Initial commit of ebook 78009 filesHEADmain

106 files changed, 32362 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/78009-0.txt b/78009-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e81573c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,14866 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78009 ***
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL (1850-1922)]
+
+
+
+
+                      =THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION SERIES=
+
+              EDITED BY R. TAIT MCKENZIE, B.A., M.D., M.P.E.
+                      MAJOR, ROYAL ARMY MEDICAL CORPS
+          PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL THERAPY,
+                        UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
+                               PHILADELPHIA
+
+                                  A GUIDE
+                                  TO THE
+                                HISTORY OF
+                            PHYSICAL EDUCATION
+
+                                    BY
+                      FRED EUGENE LEONARD, A.M., M.D.
+      PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN OBERLIN COLLEGE
+                               OBERLIN, OHIO
+
+                      ILLUSTRATED WITH 99 ENGRAVINGS
+
+                              [Illustration]
+
+                               LEA & FEBIGER
+                         PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK
+                                   1923
+
+                                 COPYRIGHT
+                               LEA & FEBIGER
+                                   1923
+
+                            PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+TO THE MEMORY OF
+
+DR. EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL
+
+WHO FIRST IN AMERICA BLAZED THE TRAIL WHICH I HAVE TRIED TO FOLLOW
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Thirty years ago, when the writer of these lines was called to a
+professorship in physical education, there existed no comprehensive
+survey of the field he was entering. The reports of Dr. Hartwell
+contained excellent summaries which suggested our debt to the past
+and to foreign lands, and fuller treatment of certain earlier periods
+in the United States; but the English language offered little else of
+value. Suitable preparation of courses in the principles and methods
+of physical education required more ample knowledge of what others had
+done and were doing, and the task of finding out and gathering together
+the best of the European literature bearing on the subject was at once
+begun and has been continued ever since. A summer trip to Germany in
+1896 whetted an appetite which later found satisfaction in an entire
+year (1900-1901) on the Continent, where the large special collections
+at the Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics and the Berlin
+_Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt_ supplied for the first time an opportunity
+to become familiar with the older books and periodicals. The year also
+contributed to the linguistic knowledge and experience needed for the
+handling of such material. The direct contact with historic spots and
+significant aspects of physical education in Europe which it brought
+was afterwards renewed and broadened by five months (February to June,
+1913) spent at important centers in Switzerland, Germany, the three
+Scandinavian countries, and Great Britain.
+
+Meanwhile the collection of material had progressed at a rapid rate, and
+from time to time as circumstances permitted chapters of a book-to-be
+were prepared and published, in irregular order, and biographical
+sketches which might later be incorporated in such a work as the present
+one. Thus it happens that only five of the twenty-eight chapters
+in this volume are altogether new, though all have been carefully
+revised and many of them largely rewritten within the last year and
+a half. The selection of topics, order of arrangement, and manner of
+presentation have been determined experimentally in courses given to
+students in Oberlin College since the spring of 1894, and for thirteen
+years (1899, 1902, and 1908-1919) at the Harvard University Summer
+School. The illustrations are chosen from nearly six hundred which have
+been employed in the form of lantern slides in these courses. With
+few exceptions the references in the text and footnotes are based on
+first-hand examination of the originals.
+
+If we except Viktor Heikel’s _Gymnastikens Historia_ (issued at
+Helsingfors in four parts, 1905-1909), comprehensive in plan but quite
+erratic in its treatment of the United States, no work undertaking to
+trace the history of physical education in Europe and America and to
+describe the chief present-day movements has appeared hitherto in any
+language. Euler’s standard _Geschichte des Turnunterrichts_ and the
+lesser German manuals, while they are in general excellent guides so far
+as ancient and medieval Europe are concerned, and for the recent history
+in that particular country, have little or nothing to say of the rest
+of modern Europe, except as it has influenced Germany herself. This is
+less true of Euler’s monumental _Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten
+Turnwesens_ and the more recent _Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens_ of
+Dr. Rudolf Gasch, but in these, too, the space allotted to non-German
+subjects is altogether insufficient. Similarly Illeris and Trap’s brief
+_Grundtræk af Gymnastikkens Historie_ covers chiefly Danish experience.
+For each country one must consult its own literature, and particularly
+the periodical publications, and he needs also to supplement his reading
+by personal observation and investigation on the ground in order to avoid
+distorted views and arrive at sound conclusions.
+
+If this attempt to set forth clearly the characteristics of the different
+stages and phases through which physical education has passed, to
+introduce the persons who have contributed to its advancement, and to
+guide the reader to the best that has been written on the subject, shall
+lead to deeper and more general appreciation of the place which physical
+education should win and hold in general education, and to the adoption
+of wiser measures where it is introduced, the labor expended upon the
+volume will be well rewarded. Much has been omitted which might have been
+included. If inaccuracies are discovered the author will be glad to have
+his attention called to them.
+
+                                                                  F. E. L.
+
+OBERLIN, OHIO, 1923.
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR’S PREFACE.
+
+
+The shore of physical education is strewn with the wrecks of systems
+and movements, many of them good in themselves, but left to drift when
+the personal support and enthusiasm of the founder was removed from the
+helm. It has only been when some great national crisis had to be faced
+and the minds of patriots and scholars were engaged in the effort to meet
+it, that systems have been evolved great enough to survive the death of
+their founder, the test of time and change in their national conditions.
+This is notably true of the gymnastics of Denmark, Sweden and Germany.
+Incomplete as systems of physical education without the addition of
+games, but logical and accurate in their application to the conditions
+they have had to meet, whenever similar conditions have arisen it is to
+them we have turned for inspiration and instruction, and nowhere was
+this better shown than in the great war of 1914, where crude masses of
+untrained and underdeveloped men had to be made quick and accurate in
+response to command and given that control of their bodies that is the
+true function of physical education in its highest sense.
+
+To the sincere student of physical education nothing has a more sobering
+effect than the study of those advances made by the great men who have
+given their lives to their cause. He finds that most of the theories that
+come to him as new and startling have been thought before and have been
+either rejected or put into practice as well or better than he is likely
+to do, and so if he is a philosopher, he can avoid the inevitable failure
+of schemes that have been discarded and adapt from material of proved
+worth the material that suits his special conditions.
+
+Such a study will save him from the outstanding characteristic of many
+exploiters of this subject, the unfounded claims for originality and
+novelty in their work. Small collections of free exercises are dignified
+as systems and published as such with apparent seriousness, slight
+variation of method is hailed as a great discovery, has its little day
+of notoriety and takes its place on the library shelves as a literary
+curiosity of interest only to the antiquarian, and the busy teacher has
+neither the time nor the inclination to separate the wheat from the
+chaff. Up to the present there have been but incomplete and fragmentary
+reports available for our guidance, often in translation, and frequently
+garbled by personal bias, so that the need has become more and more
+urgent for a complete and scholarly review of the growth and distribution
+of systems that are associated with certain names and certain periods.
+
+Dr. Leonard is peculiarly fitted for such a great task. An enthusiastic
+scholar, with an intimate knowledge of the languages in which the
+originals were written, he has devoted the leisure and the vacations
+of thirty years to collecting, reading and making available rare and
+inaccessible works on the subject, for students of education in general
+and of physical education in particular. Repeated visits to Europe and
+pilgrimages to the shrines of the pioneers have given him the proper
+perspective, and this volume presents his conclusions as delivered in his
+yearly lecture courses at Oberlin and Harvard.
+
+It comes appropriately early in a series of books designed to place
+physical education on an equality with other more strongly entrenched
+parts of a general educational system. The soul is indeed dead that does
+not react with a generous glow when reading the difficulties overcome and
+the work accomplished by the heroes of any field of endeavor, and what
+could be more inspiring at this time than to have set forth the conquests
+and defeats of those patriotic spirits whose lives have been given to
+upbuilding the health and fitness of the youth of the world, throughout
+the ages, as a guide and inspiration to us who have these same problems
+to meet at the present time.
+
+                                                         R. TAIT MCKENZIE,
+                                                         Editor.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                             PART I. EUROPE.
+
+                                CHAPTER I.
+
+                               THE GREEKS.
