored the ordinary and useful
+signification to words in these verses:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When from mixed elements we sometimes see</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">A man produced, sometimes a beast, a tree,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Or bird, this birth and geniture we name;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But death, when this so well compacted frame</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And juncture is dissolved. This use I do approve.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And yet I myself say that Colotes, though he alleged these verses, did
+not understand that Empedocles took not away men, beasts, trees, or
+birds, which he affirmed to be composed of the elements mixed together;
+and that, by teaching how much they are deceived who call this
+composition Nature and life, and this dissolution unhappy destruction
+and miserable death, he did not abrogate the using of the customary
+expressions in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>12. And it seems to me, indeed, that Empedocles did not aim in this
+place at the disturbing the common form of expression, but that he
+really, as it has been said, had a controversy about generation from
+things that have no being, which some call Nature. Which he manifestly
+shows by these verses:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Fools, and of little thought, we well may deem</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Those, who so silly are as to esteem</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">That what ne’er was may now engendered be,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And that what is may perish utterly.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For these are the words of one who cries loud enough to those which
+have ears, that he takes not away generation, but procreation from
+nothing; nor corruption, but total destruction, that is, reduction to
+nothing. For to him who would not so savagely and foolishly but more
+gently calumniate, the following verses might give a colorable occasion
+of charging Empedocles with the contrary, when he says:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">No prudent man can e’er into his mind</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Admit that, whilst men living here on earth</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">(Which only life they call) both fortunes find,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">They being have, but that before the birth</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">They nothing were, nor shall be when once dead.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span></p>
+<p>For these are not the expressions of a man who denies those that are
+born to be, but rather of him who holds those to be that are not yet
+born or that are already dead. And Colotes also does not altogether
+accuse him of this, but says that according to his opinion we shall
+never be sick, never wounded. But how is it possible, that he who
+affirms men to have being both before their life and after their death,
+and during their life to find both fortunes (or to be accompanied both
+by good and evil), should not leave them the power to suffer? Who then
+are they, O Colotes, that are endued with this privilege never to be
+wounded, never to be sick? Even you yourselves, who are composed of
+atoms and voidness, neither of which, you say, has any sense. Now there
+is no great hurt in this; but the worst is, you have nothing left that
+can cause you pleasure, seeing an atom is not capable to receive those
+things which are to effect it, and voidness cannot be affected by them.</p>
+
+<p>13. But because Colotes would, immediately after Democritus, seem
+to inter and bury Parmenides, and I have passed over and a little
+postponed his defence, to bring in between them that of Empedocles, as
+seeming to be more coherent and consequent to the first reprehensions,
+let us now return to Parmenides. Him then does Colotes accuse of having
+broached and set abroad certain shameful and villanous sophistries;
+and yet by these his sophisms he has neither rendered friendship
+less honorable, nor voluptuousness or the desire of pleasures more
+audacious and unbridled. He has not taken from honesty its attractive
+property or its being venerable or recommendable of itself, nor has
+he disturbed the opinions we ought to have of the Gods. And I do not
+see how, by saying that the All (or the universe) is one, he hinders
+or obstructs our living. For when Epicurus himself says that the All
+is infinite, that it is neither engendered nor perishable, that it can
+neither<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> increase nor be diminished, he speaks of the universe as of
+one only thing. And having in the beginning of his treatise concerning
+this matter said, that the nature of those things which have being
+consists of bodies and of voidness, he makes a division (as it were) of
+one thing into two parts, one of which has in reality no subsistence,
+being, as you yourselves term it, impalpable, void, and incorporeal;
+so that by this means, even with you also, all comes to be one; unless
+you desire, in speaking of voidness, to use words void of sense, and to
+combat the ancients, as if you were fighting against a shadow.</p>
+
+<p>But these atomical bodies, you will say, are, according to the opinion
+of Epicurus, infinite in number, and every thing which appears to us
+is composed of them. See now, therefore, what principles of generation
+you suppose, infinity and voidness; one of which, to wit, voidness, is
+inactive, impassible, and incorporeal; the other, to wit, infinity,
+is disorderly, unreasonable, and incomprehensible, dissolving and
+confounding itself, because it cannot for its multitude be contained,
+circumscribed, or limited. But Parmenides has neither taken away fire,
+nor water, nor rocks and precipices, nor yet cities (as Colotes says)
+which are built and inhabited as well in Europe as in Asia; since
+he has both made an order of the world, and mixing the elements, to
+wit, light and dark, does of them and by them compose and finish all
+things that are to be seen in the world. For he has written very
+largely of the earth, heaven, sun, moon, and stars, and has spoken
+of the generation of man; and being, as he was, an ancient author in
+physiology, and one who in writing sought to deliver his own and not to
+destroy another’s doctrine, he has passed over none of the principal
+things in Nature. Moreover, Plato, and before him Socrates himself,
+understood that in Nature there is one part subject to opinion, and
+another subject to intelligence. As for that which is subject<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span> to
+opinion, it is always unconstant, wandering, and carried away with
+several passions and changes, liable to diminution and increase, and to
+be variously disposed to various men, and not always appearing after
+one manner even to the same person. But as to the intelligible part, it
+is quite of another kind,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Constant, entire, and still engenerable,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as himself says, always like to itself, and perdurable in its being.</p>
+
+<p>Here Colotes, sycophant-like, catching at his expressions and drawing
+the discourse from things to words, flatly affirms that Parmenides in
+one word takes away the existence of all things by supposing <i>ens</i>
+(or that which is) to be one. But, on the contrary, he takes away
+neither the one nor the other part of Nature; but rendering to each
+of them what belongs to it and is convenient for it, he places the
+intelligible in the idea of one and of “that which is,” calling it
+<i>ens</i> because it is eternal and incorruptible, and one because it
+is always like itself and admits no diversity. And as for that part
+which is sensible, he places it in the rank of uncertain, disorderly,
+and always moving. Of which two parts, we may see the distinct judgment:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">One certain truth and sincere knowledge is,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as regarding that which is intelligible, and always alike and of the
+same sort;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">The other does on men’s opinions rest,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Which breed no true belief within our breast,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>because it is conversant in things which receive all sorts of changes,
+passions, and inequalities. Now how he could have left sense and
+opinion, if he had not also left any thing sensible and opinable, it
+is impossible for any man to say. But because to that which truly
+<i>is</i> it appertains to continue in its being, and because sensible
+things sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span> are, sometimes are not, continually passing from
+one being to another and perpetually changing their state, he thought
+they required some other name than that of <i>entia</i>, or things
+which always are. This speech therefore concerning <i>ens</i> (or
+that which is), that it should be but one, is not to take away the
+plurality of sensible things, but to show how they differ from that
+which is intelligible. Which difference Plato in his discourse of Ideas
+more fully declaring, has thereby afforded Colotes an opportunity of
+cavilling.</p>
+
+<p>14. Therefore it seems not unreasonable to me to take next into our
+consideration, as it were all in a train, what he has also said against
+him. But first let us contemplate a little the diligence—together with
+the manifold and profound knowledge—of this our philosopher, who says,
+that Aristotle, Xenocrates, Theophrastus, and all the Peripatetics
+have followed these doctrines of Plato. For in what corner of the
+uninhabitable world have you, O Colotes, written your book, that,
+composing all these accusations against such personages, you never have
+lighted upon their works, nor have taken into your hands the books of
+Aristotle concerning Heaven and the Soul, nor those of Theophrastus
+against the Naturalists, nor the Zoroaster of Heraclides, nor his books
+of Hell, nor that of Natural Doubts and Difficulties, nor the book of
+Dicaearchus concerning the Soul; in all which books they are in the
+highest degree contradictory and repugnant to Plato about the principal
+and greatest points of natural philosophy? Nay, Strato himself, the
+very head and prince of the other Peripatetics, agrees not in many
+things with Aristotle, and holds opinions altogether contrary to
+Plato, concerning motion, the understanding, the soul, and generation.
+In fine, he says that the world is not an animal, and that what is
+according to Nature follows what is according to Fortune; for that
+Chance gave the beginning, and so every one of the natural effects was
+afterwards finished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span></p>
+
+<p>Now as to the ideas,—for which he quarrels with Plato,—Aristotle, by
+moving this matter at every turn, and alleging all manner of doubts
+concerning them, in his Ethics, in his Physics, and in his Exoterical
+Dialogues seems to some rather obstinately than philosophically to
+have disputed against these doctrines, as having proposed to himself
+the debasing and undervaluing of Plato’s philosophy; so far he was
+from following it. What an impudent rashness then is this, that having
+neither seen nor understood what these persons have written and what
+were their opinions, he should go and devise such things as they
+never imagined; and persuading himself that he reprehends and refutes
+others, he should produce a proof, written with his own hand, arguing
+and convincing himself of ignorance, licentiousness, and shameful
+impudence, in saying that those who contradict Plato agree with him,
+and that those who oppose him follow him?</p>
+
+<p>15. Plato, says he, writes that horses are in vain by us esteemed
+horses, and men men. And in which of Plato’s commentaries has he found
+this hidden? For as to us, we read in all his books, that horses are
+horses, that men are men, and that fire is by him esteemed fire,
+because he holds that every one of these things is sensible and subject
+to opinion. But this fine fellow Colotes, as if he were not a hair’s
+breadth removed from perfect wisdom, apprehends it to be one and the
+same thing to say, “Man is not” and “Man is a <i>non ens</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>Now to Plato there seems to be a wonderful great difference between
+not being at all and being a <i>non ens</i>; because the first imports
+an annihilation and abolishment of all substance, and the other shows
+the diversity there is between that which is participated and that
+which participates. Which diversity those who came after distinguished
+only into the difference of genus and species, and certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span> common and
+proper qualities or accidents, as they are called, but ascended no
+higher, falling into more logical doubts and difficulties. Now there
+is the same proportion between that which is participated and that
+which participates, as there is between the cause and the matter, the
+original and the image, the faculty and the effect. Wherein that which
+is by itself and always the same principally differs from that which
+is by another and never abides in one and the same manner; because
+the one never was nor ever shall be non-existent, and is therefore
+totally and essentially an <i>ens</i>; but to the other that very
+being, which it has not of itself but happens to take by participation
+from another, does not remain firm and constant, but it goes out of it
+by its imbecility,—the matter always gliding and sliding about the
+form, and receiving several affections and changes in the image of the
+substance, so that it is continually moving and shaking. As therefore
+he who says that the image of Plato is not Plato takes not away the
+sense and substance of the image, but shows the difference of that
+which exists of itself from that which exists only in regard to some
+other; so neither do they take away the nature, use, or sense of men,
+who affirm that every one of us, by participating in a certain common
+substance, that is, by the idea, is become the image of that which
+afforded the likeness for our generation. For neither does he who says
+that a red-hot iron is not fire, or that the moon is not the sun, but,
+as Parmenides has it,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">A torch which round the earth by night</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Does bear about a borrowed light,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>take away therefore the use of iron, or the nature of the moon. But if
+he should deny it to be a body, or affirm that it is not illuminated,
+he would then contradict the senses, as one who admitted neither body,
+animal, generation, nor sense. But he who by his opinion imagines
+that these things subsist only by participation, and considers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span> how
+far remote and distant they are from that which always is and which
+communicates to them their being, does not reject the sensible, but
+affirms that the intelligible is; nor does he take away and abolish the
+effects which are wrought and appear in us; but he shows to those who
+follow him that there are other things, firmer and more stable than
+these in respect of their essence, because they are neither engendered,
+nor perish, nor suffer any thing; and he teaches them, more purely
+touching the difference, to express it by names, calling these <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὄντα</span> or
+<i>entia</i> (<i>things that have being</i>), and those <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γιγνόμενα</span> or
+<i>fientia</i> (<i>things engendered</i>). And the same also usually
+befalls the moderns; for they deprive many—and those great things—of
+the appellation of <i>ens</i> or <i>being</i>; such as are voidness,
+time, place, and simply the entire genus of things spoken, in which
+are comprised all things true. For these things, they say, are not
+<i>entia</i> but <i>some things</i>; and they perpetually make use
+of them in their lives and in their philosophy, as of things having
+subsistence and existence.</p>
+
+<p>16. But I would willingly ask this our fault-finder, whether themselves
+do not in their affairs perceive this difference, by which some things
+are permanent and immutable in their substances,—as they say of their
+atoms, that they are at all times and continually after one and the
+same manner, because of their impassibility and hardness,—but that all
+compounded things are fluxible, changeable, generated, and perishing;
+forasmuch as infinite images are always departing and going from them,
+and infinite others, as it is probable, repair to them from the ambient
+air, filling up what was diminished from the mass, which is much
+diversified and transvasated, as it were, by this change, since those
+atoms which are in the very bottom of the said mass can never cease
+stirring and reciprocally beating upon one another; as they themselves
+affirm. There is then in things such a diversity of substance.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> But
+Epicurus is in this wiser and more learned than Plato, that he calls
+them all equally <i>entia</i>,—to wit, the impalpable voidness, the
+solid and resisting body, the principles, and the things composed of
+them,—and thinks that the eternal participates of the common substance
+with that which is generated, the immortal with the corruptible, and
+the natures that are impassible, perdurable, unchangeable, and that
+can never fall from their being, with those which have their essence
+in suffering and changing, and can never continue in one and the same
+state. But though Plato had with all the justness imaginable deserved
+to be condemned for having offended in this, yet should he have been
+sentenced by these gentlemen, who speak Greek more elegantly and
+discourse more correctly than he, only as having confounded the terms,
+and not as having taken away the things and driven life from us,
+because he named them <i>fientia</i> (or things engendered), and not
+<i>entia</i> (things that have being), as these men do.</p>
+
+<p>17. But because we have passed over Socrates, who should have come
+next after Parmenides, we must now turn back our discourse to him.
+Him therefore has Colotes begun at the very first to remove, as the
+common proverb has it, from the sacred line; and having mentioned
+how Chaerephon brought from Delphi an oracle, well known to us all,
+concerning Socrates, he says thus: “Now as to this narration of
+Chaerephon’s, because it is odious and absolutely sophistical, we
+will overpass it.” Plato then, that we may say nothing of others, is
+also odious, who has committed it to writing; and the Lacedaemonians
+are yet more odious, who reserve the oracle of Lycurgus amongst their
+most ancient and most authentic inscriptions. The oracle also of
+Themistocles, by which he persuaded the Athenians to quit their town,
+and in a naval fight defeated the barbarous Xerxes, was a sophistical
+fiction. Odious also were all the ancient legislators and founders of
+Greece,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> who established the most part of their temples, sacrifices,
+and solemn festivals by the answer of the Pythian Oracle. But if
+the oracle brought from Delphi concerning Socrates, a man ravished
+with a divine zeal to virtue, by which he is styled and declared
+wise, is odious, fictitious, and sophistical, by what name shall we
+call your cries, noises, and shouts, your applauses, adorations and
+canonizations, with which you extol and celebrate him who incites
+and exhorts you to frequent and continual pleasures? For thus has
+he written in his epistle to Anaxarchus: “I for my part incite and
+call you to continual pleasures, and not to vain and empty virtues,
+which have nothing but turbulent hopes of uncertain fruits.” And yet
+Metrodorus, writing to Timarchus, says: “Let us do some extraordinarily
+excellent thing, not suffering ourselves to be plunged in reciprocal
+affections, but retiring from this low and terrestrial life, and
+elevating ourselves to the truly holy and divinely revealed ceremonies
+and mysteries of Epicurus.” And even Colotes himself, hearing one day
+Epicurus discoursing of natural things, fell suddenly at his feet and
+embraced his knees, as Epicurus himself, glorying in it, thus writes:
+“For as if you had adored what we were then saying, you were suddenly
+taken with a desire, proceeding not from any natural cause, to come to
+us, prostrate yourself on the ground, embrace our knees, and use all
+those gestures to us which are ordinarily practised by those who adore
+and pray to the Gods. So that you made us also,” says he, “reciprocally
+sanctify and adore you.” Those, by Jupiter, well deserve to be
+pardoned, who say, they would willingly give any money for a picture
+in which should be presented to the life this fine story of one lying
+prostrate at the knees and embracing the legs of another, who mutually
+again adores him and makes his devout prayers to him. Nevertheless this
+devout service, how well soever it was ordered and composed by Colotes,
+received not the condign<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> fruit he expected; for he was not declared
+wise; but it was only said to him: Go thy ways, and walk immortal; and
+understand that we also are in like manner immortal.</p>
+
+<p>18. These men, knowing well in their consciences that they have used
+such foolish speeches, have had such motions, and such passions, dare
+nevertheless call others odious. And Colotes, having shown us these
+fine first-fruits and wise positions touching the natural senses,—that
+we eat meat, and not hay or forage; and that when rivers are deep and
+great, we pass them in boats, but when shallow and easily fordable, on
+foot,—cries out, “You use vain and arrogant speeches, O Socrates; you
+say one thing to those who come to discourse with you, and practise
+another.” Now I would fain know what these vain and arrogant speeches
+of Socrates were, since he ordinarily said that he knew nothing, that
+he was always learning, and that he went enquiring and searching after
+the truth. But if, O Colotes, you had happened on such expressions
+of Socrates as are those which Epicurus writ to Idomeneus, “Send me
+then the first-fruits for the entertainment of our sacred body, for
+ourself and for our children: for so it comes upon me to speak;” what
+more arrogant and insolent words could you have used? And yet that
+Socrates spake otherwise than he lived, you have wonderful proofs in
+his gests at Delium, at Potidaea, in his behavior during the time of
+the Thirty Tyrants, towards Archelaus, towards the people of Athens, in
+his poverty, and in his death. For are not these things beseeming and
+answerable to the doctrine of Socrates? They would indeed, good sir,
+have been indubitable testimonies to show that he acted otherwise than
+he taught, if, having proposed pleasure for the end of life, he had led
+such a life as this.</p>
+
+<p>19. Thus much for the calumnies he has uttered against Socrates.
+Colotes besides perceives not that he is himself found guilty of the
+same offences in regard to proofs <span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">362</span>which he objects against Socrates.
+For this is one of the sentences and propositions of Epicurus, that
+none but the wise man ought irrevocably and unchangeably to be
+persuaded of any thing. Since then Colotes, even after those adorations
+he performed to Epicurus, became not one of the sages, let him first
+make these questions and interrogatories his own: How is it that being
+hungry he eats meat and not hay, and that he puts a robe about his
+body and not about a pillar, since he is not indubitably persuaded
+either that a robe is a robe or that meat is meat? But if he not only
+does these things, but also passes not over rivers, when they are
+great and high, on foot, and flies from wolves and serpents, not being
+irrevocably persuaded that any of these things is such as it appears,
+but yet doing every thing according to what appears to him; so likewise
+the opinion of Socrates concerning the senses was no obstacle to him,
+but that he might in like manner make use of things as they appeared
+to him. For it is not likely that bread appeared bread and hay hay to
+Colotes, because he had read those holy rules of Epicurus which came
+down from heaven, while Socrates through his vanity took a fancy that
+hay was bread and bread hay. For these wise men use better opinions
+and reasons than we; but to have sense, and to receive an impression
+from things as they appear, is common as well to the ignorant as to the
+wise, as proceeding from causes where there needs not the discourse of
+reason. And the proposition which affirms that the natural senses are
+not perfect, nor certain enough to cause an entire belief, hinders not
+that every thing may appear to us; but leaving us to make use of our
+senses in our actions according to that which appears, it permits us
+not so to give credit to them as if they were exactly true and without
+error. For it is sufficient that in what is necessary and commodious
+for use there is nothing better. But as for the science and knowledge
+which the soul of a philosopher desires to have concerning every thing,
+the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span> senses have it not.</p>
+
+<p>20. But as to this, Colotes will farther give us occasion to speak of
+it hereafter, for he brings this objection against several others.
+Furthermore, whereas he profusely derides and despises Socrates
+for asking what man is, and in a youthful bravery (as he terms
+it) affirming that he was ignorant of it, it is manifest that he
+himself, who scoffs at it, never so much as thought of this matter;
+but Heraclitus on the contrary, as having done some great and worthy
+thing, said, I have been seeking myself. And of the sentences that
+were written in Apollo’s temple at Delphi, the most excellent and most
+divine seems to have been this, Know thyself. And this it was which
+gave Socrates an occasion and beginning of doubting and enquiring
+into it, as Aristotle says in his Platonics. And yet this appears to
+Colotes ridiculous and fit to be scoffed at. And I wonder that he
+derides not also his master himself, who does as much whenever he
+writes concerning the substance of the soul and the origin of man. For
+if that which is compounded of both, as they themselves hold,—of the
+body, to wit, and the soul,—is man, he who searches into the nature of
+the soul consequently also searches into the nature of man, beginning
+from his chiefest principle. Now that the soul is very difficult to be
+comprehended by reason, and altogether incomprehensible by the exterior
+senses, let us not learn from Socrates, who is a vainglorious and
+sophistical disputer, but let us take it from these wise men, who,
+having forged and framed the substance of the soul of somewhat hot,
+spiritual, and aerial, as far as to her faculties about the flesh, by
+which she gives heat, softness and strength to the body, proceed not
+to that which is the principal, but give over faint and tired by the
+way. For that by which she judges, remembers, loves, hates,—in a word,
+that which is prudent and rational, is,—say they,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">364</span> made afterwards of
+I know not what nameless quality. Now we well know, that this nameless
+thing is a confession of their shameful ignorance, whilst they pretend
+they can not name what they are not able to understand or comprehend.
+But let this, as they say, be pardoned them. For it seems not to be a
+light and easy matter, which every one can at the first attempt find
+out and attain to, but has retired itself to the bottom of some very
+remote place, and there lies obscurely concealed. So that there is not,
+amongst so many words and terms as are in use, any one that can explain
+or show it. Socrates therefore was not a fool or blockhead for seeking
+and searching what himself was; but they are rather to be thought
+shallow coxcombs, who enquire after any other thing before this, the
+knowledge of which is so necessary and so hard to find. For how could
+he hope to gain the knowledge of other things, who has not been able to
+comprehend the principal part even of himself?</p>
+
+<p>21. But granting a little to Colotes, that there is nothing so vain,
+useless, and odious as the seeking into one’s self, let us ask
+him, what confusion of human life is in this, and how it is that a
+man cannot continue to live, when he comes once thus to reason and
+discourse in himself: “Go to now, what am I? Am I a composition, made
+up of soul and body; or rather a soul, serving itself and making
+use of the body, as an horseman using his horse is not a subject
+composed of horse and man? Or is every one of us the principal part
+of the soul, by which we understand, reason, and act; and are all the
+other parts, both of soul and body, only organs and utensils of this
+power? Or, to conclude, is there no proper substance of the soul at
+all apart, but is only the temperature and complexion of the body so
+disposed, that it has force and power to understand and live?” But
+Socrates does not by these questions overthrow human life, since all
+natural philosophers treat of <span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span>the same matter. But those perhaps are
+the monstrous questions and enquiries that turn every thing upside
+down, which are in Phaedrus,<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> where he says, that every one ought
+to examine and consider himself, whether he is a savage beast, more
+cautelous, outrageous, and furious than ever was the monster Typhon; or
+on the contrary, an animal more mild and gentle, partaking by Nature of
+a certain divine portion, and such as is free from pride. Now by these
+discourses and reasonings he overturns not the life of man, but drives
+from it presumption and arrogance, and those haughty and extravagant
+opinions and conceits he has of himself. For this is that monster
+Typhon, which your teacher and master has made to be so great in you by
+his warring against the Gods and divine men.</p>
+
+<p>22. Having done with Socrates and Plato, he next attacks Stilpo. Now as
+for those his true doctrines and good discourses, by which he managed
+and governed himself, his country, his friends, and such kings and
+princes as loved him and esteemed him, he has not written a word; nor
+yet what prudence and magnanimity was in his heart, accompanied with
+meekness, moderation, and modesty. But having made mention of one of
+those little sentences he was wont in mirth and raillery to object
+against the sophisters, he does, without alleging any reason against it
+or solving the subtlety of the objection, stir up a terrible tragedy
+against Stilpo, saying that the life of man is subverted by him,
+inasmuch as he affirms that one thing cannot be predicated of another.
+“For how,” says he, “shall we live, if we cannot style a man good, nor
+a man a captain, but must separately name a man a man, good good, and
+a captain a captain; nor can say ten thousand horsemen, or a fortified
+town, but only call horsemen horsemen, and ten thousand ten thousand,
+and so of the rest?” Now what man ever was there that lived the worse
+for this?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> Or who is there that, hearing this discourse, does not
+immediately perceive and understand it to be the speech of a man who
+rallies gallantly, and proposes to others this logical question for the
+exercise of their wits? It is not, O Colotes, a great and dangerous
+scandal not to call man good, or not to say ten thousand horsemen; but
+not to call God God, and not to believe him to be God,—as you and
+the rest do, who will not confess that there is a Jupiter presiding
+over generation, or a Ceres giving laws, or a Neptune fostering the
+plants,—it is this separation of names that is pernicious, and fills
+our life with audaciousness and an atheistical contempt of the Gods.
+When you pluck from the Gods the names and appellations that are tied
+to them, you abolish also the sacrifices, mysteries, processions,
+and feasts. For to whom shall we offer the sacrifices preceding the
+tilling of the ground? To whom those for the obtaining of preservation?
+How shall we celebrate the Phosphoria, or torch-festivals, the
+Bacchanals, and the ceremonies that go before marriage, if we admit
+neither Bacchantes, Gods of light, Gods who protect the sown field,
+nor preservers of the state? For this it is that touches the principal
+and greatest points, being an error in things,—not in words, in the
+structure of propositions, or use of terms.</p>
+
+<p>Now if these are the things that disturb and subvert human life, who
+are there that more offend and fail in language than you? For you take
+utterly away the whole class of namable things, which constitute the
+essence of language; and leave only words and their accidental objects,
+while you take away in the mean time the things particularly signified
+by them, by which are wrought disciplines, doctrines, preconceptions,
+intelligences, inclination, and assent, which you hold to be nothing at
+all.</p>
+
+<p>23. But as for Stilpo, thus his argument stands. “If of a man we
+predicate good, and of an horse running, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span> predicate or thing
+predicated is not the same with the subject or that of which it is
+predicated, but the essential definition of man is one, and of good
+another. And again, to be a horse differs from to be running. For being
+asked the definition of the one and of the other, we do not give the
+same for them both; and therefore those err who predicate the one of
+the other. For if good is the same with man, and to run the same with
+a horse, how is good affirmed also of food and medicine, and again (by
+Jupiter) to run of a lion and a dog? But if the predicate is different,
+then we do not rightly say that a man is good, and a horse runs.” Now
+if Stilpo is in this exorbitant and grossly mistaken, not admitting any
+copulation of such things as are in the subject, or affirmed of the
+subject, with the subject itself; but holding that every one of them,
+if it is not absolutely one and the same thing with that to which it
+happens or of which it is spoken, ought not to be spoken or affirmed of
+it,—no, not even as an accident; it is nevertheless manifest, that he
+was only offended with some words, and opposed the usual and accustomed
+manner of speaking, and not that he overthrew man’s life, and turned
+his affairs upside down.</p>
+
+<p>24, Colotes then, having got rid of the old philosophers, turns to
+those of his own time, but without naming any of them; though he would
+have done better either to have reproved by name these moderns, as he
+did the ancients, or else to have named neither of them. But he who
+has so often employed his pen against Socrates, Plato, and Parmenides,
+evidently demonstrates that it is through cowardice he dares not attack
+the living, and not for any modesty or reverence, of which he showed
+not the least sign to those who were far more excellent than these.
+But his meaning is, as I suspect, to assault the Cyrenaics first, and
+afterwards the Academics, who are followers of Arcesilaus. For it was
+these who doubted of all things;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> but those, placing the passions
+and imaginations in themselves, were of opinion that the belief
+proceeding from them is not sufficient for the assuring and affirming
+of things; but, as if it were in the siege of a town, abandoning what
+is without, they have shut themselves up in the passions, using only
+<i>it seems</i>, and not asserting <i>it is</i>, of things without. And
+therefore they cannot, as Colotes says of them, live or have the use
+of things. And then speaking comically of them, he adds: “These deny
+that there is a man, a horse, a wall; but say that they themselves (as
+it were) become walls, horses, men,” or “are impressed with the images
+of walls, horses, or men.” In which he first maliciously abuses the
+terms, as calumniators are usually wont to do. For though these things
+follow from the sayings of the Cyrenaics, yet he ought to have declared
+the fact as they themselves teach it. For they affirm that things then
+become sweet, bitter, lightsome, or dark, when each thing has in itself
+the natural unhindered efficacy of one of these impressions. But if
+honey is said to be sweet, an olive-branch bitter, hail cold, wine hot,
+and the nocturnal air dark, there are many beasts, things, and men that
+testify the contrary. For some have an aversion for honey, others feed
+on the branches of the olive-tree; some are scorched by hail, others
+cooled with wine; and there are some whose sight is dim in the sun but
+who see well by night. Wherefore opinion, containing itself within
+these impressions, remains safe and free from error; but when it goes
+forth and attempts to be curious in judging and pronouncing concerning
+exterior things, it often deceives itself, and opposes others, who
+from the same objects receive contrary impressions and different
+imaginations.</p>
+
+<p>25. And Colotes seems properly to resemble those young children who are
+but beginning to learn their letters. For, being accustomed to learn
+them where they see them in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span> their own horn-books and primers, when
+they see them written anywhere else, they doubt and are troubled; so
+those very discourses, which he praises and approves in the writings
+of Epicurus, he neither understands nor knows again, when they are
+spoken by others. For those who say that the sense is truly informed
+and moulded when there is presented one image round and another broken,
+but nevertheless permit us not to pronounce that the tower is round
+and the oar broken, confirm their own passions and imaginations, but
+they will not acknowledge and confess that the things without are so
+affected. But as the Cyrenaics must say that they are imprinted with
+the figure of a horse or of a wall, but do not speak of the horse or
+the wall; so also it is necessary to say that the sight is imprinted
+with a figure round or with three unequal sides, and not that the tower
+is in that manner triangular or round. For the image by which the sight
+is affected is broken; but the oar whence that image proceeds is not
+broken. Since then there is a difference between the impression and
+the external subject, the belief must either remain in the impression,
+or else—if it maintains the being in addition to the appearing—be
+reproved and convinced of untruth. And whereas they cry out and are
+offended in behalf of the sense, because the Cyrenaics say not that
+the thing without is hot, but that the impression made on the sense is
+such; is it not the same with what is said touching the taste, when
+they say that the thing without is not sweet, but that some impression
+and motion about the sense is such? And for him who says that he has
+received the apprehension of an human form, but perceives not whether
+it is a man, whence has he taken occasion so to say? Is it not from
+those who affirm that they receive an apprehension of a bowed figure
+and form, but that the sight pronounces not that the thing which was
+seen is bowed or round, but that a certain effigies of it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span> such?
+Yes, by Jupiter, will some one say; but I, going near the tower or
+touching the oar, will pronounce and affirm that the one is straight
+and the other has many angles and faces; but he, when he comes near
+it, will confess that it seems and appears so to him, and no more. Yes
+certainly, good sir, and more than this, when he sees and observes the
+consequence, that every imagination is equally worthy of belief for
+itself, and none for another; but that they are all in like condition.
+But this your opinion is quite lost, that all the imaginations are true
+and none false or to be disbelieved, if you think that these ought to
+pronounce positively of that which is without, but those you credit
+no farther than that they are so affected. For if they are in equal
+condition as to their being believed, when they are near or when they
+are far off, it is just that either upon all of them, or else not upon
+these, should follow the judgment pronouncing that a thing is: But if
+there is a difference in the being affected between those that are
+near and those that are far off, it is then false that one sense and
+imagination is not more express and evident than another. Therefore
+those which they call testimonies and counter-testimonies are nothing
+to the sense, but are concerned only with opinion. So, if they would
+have us following these to pronounce concerning exterior things, making
+being a judgment of opinion, and what appears an affection of sense,
+they transfer the judicature from that which is totally true to that
+which often fails.</p>
+
+<p>26. But how full of trouble and contradiction in respect of one
+another these things are, what need is there to say at present? But
+the reputation of Arcesilaus, who was the best beloved and most
+esteemed of all the philosophers in his time, seems to have been no
+small eyesore to Epicurus; who says of him that, delivering nothing
+peculiar to himself or of his own invention, he imprinted in illiterate
+men an opinion and esteem of his being very knowing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span> and learned. Now
+Arcesilaus was so far from desiring any glory by being a bringer-in of
+new opinions, and from arrogating to himself those of the ancients,
+that the sophisters of that time blamed him for attributing to
+Socrates, Plato, Parmenides, and Heraclitus the doctrines concerning
+the retention of assent, and the incomprehensibility of things; having
+no need so to do, but only that he might strengthen them and render
+them recommendable by ascribing them to such illustrious personages.
+For this therefore thanks to Colotes, and to every one who declares
+that the Academic doctrine was from higher times derived to Arcesilaus.
+Now as for the retention of assent and the doubting of all things,
+not even those who have much labored in the matter, and strained
+themselves to compose great books and large treatises concerning it,
+were ever able to stir it; but bringing at last out of the Stoa itself
+the cessation from all actions, as the Gorgon to frighten away the
+objections that came against them, they were at last quite tired and
+gave over. For they could not, what attempts and stirs soever they
+made, obtain so much from the instinct by which the appetite is moved
+to act, as to suffer itself to be called an assent, or to acknowledge
+sense for the origin and principle of its propension, but it appeared
+of its own accord to present itself to act, as having no need to be
+joined with any thing else. For against such adversaries the combat and
+dispute is lawful and just. And</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Such words as you have spoke, the like you may</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Expect to hear.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For to speak to Colotes of instinct and consent is, I suppose, all one
+as to play on the harp before an ass. But to those who can give ear
+and conceive, it is said that there are in the soul three sorts of
+motions,—the imaginative, the appetitive, and the consenting. As to
+the imaginative <span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span>or the apprehension, it cannot be taken away, though
+one would. For one cannot, when things approach, avoid being informed
+and (as it were) moulded by them, and receiving an impression from
+them. The appetite, being stirred up by the imaginative, effectually
+moves man to that which is proper and agreeable to his nature, just as
+when there is made a propension and inclination in the principal and
+reasonable part. Now those who withhold their assent and doubt of all
+things take not away this, but make use of the appetition or instinct
+naturally conducting every man to that which seems convenient for him.
+What then is the only thing that they shun? That in which is bred
+falsehood and deceit,—that is, opining, and precipitation in giving
+consent,—which is a yielding through weakness to that which appears,
+and has not any true utility. For action stands in need of two things,
+to wit, the apprehension or imagination of what is agreeable to Nature,
+and the instinct or appetition driving to that which is so imagined; of
+which, neither the one nor the other is repugnant to the retention of
+assent. For reason withdraws us from opinion, and not from appetition
+or imagination. When therefore that which is delectable seems to us to
+be proper for us, there is no need of opinion to move and carry us to
+it, but appetition immediately exerts itself, which is nothing else but
+the motion and inclination of the soul.</p>
+
+<p>27. It is their own saying, that a man must only have sense and be
+flesh and blood, and pleasure will appear to be good. Wherefore
+also it will seem good to him who withholds his assent. For he also
+participates of sense, and is made of flesh and blood, and as soon as
+he has conceived an imagination of good, desires it and does all things
+that it may not escape from him; but as much as possibly he can, he
+will keep himself with that which is agreeable to his nature, being
+drawn by natural and not by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">373</span> geometrical constraints. For these goodly,
+gentle, and tickling motions of the flesh are, without any teacher,
+attractive enough of themselves—even as these men forget not to
+say—to draw even him who will not in the least acknowledge and confess
+that he is softened and rendered pliable by them. “But how comes it
+to pass,” perhaps you will say, “that he who is thus doubtful and
+withholds his assent hastens not away to the mountain, instead of going
+to the bath? Or that, rising up to go forth into the market-place, he
+runs not his head against the wall, but takes his way directly to the
+door?” Do you ask this, who hold all the senses to be infallible, and
+the apprehensions of the imagination certain and true? It is because
+the bath appears to him not a mountain, but a bath; and the door seems
+not a wall, but a door; and the same is to be said of every other
+thing. For the doctrine of retention does not pervert the sense, nor
+by absurd passions and motions work in it an alteration disturbing the
+imaginative faculty; but it only takes away opinions, and for the rest,
+makes use of other things according to their nature.</p>
+
+<p>But it is impossible, you will say, not to consent to things that are
+evident; for to deny such things as are believed is more absurd than
+neither to deny nor affirm. Who then are they that call in question
+things believed, and contend against things that are evident? They
+who overthrow and take away divination, who say that there is not any
+government of Divine Providence, who deny the sun and the moon—to whom
+all men offer sacrifices and whom they honor and adore—to be animated.
+And do not you take away that which is apparent to all the world,
+that the young are contained in the nature of their parents? Do you
+not, contrary to the sense of all men, affirm that there is no medium
+between pleasure and pain, saying that not to be in pain is to be in
+the fruition of pleasure, that not to do is to suffer, and that not to
+rejoice is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span> to be grieved?</p>
+
+<p>28. But to let pass all the rest, what is more evident and more
+generally believed by all men, than that those who are seized with
+melancholy distempers, and whose brain is troubled and whose wits are
+distracted, do, when the fit is on them and their understanding altered
+and transported, imagine that they see and hear things which they
+neither see nor hear? Whence they frequently cry out:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Women in black arrayed bear in their hands,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">To burn mine eyes, torches and fiery brands.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And again:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">See, in her arms she holds my mother dear.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These, and many other illusions more strange and tragical than
+these,—resembling those mormos and bugbears which they themselves
+laugh at and deride, as they are described by Empedocles to be, “with
+winding feet and undivided hands, bodied like ox and faced like
+man,”—with certain other prodigious and unnatural phantoms, these men
+have gathered together out of dreams and the alienations of distracted
+minds, and affirm that none of them is a deception of the sight, a
+falsity, or inconsistence; but that all these imaginations are true,
+being bodies and figures that come from the ambient air. What thing
+then is there so impossible in Nature as to be doubted of, if it is
+possible to believe such reveries as these? For these men, supposing
+that such things as never any mask-maker, potter, carver of wonderful
+images, or skilful and all-daring painter durst join together, to
+deceive or make sport for the beholders, are seriously and in good
+earnest existent,—nay, which is more, affirming that, if they are not
+really so, all firmness of belief, all certainty of judgment and truth,
+is for ever gone,—do by these their suppositions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span>and affirmations
+cast all things into obscurity, and bring fears into our judgments, and
+suspicions into our actions,—if the things which we apprehend, do,
+are familiarly acquainted with, and have at hand are grounded on the
+same imagination and belief with these furious, absurd, and extravagant
+fancies. For the equality which they suppose to be in all apprehensions
+rather derogates from the credit of such as are usual and rational,
+than adds any belief to those that are unusual and repugnant to reason.
+Wherefore we know many philosophers who would rather and more willingly
+grant that no imagination is true than that all are so, and that would
+rather simply disbelieve all the men they never had conversed with,
+all the things they had not experimented, and all the speeches they
+had not heard with their own ears, than persuade themselves that any
+one of these imaginations, conceived by these frantic, fanatical, and
+dreaming persons, is true. Since then there are some imaginations
+which may, and others which may not be rejected, it is lawful for us
+to retain our assent concerning them, though there were no other cause
+but this discordance, which is sufficient to work in us a suspicion of
+things, as having nothing certain and assured, but being altogether
+full of obscurity and perturbation. For in the dissensions about the
+infinity of worlds and the nature of atoms and individuums and their
+inclinations, although they trouble and disturb very many, there is
+yet this comfort, that none of all these things that are in question
+is near us, but rather every one of them is far remote from sense. But
+as to this diffidence, perplexity, and ignorance concerning sensible
+things and imaginations (whether these be true or false), found even
+in our eyes, our ears, and our hands, what opinion does it not shock?
+What consent does it not turn upside down? For if men neither drunk,
+intoxicated, nor otherwise disturbed in their senses, but sober, sound
+in mind, and professedly writing of the truth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span> and of the canons and
+rules by which to judge it, do in the most evident passions and motions
+of the senses set down either that which has no existence for true,
+or that which is existent for false, it is not to be wondered that a
+man should be silent about all things, but rather that he should give
+his assent to any thing; nor is it incredible that he should have no
+judgment about things which appear, but rather that he should have
+contrary judgments. For it is less to be wondered, that a man should
+neither affirm the one nor the other but keep himself in a mean between
+two opposite things, than that he should set down things repugnant and
+contrary to one another. For he that neither affirms nor denies, but
+keeps himself quiet, is less repugnant to him who affirms an opinion
+than he who denies it, and to him who denies an opinion than he who
+affirms it. Now if it is possible to withhold one’s assent concerning
+these things, it is not impossible also concerning others, at least
+according to your opinion, who say that one sense does not exceed
+another, nor one imagination another.</p>
+
+<p>29. The doctrine then of retaining the assent is not, as Colotes
+thinks, a fable or an invention of rash and light-headed young men who
+please themselves in babbling and prating; but a certain habit and
+disposition of men who desire to keep themselves from falling into
+error, not leaving the judgment at a venture to such suspected and
+inconstant senses, nor suffering themselves to be deceived by those
+who hold that in uncertain matters things which do not appear are
+credible and ought to be believed, when they see so great obscurity
+and uncertainty in things which appear. But the infinity you assert
+is a fable, and so indeed are the images you dream of; and he breeds
+in young men rashness and self-conceitedness, who writ of Pythocles,
+not yet eighteen years of age, that there was not in all Greece a
+better or more excellent nature, that he admirably <span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span>well expressed his
+conceptions, and that he was in other respects like a woman,—praying
+that all these extraordinary endowments of the young man might not work
+him hatred and envy. But these are sophisters and arrogant, who write
+so impudently and proudly against great and excellent personages. I
+confess indeed, that Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Democritus
+contradicted those who went before them; but never durst any man
+besides Colotes set forth with such an insolent title as this against
+all at once.</p>
+
+<p>30. Whence it comes to pass that, like to such as have offended some
+Divinity, confessing his fault, he says thus towards the end of his
+book: “Those who have established laws and ordinances and instituted
+monarchies and other governments in towns and cities, have placed human
+life in great repose and security and delivered it from many troubles;
+and if any one should go about to take this away, we should lead the
+life of savage beasts, and should be every one ready to eat up one
+another as we meet.” For these are the very words of Colotes, though
+neither justly nor truly spoken. For if any one, taking away the laws,
+should leave us nevertheless the doctrines of Parmenides, Socrates,
+Plato, and Heraclitus, we should be far from mutually devouring one
+another and leading the life of beasts. For we should fear dishonest
+things, and should for honesty alone venerate justice, the Gods, our
+superiors, and magistrates, believing that we have spirits and Daemons
+who are the guardians and superintendents of human life, esteeming all
+the gold that is upon and within the earth not to be equivalent to
+virtue; and doing that willingly by reason, as Xenocrates says, which
+we now do by force and through fear of the law. When then will our life
+become savage, unsocial, and bestial? When, the laws being taken away,
+there shall be left doctrines inciting men to pleasure; when the world
+shall be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span> thought not to be ruled and governed by Divine Providence;
+when those men shall be esteemed wise who spit at honesty if it is not
+joined with pleasure; and when such discourses and sentences as these
+shall be scoffed at and derided:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">For Justice has an eye which all things sees;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and again:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">God near us stands, and views whate’er we do;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and once more: “God, as antiquity has delivered to us, holding the
+beginning, middle, and end of the universe, makes a direct line,
+walking according to Nature. After him follows Justice, a punisher of
+those who have been deficient in their duties by transgressing the
+divine law.”</p>
+
+<p>For they who contemn these things as if they were fables, and think
+that the sovereign good of man consists about the belly, and in those
+other avenues by which pleasure is admitted, are such as stand in
+need of the law, and fear, and stripes, and some king, prince, or
+magistrate, having in his hand the sword of justice; to the end that
+they may not devour their neighbors through their gluttony, rendered
+confident by their atheistical impiety. For this is the life of
+brutes, because brute beasts know nothing better nor more honest than
+pleasure, understand not the justice of the Gods, nor revere the beauty
+of virtue; but if Nature has bestowed on them any point of courage,
+subtlety, or activity, they make use of it for the satisfaction of
+their fleshly pleasure and the accomplishment of their lusts. And
+the wise Metrodorus believes that this should be so, for he says:
+“All the fine, subtle, and ingenious inventions of the soul have
+been found out for the pleasure and delight of the flesh, or for the
+hopes of attaining to it and enjoying it, and every act which tends
+not to this end is vain and unprofitable.” The laws being by such
+discourses and philosophical reasons as these taken away, there wants<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span>
+nothing to a beast-like life but lions’ paws, wolves’ teeth, oxen’s
+paunches, and camels’ necks; and these passions and doctrines do the
+beasts themselves, for want of speech and letters, express by their
+bellowings, neighings, and brayings, all their voice being for their
+belly and the pleasure of their flesh, which they embrace and rejoice
+in either present or future; unless it be perhaps some animal which
+naturally takes delight in chattering and garrulity.</p>
+
+<p>31. No sufficient praise therefore or equivalent to their deserts can
+be given those who, for the restraining of such bestial passions, have
+set down laws, established policy and government of state, instituted
+magistrates and ordained good and wholesome laws. But who are they that
+utterly confound and abolish this? Are they not those who withdraw
+themselves and their followers from all part in the government? Are
+they not those who say that the garland of tranquillity and a reposed
+life are far more valuable than all the kingdoms and principalities
+in the world? Are they not those who declare that reigning and being
+a king is a mistaking the path and straying from the right way of
+felicity? And they write in express terms: “We are to treat how a man
+may best keep and preserve the end of Nature, and how he may from the
+very beginning avoid entering of his own free will and voluntarily
+upon offices of magistracy, and government over the people.” And yet
+again, these other words are theirs: “There is no need at all that
+a man should tire out his mind and body to preserve the Greeks, and
+to obtain from them a crown of wisdom; but to eat and drink well,
+O Timocrates, without prejudicing, but rather pleasing the flesh.”