+
+  Two Types of Education, Spartan and Athenian                          17
+
+  Physical Education at Sparta                                          18
+
+  Physical Education at Athens                                          20
+
+  The National Festivals                                                24
+
+                               CHAPTER II.
+
+                               THE ROMANS.
+
+  The Roman Conception of Education                                     28
+
+  Military Training and Discipline                                      29
+
+  The Introduction of Greek Gymnastics                                  31
+
+  The Exercises of the Public Baths                                     32
+
+  The Public Spectacles of the Amphitheater and the Circus              33
+
+                               CHAPTER III.
+
+                THE TEUTONIC INVADERS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE               34
+
+                               CHAPTER IV.
+
+                ASCETICISM IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
+
+  Causes                                                                37
+
+  Nature of the Period                                                  38
+
+  Effects                                                               39
+
+                                CHAPTER V.
+
+                     MONASTERY AND CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS.                   41
+
+                                CHAPTER VI.
+
+                                CHIVALRY.                               43
+
+                               CHAPTER VII.
+
+                   THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES.                 47
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+            THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION.
+
+  Changes in Education—The Humanists                                    49
+
+  Vittorino da Feltre                                                   49
+
+  Physical Training Advocated by Writers on Education:
+
+      In Italy—Cardano, Mercurialis, etc.                               50
+
+      Luther, Zwingli, Camerarius, Comenius                             53
+
+      The Spanish Scholar Vives                                         54
+
+      In France—Rabelais and Montaigne                                  54
+
+      In England—Elyot, Mulcaster, Milton                               57
+
+                               CHAPTER IX.
+
+                           LOCKE AND ROUSSEAU.
+
+  John Locke                                                            59
+
+  Jean Jacques Rousseau                                                 61
+
+  Medical Writers of the Period                                         64
+
+                                CHAPTER X.
+
+         THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY.
+
+  Basedow, and the Dessau “Philanthropinum”                             67
+
+  Salzmann, and the Schnepfenthal Educational Institute                 70
+
+  The Life and Work of GutsMuths                                        71
+
+  His Writings                                                          77
+
+  Vieth’s “Encyclopedia of Bodily Exercises” (Footnote)                 81
+
+                               CHAPTER XI.
+
+        FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAHN, AND POPULAR GYMNASTICS IN GERMANY.
+
+  Jahn’s Early Life                                                     83
+
+  The Outdoor Gymnasium (Hasenheide _Turnplatz_) near Berlin            88
+
+  The Spread of the Jahn Gymnastics in Germany, up to 1819              95
+
+  The Reaction of 1819—Jahn’s Later Life                                98
+
+  The Development of Popular Gymnastic Societies since 1840—The
+    _Deutsche Turnerschaft_                                            101
+
+                               CHAPTER XII.
+
+          ADOLF SPIESS, THE FATHER OF GERMAN SCHOOL GYMNASTICS.
+
+  Early Life, and School Days at Offenbach                             109
+
+  University Student and Tutor                                         110
+
+  Teacher in Switzerland, at Burgdorf and Basel                        112
+
+  In Charge of School Gymnastics in the Grand Duchy of Hesse           116
+
+  His Contribution to Physical Education                               117
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+                PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS.
+
+  Ernst Eiselen in Berlin                                              120
+
+  Massmann Endeavors to Revive the Jahn Plan                           121
+
+  Rothstein at the Berlin Central Institute                            122
+
+  The Training of Teachers in More Recent Times                        124
+
+  Gymnastics in the Schools                                            127
+
+  The German Universities and Technical Schools                        130
+
+                               CHAPTER XIV.
+
+                   THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN GERMANY.
+
+  Koch and Hermann in Brunswick                                        132
+
+  Hartwich in Düsseldorf                                               135
+
+  Von Gossler’s “Playground Order”                                     137
+
+  Von Schenckendorff and Eitner at Görlitz                             138
+
+  The Central Committee, 1891-1915                                     142
+
+                               CHAPTER XV.
+
+         PER HENRIK LING, FATHER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SWEDEN.
+
+  Early years in Sweden                                                146
+
+  Student in Copenhagen                                                148
+
+  The Lund Period                                                      149
+
+  The Stockholm Period—The “Central Institute”                         151
+
+                               CHAPTER XVI.
+
+         LING’S SUCCESSORS AT THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE IN STOCKHOLM.
+
+  Branting, Georgii                                                    156
+
+  Nyblæus, Hartelius, Hjalmar Ling                                     158
+
+  Törngren, Silow, Balck, Sellén                                       161
+
+  The Central Institute in 1900                                        163
+
+  Proposed Reorganization (1912)                                       170
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+               PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS OF SWEDEN.
+
+  Elementary Schools                                                   171
+
+  Higher Schools for Boys                                              173
+
+  Higher Schools for Girls—Private Schools                             176
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+                      PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK.
+
+  Under Nachtegall                                                     178
+
+  Under la Cour, Wegener, and Amsinck                                  183
+
+  The Rifle Clubs                                                      184
+
+  The People’s High Schools                                            186
+
+  The Swedish System of School Gymnastics Introduced                   187
+
+  Under Ramsing and Knudsen                                            189
+
+  The Playground Movement                                              194
+
+                               CHAPTER XIX.
+
+                              GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+  Sports and Organized Games                                           198
+
+  Archibald Maclaren                                                   203
+
+  The Swedish System of School Gymnastics Introduced                   208
+
+  The Dunfermline College of Hygiene and Physical Training             213
+
+                               CHAPTER XX.
+
+                        INTERNATIONAL GATHERINGS.
+
+  European Gymnastic Federations                                       215
+
+  The Modern Olympic Games                                             216
+
+  Congresses for the Promotion of Physical Education                   224
+
+                         PART II. UNITED STATES.
+
+                               CHAPTER XXI.
+
+       THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF THE JAHN GYMNASTICS INTO AMERICA.
+
+  Early Life of Follen and Beck, in Germany and Switzerland            227
+
+  They Settle in Northampton and Cambridge, Massachusetts              232
+
+  The First School Gymnasium in the United States, at Round Hill       233
+
+  The First College Gymnasium in the United States, at Harvard
+    University                                                         235
+
+  The Boston Gymnasium, the First Public Gymnasium in the United
+    States                                                             237
+
+  Lieber Succeeds Follen at the Boston Gymnasium                       238
+
+  Later History of Beck, Follen, and Lieber                            242
+
+  Introduction of Gymnastics in Other Schools and Colleges             244
+
+                              CHAPTER XXII.
+
+                    THE “NEW GYMNASTICS” OF DIO LEWIS.
+
+  Early Life of Lewis—Becomes Popular Lecturer                         251
+
+  Introduces His “New Gymnastics” in and about Boston                  255
+
+  The Normal Institute for Physical Education                          256
+
+  Lewis’s Writings                                                     259
+
+  School for Girls, at Lexington and Spy Pond                          261
+
+  Later Life                                                           262
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+        PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.
+
+  In the Period of 1830                                                264
+
+  In the Eighteen-fifties                                              264
+
+  Harvard, Yale, and Amherst Build Gymnasia                            268
+
+  Amherst Establishes a Professorship of Hygiene and Physical
+    Education                                                          272
+
+  Other Colleges in the Eighteen-sixties and -seventies                274
+
+  The Land-grant Act of 1862, and Military Training                    276
+
+  Beginning of Rowing, Baseball, Football, and Track Athletics         277
+
+  Dr. Sargent at Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University                279
+
+  Progress since 1880                                                  284
+
+                              CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+        GERMAN-AMERICAN GYMNASTIC SOCIETIES AND THE NORTH AMERICAN
+                               TURNERBUND.
+
+  Early History, up to the Close of the Civil War                      290
+
+  The Period 1865-1886                                                 295
+
+  George Brosius, and the Milwaukee Normal School of Gymnastics        296
+
+  The Year 1886 a Turning Point                                        301
+
+  Carl Betz, and German Gymnastics in American Schools                 302
+
+  Recent History of the Turnerbund and Its Normal School               306
+
+                               CHAPTER XXV.