+And yet in the constitution of laws and policy, which Colotes so
+much praises, the first and most important article is the belief and
+persuasion of the Gods. Wherefore also Lycurgus heretofore sanctified
+the Lacedaemonians, Numa the Romans, the ancient Ion the Athenians,
+and Deucalion universally all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span> Greeks, through prayers, oaths,
+oracles, and omens, rendering them devout and affectionate to the Gods
+by means of hopes and fears at once. And if you will take the pains to
+travel through the world, you may find towns and cities without walls,
+without letters, without kings, without houses, without wealth, without
+money, without theatres and places of exercise; but there was never
+seen nor shall be seen by man any city without temples and Gods, or
+without making use of prayers, oaths, divinations, and sacrifices for
+the obtaining of blessings and benefits, and the averting of curses and
+calamities. Nay, I am of opinion, that a city might sooner be built
+without any ground to fix it on, than a commonweal be constituted
+altogether void of any religion and opinion of the Gods,—or being
+constituted, be preserved. But this, which is the foundation and
+ground of all laws, do these men, not going circularly about, nor
+secretly and by enigmatical speeches, but attacking it with the first
+of their most principal opinions, directly subvert and overthrow; and
+then afterwards, as if they were haunted by the Furies, they come and
+confess that they have grievously offended in thus taking away the
+laws, and confounding the ordinances of justice and policy, that they
+may not be capable of pardon. For to err in opinion, though it be not
+the part of wise men, is at least human; but to impute to others the
+errors and offences they commit themselves, how can any one declare
+what it is, if he forbears to give it the name it deserves?</p>
+
+<p>32. For if, in writing against Antidorus or Bion the sophister, he had
+made mention of laws, policy, order, and justice, might not either of
+them have said to him, as Electra did to her mad brother Orestes:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Lie still at ease, poor wretch; keep in thy bed,<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and there cherish thy bit of flesh, leaving those to expostulate <span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">381</span>and
+find fault with me who have themselves lived a civil and domestic life?
+Now such are all those whom Colotes has reviled and railed at in his
+book. Amongst whom, Democritus in his writings advises and exhorts to
+the learning of political science, as being the greatest of all, and
+to the accustoming one’s self to bear fatigues, by which men attain
+to great wealth and honor. And as for Parmenides, he beautified and
+adorned his native country with most excellent laws which he there
+established, so that even to this day the officers every year, when
+they enter first on the exercise of their charges, are obliged to
+swear that they will observe the laws and ordinances of Parmenides.
+Empedocles brought to justice some of the principal of his city, and
+caused them to be condemned for their insolent behavior and embezzling
+of the public treasure, and also delivered his country from sterility
+and the plague—to which calamities it was before subject—by immuring
+and stopping up the holes of certain mountains, whence there issued
+an hot south wind, which overspread all the plain country and blasted
+it. And Socrates, after he was condemned, when his friends offered
+him, if he pleased, an opportunity of making his escape, absolutely
+refused to make use of it, that he might maintain the authority of
+the laws, choosing rather to die unjustly than to save himself by
+disobeying the laws of his country. Melissus, being captain general of
+his country, vanquished the Athenians in a battle at sea. Plato left
+in his writings excellent discourses concerning the laws, government,
+and policy of a commonweal; and yet he imprinted much better in the
+hearts and minds of his disciples and familiars, which caused Sicily
+to be delivered by Dion, and Thrace to be set at liberty by Pytho and
+Heraclides, who slew Cotys. Chabrias also and Phocion, those two great
+generals of the Athenians, came out of the Academy. As for Epicurus,
+he indeed sent certain persons into Asia to chide<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">382</span> Timocrates, and
+had him removed out of the king’s palace, because he had offended his
+brother Metrodorus; and this is written in their own books. But Plato
+sent of his disciples and friends, Aristonymus to the Arcadians, to set
+in order their commonweal, Phormio to the Eleans, and Menedemus to the
+Pyrrhaeans. Eudoxus gave laws to the Cnidians, and Aristotle to the
+Stagirites, who were both of them the intimates of Plato. And Alexander
+the Great demanded of Xenocrates rules and precepts for reigning well.
+And he who was sent to the same Alexander by the Grecians dwelling in
+Asia, and who most of all inflamed and stimulated him to embrace and
+undertake the war against the barbarian king of Persia, was Delius the
+Ephesian, one of Plato’s familiars. Zeno, the disciple of Parmenides,
+having attempted to kill the tyrant Demylus, and failing in his design,
+maintained the doctrine of Parmenides, like pure and fine gold tried
+in the fire, that there is nothing which a magnanimous man ought to
+dread but dishonor, and that there are none but children and women, or
+effeminate and women-hearted men, who fear pain. For, having with his
+own teeth bitten off his tongue, he spit it in the tyrant’s face.</p>
+
+<p>33. But out of the school of Epicurus, and from among those who follow
+his doctrine, I will not ask what tyrant-killer has proceeded, nor yet
+what man valiant and victorious in feats of arms, what lawgiver, what
+prince, what counsellor, or what governor of the people; neither will
+I demand, who of them has been tormented or has died for supporting
+right and justice. But which of all these sages has for the benefit and
+service of his country undertaken so much as one voyage at sea, gone of
+an embassy, or expended a sum of money? What record is there extant of
+one civil action in matter of government, performed by any of you? And
+yet, because Metrodorus went down one day from the city as far as the
+haven of Piraeus, taking a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">383</span> journey of forty stadia to assist Mithres
+a Syrian, one of the king of Persia’s court who had been arrested and
+taken prisoner, he writ of it to every one and in all his letters,
+Epicurus also highly magnifying and extolling this wonderful voyage.
+What value then, think you, would they have put upon it, if they had
+done such an act as Aristotle did, who procured the restoration and
+rebuilding of Stagira, the town of his nativity, after it had been
+destroyed by King Philip? Or as Theophrastus, who twice delivered his
+city, when possessed and held by tyrants? Would not the river Nile
+sooner have given over to bear the paper-reed, than they have been
+weary of writing their brave exploits?</p>
+
+<p>And it is not the greatest indignity, that, of so many sects of
+philosophers as have been extant, they alone should enjoy the benefits
+that are in cities, without having ever contributed to them any thing
+of their own; but far worse is it that, while there are not even any
+tragical or comical poets who do not always endeavor to do or say
+some good thing or other in defence of the laws and policy, these
+men, if peradventure they write, write of policy, that we may not
+concern ourselves in the government of the commonweal,—of rhetoric,
+that we may not perform an act of eloquence,—and of royalty, that we
+may shun the living and conversing with kings. Nor do they ever name
+any of those great personages who have intermeddled in civil affairs,
+but only to scoff at them and abolish their glory. Thus they say that
+Epaminondas had something of good, but that very little, or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μικκόν</span>, for
+that is the very word they use. They moreover call him iron-hearted,
+and ask what ailed him that he went marching his army through all
+Peloponnesus, and why he did not rather keep himself quiet at home
+with a night-cap on his head, employed only in cherishing and making
+much of his belly. But methinks I ought not in this place to omit what
+Metrodorus writ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">384</span> in his book of Philosophy, when, utterly abjuring all
+meddling in the management of the state, he said thus: “Some, through
+an abundance of vanity and arrogance, have so deep an insight into the
+business of it, that in treating about the precepts of good life and
+virtue, they suffer themselves to be carried away with the very same
+desires as were Lycurgus and Solon.” What is this? Was it then vanity
+and abundance of vanity, to set free the city of Athens, to render
+Sparta well-policied and governed by wholesome laws, that young men
+might do nothing licentiously, nor get children upon common courtesans
+and whores, and that riches, delights, intemperance, and dissolution
+might no longer bear sway and have command in cities, but law and
+justice? For these were the desires of Solon. To this Metrodorus, by
+way of scorn and contumely, adds this conclusion: “It is then very
+well beseeming a free-born gentleman to laugh heartily, as at other
+men, so especially at these Solons and Lycurguses.” But such a one, O
+Metrodorus, is not a gentleman, but a servile and dissolute person,
+and deserves to be scourged, not with that whip which is for free-born
+persons, but with that scourge strung with ankle-bones; with which
+those gelded sacrificers called Galli were wont to be chastised, when
+they failed of performing their duty in the ceremonies and sacrifices
+of the Goddess Cybele, the great Mother of the Gods.</p>
+
+<p>34. But that they made war not against the lawgivers but against the
+laws themselves, one may hear and understand from Epicurus. For in his
+questions, he asks himself, whether a wise man, being assured that it
+will not be known, will do any thing that the laws forbid. To which
+he answers: “That is not so easy to determine simply,”—that is, “I
+will do it indeed, but I am not willing to confess it.” And again, I
+suppose, writing to Idomeneus, he exhorts him not to make his life a
+slave to the laws<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">385</span> or to the opinions of men, unless it be to avoid the
+trouble they prepare, by the scourge and chastisement, so near at hand.
+If then those who abolish the laws, governments, and policies of men
+subvert and destroy human life, and if Metrodorus and Epicurus do this,
+by dehorting and withdrawing their friends from concerning themselves
+in public affairs, by hating those who intermeddle in them, by reviling
+the first most wise lawgivers, and by advising contempt of the laws
+provided there is no fear and danger of the whip and punishment, I do
+not see that Colotes has brought so many false accusations against the
+other philosophers as he has alleged and advanced true ones against the
+writings and doctrines of Epicurus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">386</span>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLUTARCHS_CONSOLATORY_LETTER">PLUTARCH’S CONSOLATORY LETTER TO HIS WIFE.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">PLUTARCH TO HIS WIFE: ALL HEALTH</p>
+
+<p>1. As for the messenger you despatched to tell me of the death of my
+little daughter, it seems he missed his way as he was going to Athens.
+But when I came to Tanagra, I heard of it by my niece. I suppose by
+this time the funeral is over. I wish that whatever has been done
+may create you no dissatisfaction, as well now as hereafter. But if
+you have designedly let any thing alone, depending upon my judgment,
+thinking better to determine the point if I were with you, I pray let
+it be without ceremony and timorous superstition, which I know are far
+from you.</p>
+
+<p>2. Only, dear wife, let you and me bear our affliction with patience.
+I know very well and do comprehend what loss we have had; but if I
+should find you grieve beyond measure, this would trouble me more
+than the thing itself. For I had my birth neither from a stock nor a
+stone;<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> and you know it full well, I having been assistant to you
+in the education of so many children, which we brought up at home under
+our own care. This daughter was born after four sons, when you were
+longing to bear a daughter; which made me call her by your own name.
+Therefore I <span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">387</span>know she was particularly dear to you. And grief must
+have a peculiar pungency in a mind tenderly affectionate to children,
+when you call to mind how naturally witty and innocent she was, void
+of anger, and not querulous. She was naturally mild, and compassionate
+to a miracle. And her gratitude and kindness not only gave us delight,
+but also manifested her generous nature; for she would pray her nurse
+to give suck, not only to other children, but to her very playthings,
+as it were courteously inviting them to her table, and making the best
+cheer for them she could.</p>
+
+<p>3. Now, my dear wife, I see no reason why these and the like things,
+which delighted us so much when she was alive, should upon remembrance
+of them afflict us when she is dead. But I also fear lest, while we
+cease from sorrowing, we should forget her; as Clymene said,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">I hate the handy horned bow,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And banish youthful pastimes now;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>because she would not be put in mind of her son by the exercises he had
+been used to. For Nature always shuns such things as are troublesome.
+But since our little daughter afforded all our senses the sweetest and
+most charming pleasure; so ought we to cherish her memory, which will
+conduce many ways—or rather many fold—more to our joy than our grief.
+And it is but just, that the same arguments which we have oft-times
+used to others should prevail upon ourselves at this so seasonable a
+time, and that we should not supinely sit down and overwhelm the joys
+which we have tasted with a multiplicity of new griefs.</p>
+
+<p>4. Moreover, they who were present at the funeral report this with
+admiration, that you neither put on mourning, nor disfigured yourself
+or any of your maids; neither were there any costly preparations
+nor magnificent pomp;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">388</span> but all things were managed with silence and
+moderation in the presence of our relatives alone. And it seemed not
+strange to me that you, who never used richly to dress yourself for the
+theatre or other public solemnities, esteeming such magnificence vain
+and useless even in matters of delight, have now practised frugality
+on this sad occasion. For a virtuous woman ought not only to preserve
+her purity in riotous feasts, but also to think thus with herself, that
+the tempest of the mind in violent grief must be calmed by patience,
+which does not intrench on the natural love of parents towards their
+children, as many think, but only struggles against the disorderly and
+irregular passions of the mind. For we allow this love of children
+to discover itself in lamenting, wishing for, and longing after them
+when they are dead. But the excessive inclination to grief, which
+carries people on to unseemly exclamations and furious behavior, is no
+less culpable than luxurious intemperance. Yet reason seems to plead
+in its excuse; because, instead of pleasure, grief and sorrow are
+ingredients of the crime. What can be more irrational, I pray, than
+to check excessive laughter and joy, and yet to give a free course
+to rivers of tears and sighs, which flow from the same fountain? Or,
+as some do, quarrel with their wives for using artificial helps to
+beauty, and in the mean time suffer them to shave their heads, wear the
+mournful black, sit disconsolate, and lie in pain? And, which is worst
+of all, if their wives at any time chastise their servants or maids
+immoderately, they will interpose and hinder them, but at the same time
+suffering them to torment and punish themselves most cruelly, in a case
+which peculiarly requires their greatest tenderness and humanity?</p>
+
+<p>5. But between us, dear wife, there never was any occasion for such
+contests, nor, I think, will there ever be. For there is no philosopher
+of our acquaintance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">389</span> who is not in love with your frugality, both in
+apparel and diet; nor a citizen, to whom the simplicity and plainness
+of your dress is not conspicuous, both at religious sacrifices and
+public shows in the theatre. Formerly also you discovered on the like
+occasion a great constancy of mind, when you lost your eldest son; and
+again, when the lovely Chaeron left us. For I remember, when the news
+was brought me of my son’s death, as I was returning home with some
+friends and guests who accompanied me to my house, when they beheld
+all things in order, and observed a profound silence everywhere,—as
+they afterwards declared to others,—they thought no such calamity
+had happened, but that the report was false. So discreetly had you
+settled the affairs of the house at that time, when no small confusion
+and disorder might have been expected. And yet you gave this son suck
+yourself, and endured the lancing of your breast, to prevent the ill
+effects of a contusion. These are things worthy of a generous woman,
+and one that loves her children.</p>
+
+<p>6. Whereas, we see most other women receive their children in their
+hands as playthings with a feminine mirth and jollity; and afterwards,
+if they chance to die, they will drench themselves in the most vain and
+excessive sorrow. Not that this is any effect of their love, for that
+gentle passion acts regularly and discreetly; but it rather proceeds
+from a desire of vain-glory, mixed with a little natural affection,
+which renders their mourning barbarous, brutish, and extravagant. Which
+thing Aesop knew very well, when he told the story of Jupiter’s giving
+honors to the Gods; for, it seems, Grief also made her demands, and
+it was granted that she should be honored, but only by those who were
+willing of their own accord to do it. And indeed, this is the beginning
+of sorrow. Everybody first gives her free access; and after she is
+once rooted and settled and become familiar, she will not be forced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">390</span>
+thence with their best endeavors. Therefore she must be resisted at her
+first approach; nor must we surrender the fort to her by any exterior
+signs, whether of apparel, or shaving the hair, or any other such like
+symptoms of mournful weakness; which happening daily, and wounding
+us by degrees with a kind of foolish bashfulness, at length do so
+enervate the mind, and reduce her to such straits, that quite dejected
+and besieged with grief, the poor timorous wretch dare not be merry,
+or see the light, or eat and drink in company. This inconvenience is
+accompanied by a neglect of the body, carelessness of anointing and
+bathing, with whatsoever else relates to the elegancy of human life.
+Whereas, on the contrary, the soul, when it is disordered, ought to
+receive aid from the vigor of a healthful body. For the sharpest
+edge of the soul’s grief is rebated and slacked, when the body is in
+tranquillity and ease, like the sea in a calm. But where, from an ill
+course of diet, the body becomes dry and hot, so that it cannot supply
+the soul with commodious and serene spirits, but only breathes forth
+melancholy vapors and exhalations, which perpetually annoy her with
+grief and sadness; there it is difficult for a man (though never so
+willing and desirous) to recover the tranquillity of his mind, after it
+has been disturbed with so many evil affections.</p>
+
+<p>7. But that which is most to be dreaded in this case does not at
+all affrighten me, to wit, the visits of foolish women, and their
+accompanying you in your tears and lamentations; by which they sharpen
+your grief, not suffering it either of itself or by the help of others
+to fade and vanish away. For I am not ignorant how great a combat you
+lately entered, when you assisted the sister of Theon, and opposed
+the women who came running in with horrid cries and lamentations,
+bringing fuel as it were to her passion. Assuredly, when men see their
+neighbor’s house on fire,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">391</span> every one contributes his utmost to quench
+it; but when they see the mind inflamed with furious passion, they
+bring fuel to nourish and increase the flame. When a man’s eye is in
+pain, he is not suffered to touch it, though the inflammation provoke
+him to it, nor will they that are near him meddle with it. But he who
+is galled with grief sits and exposes his distemper to every one, like
+waters that all may poach in; and so that which at first seemed a light
+itching or trivial smart, by much fretting and provoking, becomes a
+great and almost incurable disease. But I know very well that you will
+arm yourself against these inconveniences.</p>
+
+<p>8. Moreover, I would have you endeavor to call often to mind that
+time when our daughter was not as yet born to us, and when we had
+no cause to complain of Fortune. Then, joining that time with this,
+argue thus with yourself, that we are now in the same condition as
+then. Otherwise, dear wife, we shall seem discontented at the birth
+of our little daughter, if we own that our circumstances were better
+before her birth. But the two years of her life are by no means to be
+forgotten by us, but to be numbered amongst our blessings, in that they
+afforded us an agreeable pleasure. Nor must we esteem a small good for
+a great evil; nor ungratefully complain against Fortune for what she
+has actually given us, because she has not added what we wished for.
+Certainly, to speak reverently of the Gods, and to bear our lot with
+an even mind without accusing Fortune, always brings with it a fair
+reward. But he who in such a case calls prosperous things to mind, and
+turning his thoughts from dark and melancholy objects, fixes them on
+bright and cheerful ones, will either quite extinguish his grief, or by
+allaying it with contrary sentiments, will render it weak and feeble.
+For, as perfumes bring delight to the nose, and arm it against ill
+scents, so the remembrance of happiness gives necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">392</span> assistance
+in adversity to those who avoid not the recollection of their past
+prosperity nor complain at all against Fortune. For certainly it would
+little become us to accuse our life, if like a book it hath but one
+little blot in it, though all the rest be fair and clean.</p>
+
+<p>9. For you have oftentimes heard, that true happiness consists in
+the right discourses and counsels of the mind, tending to its own
+constant establishment, and that the changes of Fortune are of no great
+importance to the felicity of our life. But even if we must also be
+governed by exterior things, and with the common sort of people have a
+regard to casualties, and suffer any kind of men to be judges of our
+happiness, however, do not you take notice of the tears and moans of
+such as visit you at present, condoling your misfortunes; for their
+tears and sighs are but of course. But rather, do you consider how
+happy every one of them esteems you for the children you have, the
+house you keep, and the life you lead. For it would be an ill thing,
+while others covet your fortune, though sullied with this affliction,
+that you should exclaim against what you enjoy, and not be sensible,
+from the taste of affliction, how grateful you ought to be for the
+happiness which remains untouched. Or, like some who, collecting all
+the defective verses of Homer, pass over at the same time so many
+excellent parts of his poems, so shall we peevishly complain of and
+reckon up the inconveniences of our life, neglecting at the same time
+promiscuously the benefits thereof? Or, shall we imitate covetous and
+sordid misers, who, having heaped together much riches, never enjoy
+what they have in possession, but bewail it if it chance to be lost?</p>
+
+<p>But if you lament the poor girl because she died unmarried and without
+offspring, you have wherewithal to comfort yourself, in that you are
+defective in none of these things, having had your share. And these
+are not to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">393</span> esteemed at once great evils where they are wanted, and
+small benefits where they are enjoyed. But so long as she is gone to
+a place where she feels no pain, what need is there of our grief? For
+what harm can befall us from her, when she is free from all hurt? And
+surely the loss of even great things abates the grief, when it is come
+to this, that we have no need or use of them. But thy Timoxena was
+deprived but of small matter; for she had no knowledge but of such,
+neither took she delight but in such small things. But for that which
+she never was sensible of, and which did not so much as once enter into
+her thoughts, how can you say it is taken from her?</p>
+
+<p>10. As for what you hear others say, who persuade the vulgar that
+the soul, when once freed from the body, suffers no inconvenience or
+evil nor is sensible at all, I know that you are better grounded in
+the doctrines delivered down to us from our ancestors, as also in the
+sacred mysteries of Bacchus, than to believe such stories; for the
+religious symbols are well known to us who are of the fraternity.
+Therefore be assured, that the soul, being incapable of death, is
+affected in the same manner as birds that are kept in a cage. For if
+she has been a long time educated and cherished in the body, and by
+long custom has been made familiar with most things of this life, she
+will (though separable) return again, and at length enter the body; nor
+ceaseth it by new births now and then to be entangled in the chances
+and events of this life. For do not think that old age is therefore
+evil spoken of and blamed, because it is accompanied with wrinkles,
+gray hairs, and weakness of body. But this is the most troublesome
+thing in old age, that it maketh the soul weak in its remembrance of
+divine things, and too earnest for things relating to the body; thus
+it bendeth and boweth, retaining that form which it took of the body.
+But that which is taken away in youth, being more soft and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">394</span> tractable,
+soon returns to its native vigor and beauty. Just as fire that is
+quenched, if it be forthwith kindled again, sparkles and burns out
+immediately.... So most speedily</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">’Twere good to pass the gates of death,<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>before too great a love of bodily and earthly things be engendered in
+the soul, and it become soft and tender by being used to the body, and
+(as it were) by charms and potions incorporated with it.</p>
+
+<p>11. But the truth of this will appear in the laws and traditions
+received from our ancestors. For when children die, no libations nor
+sacrifices are made for them, nor any other of those ceremonies which
+are wont to be performed for the dead. For infants have no part of
+earth or earthly affections. Nor do we hover or tarry about their
+sepulchres or monuments, or sit by when their dead bodies are exposed.
+The laws of our country forbid this, and teach us that it is an impious
+thing to lament for those whose souls pass immediately into a better
+and more divine state. Wherefore, since it is safer to give credit to
+our traditions <span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">395</span>than
+to call them in question, let us comply with the
+custom in outward and public behavior, and let our interior be more
+unpolluted, pure, and holy....</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="OF_THE_THREE_SORTS_OF_GOVERNMENT">OF THE THREE SORTS OF GOVERNMENT, MONARCHY, DEMOCRACY, AND OLIGARCHY.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">As</span> I was considering with myself to bring forth and propose to the
+judgment of this worthy company the discourse I held yesterday in your
+presence, methought I heard political virtue—not in the illusion of a
+dream, but in a true and real vision—say thus to me.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">A golden ground is laid for sacred songs.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have already laid the foundation of the discourse by persuading
+and exhorting persons to concern themselves in managing the affairs
+of the commonweal, and now we proceed to build upon it the doctrine
+which is due after such an exhortation. For after a man has received
+an admonition and exhortation to deal in the affairs of the state,
+there ought consequently to be given him the precepts of government,
+following and observing which, he may, as much as it is possible for a
+man to do, profit the public, and in the mean time honestly prosecute
+his own affairs with such safety and honor as shall be meet for him.</p>
+
+<p>There is first then one point to be discoursed, which, as it is
+precedent to what we have hereafter to say, so depends on what we have
+said before. Now this is, what sort of policy and government is best?
+For as there are many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">396</span> sorts of lives in particular men, so also are
+there in people and states; and the life of a people or state is its
+policy and government. It is therefore necessary to declare which is
+the best, that a statesman may choose it from among the rest, or, if
+that is not possible for him to do, he may at least take that which has
+the nearest resemblance to the best.</p>
+
+<p>2. Now there is one signification of this word policy (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πολιτεία</span>) which
+imports as much as <i>burgess-ship</i>, that is, a participation in
+the rights and privileges belonging to a town, city, or borough; as
+when we say that the Megarians, by an edict of their city, presented
+Alexander the Great with their <i>policy</i>, that is, their
+<i>burgess-ship</i>, and that, Alexander laughing at the offer they
+made him of it, they answered him, that they had never decreed that
+honor to any but Hercules and now to himself. This he wondering to hear
+accepted their present, thinking it honorable inasmuch as it was rare.
+The life also of a political person, who is concerned in the government
+of the commonweal, is called policy, as when we praise the policy of
+Pericles or Bias, that is, the manner of their government, and on the
+contrary, blame that of Hyperbolus and Cleon. Some moreover there are,
+who call a great and memorable action performed in the administration
+of a commonweal a policy, such as is the distribution of money, the
+suppressing of a war, the introduction of some notable decree worthy
+to be kept in perpetual memory. In which signification it is a common
+manner of speaking to say, This man to-day has done a policy, if he has
+peradventure effected some remarkable matter in the government of the
+state.</p>
+
+<p>3. Besides all these significations there is yet another, that is, the
+order and state by which a commonweal is governed, and by which affairs
+are managed and administered. According to which we say that there are
+three sorts of policy or public government,—to wit, Monarchy,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">397</span> which
+is regality or kingship, Oligarchy, which is the government by peers
+and nobles, and Democracy, which is a popular or (as we term it) a free
+state. Now all these are mentioned by Herodotus in his Third Book,<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a>
+where he compares them one with another. And these seem to be the most
+general of all; for all other sorts are, as it were, the depravation
+and corruption of these, either by defect or excess; as it is in the
+first consonances of music, when the strings are either too straight or
+too slack.</p>
+
+<p>Now these three sorts of government have been distributed amongst the
+nations that have had the mightiest and the greatest empire. Thus the
+Persians enjoyed regality or kingship, because their king had full
+absolute power in all things, without being liable to render an account
+to any one. The Spartans had a council consisting of a small number,
+and those the best and most considerable persons in the city, who
+despatched all affairs. The Athenians maintained popular government
+free and exempt from any other mixture. In which administration when
+there are any faults, their transgressions and exorbitances are styled
+tyrannies, oppressions of the stronger, unbridled licentiousness of the
+multitude. That is, when the prince who has the royalty permits himself
+to outrage whomever he pleases, and will not suffer any remonstrance
+to be made him concerning it, he becomes a tyrant; when a few lords or
+senators in whose hands the government is arrive at that arrogance as
+to contemn all others, they turn oppressors; and when a popular state
+breaks forth into disobedience and levelling, it runs into anarchy
+and unmeasurable liberty: and in a word, all of them together will be
+rashness and folly.</p>
+
+<p>4. Even then as a skilful musician will make use of all sorts of
+instruments, and play on every one of them, accommodating himself in
+such manner as its quality can <span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">398</span>bear and as shall be fit to make it
+yield the sweetest sound, but yet, if he will follow Plato’s counsel,
+will lay aside fiddles, many-stringed virginals, psalteries, and harps,
+preferring before all other the lute and bandore; in like manner,
+an able statesman will dexterously manage the Laconic and Lycurgian
+seignory or oligarchy, fitting and accommodating his companions who
+are of equal authority with him, and by little and little drawing and
+reducing them to be managed by himself. He will also carry himself
+discreetly in a popular state, as if he had to deal with an instrument
+of many and differently sounding strings, one while letting down and
+remitting some things, and again extending others, as he shall see his
+opportunity and find it most convenient for the government, to which he
+will vigorously apply himself, well knowing when and how he ought to
+resist and contradict; but yet, if he might be permitted to make his
+choice from amongst all sorts of government, as from so many musical
+instruments, he would not, if Plato’s advice might be taken, choose any
+other but monarchy or regal authority, as being that which is indeed
+alone able to support that most perfect and most lofty note of virtue,
+without suffering him either by force or by grace and favor, to frame
+himself for advantage and gain. For all other sorts of governments do
+in a manner as much rule a statesman as he does them, no less carrying
+him than they are carried by him; forasmuch as he has no certain
+power over those from whom he has his authority, but is very often
+constrained to cry out in these words of the poet Aeschylus, which King
+Demetrius, surnamed the Town-taker, often alleged against Fortune,
+after he had lost his kingdom</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">399</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Thou mad’st me first, and now undoest me quite.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="WHETHER_THE_ATHENIANS">WHETHER THE ATHENIANS WERE MORE RENOWNED FOR THEIR WARLIKE
+ACHIEVEMENTS OR FOR THEIR LEARNING.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1.... <span class="smcap">These</span> things he rightly spoke to the commanders that accompanied
+him, to whom he opened the way for future performances, while he
+expelled the barbarians and restored Greece to her ancient liberty. And
+the same thing may be said to those that magnify themselves for their
+writings. For if there were none to act, there would be none to write.
+Take away the political government of Pericles, and the naval trophies
+of Phormio at Rhium, and the brave achievements of Nicias at Cythera,
+Megara, and Corinth, Demosthenes’s Pylos, and the four hundred captives
+taken by Cleon, Tolmides sailing round the Peloponnesus, and Myronidas
+vanquishing the Boeotians at Oenophyta: and you murder Thucydides.
+Take away the daring braveries of Alcibiades in the Hellespont, and of
+Thrasyllus near Lesbos; the dissolution of the oligarchy by Theramenes;
+Thrasybulus, Archippus, and the seventy that from Phylae ventured to
+attack the Lacedaemonian tyranny; and Conon again enforcing Athens
+to take the sea: and then there is an end of Cratippus. For as for
+Xenophon, he was his own historian, relating the exploits of the army
+under his command, but saying that Themistogenes the Syracusan had
+written the history of them;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">400</span> dedicating the honor of his writing to
+another, that writing of himself as of another, he might gain the
+more credit. But all the other historians, as the Clinodemi, Diyli,
+Philochorus, Philarchus, were but the actors of other men’s deeds,
+as of so many plays, while they compiled the acts of kings and great
+generals, and thrusting themselves into the memory of their fame,
+partake of a kind of lustre and light from them. For there is a certain
+shadow of glory which reflects from those that act to those that write,
+while the actions of another appear in the discourse as in a mirror.</p>
+
+<p>2. But this city was the mother and charitable nurse of many other arts
+and sciences; some of which she first invented and illustrated, to
+others she gave both efficacy, honor, and increase. More especially to
+her is painting beholden for its first invention, and the perfection to
+which it has attained. For Apollodorus the painter, who first invented
+the mixing of colors and the softening of shadows, was an Athenian.
+Over whose works there is this inscription:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">’Tis no hard thing to reprehend me;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But let the men that blame me mend me.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then for Euphranor, Nicias, Asclepiodorus, and Plistaenetus the brother
+of Phidias, some of them painted the victories, others the battles of
+great generals, and some of them heroes themselves. Thus Euphranor,
+comparing his own Theseus with another drawn by Parrhasius, said, that
+Parrhasius’s Theseus ate roses, but his fed upon beef. For Parrhasius’s
+piece was daintily painted, and perhaps it might be something like the
+original. But he that beheld Euphranor’s Theseus might well exclaim,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Race of Erechtheus bold and stout,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Whom Pallas bred.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">401</span></p>
+
+<p>Euphranor also painted with great spirit the battle of Mantinea,
+fought by the cavalry between the Athenians and Epaminondas. The
+story was thus. The Theban Epaminondas, puffed up with his victory at
+Leuctra, and designing to insult and trample over fallen Sparta and
+the glory of that city, with an army of seventy thousand men invaded
+and laid waste the Lacedaemonian territory, stirred up the subject
+people to revolt, and not far from Mantinea provoked the Spartans to
+battle; but they neither being willing nor indeed daring to encounter
+him, being in expectation of a reinforcement from Athens, Epaminondas
+dislodged in the night-time, and with all the secrecy imaginable fell
+into the Lacedaemonian territory; and missed but little of taking
+Sparta itself, being destitute of men to defend it. But the allies of
+the Lacedaemonians made haste to its relief; whereupon Epaminondas
+made a show as if he would again return to spoiling and laying waste
+the country; and by this means deceiving and amusing his enemies, he
+retreats out of Laconia by night, and with swift marches coming upon
+the Mantineans unexpectedly, at what time they were deliberating to
+send relief to Sparta, presently commanded the Thebans to prepare to
+storm the town. Immediately the Thebans, who had a great conceit of
+their warlike courage, took their several posts, and began to surround
+the city. This put the Mantineans into a dismal consternation, and
+filled the whole city with dreadful outcries and hurly-burly, as being
+neither able to withstand such a torrent of armed men ready to rush in
+upon them, nor having any hopes of succor.</p>
+
+<p>But at the same time, and by good fortune, the Athenians came down from
+the hills into the plains of Mantinea, not knowing any thing of the
+critical moment that required more speedy haste, but marching leisurely
+along. However, so soon as they were informed of the danger of their
+allies, by one that scouted out from the rest, though but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">402</span> few in
+respect of the number of their enemies, single of themselves, and tired
+with their march, yet they presently drew up into order of battle; and
+the cavalry charging up to the very gates of Mantinea, there happened a
+terrible battle between the horse on both sides; wherein the Athenians
+got the better, and so saved Mantinea out of Epaminondas’s hands. This
+conflict was painted by Euphranor, and you see in the picture with what
+strength, what fury and vigor they fought. And yet I do not believe
+that any one will compare the skill of the painter with that of the
+general; or would endure that any one should prefer the picture before
+the trophy, or the imitation before the truth itself.</p>
+
+<p>3. Though indeed Simonides calls painting silent poetry, and poetry
+speaking painting. For those actions which painters set forth as they
+were doing, those history relates when they were done. And what the
+one sets forth in colors and figures, the other relates in words and
+sentences; only they differ in the materials and manner of imitation.
+However, both aim at the same end, and he is accounted the best
+historian, who can make the most lively descriptions both of persons
+and passions. Therefore Thucydides always drives at this perspicuity,
+to make the hearer (as it were) a spectator, and to inculcate the same
+passions and perturbations of mind into his readers as they were in
+who beheld the causes of those effects. For Demosthenes embattling the
+Athenians near the rocky shore of Pylos; Brasidas hastening the pilot
+to run the ship aground, then going to the rowers’ seats, then wounded
+and fainting, sinking down in that part of the vessel where the oars
+could not trouble him; the land fight of the Spartans from the sea, and
+the sea engagement of the Athenians from the land; then again in the
+Sicilian war, both a land fight and <span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">403</span>sea engagement, so fought that
+neither had the better,<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a>... So that if we may not compare painters
+with generals, neither must we equal historians to them.</p>
+
+<p>Thersippus of Eroeadae brought the first news of the victory at
+Marathon, as Heraclides of Pontus relates. But most report that Eucles,
+running armed with his wounds reeking from the fight, and falling
+through the door into the first house he met, expired with only these
+words in his mouth, “God save ye, we are well.” Now this man brought
+the news himself of the success of a fight wherein he was present in
+person. But suppose that any of the goat-keepers or herd-men had beheld
+the combat from some high hill at a distance, and seeing the success of
+that great achievement, greater than by words can be expressed, should
+have come to the city without any wound or blood about him, and should
+have claimed the honors done to Cynaegirus, Callimachus, and Polyzelus,
+for giving an account of their wounds, their bravery and deaths,
+wouldst thou not have thought him impudent above impudence itself;
+seeing that the Lacedaemonians gave the messenger that brought the
+news of the victory at Mantinea<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> no other reward than a quantity
+of victuals from the public mess? But historians are (as it were)
+well-voiced relators of the actions of great men, who add grace and
+beauty and dint of wit to their relations, and to whom they that first
+light upon them and read them are indebted for their pleasing tidings.
+And being read, they are applauded for transmitting to posterity the
+actions of those that do bravely. For words do not make actions, though
+we give them the hearing.</p>
+
+<p>4. But there is a certain grace and glory of the poetic art, when it
+resembles the grandeur of the actions themselves; according to that of
+Homer,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">And many falsities he did unfold,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">That looked like truth, so smoothly were they told.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">404</span></p>
+
+<p>It is reported also, that when one of his familiar friends said to
+Menander, The feasts of Bacchus are at hand, and thou hast made ne’er a
+comedy; he made him this answer: By all the Gods, I have made a comedy,
+for I have laid my plot; and there remains only to make the verses and
+measures to it. So that the poets themselves believe the actions to be
+more necessary than the words, and the first things to be considered.
+Corinna likewise, when Pindar was but a young man and made too daring
+a use of his eloquence, gave him this admonition, that he was no poet,
+for that he never composed any fables, which was the chiefest office of
+poetry; in regard that strange words, figures, metaphors, songs, and
+measures were invented to give a sweetness to things. Which admonition
+Pindar laying up in his mind, wrote a certain ode which thus begins:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent8">Shall I Ismenus sing,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Or Melia, that from spindles all of gold</div>
+<div class="verse indent8">Her twisted yarn unwinds,</div>
+<div class="verse indent4">Or Cadmus, that most ancient king,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Or else the sacred race of Sparti bold,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Or Hercules, that far in strength transcends.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Which when he showed to Corinna, she with a smile replied: When you
+sow, you must scatter the seed with your hand, not empty the whole
+sack at once. And indeed we find that Pindar intermixes in his poetic
+numbers a collection of all sorts of fables. Now that poetry employs
+itself in mythology is agreed by Plato likewise. For a fable is the
+relation of a false story resembling truth, and therefore very remote
+from real actions; for relation is the image of action, as fable is the
+image of relation. And therefore they that feign actions fall as far
+behind historians as they that speak differ from those that act.</p>
+
+<p>5. Athens therefore never bred up any true artist in epic or lyric
+verse. For Cinesias was a troublesome<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">405</span> writer of dithyrambics, a person
+of mean parentage and of no repute; and being jeered and derided by the
+comedians, proved very unfortunate in the pursuit of fame.</p>
+
+<p>Now for the dramatic poets, the Athenians looked upon comedy to be so
+ignoble and troublesome, that they published a law that no Areopagite
+should make any comedies. But tragedy flourished and was cried up, and
+with wonder and admiration heard and beheld by all people in those
+days, deceiving them with fables and the display of various passions;
+whereby, as Gorgias says, he that deceived was more just than he that
+deceived not, and he that was deceived was wiser than he who was not
+deceived. He that deceived was more just, because it was no more than
+what he pretended to do; and he that was deceived was wiser, for that
+he must be a man of no sense that is not taken with the sweetness
+of words. And yet what benefit did those fine tragedies procure the
+Athenians? But the shrewdness and cunning of Themistocles walled
+the city, the industry of Pericles adorned their citadel, and Cimon
+advanced them to command their neighbors. But as for the wisdom of
+Euripides, the eloquence of Sophocles, the lofty style of Aeschylus,
+what calamity did they avert from the city; or what renown or fame did
+they bring to the Athenians? Is it fitting then that dramatic poems
+should be compared with trophies, the stage with the generals’ office,
+or lists of dramas with noble achievements?</p>
+
+<p>6. Would ye that we should introduce the men themselves carrying before
+them the marks and signals of their own actions, permitting them to
+enter in order, like the actors upon the stage? But then poets must go
+before them, with flutes and lyres, saying and singing:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Far from our choirs who in this lore’s unskilled,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Or does not cherish pure and holy thoughts,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor views nor joins the Muses’ generous rites,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Nor is perfected in the Bacchic tongue,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With which Cratinus bull-devourer sang.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">406</span></p>
+<p>And then there must be scenes, and vizards, and altars, and versatile
+machines. There must be also the tragedy actors, the Nicostrati,
+Callippidae, Menisci, Theodori, Poli, the dressers, and sedan-men of
+tragedy,—like those of some sumptuously apparelled lady, or rather
+like the painters, gilders, and colorers of statues,—together with a
+costly preparation of vessels, vizards, purple coats, and machines,
+attended by an unruly rabble of dancers and guards; and let all the
+preparation be exceeding costly and magnificent. A Lacedaemonian
+once, beholding all this, not improperly said: How strangely are the
+Athenians mistaken, consuming so much cost and labor upon ridiculous
+trifles; that is to say, wasting the expenses of navies and of
+victualling whole armies upon the stage. For if you compute the cost
+of those dramatic preparations, you will find that the Athenians
+spent more upon their Bacchae, Oedipuses, and Antigone, and the woes
+of Medea and Electra, than in their wars against the barbarians for
+liberty and extending their empire. For their general oft-times led
+forth the soldiers to battle, commanding them to make provisions only
+of such food as needed not the tedious preparation of fire. And indeed
+their admirals and captains of their ships went aboard without any
+other provision than meal, onions, and cheese. Whereas the masters of
+the choruses, feeding their dancers with eels, lettuce, the kernels
+of garlic, and marrow, feasted them for a long time, exercising their
+voices and pleasing their palates by turns. And as for these captains,
+if they were overcome, it was their misfortune to be contemned and
+hissed at; and if they were victors, there was neither tripod, nor
+consecrated ornament of victory, as Demetrius says, but a life
+prolonged among cables, and an empty house for a tomb. For this is the
+tribute of poetry, and there is nothing more splendid to be expected
+from it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">407</span></p>
+
+<p>7. Now then let us consider the great generals as they approach, to
+whom, as they pass by, all those must rise up and pay their salutations
+who have never been famous for any great action, military or civil, and
+were never furnished with daring boldness nor purity of wisdom for such
+enterprises, nor initiated by the hand of Miltiades that overthrew the
+Medes, or of Themistocles that vanquished the Persians. This is the
+martial gang, at once combating with phalanxes by land, and engaging
+with navies by sea, and laden with the spoils of both. Give ear, Alala,
+daughter of War, to this same prologue of swords and spears.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Hasten to death, when for your country vowed,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Epaminondas said,—for your country, your sepulchres, and your
+altars, throwing yourselves into most noble and illustrious combats.
+Their victories methinks I see approaching toward me, not dragging
+after them a goat or ox for a reward, nor crowned with ivy and smelling
+of the dregs of wine. But whole cities, islands, continents, and
+colonies well peopled are their rewards, being surrounded with trophies
+and spoils of all sorts. Whose statues and symbols of honor are
+Parthenons, a hundred feet in length, South-walls, houses for ships,
+the Propylaea, the Chersonesus, and Amphipolis. Marathon displays the
+victory of Miltiades, and Salamis the glory of Themistocles, triumphing
+over the ruins of a thousand vessels. The victory of Cimon brings
+away a hundred Phoenician galleys from the Eurymedon. And the victory
+of Cleon and Demosthenes brings away the shield of Brasidas, and the
+captive soldiers in chains from Sphacteria. The victory of Conon and
+Thrasybulus walls the city, and brings the people back at liberty from
+Phylae. The victory of Alcibiades near Sicily restores the languishing
+condition of the city; and Greece beheld Ionia raised again by the
+victories of Neleus and Androclus in Lydia and Caria.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">408</span></p>
+
+<p>If you ask what benefit every one of the rest procured to the city; one
+will answer Lesbos, another Samos, another Cyprus, another the Pontus
+Euxinus, another five hundred galleys with three banks of oars, and
+another ten thousand talents, the rewards of fame and trophies won.
+For these victories the city observes public anniversary festivals,
+for these victories she sacrifices to the Gods; not for the victories
+of Aeschylus and Sophocles, not because Carcinus was victorious<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a>
+with his Aerope, or Astydamas with his Hector. But upon the sixth
+of September, even to this day, the Athenians celebrate a festival
+in memory of the fight at Marathon. Upon the sixteenth of the same
+month libations are poured in remembrance of the naval victory won
+by Chabrias near Naxos. Upon the twelfth they offer thanksgiving
+sacrifices for the recovery of their liberty. For upon that day they
+returned back from Phylae. The third of the same month they won the
+battle of Plataea. The sixteenth of April was consecrated to Diana,
+when the moon appeared in the full to the Greeks victorious at Salamis.
+The twelfth of June was made sacred by the battle of Mantinea, wherein
+the Athenians, when their confederates were routed and fled, alone
+by themselves obtained the victory and triumph over their victorious
+enemies. Such actions as these procured honor and veneration and
+grandeur to the city; for these acts it was that Pindar called Athens
+the support of Greece; not because she had set the fortune of the
+Greeks upright by the tragedies of Phrynichus and Thespis, but because
+(as he says) “near Artemisium the Athenian youth laid the first
+glorious foundation of freedom;” and afterwards fixing it upon the
+adamantine pillars of Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea, they multiplied
+their felicity to others.</p>
+
+<p>8. But as for the writings of the poets, they are mere <span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">409</span>bubbles. But
+rhetoricians and orators indeed have something in them that renders
+them in some measure fit to be compared with great captains. For
+which reason, Aeschines in derision reports of Demosthenes, that he
+said he was bringing a suit in behalf of the orator’s stand against
+the generals’ office.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> But for all that, do you think it proper
+to prefer the Plataic oration of Hyperides to the Plataic victory
+of Aristides? Or the oration of Lysias against the Thirty Tyrants,
+to the acts of Thrasybulus and Archias that put them to death? Or
+that of Aeschines against Timarchus for unchastity, to the relieving
+of Byzantium by Phocion, by which he prevented the sons of the
+confederates from being the scorn and derision of the Macedonians?
+Or shall we set before the public crowns which Demosthenes received
+for setting Greece at liberty, his oration on the Crown, wherein the
+rhetorician has behaved himself most splendidly and learnedly, swearing
+by their progenitors that ventured their lives at Marathon for the
+liberty of Greece,<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> rather than by those that instructed youth in
+the schools? And therefore the city buried these heroes at the expense
+of the public, honoring the sacred relics of their bodies, not men
+like Isocrates, Antiphon, and Isaeus, and the orator has translated
+them into the number of the Gods; and by these it was that he chose
+to swear, though he did not follow their example. Isocrates also was
+wont to say, that they who ventured their lives at Marathon fought
+as if they had been inspired with other souls than their own; and
+extolling their daring boldness and contempt of life, to one that asked
+him (being at that time very aged) how he did,—As well, said he, as
+one who, being now above fourscore and ten years old, esteems death
+to be the worst of evils. For neither did he spend his years to old
+age in whetting his sword, in grinding and sharpening his spear, in
+scouring and polishing <span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">410</span>his helmet, in commanding navies and armies,
+but in knitting and joining together antithetical and equally balanced
+clauses, and words of similar endings, all but smoothing and adapting
+his periods and sentences with files, planes, or chisels. How would
+that man have been affrighted at the clattering of weapons or the
+routing of a phalanx, who was so afraid of suffering one vowel to clash
+with another, or to pronounce a sentence where but one syllable was
+wanting!</p>
+
+<p>Miltiades, the very next day after the battle of Marathon, returned
+a victor to the city with his army. And Pericles, having subdued the
+Samians in nine months, derided Agamemnon that was ten years taking
+of Troy. But Isocrates was nearly three Olympiads (or twelve years)
+in writing his Panegyric; in all which time he had neither been a
+general nor an ambassador, neither built a city, nor been an admiral,
+notwithstanding the many wars that harassed Greece within that
+time. But while Timotheus freed Euboea from slavery, while Chabrias
+vanquished the enemy near Naxos, while Iphicrates defeated and cut to
+pieces a whole battalion of the Lacedaemonians near Lechaeum, while the
+Athenians, having shaken off the Spartan yoke, set the rest of Greece
+at liberty, with as ample privileges as they had themselves; he sits
+poring at home in his study, seeking out proper phrases and choice
+words for his oration, as long a time as Pericles spent in erecting
+the Propylaea and the Parthenon. Though the comic poet Cratinus seems
+to deride even Pericles himself as one that was none of the quickest,
+where he says of the middle wall:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">In words the mighty Pericles</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">Has rais’d us up a wall;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">But ’tis a wall in only words,</div>
+<div class="verse indent2">For we see none at all.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">411</span></p>
+<p>Consider now the poor spirit of this great orator, who spent the ninth
+part of his life in compiling one single oration. But to say no more of
+him, is it rational to compare the harangues of Demosthenes the orator
+with the martial exploits of Demosthenes the great leader? For example,
+the oration against Conon for an assault, with the trophies which the
+other erected before Pylos? Or the declamation against Amathusius
+concerning slaves, with the noble service which the other performed
+in bringing home the Spartan captives? Neither can it be said, that
+Demosthenes for his oration in regard to foreigners ... deserved as
+much honor as Alcibiades, who joined the Mantineans and Eleans as
+confederates with the Athenians against the Lacedaemonians. And yet we
+must acknowledge that the public<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">412</span> orations of Demosthenes deserve this
+praise, that in his Philippics he bravely encourages the Athenians to
+take arms, and he extols the enterprise of Leptines....</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="AGAINST_RUNNING_IN_DEBT">AGAINST RUNNING IN DEBT, OR TAKING UP MONEY UPON USURY.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Plato</span> in his Laws<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> permits not any one to go and draw water from
+his neighbor’s well, who has not first digged and sunk a pit in his
+own ground till he is come to a vein of clay, and has by his sounding
+experimented that the place will not yield a spring. For the clay or
+potter’s earth, being of its own nature fatty, solid, and strong,
+retains the moisture it receives, and will not let it soak or pierce
+through. But it must be lawful for them to take water from another’s
+ground, when there is no way or means for them to find any in their
+own; for the law ought to provide for men’s necessity, but not favor
+their laziness. Should there not be the like ordinance also concerning
+money; that none should be allowed to borrow upon usury, nor to go
+and dive into other men’s purses,—as it were into their wells and
+fountains,—before they have first searched at home and sounded every
+means for the obtaining it; having collected (as it were) and gathered
+together all the gutters and springs, to try if they can draw from
+them what may suffice to supply their most necessary occasions? But on
+the contrary, many there are who, to defray their idle expenses and
+to satisfy their <span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">413</span>extravagant and superfluous delights, make not use
+of their own, but have recourse to others, running themselves deeply
+into debt without any necessity. Now this may easily be judged, if
+one does but consider that usurers do not ordinarily lend to those
+which are in distress, but only to such as desire to obtain somewhat
+that is superfluous and of which they stand not in need. So that the
+credit given by the lender is a testimony sufficiently proving that the
+borrower has of his own; whereas on the contrary, since he has of his
+own, he ought to keep himself from borrowing.</p>
+
+<p>2. Why shouldst thou go and make thy court to a banker or a merchant?
+Borrow from thine own table. Thou hast tankards, dishes, and basins of
+silver. Make use of them for thy necessity, and when they are gone to
+supply thy wants, the pleasant town of Aulis or isle of Tenedos will
+again refurnish thy board with fair vessels of earth, far more cleanly
+and neat than those of silver. For they are not scented with the strong
+and unpleasant smell of usury, which, like rust, daily more and more
+sullies and tarnishes the lustre of thy sumptuous magnificence. They
+will not be every day putting thee in mind of the Kalends and new
+moons, which, being of themselves the most holy and sacred days of the
+months, are by reason of usuries rendered the most odious and accursed.
+For as to those who choose rather to carry their goods to the brokers
+and there lay them in pawn for money taken upon usury than to sell them
+outright, I do not believe that Jupiter Ctesius himself can preserve
+them from beggary. They are ashamed forsooth to receive the full price
+and value of their goods; but they are not ashamed to pay use for the
+money they have borrowed on them. And yet the great and wise Pericles
+caused that costly ornament of fine gold, weighing about forty talents,
+with which Minerva’s statue was adorned, to be made in such a manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">414</span>
+that he could take it off and on at his pleasure; to the end (said
+he) that when we shall stand in need of money to support the charges
+of war, we may take it and make use of it, putting afterwards in its
+place another of no less value. Thus we ought in our affairs, as in
+a besieged town, never to admit or receive the hostile garrison of a
+usurer, nor to endure before our eyes the delivering up of our goods
+into perpetual servitude; but rather to cut off from our table what is
+neither necessary nor profitable, and in like manner from our beds, our
+couches, and our ordinary expenses, and so to keep ourselves free and
+at liberty, in hopes to restore again what we shall have retrenched, if
+Fortune shall hereafter smile upon us.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Roman ladies heretofore willingly parted with their jewels and
+ornaments of gold, for the making a cup to be sent as an offering
+to the temple of Apollo Pythius in the city of Delphi. And the
+Carthaginian matrons did with their own hands cut the hair from their
+heads, to make cords for the managing of their warlike engines and
+instruments, in defence of their besieged city. But we, as if we were
+ashamed of being able to stand on our own legs without being supported
+by the assistance of others, go and enslave ourselves by engagements
+and obligations; whereas it were much better that, restraining our
+ambition and confining it to what is profitable for us, we should of
+our useless and superfluous plate, which we should either melt or sell,
+build a temple of Liberty for ourselves, our wives, and our children.
+The Goddess Diana in the city of Ephesus gives to such debtors as can
+fly into her temple freedom and protection against their creditors; but
+the sanctuary of parsimony and moderation in expenses, into which no
+usurer can enter to pluck thence and carry away any debtor prisoner, is
+always open for the prudent, and affords them a long and large space of
+joyful and honorable repose. For as the prophetess which gave<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">415</span> oracles
+in the temple of the Pythian Apollo, about the time of the Persian
+wars, answered the Athenians, that God had for their safety given them
+a wall of wood, upon which, forsaking their lands, their city, their
+houses, and all their goods, they had recourse to their ships for the
+preservation of their liberty; so God gives us a table of wood, vessels
+of earth, and garments of coarse cloth, if we desire to live and
+continue in freedom.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Aim not at gilded coaches, steeds of price,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And harness, richly wrought with quaint device;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>for how swiftly soever they may run, yet will usuries overtake them and
+outrun them.</p>
+
+<p>Take rather the first ass thou shalt meet or the first pack-horse that
+shall come in thy way, and fly from that cruel and tyrannical enemy
+the usurer, who asks thee not earth and water, as heretofore did the
+barbarous king of Persia, but—which is worse—touches thy liberty, and
+wounds thy honor by proscriptions. If thou payest him not, he troubles
+thee; if thou hast wherewithal to satisfy him, he will not receive it,
+unless it be his pleasure. If thou sellest, he will have thy goods
+for nothing, or at a very under rate; and if thou wilt not sell, he
+will force thee to it; if thou suest him, he speaks to thee of an
+accommodation; if thou swearest to give him content, he will domineer
+over thee; if thou goest to his house to discourse with him, he shuts
+his door against thee; if thou stayest at home, he is always knocking
+at thy door and will never stir from thee.</p>
+
+<p>4. Of what use to the Athenians was the decree of Solon, by which he
+ordained that the body should not be obliged for any public debt? For
+they who owe are in bondage to all bankers, and not to them alone (for
+then there would be no great hurt), but to their very slaves, who are
+proud, insolent, barbarous, and outrageous, and in a word exactly
+such as Plato describes the devils and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">416</span> fiery executioners to be, who
+in hell torment the souls of the wicked. For thus do these wretched
+usurers make the court where justice is administered a hell to the poor
+debtors, preying on some and gnawing them, vulture-like, to the very
+bones, and</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Piercing into their entrails with sharp beaks;<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and standing over others, who are, like so many Tantaluses, prohibited
+by them from tasting the corn and fruits of their own ground and
+drinking the wine of their own vintage. And as King Darius sent to
+the city of Athens his lieutenants Datis and Artaphernes with chains
+and cords, to bind the prisoners they should take; so these usurers,
+bringing into Greece boxes full of schedules, bills, and obligatory
+contracts, as so many irons and fetters for the shackling of poor
+criminals, go through the cities, sowing in them, as they pass, not
+good and profitable seed,—as did heretofore Triptolemus, when he went
+through all places teaching the people to sow corn,—but roots and
+grains of debts, that produce infinite labors and intolerable usuries,
+of which the end can never be found, and which, eating their way and
+spreading their sprouts round about, do in fine make cities bend under
+the burden, till they come to be suffocated. They say that hares at
+the same time suckle one young leveret, are ready to kindle and bring
+forth another, and conceive a third; but the usuries of these barbarous
+and wicked usurers bring forth before they conceive. For at the very
+delivery of their money, they immediately ask it back, taking it up
+at the same moment they lay it down; and they let out that again to
+interest which they take for the use of what they have before lent.</p>
+
+<p>5. It is a saying among the Messenians,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Pylos before Pylos, and Pylos still you’ll find;</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>but it may much better be said against the usurers,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Use before use, and use still more you’ll find.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">417</span></p>
+<p>So that they laugh at those natural philosophers who hold
+that nothing can be made of nothing and of that which has no existence;
+but with them usury is made and engendered of that which neither is
+nor ever was. They think the taking to farm the customs and other
+public tributes, which the laws nevertheless permit, to be a shame and
+reproach; and yet themselves on the contrary, in opposition to all
+the laws in the world, make men pay tribute for what they lend upon
+interest; or rather, if truth may be spoken, do in the very letting out
+their money to use, basely deceive their debtor. For the poor debtor,
+who receives less than he acknowledges in his obligation, is falsely
+and dishonestly cheated. And the Persians indeed repute lying to be a
+sin only in a second degree, but to be in debt they repute to be in the
+first; forasmuch as lying frequently attends those that owe. Now there
+are not in the whole world any people who are oftener guilty of lying
+than usurers, nor that practise more unfaithfulness in their day-books,
+in which they set down that they have delivered such a sum of money
+to such a person, to whom they have not given nigh so much. And the
+moving cause of their lying is pure avarice, not want or poverty, but
+an insatiable desire of always having more, the end of which is neither
+pleasurable nor profitable to themselves, but ruinous and destructive
+to those whom they injure. For they neither cultivate the lands of
+which they deprive their debtors, nor inhabit the houses out of which
+they eject them, nor eat at the tables which they take away from
+them, nor wear the clothes of which they strip them. But first one is
+destroyed, and then a second soon follows, being drawn on and allured
+by the former. For the mischief spreads like wildfire, still consuming,
+and yet still increasing by the destruction and ruin of those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">418</span> that
+fall into it, whom it devours one after another. And the usurer who
+maintains this fire, blowing and kindling it to the undoing of so many
+people, reaps no other advantage from it but only that he now and then
+takes his book of accounts, and reads in it how many poor debtors he
+has caused to sell what they had, how many he has dispossessed of their
+lands and livings, whence his money came which he is always turning,
+winding, and increasing.</p>
+
+<p>6. Think not that I speak this for any ill-will or enmity that I have
+borne against usurers;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">For never did they drive away</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">My horses or my kine.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But my only aim is to show those who are so ready to take up money upon
+use, how much shame and slavery there is in it, and how it proceeds
+only from extreme folly, sloth, and effeminacy of heart. For if thou
+hast of thy own, borrow not, since thou hast no need of it; and if thou
+hast nothing, borrow not, because thou wilt not have any means to pay.
+But let us consider the one and the other apart. The elder Cato said
+to a certain old man, who behaved himself ill: My friend, seeing old
+age has of itself so many evils, why dost thou go about to add to them
+the reproach and shame of wickedness? In like manner may we say to a
+man oppressed with poverty: Since poverty has of itself so many and so
+great miseries, do not heap upon them the anguishes of borrowing and
+being in debt. Take not from poverty the only good thing in which it is
+superior to riches, to wit, freedom from pensive care. Otherwise thou
+wilt subject thyself to the derision of the common proverb, which says,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">A goat I cannot bear away,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Therefore an ox upon me lay.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thou canst not bear poverty, and yet thou art going to load on thyself
+a usurer, which is a burden even to a rich man insupportable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">419</span></p>
+
+<p>But you will say perhaps, how then would you have me to live? Is this
+a question fit for thee to ask, who hast hands, feet, and a voice, who
+in brief art a man, whose property it is to love and be beloved, to do
+and receive a courtesy? Canst thou not teach, bring up young children,
+be a porter or doorkeeper, travel by sea, serve in a ship? There is in
+all these nothing more shameful or odious, than to be dunned with the
+importunate clamors of such as are always saying, Pay me, give me my
+money.</p>
+
+<p>7. Rutilius that rich Roman, coming one day to Musonius the
+philosopher, whispered him thus in his ear: Musonius, Jupiter the
+Savior, whom you philosophers profess to imitate and follow, takes not
+up money at interest. Musonius smiling presently answered him: Nor yet
+does he lend for use. For this Rutilius, who was himself an usurer,
+upbraided the other with borrowing upon use. Now what a foolish stoical
+arrogance was this. For what need was there of bringing here Jupiter
+the Savior, when he might have given him the same admonition by things
+that were familiar and before his eyes? Swallows run not themselves
+into debt, ants borrow not upon interest; and yet Nature has given
+them neither reason, hands, nor art. But she has endued men with such
+abundance of understanding, that they maintain not only themselves,
+but also horses, dogs, partridges, hares, and jays. Why then dost thou
+condemn thyself, as if thou wert less able to persuade than a jay, more
+dumb than a partridge, and more ungenerous than a dog, in that thou
+couldst not oblige any man to be assistant to thee, either by serving
+him, charming him, guarding him, or fighting in his defence? Dost thou
+not see how many occasions the land, and how many the sea affords thee
+for thy maintenance? Hear also what Crates says:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Here I saw Miccylus the wool to card,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Whilst his wife spun, that they by labor hard</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">In these hard times might 'scape the hungry jaws</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Of famine.</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">420</span>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>King Antigonus, when he had not for a long time seen Cleanthes the
+philosopher, said to him, Dost thou yet, O Cleanthes, continue to
+grind? Yes, sir, replied Cleanthes, I still grind, and that I do
+to gain my living and not to depart from philosophy. How great and
+generous was the courage of this man, who, coming from the mill and
+the kneading-trough, did with the same hand which had been employed in
+turning the stone and moulding the dough, write of the nature of the
+Gods, moon, stars, and sun! And yet we think these to be servile works.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, forsooth, that we may be free, we take up money at interest,
+and to this purpose flatter base and servile persons, wait on them,
+treat them, make them presents, and pay them pensions; and this we do,
+not being compelled by poverty (for no usurer will lend a poor man
+money) but to gratify our prodigality. For if we would be content with
+such things as are necessary for human life, usurers would be no less
+rare in the world than Centaurs and Gorgons. But luxury and excess, as
+it produced goldsmiths, silversmiths, perfumers, and dyers of curious
+colors, so has it also brought forth usurers. For we run not into debt
+for bread and wine, but for the purchasing of stately seats, numerous
+slaves, fine mules, costly banqueting halls, rich tables, and for all
+those foolish and superfluous expenses to which we frequently put
+ourselves for the exhibiting of plays to the people, or some such vain
+ambition, from which we frequently reap no other fruit but ingratitude.
+Now he that is once entangled in usury remains a debtor all his life,
+not unlike in this to the horse, who, having once taken the bridle
+into his mouth and the saddle on his back, receives one rider after
+another. Nor is there any means for these debtors to make their escape
+into those fair pastures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">421</span> and meadows which once they enjoyed, but they
+wander about, like those Daemons mentioned by Empedocles to have been
+driven out of heaven by the offended Gods.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">By the sky’s force they’re thrust into the main,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Which to the earth soon spews them back again.</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Thence to bright Titan’s orb they’re forced to fly,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And Titan soon remits them to the sky.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In like manner do such men fall from the hand of one usurer or banker
+to another, sometimes of a Corinthian, sometimes of a Patrian,
+sometimes of an Athenian, till, having been deceived and cheated by
+all, they finally find themselves dissipated and torn in pieces by
+usury. For as he who is fallen into the dirt must either rise up and
+get out of it, or else lie still in the place into which he first fell,
+for that by tumbling, turning, and rolling about, he does but still
+more and more bemire himself; so also those who do but change their
+creditor, and cause their names to be transcribed from one usurer’s
+book to another’s, do by loading and embroiling themselves with new
+usuries become more and more oppressed. Now in this they properly
+resemble persons distempered with cholera, who cannot receive any
+medicine sufficient to work a perfect cure, but continually vomit
+up all that is given them, and so make way for the choleric humor
+to gather more and more. For in the same manner these men are not
+willing to be cleansed at once, but do with grievous anguish and sorrow
+pay their use at every season of the year, and no sooner have they
+discharged one, but another drops and stills immediately after, which
+causes them both aching hearts and heads; whereas they should have
+taken care to get wholly clear, that they might remain free and at
+liberty.</p>
+
+<p>8. For I now turn my speech to those who are more wealthy, and withal
+more nice and effeminate, and whose discourse is commonly in this
+manner: How shall I remain then without servants, without fire, and
+without a house or place to which I may repair? Now this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">422</span> is the same
+thing as if one who is sick of a dropsy and puffed up as a barrel
+should say to a physician: How? Would you have me become slender, lean,
+and empty? And why not, provided you thereby get your health? Thus it
+is better you should be without servants, than that you should yourself
+become a slave; and that you should remain without possessions, than
+that you should be made the possession of another. Give ear a little
+to the discourse of the two vultures, as it is reported in the fable.
+One of them was taken with so strong a fit of vomiting, that he said:
+I believe I shall cast up my very bowels. Now to this his companion
+answered: What hurt will there be in it? For thou wilt not indeed throw
+up thine own entrails, but those of the dead man which we devoured the
+other day. So he who is indebted sells not his own inheritance nor his
+own house, but that of the usurer who lent him the money, to whom by
+the law he has given the right and possession of them. Nay, by Jupiter
+(will he say to me); but my father left me this estate. I believe it
+well, but he left thee also liberty and a good repute, of which thou
+oughtest to make more account and be more careful. He who begat thee
+made thy foot and thy hand, and nevertheless, if they happen to be
+mortified, thou wilt give money to the chirurgeon to cut them off.
+Calypso presented Ulysses with a robe breathing forth the sweet-scented
+odor of an immortal body, which she put on him, as a token and memorial
+of the love she had borne him. But when his ship was cast away and
+himself ready to sink to the bottom, not being able to keep above the
+water by reason of his wet robe, which weighed him downwards, he put it
+off and threw it away, and having girt his naked breast with a broad
+swaddling band,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Swam, gazing on the distant shore.<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">423</span></p>
+
+<p>And afterwards, when the danger was over and he seen to be landed, he
+wanted neither food nor raiment. And is it not a true tempest, when the
+usurer after some time comes to assault the miserable debtors with this
+word Pay?</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">This having said, the clouds grow thick, the sea</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Is troubled, and its raging waves beat high,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Whilst east, south, west winds through the welkin fly.<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These winds are use, and use upon use, which roll one after another;
+and he that is overwhelmed by them and kept down by their weight cannot
+serve himself nor make his escape by swimming, but at last sinks down
+to the bottom, where he perishes, carrying with him his friends who
+were pledges and sureties for him.</p>
+
+<p>Crates, the Theban philosopher, acted far otherwise; for owing
+nothing, and consequently not being pressed for payment by any
+creditor, but only tired with the cares and troubles of housekeeping
+and the solicitude requisite to the management of his estate, he left
+a patrimony of eight talents’ value, and taking only his cloak and
+wallet, retired to philosophy and poverty. Anaxagoras also forsook his
+plentiful and well-stocked pastures. But what need is there of alleging
+these examples, seeing that the lyric poet Philoxenus, being one of
+those who were sent to people a new city and new land in Sicily, where
+there fell to his share a good house and great wealth with which he
+might have lived well at his ease, yet seeing that delights, pleasure,
+and idleness, without any exercise of good letters, reigned in those
+quarters, said: These goods, by all the Gods, shall not destroy me, but
+I will rather lose them. And immediately leaving to others the portion
+that was allotted to himself, he again took shipping, and returned to
+Athens. Whereas those who are in debt bear and suffer themselves to be
+sued, taxed, made slaves of, and cheated with false money, feeding like
+King Phineus certain winged <span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">424</span>harpies. For these usurers fly to them,
+and ravish out of their hands their very food. Neither yet have they
+patience to stay and expect the season; for they buy their debtors’
+corn before it is ready for harvest, bargain for the oil before the
+olives are ripe, and in like manner for their wines. I will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">425</span> have it,
+says the usurer, at such a price; and immediately he gets the writing
+signed; and yet the grapes are still hanging on the vine, expecting the
+rising of Arcturus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATONIC_QUESTIONS">PLUTARCH’S PLATONIC QUESTIONS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION I.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">What is the Reason that God bade Socrates to act the Midwife’s
+Part to Others, but charged Himself not to generate; as he says in
+Theaetetus?</span><a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a></p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">For</span> he would never have used the name of God in such a merry,
+jesting manner, though Plato in that book makes Socrates several times
+to talk with great boasting and arrogance, as he does now. “There are
+many, dear friend, so affected towards me, that they are ready even
+to bite me, when I offer to cure them of the least madness. For they
+will not be persuaded that I do it out of good-will, because they are
+ignorant that no God bears ill-will to man, and that therefore I wish
+ill to no man; but I cannot allow myself either to stand in a lie or to
+stifle the truth.”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> Whether therefore did he style his own nature,
+which was of a very strong and pregnant wit, by the name of God,—as
+Menander says, “For our mind is God,” and as Heraclitus, “Man’s genius
+is a Deity”? Or did some divine cause or some Daemon or other impart
+this way of philosophizing to Socrates, whereby always interrogating
+others, he cleared them of pride, error, and ignorance, and of being
+troublesome both to themselves and to others? For about that time there
+happened to be in <span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">426</span>Greece several sophisters; to these some young men
+paid great sums of money, for which they purchased a strong opinion of
+learning and wisdom, and of being stout disputants; but this sort of
+disputation spent much time in trifling squabblings, which were of no
+credit or profit. Now Socrates, using an argumentative discourse by way
+of a purgative remedy, procured belief and authority to what he said,
+because in refuting others he himself affirmed nothing; and he the
+sooner gained upon people, because he seemed rather to be inquisitive
+after the truth as well as they, than to maintain his own opinion.</p>
+
+<p>2. Now, however useful a thing judgment is, it is mightily impeached
+by the begetting of a man’s own fancies. For the lover is blinded
+with the thing loved; and nothing of a man’s own is so beloved as is
+the opinion and discourse which he has begotten. And the distribution
+of children, said to be the justest, in respect of discourses is the
+unjustest; for there a man must take his own, but here a man must
+choose the best, though it be another man’s. Therefore he that has
+children of his own, is a worse judge of other men’s; it being true, as
+the sophister said well, “The Eleans would be the most proper judges of
+the Olympic games, were no Eleans gamesters.” So he that would judge of
+disputations cannot be just, if he either seeks the bays for himself,
+or is himself antagonist to either of the antagonists. For as the
+Grecian captains, when they were to decide by their suffrages who had
+behaved himself the best, every man of them voted for himself; so there
+is not a philosopher of them all but would do the like, besides those
+that acknowledge, like Socrates, that they can say nothing that is
+their own; and these only are the pure uncorrupt judges of the truth.
+For as the air in the ears, unless it be still and void of noise in
+itself, without any sound or buzzing, does not exactly take sounds;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">427</span>
+so the philosophical judgment in disputations, if it be disturbed and
+obstreperous within, is hardly comprehensive of what is said without.
+For our familiar and inbred opinion will not admit that which is at
+variance with itself, as the number of sects and parties proves, of
+which philosophy—if she deals with them in the best manner—must hold
+one to be right, and all the others to be at war with the truth in
+their opinions.</p>
+
+<p>3. Furthermore, if men can comprehend and know nothing, God did justly
+interdict Socrates the procreation of false and unstable discourses,
+which are like wind-eggs, and bid him convince others who were of any
+other opinion. And reasoning, which rids us of the greatest of evils,
+error and vanity of mind, is none of the least benefit to us; “For God
+has not granted this to the Esculapians.”<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> Nor did Socrates give
+physic to the body; indeed he purged the mind of secret corruption.
+But if there be any knowledge of the truth, and if the truth be one,
+he has as much that learns it of him that invented it, as the inventor
+himself. Now he the most easily attains the truth, that is persuaded
+he has it not; and he chooses best, just as he that has no children
+of his own adopts the best. Mark this well, that poetry, mathematics,
+oratory, and sophistry, which are the things the Deity forbade Socrates
+to generate, are of no value; and that of the sole wisdom about what
+is divine and intelligible (which Socrates called amiable and eligible
+for itself), there is neither generation nor invention by man, but
+reminiscence. Wherefore Socrates taught nothing, but suggesting
+principles of doubt, as birth-pains, to young men, he excited and at
+the same time confirmed the innate notions. This he called his Art of
+Midwifery, which did not (as others <span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">428</span>professed) extrinsically confer
+intelligence upon his auditors; but demonstrated it to be innate, yet
+imperfect and confused, and in want of a nurse to feed and strengthen
+it.</p>
+
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION II.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">Why does he call the Supreme God Father and Maker of all
+Things?</span><a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p>
+
+<p>1. Is it because he is (as Homer calls him) of created Gods and men
+the Father, and of brutes and things that have no soul the maker? If
+Chrysippus may be credited, he is not properly styled the father of
+the afterbirth who supplied the seed, although it springs from the
+seed. Or has he figuratively called the maker of the world the father
+of it? In his Convivium he calls Phaedrus the father of the amatorious
+discourse which he had introduced; and so in his Phaedrus<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> he
+calls him “father of noble children,” when he had been the occasion of
+many excellent discourses about philosophical matters. Or is there any
+difference between a father and a maker? Or between procreation and
+making? For as what is procreated is also made, but not the contrary;
+so he that procreated did also make, for the procreation of an animal
+is the making of it. Now the work of a maker—as of a builder, a
+weaver, a musical-instrument maker, or a statuary—is altogether
+distinct and separate from its author; but the principle and power of
+the procreator is implanted in the progeny, and contains his nature,
+the progeny being a piece pulled off the procreator. Since therefore
+the world is neither like a piece of potter’s work nor joiner’s work,
+but there is a great share of life and divinity in it, which God from
+himself communicated to and mixed with matter, God may properly be
+called Father of the world—since it has life in it—and also the maker
+of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">429</span></p>
+
+<p>2. And since these things come very near to Plato’s opinion, consider,
+I pray, whether there may not be some probability in them. Whereas the
+world consists of two parts, body and soul, God indeed made not the
+body; but matter being provided, he formed and fitted it, binding up
+and confining what was infinite within proper limits and figures. But
+the soul, partaking of mind, reason, and harmony, was not only the work
+of God, but, part of him; not only made by him, but begot by him.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION III.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p>In the Republic,<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> he supposes the universe, as one line, to be cut
+into two unequal sections; again he cuts each of these sections in two
+after the same proportion, and supposes the two sections first made to
+constitute the two genera of things sensible and things intelligible
+in the universe. The first represents the genus of intelligibles,
+comprehending in the first subdivision the primitive forms or ideas,
+in the second the mathematics. Of sensibles, the first subdivision
+comprehends solid bodies, the second comprehends the images and
+representations of them. Moreover, to every one of these four he has
+assigned its proper judicatory faculty;—to the first, reason; to the
+mathematics, the understanding; to sensibles, belief; to images and
+likenesses, conjecture.</p>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">But what does he mean by Dividing the Universe into Unequal
+Parts? And which of the Sections, the Intelligible or the Sensible,
+is the greater? For in this he has not explained himself.</span></p>
+
+<p>1. At first sight it will appear that the sensible is the greater
+portion. For the essence of intelligibles being <span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">430</span>indivisible, and in
+the same respect ever the same, is contracted into a little, and pure;
+but an essence divisible and pervading bodies constitutes the sensible
+part. Now what is immaterial is limited; but body in respect of matter
+is infinite and unlimited, and it becomes sensible only when it is
+defined by partaking of the intelligible. Besides, as every sensible
+has many images, shadows, and representations, and from one and the
+same original several copies may be taken both by nature and art;
+so the latter must needs exceed the former in number, according to
+Plato, who makes things intelligible to be patterns or ideas of things
+sensible, like the originals of images and reflections. Further, Plato
+derives the knowledge of ideas from body by abstraction and cutting
+away, leading us by various steps in mathematical discipline from
+arithmetic to geometry, thence to astronomy, and setting harmony above
+them all. For things become geometrical by the accession of magnitude
+to quantity; solid, by the accession of profundity to magnitude;
+astronomical, by the accession of motion to solidity; harmonical, by
+the accession of sound to motion. Abstract then sound from moving
+bodies, motion from solids, profundity from superficies, magnitude from
+quantity, we are then come to pure intelligible ideas, which have no
+distinction among themselves in respect of the one single intelligible
+essence. For unity makes no number, unless joined by the infinite
+binary; then it makes a number. And thence we proceed to points, thence
+to lines, from them to superficies, and profundities, and bodies, and
+to the qualities of the bodies so and so qualified. Now the reason is
+the only judicatory faculty of intelligibles; and the understanding
+is the reason in the mathematics, where intelligibles appear as by
+reflection in mirrors. But as to the knowledge of bodies, because of
+their multitude, Nature has given us five powers or distinctions of
+senses; nor are all bodies discerned by them,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">431</span> many escaping sense by
+reason of their smallness. And though every one of us consists of a
+body and soul, yet the hegemonic and intellectual faculty is small,
+being hid in the huge mass of flesh. And the case is the same in the
+universe, as to sensible and intelligible. For intelligibles are the
+principles of bodily things, but every thing is greater than the
+principle whence it came.</p>
+
+<p>2. Yet, on the contrary, some will say that, by comparing sensibles
+with intelligibles, we match things mortal with divine, in some
+measure; for God is in intelligibles. Besides, the thing contained is
+ever less than the containing, and the nature of the universe contains
+the sensible in the intelligible. For God, having placed the soul in
+the middle, hath extended it through all, and hath covered it all round
+with bodies. The soul is invisible, and cannot be perceived by any of
+the senses, as Plato says in his Book of Laws; therefore every man
+must die, but the world shall never die. For mortality and dissolution
+surround every one of our vital faculties. The case is quite otherwise
+in the world; for the corporeal part, contained in the middle by the
+more noble and unalterable principle, is ever preserved. And a body is
+said to be without parts and indivisible for its minuteness; but what
+is incorporeal and intelligible is so, as being simple and sincere,
+and void of all firmness and difference. Besides, it were folly to
+think to judge of incorporeal things by corporeal. The present, or
+<i>now</i>, is said to be without parts and indivisible, since it is
+everywhere and no part of the world is void of it. But all affections
+and actions, and all corruptions and generations in the world, are
+contained by this <i>now</i>. But the mind is judge only of what is
+intelligible, as the sight is of light, by reason of its simplicity and
+similitude. But bodies, having several differences and diversities, are
+comprehended, some by one judicatory faculty, others by another, as
+by several organs. Yet they do not well<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">432</span> who despise the intelligible
+and intelligent faculty in us; for being great, it comprehends all
+sensibles, and attains to things divine. The most important thing he
+himself teaches in his Banquet, where he shows us how we should use
+amatorious matters, turning our minds from sensible goods to things
+discernible only by the reason, that we ought not to be enslaved by
+the beauty of any body, study, or learning, but laying aside such
+pusillanimity, should turn to the vast ocean of beauty.<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a></p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION IV.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">What is the Reason that, though Plato always says that the Soul
+is Ancienter than the Body, and that it is the Cause and Principle
+of its Rise, yet he likewise says, that neither could the Soul exist
+without the Body, nor the Reason without the Soul, but the Soul in
+the Body, and the Reason in the Soul? For so the Body will seem to be
+and not to be, because it both exists with the Soul, and is begot by
+the Soul.</span></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps what we have often said is true; viz., that the soul without
+reason and the body without form did mutually ever coexist, and neither
+of them had generation or beginning. But after the soul did partake of
+reason and harmony, and being through consent made wise, it wrought
+a change in matter, and being stronger than the other’s motions, it
+drew and converted these motions to itself. So the body of the world
+drew its original from the soul, and became conformable and like to
+it. For the soul did not make the Nature of the body out of itself, or
+out of nothing; but it wrought an orderly and pliable body out of one
+disorderly and formless. Just as if a man should say that the virtue
+of the seed is with the body, and yet that the body of the fig-tree
+or olive-tree was made of the seed, he would not be much out; for the
+body, its innate motion and mutation proceeding from the seed, grew
+up and became <span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">433</span>what it is. So, when formless and indefinite matter
+was once formed by the inbeing soul, it received such a form and
+disposition.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION V.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">Why, since Bodies and Figures are contained partly by
+Rectilinears and partly by Circles, does he make Isosceles Triangles
+and Triangles of Unequal Sides the Principles of Rectilinears; of
+which the Isosceles Triangle forms the Cube, the Element of the
+Earth; and a Scalene Triangle forms the Pyramid which is the Seed of
+Fire, the Octahedron which is the Seed of Air, and the Icosahedron
+which is the Seed of Water;—while he does not meddle with Circulars,
+though he does mention the Globe, where he says that each of the
+Afore-Reckoned Figures divides a Round Body that encloses it into
+Equal Parts.</span><a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a></p>
+
+<p>1. Is their opinion true who think that he ascribed a dodecahedron
+to the globe, when he says that God made use of it in delineating
+the universe? For upon account of the multitude of its bases and the
+obtuseness of its angles, avoiding all rectitude, it is flexible,
+and by circumtension, like globes made of twelve skins, it becomes
+circular and comprehensive. For it has twenty solid angles, each of
+which is contained by three obtuse planes, and each of these contains
+one and the fifth part of a right angle. Now it is made up of twelve
+equilateral and equangular quinquangles (or pentagons), each of which
+consists of thirty of the first scalene triangles. Therefore it seems
+to resemble both the Zodiac and the year, it being divided into the
+same number of parts as these.</p>
+
+<p>2. Or is a right line in Nature prior to circumference; or is
+circumference but an accident of rectilinear? For a right line is said
+to bend; and a circle is described by a centre and distance, which is
+the place of a right line by which a circumference is measured, this
+being everywhere <span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">434</span>equally distant from the middle. And a cone and a
+cylinder are made by rectilinears; a cone by keeping one side of a
+triangle fixed and carrying another round with the base,—a cylinder,
+by doing the like with a parallelogram. Further, that is nearest to
+principle which is less; but a right is the least of all lines, as
+it is simple; whereas in a circumference one part is convex without,
+another concave within. Besides, numbers are before figures, as unity
+is before a point, which is unity in position. But indeed unity is
+triangular; for every triangular number<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> taken eight times, by
+adding unity, becomes quadrate; and this happens to unity. Therefore
+a triangle is before a circle, whence a right line is before a
+circumference. Besides, no element is divided into things compounded
+of itself; indeed there is a dissolution of all other things into the
+elements. Now a triangle is divided into no circumference, but two
+diameters cut a circle into four triangles; therefore a rectilinear
+figure is before a circular, and has more of the nature of an element.
+And Plato himself shows that a rectilinear is in the first place, and
+a circular is only consequential and accidental. For when he says the
+earth consists of cubes, each of which is contained with rectilinear
+superficies, he says the earth is spherical and round. Therefore there
+was no need of making a peculiar element for round things, since
+rectilinears, fitted after a certain manner among themselves, do make
+up this figure.</p>
+
+<p>3. Besides, a right line, whether great or little, preserves the same
+rectitude; but as to the circumference of a circle, the less it is,
+the crookeder it is; the larger, the straighter. Therefore if a convex
+superficies stands on a plane, it sometimes touches the subject plane
+in a point, sometimes in a line. So that a man may imagine that a
+circumference <span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">435</span>is made up of little right lines.</p>
+
+<p>4. But observe whether this be not true, that no circle
+or sphere in this world is exact; but since by the tension and
+circumtension of the right lines, or by the minuteness of the parts,
+the difference disappears, the figure seems circular and round.
+Therefore no corruptible body moves circularly, but altogether in a
+right line. To be truly spherical is not in a sensible body, but is the
+element of the soul and mind, to which he has given circular motion, as
+being agreeable to their nature.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION VI.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">How comes it to pass that in Phaedrus it is said, that the Nature
+of a Wing, by which any thing that is Heavy is carried upwards,
+participates most of the Body of God?</span><a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a></p>
+
+<p>Is it because the discourse is of love, and love is of beauty inherent
+in a body? Now beauty, by similitude to things divine, moves and
+reminds the soul. Or it may be (without too much curiosity) he may
+be understood in plain meaning, to wit, that the several faculties
+of the soul being employed about bodies, the power of reasoning and
+understanding partakes most about divine and heavenly things; which he
+did not impertinently call a wing, it raising the soul from mean and
+mortal things to things above.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION VII.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">In what Sense does Plato say, that the Antiperistasis (or
+Reaction) of Motion—by Reason there is no Vacuum—is the Cause
+of the Effects in Physicians’ Cupping-Glasses, in Swallowing, in
+Throwing of Weights, in the Running of Water, in Thunder, in the
+Attraction of the Loadstone, and in the Harmony of Sounds?</span><a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a></p>
+
+<p>1. For it seems unreasonable to ascribe the reason of such different
+effects to the selfsame cause.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">436</span></p>
+
+<p>2. How respiration is made by the reaction of the air he
+has sufficiently shown. But the rest, he says, seem to be done
+miraculously, but really the bodies thrust each other aside and change
+places with one another; while he has left for us to determine how each
+is particularly done.</p>
+
+<p>3. As to cupping-glasses, the case is thus: the air next to the flesh
+being comprehended and inflamed by the heat, and being made more rare
+than the pores of the brass, does not go into a vacuum (for there is no
+such thing), but into the air that is without the cupping-glass, and
+has an impulse upon it. This air drives that before it; and each, as it
+gives way, strives to succeed into the place which was vacuated by the
+cession of the first. And so the air approaching the flesh comprehended
+by the cupping-glass, and exciting it, draws the humors into the
+cupping-glass.</p>
+
+<p>4. Swallowing takes place in the same way. For the cavities about the
+mouth and stomach are full of air; when therefore the meat is squeezed
+down by the tongue and tonsils, the elided air follows what gives way,
+and also forces down the meat.</p>
+
+<p>5. Weights also thrown cleave the air and dissipate it, as they fall
+with force; the air recoiling back, according to its natural tendency
+to rush in and fill the vacuity, follows the impulse, and accelerates
+the motion.</p>
+
+<p>6. The fall also of thunderbolts is like to darting any thing. For by
+the blow in the cloud, the fiery matter exploded breaks into the air;
+and it being broken gives way, and again being contracted above, by
+main force it presses the thunderbolt downwards contrary to Nature.</p>
+
+<p>7. And neither amber nor the loadstone draws any thing to it which is
+near, nor does any thing spontaneously approach them. But this stone
+emits strong exhalations, by which the adjoining air being impelled
+forceth that which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">437</span> is before it; and this being carried round in the
+circle, and returning into the vacuated place, forcibly draws the iron
+in the same direction. In amber there is a flammeous and spirituous
+nature, and this by rubbing on the surface is emitted by recluse
+passages, and does the same that the loadstone does. It also draws the
+lightest and driest of adjacent bodies, by reason of their tenuity
+and weakness; for it is not so strong nor so endued with weight and
+strength as to force much air and to act with violence and to have
+power over great bodies, as the magnet has. But what is the reason the
+air never draws a stone, nor wood, but iron only, to the loadstone?