+
+       PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
+
+  Robert J. Roberts and His Work                                       309
+
+  Luther H. Gulick at the Springfield (Mass.) Training School          312
+
+  The Chicago and Lake Geneva Training School                          318
+
+  Recent History of Physical Training in the Associations              319
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+             SWEDISH SCHOOL GYMNASTICS IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+  Posse, and the Introduction of Swedish Gymnastics in the Boston
+    Schools                                                            322
+
+  Dr. Hartwell’s Contribution to Physical Education in America         326
+
+  The Work of Nissen, Enebuske, Bolin, and Others                      331
+
+  Swedish Gymnastics at the Woman’s College and the Bryn Mawr School
+    in Baltimore                                                       335
+
+                              CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+    THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN AMERICA. STATEWIDE PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
+
+  Sand Piles and Outdoor Gymnasia in Boston                            337
+
+  Chicago Small Parks and Playgrounds                                  342
+
+  Status of the Playground Movement in 1916                            347
+
+  Legislation Favoring Statewide Physical Education                    348
+
+                             CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+                        THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
+
+  Dio Lewis                                                            352
+
+  The North American Turnerbund                                        352
+
+  Dr. Sargent, at the Private Gymnasium and the Harvard Summer School  352
+
+  The Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics, and the Chautauqua Summer
+    School                                                             353
+
+  The Young Men’s Christian Association Colleges                       355
+
+  The Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, and the Posse Gymnasium      356
+
+  Teacher’s Courses in Colleges and Universities                       357
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+EUROPE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE GREEKS.
+
+
+Man’s earliest endeavor to perfect the body, discipline the mind, and
+mold the character of the young by means of selected forms of physical
+activity and special regimen could doubtless be traced back to a
+prehistoric age. The study of ancient customs of China and India, Egypt,
+Babylonia and Assyria, the Phœnicians and Carthaginians, the Persians,
+and the Hebrews might also yield some curious facts. But if one’s
+purpose is to follow the evolution of modern forms of physical education
+in Europe and America and to note the significant contributions and
+modifications introduced at various stages, it is sufficient to begin
+with Greece as it was in the century and a half whose middle point is the
+year of Salamis and Thermopylæ (480 B.C.). There we find “gymnastics”
+generally adopted as a necessary part of education, provision everywhere
+made for the exercise of youths and grown men in establishments supported
+and administered by the state, great national festivals at which the
+chief attractions were contests in physical prowess, and at a later day
+sculptors able to reproduce from the types presented to them in the
+gymnasia ideal human figures which have never been excelled in beauty.
+
+Several things must be borne in mind when one thinks of Greece in the
+period of the Persian Wars. It was not a nation in the modern sense of
+a political unit with a central government and circumscribed territory,
+but a group of independent states and cities in European Greece, on
+the islands of the Ægean Sea, along the west coast of Asia Minor, and
+wherever else the Greek language was spoken by persons who felt the tie
+of a common descent, common religious beliefs, and common customs.
+
+These customs, furthermore, were not uniform. For example, education
+embraced two subjects of instruction and training, gymnastics and
+“music.” The former reached primarily the body and the will; the latter,
+which included literary studies as well as music in the narrower sense,
+affected the intellect and the emotions. Sparta, surrounded by an
+unfriendly and subject people, was little more than an organized camp,
+in which self-preservation required a form of training designed to mold
+every citizen into the best possible weapon of defense. Individual
+welfare was therefore strictly subordinated to that of the community.
+Education was viewed as a function of the state, and physical hardihood,
+skilful use of weapons, self-reliant courage, and iron discipline
+were developed by a type of education which was chiefly gymnastic and
+military. Literary training was neglected, and music, in the form of
+religious and patriotic hymns, war songs, and ballads recounting the
+deeds of heroes, was valued solely for its stimulating effects. At
+Athens, on the other hand, we find a much broader type of education,
+which came more and more to dominate the practice of her sister states
+and cities. Complete and harmonious development of the individual was the
+object sought, and the schools were private affairs, over which the state
+exercised nothing more than police supervision. Gymnastics was hardly
+less essential than at Sparta, but literary training occupied a prominent
+place, and music was esteemed for its refining influence on character and
+its contribution to social enjoyment.
+
+A third point to be noted is that whatever may be said of Greek education
+applies to free citizens only, and hence takes no account of slaves and
+the foreign-born, who made up possibly as much as three-fourths of the
+total population—at least in the case of the larger cities. And even
+within these limits it is usually boys alone for whom provision was made.
+
+Turning first to physical education at Sparta, the earlier type, we find
+that the state began its efforts to secure a sound body of citizens by
+carefully regulating the life of the women, and formed an exception to
+the statement just made in that it prescribed for girls a course of
+gymnastic exercise. There was need of vigorous mothers for the sturdy
+race which public welfare demanded. As a further precaution, the new-born
+infant was brought before a council of old men, whose decision whether
+or not he should be raised was based upon his physical condition and
+promise, and was final. The first six years were passed in the home,
+but at the age of seven the boy was taken away from his parents, to be
+placed in public quarters. Here he slept and ate in company with a large
+number of other boys, and shared with them a common discipline at the
+hands of state officials who shaped every detail with reference to his
+future career as a citizen-warrior. He spent the night in a room open to
+the sky, without the luxury of bedclothes, on a pallet of hay or straw,
+exchanged when he was older for one of rushes which he had gathered
+himself along the river banks. He went summer and winter clad in a single
+scanty garment, unshod, bare-headed and with close-cropped hair. The
+food, of the plainest sort, was hardly sufficient to satisfy the cravings
+of hunger. The amount might be eked out by theft, however, but with the
+understanding that anyone so indiscreet or maladroit as to be detected in
+the act would receive prompt and severe punishment. Indeed, the rod and
+lash were freely applied, by public officers or by any offended citizen,
+upon the least provocation, and as a necessary part of the regular
+discipline, since it accustomed the future soldier to the endurance of
+pain. There were even what might be considered periodical tests of this
+capacity to endure, for at one of the annual festivals the flogging of
+youths was an essential feature, often carried to the drawing of blood,
+it is said. Like the Indian under torture, the victim was expected to
+give no signs of suffering.
+
+For the gymnastic instruction which occupied the greater part of their
+time the boys were arranged in squads or “packs” according to age,
+and these in turn were combined into companies. Each division had its
+young leader, chosen on the score of ability and longer experience,
+but all were subject to the direction of special state officers. The
+course of training included practice in wrestling, running, jumping,
+throwing the javelin and the discus, marching in time to music, together
+with other military exercises, swimming in the Eurotas, riding on
+horseback, hunting, and certain rough games. There was also practice in
+choral dances, for use on religious occasions, and in the war dance,
+representing the movements of attack and defense. This latter, the
+so-called Pyrrhic dance, was sometimes executed in armor, and by whole
+companies moving together in rhythm to the accompaniment of music.
+Occasional public exhibitions and contests acted as incentives to
+improvement and furnished opportunity to test it, satisfying at the same
+time the general fondness for such displays.
+
+With the advent of his eighteenth year the youth left the common training
+quarters of the boys and entered upon a second stage of discipline.
+During the next two years his preparation took more and more the form of
+scouting in outlying districts of the state, and might involve actual
+warfare. His understanding had been matured meanwhile by constant
+intercourse with grown men in the affairs of daily public life.
+
+Not much is known of the training imposed upon the Spartan girls; but
+it included both gymnastics and music, and among the exercises practised
+were running, jumping, throwing the spear and the discus, dancing,
+swimming, and even wrestling.
+
+In Athens, as at Sparta, weak, deformed or sickly infants were sometimes
+put out of the way (“exposed”), but in this case the decision rested
+with the father. Here, too, the first six years were spent at home,
+under the charge of the women of the household. The play of childhood
+took most often the form of active exercise and games, and in the list
+of amusements, under the thin disguise of strange names, we discover
+many varieties which have survived to the present day with undiminished
+popularity: The small box of metal or wood containing stones which
+rattled when it was shaken; hobby-horses, swinging and seesaw, walking on
+stilts, trundling hoops, kite-flying; spinning tops, whipping the humming
+top, and a game resembling our peg-top, but played with sharpened sticks;
+shooting or tossing smooth stones or nuts and the like, as in some of
+our modern games with marbles; tossing up and catching jackstones, in
+the shape of pebbles or small bones; making flat stones skip along
+the surface of the water, various exercises and games with balls,
+hide-and-seek, blindman’s buff, games like our drop-the-handkerchief, and
+others in which sides were chosen and one side then chased its opponents
+in the attempt to make them prisoners. Besides a share in the less
+violent of these sports, the little girls had, of course, their dolls,
+made of clay or wax and sometimes painted. They seldom left the women’s
+quarters, but acquired there whatever training was considered necessary
+for their later life.