+This is a common question both by them who think the coition of these
+bodies is made by the attraction of the loadstone, and by such as think
+it done by the incitement of the iron. Iron is neither so rare as wood,
+nor altogether so solid as gold or a stone; but has certain pores and
+asperities, which in regard of the inequality are proportionable to
+the air; and the air being received in certain seats, and having (as
+it were) certain stays to cling to, does not slip away; but when it is
+carried up to the stone and strikes against it, it draws the iron by
+force along with it to the stone. Such then may be the reason of this.</p>
+
+<p>8. But the manner of the waters running over the earth is not so
+evident. But it is observable that the waters of lakes and ponds stand
+immovable, because the air about them stagnates immovable and admits of
+no vacuity. For the water on the surface of lakes and seas is troubled
+and fluctuates as the air is moved, it following the motion of the
+air, and moving as it is moved. For the force from below causes the
+hollowness of the wave, and from above the swelling thereof; until
+the air ambient and containing the water is still. Therefore the flux
+of such waters as follow the motion of the retreating air, and are
+impelled by that which presses behind, is continued without end.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">438</span> And
+this is the reason that the stream increases with the waters, and is
+slow where the water is weak, the air not giving way, and therefore
+suffering less reaction. So the water of fountains must needs flow
+upwards, the extrinsic air succeeding into the vacuity and throwing the
+water out. In a close house, that keeps in the air and wind, the floor
+sprinkled with water causes an air or wind, because, as the sprinkled
+water falls, the air gives way. For it is so provided by Nature that
+air and water force one another and give way to one another; because
+there is no vacuity in which one can be settled without feeling the
+change and alteration in the other.</p>
+
+<p>9. Concerning symphony, he shows how sounds harmonize. A quick sound
+is acute, a slow is grave. Therefore acute sounds move the senses the
+quicker; and these dying and grave sounds supervening, what arises
+from the contemperation of one with the other causes pleasure to the
+ear, which we call harmony. And by what has been said, it may easily
+be understood that air is the instrument of these things. For sound is
+the stroke upon the sense of the hearer, caused by the air; and the air
+strikes as it is struck by the thing moving,—if violent, acutely,—if
+languid, softly. The violent stroke comes quick to the ear; then the
+circumambient air receiving a slower, it affects and carries the sense
+along with it.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION VIII.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">What means Timaeus,<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> when he says that Souls are dispersed
+into the Earth, the Moon, and into other Instruments of Time?</span></p>
+
+<p>1. Does the earth move like the sun, moon, and five planets, which
+for their motions he calls organs or instruments <span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">439</span>of time? Or is the
+earth fixed to the axis of the universe; yet not so built as to remain
+immovable, but to turn and wheel about, as Aristarchus and Seleucus
+have shown since; Aristarchus only supposing it, Seleucus positively
+asserting it? Theophrastus writes how that Plato, when he grew old,
+repented him that he had placed the earth in the middle of the
+universe, which was not its place.</p>
+
+<p>2. Or is this contradictory to Plato’s opinion elsewhere, and in the
+Greek instead of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρόνου</span> should it be written <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">χρόνῳ</span>, taking the dative
+case instead of the genitive, so that the stars will not be said to
+be instruments, but the bodies of animals? So Aristotle has defined
+the soul to be “the actual being of a natural organic body, having
+the power of life.”<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> The sense then must be this, that souls are
+dispersed into meet organical bodies in time. But this is far besides
+his opinion. For it is not once, but several times, that he calls the
+stars instruments of time; as when he says, the sun was made, as well
+as other planets, for the distinction and conservation of the numbers
+of time.</p>
+
+<p>3. It is therefore most proper to understand the earth to be here an
+instrument of time; not that the earth is moved, as the stars are;
+but that, they being carried about it, it standing still makes sunset
+and sunrising, by which the first measures of time, nights and days,
+are circumscribed. Wherefore he called it the infallible guard and
+artificer of night and day. For the gnomons of dials are instruments
+and measures of time, not in being moved with the shadows, but in
+standing still; they being like the earth in intercepting the light of
+the sun when it is down,—as Empedocles says that the earth makes night
+by intercepting light. This therefore may be Plato’s meaning.</p>
+
+<p>4. And so much the rather might we consider whether <span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">440</span>the sun is not
+absurdly and without probability said to be made for the distinction
+of time, with the moon and the rest of the planets. For as in
+other respects the dignity of the sun is great; so by Plato in his
+Republic<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> the sun is called the king and lord of the whole sensible
+nature, as the Chief Good is of the intelligible. For it is said to
+be the offspring of Good, it giving both generation and appearance to
+things visible; as it is from Good that things intelligible both are
+and are understood. But that this God, having such a nature and so
+great power, should be only an instrument of time, and a sure measure
+of the difference that happens among the eight orbs, as they are slow
+or swift in motion, seems neither decent nor highly rational. It must
+therefore be said to such as are startled at these things, that it is
+their ignorance to think that time is the measure of motion in respect
+of sooner or later, as Aristotle calls it; or quantity in motion, as
+Speusippus; or an interval of motion and nothing more, as some of the
+Stoics define it, by an accident, not comprehending its essence and
+power, which Pindar has not ineptly expressed in these words: Time,
+who surpasses all in the seats of the blest. Pythagoras also, when he
+was asked what time was, answered, it was the soul of this world. For
+time is no affection or accident of motion, but the cause, power, and
+principle of that symmetry and order that confines all created beings,
+by which the animated nature of the universe is moved. Or rather, this
+order and symmetry itself—so far as it is motion—is called time. For
+this,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Walking by still and silent ways,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Mortal affairs with justice guides.<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the ancients, the essence of the soul is a number moving
+itself. Therefore Plato says that time and heaven were coexistent,
+but that motion was before heaven had being. But time was not. For
+then there neither was <span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">441</span>order, nor measure, nor determination; but
+indefinite motion, as it were, the formless and rude matter of time.</p>
+
+<p>... But when matter was informed with figures, and motion with
+circuitions, from that came the world, from this time. Both are
+representations of God; the world, of his essence; time, of his
+eternity in the form of motion, as the world is God in creation.
+Therefore they say heaven and motion, being bred together, will perish
+together, if ever they do perish. For nothing is generated without
+time, nor is any thing intelligible without eternity; if this is to
+endure for ever, and that never to die when once bred. Time therefore,
+having a necessary connection and affinity with heaven, cannot be
+called simple motion, but (as it were) motion in order having terms and
+periods; whereof since the sun is prefect and overseer, to determine,
+moderate, produce, and observe changes and seasons, which (according
+to Heraclitus) produce all things, he is coadjutor to the governing
+and chief God, not in trivial things, but in the greatest and most
+momentous affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION IX.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p>Since Plato in his Commonwealth, discoursing of the faculties of
+the soul, has very well compared the symphony of reason and of the
+irascible and the concupiscent faculties to the harmony of the middle,
+lowest, and highest chord,<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> some men may properly ask this
+question:—</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Did Plato place the Rational or the Irascible Faculty in the
+Middle? For he is not Clear in the Point.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. Indeed, according to the natural order of the parts, the place of
+the irascible faculty must be in the middle, and of the rational in
+the highest, which the Greeks call <span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">442</span>hypate. For they of old called
+the chief and supreme <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπατος</span>. So Xenocrates calls Jove, in respect of
+immutable things, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπατος</span> (or <i>highest</i>), in respect of sublunary
+things <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νέατος</span> (or <i>lowest</i>). And long before him, Homer calls
+the chief God <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπατος κρειόντων</span>, <i>Highest of Rulers</i>. And Nature
+has of due given the highest place to what is most excellent, having
+placed reason as a steersman in the head, and the concupiscent faculty
+at a distance, last of all and lowest. And the lowest place they call
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νεάτη</span>, as the names of the dead, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νέρτεροι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔνεροι</span>, do show. And some
+say, that the south wind, inasmuch as it blows from a low and obscure
+place, is called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">νότος</span>. Now since the concupiscent faculty stands in
+the same opposition to reason in which the lowest stands to the highest
+and the last to the first, it is not possible for the reason to be
+uppermost and first, and yet for any other part to be the one called
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ὕπατος</span> (or <i>highest</i>). For they that ascribe the power of the
+middle to it, as the ruling power, are ignorant how they deprive it of
+a higher power, namely, of the highest, which is competible neither to
+the irascible nor to the concupiscent faculty; since it is the nature
+of them both to be governed by and obsequious to reason, and the nature
+of neither of them to govern and lead it. And the most natural place
+of the irascible faculty seems to be in the middle of the other two.
+For it is the nature of reason to govern, and of the irascible faculty
+both to govern and be governed, since it is obsequious to reason,
+and commands the concupiscent faculty when this is disobedient to
+reason. And as in letters the semi-vowels are middling between mutes
+and vowels, having something more than those and less than these; so
+in the soul of man, the irascible faculty is not purely passive, but
+hath often an imagination of good mixed with the irrational appetite
+of revenge. Plato himself, after he had compared the soul to a pair of
+horses and a charioteer, likened (as every one knows) the rational<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">443</span>
+faculty to the charioteer, and the concupiscent to one of the horses,
+which was resty and unmanageable altogether, bristly about the ears,
+deaf and disobedient both to whip and spur; and the irascible he
+makes for the most part very obsequious to the bridle of reason, and
+assistant to it. As therefore in a chariot, the middling one in virtue
+and power is not the charioteer, but that one of the horses which is
+worse than his guider and yet better than his fellow; so in the soul,
+Plato gives the middle place not to the principal part, but to that
+faculty which has less of reason than the principal part and more than
+the third. This order also observes the analogy of the symphonies,
+i.e. the relation of the irascible to the rational (which is placed as
+hypate) forming the diatessaron (or fourth), that of the irascible to
+the concupiscent (or nete) forming the diapente (or fifth), and that of
+the rational to the concupiscent (as hypate to nete) forming an octave
+or diapason. But should you place the rational in the middle, you would
+make the irascible farther from the concupiscent; though some of the
+philosophers have taken the irascible and the concupiscent faculty for
+the selfsame, by reason of their likeness.</p>
+
+<p>2. But it may be ridiculous to describe the first, middle, and last by
+their place; since we see hypate highest in the harp, lowest in the
+pipe; and wheresoever you place the mese in the harp, provided it is
+tunable, it sounds more acute than hypate, and more grave than nete.
+Nor does the eye possess the same place in all animals; but wherever
+it is placed, it is natural for it to see. So a pedagogue, though he
+goes not foremost but follows behind, is said to lead (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἄγειν</span>), as the
+general of the Trojan army,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">Now in the front, now in the rear was seen,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">And kept command;<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">444</span></p>
+
+<p>but wherever he was, he was first and chief in power. So the faculties
+of the soul are not to be ranged by mere force in order of place or
+name, but according to their power and analogy. For that in the body
+of man reason is in the highest place, is accidental. But it holds
+the chief and highest power, as mese to hypate, in respect of the
+concupiscent; as mese to nete, in respect of the irascible; insomuch as
+it depresses and heightens,—and in fine makes a harmony,—by abating
+what is too much and by not suffering them to flatten and grow dull.
+For what is moderate and symmetrous is defined by mediocrity. Still
+more is it the object of the rational faculty to reduce the passions
+to moderation, which is called sacred, as effecting a harmony of the
+extremes with reason, and through reason with each other. For in
+chariots the best of the beasts is not in the middle; nor is the skill
+of driving to be placed as an extreme, but it is a mediocrity between
+the inequality of the swiftness and the slowness of the horses. So the
+force of reason takes up the passions irrationally moved, and reducing
+them to measure, constitutes a mediocrity betwixt too much and too
+little.</p>
+
+<div class="section"><h3 class="nobreak"><i>QUESTION X.</i></h3></div>
+
+<p class="hangingindent1"><span class="smcap">Why said Plato, that Speech was composed of Nouns and
+Verbs?</span><a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a></p>
+
+<p>1. For he seems to make no other parts of speech but them. But Homer in
+a sportive humor has comprehended them all in one verse:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αὐτὸς ἰὼν κλισίηνδε τὸ σὸν γέρας, ὄφρ’ εὖ εἰδῇς</span>.<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For in it there is pronoun, participle, noun, preposition, article,
+conjunction, adverb, and verb, the particle -<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δε</span> being put instead of
+the preposition <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰς</span>; for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κλισίηνδε</span>, <i>to the tent</i>, is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">445</span>said in the
+same sense as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀθήναζε</span>, <i>to Athens</i>. What then shall we say for
+Plato?</p>
+
+<p>Is it that at first the ancients called that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγος</span>, or speech, which
+once was called protasis and now is called axiom or proposition,—which
+as soon as a man speaks, he speaks either true or false? This consists
+of a noun and verb, which logicians call the subject and predicate.
+For when we hear this said, “Socrates philosophizeth” or “Socrates
+is changed,” requiring nothing more, we say the one is true, the
+other false. For very likely in the beginning men wanted speech and
+articulate voice, to enable them to express clearly at once the
+passions and the patients, the actions and the agents. Now, since
+actions and affections are sufficiently expressed by verbs, and they
+that act and are affected by nouns, as he says, these seem to signify.
+And one may say, the rest signify not. For instance, the groans and
+shrieks of stage-players, and even their smiles and reticence, make
+their discourse more emphatic. But they have no necessary power to
+signify any thing, as a noun and verb have, but only an ascititious
+power to vary speech; just as they vary letters who mark spirits and
+quantities upon letters, these being the accidents and differences of
+letters. This the ancients have made manifest, whom sixteen letters
+sufficed to speak and write any thing.</p>
+
+<p>2. Besides, we must not neglect to observe, that Plato says that speech
+is composed <i>of</i> these, not <i>by</i> these; nor must we blame
+Plato for leaving out conjunctions, prepositions, and the like, any
+more than we should cavil at a man who should say such a medicine is
+composed of wax and galbanum, because fire and utensils are omitted,
+without which it cannot be made. For speech is not composed of these;
+yet by their means, and not without them, speech must be composed. As,
+if a man pronounce <i>beats</i> or <i>is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">446</span> beaten</i>, and put Socrates
+and Pythagoras to the same, he offers us something to conceive and
+understand. But if a man pronounce <i>indeed</i> or <i>for</i> or
+<i>about</i>, and no more, none can conceive any notion of a body or
+matter; and unless such words as these be uttered with verbs and nouns,
+they are but empty noise and chattering. For neither alone nor joined
+one with another do they signify any thing. And join and confound
+together conjunctions, articles, and prepositions, supposing you would
+make something of them; yet you will be taken to babble, and not to
+speak sense. But when there is a verb in construction with a noun, the
+result is speech and sense. Therefore some do with good reason make
+only these two parts of speech; and perhaps Homer is willing to declare
+himself of this mind, when he says so often,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἔπος τ’ ἔφατ’ ἔκ τ’ ὀνόμαζεν</span>.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For by <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἔπος</span> he usually means a verb, as in these verses:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ὦ γύναι, ἢ μάλα τοῦτο ἔπος θυμαλγὲς ἔειπες</span>,</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Χαῖρε, πάτερ, ὦ ξεῖνε, ἔπος δ’ εἴπερ τι λέλεκται</span></div>
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Δεινὸν, ἄφαρ τὸ φέροιεν ἀναρπάξασαι ἄελλαι</span>.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For neither conjunction, article, nor preposition could be called
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">δεινόν</span> (<i>terrible</i>) or <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">θυμαλγές</span> (<i>soul-grieving</i>), but only
+a verb expressing a base action or a foolish passion of the mind.
+Therefore, when we would praise or dispraise poets or writers, we are
+wont to say, such a man uses Attic nouns and good verbs, or else common
+nouns and verbs; but none can say that Thucydides or Euripides used
+Attic or good or common articles.</p>
+
+<p>3. What then? may some say, do the rest of the parts conduce nothing to
+speech? I answer, They conduce, as salt does to victuals, or water to
+barley cakes. And Euenus calls fire the best sauce. Though sometimes
+there is <span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">447</span>neither occasion for fire to boil, nor for salt to season our
+food, which we have always occasion for. Nor has speech always occasion
+for articles. I think I may say this of the Latin tongue, which is
+now the universal language; for it has taken away all prepositions,
+saving a few, nor does it use any articles, but leaves its nouns (as it
+were) without skirts and borders. Nor is it any wonder, since Homer,
+who in fineness of epic surpasses all men, has put articles only to a
+few nouns, like handles to cans, or crests to helmets. Therefore these
+verses are remarkable wherein the articles are expressed:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Αἴαντι δὲ μάλιστα δαΐφρονι θυμὸν ὄρινε</span></div>
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Τῷ Τελαμωνιάδῃ</span>·<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ποίεον ὄφρα τὸ κῆτος ὑπεκπροφυγὼν ἀλέαιτο</span>·<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and some few besides. But in a thousand others, the omission of the
+articles hinders neither perspicuity nor elegance of phrase.</p>
+
+<p>4. Now neither an animal nor an instrument nor arms nor any thing else
+is more fine, efficacious, or graceful, for the loss of a part. Yet
+speech, by taking away conjunctions, often becomes more persuasive, as
+here:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">One rear’d a dagger at a captive’s breast;</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">One held a living foe, that freshly bled</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">With new-made wounds; another dragg’d a dead.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And this of Demosthenes:</p>
+
+<p>“A bully in an assault may do much which his victim cannot even
+describe to another person,—by his mien, his look, his voice,—when he
+stings by insult, when he attacks as an avowed enemy, when he smites
+with his fist, when he gives a blow on the face. These rouse a man;
+these make a man beside himself who is unused to such foul abuse.”</p>
+
+<p>And again:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">448</span></p>
+
+<p>“Not so with Midias; but from the very day, he talks, he abuses, he
+shouts. Is there an election of magistrates?</p>
+
+<p>Midias the Anagyrrasian is nominated. He is the advocate of Plutarchus;
+he knows state secrets; the city cannot contain him.”<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a></p>
+
+<p>Therefore the figure asyndeton, whereby conjunctions are omitted, is
+highly commended by writers of rhetoric. But such as keep overstrict to
+the law, and (according to custom) omit not a conjunction, rhetoricians
+blame for using a dull, flat, tedious style, without any variety in it.
+And inasmuch as logicians mightily want conjunctions for the joining
+together their axioms, as much as charioteers want yokes, and Ulysses
+wanted withs to tie Cyclop’s sheep; this shows they are not parts of
+speech, but a conjunctive instrument thereof, as the word conjunction
+imports. Nor do conjunctions join all, but only such as are not spoken
+simply; unless you will make a cord part of the burthen, glue a part of
+a book, or distribution of money part of the government. For Demades
+says, that money which is given to the people out of the exchequer for
+public shows is the glue of a democracy. Now what conjunction does
+so of several propositions make one, by knitting and joining them
+together, as marble joins iron that is melted with it in the fire? Yet
+the marble neither is nor is said to be part of the iron; although
+in this case the substances enter into the mixture and are melted
+together, so as to form a common substance from many and to be mutually
+affected. But there be some who think that conjunctions do not make any
+thing one, but that this kind of discourse is merely an enumeration, as
+when magistrates or days are reckoned in order.</p>
+
+<p>5. Moreover, as to the other parts of speech, a pronoun is manifestly a
+sort of noun; not only because it has cases <span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">449</span>like the noun, but because
+some pronouns, when they are applied to objects heretofore defined, by
+their mere utterance give the most distinct and proper designation of
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Nor do I know whether he that says <i>Socrates</i> or he that says
+<i>this one</i> does more by name declare the person.</p>
+
+<p>6. The thing we call a participle, being a mixture of a verb and noun,
+is nothing of itself, as are not the common names of male and female
+qualities (i.e. adjectives), but in construction it is put with others,
+in regard of tenses belonging to verbs, in regard of cases to nouns.
+Logicians call them <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀνάκλαστοι</span>, (i.e. <i>reflected</i>),—as <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρονῶν</span>
+comes from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">φρόνιμος</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σωφρονῶν</span> from <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σώφρονος</span>,—having the force both
+of nouns and appellatives.</p>
+
+<p>7. And prepositions are like to the crests of a helmet, or footstools
+and pedestals, which (one may rather say) do belong to words than are
+words themselves. See whether they rather be not pieces and scraps
+of words, as they that are in haste write but dashes and pricks for
+letters. For it is plain that <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐμβῆναι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκβῆναι</span> are abbreviations of
+the whole words <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐντὸς βῆναι</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐκτὸς βῆναι, προγενέσθαι</span> for πρότερον
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">γενέσθαι</span>, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">καθίζειν</span> for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κάτω ἵζειν</span>. As undoubtedly for haste and
+brevity’s sake, instead of <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λίθους βάλλειν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοίχους ὀρύττειν</span> men
+first said <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λιθοβολεῖν</span> and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τοιχωρυχεῖν</span>.</p>
+
+<p>8. Therefore every one of these is of some use in speech; but nothing
+is a part or element of speech (as has been said) except<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">450</span> a noun and a
+verb, which make the first juncture admitting of truth or falsehood,
+which some call a proposition or protasis, others an axiom, and which
+Plato called speech.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PARALLELS">PARALLELS, OR A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORIES.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Most</span> people are apt to take the histories of former times for mere
+forgeries and fables, because of many passages in those relations that
+seem to be very extravagant. But yet, according to my observation, we
+have had as strange occurrences of a later date in the Roman times as
+any we have received from antiquity; for proof whereof, I have here
+matched several stories of the ancients with modern instances, and
+cited my authorities.</p>
+
+<p class="padt1">1. Datis, an eminent Persian commander, drew out three hundred thousand
+men to Marathon, a plain of Attica, where he encamped and declared war
+against the inhabitants. The Athenians made no reckoning at all of so
+barbarous a rabble, but sent out nine thousand men <span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">451</span>against him, under
+the command of Cynaegirus, Polyzelus, Callimachus, and Miltiades.
+Upon the joining of battle, Polyzelus was struck blind at the sight
+of a wonderful apparition; Callimachus’s body was struck through with
+a great many lances, continuing in an upright posture even when he
+was dead; Cynaegirus had both his hands cut off upon laying hold of a
+Persian ship that was endeavoring to get away.</p>
+
+<p>King Asdrubal, having possessed himself of Sicily, proclaimed war
+against the Romans. Metellus, who was appointed by the Senate to
+command in chief, overcame him. L. Glauco, a patrician, laid hold
+of the vessel that Asdrubal was in, and lost both his hands upon
+it.—<i>Aristides Milesius gives this account in his First Book of the
+Affairs of Sicily, and Dionysius Siculus had it from him.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">2. Xerxes came with an army of five millions of men to Artemisium,
+and declared war against the country. The Athenians, in a very great
+surprise, sent Agesilaus, the brother of Themistocles, to discover the
+motions of the enemy, notwithstanding a dream of his father Neocles,
+that his son had lost both his hands. This Agesilaus put himself into
+a Persian habit, and entered the barbarians’ camp; where, taking
+Mardonius (an officer of the king’s guards) for Xerxes himself, he
+killed him. Whereupon he was immediately seized, bound, and carried to
+Xerxes, who was just then about to sacrifice an ox to the Sun. The fire
+was kindled upon the altar, and Agesilaus put his right hand into it,
+without so much as shrinking at the pain. He was ordered upon this to
+be untied; and told the king that the Athenians were all of the same
+resolution, and that, if he pleased, he should see him burn his left
+hand too. This gave Xerxes an apprehension of him, so that he caused
+him to be still kept in custody.—<i>This I find in Agatharchides the
+Samian, in the Second Book of his Persian History.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">452</span></p>
+
+<p>Porsena, a king of Tuscany, encamped himself beyond the Tiber, and made
+war upon the Romans, cutting off the supplies, till they were brought
+to great want of provisions. The Senate were at their wits’ end what
+to do, till Mucius, a nobleman, got leave of the consuls to take four
+hundred of his own quality to advise with upon the matter. Mucius, upon
+this, put himself into the habit of a private man, and crossed the
+river; where finding one of the king’s officers giving orders for the
+distribution of necessaries to the soldiers, and taking him for the
+king himself, he slew him. He was taken immediately and carried to the
+king, where he put his right hand into a fire that was in the room, and
+with a smile in the middle of his torments,—Barbarian, says he, I can
+set myself at liberty without asking you leave; and be it known to you,
+that I have left four hundred men in the camp as daring as myself, that
+have sworn your death. This struck Porsena with such a terror, that he
+made peace with the Romans upon it.—<i>Aristides Milesius is my author
+for this, in the Third Book of his History.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="padt1">3. There happened a dispute betwixt the Argives and Lacedaemonians
+about a claim to the possession of Thyreatis. The Amphictyons gave
+their opinion for a trial of it by battle, so many and so many of
+a side, and the possession to go to the victor. The Lacedaemonians
+made choice of Othryades for their captain, and the Argives of
+Thersander. The battle was fought, and the only two survivors that
+appeared were Agenor and Chromius, both Argives, who carried their
+city the news of the victory. In this interim, Othryades, who was
+not as yet quite dead, made a shift to raise himself by the help of
+broken lances, gathered the shields of the dead together, and erected
+a trophy with this inscription upon it in his own blood. “To Jupiter
+the Guardian of Trophies.” The controversy still depended, till the
+Amphictyons,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">453</span> upon an ocular examination of the matter, gave it for the
+Lacedaemonians.—<i>This is according to Chrysermus, in his Third Book
+of the Peloponnesian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>In a war that the Romans had with the Samnites, they made Posthumius
+Albinus their general. He was surprised in the difficult pass called
+the Caudine Forks, where he was hemmed in and lost three legions, he
+himself likewise falling upon the place grievously wounded. In the
+dead of the night, finding himself near his end, he gathered together
+the targets of his dead enemies, and raised a trophy with them, which
+he inscribed with his hand dipped in blood, “Erected by the Romans to
+Jupiter, Guardian of the Trophies, for a victory over the Samnites.”
+But Fabius Gurges, that was despatched away with troops under his
+command, so soon as he came to the place and saw the trophy, took up
+an auspicious omen upon it, fought the enemy, and overcame them, took
+their king prisoner, and sent him to Rome.—<i>This is in the Third
+Book of Aristides Milesius’s Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">4. Upon the Persians falling into Greece with a body of five millions
+of men, the Spartans sent out Leonidas with a party of three hundred
+soldiers to secure the Pass of Thermopylae. As they were at dinner, the
+barbarians fell in upon them; upon which, Leonidas bade them eat as if
+they were to sup in another world. Leonidas charged at the head of his
+men into the body of the barbarians; and after many wounds received,
+got up to Xerxes himself, and took his crown from his head. He lost his
+life in the attempt, and Xerxes causing him to be cut up when he was
+dead, found his heart all hairy.—<i>Aristides, in the First Book of
+his Persian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the Punic war the Romans sent out three hundred men under the
+command of Fabius Maximus, where they were all lost;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">454</span> and he himself,
+after he had received a mortal wound, assaulting Hannibal, took his
+diadem from his head, and died in the action. <i>According to Aristides
+Milesius.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">5. There was a terrible earthquake, with a wonderful
+eruption of water, at Celaenae, a city of Phrygia, that swallowed up
+a great many houses, people and all. Midas upon this consults the
+oracle, which gave him for answer, that if he would cast into that
+gulf the most precious thing that he had in the world, the earth
+should close again. Whereupon he threw in a mass of gold and silver;
+but never the better. This put it in the head of Anchurus, the son
+of Midas, to consider, that the most precious thing in Nature is the
+life and soul of a man; so that he went presently and embraced his
+father and his wife Timothea, mounted his horse, and leaped into the
+abyss. The earth closed upon it, and Midas raised a golden altar in
+the place, laid his hand upon it, and dedicated it TO JUPITER IDAEUS.
+This altar becomes stone at that time of the year when it was usual
+to have these eruptions; and after that season was over, it is turned
+to gold again.—<i>My author is Callisthenes, in his Second Book of
+Transformations.</i></p>
+
+<p>The River Tiber, in its course over the Forum, opened a huge cavity in
+the ground, so that a great many houses were buried in it. This was
+looked upon as a judgment upon the place, from Jupiter Tarsius; who,
+as the oracle told them, was not to be appeased without throwing into
+it what they held most valuable. So they threw a quantity of gold and
+silver into it. But Curtius, one of the bravest young men they had,
+gave a better guess at the mind of the oracle; and reflecting upon
+it, that the life of a man was much more excellent than treasure,
+took his horse and plunged himself into the gulf, and so redeemed his
+country.—<i>Aristides, in the Fortieth Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">455</span></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">6. As several great captains were making merry with Polynices, an
+eagle passing by made a stoop, and carried up into the air the lance
+of Amphiaraus, who was one of the company; and then falling down, it
+stuck in the ground, and was turned into a laurel. The next day, when
+the armies were in action, the earth opened and swallowed up Amphiaraus
+with his chariot, in that very place where at present the city Harma
+stands, so called from that chariot.—<i>This is in Trisimachus’s Third
+Book of the Foundations of Cities.</i></p>
+
+<p>When the Romans made war upon Pyrrhus, the king of the Epirots, the
+oracle promised Aemilius Paulus the victory in case he should erect
+an altar in that place where he should see an eminent man with his
+chariot swallowed up into the ground. Some three days after, Valerius
+Conatus, a man skilled in divining, was commanded in a dream to take
+the pontifical habit upon him. He did so, and led his men into the
+battle, where, after a prodigious slaughter of the enemy, the earth
+opened and swallowed him up. Aemilius built an altar here, obtained a
+great victory, and sent a hundred and sixty castle-bearing elephants
+to Rome. This altar delivers oracles about that season of the year in
+which Pyrrhus was overcome.—<i>Critolaus has this in his Third Book of
+the History of the Epirots.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">7. Pyraechmes, king of the Euboeans, made war upon the Boeotians.
+Hercules, when he was yet a youth, overcame this king, had him drawn
+to pieces with horses, and threw away the carcass unburied. The place
+where this was done is called Pyraechmes’s horses. It lies upon the
+River Heraclius, and there is heard a neighing whensoever any horse
+drinks of that river.—<i>This is in the Third Book of Rivers.</i></p>
+
+<p>Tullus Hostilius, a king of the Romans, waged war<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">456</span> against the Albans,
+whose king’s name was Metius Fufetius; and he many times kept off from
+fighting. He had the ill luck to be once worsted, upon which the Albans
+gave themselves up to drinking and making good cheer, till Tullus fell
+in upon them when they were in their cups, and tore their king to
+pieces betwixt two horses.—<i>Alexarchus, in the Fourth Book of his
+Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">8. Philip had a design to sack Olynthus and Methone, and in trying
+to pass the River Sandanus, was shot in the eye with an arrow by one
+Aster, an Olynthian, with these words: It is Aster that sends Philip
+this mortal shaft. Philip upon this swam back again to his own people,
+and with the loss of an eye saved his life.—<i>Callisthenes, in his
+Third Book of the Macedonics.</i></p>
+
+<p>Porsena made war upon the Romans, and pitched his camp on the further
+side of the Tiber, where he intercepted all relief, till they were
+pinched with famine. Horatius Cocles, being chosen general, took
+possession of the wooden bridge, where he opposed himself to the enemy
+that were pressing to come over; but finding himself overpowered with
+numbers, he commanded his people to cut down the bridge behind him, by
+which means he hindered them from coming over. But in the mean time
+receiving a wound in his eye, he threw himself into the river, and
+swam over to his own party.—<i>So Theotimus in the Second Book of his
+Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">9. Eratosthenes in Erigone tells a story of Icarius, that entertained
+Bacchus under his roof; and it runs thus. Saturn, having taken up his
+lodging with an husbandman who had a very beautiful daughter named
+Entoria, took her to his bed, and had several sons by her, Janus,
+Hymnus, Faustus, and Felix. He taught his host Icarius the use of
+wine and the way of dressing his vines, with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">457</span> charge that he should
+likewise instruct his neighbors in the mystery. His acquaintance,
+hereupon finding that this strange drink had cast them into a deeper
+sleep than ordinary, took a fancy that they were poisoned, and stoned
+Icarius in revenge; whereupon his grandchildren hanged themselves for
+grief.</p>
+
+<p>Upon a time, when the plague was very hot in Rome, the Pythian oracle
+being consulted gave this answer, that upon the appeasing the wrath
+of Saturn, and the Manes of those that were unjustly killed, the
+pestilence would cease. Lutatius Catulus, a man of the first quality,
+caused a temple upon this occasion to be erected near the Tarpeian
+Mount, which he dedicated to Saturn, placing an altar in it with four
+faces; possibly with a respect to Saturn’s four children, or to the
+four seasons of the year. He also instituted the month of January. But
+Saturn translated them all to heaven among the stars, some of which are
+called Protrygeteres, as forerunners of the vintage; only Janus rises
+first, and has his place at the feet of the Virgin.—<i>Critolaus, in
+his Fourth Book of Celestial Appearances.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">10. In the time of the devastation of Greece by the Persians,
+Pausanias, the Lacedaemonian commander, took a bribe of 500 talents
+of Xerxes, to betray Sparta. The treason being discovered, his father
+Agesilaus pressed him so hard, that he was fain to take sanctuary
+in the temple of Minerva, called Chalcioecos, where he caused the
+doors to be bricked up, and his son to be immured till he died of
+hunger; and his mother after this would not suffer the body to be
+buried.—<i>Chrysermus, in his Second Book of Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Romans, being in war with the Latins, made choice of P. Decius
+for their general. Now there was a certain patrician, a young man and
+poor (Cassius Brutus by name),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">458</span> who proposed for a certain reward to
+open the gates to the enemy; but being detected, he fled to the temple
+of Minerva Auxiliaria. But his father Cassius, an ensign-bearer, shut
+him up there till he died of famine, and his dead body was not allowed
+burial.—<i>Clitonymus, in his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">11. Darius, the Persian, had a battle with Alexander near the River
+Granicus, where he lost seven satraps, and five hundred and two
+chariots armed with scythes. And yet he would have tried the fortune of
+another battle the day following; but his son Ariobarzanes, in favor of
+Alexander, undertook to betray his father into his hands. The father
+was so transported with passion at the indignity of the thing, that he
+cut off his son’s head for it.—<i>Aretades Cnidius, in the Third of
+his Macedonian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Brutus, that was created consul by the unanimous vote of the citizens,
+forced away Tarquinius Superbus into banishment for his abominable
+tyranny. He fled to the Tuscans, and by their assistance made war upon
+the Romans. The sons were treating to betray the father; the business
+was discovered, and they lost their heads for it.—<i>Aristides
+Milesius, in his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">12. Epaminondas, a Theban general, managed a war against the Spartans.
+He went from the army to Thebes, to be present there at a public
+election of magistrates; but first enjoined his son Stesimbrotus
+that he should not fight the enemy in his absence upon any terms.
+The Spartans being informed that Epaminondas was not with the army,
+reproached the young man with want of courage, and so far provoked him,
+that without any regard to his father’s command he gave the Spartans
+battle, and overcame them. His father was so incensed against him for
+this action, that though he crowned him for the victory, he cut off his
+head for his disobedience.—<i>Ctesiphon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">459</span> in his Third Book of the
+Boeotian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>In a war that the Romans had against the Samnites, they gave the
+command to Manlius, surnamed Imperiosus. He had occasion to go to
+Rome, to be present there at the choice of consuls, and gave his son
+in charge not to engage the enemy in the mean time. The Samnites,
+understanding this, irritated the young man with opprobrious words,
+as if he declined fighting out of cowardice, and in the end provoked
+him to a battle; upon which action he carried the day; but his father
+caused his head to be struck off for breaking his order.—<i>This is in
+Aristides Milesius.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">13. Hercules made love to Iole, but she gave him the repulse, and so he
+went and assaulted Oechalia. Iole threw herself headlong down from the
+wall, but the whiffling of the wind under her garments broke the fall,
+and she had no hurt.—<i>This story is in Nicias Maleotes.</i></p>
+
+<p>Valerius Torquatus was the Romans’ general in the war they had with
+the Tuscans; who, upon the sight of Clusia, the daughter of the
+Tuscan king, fell in love with her, and when he found he could do no
+good on’t, laid siege to the city. Clusia, upon this, threw herself
+headlong from a tower; but Venus was so careful of her, that by the
+playing of the wind in the folds of her garments, she was wafted
+safe to the ground. Torquatus, however, offered her violence, and
+for so doing he was banished by a public decree into the isle of
+Corsica.—<i>Theophilus, in the Third Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">14. While the Carthaginians were treating an alliance with the
+Sicilians against the Romans, the Roman general Metellus was observed
+to omit sacrificing only to Vesta,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">460</span> who revenged herself upon him by
+sending a cross wind to the navy. But Caius Julius, a soothsayer,
+being consulted in the matter, gave answer, that this obstacle would
+be removed upon the general’s sacrificing his daughter; so that he was
+forced to produce his daughter Metella for a sacrifice. But Vesta had
+compassion for her, and so sent her away to Lamusium, substituting a
+heifer in her stead, and made a priestess of her to the dragon that is
+worshipped in that place.—<i>So Pythocles, in the Third Book of his
+Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Something like this happened to Iphigenia in Aulis, a city of
+Boeotia.—<i>See Meryllus, in the First Book of his Boeotic History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">15. Brennus, a king of the Gauls, after the wasting of Asia, came to
+Ephesus, and there fell in love with a country girl, who promised him
+that for such a certain reward in bracelets and other curiosities of
+value he should have the use of her body, and that she would further
+undertake to deliver up Ephesus into his hands. Brennus ordered his
+soldiers to throw all the gold they had into the lap of this avaricious
+wretch, which they did, till she perished under the weight of
+it.—<i>Clitophon in the First Book of his Gallican History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Tarpeia, a virgin that was well born, and had the keeping of the
+Capitol in the war betwixt the Sabines and the Romans, passed a
+promise unto Tatius, that she would open him a passage into the
+Tarpeian Mount, provided that he would give her all the jewels that the
+Sabines wore, for a reward. The Sabines hearing this crushed her to
+death.—<i>Aristides’s Milesius, in his Italic History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">16. After a long war betwixt two cities, Tegea and Phenea, they came to
+an agreement to refer the decision of the controversy, by combat, to
+three twin-brothers on each side,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">461</span> the sons of Reximachus for Tegea,
+and the sons of Damostratus for Phenea. Upon the encounter, two of the
+sons of Reximachus were slain; but Critolaus, the third, had a fetch
+beyond his two brothers; for, under a pretence of running away, he
+divided his enemies that pursued him, and so taking them one by one,
+he killed them all. The Tegeans upon his return went all overjoyed to
+gratulate the victor. Only his sister Demodice was not so well pleased;
+for she was betrothed, it seems, to Demodicus, one of the brothers,
+that was now slain. Which Critolaus took so ill that he killed his
+sister, and being afterwards indicted for murder at the instigation of
+his mother, he was acquitted.—<i>Demaratus, in his Second Book of the
+Arcadian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the heat of the war betwixt the Romans and Albans, they came to
+this agreement, that the cause should be determined by a trial at
+arms betwixt three and three twins on each side, the Curiatii for
+the Albans, and the Horatii for the Romans. Upon the encounter, the
+Curiatii killed two of the others; the third survivor, under the
+color of flying, destroyed his enemies one by one, as they followed
+him. All his friends came to joy him of his victory, save only his
+sister Horatia; for one of the Curiatii, that her brother killed, was
+her sweetheart. Horatius for this killed his sister.—<i>Aristides
+Milesius, in his Italian Commentaries.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">17. The temple of Minerva in Ilium happened to be on fire. Ilus ran
+presently to save the Palladium (an image dropped from heaven); but
+upon the taking of it up, he was struck blind, it being a thing
+unlawful for any man to look upon. But upon appeasing the Deity, he was
+afterwards restored to his sight.—<i>Dercyllus, in his First Book of
+Foundations.</i></p>
+
+<p>Metellus, an eminent man, as he was walking out of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">462</span> city, was
+interrupted by ravens, that laid hold of him and kept a flapping of
+him with their wings. This omen surprised him, and back he went into
+the city again, where he found the temple of Vesta all in a flame.
+He went and took away the Palladium, and fell blind upon’t. But some
+time after, the Goddess being pacified gave him the use of his eyes
+again.—<i>Aristides Milesius, in his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">18. Upon a time when the Thracians were engaged in a war against the
+Athenians, the oracle promised them victory if they would but save the
+life of Codrus. Codrus upon this puts himself in a coarse disguise,
+and away he goes into the enemies’ camp with a scythe in his hand,
+where he killed one, and another killed him, so that the Athenians
+got the better on’t.—<i>Socrates, in his Second Book of his Thracian
+History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Publius Decius, a Roman, at a time when they were in war with the
+Albans, had a dream that his death would bring a great advantage to
+the Romans; upon which consideration he charged into the middle of his
+enemies, where he killed many, and was slain himself: his son Decius
+did the like in the Gallic war, for the conservation of the Roman
+State.—<i>Aristides Milesius is my author.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">19. There was one Cyanippus a Syracusan, that sacrificed to all the
+Gods but Bacchus; who took the contempt so heinously that he made him
+drunk, in which fit he got his daughter Cyane into a corner and lay
+with her. She in the mean time slipped his ring off his finger, and
+gave it to her nurse to keep, as a circumstance that some time or other
+might come to be brought in evidence. There brake out a pestilence, and
+the Pythian oracle advised the sacrificing of an incestuous person to
+the Gods that are the averters of such calamities, as the only remedy.
+Cyane,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">463</span> that understood the meaning of the oracle better than other
+people, took her father by the hair of the head and dragged him forth,
+first stabbing him and then herself.—<i>Dositheus, in the Third Book
+of his Sicilian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the time of celebrating the Bacchanalia at Rome, Aruntius, that had
+never drunk any wine since he was born, did not show such reverence
+for the power of the God as he ought to have done, so that Bacchus
+intoxicated him; and in that freak, Aruntius ravished his daughter
+Medullina. She came to know the ravisher by his ring, and an exploit
+came into her head, above what from her age could have been expected.
+She made her father drunk and set a garland upon his head, carrying him
+to the altar of Thunder, where with tears she killed him for robbing
+her so treacherously of her virginity.—<i>Aristides, in the Third Book
+of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">20. Erechtheus was told in a war he had with Eumolpus, that he should
+have the better of his enemy if he would but sacrifice his daughter. He
+advised upon the matter with his wife Praxithea, and delivered up his
+daughter after the manner of a common sacrifice.—<i>Euripides, in his
+Erechtheus.</i></p>
+
+<p>Marius, finding himself hard put to it in the Cimbrian war, had it
+revealed to him in a dream, that he should overcome his enemies if
+he would but sacrifice his daughter Calpurnia. He did it, preferring
+the common safety before any private bond of Nature, and he got the
+victory. There are two altars in Germany, where about that time of the
+year may be heard the sound of trumpets.—<i>Dorotheus, in the Fourth
+Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">21. There was one Cyanippus, a Thessalian, who was a great lover of
+the chase and was often abroad a hunting.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">464</span> This same Cyanippus was
+newly married, and his staying out so long and so often in the woods
+gave his wife a jealousy of an intrigue there with some other woman;
+insomuch that she followed him one time, and got into a thicket to
+watch him. The rustling of the boughs in the place where she lay
+brought the dogs thither in expectation of some game, where they tore
+this tender-hearted woman to pieces, as if she had been a brute beast.
+Cyanippus was so surprised with so dismal and unthought-of a spectacle,
+that he killed himself.—<i>Parthenias the Poet.</i></p>
+
+<p>Sybaris is a city of Italy, where there was one Aemilius, a very
+handsome young man, and a lover of hunting. His wife (whom he had
+lately married) took up a suspicion that, under color of the chase,
+he carried on an assignation with some other woman. She traced him to
+the wood, and upon the noise of the boughs in her passage, the dogs
+ran presently to her and tore her to pieces; and her husband stabbed
+himself immediately upon this miserable accident.—<i>Clitonymus, in
+the Second Book of his Sybaritics.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">22. One Smyrna (to whom Venus owed a shame, it seems) fell passionately
+in love with her father Cinyras, and made the nurse her confidant. She
+goes craftily to work with her master, and tells him of a maid there
+in the neighborhood that loved him above all things in the world, but
+she could not in modesty appear publicly to him. So the father lay
+ignorantly with his own daughter. But some time after, having a great
+mind to see his mistress, he called for a light, and when he saw who it
+was, he pursued the incestuous wretch with his drawn sword; but by the
+providence of Venus, she was rescued from that danger, and turned into
+a myrrh-tree.—<i>Theodorus, in his Transformations.</i></p>
+
+<p>One Valeria Tusculanaria (for whom Venus had no kindness) fell
+downright in love with her father Valerius.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">465</span> She told the nurse the
+secret, who ordered it so that she brought the father and the daughter
+together, telling him, that a maid there hard by was fallen desperately
+in love with him, but that she durst not lie with him for fear of being
+known. The father was got into his cups, and as he was in bed with his
+daughter, called for a candle. The nurse waked Valeria, and away she
+goes wandering up and down the country with her great belly. She had
+at last a fall from a precipice, but escaped without so much as any
+miscarriage; for she was delivered at her time, and the child’s name
+was Sylvanus (or goat-footed Pan). Valerius, in the anxiety of his
+mind, threw himself from the same precipice.—<i>Aristides Milesius, in
+the Third Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">23. Diomedes, after the destruction of Troy, was cast by stress of
+weather upon the coast of Libya, where Lycus the son of Mars was king,
+whose custom it was to sacrifice all strangers to his father; but
+his daughter Callirrhoe falling in love with Diomede, betrayed her
+father and set Diomede at liberty; who presently went his way without
+any regard to his benefactress, and Callirrhoe hanged herself upon
+it.—<i>Juba, Book the Third of his Libyan History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Calpurnius Crassus, a famous man bearing arms with Regulus, was sent to
+the Massyllians to attack the castle of Garaetius, being a very strong
+place. He was taken in the enterprise, and designed for a sacrifice to
+Saturn; but Bisaltia, the king’s daughter, out of a passionate kindness
+to Calpurnius, betrayed her father. Calpurnius left her, and after his
+departure Bisaltia cut her own throat.—<i>Hesianax’s Third Book of
+African History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">24. When Priam found that Troy was given for lost, he sent his young
+son Polydore into Thrace with a vast<span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">466</span> sum of gold, and put all into the
+hands of Polymestor his kinsman. So soon as Troy was taken, Polymestor
+killed the child, and took the gold to himself. Hecuba, being driven
+upon that quarter, overreached Polymestor by craft, under pretence of
+giving him a great treasure, at which time she, with the assistance of
+her fellow-prisoners, tore out his eyes with her nails.—<i>Euripides
+the Tragedian.</i></p>
+
+<p>When Hannibal was ravaging the country of Campania, Lucius Thymbris
+deposited his son Rustius, with a vast sum of money, in the hands of
+Valerius Gestius his kinsman; who upon intelligence that the enemy
+carried all before him, out of pure avarice and without any regard to
+humanity or justice, killed the child. It so fell out that Thymbris,
+as he was walking about the fields, found the dead body of his son;
+whereupon he called his kinsman under pretence of a treasure that
+he would show him. He took his opportunity, put out his eyes, and
+crucified him.—<i>Aristides’s Third Book of his Italic History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">25. Aeacus had two sons by Psamathe, Phocus and Telamon, the former
+better beloved than the other. Telamon one day took out his brother a
+hunting; and a boar presenting himself, he threw his lance in pretence
+at the boar, but in truth at his brother, whom he hated, and so killed
+him; for which his father banished him.—<i>Dorotheus’s First Book of
+Transformations.</i></p>
+
+<p>Caius Maximus had two sons, Rhesus the one, by Ameria, ... and the
+other Similius. The brothers were a hunting together, and Rhesus having
+killed the other, put it off—when he came home—that it was by chance,
+and far from any design of doing it. But his father, when he came in
+time to know the truth of it, banished the son.—<i>Aristocles, in the
+Third Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">26. Mars is said to have begotten Meleager upon Althaea.—<i>Euripides,
+in his Meleager.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">467</span></p>
+
+<p>Septimius Marcellus took to wife one Sylvia, and a great lover of
+hunting he was. Mars put himself in the habit of a shepherd, whored the
+new wife and got her with child; which being done, he told her who he
+was, and gave her a spear, telling her that the fate of the child she
+went withal was wrapped up in the fate of that spear....</p>
+
+<p>Septimius slew Tuscinus; but Mamercus, in his sacrificing to the Gods
+for a fruitful season, omitted only Ceres, who in revenge sent a wild
+boar into his grounds. Whereupon getting a knot of huntsmen together,
+he killed him, and delivered the head and skin to his sweetheart; but
+Scymbrates and Muthias, the maid’s uncles, took them away from her.