+
+The school age for the boy began with his seventh year. Custom required
+that each son of a free citizen should be given instruction in gymnastics
+and music, but beyond keeping an eye on the morals of teachers and the
+conduct of their charges the state did not concern itself with education.
+It rested with the parent alone to decide how much schooling his boy
+should receive, and the schools were in all cases private institutions,
+supported by the fees of pupils. The status of the teacher was not an
+exalted one—the pay was small, and the position was often the last resort
+of the unsuccessful. We may be certain, therefore, that the results
+of education, even at Athens, too often fell far short of the exalted
+ideal cherished by many of her foremost citizens. The general features
+of the system are sufficiently clear, but many details of instruction,
+including the amount of time devoted to different branches, and the age
+at which they were begun, remain to be discovered. The literary training
+comprised reading and committing to memory selections from the poets,
+especially Homer and Hesiod, writing, and the elements of arithmetic. For
+musical training there was practice not only in singing selections from
+the great lyric poets, but also in the use of stringed instruments—the
+seven-stringed lyre, or the later cithara—as an accompaniment to the
+voice. The flute, as an instrument for ordinary use, was held in less
+esteem.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Scene in a Palæstra.]
+
+Games and gymnastics, however, seem to have occupied the larger part of
+the boy’s time. The private school where these were practised was known
+as a _palæstra_, a name derived from the Greek word for wrestling. The
+exercises must have been given out of doors originally, and whatever
+structures were used for them in later times can hardly have contained
+more than an open court for wrestling, with one or more small rooms
+adjoining, where clothing might be laid aside or put on and where oil
+and sand were kept, and some provision for bathing in case there was
+no stream close at hand. No clothing of any sort was worn during the
+exercises. These seem to have included most of the forms practised in
+later life—running, the broad jump with and without weights in the
+hands, throwing the javelin and the discus for distance, and above
+all, wrestling, besides the rudiments of boxing, and a form of the
+_pancratium_, a struggle which combined certain features of both boxing
+and wrestling with others of its own.[1] Mention is also made of simple
+exercises to develop correct carriage and a graceful step in walking, and
+it is said that the art of swimming was early acquired, and that games,
+especially those in which the ball was used, were by no means forgotten.
+Dancing, at least in its more advanced forms, was not a regular subject
+of instruction at Athens, but was left to choral bands which received
+special training for their appearance before the public on festal
+occasions.
+
+Upon reaching the age of eighteen the youth, now known as an _ephebe_,
+passed under state control for a two-year period of discipline comparable
+to the enforced military service in modern continental Europe. He first
+took a solemn oath of allegiance, and was then sent to join the garrisons
+at the neighboring harbor of the Piræus, for training in the use of
+weapons and the performance of a soldier’s duties. At the end of the
+first year he received from the state a shield and spear, and might now
+be employed at other garrison ports or as a frontier patrol. Hunting
+afforded additional preparation for active warfare. Meanwhile the former
+gymnastic exercises were continued, but for these, instead of visiting
+the palæstra, he now joined the grown men in the city gymnasia. The
+ephebes were conspicuous figures in the numerous local festivals held at
+Athens, taking part in processions like that represented on the frieze
+of the Parthenon, and in various athletic events. Aside from this later
+gymnastic and military training there was no higher education in Greece
+until the rise of the sophists, or professional lecturers on rhetoric and
+philosophy, after the middle of the fifth century before Christ.
+
+The Greek _gymnasium_, unlike the palæstra, was intended for ephebes
+and for grown men who had finished their schooling. It was a state
+institution maintained at public expense and administered by public
+magistrates and other functionaries. Structures of this sort began to
+be built, or, more properly, laid out, as early as the sixth or seventh
+century before Christ, and by the end of the fifth century B.C. there
+was probably no important Greek town, at home or in the colonies, that
+did not possess at least one of them. Almost any open spot would serve
+the purpose at the start, but, as population increased and civilization
+advanced, buildings of special design became necessary, and these grew
+in size and splendor with the addition of new features from time to
+time. Exact information with regard to the different parts and their
+arrangement is almost wholly lacking for the period under review.
+Descriptions which have come down to us, and the remains discovered at
+Olympia, Delphi, and other places belong to later centuries. The same
+general plan seems to have been followed, however, but with considerable
+variation in details. Originally, we may suppose, as in the case of the
+palæstra, there was only an open space for wrestling, running, and the
+other exercises, and surrounding or adjoining this covered colonnades,
+into which various rooms opened. The essential features at a later stage
+seem to have included, besides this spacious court or course and its
+colonnades, a room where clothing might be taken off and left, others
+for the oil with which visitors rubbed the body before exercising, and
+for the dust or fine sand with which the wrestlers were then sprinkled,
+and some sort of baths, either basins set on high supports, or running
+water issuing from outlets under which one might stand, as in a modern
+shower-bath. Before washing himself the gymnast removed the oil, sand,
+and dirt from his body with a scraper of metal, bone, or reed, hollowed
+out somewhat like a spoon and furnished with a handle, but concave
+along one edge. Some provision was usually made for playing at ball
+and for running under cover, in addition to the open spaces intended
+for wrestling, running, and throwing the discus and the javelin. The
+whole might be enclosed in spacious grounds, as was the case with the
+three ancient gymnasia outside the walls of Athens, and these were laid
+out like public parks, shaded with trees and planted with shrubs and
+flowering plants, watered by streams or fountains, and further adorned
+with statues of favorite gods, legendary heroes, and eminent citizens.
+
+The position of general superintendent of the gymnasium was one of great
+dignity. Other officials were charged with enforcing good order and
+decorous behavior, and there was a variety of trainers and servants who
+gave assistance in one way or another. Like the boys in the palæstra,
+those who were about to exercise stripped themselves entirely naked
+before commencing—a practice which must have stimulated each to make
+himself an object worth beholding, and gave to the sculptor unparalleled
+opportunities for study of the human body in action and repose. Among
+the favorite occupations were running, wrestling, the broad jump with
+stone or metal weights in the hands, throwing the heavy stone or metal
+discus for distance, and throwing the javelin by means of a leather
+thong wound about it near the center and ending in a loop for one or two
+fingers. The javelins commonly used in practice were blunt rods about
+a man’s height in length, and thrown for distance more often than at a
+mark. A combination of these five exercises, known as the _pentathlon_,
+or five-fold contest, furnished a popular form of gymnastic competition.
+Another exceedingly popular sport was boxing, with the knuckles protected
+by long, thin, leather thongs wrapped about the hand and wrist, and there
+was also the _pancratium_, a sort of rough-and-tumble fight reduced to
+orderly form. In this the hands were left bare, and the struggle was
+continued until one of the contestants acknowledged himself defeated.
+
+Besides answering the original purpose for which they were laid out,
+the gymnasia came to be more and more the centers of Greek social and
+intellectual life, a gathering place of citizens for conversation and
+amusement which combined some of the features of a modern clubhouse with
+those of a city park. Philosophers and rhetoricians found a general
+audience or met their special pupils there, and thus it happened that
+each of the three great gymnasia at Athens became associated with a
+particular school of philosophy—the _Academy_, on the banks of the river
+Cephissus about a mile to the northwest of the city walls, with Plato,
+whose followers assembled in a small garden which he owned within the
+enclosure, and were therefore dubbed the “Academic sect;” the _Lyceum_
+with Aristotle, whose favorite walk was here, whence he and his disciples
+were known as “Peripatetics;” and the _Cynosarges_ with the school of
+the Cynics, or followers of Antisthenes, who frequented that spot. It
+is these later and secondary uses of the gymnasium that alone give
+significance to such modern words as the German _gymnasium_ and the
+French _lycée_ (secondary schools), and to our own “academy” and “lyceum.”
+
+The most striking illustration of the important place accorded to
+physical training among the Greeks is found in their great national
+festivals. The very beginnings of recorded history show that in every
+town there were periodic religious festivals, where sacrifices to some
+hero or divinity were followed by feasting, dancing, choral songs to
+the accompaniment of the lyre or the flute, and exhibitions of bodily
+agility, strength, and skill in the form of competitive exercises.
+Gradually, in the case of certain localities, the importance and
+attractiveness of the festival increased and the circle from which
+visitors were drawn grew wider, until four of them, all in or near
+the Peloponnesus, finally developed into national occasions—first and
+foremost of the number, and as far back as the end of the eighth or very
+early in the seventh century before Christ, that held at Olympia, and
+in the first half of the sixth century before Christ three others, the
+Pythia, the Nemea, and the Isthmia. During three centuries in particular,
+from 600 to 300 B.C., the service they rendered as common centers of
+interest, binding together the politically distinct members of the Greek
+race in the parent land and in the far-scattered colonies that dotted the
+borders of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, was of the greatest value.
+
+Olympia lies in a plain near the western limits of the Peloponnesus,
+about ten miles from the Ionian Sea. The sacred enclosure, some ten acres
+in extent, contained a grove in the center of which stood a great altar
+to Zeus, and near it his temple, wherein was a wonderful statue of the
+god in ivory and gold, the most famous work of Phidias and one of the
+greatest triumphs of Greek sculpture. Besides other temples, there were
+numerous altars, votive offerings, statues of gods, heroes, and victors
+in the games, and treasure houses erected by cities which had sent
+gifts to the shrine. Just outside the enclosure, to the east, were the
+stadium and the hippodrome. The stadium, to which most of the contests
+seem to have been transferred after the middle of the fifth century
+B.C., was at first merely a stretch of level ground overlooked from the
+north by spectators who stood or sat on the slope of the Hill of Cronus.
+Afterwards an artificial embankment was raised along the opposite side
+and straight across the ends of a parallelogram, completely enclosing it,
+so that 40,000 persons or more might find standing-room, but no permanent
+seats. Modern excavations have allowed exact measurements of the race
+course, from the starting to the finish line, and it is found to be just
+192.27 m., or a trifle over 210 yards in length. No trace remains of the
+neighboring hippodrome, intended for chariot races, but it is supposed
+to have resembled the stadium in general plan, although much longer. A
+gymnasium, to the northwest of the enclosure, belongs to a much later
+date.
+
+The festival was held at intervals of four years, at the time of the
+second or third full moon after the summer solstice, coming therefore
+in the late summer. During the lunar month in which it occurred a truce
+of the god was observed throughout Greece. For an armed force to set
+foot on the soil of the district of Elis within that period, or for
+anyone to do violence to travellers on their way to or from Olympia,
+was considered sacrilege. Heralds were sent to announce the coming
+celebration through all the states of Greece and to carry the news to the
+Greek colonies which had been established on the islands of the Ægean
+Sea, in southwestern Italy and Sicily, and along the shores of the Black
+Sea and the coast of Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Gaul, and Spain. From the
+whole of this wide area deputations and private citizens made their way
+to the sacred spot. It was essentially a Greek gathering, though many
+foreigners were doubtless present in the throng, and except the priestess
+of Demeter, who occupied a conspicuous seat in the stadium, no women were
+allowed to view the exercises.
+
+In the games which followed the sacrifices on the altar of Zeus none but
+free-born Greek citizens, of pure Hellenic descent and untainted by civil
+or religious crime, were allowed to have a share. Each contestant had
+passed through a long period of preliminary training, the last thirty
+days of which were spent in the gymnasia at Elis, thirty miles away to
+the northwest, or in later years the one at Olympia itself. Originally a
+single day had sufficed for the festival, but from time to time, as the
+occasion grew in importance, new features were added until finally the
+program required five days for its completion. Interest centered chiefly
+on the competitive exercises, which consumed the greater part of the
+time. The list of these varied in the course of years, with the addition
+or dropping out of one item or another, but in general they included the
+foot race—a single course (210 yards), or down and back, or back and
+forth a number of times, or a race in armor; the pentathlon; wrestling;
+boxing and the pancratium; races between men on horseback; and the
+chariot race, commonly with four horses, less frequently with two. As far
+back as the seventh century B.C. separate contests for boys in running,
+the pentathlon, wrestling, and boxing were introduced.
+
+So much importance was attached to the games in the popular mind, and the
+fame of the winner spread so widely over the Hellenic world, that to wear
+the victor’s wreath on such an occasion became one of the highest honors
+a Greek could covet. At first the prizes offered possessed intrinsic
+value; but as victory became more and more a sufficient recompense
+in itself, they were restricted to the simple crown of sacred wild
+olive, placed upon the brow of the successful athlete. There were other
+rewards than this, however. In recognition of the honor done to them the
+citizens of the victor’s town sometimes received him with extraordinary
+demonstrations. It might be that, clad in purple, he entered the gates
+in a chariot drawn by white horses, and made his way through singing
+and cheering throngs to hang his wreath as an offering in the principal
+temple. We even hear of city walls torn down to make a passage, as though
+where such a citizen dwelt there was no need of other defense. The
+choral ode which greeted him might have been composed for the occasion
+by lyric poets like Pindar and Bacchylides.[2] His statue would be set
+up in the home city, or placed within the sacred enclosure at Olympia.
+He was perhaps granted a seat of honor in the theater, and provided with
+board at the public table for the rest of his life. Solon, at Athens, is
+said to have offered five hundred drachmæ to an Olympian victor, and one
+hundred in the case of other national festivals.
+
+At Olympia the gymnastic competitions were the only ones. There were many
+among the visitors, however, who did not fail to take advantage of the
+great crowds to advance some private interest. Historians, philosophers
+and rhetoricians, poets, painters, and sculptors found listeners and
+patrons. The occasion was also one of commercial interchange, like the
+great fairs of the middle ages, or the religious gatherings at Mecca and
+Medina. To other proofs of the wide influence exerted by the games are to
+be added the facts that the length of the race course in the stadium at
+Olympia was adopted as the standard unit for measuring distances, and
+that in the third century before Christ Greek historians began generally
+to employ as a unit of time the Olympiad, or four-year period including
+one celebration and extending to the next, designating each by the name
+of the victor in the foot-race at its particular festival. The first
+recorded Olympic festival was held in 776 B.C., and they were not finally
+abolished till 394 A.D.—a period of 293 Olympiads.
+
+Next to the Olympic festival in importance was the _Pythia_, in honor of
+Apollo, celebrated near the famous shrine of the god at Delphi, a few
+miles north of the Corinthian Gulf. It was quadrennial, like its greater
+rival, falling in the third year of each Olympiad. In the case of the
+two remaining national festivals the contests took place at intervals of
+only two years. The _Nemea_, in honor of Zeus, was held in Argolis, in
+a valley near Cleonæ where there was a grove containing a temple of the
+god. The _Isthmia_ was celebrated on the isthmus of Corinth, in a grove
+of pines sacred to Poseidon. They fell in the second and fourth years of
+the Olympiad, one occurring in the summer and the other in the following
+spring. A general truce of the gods was observed during the progress of
+all three of these festivals. Unlike the Olympia, they added musical
+and literary competitions to the usual gymnastic contests and chariot
+races. The victor’s reward, at first substantial, was afterwards reduced
+to a wreath of sacred laurel at the Pythia, and to one of wild celery
+(“parsley”) at the Nemea and the Isthmia, replaced at the latter by one
+of pine in later times.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+General works in English which will be found of value are J. B. Bury’s
+“History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great,” E. A. Gardner’s
+“Handbook of Greek Sculpture,” T. G. Tucker’s “Life in Ancient Athens,”
+and K. J. Freeman’s “Schools of Hellas,” all four published in London
+by Macmillan & Co. Freeman’s chapter on Physical Education is the least
+satisfactory in his book, largely because of failure to distinguish
+between conditions at different periods, and taken alone would prove
+quite misleading.