+Mamercus in a rage killed them upon it, and the mother burned the
+spear.—<i>Menyllus, in the Third Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">27. When Telamon, the son of Aeacus and Endeis, came to Euboea, he
+debauched Periboea the daughter of Alcathous, and fled away by night.
+The father understanding this, and suspecting the villany to be done by
+some of the citizens, he delivered his daughter to one of the guards to
+be thrown into the sea. But the soldier, in compassion to the woman,
+rather sold her, and she was carried away by sea to the island of
+Salamis, where Telamon bought her, and had by her Ajax.—<i>Aretades
+Cnidius, in his Second Book of Islands.</i></p>
+
+<p>Lucius Troscius had by Patris a daughter called Florentia, who, being
+corrupted by Calpurnius a Roman, was delivered by her father to a
+soldier, with a charge to throw her in the sea and drown her. The man
+had compassion of her, and rather sold her. And when good fortune
+brought the ship to Italy, Calpurnius bought her, and had Contruscus by
+her....</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">468</span></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">28. Aeolus, a great king of Etruria, had by Amphithea six daughters,
+and as many sons. Macareus, the youngest of them, had the carnal
+knowledge of one of his sisters, who was delivered of a boy. Her father
+sent her a sword to kill the child with; but that was so impious, that
+she chose rather to kill herself. And Macareus laid violent hands upon
+himself too.—<i>Sostratus, in his Second Book of Tuscan History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Papirius Tolucer married Julia Pulchra, by whom he had six sons and six
+daughters. Papirius Romanus, the eldest of the six, got Canulia his
+sister with child. When the father came to the knowledge of it, he sent
+his daughter a sword, with which she killed herself; and Romanus did
+the same.—<i>Chrysippus, in his First Book of Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">29. Aristonymus, an Ephesian and the son of Demostratus, was a
+woman-hater; but he had to do with an ass, which brought him forth in
+the ordinary course of time a most beautiful daughter, which he called
+Onoscelis.—<i>Aristotle’s Second Book of Paradoxes.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fulvius Stellus had an aversion to women too; but entertained himself
+to his satisfaction with a mare, by which he had a very handsome
+daughter, that he called Hippona; and this is the goddess that has the
+care of the breed of horses.—<i>According to Agesilaus, in the Third
+Book of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">30. The Sardians, being engaged in war with the Smyrnaeans, besieged
+Smyrna, and sent them word by their ambassadors, that they would never
+raise the siege till the Smyrnaeans should deliver up their wives to
+their embraces. The men of Smyrna would have been hard put to it upon
+this pinching necessity, if it had not been for the <span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">469</span>advice of a pretty
+wench that was a maid-servant to Phylarchus. Her counsel to her master
+was this; that instead of sending free women, they should rather dress
+up the servants and send them. The Smyrnaeans followed their advice;
+and when the Sardians had wearied themselves with their mistresses, the
+Smyrnaeans easily overcame them. From whence there is a festival day
+observed under the name of Eleutheria, which is celebrated among the
+Smyrnaeans with great solemnity; the servants being dressed up with all
+the ornaments of the free women.—<i>Dositheus, in the Third Book of
+his Lydian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Atepomarus, a king of the Gauls, being in war with the Romans, made
+a public declaration, that he would never agree to a peace till the
+Romans should prostitute their wives to them. The Romans advised with
+the maid-servants, and sent them in the place of the free women; the
+barbarians plied the work so hard, that they were soon tired and
+fell asleep. Retana (who was the authoress of the counsel) climbed a
+fig-tree, and so got on the wall; and finding how it was, gave notice
+of it to the consuls. The Romans upon this made a sally and routed the
+enemy; in memory whereof was instituted the Servants’ Holiday, and this
+was the rise of it.—<i>Aristides Milesius, in the First Book of his
+Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">31. In the war betwixt the Athenians and Eumolpus, provisions falling
+short, the commissary Pyrandrus, upon a point of prudence and good
+husbandry, made some small abatement in the soldiers’ proportions.
+The citizens suspected treachery in the case, and stoned him to
+death.—<i>Callisthenes, Third Book of his History of Thrace.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Romans being in war with the Gauls, and provisions for the belly
+being very scarce, Cinna contracted the soldiers’ allowance to a less
+proportion than they had formerly.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">470</span> The citizens interpreted this
+abatement to an ambitious design he had upon the government, and so
+stoned him for it.—<i>Aristides, Book Third of his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">32. In the time of the Peloponnesian war, Pisistratus an Orchomenian
+had a spite at the nobility, and to make himself popular, favored the
+common people. The Senate conspired against him, and treacherously
+killed him, cutting him into small gobbets which they carried away with
+them in their bosoms, and paring off the surface of the ground that
+no signs of the murder might appear. The common people, however, upon
+a jealousy of the matter, went tumultuously to the senate house; but
+the king’s younger son Telesimachus that was dipped in the conspiracy,
+diverted them with a sham story, telling them that he himself had
+seen his father in a form more than human, walking as lively as
+was possible up the Pisaean mountain. And so he imposed upon the
+people.—<i>Theophilus’s Second Book of Peloponnesian Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Senate of Rome, being hard put to it for the maintaining of a war
+with so many of their neighbors, thought it good husbandry to shorten
+the people’s allowance of corn, which Romulus the king took very ill;
+and not only did he restore it to the people, but several great men
+were punished for it. Upon this he was murdered in the Senate by a
+conspiracy of the nobles, who cut him all to pieces, and carried them
+severally away in the lappets of their garments. The Romans came to
+the senate house in a hurry, and brought fire with them to set all in
+a flame; but Julius Proculus, one that was in the plot, told them that
+he saw Romulus upon a mountain, of a size larger than any man, and that
+he was translated into the number of the Gods. The Romans believed him,
+and quietly withdrew.—<i>Aristobulus, in the Third Book of his History
+of Italy.</i></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">471</span></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">33. Pelops the son of Tantalus and Euryanassa, had two children, Atreus
+and Thyestes, by his wife Hippodamia; and by the Nymph Danais he had
+Chrysippus, whom he loved better than his lawful children. But Laius
+the Theban in the heat of his lust forcibly abused his body; and being
+taken by Atreus and Thyestes, obtained his pardon from Pelops, in
+regard that love had provoked him to it. Hippodamia’s advice to Atreus
+and Thyestes was, that they should kill Chrysippus, as one that would
+interpose between them and the crown. Upon their refusal to do so base
+a thing, she herself put her own hands to the work, and in the dead of
+the night took Laius’s sword when he was asleep, wounded Chrysippus
+with it, and left the weapon in his body. This circumstance of Laius’s
+sword brought him into suspicion of the murder, till he was cleared
+by Chrysippus himself, who, being as yet but half dead, gave his
+testimony to the truth. Pelops buried his son, and then banished his
+wife.—<i>Dositheus, in his Pelopidae.</i></p>
+
+<p>Ebius Toliex had two sons by his wife Nuceria, and a third called
+Firmus by an enfranchised woman, who was very handsome and better
+beloved by the father than those that were legitimate. Nuceria that
+hated this by-blow, advised her sons to despatch Firmus; but upon their
+refusal, she did it herself; and in the dead of the night got the sword
+of him that guarded the body of Firmus, gave him a mortal wound, and
+left the weapon sticking in his body. The boy cleared his keeper by a
+particular account of the matter of fact; the father buried his son,
+and sent away his wife into banishment.—<i>Dositheus, Book Third of
+his Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">34. Theseus, the true son of Neptune, had Hippolytus by the Amazon
+Hippolyta, and afterward married Phaedra the daughter of Minos, who
+fell deep in love with Hippolytus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">472</span> and made use of the nurse’s
+mediation to help forward the incest. But Hippolytus upon this left
+Athens and went away to Troezen, where he diverted himself with
+hunting. Now this lascivious woman, finding her design disappointed,
+forged several scandalous letters to the prejudice of the chaste young
+man, and ended her days with a halter. Theseus gave credit to the
+slander, and Neptune having promised him a grant of any three things
+he would ask, he made it his request that he would destroy Hippolytus.
+So Neptune sent a bull to the coast where Hippolytus was driving his
+chariot, which put his horses into such a fright, that they ran away
+with them, and overturning the chariot killed the master.</p>
+
+<p>Comminius Super, a Laurentine, had a son by the nymph Egeria, whom
+he called Comminius; after which he married one Gidica, who fell
+passionately in love with her son-in-law. And receiving a repulse, she
+framed slanderous letters against him, which she left behind her, and
+so hanged herself. Comminius, reflecting upon the crime and believing
+the calumny, applied himself to Neptune, who with a terrible bull
+frighted the horses so, while the youth was in the chariot, that they
+overturned all, and killed him with the fall.—<i>Dositheus, Book Third
+of Italian Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">35. In the time of a great plague in Lacedaemon, they were told by
+the oracle, that the pestilence would cease upon the sacrificing of
+a noble virgin every year. It fell one time by lot to Helena, who
+was brought out and dressed up ready for the sacrifice. An eagle
+at that time flying by took away the sword, and carrying it into a
+herd of cattle laid it down upon a heifer; whereupon they spared the
+virgin.—<i>Aristodemus, in his Third Collection of Fables.</i></p>
+
+<p>There was a dreadful plague in Falerii, which the oracle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">473</span> said would be
+removed upon the sacrificing of a virgin to Juno every year. While this
+superstition was in course, it fell to Valeria Luperca’s lot to be the
+sacrifice. An eagle flew away with the drawn sword, but laid a stick
+upon the fuel prepared for the fire, with a little mallet fixed to it.
+The sword he threw upon a heifer feeding near the temple. The virgin
+perceiving this sacrificed the heifer; and taking up the mallet, went
+about from house to house, and with a gentle knock called to those that
+were sick, bidding them be of good health. And this was the rise of the
+ceremony which continues to this day.—<i>Aristides, in his Nineteenth
+Book of Italian Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">36. Philonome, the daughter of Nyctimus and Arcadia, went many times
+to the chase with Diana. Mars lay with her in the shape of a shepherd,
+and fetched up her belly. She was delivered in time of twins, which for
+fear of her father she threw into the river Erymanthus. By a strange
+fatality of providence they were driven safe into a hollow oak, which
+happening to be the kennel of a wolf, this wolf threw her whelps into
+the river, and suckled the children. Tyliphus a shepherd, that had
+seen this with his own, eyes, took these children and brought them up
+as his own, calling one of them Lycastus, and the other Parrasius,
+which reigned successively in Arcadia.—<i>This is reported by Zopyrus
+Byzantius, in the Third Book of his Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p>Amulius dealing very tyrannically with his brother Numitor, killed his
+son Aenitus as they were a hunting, and made his daughter Sylvia ... a
+priestess of Juno. Mars got her with child, and when she had laid her
+belly of twins, she confessed the truth to the tyrant; which put him
+in such an apprehension, that he exposed them both on the side of the
+river Tiber, where they were carried by the stream to a place where a
+she-wolf had her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">474</span> whelps. The wolf cast away her own, and gave suck to
+these children. Faustus a shepherd, observing this, took the children
+to himself, and called them by the names of Romus and Romulus, which
+came afterwards to be the founders of Rome.—<i>Aristides’s Italian
+Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">37. After the destruction of Troy, Agamemnon and Cassandra were killed;
+but Orestes, that was brought up with Strophius, revenged the death of
+his father.—<i>Pyrander’s Fourth Book of Peloponnesian Histories.</i></p>
+
+<p>Fabius Fabricianus, a kinsman of Fabius Maximus, having taken Tuxium,
+the chief city of the Samnites, sent to Rome the image of Venus
+Victrix, which among them was held in great veneration. His wife
+Fabia was debauched by Petronius Valentinus, a handsome young man,
+and afterwards she treacherously murdered her husband; but for her
+son Fabricianus who was yet in his infancy, she shifted him away to
+be privately brought up, and so provided for his security. When he
+was grown up, he destroyed both his mother and the adulterer, and was
+formally acquitted for it by a decree of the Senate.—<i>Dositheus’s
+Third Book of Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">38. Busiris, the son of Neptune and Anippe the daughter of Nilus, was
+used to invite strangers in to him under a pretence of hospitality,
+and then to murder them; but divine vengeance met with him at
+last, for Hercules found out the villany, and killed him with his
+club.—<i>Agatho the Samian.</i></p>
+
+<p>Hercules, as he was driving Geryon’s oxen through Italy, took up his
+lodging with King Faunus there, the son of Mercury, whose custom it was
+to sacrifice strangers to his father. He set upon Hercules, and had his
+brains beaten out for his pains.—<i>Dercyllus’s Third Book of Italian
+History.</i></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">475</span></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">39. Phalaris of Agrigentum, a cruel tyrant, was wont to put
+strangers and travellers to the most exquisite torment, Perillus, a
+brass-founder, made a cow of brass, and presented it to the king for
+a new invention, that he might burn strangers alive in it. Phalaris
+for this once was just, in making the first proof of it upon Perillus
+himself; and the invention was so artificial, that upon putting it
+in execution, the engine itself seemed to bellow.—<i>Second Book of
+Questions or Causes.</i></p>
+
+<p>In Egesta, a city of Sicily, there was a certain tyrant called
+Aemilius Censorinus, who was so inhuman that he proposed rewards to
+the inventors of new tortures. There was one Aruntius Paterculus that
+had framed a brazen horse, and made a present of it to the tyrant
+to practise with it upon whom he pleased. It was the first piece of
+justice that ever the tyrant did, to make trial of the torment upon
+the author of it, that he might first feel himself the torments he had
+provided for others. He was afterwards thrown down from the Tarpeian
+Rock. It may be thought that unmerciful rulers are from this tyrant
+called Aemilii.—<i>Aristides’s Fourth Book of Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">40. Evenus, the son of Mars and Sterope, had a daughter Marpessa by
+his wife Alcippe, the daughter of Oenomaus; and this girl he had
+a mind to keep a virgin. But Idas, the son of Aphareus, ran away
+with her from a choir. Evenus pursued him, and finding he could not
+overtake him, he threw himself into the river Lycormas, and became
+immortal.—<i>Dositheus’s First Book of Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p>Anius, a king of the Tuscans, had a delicate, handsome daughter,
+whose name was Salia, and he took great care to keep her a virgin.
+But Cathetus, a man of quality, seeing her sporting herself, fell
+passionately in love with her, and carried her away to Rome. The father
+made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">476</span> after her, and when he saw there was no catching of her, he threw
+himself into a river that from him took the name of Anio. Cathetus
+begot Latinus and Salius upon the body of Salia, the root of a noble
+race.—<i>Aristides Milesius, and Alexander Polyhistor’s Third Book of
+Italian History.</i></p>
+
+<p class="padt1">41. Hegesistratus an Ephesian committed a murder in his family, and
+fled to Delphi; on consulting the oracle what place to settle in, the
+answer was, that when he should come to a place where he should see
+the country people dancing with garlands of olive-leaves, he should
+settle there. He travelled into a certain country of Asia, where he
+found as the oracle told him, and there built a city which he called
+Elaeus.—<i>Pythocles the Samian, in the Third Book of his Georgics.</i></p>
+
+<p>Telegonus, the son of Ulysses by Circe, was sent to find out his
+father, and commanded by an oracle to erect a city where he should
+see the country people dancing with garlands. He came into a certain
+place of Italy, where he found the countrymen dancing with wreaths of
+ilex about their heads; so that there he built<span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">477</span> a city, and called it
+Prinistum, for an ilex in Greek is <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">πρῖνος</span>. The Romans corruptly call
+this city Praeneste.—<i>Aristocles, in the Third Book of his Italian
+History.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="NAMES_OF_RIVERS_AND_MOUNTAINS">
+OF THE NAMES OF RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS, AND OF SUCH THINGS AS ARE TO BE FOUND THEREIN.
+<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a></h2></div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">I. <span class="smcap">Hydaspes.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">This</span> is a river of India, which falls with an extraordinary swift
+stream into the Saronitic Syrtis: Chrysippe, by the impulse of Venus,
+whom she had offended, fell in love with her father Hydaspes, and
+not being able to curb her preternatural desires, by the help of
+her nurse, in the dead of the night got to his bed and received his
+caresses; after which, the king proving unfortunate in his affairs,
+he buried alive the old bawd that had betrayed him, and crucified his
+daughter. Nevertheless such was the excess of his grief for the loss
+of Chrysippe, that he threw himself into the river Indus, which was
+afterwards called by his name Hydaspes.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover in this river there grows a stone, which is called Lychnis,
+which resembles the color of oil, and is very bright in appearance.
+And when they are searching after it, which they do when the moon
+increases, the pipers play all the while. Nor is it to be worn by any
+but the richer sort. Also near that part of the river which is called
+Pylae, there grows an herb which is very like a heliotrope, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">478</span>with the
+juice of which the people anoint their skins to prevent sunburning, and
+to secure them against the scorching of the excessive heat.</p>
+
+<p>The natives whenever they take their virgins tardy, nail them to a
+wooden cross, and fling them into this river, singing at the same
+time in their own language a hymn to Venus. Every year also they bury
+a condemned old woman near the top of the hill called Therogonos;
+at which time an infinite multitude of creeping creatures come down
+from the top of the hill, and devour the insects that hover about the
+buried carcass. This Chrysermus relates in his History of India, though
+Archelaus gives a more exact account of these things in his Treatise of
+Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Elephas, so called upon this
+occasion. When Alexander the Macedonian advanced with his army into
+India, and the natives were resolved to withstand him with all their
+force, the elephant upon which Porus, king of that region, was wont
+to ride, being of a sudden stung with a gad-bee, ran up to the top of
+the mountain of the sun, and there uttered these words distinctly in
+human speech: “O king, my lord, descended from the race of Gegasius,
+forbear to attempt any thing against Alexander, for he is descended
+from Jupiter.” And having so said, he presently died. Which when Porus
+understood, afraid of Alexander, he fell at his feet and sued for
+peace. Which when he had obtained, he called the mountain Elephas;—as
+Dercyllus testifies in his Third Book of Mountains.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">II. <span class="smcap">Ismenus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ismenus</span> is a river of Boeotia, that washes the walls of Thebes. It was
+formerly called the foot of Cadmus, upon this occasion. When Cadmus
+had slain the dragon which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">479</span>
+kept the fountain of Mars, he was afraid
+to taste of the water, believing it was poisoned; which forced him to
+wander about in search of another fountain to allay his thirst. At
+length, by the help of Minerva, he came to the Corycian den, where his
+right leg stuck deep in the mire. And from that hole it was that, after
+he had pulled his leg out again, sprung a fair river, which the hero,
+after the solemnity of his sacrifices performed, called by the name of
+Cadmus’s foot.</p>
+
+<p>Some time after, Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, being wounded
+by Apollo and in great pain, threw himself into the said river, which
+was then from his name called Ismenus;—as Sostratus relates in his
+Second Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Cithaeron, formerly called
+Asterion for this reason. Boeotus the son of Neptune was desirous,
+of two noble ladies, to marry her that should be most beneficial to
+him; and while he tarried for both in the night-time upon the top of
+a certain nameless mountain, of a sudden a star fell from heaven upon
+the shoulders of Eurythemiste, and immediately vanished. Upon which
+Boeotus, understanding the meaning of the prodigy, married the virgin,
+and called the mountain Asterion from the accident that befell him.
+Afterwards it was called Cithaeron upon this occasion. Tisiphone,
+one of the Furies, falling in love with a most beautiful youth whose
+name was Cithaeron, and not being able to curb the impatience of her
+desires, declared her affection to him in a letter, to which he would
+not return any answer. Whereupon the Fury, missing her design, pulled
+one of the serpents from her locks, and flung it upon the young lad as
+he was keeping his sheep on the top of the mountain Asterion; where
+the serpent twining about his neck choked him to death. And thereupon
+by the will of the Gods the mountain was called Cithaeron;—as Leo of
+Byzantium writes in his History of Boeotia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">480</span></p>
+
+<p>But Hermesianax of Cyprus tells the story quite otherwise. For he says,
+that Helicon and Cithaeron were two brothers, quite different in their
+dispositions. For Helicon was affable and mild, and cherished his
+aged parents. But Cithaeron, being covetous and greedily gaping after
+the estate, first killed his father, and then treacherously threw his
+brother down from a steep precipice, but in striving together, fell
+himself along with him. Whence, by the providence of the Gods, the
+names of both the mountains were changed. Cithaeron, by reason of his
+impiety, became the haunt of the Furies. Helicon, for the young man’s
+love to his parents, became the habitation of the Muses.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">III. <span class="smcap">Hebrus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hebrus</span> is a river of Thrace, deriving its former name of Rhombus from
+the many gulfs and whirlpools in the water.</p>
+
+<p>Cassander, king of that region, having married Crotonice, had by her a
+son whom he named Hebrus. But then being divorced from his first wife,
+he married Damasippe, the daughter of Atrax, and brought her home over
+his son’s head; with whom the mother-in-law falling in love, invited
+him by letters to her embraces. But he, avoiding his mother-in-law as
+a Fury, gave himself over to the sport of hunting. On the other side
+the impious woman, missing her purpose, belied the chaste youth, and
+accused him of attempting to ravish her. Upon this Cassander, raging
+with jealousy, flew to the wood in a wild fury, and with his sword
+drawn pursued his son, as one that treacherously sought to defile
+his father’s bed. Upon which the son, finding he could no way escape
+his father’s wrath, threw himself into the river Rhombus, which was
+afterwards called Hebrus from the name of the young man;—as Timotheus
+testifies in his Eleventh Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">481</span></p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Pangaeus, so called upon this
+occasion. Pangaeus, the son of Mars and Critobule, by a mistake lay
+with his own daughter; which perplexed him to that degree that he fled
+to the Carmanian mountain, where, overwhelmed with a sorrow that he
+could not master, he drew his sword and slew himself. Whence, by the
+providence of the Gods, the place was called Pangaeus.</p>
+
+<p>In the river before mentioned, grows an herb not much unlike to
+origanum; the tops of which the Thracians cropping off burn upon a
+fire, and after they are filled with the fruits of Ceres, they hold
+their heads over the smoke, and snuff it up into their nostrils,
+letting it go down their throats; till at last they fall into a
+profound sleep.</p>
+
+<p>Also upon the mountain Pangaeus grows an herb, which is called the
+harp upon this occasion. The women that tore Orpheus in pieces cast
+his limbs into the river Hebrus; and his head being changed, the whole
+body was turned into the shape of a dragon. But as for his harp, such
+was the will of Apollo, it remained in the same form. And from the
+streaming blood grew up the herb which was called the harp; which,
+during the solemnity of the sacrifices to Bacchus, sends forth a sound
+like that of an harp when played upon. At which time the natives, being
+covered with the skins of young hinds and waving their thyrsuses in
+their hands, sing a hymn, of which these are part of the words,</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+<div class="verse indent0">When wisdom all in vain must be,</div>
+<div class="verse indent0">Then be not wise at all;—</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>as Clitonymus reports, in his Third Book of Thracian Relations.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">482</span>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">IV. <span class="smcap">Ganges.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ganges</span> is a river in India, so called for this reason. A certain
+Calaurian nymph had by Indus a son called Ganges, conspicuous for his
+beauty. Who growing up to manhood, being once desperately overcome with
+wine, in the heat of his intoxication lay with his mother. The next
+day he was informed by the nurse of what he had done; and such was
+the excess of his sorrow, that he threw himself into a river called
+Chliarus, afterwards called Ganges from his own name.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb resembling bugloss, which the natives
+bruise, and keep the juice very charily. With this juice in the dead of
+the night they go and besprinkle the tigers’ dens; the virtue of which
+is such, that the tigers, not being able to stir forth by reason of
+the strong scent of the juice, are starved to death;—as Callisthenes
+reports in his Third Book of Hunting.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the banks of this river lies the mountain called the Anatole for
+this reason. The Sun, beholding the nymph Anaxibia innocently spending
+her time in dancing, fell passionately in love with her, and not able
+to curb his loose amours, pursued her with a purpose to ravish her.
+She therefore, finding no other way to escape him, fled to the temple
+of Orthian Diana, which was seated upon the mountain called Coryphe,
+and there immediately vanished away. Upon which the Sun, that followed
+her close at the heels, not knowing what was become of his beloved,
+overwhelmed with grief, rose in that very place. And from this accident
+it was that the natives called the top of that mountain Anatole, or
+the rising of the Sun;—as Caemaron reports in his Tenth Book of the
+Affairs of India.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">V. <span class="smcap">Phasis.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phasis</span> is a river of Scythia, running by a city of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">483</span> same name. It
+was formerly called Arcturus, deriving its name from the situation of
+the cold regions through which it runs. But the name of it was altered
+upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Phasis, the child of the Sun and Ocyrrhoe daughter of Oceanus, slew
+his mother, whom he took in the very act of adultery. For which being
+tormented by the Furies appearing to him, he threw himself into the
+river Arcturus, which was afterwards called by his own name Phasis.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a reed, which is called leucophyllus, or the reed
+with the white leaf. This reed is found at the dawning of the morning
+light, at what time the sacrifices are offered to Hecate, at the time
+when the divinely inspired paean is chanted, at the beginning of the
+spring; when they who are troubled with jealous heads gather this reed,
+and strew it in their wives’ chambers to keep them chaste. And the
+nature of the reed is such, that if any wild extravagant person happens
+to come rashly in drink into the room where it lies, he presently
+becomes deprived of his rational thoughts, and immediately confesses
+whatever he has wickedly done and intended to do. At what time they
+that are present to hear him lay hold of him, sew him up in a sack, and
+throw him into a hole called the Mouth of the Wicked, which is round
+like the mouth of a well. This after thirty days empties the body into
+the Lake Maeotis, that is full of worms; where of a sudden the body is
+seized and torn to pieces by several vultures unseen before, nor is it
+known from whence they come;—as Ctesippus relates in his Second Book
+of Scythian Relations.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Caucasus, which was before called
+Boreas’s Bed, upon this occasion. Boreas in the heat of his amorous
+passion ravished away by force Chione, the daughter of Arcturus, and
+carried her to a certain hill which was called Niphantes, and upon her
+begot a son whom he called Hyrpax, who succeeded Heniochus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">484</span> in his
+kingdom. For which reason the mountain was first called Boreas’s Bed;
+but afterwards Caucasus upon this occasion. After the fight of the
+Giants, Saturn, to avoid the menaces of Jupiter, fled to the top of
+Boreas’s Bed, and there being turned into a crocodile [lay concealed.
+But Prometheus] slew Caucasus, one of the shepherds inhabiting that
+place; and cutting him up and observing the disposition of his
+entrails, he foresaw that his enemies were not far off. Presently
+Jupiter appearing, and binding his father with a woollen list, threw
+him down to hell. Then changing the name of the mountain in honor of
+the shepherd Caucasus, he chained Prometheus to it, and caused him to
+be tormented by an eagle that fed upon his entrails, because he was the
+first that found out the inspection of bowels, which Jupiter deemed a
+great cruelty;—as Cleanthes relates in his Third Book of the Wars of
+the Gods.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this mountain grows an herb which is called Prometheus, which
+Medea gathering and bruising made use of to protect Jason against her
+father’s obstinacy.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">VI. <span class="smcap">Arar.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arar</span> is a river in Gallia Celtica, deriving the name from its being
+mixed with the river Rhone. For it falls into the Rhone within the
+country of the Allobroges. It was formerly called Brigulus, but
+afterwards changed its name upon this occasion. Arar, as he was a
+hunting, entering into the wood, and there finding his brother Celtiber
+torn in pieces by the wild beasts, mortally wounded himself for
+grief, and fell into the river Brigulus; which from that accident was
+afterwards called by his own name Arar.</p>
+
+<p>In this river there breeds a certain large fish, which by the natives
+is called Clupaea. This fish during the increase of the moon is white;
+but all the while the moon is in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">485</span> wane, it is altogether black;
+and when it grows over bulky, it is (as it were) stabbed by its own
+fins. In the head of it is found a stone like a corn of salt, which,
+being applied to the left parts of the body when the moon is in the
+wane, cures quartan agues;—as Callisthenes the Sybarite tells us in
+the Thirteenth Book of Gallic Relations, from whom Timagenes the Syrian
+borrowed his argument.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river stands a mountain called Lugdunum, which changed its
+name upon this occasion. When Momorus and Atepomarus were dethroned
+by Seseroneus, in pursuance of the oracle’s command they designed to
+build a city upon the top of the hill. But when they had laid the
+foundations, great numbers of crows with their wings expanded covered
+all the neighboring trees. Upon which Momorus, being a person well
+skilled in augury, called the city Lugdunum. For <i>lugdon</i> in
+their language signifies a crow, and <i>dunum</i><a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> any spacious
+hill.—This Clitophon reports, in his Thirteenth Book of the Building
+of Cities.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">VII. <span class="smcap">Pactolus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pactolus</span> is a river of Lydia, that washes the walls of Sardis,
+formerly called, Chrysorrhoas. For Chrysorrhoas, the son of Apollo
+and Agathippe, being a mechanic artist, and one that only lived from
+hand to mouth upon his trade, one time in the middle of the night made
+bold to break open the treasury of Croesus; and conveying thence a
+good quantity of gold, he made a distribution of it to his family. But
+being pursued by the king’s officers, when he saw he must be taken, he
+threw himself into the river which was afterwards from his name called
+Chrysorrhoas, and afterwards changed into that of Pactolus upon this
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">486</span></p>
+
+<p>Pactolus, the son of ... and Leucothea, during the performance of
+the mysteries sacred to Venus, ravished Demodice his own sister, not
+knowing who she was; for which being overwhelmed with grief, he threw
+himself into the river Chrysorrhoas, which from that time forward was
+called Pactolus, from his own name. In this river is found a most pure
+gold sand, which the force of the stream carries into the bosom of the
+Happy Gulf.</p>
+
+<p>Also in this river is to be found a stone which is called the preserver
+of the fields, resembling the color of silver, very hard to be found,
+in regard of its being mixed with the gold sand. The virtue of which is
+such, that the more wealthy Lydians buy it and lay it at the doors of
+their treasuries, by which means they preserve their treasure, whatever
+it be, safe from the seizure of pilfering hands. For upon the approach
+of thieves or robbers, the stone sends forth a sound like that of a
+trumpet. Upon which the thieves surprised, and believing themselves
+apprehended by officers, throw themselves headlong and break their
+necks; insomuch that the place where the thieves thus frighted come by
+their violent deaths is called Pactolus’s prison.</p>
+
+<p>In this river also there grows an herb that bears a purple flower, and
+is called chrysopolis; by which the inhabitants of the neighboring
+cities try their purest gold. For just before they put their gold
+into the melting-pot, they touch it with this herb; at what time,
+if it be pure and unmixed, the leaves of the herb will be tinctured
+with the gold and preserve the substance of the matter; but if it
+be adulterated, they will not admit the discoloring moisture;—as
+Chrysermus relates in his Third Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Tmolus, full of all manner of wild
+beasts, formerly called Carmanorion, from Carmanor the son of Bacchus
+and Alexirrhoea, who was killed by a wild boar as he was hunting; but
+afterward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">487</span> Tmolus upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Tmolus, the son of Mars and Theogone, king of Lydia, while he was a
+hunting upon Carmanorion, chanced to see the fair virgin Arrhippe that
+attended upon Diana, and fell passionately in love with her. And such
+was the heat of his love, that not being able to gain her by fair
+means, he resolved to vitiate her by force. She, seeing she could by
+no means escape his fury otherwise, fled to the temple of Diana, where
+the tyrant, contemning all religion, ravished her,—an infamy which the
+nymph not being able to survive immediately hanged herself. But Diana
+would not pass by so great a crime; and therefore, to be revenged upon
+the king for his irreligious insolence, she set a mad bull upon him, by
+which the king being tossed up in the air, and falling down upon stakes
+and stones, ended his days in torment. But Theoclymenus his son, so
+soon as he had buried his father, altered the name of the mountain, and
+called it Tmolus after his father’s name.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this mountain grows a stone not unlike a pumice-stone, which is
+very rare to be found. This stone changes its color four times a day;
+and is to be seen only by virgins that are not arrived at the years of
+understanding. But if marriageable virgins happen to see it, they can
+never receive any injury from those that attempt their chastity;—as
+Clitophon reports.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">VIII. <span class="smcap">Lycormas.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lycormas</span> is a river of Aetolia, formerly called Evenus for this reason.
+Idas the son of Aphareus, after he had ravished away by violence
+Marpessa, with whom he was passionately in love, carried her away to
+Pleuron, a city of Aetolia. This rape of his daughter Evenus could by
+no means endure, and therefore pursued after the treacherous ravisher,
+till<span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">488</span> he came to the river Lycormas But then despairing to overtake the
+fugitive, he threw himself for madness into the river, which from his
+own name was called Evenus.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb which is called sarissa, because it
+resembles a spear, of excellent use for those that are troubled with
+dim sight;—as Archelaus relates in his First Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies Myenus, from Myenus the son of Telestor and
+Alphesiboea; who, being beloved by his mother-in-law and unwilling to
+defile his father’s bed, retired himself to the mountain Alphius. But
+Telestor, being made jealous of his wife, pursued his son into the
+wilderness; and followed him so close, that Myenus, not being able to
+escape, flung himself headlong from the top of the mountain, which for
+that reason was afterwards called Myenus.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this mountain grows a flower called the white violet, which, if
+you do but name the word step-dame, presently dies away;—as Dercyllus
+reports in his Third Book of Mountains.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">IX. <span class="smcap">Maeander.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Maeander</span> is a river of Asia, formerly called the Returner. For of all
+rivers in the world it is the only stream which, taking its rise from
+its own fountain, seems to run back to its own head.</p>
+
+<p>It is called Maeander from Maeander, the son of Cercaphus and Anaxibia,
+who, waging war with the Pessinuntines, made a vow to the Mother of the
+Gods, that if he obtained the victory, he would sacrifice the first
+that came to congratulate him for his good success. Now it happened
+that the first that met him were his son Archelaus, his mother, and
+his sister. All which, though so nearly related to him, he offered in
+sacrifice to the satisfaction of his vow. But then no less grieved for
+what he had done,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">489</span> he cast himself into the river, which from this
+accident was afterwards called by his own name Maeander;—as Timolaus
+tells us in his First Book of Phrygian Relations. Agathocles the Samian
+also makes mention of this story, in his Commonwealth of Pessinus.</p>
+
+<p>But Demostratus of Apamea relates the story thus: Maeander being a
+second time elected general against the Pessinuntines, and obtaining
+the victory quite contrary to his expectation, gave to his soldiers the
+offerings due to the Mother of the Gods. At which the Goddess being
+offended, she deprived him of his reason to that degree, that in the
+height of his madness he slew both his wife and his son. But coming
+somewhat to himself and repenting of what he had done, he threw himself
+into the river, which by his name was called Maeander.</p>
+
+<p>In this river there is a certain stone, which by Antiphrasis is called
+sophron, or the sober-stone; which if you drop into the bosom of
+any man, it presently makes him mad to that degree as to murder his
+nearest relations, but having once atoned the Mother of the Gods, he is
+presently restored to his wits;—as Damaratus testifies in his Third
+Book of Rivers. And Archelaus makes mention of the same in his First
+Book of Stones.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Sipylus, so called from Sipylus
+the son of Agenor and Dioxippe. For he having killed his mother by
+mistake, and being haunted by the Furies, retired to the Ceraunian
+mountain, and there hanged himself for grief. After which, by the
+providence of the Gods, the mountain was called Sipylus.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows a stone that resembles a cylinder, which when
+children that are obedient to their parents find, they lay it up in
+the temple of the Mother of the Gods. Nor do they ever transgress out
+of impiety; but reverence their parents,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">490</span> and are obedient to their
+superior relations;—as Agatharchides the Samian relates in his Fourth
+Book of Stones, and Demaratus in his Fourth Book of Phrygia.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">X. <span class="smcap">Marsyas.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Marsyas</span> is a river of Phrygia, flowing by the city Celaenae, and
+formerly called the fountain of Midas for this reason. Midas, king of
+Phrygia, travelling in the remoter parts of the country, and wanting
+water, stamped upon the ground; and there presently appeared a golden
+fountain. But the water proving gold, and both he and his soldiers
+being ready to perish for thirst, he invoked the compassion of Bacchus,
+who listening to his prayers supplied him with water. The Phrygians
+having by this means quenched their thirst, Midas named the river that
+issued from the spring the Fountain of Midas. Afterwards it was called
+Marsyas, upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Marsyas being overcome and flayed by Apollo, certain Satyrs are said to
+have sprung from the stream of his blood; as also a river bearing the
+name of Marsyas;—as Alexander Cornelius recites in his Third Book of
+Phrygian Relations.</p>
+
+<p>But Euemeridas the Cnidian tells the story after this manner. It
+happened that the wine-bag which was made of Marsyas’s skin, being
+corroded by time and carried away negligently by the wind, fell at last
+from the land into Midas’s well; and driving along with the stream, was
+taken up by a fisherman. At what time Pisistratus the Lacedaemonian,
+being commanded by the oracle to build near the place where the relics
+of the Satyr were found, reflected upon the accident, and in obedience
+to the oracle having built a fair city, called it Noricum, which in the
+Phrygian language signifies a wine-bag.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb called the pipe, which being moved in the
+wind yields a melodious sound;—as Dercyllus reports in his First Book
+of Satyrics.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">491</span></p>
+
+<p>Near to this river also lies the mountain Berecyntus, deriving its
+name from Berecyntus, the first priest to the Mother of the Gods. Upon
+this mountain is found a stone which is called machaera, very much
+resembling iron; which if any one happens to light upon while the
+solemnities of the Mother of the Gods are performing, he presently runs
+mad;—as Agatharchides reports in his Phrygian Relations.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XI. <span class="smcap">Strymon.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Strymon</span> is a river of Thrace, that flows along by the city Edonis. It
+was formerly called Palaestinus, from Palaestinus the son of Neptune.
+For he being at war with his neighbors, and seized with a violent
+sickness, sent his son Haliacmon to be general of his army; who, rashly
+giving battle to his enemies, was slain in the fight. The tidings of
+which misfortune being brought to Palaestinus, he privately withdrew
+himself from his guards, and in the desperation of his grief flung
+himself into the River Conozus, which from that accident was afterwards
+called Palaestinus. But as for Strymon, he was the son of Mars and
+Helice; and hearing that his son Rhesus was slain, he flung himself
+into the river Palaestinus, which was after that called Strymon, by his
+own name.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a stone which is called pausilypus, or the
+grief-easing stone. This stone if any one find who is oppressed
+with grief, he shall presently be eased of his sorrow;—as Jason of
+Byzantium relates in his Thracian Histories.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lie the mountains Rhodope and Haemus. These being
+brother and sister, and both falling in love with each other, the one
+was so presumptuous as to call his sister his Juno, the other to call
+her brother her Jupiter; which so offended the Deities, that they
+changed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">492</span> them into mountains bearing their own names.</p>
+
+<p>In these two mountains grow certain stones, which are called
+philadelphi, or the loving brethren. These stones are of a crow-color,
+and resembling human shape, and if they chance to be named when they
+are separated one from another, they presently and separately, as they
+lie, dissolve and waste away; as Thrasyllus the Mendesian testifies in
+his Third Book of Stones, but more accurately in his Thracian Histories.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XII. <span class="smcap">Sagaris.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sagaris</span> is a river of Phrygia, formerly called Xerobates because in
+the summer time it was generally dry. But it was called Sagaris for
+this reason: Sagaris, the son of Myndon and Alexirrhoe, contemning and
+slighting the mysteries of the Mother of the Gods, frequently affronted
+and derided her priests the Galli. At which the Goddess heinously
+offended, struck him with madness to that degree, that in one of his
+raging fits he flung himself into the river Xerobates, which from that
+time forward was called Sagaris.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a stone, which is called autoglyphus, that is,
+naturally engraved; for it is found with the Mother of the Gods by
+nature engraved upon it. This stone, which is rarely to be found, if
+any of the Galli or gelded priests happen to light upon, he makes no
+wonder at it, but undauntedly brooks the sight of a preternatural
+action;—as Aretazes reports in his Phrygian Relations.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Ballenaeus, which in the Phrygian
+language signifies <i>royal</i>; so called from Ballenaeus, the son of
+Ganymede and Medesigiste, who perceiving his father almost wasted with
+a consumption, instituted the Ballenaean festival, observed among the
+natives to this day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">493</span></p>
+
+<p>In this river is to be found a stone called aster, which from the
+latter end of autumn shines at midnight like fire. It is called in
+the language of the natives <i>ballen</i>, which being interpreted
+signifies a king;—as Hermesianax the Cyprian affirms in his Second
+Book of his Phrygian Relations.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XIII. <span class="smcap">Scamander.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scamander</span> is a river of Troas, which was formerly called Xanthus, but
+changed its name upon this occasion. Scamander, the son of Corybas and
+Demodice, having suddenly beheld the ceremonies while the mysteries of
+Rhea were solemnizing, immediately ran mad, and being hurried away by
+his own fury to the River Xanthus, flung himself into the stream, which
+from thence was called Scamander.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb like a vetch, that bears a cod with
+berries rattling in it when they are ripe; whence it derived the
+name of <i>sistrum</i>, or the <i>rattle</i>; whoever has this herb
+in possession fears no apparition nor the sight of any God;—as
+Demostratus writes in his Second Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Ida, formerly Gargarus; on the top
+of which stand the altars of Jupiter and of the Mother of the Gods.
+But it was called Ida upon this occasion. Aegesthius, who descended
+from Jupiter, falling passionately in love with the nymph Ida, obtained
+her good-will, and begat the Idaean Dactyli, or priests of the Mother
+of the Gods. After which, Ida running mad in the temple of Rhea,
+Aegesthius, in remembrance of the love which he bare her, called the
+mountain by her name.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows a stone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">494</span> called cryphius, as being never to
+be found but when the mysteries of the Gods are solemnizing;—as
+Heraclitus the Sicyonian writes in his Second Book of Stones.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XIV. <span class="smcap">Tanais.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tanais</span> is a river of Scythia, formerly called the Amazonian river,
+because the Amazons bathed themselves therein; but it altered its name
+upon this occasion. Tanais, the son of Berossus and Lysippe, one of
+the Amazons, became a vehement hater of the female sex, and looking
+upon marriage as ignominious and dishonorable, applied himself wholly
+to martial affairs. This so offended Venus, that she caused him to
+fall passionately in love with his own mother. True it is, at first he
+withstood the force of his passion; but finding he could not vanquish
+the fatal necessity of yielding to divine impulse, and yet desirous to
+preserve his respect and piety towards his mother, he flung himself
+into the Amazonian river, which was afterwards called Tanais, from the
+name of the young man.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a plant which is called halinda, resembling a
+colewort; which the inhabitants bruising, and anointing their bodies
+with the juice of it, find themselves in a condition better able to
+endure the extremity of the cold; and for that reason, in their own
+language they call it Berossus’s oil.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a stone not unlike to crystal, resembling the shape
+of a man with a crown upon his head. Whoever finds the stone when the
+king dies, and has it ready against the time that the people meet upon
+the banks of the river to choose a new sovereign, is presently elected
+king, and receives the sceptre of the deceased prince;—as Ctesiphon
+relates in his Third Book of Plants; and Aristobulus gives us the same
+account in his First Book of Stones.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river also lies a mountain, in the language<span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">495</span> of the
+natives called Brixaba, which signifies the <i>forehead of a ram</i>.