+
+The following special works are indispensable, and contain ample
+references to the older literature: E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic
+Sports and Festivals” (London, Macmillan & Co., 1910), and Julius
+Jüthner’s “Philostratos über Gymnastik” (Leipzig and Berlin, B. G.
+Teubner, 1909) and “Über antike Turngeräthe” (Vienna, Alfred Holder,
+1896).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] For details regarding each of these exercises the reader is referred
+to Part II of E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals,” and
+Julius Jüthner’s “Über antike Turngeräthe.”
+
+[2] For English translations see Ernest Myers, “The Extant Odes of
+Pindar” (London, Macmillan & Co.), or Sir John Sandys, “The Odes of
+Pindar,” in the Loeb Classical Library (New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons);
+and Sir Richard C. Jebb’s “Bacchylides” (Cambridge, England, The
+University Press). Pindar’s forty-four “Odes of Victory” include fourteen
+in honor of Olympian winners, twelve Pythian, eleven Nemean, and seven
+Isthmian. Of the thirteen odes of Bacchylides four are Olympian, two are
+Pythian, three Isthmian, three Nemean, and one relates to a Thessalian
+festival.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ROMANS.
+
+
+The year 400 B.C. may be taken as marking roughly the close of the two or
+three centuries which witnessed the gradual development and culmination
+of physical training in Greece. Meanwhile a people differing widely from
+the cultured, reflective, beauty-loving Athenian in character and ideals
+had been establishing itself on the banks of the Tiber, and was already
+beginning to display a military prowess and a genius for organization
+that were to make Rome mistress of Italy within the next hundred and
+fifty years, extend its sway over the Mediterranean states in another
+century, and finally achieve world empire. The early Roman possessed
+some traits in common with the Spartan. He was first of all a man of
+affairs, intensely practical, and interested in things whose usefulness
+was apparent. A stranger to the Greek passion for beauty, he considered
+vague and worthless the notion of harmonious development as something
+desirable for its own sake. Education should fit a man for his work in
+the world. It was to make of him a good citizen and a capable soldier,
+ready to play his part in public life. Bodily exercise was desirable only
+as it gave robust health and prepared for military service. Music was
+an unprofitable art, and anything more than the rudiments of literary
+training was unnecessary. Until the time of the later emperors the state
+did not concern itself in any way with education, but left it altogether
+in the parents’ hands.
+
+So long as Roman education was free from foreign influence, _i.e._,
+down to the middle of the third century B.C., it was given in the home
+and by the parents. Schools, if they existed at all, were few and
+relatively unimportant. In free intercourse with his father and mother
+the boy received moral and religious instruction and became acquainted
+with ancestral traditions, mastered the rudiments of reading, writing,
+and counting, and acquired experience in the care of the estate and the
+management of a household. Among his games, exercises with the ball
+were especially popular, but even his childish sports must have felt
+the influence of the military career that awaited him. As he approached
+the age when he must be enrolled among the citizens and assume a man’s
+obligations, both civil and military, companionship with his father on
+the streets and in the forum completed the necessary preparation for
+public life. Now, too, he met with other young men for military exercises
+on the Field of Mars, which lay between the Tiber and the foot of the
+city hills. They practised running, jumping, throwing, and the use of
+weapons, and learned to swim in the neighboring stream.
+
+During the larger part of the period of conquest which terminated in
+universal empire, and until the Roman army was reorganized as a mercenary
+body of professional troops under Caius Marius, about a hundred years
+before the beginning of the Christian era, every citizen except those
+of the lowest class was liable to military service between the ages
+seventeen and sixty. The older men (forty-seven to sixty years) acted
+as home guards or did garrison duty only, except in times of emergency,
+but the younger legionary might be called out for from sixteen to twenty
+campaigns in the field, unless earlier disabled by honorable wounds.
+Army life, therefore, became an educational factor of the first rank.
+Under the earlier (Servian) plan of enrolment citizens above a certain
+minimum property rating were grouped in five classes according to wealth,
+beginning with the richest, and if chosen served without pay and also
+furnished their own equipment and rations. The first class was protected
+by helmet, cuirass, greaves, and shield, and fought with long lance and
+sword. The second and third were not so completely armed, but with the
+first constituted the heavy infantry, arranged in three parallel lines
+for battle. The fourth and fifth wore no defensive armor, but were
+supplied with lances and javelins, or other light weapons. Each “legion”
+contained twenty centuries of the first class, five each of the second,
+third and fourth, and seven of the fifth—a total of three thousand heavy
+and twelve hundred light infantry, to which three hundred horsemen were
+added. The latter, who rode without saddle or stirrups, played only a
+minor part in the wars of the Republic. Soldiers were called out in the
+spring, and disbanded at the close of the summer campaign.
+
+Various modifications had been introduced before the conquest of Italy
+was completed. The state assumed the cost of field expenses, and age
+rather than wealth became the basis of division into groups. The
+youngest troops now formed the light-armed centuries, and the older and
+more experienced men were distributed among the three successive lines
+which were to withstand the heavy shock of battle. The short, two-edged
+sword for thrusting had become the favorite weapon. The enemy was first
+attacked with a shower of light javelins, which might easily transfix a
+shield and render it useless, and then the sword was used for personal
+combat at close quarters. The soldier’s clothing consisted of nothing but
+a woolen tunic which did not reach his knees, hob-nailed sandals, and a
+cloak or hooded cape. His ration was usually wheat, served out once a
+month or oftener at the rate of about a bushel a month per man, ground
+in hand mills as needed and made into cakes or porridge. Barley might be
+substituted, and meat was an accessory, if issued at all. The average
+day’s march was fifteen miles, preferably accomplished in the morning
+hours. Whatever the climate or the condition of the roads, the legionary
+carried, besides his clothing, armor and weapons, a supply of wheat
+sufficient for two weeks or more, a pot for cooking, several long stakes
+for the palisade about the nightly camp, and perhaps intrenching tools
+or other implements—a total estimated by Colonel Dodge at something more
+than eighty-five pounds, or considerably over half his own weight. The
+camp site must then be fortified by means of a ditch, mound, and palisade
+extending entirely around it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Roman soldier, on the march.]
+
+For such a strenuous life the recruit was prepared and the veteran
+kept fit by a training to the severity of which the name of the army
+(_exercitus_) bears witness. There was steady drill in marching forward
+and to the rear, or by either flank, in wheeling, changing from line to
+column and back again, and taking open or close orders. Practice marches
+of twenty miles or so were executed under full equipment and at the
+regular rate of four miles an hour, or with forced marching at five miles
+an hour. They were made to run, jump, climb, swim, hurl the javelin, and
+fight with swords against posts set firmly in the ground, taking care
+through all the movements of attack and defense to keep the body covered
+with the shield. The operation of intrenching camp, and of attacking or
+defending it, was rehearsed. In peace times there might be employment
+on public works, such as roads, canals, bridges, fortifications,
+amphitheaters, or aqueducts.
+
+It was not until the third century before Christ that the influence
+of Greek literature, philosophy, and art began to be felt in Rome,
+introduced through contact with Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, by
+Greek slaves, and by Romans who had sojourned in Greece. But the new
+culture awakened such interest and spread with such rapidity that by
+the time Greece had become a Roman province, soon after the middle of
+the succeeding century, it had profoundly modified the scheme of Roman
+education, except on the side of physical training. The boy’s earliest
+instruction, received at home or in a private school, still included
+reading, writing, and reckoning. He was afterwards sent to a secondary
+school, where the chief subject of study was the writings of favorite
+Greek and Latin poets, and the practical end sought was accuracy and
+facility in the use of the two languages. To these a little music and
+applied geometry might be added. Young men who were looking forward to
+public life received further preparation in schools of rhetoric. These
+taught the art of effective speaking, as needed in the law courts, before
+a popular assembly, or in the senate. The home life of the boy had thus
+lost its earlier place as chief factor in education, and the old training
+for domestic, political, and religious duties had been replaced by one
+essentially grammatical and oratorical.