+And it was so called upon this occasion. Phryxus having lost his sister
+Helle near the Euxine Sea, and, as Nature in justice required, being
+extremely troubled for his loss, retired to the top of a certain hill
+to disburden himself of his sorrow. At which time certain barbarians
+espying him, and mounting up the hill with their arms in their hands,
+a gold-fleeced ram leaping out of a thicket, and seeing the multitude
+coming, with articulate language and the voice of a man, awakened
+Phryxus, who was fast asleep, and taking him upon his back, carried him
+to Colchis. From this accident it was that the mountainous promontory
+was called the ram’s forehead.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows an herb, by the barbarians called phryxa (which
+being interpreted signifies <i>hating the wicked</i>), not unlike our
+common rue. If the son of a former mother have it in his possession, he
+can never be injured by his step-dame. It chiefly grows near the place
+which is called Boreas’s Den, and being gathered, is colder than snow.
+But if any step-dame be forming a design against her son-in-law, it
+sets itself on fire and sends forth a bright flame. By which means they
+who are thus warned avoid the danger they are in;—as Agatho the Samian
+testifies in his Second Book of Scythian Relations.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XV. <span class="smcap">Thermodon.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thermodon</span> is a river of Scythia, deriving its name from this accident.
+It was formerly called Crystallus, as being often frozen in the summer,
+the situation of the place producing this effect. But that name was
+altered upon this occasion....</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XVI. <span class="smcap">Nile.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Nile is a river in Egypt, that runs by the city<span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">496</span> of Alexandria.
+It was formerly called Melas, from Melas the son of Neptune; but
+afterwards it was called Aegyptus upon this occasion. Aegyptus, the son
+of Vulcan and Leucippe, was formerly king of the country, between whom
+and his own subjects happened a civil war; on which account the river
+Nile not increasing, the Egyptians were oppressed with famine. Upon
+which the oracle made answer, that the land should be again blessed
+with plenty, if the king would sacrifice his daughter to atone the
+anger of the Gods. Upon which the king, though greatly afflicted in his
+mind, gave way to the public good, and suffered his daughter to be led
+to the altar. But so soon as she was sacrificed, the king, not able to
+support the burden of his grief, threw himself into the river Melas,
+which after that was called Aegyptus. But then it was called Nilus upon
+this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Garmathone, queen of Egypt, having lost her son Chrysochoas while he
+was yet very young, with all her servants and friends most bitterly
+bemoaned her loss. At what time Isis appearing to her, she surceased
+her sorrow for a while, and putting on the countenance of a feigned
+gratitude, kindly entertained the goddess. She, willing to make a
+suitable return to the queen for the piety which she expressed in her
+reception, persuaded Osiris to bring back her son from the subterranean
+regions. When Osiris undertook to do this, at the importunity of his
+wife, Cerberus—whom some call the Terrible—barked so loud, that
+Nilus, Garmathone’s husband, struck with a sudden frenzy, threw himself
+into the river Aegyptus, which from thence was afterwards called Nilus.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a stone, not unlike to a bean, which so soon as any
+dog happens to see, he ceases to bark. It also expels the evil spirit
+out of those that are possessed, if held to the nostrils of the party
+afflicted.</p>
+
+<p>There are other stones which are found in this river,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">497</span> called kollotes,
+which the swallows picking up against the time that Nilus overflows,
+build up the wall which is called the Chelidonian wall, which restrains
+the inundation of the water and will not suffer the country to be
+injured by the fury of the flood;—as Thrasyllus tells us in his
+Relation of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this river lies the mountain Argyllus, so called for this reason.</p>
+
+<p>Jupiter in the heat of his amorous desires ravished away the Nymph Arge
+from Lyctus, a city of Crete, and then carried her to a mountain of
+Egypt called Argillus, and there begat a son, whom he named Dionysus
+(or Bacchus); who, growing up to years of manhood, in honor of his
+mother called the hill Argillus; and then mustering together an army
+of Pans and Satyrs, first conquered the Indians, and then subduing
+Spain, left Pan behind him there, the chief commander and governor of
+those places. Pan by his own name called that country Pania, which was
+afterward by his posterity called Spania;—as Sosthenes relates in the
+Thirteenth Book of Iberian Relations.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XVII. <span class="smcap">Eurotas.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Himerus</span>, the son of the Nymph Taygete and Lacedaemon, through the anger
+of offended Venus, at a revelling that lasted all night, deflowered
+his sister Cleodice, not knowing what he did. But the next day being
+informed of the truth of the matter, he laid it so to heart, that
+through excess of grief he flung himself into the river Marathon, which
+from thence was called Himeros; but after that Eurotas, upon this
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p>The Lacedaemonians being at war with the Athenians, and staying for
+the full moon, Eurotas their captain-general, despising all religion,
+would needs fight his enemies, though at the same time he was warned by
+thunder and lightning. However, having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">498</span> lost his army, the ignominy of
+his loss so incessantly perplexed him, that he flung himself into the
+river Himerus, which from that accident was afterwards called Eurotas.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a stone which is shaped like a helmet, called
+thrasydeilos, or <i>rash and timorous</i>. For if it hears a trumpet
+sound, it leaps toward the bank of the river; but if you do but name
+the Athenians, it presently sinks to the bottom of the water. Of these
+stones there are not a few which are consecrated and laid up in the
+temple of Minerva of the Brazen House;—as Nicanor the Samian relates
+in his Second Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Taygetus, deriving its name
+from the nymph Taygete, who, after Jupiter had deflowered her, being
+overcome by grief, ended her days by hanging at the summit of the
+mountain Amyclaeus, which from thence was called Taygetus.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this mountain grows a plant called Charisia, which the women at
+the beginning of the spring tied about their necks, to make themselves
+more passionately beloved by men;—as Cleanthes reports in his First
+Book of Mountains. But Sosthenes the Cnidian is more accurate in the
+relation of these things, from whom Hermogenes borrowed the subject of
+his writing.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XVIII. <span class="smcap">Inachus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inachus</span> is a river in the territories of Argos, formerly called
+Carmanor. Afterwards Haliacmon, for this reason.</p>
+
+<p>Haliacmon, a Tirynthian by birth, while he kept sheep upon the mountain
+Coccygium, happened against his will to see Jupiter and Rhea sporting
+together; for which being struck mad, and hurried by the violence of
+the frenzy, he flung himself into the river Carmanor, which after
+that was called Haliacmon. Afterwards it was called Inachus upon this
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">499</span></p>
+
+<p>Inachus, the son of Oceanus, after that Jupiter had deflowered his
+daughter Io, pursued the Deity close at the heels, abusing and cursing
+him all the way as he went. Which so offended Jupiter, that he sent
+Tisiphone, one of the Furies, who haunted and plagued him to that
+degree, that he flung himself into the river Haliacmon, afterwards
+called by his own name Inachus.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb called cynura, not unlike our common rue,
+which the women that desire to miscarry without any danger lay upon
+their navels, being first steeped in wine.</p>
+
+<p>There is also found in this river a certain stone, not unlike a beryl,
+which in the hands of those who intend to bear false witness will grow
+black. Of these stones there are many laid up in the temple of Juno
+Prosymnaea;—as Timotheus relates in his Argolica, and Agatho the
+Samian in his Second Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Agathocles the Milesian, in his History of Rivers, also adds, that
+Inachus for his impiety was thunderstruck by Jupiter, and so the river
+dried up.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lie the mountains Mycenae, Apesantus, Coccygium,
+and Athenaeum; so called for these reasons. Apesantus was first called
+Selenaeus. For Juno, resolving to be revenged upon Hercules, called the
+moon (Selene) to her assistance, who by the help of her magical charms
+filled a large chest full of foam and froth, out of which sprang an
+immense lion; which Iris binding with her own girdle carried to the
+mountain Opheltium, where the lion killed and tore in pieces Apesantus,
+one of the shepherds belonging to that place. And from that accident,
+by the will of the Gods, the hill was called Apesantus;—as Demodocus
+writes in his First Book of the History of Hercules.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb called selene, with the froth of which,
+being gathered in the spring, the shepherds anoint their feet, and keep
+them from being bit or stung<span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">500</span> by any creeping vermin.</p>
+
+<p>Mycenae was formerly called Argion, from the many-eyed Argos; but
+afterwards the name was changed upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>When Perseus had slain Medusa, Stheno and Euryale sisters to her
+that was killed, pursued him as a murderer. But coming to this hill
+and despairing to overtake him, out of that extreme love which they
+had for their sister they made such a bellowing (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυκηθμός</span>), that the
+natives from thence called the top of the mountain Mycenae;—as Ctesias
+the Ephesian relates in his First Book of the Acts of Perseus. But
+Chrysermus the Corinthian relates the story thus in the First Book
+of his Peloponnesiacs. For he says that, when Perseus was carried
+aloft in the air and lit upon this mountain, he lost the chape of his
+scabbard. At what time this same Gorgophonos (or Gorgon-slayer), king
+of the Epidaurians, being expelled his kingdom, received this answer
+upon his consulting the oracle, that he should visit all the cities of
+the Argolic territory, and that where he found the chape of a scabbard
+(called in Greek <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">μυκής</span>), he should build a city. Thereupon coming to
+the mountain Argium, and finding there an ivory scabbard, he built a
+city, and from the accident called it Mycenae.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain there is found a stone, which is called corybas, of
+a crow-color, which he that finds and wears about him shall never be
+afraid of any monstrous apparitions. As for the mountain Apesantus,
+this may be added, that Apesantus, the son of Acrisius, as he was a
+hunting in that place, chanced to tread upon a venomous serpent, which
+occasioned his death. Whom when his father had buried, in memory of his
+son he named the hill Apesantus, which before was called Selinuntius.</p>
+
+<p>The mountain Coccygium derived its name from this accident. Jupiter
+falling desperately in love with his sister Juno, and having
+vanquished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">501</span> her by his importunity, begat a male child. From whence the
+mountain, before called Lyrceum, was named Coccygium;—as Agathonymus
+relates in his Persis.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows a tree, which is called paliurus; upon the
+boughs of which whatever fowl happens to perch, it is presently
+entangled as it were with bird-lime, and cannot stir; only the cuckoo
+it lets go free, without any harm;—as Ctesiphon testifies in his First
+Book of Trees.</p>
+
+<p>As for the mountain Athenaeum, it derives its name from Minerva. For
+after the destruction of Troy, Diomede returning to Argos, ascended the
+mountain Ceraunius, and there erecting a temple to Minerva, called the
+mountain Athenaeum from her name Athena.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the top of this mountain grows a root like to that of rue, which
+if any woman unwarily taste of, she presently runs mad. This root is
+called Adrastea;—as Plesimachus writes in his Second Book of the
+Returns of the Heroes.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XIX. <span class="smcap">Alpheus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alpheus</span> is a river of Arcadia, running by the walls of Pisa, a city of
+Olympia. It was formerly called Stymphelus, from Stymphelus the son
+of Mars and Dormothea; who, having lost his brother Alcmaeon, threw
+himself for grief into the river Nyctimus, for that reason called
+Stymphelus. Afterwards it was called Alpheus upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Alpheus, one of those that derive their descent from the Sun,
+contending with his brother Cercaphus about the kingdom, slew him. For
+which being chased away and pursued by the Furies, he flung himself
+into the river Nyctimus, which after that was called Alpheus.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a plant which is called cenchritis, resembling a
+honey-comb, the decoction of which, being given by the physicians to
+those that are mad, cures them of their frenzy;—as Ctesias relates in
+his First Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">502</span></p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Cronium, so called upon this
+occasion. After the Giants’ war, Saturn, to avoid the threats of
+Jupiter, fled to the mountain Cturus, and called it Cronium from his
+own name. Where after he had absconded for some time, he took his
+opportunity, and retired to Caucasus in Scythia.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain is found a stone, which is called the cylinder, upon
+this occasion. For as oft as Jupiter either thunders or lightens,
+so often this stone through fear rolls down from the top of the
+mountain;—as Dercyllus writes in his First Book of Stones.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XX. <span class="smcap">Euphrates.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Euphrates</span> is a river of Parthia, washing the walls of Babylon, formerly
+called Medus from Medus the son of Artaxerxes. He, in the heat of his
+lust, having ravished away and deflowered Roxane, and finding he was
+sought after by the king, in order to be brought to punishment, threw
+himself into the river Xaranda, which from thenceforward was called by
+his name Medus. Afterwards it was called Euphrates upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Euphrates the son of Arandacus, finding his son Axurta abed with his
+mother, and thinking him to be some one of the citizens, provoked by
+his jealousy, drew his sword and nailed him to the bed. But perceiving
+himself the author of what could not be recalled, he flung himself for
+grief into the river Medus, which from that time forward was called by
+his name Euphrates.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a stone called aetites, which midwives applying to
+the navels of women that are in hard labor, it causes them to bring
+forth with little pain.</p>
+
+<p>In the same river also there grows an herb which is called axalla,
+which signifies heat. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">503</span> herb they that are troubled with
+quartan-agues apply to their breasts, and are presently delivered from
+the fit;—as Chrysermus writes in his Thirteenth Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near this river lies the mountain Drimylus, where grows a stone not
+unlike a sardonyx; worn by kings and princes upon their diadems, and
+greatly available against dimness of sight;—as Nicias Mallotes writes
+in his Book of Stones.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XXI. <span class="smcap">Caicus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caicus</span> is a river of Mysia, formerly called Astraeus, from Astraeus
+the son of Neptune. For he, in the height of Minerva’s nocturnal
+solemnities having deflowered his sister by a mistake, took a ring
+at the same time from her finger; by which when he understood the
+next day the error which he had committed, for grief he threw himself
+headlong into the river Adurus, which from thence was called Astraeus.
+Afterwards it came to be called Caicus upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Caicus, the son of Hermes and Ocyrrhoe the Nymph, having slain Timander
+one of the noblemen of the country, and fearing the revenge of his
+relations, flung himself into the river Astraeus, which from that
+accident was called Caicus.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a sort of poppy, which instead of fruit bears
+stones. Of these there are some which are black and shaped like harps,
+which the Mysians throw upon their ploughed lands; and if the stones
+lie still in the place where they are thrown, it is a sign of a barren
+year; but if they fly away like so many locusts, they prognosticate a
+plentiful harvest.</p>
+
+<p>In the same river also grows an herb which is called elipharmacus,
+which the physicians apply to such as are troubled with immoderate
+fluxes of blood, as having a peculiar virtue to stop the orifices of
+the veins;—according to the relation of Timagoras in his First Book
+of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">504</span> Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Adjoining to the banks of this river lies the mountain Teuthras, so
+called from Teuthras king of the Mysians; who in pursuance of his
+sport, as he was a hunting, ascending the hill Thrasyllus and seeing
+a monstrous wild boar, followed him close with the rest of his train.
+On the other side, the boar, to prevent the hunters, like a suppliant
+fled to the temple of Orthosian Diana, into which when the hunters
+were about to force their entrance, the boar in articulate words cried
+out, Spare, O king, the nursling of the Goddess. However, Teuthras,
+exalted with his good success, killed the poor boar. At which Diana
+was so highly offended, that she restored the boar to life, but struck
+the offender with scurf and madness. Which affliction the king not
+enduring betook himself to the tops of the mountains. But his mother
+Leucippe, understanding what had befallen her son, ran to the forest,
+taking along with her the soothsayer Polyidus, the son of Coeranus; by
+whom being informed of all the several circumstances of the matter, by
+many sacrifices she at last atoned the anger of the Goddess, and having
+quite recovered and cured her son, erected an altar to Orthosian Diana,
+and caused a golden boar to be made with a man’s face. Which to this
+day, if pursued by the hunters, enters the temple, and speaks with the
+voice of a man the word “spare.” Thus Teuthras, being restored to his
+former health, called the mountain by his own name Teuthras.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows a stone called antipathes (or the resister),
+which is of excellent virtue to cure scabs and leprosies, being
+powdered and mixed with wine;—as Ctesias the Cnidian tells us in his
+Second Book of Mountains.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">505</span>
+<h3 class="nobreak">XXII. <span class="smcap">Achelous.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Achelous</span> is a river of Aetolia; formerly called Thestius. This Thestius
+was the son of Mars and Pisidice, who upon some domestic discontent
+travelled as far as Sicyon, where after he had resided for some time,
+he returned to his native home. But finding there his son Calydon
+and his mother both upon the bed together, believing him to be an
+adulterer, he slew his own child by a mistake. But when he beheld the
+unfortunate and unexpected fact he had committed, he threw himself into
+the river Axenos, which from thence was afterwards called Thestius. And
+after that, it was called Achelous upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Achelous, the son of Oceanus and the Nymph Nais, having deflowered his
+daughter Cletoria by mistake, flung himself for grief into the river
+Thestius, which then by his own name was called Achelous.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows an herb, which they call zaclon, very much
+resembling wool; this if you bruise and cast into wine, it becomes
+water, and preserves the smell but not the virtues of the wine.</p>
+
+<p>In the same river also is found a certain stone of a mixed black and
+lead color, called linurgus from the effect; for if you throw it upon a
+linen cloth, by a certain affectionate union it assumes the form of the
+linen, and turns white;—as Antisthenes relates in the Third Book of
+his Meleagris, though Diocles the Rhodian more accurately tells us the
+same thing in his Aetolics.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Calydon, so called from Calydon,
+the son of Mars and Astynome; for that he, by an accident having seen
+Diana bathing herself, was transformed into a rock; and the mountain
+which before was named Gyrus was afterwards by the providence of the
+Gods called Calydon.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this mountain grows an herb called myops. This if any one steep<span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">506</span>
+in water and wash his face with it, he shall lose his sight, but upon
+his atoning Diana, he shall recover it again;—as Dercyllus writes in
+his Third Book of Aetolics.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XXIII. <span class="smcap">Araxes.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Araxes</span> is a river in Armenia, so called from Araxus the son of Pylus.
+For he, contending with his grandfather Arbelus for the empire, shot
+him with an arrow. For which being haunted by the Furies, he threw
+himself into the river Bactros, for that reason called Araxes;—as
+Ctesiphon testifies in his First Book of the Persian Affairs. Araxes,
+king of the Armenians, being at war with his neighbors the Persians,
+before they came to a battle, was told by the oracle that he should win
+the victory if he sacrificed to the Gods two of the most noble virgins
+in his kingdom. Now he, out of his paternal affection to his children,
+spared his own daughters, and caused two lovely virgins, the daughters
+of one of his nobility, to be laid upon the altar. Which Mnesalces,
+the father of the victims, laying to heart, for a time concealed his
+indignation; but afterwards, observing his opportunity, he killed
+both the king’s daughters, and then leaving his native soil fled into
+Scythia. Which when Araxes understood, for grief he threw himself into
+the river Halmus, which then was altered and called Araxes.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a plant which is called araxa, which in the
+language of the natives signifies a virgin-hater. For that if it happen
+to be found by any virgin, it falls a bleeding and dies away.</p>
+
+<p>In the same river there is also found a stone of a black color,
+called sicyonus. This stone, when the oracle advises the sacrificing
+of a human victim, is laid upon the altar of the mischief-diverting
+Gods. And then, no sooner does the priest touch it with his knife,
+but it sends forth a stream of blood; at what time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">507</span> the superstitious
+sacrificers retire, and with howlings and loud ohoning carry the stone
+to the temple;—as Dorotheus the Chaldaean relates in his Second Book
+of Stones.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Diorphus, so called from Diorphus
+the son of the Earth, of whom this story is reported. Mithras desirous
+to have a son, yet hating woman-kind, lay with a stone, till he had
+heated it to that degree that the stone grew big, and at the prefixed
+time was delivered of a son, called Diorphus; who, growing up and
+contending with Mars for courage and stoutness, was by him slain, and
+by the providence of the Gods was transformed into the mountain which
+was called Diorphus by his name.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows a tree, not unlike a pomegranate-tree, which
+yields plenty of apples, in taste like grapes. Now if any one gather
+the ripest of this fruit, and do but name Mars while he holds it in his
+hand, it will presently grow green again;—as Ctesiphon witnesses in
+his Thirteenth Book of Trees.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XXIV. <span class="smcap">Tigris.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tigris</span> is a river of Armenia flowing into Araxes and the lake of
+Arsacis, formerly called Sollax, which signifies running and carried
+downward. It was called Tigris upon this occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Bacchus, through the design of Juno running mad, wandered over sea
+and land, desirous to be quit of his distemper. At length coming
+into Armenia, and not being able to pass the river before-mentioned,
+he called upon Jupiter; who, listening to his prayers, sent him a
+tiger that carried him safely over the water. In remembrance of which
+accident, he called the river Tigris;—as Theophilus relates in his
+First Book of Stones. But Hermesianax the Cyprian tells the story
+thus:—</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_508">508</span></p>
+
+<p>Bacchus falling in love with the Nymph Alphesiboea, and being able to
+vanquish her neither with presents nor entreaties, turned himself into
+the shape of the river Tigris, and overcoming his beloved by fear, took
+her away and carrying her over the river, begat a son whom he called
+Medus; who growing up in years, in remembrance of the accident he
+called the river by the name of Tigris;—as Aristonymus relates in his
+Third Book....</p>
+
+<p>In this river a stone is to be found, called myndan, very white; which
+whoever possesses shall never be hurt by wild beasts;—as Leo of
+Byzantium relates in his Third Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this river lies the mountain Gauran; so called from Gauran the
+son of the satrap Roxanes; who, being extremely religious and devout
+towards the Gods, received this reward of his piety, that of all the
+Persians he only lived three hundred years; and dying at last without
+being ever afflicted with any disease, was buried upon the top of the
+mountain Gauran, where he had a sumptuous monument erected to his
+memory. Afterwards, by the providence of the Gods, the name of the
+mountain was changed to that of Mausorus.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain grows an herb, which is like to wild barley. This herb
+the natives heat over the fire, and anointing themselves with the oil
+of it, are never sick, till the necessity of dying overtakes them;—as
+Sostratus writes in his First Collection of Fabulous History.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h3 class="nobreak">XXV. <span class="smcap">Indus.</span></h3></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Indus</span> is a river in India, flowing with a rapid violence into the
+country of the fish-devourers. It was first called Mausolus, from
+Mausolus the son of the Sun, but changed its name for this reason.</p>
+
+<p>At the time when the mysteries of Bacchus were solemnized and the
+people were earnest at their devotion, Indus,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">509</span> one of the chief of
+the young nobility, by force deflowered Damasalcidas, the daughter
+of Oxyalcus the king of the country, as she was carrying the sacred
+basket; for which being sought for by the tyrant, in order to bring
+him to condign punishment, for fear he threw himself into the river
+Mausolus, which from that accident was afterwards called Indus.</p>
+
+<p>In this river grows a certain stone called ... which if a virgin carry
+about her, she need never be afraid of being deflowered.</p>
+
+<p>In the same river also grows an herb, not unlike to bugloss. Which is
+an excellent remedy against the king’s-evil, being administered to the
+patient in warm water;—as Clitophon the Rhodian reports in his First
+Book of Indian Relations.</p>
+
+<p>Near to this mountain lies the mountain Lilaeus, so called from Lilaeus
+a shepherd; who, being very superstitious and a worshipper of the Moon
+alone, always performed her mysteries in the dead time of the night.
+Which the rest of the Gods taking for a great dishonor, sent two
+monstrous lions that tore him in pieces. Upon which the Moon turned her
+adorer into a mountain of the same name.</p>
+
+<p>In this mountain a stone is found which is called clitoris, of a
+very black color, which the natives wear for ornament’s sake in their
+ears;—as Aristotle witnesses in his Fourth Book of Rivers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> Odyss. XII. 395.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> “I see not how this that is included within these marks
+[ ] agreeth with this place, or matter in hand: I suppose therefore
+it is inserted heere without judgement, and taken out of some other
+booke.”—<span class="smcap">Holland.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> See Mullach, Fragm. Philos. p. 325 (No. 73).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> Odyss. X. 284.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> Eurip. Cresphontes, Frag. 457.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Concerning Ideas, according to the MSS. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> Theopompus was Archon in <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 411. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> The corrupt clause indicated by ... probably means, that
+the Demarchs were to make inventories (<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἀποφῆναι</span>) of the traitors’
+estates. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 459.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 444.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 413.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 486</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 338.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 369-342.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> The Greek text is corrupt; but it is evident that the
+author confounds the Phocian war, which ended in 346 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>,
+with the Amphissian war of 339 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> The next sentence shows
+the same mistake. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> See Demosthenes on the Crown, p. 271, 27.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> This is one of the statements which seem to fix the
+number of Athenian citizens in the age of the Orators at about 20,000.
+See Boeckh’s Public Economy of the Athenians, I. Book 1, chap. 7. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a> Aristoph. Birds, 1296.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 364.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> This name was properly pronounced with the accent on the
+last syllable, <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ἀσκληπιός</span>. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 385-384 to 349-348.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 348-347.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 368-362.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 280</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> This is supposed to have been added by some other hand,
+because a contrary sentence is given of him before.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> See Demosthenes on the Crown, p. 221, 27.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 307.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 269.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 307.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> Persons who carried baskets, or panniers, on their heads,
+of sacred things.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> Thuc. II. 44.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> Soph. Oed. Colon. 668.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> Eurip. Aeolus, Frag. 28.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> Sophocles, Frag. 779.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> Eurip. Orestes, 258.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> Il. VIII. 453.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> Il. XIX. 165.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> Il. II. 53.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> Il. II. 372.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> Eurip Antiope, Frag. 220.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> Sophocles, Frag. 779.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> Il. XVI. 9.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> Il. XXII. 71.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> Il. IX. 55.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> Il. IX. 443.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> Il. IX. 55.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> Il. IX. 443.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> Il. IX. 441.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> See Od. VII. 165.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> Eurip. Frag. 977 and 442.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> Od. II. 69.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> Thuc. II. 65.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> The son of Melesias, not the historian. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> So he called the little island Aegina.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> Eurip. Autolycus, Frag. 284, vs. 22.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> A brook near Athens, the waters of which fell with an
+extraordinary noise. Aristoph. Eq. 137.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> Pind. Olymp. VI. 4.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> From whence they set forth to run.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> See Odyss. X. 495.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> Aristoph. Pac. 756.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> See Aristoph. Eq. 1099.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> Eurip. Bellerophon, Frag. 311.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> Il. X. 242.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> Il. X. 558.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> Il. XVII. 171.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> Il. VII. 358.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> Il. V. 800.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> See Il. XVII. 156.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> See Il. IV. 223.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> Il. IV. 415.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> Xen. Anab. III. 1, 4.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> Probably a mistake for <i>Nabis</i>. See Plutarch’s Life
+of Philopoemen, § 12. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> Odyss. V. 350.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> See Il. XIX. 404.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> Il. IV. 130.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> Hesiod, Works and Days, 235.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> Eurip. Hippol. 218.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> Hesiod, Works and Days, 275.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> In the lost tragedy, Prometheus Unbound, Frag. 188
+(Nauck). (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> See Odyss. XII. 116.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> Il. V. 85.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> Hesiod, Works and Days, 525.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> Il. XVI. 34.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> Odyss. XIV. 30.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> Fragment 38.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> History of Animals, IV. 9, 19.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> Il XXIV. 80.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">κέρας</span>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> That is, by joining hands and sweeping across an island.
+See the description in Herod. VI. 31, and <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">σαγηνεύω</span> in Liddell and
+Scott. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> See Il. V. 487.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> Theognis, vs. 215.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> Il. XVI. 407.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> Il. IX. 56. See above, chap. 13.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> It seems incredible that Plutarch could have put this
+into the mouth of Gryllus, even by carelessness. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> See the account of various ancient doctrines of vision
+and the reflection of light in the treatise on the Opinions of
+Philosophers, Book IV. Chapters 13 and 14. The idea that vision was
+caused by something proceeding from the eye to the object is especially
+to be noticed. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> The text in this passage is defective, and the sense
+chiefly conjectural. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> Aesch. Prom. 349.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> Here again the text is defective, and the sense
+conjectural. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> Il. IX. 212.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> Otus and Ephialtes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> See Il. XIV. 246. The second of these verses is not
+found in the present text of the Iliad, but was probably defended by
+Crates against Aristarchus. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> Hesiod, Works and Days, 41.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> Il. XX. 65.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> Il. VIII. 16.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> Odyss. VII. 244.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> Odyss. IV. 563.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Odyss. XI. 221.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> Odyss. XI. 601.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> “This little Treatise is so pitiously torne, maimed, and
+dismembred thorowout, that a man may sooner divine and guess thereat
+(as I have done) than translate it. I beseech the readers therefore, to
+hold me excused, in case I neither please my selfe, nor content them,
+in that which I have written.”—<span class="smcap">Holland.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> See Plato, Phaedrus, p. 248 C; Timaeus, p. 41 E;
+Republic, X. p. 617 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> Plato, Tim. p. 39 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">112</a> This is the whole passage from Plato’s Phaedrus, p. 248
+C, of which part is quoted in § 1. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">113</a> Plato, Phaedo, p. 58 A.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">114</a> Plato, Timaeus, p. 29 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">115</a> Plato, Timaeus, p. 41 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">116</a> Plato, Timaeus, p. 42 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">117</a> Plato, Laws, IX. p. 875 C.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">118</a> Plato, Theages, p. 129 E.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">119</a> Odyss. IX. 44.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">120</a> Il. XVI. 649.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">121</a> Pind. Isthm. IV. 112.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">122</a> Odyss. V. 469.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">123</a> Pindar, Olymp. I. 1.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">124</a> Hesiod, Theog. 116.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">125</a> See Plato, Phaed. p. 69 C, and Stallbaum’s note. Here
+the proverb occurs,—<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ναρθηκοφόροι μὲν πολλοὶ, Βάκχοι δέ τε παῦροι</span>,
+<i>the thyrsus-bearers are many, but the true priests of Bacchus are
+few</i>. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">126</a> Il. VII. 182; X. 243.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">127</a> Euripides Frag. 1071.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">128</a> The text is corrupt here. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">129</a> Il. XVIII. 585.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">130</a> Plato, Phaedrus, p. 230 A.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">131</a> Il. XX. 250.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">132</a> Eurip. Iph. Taur. 289.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">133</a> Eurip. Orest. 258.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">134</a> See Il. XXII. 126.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">135</a> See Il. V. 646; XXIII. 71.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">136</a> Herod. III. 82.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">137</a> Il. II. 547.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">138</a> The text of several lines which follow here is
+hopelessly corrupt, but it is evident that Plutarch refers to the
+description in Thucyd. VII. 71. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">139</a> Thucyd. V. 73.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">140</a> Odyss. XIX. 208.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">141</a> Aristophanes, Frogs, 354.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">142</a> I follow Baehr’s emendation (or rather substitution)
+<span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ἐνίκα</span> for <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">συνῆν</span>, which is demanded by the obvious sense of the whole
+passage. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">143</a> See Aeschines against Ctesiphon, § 146.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">144</a> Demosthenes on the Crown, p. 297, 11.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">145</a> Plato, Laws, VIII. p. 844 B.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">146</a> Odyss. XI. 578.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">147</a> Il. I. 154.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">148</a> Odyss. V. 439.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">149</a> Odyss. V. 291, 295.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">150</a> See Plato, Theaet. p. 149 B.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">151</a> Theaet. p. 151 C.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">152</a> Theognis, vs. 432.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">153</a> Plato, Timaeus, p. 28 C.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">154</a> Phaedrus, p. 261 A.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">155</a> Republic, VI. pp. 509 D-511 E.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">156</a> See Plato’s Symposium, p. 210 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">157</a> See Timaeus, pp. 53-56.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">158</a> Triangular numbers are those of which equilateral
+triangles can be formed in this way:—</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fn158" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fn158.png" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p>Such are 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, &amp;c.; that is, numbers formed by
+adding the digits in regular order. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">159</a> See Phaedrus, p. 246 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">160</a> See Timaeus, pp. 79-81.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">161</a> See Timaeus, p. 42 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">162</a> See Aristotle on the Soul, II. 1, with Trendelenburg’s
+note. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">163</a> Plato, Republic, VI. pp. 508, 509.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">164</a> Euripides, Troad. 887.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">165</a> See Republic, IV. p. 448 D.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">166</a> Il. XI. 64.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">167</a> Plato’s Sophist, p. 262 A.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">168</a> Il. I. 185.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">169</a> Odyss. XXIII. 183; VIII. 408.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">170</a> Il. XIV. 459.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">171</a> Il. XX. 147.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">172</a> Il. XVIII. 536.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">173</a> Demosthenes against Midias, p. 537, 25, and p. 578, 29.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">174</a> It seems impossible to believe this treatise to be the
+work of Plutarch, and equally impossible to believe it to be the work
+of any full-grown man of sound mind. In this case, and in that of the
+next treatise, no satisfaction is gained by merely supposing the work
+spurious. One of these Parallel Histories is usually a well-known
+story, and the other is an absurd imitation of it. An instance may be
+seen in section 12, where the common story of Manlius Torquatus and his
+son is matched by an absurd one of Epaminondas and his son; on which
+Wyttenbach remarks: “Romanum constat: Graecum non modo ementitum, sed
+stulte ementitum.” We might almost suspect that many of them are some
+school-boy’s compositions, half historical, and half imitations of
+well-known stories fortified by imaginary authorities. Is it possible
+that this school-boy can have been Plutarch himself? (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">175</a> A very slight inspection of this strange treatise
+will convince the reader that it is justly placed among the
+Pseudoplutarchea. It is reprinted here merely because it was included
+in the original translation. (G.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">176</a> Whence probably our English word <i>down</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_511">511</span>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>
+</div>
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">A.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush,” a proverb among the Greeks, iv. 229.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Abstain from beans,” meaning of the aphorism, i. 29.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Achelous, a river in Aetolia, v. <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acrotatus, apothegm of, i. 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Actaeon, a beautiful youth of Corinth, murdered, iv. 313-315.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ada, queen of Caria, sends delicacies to Alexander, i. 199.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adimantus, admiral of the Corinthian fleet at the battle of Salamis,
+iv. 362;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his courage vindicated, 364.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Adrastus, anecdote of, i. 288.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Advice to a new-married couple, ii. 486-507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aeacus, his two sons, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aemilius Censorinus, v. <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aemilius of Sybaris, v. <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aemilius Paulus, sayings of, i. 232; iv. 202.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aeolus, king of Etruria, v. <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aeschines, quoted, Prom., i. 40;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 55;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eumen., 59;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Prom., 299;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ctesiphon, 334;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his early life, and concern in public affairs, v. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">incurs the hostility of Demosthenes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">accused by Demosthenes and acquitted, 34, 35;</li>
+<li class="isub1">impeaches Ctesiphon, is fined and exiled, 35;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his school at Rhodes, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his death, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his orations, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his public employments, 36.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aeschylus, quoted, Septem, i. 210, 286, 315, 329, 493;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 47;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 77, 160;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 48, 83, 127, 165, 374, 431,
+458, 463, 474, 477;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. Frag., 24, 222;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 20, 54, 385;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 276, 279;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. Frag., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Prom., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aesop, murdered by the citizens of Delphi, iv. 160;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their punishment, 161.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a href="#SeeEsop"><i>See Esop.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agamedes and Trophonius built the temple at Delphi, i. 313.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agasicles, apothegms of, i. 385.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agatharchides the Samian, his Persian History, v. <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agatho the Samian, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agathocles, anecdote of, i. 46; ii. 317.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aged Men, Shall they meddle in State Affairs?, v. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agesianax quoted, v. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agesilaus, reply of, i. 73, 219, 220;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings and great actions, 385-397;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his upright character, ii. 109, 115, 319, 455;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his punishment, iii. 46, 79;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his faults, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>; <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Italian History, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agesipolis, two of the name, apothegms of, i. 397, 398.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agis, king of Sparta, his sayings, i. 218, 221;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agis, son of Archidamus, apothegm of, i. 398.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agis the Argive, ii. 125.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agis the Last, apothegm of, i. 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agis the Younger, apothegms of, i. 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ajax’s soul, her place in Hell, iii. 442.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alba, king of, torn in pieces by horses, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albinus, a Roman general, v. <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcaeus quoted, ii. 298; iii, 264.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcamenes, apothegm of, i. 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcibiades, i. 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, 211;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his lustful conduct, 489;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the prince of flatterers, ii. 108, 471;</li>
+<li class="isub1">failure of, 460;</li>
+<li class="isub1">spoke with hesitation, v. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcippus, a Lacedaemonian, banished for his virtue; his wife slays
+herself and her daughters, iv. 320-322.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcmaeon, saying of, i. 288;</li>
+<li class="isub1">philosophical opinions;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the planets, iii. 140;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of hearing, 170;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of smelling, 170;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of taste, 170;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the barrenness of mules, 182;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of embryos, 184;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the formation of the body, 184;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the cause of sleep, 188;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_512">512</span>of health, sickness, and old age, 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcmaeonidae, unfairly represented by Herodotus, iv. 338, 347.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alcman, quoted; Frag., i. 494; iii. 16; v. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aleuas the Thessalian, iii. 67.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander of Macedon, and Porus, i. 45;</li>
+<li class="isub1">lament of, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Criso the runner, 152;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, 198-202;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Fortune or Virtue of, 475-516;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, ii. 125, 138, 473;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his moderation, 475; iii. 29;</li>
+<li class="isub1">was he a great drinker, 219;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his purpose to attack the Romans, iv. 219; v. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander, tyrant of Pherae, his cruel temper softened by a play, i. 492.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandridas, apothegm of, i. 401.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexarchus, his Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexidemas, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexinus the sophist, i. 76.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexis quoted, ii. 58.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alpha, why placed first in the Alphabet, iii. 438.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alpheus, a river in Arcadia, v. <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amasis, king of Egypt, required to drink the ocean dry, ii. 13;</li>
+<li class="isub1">questions of, 16.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ammonius, teacher of Plutarch, anecdote of, ii. 147.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amphiaraus, quoted, i. 317;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his lance turned into a laurel, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amphidamas, poets meet at his grave in Chalcis, ii. 19.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amphion, first invented playing on the harp and lyric poesy, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anarcharsis, and Eumetis, ii. 8;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his utterances at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, 12, 15, 20,
+21, 27, 39.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anatole, a mountain, v. <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anaxagoras, saying of, i. 159;</li>
+<li class="isub1">said the sun was red-hot metal, 179;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 332; ii. 357; iii. 35, 37;</li>
+<li class="isub1">philosophical opinions;</li>
+<li class="isub2">Homoeomeries, 108;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the origin of bodies, 119;</li>
+<li class="isub2">how bodies are mixed, 126;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of fortune, 131;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the world’s inclination, 136;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the stars, 138, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the sun, 142, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the moon, 145, 147;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the milky way, 149;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of shooting stars, 150;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of thunder, lightning and hurricanes, 151;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the rainbow, 153;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of earthquakes, 157;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the sea, 158;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the overflow of the Nile, 160;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the voice, 172;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of generation, 178;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of the generation of animals, 186;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of reason in animals, 187;</li>
+<li class="isub2">of sleep, 190; v. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anaxander, apothegm of, i. 401.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anaxilas, apothegm of, i. 402.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anaximander, philosophical opinions;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of principles, iii. 107;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the stars were heavenly deities, 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the stars, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the essence and magnitude of the sun, 141, 142;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of eclipses of the sun, 144;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the moon, 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of fire from clouds, 150;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of winds, 154;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the earth, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sea, 158;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the generation of animals, 186.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anaximenes, philosophical opinions;</li>
+<li class="isub1">air is the principle of all beings, iii. 107;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of heaven, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the stars, 139, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub1">cause of summer and winter, 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the shape of the sun and summer and winter solstice, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the moon, 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of clouds, 151;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the rainbow, 153;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the earth, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of earthquakes, 157; v. <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ancients, suppers of the, iii. 255-259.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Andocides, one of the ten Attic orators, v. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of a noble family, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">accused of impious acts, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his adventures in Cyprus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his exile, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his orations, <a href="#Page_23"><i>ib.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Androclidas, apothegm of, i. 402.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anecdotes of</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aeschylus, ii. 458.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agathocles, i. 46.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agesilaus, i. 73, 219, 220; v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agis, king of Sparta, v. <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alcibiades, ii. 108, 109.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alexander the Great, i. 45; ii. 473.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ammonius, ii. 147.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anaxagoras, i. 332.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antigonus, i. 44, 47, 67, 202, 205, 334; iv. 231.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antimachus, i. 307.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antiochus Hierax, iii. 60.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antipater, i. 64, 197, 205, 215.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antony and Cleopatra, ii. 127.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Apelles the painter, i. 16, 153; ii. 122, 133.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Appius Claudius, v. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arcesilaus and Apelles, ii. 133.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archelaus of Macedon, i. 67, 193.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archidamus, i. 74.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archimedes, ii. 174; v. 71.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archytas of Tarentum, i. 18, 24.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aristippus, i. 11, 55, 147, 459; ii. 55.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Athenian barber, iv. 238.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Attalus and Eumenes, iii. 61.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Augustus Caesar and Fulvius, iv. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bocchoris, i. 63.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brasidas, ii. 458.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caesar, i. 293; iv. 204, 205; v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cato, i. 295; ii. 490.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cato and Catulus, i. 73.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_513">513</span>Cleon, v. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Corinna, v. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Crassus, i. 288, 290.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Croesus and Solon, ii. 122.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demades and Phocion, ii. 298.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demaratus and Philip, ii. 146.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demetrius Phalereus, ii. 145; iii. 21.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demosthenes, i. 15, 65, 334; ii. 460; v. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Diogenes, i. 51, 67, 141, 142, 166, 283,
+285, 311, 487; ii. 455, 458; iii, 21, 29.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Diogenes and Philip, ii. 147.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Diogenes and the mouse, ii. 453.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dion, i. 64, 333.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dionysius of Syracuse, i. 83, 152, 493; ii. 108, 140; iv. 238.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Epaminondas, v. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Euclid, i. 55.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eudoxus, ii. 174.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eumenes, iii. 61; iv. 232.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fulvius and Augustus, iv. 235, 236.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hiero, i. 291.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hyperides, v. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Isocrates, v. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leaena, iv. 229, 230.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lucretia, i. 355.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lycurgus, the lawgiver, i. 7.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lycurgus, the orator, v. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lysander, i. 72; ii. 495.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lysias, iv. 226.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Magas, i. 45.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Menander, v. <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nasica, i. 285.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nero, v. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nicias, the Athenian general, i. 177.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nicias, the painter, ii. 173; v. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nicostratus and Archidamus, i. 74.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Olympias, ii. 494, 495.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pericles, i. 15, 18, 66, 211, 332; ii. 309, 315; v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Philip of Macedon, i. 305; ii. 146, 147, 494.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phocion, ii. 298; v. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pindar, v. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pisistratus, iii. 41.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Plato, i. 71.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Plato and Socrates, ii. 148.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Polemon, i. 55.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pompey, v. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Postumia, i. 290.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Priest of Hercules, iii. 90.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Prometheus, i. 289.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ptolemy Lagus, i. 45.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pythagoras, ii. 174.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Roman Senator and his wife, iv. 233-235.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scaurus, i. 295.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scilurus, a Scythian king, iv. 244.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Seleucus Callinicus, iv. 237.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Seneca, i. 53.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Simonides, v. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Socrates, i. 11, 13, 23, 26, 38, 53, 141,
+150.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Socrates and Plato, ii. 148.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Solon, v. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Solon and Croesus, ii. 122.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sophocles, v. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stasicrates, i. 495.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stilpo the philosopher, ii. 468.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stratonicus, iii. 21.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sylla, v. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Terpander, i. 91, 92.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Themistocles, i. 73, 290, 296; iii. 21; v. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theramenes, i. 306.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Timotheus the musician, i. 92.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Valeria, i. 356.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Xanthippe, wife of Socrates, i. 53, 292.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Xenocrates, i. 71.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Xenophon, i. 333.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Xerxes and Ariamenes, iii. 59, 60.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Zeno, i. 72, 142, 283; ii. 455; iii. 25; iv. 225.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anger, concerning the cure of, i. 33-59.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Animal Food, shall it be eaten? Of Eating of Flesh, v. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Animals, generation of, iii. 186;</li>
+<li class="isub1">how many species of, 187;</li>
+<li class="isub1">appetites and pleasures of, 191;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ails and cures of, 510;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their intelligence, v. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anius, king of the Tuscans, v. <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antalcidas, his sayings, i. 222, 402;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his reply to a railing Athenian, v. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthes, the first author of hymns, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthias, the sacred fish, v. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthipphus, Lydian harmony first used by, i. 114.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antichthon, the, iii. 155.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antigonus, anecdote of, i. 25;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, 44, 47, 67, 202, 205, 334, 484; iv. 231.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antigonus the Second, his sayings, i. 205; ii. 319.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antimachus, anecdote of, i. 308.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus and Charicles, iii. 49.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus and Seleucus, iii. 60.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus, apothegm of, i. 403.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus Hierax, anecdotes of, i. 206; iii. 60.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus Sidetes, anecdotes of, i. 207.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus the Spartan, his saying, i. 221.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiochus the Third, anecdotes of, i. 206.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antipater, anecdotes of, i. 64, 197, 205, 215; ii. 135, 298; iii. 517; v. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiperistasis of motion, v. <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_514">514</span>Antiphanes, witty saying of his, ii. 456.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antiphon, one of the ten Attic orators, ii. 142; v. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">his birth, education, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">wrote speeches for others, <a href="#Page_17"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">a man of great talent and learning, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">concerned in the revolution which subverted the popular government, <a href="#Page_18"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the overthrow of the oligarchical party he was involved in their ruin, <a href="#Page_18"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">number of his orations, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">decree of the senate against him, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his condemnation and punishment, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opinion concerning the moon, iii. 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sea, 158.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antisthenes quoted, i. 77, 289, 496; v. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antony and Cleopatra, ii. 127.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apelles, the painter, anecdotes of, i. 16, 153;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his picture of Alexander, 494;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Megabyzus, ii. 122;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Arcesilaus, 133.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aphareus, adopted son of Isocrates, wrote orations and tragedies, v. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apis, the sacred bull of the Egyptians, iv. 68;</li>
+<li class="isub1">slain by Ochus, king of Persia, 74, 92.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollo and the dragon Python, iv. 20.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollo, inventor of the flute and harp, i. 113.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollo, temple of, iv. 478-498;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the inscription <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ει</span> over its gate, 479.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollodorus, first invented the mixing of colors and the softening of
+shadows, v. <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollonides, of shadow, v. <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of spots in the moon, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollonis of Cyzicum, iii. 41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollonius, consolation to, i. 299-339.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apollonius, the Peripatetic, iii. 57.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apothegms of Kings and Great Commanders, i. 185-250.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agathocles, sayings of, i. 193.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agesilaus, 219.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agis, 218-221.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alcibiades, 211.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alexander the Great, 198-202.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antalcidas, 222.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antigonus, 202.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antigonus the Second, 205.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antiochus Sidetes, 207.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antiochus the Spartan, 221.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antiochus the Third, 206.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antipater, 205.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archelaus, 193.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archidamus, 218.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aristides, 210.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Artaxerxes Longimanus, 187.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Artaxerxes Mnemon, 188.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ateas, 189.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Augustus Caesar, 248-250.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brasidas, 218.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caecilius Metellus, 239.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caius Fabricius, 227.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caius Marius, 239.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caius Popilius, 240.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cato the Elder, 233-235.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chabrias, 213.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charillus, 217.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cicero, 244.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cneus Domitius, 231.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cneus Pompeius, 241-244.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cotys, 189.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cyrus the Elder, 186.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cyrus the Younger, 188.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Darius, 186.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demetrius, 204.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demetrius Phalereus, 217.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dion, 193.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dionysius the Elder, 191.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dionysius the Younger, 192.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Epaminondas, 222-226.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eudaemonidas, 221.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eumenes of Pergamus, 206.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fabius Maximus, 227-228.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gelo, 190.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hegesippus, 213.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hiero, 190.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Idathyrsus, 189.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iphicrates, 212.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lucullus, 241.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lycurgus, 217.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lysander, 219.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lysimachus, 205.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Manius Curius, 226.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Memnon, 189.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nicostratus, 221.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orontes, 188.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Parysatis, 188.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Paulus Aemilius, 232.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pelopidas, 225.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pericles, 211.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Philip of Macedon, 194-198.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phocion, 213, 216.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pisistratus, 216.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Poltys, 189.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ptolemy Lagus, 202.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pyrrhus the Epirot, 207.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pytheas, 213.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scilurus, 190.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scipio Junior, 235-239.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scipio the Elder, 229.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Semiramis, 187.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Teres, 189.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Themistocles, 208.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theopompus, 217.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Timotheus, 212.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Titus Quinctius, 230.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Xerxes, 187.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Appius Claudius, anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apple tree, of the, iii. 333.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arar, a river in Gaul, v. <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aratus, quoted, iii. 116;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the stars, 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 334, 497; iv. 98; v. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_515">515</span>quoted, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Araxes, a river in Armenia, v. <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arcadian prophet in Herodotus, iii. 38.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arcadio the Archaean, saying of, i. 44.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arcesilaus, i. 53, 148;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 258, 315;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Battus, ii. 115;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his kindness to Apelles, 133; v. <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archelaus, king of Macedon, anecdote of, i. 67, 193.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archelaus, his opinions concerning principles, iii. 109.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archias, ii. 379 <i>et seq.</i>; iv. 314, 315.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archidamidas, apothegms of, i. 404.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archidamus, i. 4, 74, 218, 404; ii. 379 <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archilochus the poet, banished from Sparta, i. 96;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 97;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his improvements in music, 122, 123, 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">phrase of, ii. 17, 61, 84; iii. 26; v. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archimedes, of the sun’s diameter, v. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, ii. 173, 174.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archytas of Tarentum, anecdotes of, i. 18, 24.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ardalus, a minstrel at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 11,</li>
+<li class="isub2">12.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aregeus, apothegm of, i. 403.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aretades Cnidus, his Macedonian History, v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Second Book of Islands, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aretaphila, her fortitude and virtue, i. 367.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Argive women, their repulse of the Spartan army, i. 346.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Argives, wrestling matches of, i. 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">imposed a fine for playing with more than seven strings, 130;</li>
+<li class="isub1">combat of the, with the Lacedaemonians, v. <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ariamenes yields the throne of Persia to his younger brother Xerxes, iii. 59.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arion and the dolphins, ii. 33-36.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristarchus, iii. 36;</li>
+<li class="isub1">concerning the eclipse of the sun, 144; v. <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristides, his Persian History, v. <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristides, his sayings, i. 210.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristides Milesius, his Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
+<a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Italian Commentaries, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristippus, anecdotes of, i. 11, 55, 79, 147; ii. 295, 459.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristo of Chios, ii. 369.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristobolus, his Third Book of Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristocles, Third Book of his Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristoclia, a beautiful maiden, iv. 312, 313.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristodemus, his Third Collection of Fables, v. <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristodemus, king of Messenia, i. 177.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristodemus the Epicurean, ii. 158, 159, 180.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristomenes, preceptor of Ptolemy, ii. 149.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ariston, apothegm of, i. 403; iii. 18;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion of moral virtue, 462; v. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristonicus the musician, i. 494.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristonymus, a woman hater, v. <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristophanes, his comedy of “The Clouds,” i. 23;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 79, 125, 500;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 78, 149, 429;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his coarseness and buffoonery, iii. 11;</li>
+<li class="isub1">compared with Menander, 11-14;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 196, 273;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristotinus, tyranny of, i. 357-363; v. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristotle, quoted, i. 37; 50;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on harmony, 119; 155, 272, 326;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the teacher of Alexander, 478, ii. 302, 319;</li>
+<li class="isub1">letter of, 455;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions; of nature, 105;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of principles and elements, 106;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of God, 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of matter, 123;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of ideas, 123;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of causes, 124;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of a vacuum, 127;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of motion, 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of fortune, 131;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the world, 133, 134, 135;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of vacuum, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the world, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of heaven, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the stars, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sun, 142;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the summer and winter solstices, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the moon, 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the milky way, 148, 149;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of comets, 149;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of thunder and lightning, 151;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of earthquakes, 157;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of tides, 159;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the motion of the soul, 164;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the senses, 166;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the voice, 172;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of generative seed, 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sperm, 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of emission of women, 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of conception, 178;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of generation, 179;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the first form in the womb, 184;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of seven months’ children, 185;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the species of animals, 187;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of sleep, 189;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of plants, 190;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 225, 226;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opinions concerning the soul, 465;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opinion concerning a plurality of worlds, iv. 33;</li>
+<li class="isub1">concerning prophetic inspiration, 54; v. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
+<a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the Second Book of Paradoxes, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aristoxenus, of music, i. 114, 115, 125, 134.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arsinoe, Queen, i. 319.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artaxerxes Longimanus, his sayings, i. 187.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artaxerxes Mnemon, his sayings, i. 188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aruntius and Medullina, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_516">516</span>Asclepiades, opinions: of the soul, iii. 161;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of respiration, 174;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of two or three children at one birth, 180;</li>
+<li class="isub1">animals in the womb, 188;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of health, sickness, and old age, 193.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aster the archer, v. <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Astycratidas, apothegm of, i. 405.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ateas, saying of, i. 189; ii. 177.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atepomarus, king of the Gauls, v. <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atheism and superstition compared, i. 168 <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athenian citizens, their number, v. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their temper and disposition, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athenians, whether they were more renowned for their warlike
+achievements, or for their learning, v. <a href="#Page_399">399</a>-<a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athenodorus, memorable action of, iii. 50.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athens, was a democracy, v. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the nurse of history, of painting, and poetry, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">not renowned for epic or lyric verse, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atoms, doctrine of, v. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Atreus and Thyestes, v. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Attalus and Eumenes, their kindness and fidelity to each other, iii.
+61, 62.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Attica, invasion of, by Datis, v. <a href="#Page_450">450</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Augustus Caesar, his sayings, i. 248-250;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the favored son of Fortune, iv. 205; v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Augustus Caesar and Fulvius, anecdote of, iv. 235, 236.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Autobulus, v. <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Autumn, dreams in, iii. 432.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">B.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baccho, iv. 256, 264, 269.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bacchus, ii. 12, 29.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ballenaeus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banishment, or flying one’s country, iii. 15-35.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banquet of the Seven Wise Men; Solon, Bias, Thales, Anacharsis,
+Cleobulus, Pittacus, Chilo, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barley, sow, in dust, iii. 505.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barrenness in women, iii. 181.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Barrenness of mules, iii. 182.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bashfulness, i. 60-77.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basilocles, iii. 69, 70.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baths, hot and cold, iii. 512.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Battus, ii. 115.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bear, cunning of the, v. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bears, flesh of, iii. 509.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beasts, flesh of sacrificial, iii. 361.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bees, cannot abide smoke, iii. 515;</li>
+<li class="isub1">stinging of, 516.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bellerophon, fable of, i. 351.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berecyntus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berosus concerning the eclipse of the moon, iii. 146.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bewitching, power of, iii. 327.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bias, quoted, i. 17, 406;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 4, 14, 128.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bion, saying of, i. 76;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion concerning the punishment of children for the sins of their fathers, iv. 171;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, v. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bird or the egg, which was first, iii. 242-246.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birds, prophetic nature of, v. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birth, two or three at one, iii. 180.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birthdays of famous men, iii. 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Biton and Cleobis, their filial piety, i. 313.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boar and the toil, iii. 512.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bocchoris, anecdote of, i. 63.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bodies, of, iii. 124;</li>
+<li class="isub1">division of, 126;</li>
+<li class="isub1">how mixed with one another, 126.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Body, passions of the, iii. 175;</li>
+<li class="isub1">what part is first formed, 184;</li>
+<li class="isub1">diseases of the, iv. 504-508.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boedromion, month of, iii. 444.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boethus, his opinion concerning comets, iii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Book of Rivers, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brasidas, apothegm of, i. 218; ii. 458.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brennus, king of the Gauls, v. <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Britain, longevity in, iii. 193.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brixaba, mount, v. <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brotherly love, iii. 36-68.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brute animals, ails and cures of, iii. 510;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their intelligence; which are the more crafty, water or land
+animals? v. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brute beasts make use of reason, v. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bucephalus, the horse, v. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bulimy, or the greedy disease, iii. 355.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Busiris, king of Egypt, strangers murdered by, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">C.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caecilius Metellus, apothegm of, i. 239.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caesar, Augustus, his sayings, i. 248-250;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, iv. 205;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Fulvius, 235, 236; v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caesar, C. Julius, his sayings, i. 246-248;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his magnanimity, 293;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his reliance on fortune, iv. 205.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caesar, Tiberius, sayings of, i. 277; ii. 126; iii. 23.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caicus, a river, v. <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caius Fabricius, apothegm of, i. 227.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caius Gracchus, i. 40; v. <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caius Marius, apothegm of, i. 239.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caius Maximus, and his two sons, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caius Popilius, apothegm of, i. 240.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_517">517</span>Callicratidas, apothegms of, i. 412;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, ii. 187.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Callimachus, saying of, i. 323; iii. 23, 118, 321.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Callisthenes, saying of, i. 37;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Book of Transformations, v. <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Third Book of the Macedonics, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Third Book of History of Thrace, v. <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calpurnius Crassus, liberated from captivity, v. <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calpurnius and Florentia, v. <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calydon, mount, v. <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camillus, anecdote of, iv. 204.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camma, the Galatian, her revenge, i. 372.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canus the piper, v. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caphene and Nymphaeus, i. 348.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caphisias, ii. 379 <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carneades, i. 160;</li>
+<li class="isub1">a striking observation of his, ii. 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cassius, a Roman traitor, v. <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Castor and Pollux, iii. 48.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cato and Catulus, anecdotes of, i. 73.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cato, saying of, i. 61;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Catulus, 73; 261;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his integrity, 295;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, ii. 42, 72, 76, 318; v. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
+<a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cato the Elder, apothegms of, i. 233-235;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, ii. 490.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catoptrics, doctrine of the, v. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cattle, salt given to, iii. 497.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catulus, v. <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caucasus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caudine Forks, defeat of the Romans at the, v. <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Causes, of, iii. 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Causes of sleep and death, iii. 188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Celtic women, virtue of the, i. 347.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cephisocrates, ii. 133.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cephisophan, a rhetorician, i. 98.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ceres, mistress of earthly things, v. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chabrias, his sayings, i. 213.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chaeremon quoted, Frag., ii. 475.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chameleon, the, v. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chaplet of flowers at table, iii. 260-265.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charicles and Antiochus, iii. 49.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charillus, his sayings, i. 217, 432; ii. 97, 116.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charon, the Theban, ii. 381.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chasms in the earth closed by men leaping into them, v. <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chersias at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chian women, virtue of the, i. 344.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Children, training of, i. 3-32;</li>
+<li class="isub1">similitude to their parents, iii. 180;</li>
+<li class="isub1">similitude to strangers, 181.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chilo, i. 280;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chilon, saying of, i. 471.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chiomara of Galatia, i. 374.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chorus of the Aeantis, iii. 226-228.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chorus of the Leontis, iii. 226.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chromatic scale, in music, i. 117.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrysermus, his Peloponnesian History, v. <a href="#Page_452">452</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Second Book of Histories, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrysippus, ii. 87;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion concerning fate, iii. 130;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of moral virtue, 462;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his doctrines refuted, 488; iv. 372 <i>et seq.</i>, 428-477; v. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion concerning the cause of cold combated, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">First Book of Italian History, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cicero, apothegm of, i. 244; ii. 310; v. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cilician geese, v. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cinesias, the lyric poet, i. 180.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cinna stoned to death, v. <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cios, maids of, i. 354.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Circe, her supposed conversation with Ulysses, v. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cithaeron, mount, v. <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleanthes, his opinion concerning the stars, iii. 139, 140; v. <a href="#Page_176">176</a>,
+420.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleobis and Biton, i. 313.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleobulus at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleodemus, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first brought the cupping-glass into request, 20.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleodorus, the physician, ii. 16.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleombrotus, i. 413; iv. 3, 4, 26.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleomenes, v. 161.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleomenes, apothegms of, i. 346, 413, 416.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cleon, anecdotes of, v. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clisthenes, vindicated from the aspersions of Herodotus, iv. 343.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clitonymus, his Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Second Book of his Sybaritics, v. <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clitophon, his First Book of Gallican History, v. <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cloelia and Valeria, i. 356.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clonas, a musical composer, i. 107, 109.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clouds, eruption of fire out of the, iii. 150;</li>
+<li class="isub1">rain, hail, and snow, 151.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cneus Domitius, apothegm of, i. 231.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cneus Pompeius, apothegms of, i. 241-244.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cocles, the Roman, v. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Codrus, king of Athens, v. <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coeranus and the dolphins, v. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cold, First Principle of, v. <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Color, does it exist in the dark, v. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colors, of, iii. 125.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colotes, the Epicurean, ii. 187;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_518">518</span>book written by, v. <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">misrepresents Democritus, 341;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his doctrines, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">misrepresents Plato, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">falls at the feet of Epicurus, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">disparagement of Socrates, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">against Stilpo, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">assaults the Philosophers, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">condemns the opinion of Epicurus, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cyrenaic philosophers ridiculed, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treats Arcesilaus unfairly, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">absurdity of Epicureanism, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opinions of Epicurus, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">danger of his doctrines, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Comets and shooting fires, iii. 149.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Comminius Super, a Laurentine, v. <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Common conceptions against the Stoics, iv. 372-427.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Comparison between the actions of the Greeks and Romans, v. <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-<a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Comparison betwixt Aristophanes and Menander, iii. 11-14.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conception, how it is made, iii. 178.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Concerning Music, i. 102-135.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Concerning such whom God is slow to punish, iv. 140-188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Concerning the fortune of the Romans, iv. 198-219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Concerning the virtues of women, i. 340-384.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conciseness of speech, recommended, iv. 243;</li>
+<li class="isub1">examples given, 243, 244.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conjugal Precepts; Advice to a New-married Couple, ii. 486-507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Consolation to Apollonius, i. 299-339.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Consolatory Letter from Plutarch to his Wife, Timoxena, on Occasion
+of the Death of their Daughter, two years old, v. <a href="#Page_386">386</a>-<a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contingent and possible defined, v. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contradictions of the Stoics, iv. 428-477.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cora and Proserpine, v. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corinna, anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corinthian Hall at Delphi, iii. 80-82.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornelius Scipio, consul, v. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cotys, his sayings, i. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crabs charmed by fifes, v. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cranes, flight of, v. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crantor, quoted, i. 300, 304, 324, 326;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion of the soul, ii. 327, 328, 345, 349, 360.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crassus, anecdotes of, i. 288, 290; v. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crassus Calpurnius, v. <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crassus’s mullet, v. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crates, i. 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, 495; ii. 145, 321;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opinion of the stars, iii. 140; v. <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cratinus the comic poet, v. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crato, iii. 198.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creon’s daughter, i. 472.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cretinus, the Magnesian, v. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Criticism on passages in Homer, ii. 69-72, 74-84, 89, 90, 91.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Criticism on Sophocles, ii. 72.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Critolaus, his History of the Epirots, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fourth Book of Celestial Appearances, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crocodile, story of a, v. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Croesus, ii. 122; iii. 85; iv. 339.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cronium, mount, v. <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ctesiphon, his Third Book of the Boeotian History, v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ctesiphon the Pancratiast, i. 42.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curatii and Horatii, v. <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cure of anger, i. 33-59.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curiosity, of, ii. 424-445;</li>
+<li class="isub1">mischiefs of vain, iv. 236.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cuttle-fish, sign of a storm, iii. 505;</li>
+<li class="isub1">wariness of the, v. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyanippus, a Syracusan, v. <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyanippus, a Thessalian, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyclades islands, iii. 24.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cycloborus, a brook near Athens, v. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cynaegirus, an Athenian commander, story of, v. <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyprus, female parasites of, called Steps, ii. 103.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyrus the Elder, his sayings, i. 186; ii. 319;</li>
+<li class="isub1">enlarges the Persian empire, iv. 85.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cyrus the Younger, his sayings, i. 188.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">D.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Daemon of Socrates, Discourse concerning the, ii. 378-423.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Daemons, their nature, attributes, and actions, iv. 14 <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">some of them are malignant and cruel, 19;</li>
+<li class="isub1">they are mortal, 15, 23, 24;</li>
+<li class="isub1">vainglorious, 28;</li>
+<li class="isub1">have the care of oracles, 21, 27;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sometimes have quarrels and combats with one another, 27;</li>
+<li class="isub1">our souls are by nature endued with similar powers, 50 <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Moon, v. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">will of the, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">providence of the, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damindas, apothegm of, i. 407.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damis, apothegm of, i. 406.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Damonidas, apothegm of, i. 406.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Darius, his sayings, i. 186, 502; v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Darkness, whether visible, iii. 169.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Datis, a Persian commander, his invasion of Attica, v. <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Daughters who had carnal knowledge of their fathers, v. <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Death appertains to soul or body, iii. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_519">519</span>Death a reward for distinguished piety; illustrated by the cases of
+Biton and Cleobis, of Agamedes and Trophonius, of Pindar and
+Euthynous, i. 313, 314.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Death of fire is the generation of air, v. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Death the brother of sleep, i. 311.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Debates at entertainments, iii. 394.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Debt, Evils of. Against running in Debt, or Taking up Money upon
+Usury, v. <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Debt of nature, i. 309.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Decius of Rome, v. <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Decrees proposed to the Athenians, v. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Deity, knowledge of a, whence derived, iii. 115.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delay of Providence in Punishing the Wicked. De sera Numinis
+Vindicta, iv. 140-188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delight in hearing the passions of men represented, iii. 314.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delphi, a walk in, iii. 69;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the statues there, 70;</li>
+<li class="isub1">atmosphere of, 72;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ancient oracles of, 73;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Corinthian Hall at, 80-82;</li>
+<li class="isub1">statue of Phryne, 83.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delphic Oracle, inscription on the, Know thyself, and Nothing too
+much, i. 328.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demades and Phocion, anecdotes of, ii. 298; v. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demaratus and Philip, anecdote of, ii. 146.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demaratus, apothegm of, i. 407, 482;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Second Book of Arcadian History, v. <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demetrius Phalereus, his saying, i. 217;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, ii. 145; iii. 21; v. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demetrius, his sayings, i. 204.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demetrius of Tarsus, comes to Delphi, iv. 3.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demochares, a nephew of Demosthenes, procures a statue to be set up for his uncle, v. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">a decree for a statue for himself, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Democracy and Oligarchy, v. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Democrates, saying of, v. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Democritus, saying of, i. 22, 263, 275; ii. 440; iii. 7;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, 121, 123, 126, 127, 128,
+129, 132, 133, 135, 139, 140, 142, 145, 149, 155, 156, 157, 160, 162, 163,
+164, 166, 168, 169, 171, 176, 177, 179, 183, 187, 227;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinions misrepresented, v. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his doctrine concerning atoms, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demodocus, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demonides, the cripple, ii. 51.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demosthenes, the orator, anecdotes of, i. 15, 65;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 67, 286, 325;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 334, 481;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 145, 300, 312, 313;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 460;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 212;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sketch of his life, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his birth, education, and early years, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">calls his guardians to account, <a href="#Page_43"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is chosen choregus, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his methods to obtain excellence in speaking, <a href="#Page_44"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opposes the designs of Philip, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">describes “action” as of supreme importance in oratory, <a href="#Page_45"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his early failures as an orator, <a href="#Page_45"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defends the Olynthians, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is admired by Philip, though an enemy, <a href="#Page_46"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his magnanimity, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his conduct at Chaeronea, <a href="#Page_47"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his patriotism, <a href="#Page_47"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the oration for the Crown, <a href="#Page_47"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">accused of receiving a bribe, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his exile, <a href="#Page_48"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">recalled, <a href="#Page_48"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">returns to the administration of public affairs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">leaves Athens to avoid being delivered up to Antipater, <a href="#Page_49"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his death, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his family, <a href="#Page_50"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">honors paid to his memory, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of him, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his great temperance, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his public services recounted in a decree, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+<a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dercyllidas, apothegm of, i. 407.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dercyllus, his First Book of Foundations, v. <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Third Book of Italian History, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Destiny, or fate, iii. 130.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Deucalion [like Noah] sent forth a dove from the ark, and with like
+purpose, v. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diagoras the Melian, iii. 118.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diana Orthia, rites of, i. 98.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dicaearchus, opinion concerning the soul, iii. 161;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of divination, 176; v. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dignity of places at table, iii. 210, 212.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dinarchus, an Athenian orator, v. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">becomes rich, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his exile in Chalcis, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">restored, <a href="#Page_58"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his orations, <a href="#Page_58"><i>ib.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diocles, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, iii. 179, 182, 185, 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diogenes Laertius quoted, i. 77.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diogenes, quoted, i. 4, 12;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, 51, 67, 141, 142, 166, 283,
+285, 311, 487;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 58, 155, 193; 455, 458, 465, 466;</li>
+<li class="isub1">story of the mouse, 453; iii. 21, 27, 29, 31;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, 132, 136, 138, 143, 148,
+163, 183, 187, 189, 494; iv. 311; v. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diogenes and Philip, ii. 147.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diogenianus, iii. 71, 73, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diomedes, ii. 41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">liberated from captivity, v. <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dion, example of, i. 64, 193, 333.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, does not relish the Lacedaemonian broth, i. 83;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his unreasonable anger, 152;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, 449, 484, 491;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_520">520</span>his ungenerous behavior, 493;</li>
+<li class="isub1">parasites of, ii. 166; 314;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, iv. 238.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dionysius and Plato, ii. 108, 140.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dionysius the Elder, his sayings, i. 191; v. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dionysius the Younger, his sayings, i. 192, 501.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diophantus, saying of, i. 4.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diorphus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discourse to an Unlearned Prince, iv. 323-330.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diseases of the body, iv. 504-508.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Divination, of, iii. 176; iv. 59.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dog, habit of biting of stones, iii. 516;</li>
+<li class="isub1">affection for his master, v. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">docility of the, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dolphin, sagacity of the, v. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">nature of the, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">story of a, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its love of music, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">stories of affection of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dolphin and Arion, ii. 33-36;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the lad of Jasus, v. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Domitian is mentioned [which fixes the era of Plutarch], ii. 443.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Domitius, anecdote of, i. 288, 295; v. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorian Mood of music, i. 109, 115.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorians pray for bad making of their hay, iii. 504.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dorotheus, his First Book of Transformations, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Fourth Book of Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dositheus, his Third Book of Sicilian History, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Third Book of Lydian History, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Pelopidae, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">First Book of Italian History, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dream, a romantic, ii. 407-411.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dreams and Omens, ii. 401, 402.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dreams in Autumn, iii. 432.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dreams, whence do they arise, iii. 176.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drink either five or three, iii. 282-284.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drink passeth through the lungs, iii. 363.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">E.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Earth, its nature and magnitude, iii. 154;</li>
+<li class="isub1">figure of the, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">site and position of the, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">inclination of the, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">motion of the, 156;</li>
+<li class="isub1">zones of the, 156;</li>
+<li class="isub1">exhalations from the, iv. 53;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its form and its place, v. <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">an instrument of time, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Earthquakes, of, iii. 157.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Echo, what gives the, iii. 172.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eclipse of the moon, iii. 146.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eclipses of the sun, iii. 144.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ecphantus, his opinion concerning the motion of the earth, iii. 156.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egg or the bird, which was first, iii. 242-246.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egypt, its Religion and Philosophy; of Isis and Osiris, or of the
+Ancient Religion and Philosophy of Egypt, iv. 65-139.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian skeleton at feasts, ii. 7.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptians in Ethiopia, iii. 20.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Ει</span> at Apollo’s temple at Delphi, iv. 479-498.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eleans, the, v. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elements, mixture of the, iii. 126.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elephant, understanding of the, v. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">stories of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of King Porus, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">most beloved by the Gods, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">amour of the, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">chirurgery of the, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elephas, mount, v. <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elysian fields in the moon, v. <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elysius the Terinean, vision of, i. 314.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Embryo, how nourished, iii. 183;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is an animal, <i>ib.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Empedocles, i. 59;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, 158, 469;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 49, 195; 357;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 34, 81;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, 112, 114, 125-129, 131, 132,
+136-138,
+143, 145, 147, 154, 158, 163, 165,
+168-170, 173, 178-184,
+188-191;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 209, 262, 293, 333, 497, 509,
+518;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 21, 52, 85, 87, 108, 273;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
+<a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">misunderstood by Colotes, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Emprepes, apothegm of, i. 408.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enemies, how a man may profit by his, i. 280-298.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Entertainment, late to an, iii. 417.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Envy and Hatred, ii. 95-99.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epaminondas, his sayings, i. 222-226, 277;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his great actions, 225;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his consistency of character, ii. 109; 182, 185, 309, 313, 319,
+381, 396, 399, 414; iii. 6; v. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his invasion of Laconia, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epaminondas, son of, beheaded, v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ephorus, his opinion concerning the overflowing of the Nile, iii. 161.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epicharmus, quoted, i. 315, 496; ii. 141; iv. 242.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epicureans, misrepresentations of the, v. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>-<a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epicurus, quoted, i. 138, 139, 159;</li>
+<li class="isub1">famous sentence of, ii. 92;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his doctrine; refutation of it; pleasure is not attainable, 157-203;</li>
+<li class="isub1">reverence of his brothers, iii. 57;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, 111, 122, 124, 127, 128, 131, 134, 135,
+139, 142, 143, 151, 163, 164, 165, 169, 177, 183;</li>
+<li class="isub1">opinions of, v. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">danger of his doctrines, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_521">521</span>disciples of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epigenes, opinion concerning comets, iii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epimenides, long sleep of, v. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; 279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erasistratus, his opinion of the soul, iii. 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of superfetation, 180;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his definition of a fever, 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eratosthenes, his philosophical opinions: of time, iii. 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sun, 147; v. <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Erectheus, sacrifice of his daughter, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eryxo of Cyrene, i. 378.</li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="SeeEsop">Esop, fable of, ii. 11, 12, 16, 19-22, 23;</li>
+<li class="isub1">dog of, 25;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, 3-41; iii. 63, 202.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eteocles the Theban, i. 257.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euboea, king of, drawn in pieces by horses, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euboidas, apothegm of, i. 408.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euclid, anecdote of, i. 55; ii. 173.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euclides, his brotherly love, iii. 61.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euctus and Eulaeus, ii. 146.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eudaemonidas, his sayings, i. 221.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eudamidas, apothegm of, i. 408.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eudemus, of matter, ii. 334.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eudorus, system of numbers, ii. 343, 345.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eudoxus, anecdotes of, ii. 174;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion of the cause of winter and summer, iii. 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the overflow of the Nile, 161.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euemerus, his opinion of God, iii. 118.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eumenes of Pergamus, his sayings, i. 206;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, iii. 61, iv. 232.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eumetis at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">her riddle, 20.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphorion quoted, iii. 321.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphranor, the painter, v. <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euphrates, the river, v. <a href="#Page_502">502</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eupolis, saying of, ii. 112.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euripides, quoted, i. 3, 158, 291, 300, 301, 302,
+308, 320, 329, 330, 335, 458;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippol., 4, 14, 471;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Protesilaus, 23;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dictys, 26, 58;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bellerophon, 63, 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 287, 472;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pirithous, 70;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orestes, 37, 137, 140, 165, 170, 286;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Medea, 64, 71, 255;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iph. Aul., 152, 302;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bacchae, 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Troad, 170;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phoeniss, 257, 303, 327;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Danae, 307;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Adrastus, 288;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stheneboea, 301;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ino, 303, 304;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alcestis, 310;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Suppliants, 316;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cresphontes, 316;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erectheus, 500;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hypsipyle, 317, 465; ii. 54, 56, 62, 87, 92,
+121, 148, 150, 251, 300, 306, 357, 363, 391, 472;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cresphontes, 93;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippol., 73, 108, 173, 198, 373, 374;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 86, 181, 318, 437, 501;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orestes, 143, 443;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Medea, 66;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iph. Aul., 49, 85;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phoeniss, 51, 61, 66, 130, 151;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ion, 102, 144;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ino, 131;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erectheus, 132;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Electra, 85;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aeolus, 66, 85, 88, 175;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Herc. Furens, 151;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hecuba, 197;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iph. Taur., 447; iii. 27, 99, 116, 194;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 3, 19, 33, 41, 42, 94,
+230, 458, 475, 512;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippol., 483;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orestes, 168, 437;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phoeniss, 16, 32, 43, 49, 257;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stheneboea, 217;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iph. Taur., 21;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Androm., 232;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hipsipyle, 291, iv. 17, 128, 142, 270, 308,
+450, 478, 497;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 47, 220, 233, 251, 272, 273,
+292, 301, 325, 392, 461, 475;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bacchae, 223, 272, 422, 506;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippol., 294, 298;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cyclops, 56;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aeolus, 105;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Troad, 132;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orestes, 141, 507;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ino, 158, 231;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alcestis, 197;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Danae, 274, 283;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stheneboea, 288;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Androm., 401;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Herc. Furens, 459, 467; v. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aeolus, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippol., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iph. Taur., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orestes, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, 380;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Troad, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erectheus, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Meleager, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eurotas, a river in Laconia, v. <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eurycratidas, apothegm of, i. 410.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eurydice of Hierapolis, her epigram, i. 32.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euthrymenes, his opinion of the overflow of the Nile, iii. 160.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euthynous and Pindar, i. 313.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eutropion, anecdote of, i. 25.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Evenus quoted, ii. 102, 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Evenus, son of Mars, v. <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Exercises, different kinds of, iii. 248-250.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Exile, consolations of, iii. 15-35.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eyes, images of the, iii. 169.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">F.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fabius Maximus, his sayings, i. 227, 228;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the Punic war, v. <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fable of Minerva, i. 41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fable of the defeat of Neptune, iii. 444.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fable of the Fox and Leopard, ii. 21.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fable of the Lydian Mule, ii. 11.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fabricianus, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fabricius, iv. 201.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Face appearing in the moon, v. <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fasting creates more thirst than hunger, iii. 339.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fate, or destiny, iii. 130;</li>
+<li class="isub1">nature of, 130; v. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Faunus, king of Italy, strangers murdered by, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fever, cause of a, iii. 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fig-trees, of, iii. 250, 335.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Figures, of, iii. 125.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Filial treachery in Persian and Roman history, v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fire or water, which is more useful, v. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Firmus and Nuceria, v. <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fish called the fisherman, v. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_522">522</span>Fish, eating of, iii. 422.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fisherman’s nets, rotting of, iii. 503.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fishes, of; the labrax, mullet, scate, anthias, dolphin, cuttle-fish,
+star-fish, torpedo, the fisherman, tunny, amiae, pionetras,
+sponge, porphyrae, hegemon, whale, pinoterus, gilthead,
+phycides, galeus, tortoise, v. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fittest time for a man to know his wife, iii. 274-279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fives, we reckon by, iv. 43-47.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Five tragical histories of Love, iv. 312-322.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flattery: How to know a Flatterer from a Friend, ii. 100-156.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flattery fatal to whole kingdoms, ii. 118.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flesh exposed to the moon, iii. 284-287.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flute girls, whether they are to be admitted to a feast, iii. 387.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Folly of Seeking Many Friends, i. 464-474.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Food, digesting of, iii. 289-295.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fortune, of, ii. 475-481; iii. 131;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is a cause by accident, v. <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">not the same as chance, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">relates to men only, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fortune of the Romans, iv. 198-219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fox, cunning of the, v. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fresh water washes clothes better than salt, iii. 224-226.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Friends, folly of seeking many, i. 464-474.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frogs, croaking of, v. <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frost makes hunting difficult, iii. 510.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fruit, salt not found in, iii. 498.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulvius and Augustus, anecdotes of, iv. 235, 236.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fulvius Stellus, v. <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fundanus, i. 34, 35.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">G.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galaxy, or milky way, iii. 148.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galeus, affection of, for their young, v. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ganges, the river, v. <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garlands at sacred games, iii. 411.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garrulity, or Talkativeness, iv. 220-253.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gauran, mount, v. <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gelo, his saying, i. 190.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Generation and corruption, iii. 128.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Generation of males and females, iii. 178;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of animals, 186;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the Gods, 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Generative seed, iii. 177.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geniuses and heroes, opinions concerning, iii. 122.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germanicus, ii. 96.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gnatho the Sicilian, iii. 3.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gobryas, a Persian noble, ii. 104.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">God always plays the Geometer, saying attributed to Plato, iii. 402.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">God bade Socrates act the midwife’s part, v. <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">God, Father and Maker of all things, v. <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">God, what is, iii. 118.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gods, generation of the, iii. 400.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gorgias, i. 340;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41; 44, 134; ii. 502;
+v. <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Government. Of the Three Sorts of Government, Monarchy, Democracy,
+and Oligarchy, v. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gracchus, Caius, example of, i. 40.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek music, principles of, i. 102, 103.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Questions, ii. 265-293.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Groom, saying of the king’s, i. 21.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gryllus, v. <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guests, should the entertainer seat the, iii. 203-210;</li>
+<li class="isub1">to a wedding supper, 300;</li>
+<li class="isub1">that are called shadows, iii. 381.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gylippus, his dishonesty, i. 23.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">H.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Habits of animals, v. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halcyon, of the, v. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Halo, of the, iii. 160.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hannibal and Fabius, i. 228.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hares, cunning of the, v. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harp, an invention of Apollo, i. 113.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hart, tears of the, iii. 507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Health, preservation of, i. 251-279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Health, sickness, and old age, iii. 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hearing, of, i. 441-463; iii. 170.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heaven, its nature and essence, iii. 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">division of, 137.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hebrus, a river of Thrace, v. <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedgehog, ingenuity of the, v. <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedgehog of the sea, v. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hegemon, of the fish, v. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hegesippus, sayings of, &amp;c., i. 213.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hegesistratus, an Ephesian, v. <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Helicon the mathematician, i. 57.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hephaestion, the friend of Alexander, i. 489, 505.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heracleo, v. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heraclides, his compendium of music, i. 105; ii. 158;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, iii. 139, 149, 156, 159, 165.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heraclides the wrestler, iii. 220.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heraclitus, i. 44, 79, 276, 308, 448, 453;
+ii. 74, 165, 330, 358,
+477; iii. 26, 74;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, 111, 125, 128, 130, 131, 143, 144,
+145, 146, 162;</li>
+<li class="isub1">apothegm, v. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hercules and Iole, v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hercules in Antisthenes, precept of, i. 77.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_523">523</span>Hercules,
+ridiculous representation of, v. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and King Faunus, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hercules the woman-hater, his temple in Phocis, iii. 90;</li>
+<li class="isub1">singular anecdote, <i>ib.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermes, iv. 74.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermias, v. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermogenes, ii. 194.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herodotus, quoted, i. 80, 441;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, ii. 202, 489;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arcadian prophet, iii. 38;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 248, 335 <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">malice of, iv. 331-371; v. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herondas, apothegm of, i. 410.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herons, artifices of the, v. <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Herophilus, opinion of, iii. 128, 163.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hesianax, his Third Book of African History, v. <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hesiod, quoted, Works and Days, i. 22, 65, 70, 138, 156, 178,
+261, 296, 307, 325;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Works and Days, ii. 24;</li>
+<li class="isub1">spare diet recommended by, 27;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and the dolphin, 36, 37;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Works and Days, 63, 64, 65, 73, 87, 92, 302, 303, 449, 452, 480, 483;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theogony, 102;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Works and Days, iii. 64, 210, 382, 416, 436, 438;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theogony, 118, 324, 458; iv. 15;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Works and Days, 48, 49, 68, 87, 154, 173, 264, 385, 442, 457;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theogony, 53;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Works and Days, v. <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hicetes, his opinion of the earth, iii. 154.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hiero, his sayings, i. 190;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 291.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hiero the Spartan, statue of, iii. 76.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hiero the Tyrant, statue of, iii. 75.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hieronymus, saying of, i. 38, 50, 462.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Himerius, an Athenian parasite, ii. 126.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippasus, opinions of, iii. 111.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippocrates, saying of, i. 40;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 261, 292; ii. 165, 185;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his magnanimity, ii. 466.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippocratidas, apothegm of, i. 412.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippodamus, apothegm of, i. 411.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippolytus, son of Theseus, v. <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hippomachus, ii. 294.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hipponax, i. 108.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">History of music, i. 104 <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">History of wind instruments, i. 108.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Homer, passages in, criticised, ii. 69-72, 74-84, 89, 90.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Homer quoted: Iliad, i. 34, 38, 39, 51, 52, 55,
+62, 104, 132, 133, 134, 138, 141, 151, 153, 154, 156, 161, 165, 178, 180, 181,
+200, 236, 251, 292, 303, 305, 306, 310, 324, 325, 329, 330,
+331, 385, 466, 469, 475, 486, 490, 507, 508, 510, 511; ii. 25,
+32, 41, 44, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59, 62, 63, 65,
+67, 68, 74, 75, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84, 88, 89, 90, 91, 108, 114, 115,
+120, 123, 131, 140, 142, 145, 150, 151, 152, 154, 185, 197, 198,
+200, 237, 295, 305, 310, 311, 314, 317, 319, 413, 501, 505; iii. 25, 26, 47,
+53, 54, 107, 120, 152, 206, 207, 221, 231, 248, 255, 285, 301,
+313, 317, 321, 323, 325, 336, 354, 364, 381, 394, 401, 413,
+418, 437, 442, 447, 448, 449, 450, 480, 486, 492, 493, 515; iv.
+16, 65, 108, 111, 152, 191, 194, 195, 216, 237, 238, 280, 285,
+291, 327, 329, 383, 386, 401, 405, 434, 462, 483, 490, 499,
+504; v. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
+<a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
+<a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
+<a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
+<a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Odyss. i. 52, 134, 138, 154, 236, 252,
+305, 310, 318, 325, 452,
+469; ii. 41, 43, 47, 48, 52, 53, 54,
+56, 59, 63, 65, 67, 70,
+71, 82, 83, 108, 110, 114, 115,
+127, 149, 158, 159, 162, 184,
+195, 304, 316, 317, 320, 371, 427,
+463, 467, 478; iii. 10, 42,
+45, 72, 81, 101, 196, 201, 207,
+226, 232, 233, 249, 259, 280,
+333, 359, 365, 395, 419, 425, 437,
+438, 451, 466, 477, 499; iv. 5, 30, 86, 97, 191, 200, 219,
+224, 226, 230, 231, 289, 307,
+325, 401, 405; v. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
+<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>,
+<a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horatii and Curatii, v. <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horatius Cocles, v. <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horsehair for fishing lines, iii. 505.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horses, called <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λυχοσπάδες</span>, iii. 253.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horus, son of Osiris, iv. 80, 114 <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hounds that hunt hares, v. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">How a man may praise himself without being envied, ii. 306.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">How a man may receive advantage and profit from his enemies, i.
+280-298.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">How animals are begotten, iii. 186.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">How a young man ought to hear poems, ii. 42.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">How plants grow, and whether they are animals, iii. 190.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">How to know a flatterer, ii. 100-156.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hunger, cause of, iii. 341;</li>
+<li class="isub1">allayed by drinking, 345.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hurricanes, of, iii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hyagnis, first that sung to the pipe, i. 107.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hydaspes, a river in India, v. <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hyperides, the Athenian orator, ii. 140; v. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his part in public affairs, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his friendship for Demosthenes, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">this friendship broken, <a href="#Page_54"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">demanded by Antipater, he escapes to Aegina, <a href="#Page_54"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is apprehended, tortured, and put to death, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">an excellent orator, <a href="#Page_55"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his amorous propensities, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_524">524</span>his patriotism, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sent as ambassador, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hypsipyle, foster-child of, i, 465.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">I.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibis, habits of, imitated by the Egyptians, v. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ibycus, the poet, iv. 240.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ichneumon, of the, v. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ida, mount, v. <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Idathyrsus, his sayings, i. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ideas, of, iii. 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Images presented to our eyes in mirrors, iii. 169.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Imagination, imaginable and phantom, difference between, iii. 167.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Immortality of the soul, argument for it, iv. 169, 170.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Impotency in men, iii. 181.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Improbabilities of the Stoics, iii. 194-196.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inachus, a river in Argolis, v. <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Incest, case of, v. <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indus, the river, v. <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Infants, seven months’, iii. 184.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inquisitiveness, or vain curiosity; of curiosity, or an over-busy
+inquisitiveness into things impertinent, ii. 424-445.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iole, the beloved of Hercules, v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ion the tragedian, i. 322, 328; v. <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iphicrates, his saying, i. 80, 212; v. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iphigenia at Aulis, v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Irascible faculty, v. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isaeus, an Athenian orator, v. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">considered by some equal to Lysias, <a href="#Page_33"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the teacher of Demosthenes, <a href="#Page_33"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">number of his orations, <a href="#Page_33"><i>ib.</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isis and Osiris, iv. 66-139.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ismenodora, iv. 256, 264, 269, 311.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ismenus, a river of Boeotia, v. <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isocrates, an Athenian orator, iii. 198; v. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his parentage, birth, and education, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">composed orations for others, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his school at Chios, <a href="#Page_28"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his great success as a teacher of rhetoric, <a href="#Page_28"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">lived to a great age, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his death and burial, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">number of his orations, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his timidity, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his description of the use of rhetoric, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the two suits against him, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Panegyric, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isthmian games, iii. 318.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivy, nature of, iii. 265-268.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">J.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jason, saying of, v. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jewish religion, statements and conjectures respecting it, iii.