+
+Military service, meanwhile, had ceased to perform its part in national
+discipline, for during the last century of the Republic it was committed
+to mercenary troops, and these developed into a standing army under the
+Empire. While the Greek gymnastics was introduced to some extent among
+the Romans of the upper class, it never acquired a hold upon the popular
+mind or entered as an important factor into education in the fosterland.
+Its pedagogical aim had become obscured, and the great national games
+which once exhibited its most perfect product had fallen into ill
+repute. The Roman nature lacked that intense love of competition which
+was so characteristic of the Greek. The exercises of the palæstra and
+the gymnasium, an inexhaustible mine of subjects for the painters of
+red-figured Greek vases in the latter half of the fifth century B.C.,
+were nothing more than idle amusements to a people bent upon world
+conquest. They were disgusted at the nakedness of the performers, which
+had been the inspiration of sculptors like Myron, Phidias, Polycletus,
+Praxiteles, and Lysippus; and the sight of young athletes contending in
+generous rivalry in such events as made up the pentathlon could have
+aroused little interest in a generation accustomed to the thrills of the
+circus and the amphitheater.
+
+The Greek national festivals, too, were in the last stages of decline.
+The better class of citizens no longer appeared as contestants, for
+the religious character of the celebrations had largely disappeared,
+boxing and the pancratium had become the favorite exercises, prizes
+more valuable than the wreath had been substituted, trickery and
+falsehood were less uncommon, and a class of professional athletes had
+been developed, whose members were usually of low birth and looked
+upon with little favor. They submitted themselves to an irksome and
+exacting routine which set them apart from the rest of mankind, left
+no time for other occupations, and made them virtual slaves of their
+trainers. Numerous attempts by Roman emperors to revive the glory of the
+ancient games, and to imitate them on Italian soil, met with no enduring
+success.[3]
+
+A structure quite as typical of its time and habitat as the Greek
+gymnasium of the Periclean age was the public bath, or _therma_, found in
+Rome and in every important provincial town in the days of the Empire.
+Both made provision for exercise, and contained a system of baths;
+though in the thermæ the baths occupied a greater part of the space, and
+the rooms and courts for exercise were fewer and smaller. Both added
+seats and walks and places of meeting and conversation for visitors,
+were lavishly decorated with objects of art, and were frequented by
+rhetoricians, poets, and philosophers, as well as by the common populace.
+Although the various forms of Greek gymnastics were introduced and
+occasionally practised at the baths, that which seems to have been most
+popular, and which gave the name to one of the halls or courts (the
+_sphæristerium_) was play with various sorts of ball, filled with air,
+feathers, or hair. Other exercises were movements of the arms with
+dumb-bells in the hands, and fencing with wooden swords against a post,
+as practised by the soldiers. Besides the large public baths, such as
+those of Caracalla and Diocletian, almost every private house of any size
+possessed its own sphæristerium, where light exercises, and especially
+games with the ball, were engaged in as a preliminary to the bath. All
+such exercises were taken at the whim of the bather, and only as a means
+of recreation or to heighten the enjoyment of the bath and meal which
+followed it. The resemblance to the Greek gymnasium, though at first
+striking, is therefore much less real than apparent, and the effect of
+the institution on Roman life was to favor its decay.
+
+Between the pan-Hellenic festivals celebrated in the stadium and
+hippodrome at Olympia in the time of Pericles, and those public
+spectacles which crowded the amphitheater and circus of the degenerate
+Roman world during the first centuries of the Christian era, a greater
+contrast can be drawn. The chariot races of the Circus Maximus and the
+gladiatorial combats, the contests of men with beasts, or those of
+beasts with one another in the Coliseum, reveal the changed type of
+civilization, and also mark the last stages of athletic professionalism.
+The charioteer and the gladiator were either prisoners of war, slaves,
+condemned criminals, or freedmen who adopted the calling from choice.
+They were trained in special schools, and unless the property of private
+citizens, were commonly let out by their owners to any person who desired
+their services.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+General works: Besides the standard dictionaries and handbooks of
+classical antiquities, the “Companion to Latin Studies” edited by J. E.
+Sandys (Cambridge, England, at the University Press. See especially the
+sections on Education and the Roman Army), and T. G. Tucker’s “Life in
+the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1911).
+
+On Roman education: S. S. Laurie’s “Historical Survey of Pre-Christian
+Education” (second edition. London and New York: Longmans, Green, & Co.,
+1900. Pp. 301-411 are devoted to the Romans), and A. S. Wilkins’ “Roman
+Education” (Cambridge, England, at the University Press, 1905).
+
+On the Roman army: Col. T. A. Dodge’s “Hannibal: A History of the Art
+of War among the Carthaginians and Romans down to the Battle of Pydna,
+168 B.C.” (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1891), and his
+“Caesar: A History of the Art of War among the Romans down to the End of
+the Roman Empire” (Boston and New York, as above, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] For details of this period of decline consult chapter eight
+(Athletics under the Romans) in E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic Sports
+and Festivals.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE TEUTONIC INVADERS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
+
+
+The Germans as we meet them in the pages of Caesar and Tacitus[4] are
+a race of sturdy, blue-eyed giants, who dwell in a land of forest and
+swamp. Their straggling villages consist of low, thatched, dirt-floored
+huts of rough timber, and in spite of the harsh climate they go about
+scantily clad in skin mantles or garments of coarse linen. Small fields
+of barley and perhaps other grains are tilled by the women, but flocks
+and herds form the chief support of the family, and these, with wild
+animals taken in the chase, supply the greater portion of their food.
+For drink there was a crude beer, made without hops. Next to warfare,
+hunting was the favorite occupation, and for this the surrounding forests
+yielded the aurochs or bison, the wild boar, elk, and bear, besides packs
+of predatory wolves and numerous lesser animals. Arms were a token of
+the freeman’s position and dignity, and were carried constantly. Only
+a few could equip themselves with breastplate and helmet, and iron for
+swords was scarce, but each man had a shield, and short, sharp spears
+for thrusting or throwing. Their cavalry rode without saddles. A public
+spectacle much in demand was a dance of naked youths in the midst of
+drawn swords and upturned spears. Swimming and horsemanship furnished
+other means of active exercise in time of peace.
+
+With such a people the training of the young could not fail to be a hardy
+one. Since there was no written language, and the only records were those
+handed down in ancient songs, formal instruction was unknown. While the
+girls busied themselves with domestic duties, the boys early learned
+the arts of the chase and the use of weapons. Hunting and warfare were
+their chief school-masters. At maturity the youth was publicly equipped
+with shield and spear in the periodical assembly, as a sign of admission
+to the rights of citizenship. It was the custom of young men to attach
+themselves to favorite chiefs, who vied with each other in the number and
+quality of such followers. These promised loyalty in peace and war, and
+received in turn horses, arms, and food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.—Northern warrior of about 300 A.D.]
+
+Among the Northmen of the viking age we find a somewhat more advanced
+type of civilization, but hunting, fighting, and vigorous sports in the
+open air are still the chief delight of men. Hawking was a favorite
+pastime, and the northern falcons were famous throughout Europe. Coats
+of chain mail, helmets, swords, and battle axes are added to the earlier
+shield and spear, at least in the case of chieftains, and we hear of
+bows and arrows, clubs, and slings. A variety of popular exercises were
+also practised, which survived throughout the Middle Ages. They included
+wrestling, foot races, broad and high jumping, putting the stone, hurling
+the spear, throwing with knives, racing on snowshoes or skees, and
+several games of ball.
+
+It is difficult, if not impossible, to follow with certainty the
+particular changes wrought in portions of the Roman Empire which were
+occupied by the Teutonic invaders. In general, lines of communication
+were interrupted, the foundations of new and independent nationalities
+were laid, and city life became less dominant. There was also an
+admixture of sturdy barbarian stock with native populations, though the
+latter seem in most cases to have gradually absorbed the conquerors.