+307-312.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jews, their fatal inaction in war because it was their Sabbath day,
+i. 178.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Juba, his third Book of Lybian History, v. <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">L.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lacedaemonians, their laws and customs, i. 82-101;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their currency, 99;</li>
+<li class="isub1">influx of gold and silver, 100;</li>
+<li class="isub1">refuse to assist Philip and Alexander in their designs against
+Persia, 101;</li>
+<li class="isub1">lose all their ancient glory, 101;</li>
+<li class="isub1">combat with the Argives, v. <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lachares, tyranny of, ii. 166.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laconic answers, iv. 243.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laconic Apothegms, of, i. 385-440.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Acrotatus, 400.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agasicles, 385.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agesilaus, 385-397.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agesipolis, 397, 398.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agis, son of Archidamus, 398.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agis the Last, 400.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Agis the Younger, 400.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alcamenes, the son of Teleclus, 400.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alexandridas, 401.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anaxander, 401.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anaxilas, 402.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Androclidas, 402.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antalcidas, 402.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antiochus, 403.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archidamidas, 403.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archidamus, son of Agesilaus, 404.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archidamus, son of Zeuxidamus, 404.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aregeus, 403.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ariston, 403.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Astycratidas, 405.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bias, 406.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Callicratidas, 412.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charillus, 432.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cleombrotus, 413.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cleomenes, son of Cleombrotus, 413, 416.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Damindas, 407.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Damis, 406.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Damonidas, 406.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Demaratus, 407.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dercyllidas, 407.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Emprepes, 408.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Euboidas, 408.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eudamidas, son of Archidamas, 408.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eurycratidas, 410.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Herondas, 410.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippocratidas, 412.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hippodamus, 411.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leonidas, the son of Anaxandrias, 417.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leo, the son of Eucratidas, 417.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leotychides, 416.</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_525">525</span>Lycurgus the Lawgiver, 419-425.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lysander, 425.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Namertes, 427.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nicander, 427.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Paedaretus, 429.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Panthoidas, 427.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, 428.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pausanias, son of Plistoanax, 428.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phoebidas, 431.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Plistoanax, 430.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Polycratidas, 431.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Polydorus, 430.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Soos, 431.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Telecrus, 431.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thectamenes, 411.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Themisteas, 410.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Theopompus, 410.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thorycion, 411.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Zeuxidamus, 410.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lacydes, King of the Argives, i. 290.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lais, murder of, iv. 302.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lampis, a sea commander, v. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lampsace, anecdote of, i. 366.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lamps and tables of the ancients, iii. 372.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Land, food of the, iii. 302-306.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lasus, his innovation upon ancient music, i. 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leaena, anecdote of, iv. 229, 230.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Least things in nature, iii. 125.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leo, apothegm of, i. 417.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leo Byzantinus, saying of, i. 288;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and his wife, v. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leonidas, apothegm of, i. 417;</li>
+<li class="isub1">vindicated from the statements of Herodotus, iv. 354; v. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at Thermopylae, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leotychides, apothegm of, i. 422.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leprosy caused by dewy trees, iii. 500.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leptis, custom in, ii. 499.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leucippus, his opinions of the world, iii. 135;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the earth, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the senses, 165.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Light and darkness, of, v. <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lightning, of, iii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Light, of reflected, iii. 168, 169; v. <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lilaeus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linus, elegies of, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lions, of, v. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liquids, of, iii. 359.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Live concealed, whether’t were rightly said, iii. 3-10.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lives of the ten Attic orators, v. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Love: Five tragical histories of, iv. 312-322.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Love, of, iv. 254-311;</li>
+<li class="isub1">makes a man a poet, iii. 217-219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Love of wealth, ii. 294-305.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lucretia, the Roman matron, i. 355.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lucullus, apothegm of, i. 241;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 51; v. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lugdunum, mount, v. <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lyaeus and choraeus, i. 54.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lybian crows, v. <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lycastus and Parasius, v. <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lycian women, virtue of the, i. 351.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lycormas, a river in Aetolia, v. <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lycurgus, an Athenian orator, v. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">treasurer of the commonwealth, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his great public services, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his fidelity in office and great reputation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his justice and integrity, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">useful laws procured by his influence, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his diligence in the study and practice of oratory, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his incorruptible honesty, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his death, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">honors paid to his memory, <a href="#Page_40"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his family, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his orations and success as an orator, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his benevolence, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">a decree for honors to be paid to his memory, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, anecdote of, i. 7;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his institutions, 82 <i>et seq.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their final overthrow, 101, 217, 419-425;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, ii. 22; v. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lydian mood of music, i. 109, 114.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lyric nomes, i. 106.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lysander, i. 72;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his great victory over the Athenians, 99;</li>
+<li class="isub1">introduces gold and silver into Lacedaemon, 100;
+the results, <i>ib.</i>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, 219, 425;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, ii. 149;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 495; iii. 100; v. <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lysias, the Athenian orator, his remarks on music, i. 104;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, iv. 226; v. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his birth, early residence in Athens, residence in Thurii, and
+return to Athens, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">banished by the Thirty Tyrants, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">return after their overthrow, <a href="#Page_25"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">death, <a href="#Page_25"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">number of his orations, <a href="#Page_25"><i>ib.</i></a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his other works, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his eloquence, <a href="#Page_26"><i>ib.</i></a>; v. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lysimache, the priestess, i. 73.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lysimachus, his sayings, i. 205, 259.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lysippus, his statue of Alexander, i. 494.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">M.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Madness of animals, v. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maeander, a river in Asia, v. <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magas, anecdote of, i. 45.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Magpie, story of a, v. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maimactes, king of the gods, i. 45.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Man, perfection of a, iii. 189;</li>
+<li class="isub1">most unhappy of all creatures, iv. 504;</li>
+<li class="isub1">compounded of three parts, v. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maneros, the foster-son of Isis, iv. 79.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manius Curius, apothegm of, i. 226.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manlius, son of, beheaded, v. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Man’s progress in virtue, ii. 446-474.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mantinea, battle of, v. <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marius, sacrifice of his daughter, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_526">526</span>Mars, some bad actions of his, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marsyas, a river in Phrygia, v. <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marsyas, the musician, i. 41, 108.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massinissa, his vigorous old age, v. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mathematics, applied to Music, i. 118-121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">affords unspeakable delight, ii. 172, 174.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matter, of, iii. 122.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medius, the parasite, ii. 137.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Megasthenes, saying of, v. <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Megisto and Micca, and other women of Elis, i. 357-363.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meilichius, king of the gods, i. 45.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melanippides, quoted, iv. 278.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melanthius, quoted, i. 35, 449; ii. 103; iv. 147.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melian women, virtue of the, i. 348.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melisponda and Nephalia, i. 59.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melissus, his opinion of generation, iii, 128.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Memnon, his saying, i. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menalippides, i. 114, 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menander, quoted, i. 70, 139, 158, 161, 164, 335,
+470;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 52, 57, 65, 86, 87, 124, 192,
+297;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his superiority to Aristophanes, iii. 11-14;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 38, 65, 196, 488; iv. 290;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mendesian goat, v. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menedemus, i. 77; ii. 115, 464;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion of the nature of moral virtue, iii. 461.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menelaus, the mathematician, v. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Men, impotency in, iii. 181;</li>
+<li class="isub1">elements of, 188;</li>
+<li class="isub1">have better stomachs in autumn, 240;</li>
+<li class="isub1">temper of, 270-272;</li>
+<li class="isub1">when asleep are never thunderstruck, 295-300;</li>
+<li class="isub1">having carnal knowledge of brutes, 468.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menon, his definition of virtue, i. 464.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Menyllus, his First Book of Boeotic History, v. <a href="#Page_460">460</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Third Book of Italian History, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Messenians, saying among the, v. <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metellus, quoted, iii. 53; iv. 202; v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meteors, of, which resemble rods, iii. 153.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metiochus, his misuse of power, v. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metius Fufetius, king of Alba, torn in pieces, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metrocles, i. 144.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metrodorus, ii. 158, 160, 161, 167, 169, 175, 180, 183, 496;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, iii. 115, 127, 132, 149, 150,
+151, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158; v. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Micca and Megisto, and other women of Elis, i. 357-363.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Midas, i. 326; v. <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miletus, maidens of, i. 354.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mills of the gods grind slowly, but they grind fine, iv. 143.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miltiades, v. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>-<a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mimnermus, quoted, iii. 475.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mind, tranquillity of the, i. 136-167.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Minerva, admonished by a satyr, i. 41; iii. 195;</li>
+<li class="isub1">temple of, v. <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mirrors, causes and reasons of, iii. 169; v. <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mithridates, i. 204; ii. 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">story of, iii. 219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mixture of the elements, iii. 126.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mnemosyne, the mother of the Muses, i. 22.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mnesarete, statue of, iii. 83.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mnesiphilus, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mnesitheus, the physician, iii. 511.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monarchy, Democracy, and Oligarchy, v. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Money upon usury, v. <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monstrous births, of, iii. 179.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moon: essence of the, iii. 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">magnitude of the, 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">figure of the, 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">whence her light, 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">eclipses of the, 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">phases of the, 147;</li>
+<li class="isub1">distance from the sun, 147;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the face appearing within the orb of the moon, v. <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its distance from the earth, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its nature, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its size, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">why called Glaucopis, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is it inhabited, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moot point in Homer’s Iliad, iii. 446.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moral virtue, essay on, iii. 461-494.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moschio, dialogue on health, i. 251, 252.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Motherland a Cretan expression, v. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Motion, of, iii. 128.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mount Athos’ shade, v. <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mule and the salt, v. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mule, superannuated, v. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mules, barrenness of, iii. 182.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mullet, of the, v. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muses, number of the, iii. 450.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mushrooms produced by thunder, iii. 295-300.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Music, treatise concerning, i. 102-135;</li>
+<li class="isub1">pleasures from bad, iii. 376;</li>
+<li class="isub1">for entertainments, 389.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Musonius, his rule of health, i. 35.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Must, sweet, iii. 511.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mycenae, mount, v. <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">N.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Namertes, apothegm of, i. 427.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Names of rivers and mountains, and of such things as are to be found
+therein, and the fables connected therewith, v. <a href="#Page_477">477</a>-<a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nasica, his saying, i. 285.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Natural affection towards one’s offspring, iv. 189-197.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_527">527</span>
+Natural philosophy, iii. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Natural Questions, Plutarch’s, iii. 495-518.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nature, of, iii. 131;</li>
+<li class="isub1">what is, 105;</li>
+<li class="isub1">things that are least in, 125;</li>
+<li class="isub1">animated, v. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Necessity, of, iii. 129;</li>
+<li class="isub1">nature of, 129;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defined, v. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nephalia and Melisponda, i. 59.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neptune, ii. 38, 39, 41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nero, i. 53; iv. 228, 229;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New diseases and how caused, iii. 426.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New-married couple, advice to, ii. 486-507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New wine, of, iii. 279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicander, apothegm of, i. 427, 441.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicias Maleotes, quoted, v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicias, the Athenian general, superstition of, i. 177; v. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicias, the painter, anecdote of, ii. 173; v. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nicostratus and Archidamus, i. 74;</li>
+<li class="isub1">apothegm of, 221.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niger, anecdote of, i. 267.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nightingale, of the, v. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, the river, v. <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">overflow of the, iii. 160;</li>
+<li class="isub1">water of the, 415.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niloxenus, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Niobe, i. 328.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Noises in the night and day, iii. 406.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Numa, of the reign of, iv. 208-210.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">O.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oenopides, his discovery of the obliquity of the Zodiac, iii. 138.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ogygia, an island west from Britain and its neighbor islands,
+described, v. <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oil, top of the, iii. 370;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the sea, 503;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is transparent, v. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">does not easily freeze, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old age, health, and sickness, iii. 192.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Old men, love pure wine, iii. 221;</li>
+<li class="isub1">read best at a distance, 222-224;</li>
+<li class="isub1">easily foxed, 268-270;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in state affairs, v. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oligarchy, Monarchy, and Democracy, v. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olympias, anecdotes of, ii. 494, 495.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olympus, a Phrygian player, i. 107, 108, 110, 112, 115, 116,
+123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Omens and dreams, ii. 401, 402.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Onesicrates, banquet of, i. 103, 133.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Onomademus, wisdom of, i. 295; v. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Opinions of philosophers, iii. 104-193.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Optatus, v. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oracle in Cilicia, iv. 55.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oracles of Delphi, iii. 73.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oracles, why they cease to give answers, iv. 3-64.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orestes slays his mother, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Origin of things, opinions concerning the, iii. 107-113.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orontes, his saying, i. 188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orpheus never imitated any one, i. 107.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orphic Fragments, iv. 59, 404.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oryx, fables of the, v. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Osiris, iv. 75-135;</li>
+<li class="isub1">story about his birth, 74;</li>
+<li class="isub1">great actions of, 75;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his death, 76;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his body torn in pieces by Typhon, 80;</li>
+<li class="isub1">is identical with Serapis and Bacchus, 89;</li>
+<li class="isub1">with the bull Apis, 90;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sacred vestments of, 135.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Othryadas, iv. 338.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Otus, the bird, v. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxen, teaching of, v. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">P.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paeans, makers of, i. 110.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paedaretus, apothegm of, i. 429.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Painter, neat saying of a, ii. 378.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Painting is silent poetry, v. <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palladium in Ilium and in Rome, v. <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palm tree, of the, iii. 514.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Panaetius, sayings of, i. 57.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pancrates, i. 117.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pandora’s box, i. 306.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pangaeus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Panthoidas, apothegm of, i. 427.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Papirius Tolucer, v. 468.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parallels, or a comparison between the actions of Greeks and Romans,
+v. <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-<a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parmenides, v. <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions: of generation and corruption, iii. 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of necessity, 129;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the world, 135;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the moon, 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the galaxy, 149;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the earth, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of earthquakes, 157;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the soul, 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defended from the misrepresentations of the Epicureans, v. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>-<a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Partridge, cunning of the, v. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parysatis, her saying, i. 188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Passions of the body, iii. 175.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Passions of the soul, or diseases of the body: which are worse, iv.
+504, 508.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paulus Aemilius, apothegm of, i. 232.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pausanias, the Spartan traitor, v. <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pausanius, i. 305;</li>
+<li class="isub1">apothegm of, 428.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pauson the painter, iii. 73.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pederasty, or the love of boys, iv. 259;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defended, 259, 260;</li>
+<li class="isub1">instances of its power, 284-286;</li>
+<li class="isub1">severely condemned, 304;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the connection is uncertain and short-lived, 307;</li>
+<li class="isub1">it ceases on the sprouting of the beard, 307.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pelopidas, his saying, i. 225.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_528">528</span>
+Pelops and his two sons, v. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pemptides, iv. 272, 275, 279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pergamus, woman of, i. 374.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Periander, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">tyrant of Corinth sends three hundred boys to be castrated, iv. 341;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the crime prevented, 342.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pericles, anecdotes of, i. 15, 18, 66, 211, 332; ii. 309, 315; v.
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his absolute sway over the Athenians, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his soliloquy when about to address the people, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Periclitus, a Lesbian harper, i. 108.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persaeus, anecdote of, i. 70.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perseus, king of Macedonia, his sorrow on losing his kingdom, i. 160.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persian Magi, killers of mice, ii. 96.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persian women, virtue of the, i. 347.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Persians had a monarchy, v. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pestilence, relief from, a virgin sacrificed for, v. <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Petron, doctrine of, iv. 30.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phaedimus, v. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phaeton, i. 141.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phalaris, brazen cow of, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pharnaces, of the moon, v. <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phasis, a river of Thrace, v. <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phayllus, iv. 282.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phemius, the poet, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pherecrates, fragment of, i. 124.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phidias, statue of Venus, ii. 498; iv. 133.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philammon, verses in honor of Latona, Diana, and Apollo, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philemon and Magas, i. 45.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philinus, iii. 69, 70.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philip of Macedonia, examples from, i. 44, 45;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sayings of, 194-198, 305;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, ii. 141, 146, 147, 494; iii. 22; v. <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philippides the comedian, ii. 430.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philippus, his demonstration of the figure of the moon, ii. 173.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philolaus, his philosophical opinions: of the nutriment of the world, iii. 134;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the essence of the sun, 142;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the position of the earth, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the motion of the earth, 156.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philosophers ought chiefly to converse with great men, ii. 368-377.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philosophers, their various opinions. Of those sentiments concerning
+nature with which philosophers were delighted, iii. 104-193.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philosophical discourses at merry meetings, iii. 198-203.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philosophy, threefold division of, iii. 104.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philotas and Antigona, i. 504.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philotas, son of Parmenio, i. 504.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philotimus, the physician, i. 452; ii. 153.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philoxenus, i. 125;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sayings of, ii. 42; iii. 3; iv. 289; v. <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phocian women, virtue of the, i. 343, 355.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phocion, his saying on the death of Alexander, i. 49;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his sayings, 70;</li>
+<li class="isub1">wife of, 102, 216; ii. 135, 298, 311, 321,
+328; v. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his magnanimity, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his reply to Demades, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phocus, a story of love respecting him, iv. 319.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phocylides the poet, quoted, i. 9, 462.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phoebidas, apothegm of, i. 431.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phoenix, tutor to Achilles, i. 9; ii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phrygian mood of music, i. 109.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phryne, the statue of, iii. 83.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phrynis, the musician, ii. 470.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pieria and other women of Myus, i. 363, 364.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pierus, the first that wrote in praise of the Muses, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pindar and Euthynous, i. 314.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pindar, his sayings, i. 77, 114;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 143, 173, 174, 286, 293, 303,
+304, 310, 313, 328;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his description of the state of the blessed, 336;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 57, 143, 177, 193, 306;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 9, 23, 74, 93, 95, 96, 194,
+207, 218, 377, 455, 458,
+491, 516;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 10, 15, 96, 138, 145, 150, 163,
+260, 289, 405;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>,
+<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pine, sacred to Neptune and Bacchus, iii. 318.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pine trees, of, iii. 250.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pinoteras, the fish, v. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pisias, of love, iv. 270 <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pisistratus, i. 216;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, iii. 41, 200.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pittacus, sayings of, i. 31, 151;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his reply to Myrsilus, ii. 5;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, 3-41; iii. 50; iv. 231; v.
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pitwater, of, iii. 514.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Place at table called Consular, iii. 210-212.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Place, of, iii. 127.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plague in Falerie and in Lacedaemon, v. <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plain of truth, iv. 29.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Planetiades, iv. 9, 11.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plants, grow how, iii. 190;</li>
+<li class="isub1">nourishment and growth of, 191.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plato, quoted, i. 9, 19, 24, 26;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, 27;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 41, 57, 71, 74, 79;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on harmony, 115, 118;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 141, 173, 256, 264, 279,
+287;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_529">529</span>laws, 292;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 297, 311, 314, 321, 337, 339,
+456;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 49, 92, 100, 104, 106;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the court of Dionysius, 108, 109, 141, 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Socrates, 148, 150, 168, 174, 326;</li>
+<li class="isub1">concerning the soul, 328 <i>et seq.</i>, 334;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 344, 352, 353, 355, 356, 359,
+364, 455, 456, 457, 492, 496,
+504;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 19, 81;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions: of the universe, 112, 114, 115;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the understanding, 116;</li>
+<li class="isub1">what is God, 119;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of God, 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of matter and ideas, 123;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of causes and of bodies, 124;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of colors, 125;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of bodies, 126;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of place and time, 127, 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of motion, 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of necessity, 129;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of fate, 130;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of fortune, 131;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the world, 134, 135, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the stars, 137-141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sun, 142, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the moon, 145, 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the rainbow, 152;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of earthquakes, 158;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the sea, 159;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the soul, 161-165;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of sight, 168;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of hearing, 170;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the voice, 171;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the echo, 172;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of divination, 176;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of generative seed, 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the embryo, 183;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of reason in animals, 187;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of sleep, 189;</li>
+<li class="isub1">that plants are animals, 190;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 200, 201, 213, 221, 223, 243,
+365, 368-370, 401, 462, 464,
+499; iv. 18, 28, 30, 41, 45;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion about daemons, 86, 87, 109, 115-117, 119,
+146, 254,
+261, 292, 305;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
+<a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
+<a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>-<a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pleasure not attainable according to Epicurus, ii. 157-203.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pleasures from bad music, iii. 376.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plistoanax, apothegm of, i. 430.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plurality of worlds, iv. 29-39.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plutarch, his rules for the preservation of health, i. 251-279;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Symposiacs, iii. 197-460;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his natural questions, 495-518;</li>
+<li class="isub1">on the immortality of the soul, iii. 164, iv. 169; v. <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">consolatory letter to his wife, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>-<a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Platonic questions, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>-<a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his spurious remains, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-<a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poet, love makes a man a, iii. 217-219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poetry, essay on. How a young man ought to hear poems, ii. 42-94.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polemon, his kind reply, i. 55.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Policy or government defined, v. <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Political precepts, v. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poltys, saying of, i. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polus the tragedian, v. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polybus, of seven-months’ infants, iii. 185.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polycephalus, the nome, i. 108.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polycratidas, apothegm of, i. 431.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polycrita, a woman of Naxos, i. 364, 366.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polydorus, apothegm of, i. 430.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polyhistor, his Third Book of Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polymnestus, his improvements in music, i. 107, 110, 112, 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polypus, why it changes color, iii. 506;</li>
+<li class="isub1">many-colored, v. 202.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polysperchon’s treachery, i. 64, 71.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pompey, his great actions and sayings, i. 241 <i>et seq.</i>, 290;</li>
+<li class="isub1">statues of, 293, v. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">owed his success to Sylla, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porsena of Clusium, war with the Romans, v. <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porus, an Indian king, i. 202.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Posidonius, his opinion of fate, iii. 130;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of a vacuum, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of eclipses, v. <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Possible and contingent defined, v. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Postumia, chastity of, i. 290.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Power, necessity, &amp;c., defined, v. <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Praise, inordinate, a sign of a flatterer, ii, 116, 117, 120;</li>
+<li class="isub1">young people are often spoiled by it, 123.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Preservation of health, rules for, i. 251-279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Priam and Polydore, v. 465.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Price of peace, women given as the, v. <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Priest of Hercules, iii. 90.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Principle and element, difference between, iii. 106.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Principle of cold, v. <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Principles, what they are, iii. 106.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prize for poets at the games, iii. 316.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Procles, tyrant of Epidaurus, puts Timarchus to death, iii. 89;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his own unhappy end, <i>ib.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Procreation of the soul as discussed in the Timaeus of Plato, ii.
+326-367.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Progress in virtue, how it may be ascertained, ii. 446-474.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prometheus, anecdote of, i. 289.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Proserpine, the same as Isis, iv. 88;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Cora, v. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prosodia, songs called, i. 106.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Protagoras quoted, i. 332.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Protogenes, iv. 257, 258, 260-265.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Providence, of God, iv. 140-188; v. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the inferior gods, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the daemons, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, i. 25.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemaeus Soter, iv. 88.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ptolemy Lagus, anecdote of, i. 45;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his saying, 202; ii. 177.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Publius Decius, his dream, v. <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Publius Nigidius, v. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Punishment of the wicked, why so long delayed, iv. 140-188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pupius Piso, the rhetorician, iv. 245.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_530">530</span>Purple shell fish, v. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pylades and Orestes, their friendship, i. 465.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyraechmes’s horses, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyrander, his Fourth Book of Peloponnesian Histories, v. <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyrandrus, the commissary, v. <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyrrhon, the Stoic philosopher, anecdote of, ii. 467.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pyrrhus the Epirot, his saying, i. 207.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythagoras, his aphorisms, i. 28, 29;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of music, 130;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 175;</li>
+<li class="isub1">aphorism, 179, 294;</li>
+<li class="isub1">symbols of, 454, 471;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his unseasonable reproof, ii. 148;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his joy on discovering the relation to each other of the three
+sides of a right-angled triangle, 174;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions: of the principles of things, iii. 109;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the unity of God, 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of geniuses and heroes, 122;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of matter, 123;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of causes, 124;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of bodies, 126;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of time, 127;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of motion, 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of generation and corruption, 129;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the world, 132-137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the zodiac, 138;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the summer and winter solstice, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the moon, 145;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the zones, 156;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the soul, 161-164;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the voice, 172;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of divination, 176;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of generative seed, 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of reason in animals, 187;</li>
+<li class="isub1">precepts of, derived his philosophy from Egyptian priests, iv. 72.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythagorean philosophy of dreams, daemons, ii. 412, 413.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythagoreans, precept of, iii. 22;</li>
+<li class="isub1">why they do not eat fish, 422-426.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pytheas, his saying, i. 213; iii. 159;</li>
+<li class="isub1">apothegm of, v. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythes, the Lydian, i. 382.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythian games, iii. 316.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythian priestess, iv. 8, 9, 62, 63;</li>
+<li class="isub1">why she now ceases to deliver her oracles in verse, iii. 69-103.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythocles, his Third Book of Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_460">460</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Third Book of the Georgics, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythoclides the flute player, i. 114.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Python of Aenos, ii. 314.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Q.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quarry of Carystus, iv. 54.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Questions or Causes, Second Book of, v. <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">R.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raillery, of, iii. 229-240.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rainbow, of the, iii. 151.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rain, snow, and hail, of, iii. 151.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rational faculty, of the, v. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reason, beasts make use of, v. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reason, habit of our, iii. 166.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Remarkable speeches of some obscure
+men amongst the Spartans, i. 432-440.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Remora or Echeneis, iii. 252.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reproof, how to be administered, ii. 138-156.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Respiration or breathing, iii, 173.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhesus and Similius, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rhodope and Haemus, mountains, v. <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Riddles and their solutions, ii. 19, 20.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roman questions, ii. 204-264.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roman senator and his wife, iv. 233-235.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Romans, fortune of the, iv. 198-219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rome, saved by the cackling of geese, iv. 217;</li>
+<li class="isub1">favored by fortune, 219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Romulus, his birth and education, iv. 206-208;</li>
+<li class="isub1">murdered in the senate, v. <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Remus, suckled by a she-wolf, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rules for the preservation of health, i. 251-279.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rutilius the usurer, v. 419.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">S.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sabinus of Galatia, iv. <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sacadas, a flute player, i. 109, 110, 112.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sacred games, garlands of, iii. 411.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sacrificed beasts, iii. 361.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sagaris, a river in Phrygia, v. <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salmantica, women of, i. 352.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salt and cummin, why does Homer call it divine, iii. 336.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salt given to cattle, iii. 497;</li>
+<li class="isub1">not found in fruit, 498.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sappho, i. 42, 114; ii. 506;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 95, 263;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 260.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sappho’s measures, grace in, iii. 74.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sardanapalus, his luxury and lust, i. 497.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sardians and Smyrnaeans, v. <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saturn and his four children, v. <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Satyrus the orator, i. 47.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scamander, a river in Troas, v. <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scaurus, his magnanimity, i. 295.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scilurus, anecdote of, iv. 244.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scipio the Elder, apothegm of, i. 229; ii. 475; iv. 201; v. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
+<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scipio the Younger, his sayings and great actions, i. 235-239.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scopas, saying of, ii. 303.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scythinus, verses of, iii. 86.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea calves, of, v. 210.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea, of the, iii. 158;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ebbing and flowing of the, 159;</li>
+<li class="isub1">food of the, 302-306;</li>
+<li class="isub1">made hot by wind, 501.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea-sickness, iii. 502.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea water nourishes not trees, iii. 495;</li>
+<li class="isub1">upon wine, 502;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_531">531</span>oil on the, 503.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seed, nature of generative, iii. 177;</li>
+<li class="isub1">that fall on the oxen’s horns, 368;</li>
+<li class="isub1">watering of, 496;</li>
+<li class="isub1">watered by thunder showers, 498.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seleucus the mathematician, iii. 159.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seleucus Callinicus, anecdote of, iv. 237.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Self-praise. How a man may inoffensively praise himself without being
+liable to envy, ii. 306-325.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semiramis, her saying, i. 187, 497; iv. 85.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seneca, anecdote of, i. 53.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Senses, of the, iii. 164;</li>
+<li class="isub1">represent what is true, 165;</li>
+<li class="isub1">number of the, 165;</li>
+<li class="isub1">actions of the, 166.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sentiments concerning Nature with which Philosophers were delighted,
+iii. 104-193.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Serapio, iii. 74, 79, 81, 82.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Serapis is Pluto, iv. 88, 89.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Serpent and the Aetolian woman, v. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seven months’ infants, of, iii. 184.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seven Wise Men, Banquet of the, ii. 3-41.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Servius Tullius, his birth, elevation, and prosperous reign, iv. 212,
+213.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shadows, guests called, iii. 381.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheep bitten by wolves, iii. 254.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">She-wolves, of, iii. 517.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ships in winter, sailing of, iii. 500.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoe pinches, where the, ii. 494.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sibyl with her frantic grimaces, iii. 74.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sight, of our, iii. 168.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silence commended, iv. 230, 243.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simonides, quoted, i. 149, 257, 295, 305, 309, 318;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 44, 101, 136, 436, 457, 471;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 22, 87, 259, 409, 451, 459,
+473;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 158;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, v. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sipylus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siramnes, saying of, i. 185.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sleep or death, causes of, iii. 188;</li>
+<li class="isub1">whether it appertains to the soul or body, 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smelling, of, iii. 170.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smyrna and Cinyras, v. <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Snow, preservation of, iii. 350.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soclarus, iv. 292; v. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Socrates, anecdotes of, i. 11, 13, 23, 26, 38, 53,
+141, 150, 162;</li>
+<li class="isub1">rules of health, 255;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 307, 310, 312, 337; ii. 46, 148,
+150, 338, 441;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Daemon, 378-423, 441, 495; iii. 4, 19, 35,
+112, 121, 123; iv.
+249; v. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Socrates, his Second Book of Thracian History, v. <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soil, deep, for wheat, iii. 504;</li>
+<li class="isub1">lean soil for barley, 504.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Solon and Croesus, anecdote of, ii. 122.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Solon, quoted, i. 155, 297;</li>
+<li class="isub1">at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 297, 454, 487;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 50; iv. 72;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 260;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, 304; v. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sophocles, quoted, i. 46, 57, 244, 288;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thamyras, 39;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 58, 63;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tyre, 206, 467;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antig., 51, 462;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oed. Tyr., 179, 470;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 45, 57, 61, 72;</li>
+<li class="isub1">criticisms on, 72;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 173, 241, 244, 298, 431, 452,
+456, 470, 495;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oed. Tyr., 60, 172, 442, 476, 495;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antig., 110;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Trachin., 311;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Electra, 440;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 97, 210, 222;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 7;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antig. 45;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oed. Tyr., 235, 474;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oed. Col., 232;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Electra, 437;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 87, 246, 287, 304;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oed. Tyr., 197, 202;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Trachin., 281;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Antig., 239, 283, 404;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., 221, 226, 274, 284, 301;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oed. Col., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frag., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sostratus, his Second Book of Tuscan History, v. <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sotades, jest of, i. 25.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soterichus, the musician, i. 103, 112.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soul of Ajax, her place in hell, iii. 442.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soul or body, death appertains to, iii. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soul, procreation of the, ii. 326-367;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its nature and essence, iii. 161, 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">parts of the, 162;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in what part of the body it resides, 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">motion of the, 163;</li>
+<li class="isub1">immortality of the, 164;</li>
+<li class="isub1">principal part of the, 173;</li>
+<li class="isub1">three sorts of motion in the, v. <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">state of, after death, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">ancienter than the body, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Souls dispersed into the earth, moon, &amp;c., v. <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sounds in the night and day, iii. 406.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sows, tame and wild, iii. 508.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Space, of, iii. 127.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sparta had an oligarchy, v. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speech composed of nouns and verbs, v. <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speech of a statesman, what it should be, v. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sperm, whether it be a body, iii. 177.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spermatic emission of women, iii. 177.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sphodrias, v. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spiders, labor of the, v. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sponge, of the, v. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spurious remains of Plutarch, v. <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-<a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Star-fish, subtlety of the, v. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stark drunk, those that are, iii. 281.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stars, essence of the, iii. 138;</li>
+<li class="isub1">what figure they are, 139;</li>
+<li class="isub1">order and place of, 139;</li>
+<li class="isub1">motion and circulation of, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub1">whence do they receive their light, 140;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_532">532</span>which are called the Dioscuri, the twins, or Castor and Pollux,
+141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">how they prognosticate, 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">number of the, whether odd or even, 446.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stasicrates proposes to turn Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander,
+i. 495.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stesichorus, i. 109, 112; iv. 497.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steward of a feast, iii. 212-216.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stilpo, the philosopher, i. 13, 76, 144, 161;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, ii. 468;</li>
+<li class="isub1">defended, v. <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stoics speak greater improbabilities than the poets, iii. 194-196;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their opinions concerning daemons, iv. 24;</li>
+<li class="isub1">common conceptions against the, 372-427;</li>
+<li class="isub1">contradictions of the, 428-477.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strabo, quoted, i. 27.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strato, i. 155; iii. 163; v. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stratonica of Galatia, i. 373.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stratonicus, anecdote of, ii. 298; iii. 21.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strymon, a river in Thrace, v. <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Summer and winter, cause of, iii. 141.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Summer and winter solstice, iii. 143.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sun, essence of the, iii. 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">magnitude of the, 142;</li>
+<li class="isub1">figure or shape of the, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">turning and returning of the, 143;</li>
+<li class="isub1">eclipses of the, 144.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Superstition of the Gauls, Scythians, and Carthaginians, i. 182, 183.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Superstition, or indiscreet devotion, i. 168-184;</li>
+<li class="isub1">folly of, ii. 387.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Supper, many guests at, iii. 323.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Supper-room, why too narrow at first for guests, iii. 326.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suppers of the ancients, iii. 255-259.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swallows in the house, iii. 419;</li>
+<li class="isub1">intelligence of the, v. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sylla, i. 32-35;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Symposiacs, or table discourses, iii. 197-460.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Synorix and Camma, iv. 302.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">T.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Table, dignity of places at, iii. 210-212.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tables and lamps of the ancients, iii. 372.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Talkativeness, or garrulity, iv. 220-253.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Talk, deliberate or tumultuous, iii. 395.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanais, a river in Scythia, v. <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tarpeia, a virgin, the story of, v. <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taste, of, iii. 170.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taxiles of India, i. 201.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taygetus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tears of the hart, iii. 507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tears of wild boars, iii. 507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telamon and Periboea, v. <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telamon and Phocus, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telecrus, apothegm of, i. 431.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telegonus, son of Ulysses, v. <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telephanes of Megara, i. 117.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telephus, i. 289.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telesias the Theban, an eminent flute-player, i. 125.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telesphorus, in an iron cage, iii. 31.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Temple of Apollo, iv. 478-498.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teres, his saying, i. 189.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teribazus, anecdote of, i. 176.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Terpander, the musician, fined by the Ephori, and why? i. 91, 92;</li>
+<li class="isub1">an inventor of ancient music, 102, 105, 109;</li>
+<li class="isub1">an excellent composer to the harp, 106, 112;</li>
+<li class="isub1">added the octave to the heptachord, 102, 122.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teuthras, mount, v. <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thales, at the Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">first of philosophers; the Ionic sect took its denomination from
+him, iii. 107;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions; difference between a principle and an
+element, 106;</li>
+<li class="isub1">that the intelligence of the world was God, 121;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of geniuses and heroes, 122;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of division of bodies, 126;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of necessity, 129;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the division of heaven, 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the eclipses of the sun, 144;</li>
+<li class="isub1">that the moon borrows her light from the sun, 146;</li>
+<li class="isub1">that the earth is globular, and the centre of the universe, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of earthquakes, 157;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the overflow of the Nile, 160;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of the soul, 161; iv. 337, 480.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thaletas, a composer, i. 110, 112;</li>
+<li class="isub1">power of his music, 133.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thamyras, the singer, i. 105.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theanor, ii. 395, 396.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thebes, liberation of, ii. 414-423.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thectamenes, apothegm of, i. 411.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Themisteas, apothegm of, i. 410.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Themistocles, quoted, i. 73;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his saying, 208;</li>
+<li class="isub1">suspected of treason, 290, 296, 480;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 97, 311, 471;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his kind reception by the Persian king, iii. 21, 30; iv. 208, 361,
+365; v. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theo, iii. 70, 71, 74, 88.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theocritus, his remark and death, i. 25, 73; ii. 380; iii. 516.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theodorus, saying of, i. 142; ii. 321, 349; iii. 31;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his Book of Transformations, v. <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theognis, i. 473; ii. 59; iii. 506.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theon, ii. 157 <i>et seq.</i>; v. 273-275.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theophilus, his Third Book of Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Second Book of Peloponnesian Histories, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theophrastus, sayings of, i. 276, 304, 442; ii. 303; iii. 45, 64,
+218, 219, 334; v. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theopompus, his sayings, i. 217, 410; v. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theotimus, his Italian History, v. <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_533">533</span>Theramenes, anecdote
+of, i. 306.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thermodon, a river in Scythia, v. <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thero, anecdote of, iv. 286.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theseus and his son Hippolytus, v. <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thespesius, iv. 177, 182 <i>et seq.</i>, 188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thirst, cause of, iii. 341.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thorycion, apothegm of, i. 411.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thrasonides quoted, ii. 297.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thucydides, quoted, i. 70, 76, 472, 490;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 98, 117, 149, 152, 458;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iii. 88;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, iv. 141;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, v. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thunder, of, iii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thymbris, and his son Rustius, v. <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tides, of, iii. 159.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tigris, the river, v. <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timaeus, his opinion of tides, iii. 159.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timesias, the oracle and, i. 471;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, v. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Time, essence and nature of, iii. 127, 128.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timoclea, at the taking of Thebes, i. 376.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timoleon, ii. 314.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timotheus, the musician, anecdote of, i. 92, 106, 112; ii. 83, 306;
+v. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Titus Quinctius, apothegm of, i. 230.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tmolus, mount, v. <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo, or crampfish, v. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torquatus and Clusia, v. <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tortoise, their care for their young, v. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Training of children, i. 3-32.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tranquillity of the mind, the, i. 136-167.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Transmutation of bodies, v. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trees and seeds, watering of, iii. 496.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trees not nourished by sea-water, iii. 495.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Triangles, of, v. <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trisimachus, his book of Foundations of Cities, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trochilus and crocodile, v. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Troilus wept less than Priam, i. 323.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trojan women, virtue of the, i. 342.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trophonius and Agamedes, i. 313.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">True friendship, of, i. 464-474; ii. 100-134.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">True happiness, of, v. <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tullus Hostilius, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tunnies, dim sight of the, v. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Typhon, in Egyptian mythology, iv. 80, 81, 86, 88, 91, 92,
+99, 101,
+105, 110, 114, 118, 122.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tyrrhene women, virtue of the, i. 349.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">U.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ulysses, i. 160;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in the island of Circe, v. <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unity of God. Of the word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">εἰ</span> engraven over the gate of the temple of
+Apollo at Delphi, iv. 478-498.</li>
+
+
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Universe, whether it is one, iii. 114;</li>
+<li class="isub1">division of the, v. <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unlearned Prince, Discourse to an, iv. 323-330.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usurers, what sort of men they are, 417.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Usury, evils of, v. <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">V.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vacuum, of a, iii. 126;</li>
+<li class="isub1">there can be none in nature, iv. 33;</li>
+<li class="isub1">suppose there were, it would have no beginning, middle, or end, 34.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Valeria and Cloelia, i. 356.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Valeria Tusculanaria, v. <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Valerius Conatus swallowed up alive, v. <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venus’s hands wounded by Diomedes, iii. 441.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Verses seasonably and unseasonably applied, iii. 436.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vice and virtue, ii. 482-485.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vice, whether it is sufficient to render a man unhappy, iv. 499-503.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vines irrigated with wine, iii. 513;</li>
+<li class="isub1">rank of leaves, iii. 513.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virtue and vice, ii. 482-485.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virtue may be taught, i. 78-81.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virtue or fortune, to which of these was due the greatness and glory
+of Rome? iv. 198-219.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virtue, progress in, ii. 446-474.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virtues of women, i. 340-384.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vision, doctrine of, iii. 168; v. <a href="#Page_236">236</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Voice is incorporeal, iii. 172.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Voice, of the, iii. 171.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vowels and semi-vowels, iii. 438.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">W.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Water made colder by stones and lead, iii. 348.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Water or fire, which is more useful? v. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Water, white and black, iii. 518.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wealth, the love of, ii. 294-305.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Well water, change of the temperature in, iii. 347.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">West wind the swiftest, iii, 515.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whale, of the, v. <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wheat, sow, in clay, iii. 505.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whether an aged man ought to meddle in state affairs, v. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_534">534</span>Whether the passions of the soul, or diseases of the body, are
+worse, iv. 504-508.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whether ’twere rightly said, “Live concealed,” iii. 3-10.</li>
+
+
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Whether vice is sufficient to render a man unhappy, iv. 499-503.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whirlwinds, of, iii. 150.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Why the oracles cease to give answers, iv. 3-64.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wicked, delay of Providence in punishing the, iv. 140-188.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Widows in India, iv. 502.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wild beasts, steps of, iii. 509;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their tracks, 509.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wild boars, tears of the, iii. 507.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Winds, of, iii. 154.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wine, whether it is potentially cold, iii. 272-274;</li>
+<li class="isub1">straining of, 351;</li>
+<li class="isub1">middle of, 370;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sea water upon, 502;</li>
+<li class="isub1">irrigation with, 513.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Winter and summer, cause of, iii. 141, 154.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Winter, ships in, iii. 500;</li>
+<li class="isub1">sea least hot in, 501.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wise Men, the Seven, Banquet of, ii. 3-41;</li>
+<li class="isub1">their names, iv. 480.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Woman, of Pergamus, i. 374.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Woman of Thessaly torn in pieces by dogs, v. <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Women, the virtues of, i. 340-384;</li>
+<li class="isub1">barrenness in, iii. 181;</li>
+<li class="isub1">are hardly foxed, 268-270;</li>
+<li class="isub1">temper of, 270-272;</li>
+<li class="isub1">given as the price of peace, v. <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Word <span lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">ει</span> at Apollo’s temple at Delphi. iv. 478-498.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">World, how it was brought into its present order, iii. 113.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">World, of the, iii. 132;</li>
+<li class="isub1">figure of the, 133;</li>
+<li class="isub1">whether it be an animal, 133;</li>
+<li class="isub1">whether it is eternal and incorruptible, 133;</li>
+<li class="isub1">its nutriment, 134;</li>
+<li class="isub1">from what element was it raised, 134;</li>
+<li class="isub1">in what form and order was it composed, 135;</li>
+<li class="isub1">cause of its inclination, 136;</li>
+<li class="isub1">thing which is beyond the, 136;</li>
+<li class="isub1">what parts on the right and left hand, 137.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Worlds, plurality of, iv. 29-38.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wrestling, of, iii. 246.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">X.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xanthippe, wife of Socrates, anecdotes of, i. 53, 292.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xenaenetus, v. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xenocrates, anecdote of; i. 71, 442;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinions concerning the soul, ii. 327, 439;</li>
+<li class="isub1">of triangles, iii. 24, 139, 494;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his opinion about daemons, iv. 17, 87;</li>
+<li class="isub1">saying of, v. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xenocritus, a composer, i. 110, 380.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xenodamus, a composer, i. 110.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xenophanes, his reply, i. 65, 183;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his philosophical opinions, iii. 134, 138, 141, 144, 145,
+150, 155;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, ii. 49; iv. 291.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xenophon, quoted, i. 137;</li>
+<li class="isub1">maxim of, 281, 333, 447; ii. 115, 144, 178,
+307;</li>
+<li class="isub1">the scene of his old age, iii. 24; v. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Xerxes, his saying, i. 39, 187;</li>
+<li class="isub1">and Arimanes, iii. 59, 60;</li>
+<li class="isub1">invasion of Greece, v. <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Y.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Year, length of, in different planets, iii. 147.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zaleucus, laws of, ii. 315.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zaratas, ii. 327.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeno, saying of, i. 56;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdotes of, 72, 142, 283; ii. 321, 365, 455;</li>
+<li class="isub1">quoted, 467, 481; iii. 25, 113, 125, 128;</li>
+<li class="isub1">his definition of virtue, 462;</li>
+<li class="isub1">anecdote of, iv. 225; v. <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zenocrates, v. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeuxidamus, apothegm of, i. 410.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeuxippus, dialogue on health, i. 251-279; ii. 157 <i>et seq.</i>;
+iv. 270, 278, 288.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeuxis, reply of, i. 468.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zopyrus Byzantius, his Third Book of Histories, v. <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zoroaster, ii. 357; iv. 106.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="transnote chapter"><p>Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent padt1 padb1">New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent padt1 padb1">The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the
+original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been
+corrected.</p>
+</div>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78000 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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author	www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org>	2026-02-21 09:55:45 -0800
committer	www-data <www-data@mail.pglaf.org>	2026-02-21 09:55:45 -0800
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