+Roman forces put an end to Vandal dominion in Africa in 533. Neither
+Vandals nor Suevi were numerous enough in Spain to exert a greater
+influence than that of bands of roving plunderers, and the Spanish
+kingdom of the Visigoths fell before the Mohammedan invasion of 711. In
+Italy, also, Gothic power was broken in 533, and the Lombard kingdom
+which followed came to an end with Charlemagne’s conquest in 774. West
+Goths and Burgundians in Gaul were overcome by the Franks, who seem
+themselves to have lost little by little their distinctive national
+traits and been merged in the earlier Gallo-Roman population. The Normans
+of the tenth century met a similar fate. In the case of England, where
+the Teutonic element gained the ascendant, one would like to trace the
+British fondness for fox hunting, shooting, horse racing, yachting,
+rowing, games like football and cricket, lawn tennis and golf, and the
+falconry and archery of an earlier period, to the surviving influence of
+Anglo-Saxon, Danish, and Norman ancestors; but actual demonstration of
+any such connection could hardly be expected.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Edward Gibbon, “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,”
+chapter nine (The State of Germany till the Invasion of the Barbarians,
+in the Time of the Emperor Decius).
+
+Francis B. Gummere, “Germanic Origins: A Study in Primitive Culture.” New
+York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1892.
+
+Karl Weinhold, “Altnordisches Leben.” Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung,
+1856.
+
+Paul B. Du Chaillu, “The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and
+Customs of the Ancestors of the English-speaking Nations, Illustrated
+from the Antiquities Discovered in Mounds, Cairns, and Bogs, as well as
+from the Ancient Sagas and Eddas.” New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons,
+1889.
+
+C. F. Kerry, “The Vikings in Western Christendom, A.D. 789 to A.D. 888.”
+London, T. Fisher Unwin, and New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1891.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] Caesar, the _Gallic War_, especially book six, chapters 21-28;
+Tacitus, _Germania_, published in 98 A.D.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ASCETICISM IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
+
+
+No sooner had the Teutonic tribes overrun Romanized Europe than they
+began to yield, in turn, to the proselyting activities of the young and
+lusty Christian Church. And with it came the doctrine of _asceticism_,
+which left its mark on education for a thousand years and more, and
+tended to counteract, in a measure, the invigorating effect of the
+barbarian strain.
+
+The Hindu fakir, the Christian saint of the desert, and the Mohammedan
+dervish are different expressions of a belief which at some time or other
+has prevailed among a very large proportion of the human race. It has
+been one of the fundamental ideas of the oriental religions that evil
+inheres in matter, while mind or spirit is essentially divine and pure.
+According to this view, the flesh and the spirit wage perpetual warfare
+on each other; the body is not a useful servant, but an enemy, and to
+be resisted therefore at every point and struck down whenever its head
+is raised. The ideal life is one of solitude, contemplation, and strict
+abstinence from sensual indulgence in any form. Asceticism has thus been
+an important factor in the ancient religions of China, Tibet, Siam,
+India, and Persia, and very early in the Christian Era, or before its
+dawn, this principle had found its way into Syria and Egypt, and through
+the Alexandrian schools of philosophy into southern Europe. Brought
+into contact with Christianity, it helped to prepare the way for the
+movement now under consideration, and in like manner gave its impress to
+Mohammedanism at a later period.
+
+But in the case of the early Christians, living for the most part in
+cities and brought into close and daily contact with all the abominations
+of the decadent pagan society of the Empire, a violent reaction from the
+prevailing luxury and sensual self-indulgence was inevitable. Men of deep
+religious feeling desired to escape contamination from such worldliness,
+and it is not strange if in protest against its excesses they sometimes
+carried their stern self-restraint so far as to deny themselves the
+common comforts of life and decline to gratify those cravings of the body
+which are innocent and natural. The healthy appetites and impulses of the
+normal man are not to be eradicated without a struggle, however, and the
+constant discomfort which resulted from unsatisfied desires they viewed
+as insubordination. This in turn led to belief in the innate depravity
+of human nature. To subdue the rebellious flesh they resorted to renewed
+and more severe privations, or punished it with self-inflicted tortures.
+Mortification of the body acquired the dignity of a religious exercise,
+while the idea of pleasure came to be closely associated with that of
+vice.
+
+A third cause of the outbreak of asceticism is found in the persecution
+to which many converts of the growing church were subjected. This soon
+kindled an intense religious enthusiasm which welcomed martyrdom and
+glorified the sufferings that attended it. The liberated soul, it was
+taught, entered at once into eternal blessedness. Pain and torment came
+thus to be considered meritorious of themselves, and the direct road to
+salvation; and after the persecutions ceased, the self-torture of the
+ascetic took their place as a means and measure of human excellence.
+When once the movement to the deserts was started, the desire to escape
+from the burdens imposed by corrupt government, from social disorders,
+and later from the wretchedness that followed the invasions of barbarian
+hordes from the North, helped to crowd the ranks of the hermits and swell
+the numbers gathered into monastic communities.
+
+It was in the latter half of the third century that the first Christian
+hermits fled to the deserts of Egypt, where natural caverns, or caves
+easily hewn out of the rock, supplied the only shelter necessary in such
+a climate, and a grove of date palms with a spring close by it solved
+the problem of sustenance without labor. But the movement did not gather
+much headway until the early part of the next century, when Anthony’s
+career had given dignity to the solitary life and made it widely popular.
+At the time of his death, in 365, the deserts on either side of the Nile
+from the Cataracts to the Delta were dotted with the retreats of hermits,
+and it is said that Pachomius, who was the first to gather his disciples
+into organized communities and formulate a monastic rule, had no fewer
+than 7000 monks under his authority. By the fifth century the numbers
+had increased to 100,000 in Egypt alone, and the practice had extended
+into Syria and Palestine, Armenia, Mesopotamia, parts of Asia Minor, and
+Italy, whence it soon reached the whole of Western Europe.
+
+The greatest extravagances are found among the Eastern “saints of the
+desert,” accounts of whose austerities were collected by wandering
+pilgrims and excited the admiration of all Christendom. Some dwelt
+in deserted dens of wild beasts, in tombs and dried-up wells, on the
+summit of narrow columns, or spent days in the midst of thorn bushes.
+Others never lay down during months and even years, or they slept naked
+in swamps, exposed to the stings of insects. Many abstained from food
+altogether for long periods, or restricted themselves to quantities too
+small to relieve the pangs of hunger. Bodily cleanliness was frequently
+abjured, and a long list of strange penances was devised.[5]
+
+Severe self-torture was less common in the Western monasteries,
+especially after the earlier code had been supplanted by a new one
+drafted (529) by Benedict of Nursia, founder of the order that bears his
+name. This is distinguished by the absence of any severe austerities, and
+substitutes manual labor in place of contemplation and penance. But the
+conception of supreme excellence was much the same in the West and in the
+East. Asceticism became a part of the accepted teaching of the Church
+and the practice of a large proportion of her leaders and adherents. Of
+Simeon Stylites, the famous Syrian monk of the fifth century, we read
+that “from every quarter pilgrims of every degree thronged to do him
+homage. A crowd of prelates followed him to the grave. A brilliant star
+is said to have shown miraculously over his pillar; the general voice of
+mankind pronounced him to be the highest model of a Christian saint.”
+
+The physical effects of the ascetic life upon the individual must have
+been disastrous as a rule. Not only did it lead to broken health,
+such as embittered the lives of some of the greatest among the Church
+Fathers, but long-continued austerities and overwrought emotions produced
+a disordered nervous system, and supplied all the conditions for
+hallucination. Lecky has also called attention to certain moral qualities
+that suffered from the prevailing conception of excellence. “What may be
+called a strong animal nature,” he says, “a nature, that is, in which the
+passions are in vigorous, and at the same time healthy action, is that in
+which we should most naturally expect to find ... good humor, frankness,
+generosity, active courage, sanguine energy, buoyancy of temper. (These)
+are much more rarely found either in natures that are essentially feeble
+or effeminate, or in natures that have been artificially emasculated by
+penances, distorted from their original tendency, and habitually held
+under severe control.”
+
+Among the people at large the physical consequences of the prevailing
+doctrine were hardly less pernicious. It justified the personal and
+public uncleanliness and the neglect of simple sanitary precautions to
+which they were already prone enough, and thus became to some extent
+accountable for the unprecedented succession of plagues which decimated
+the population of Europe again and again throughout the Middle Ages.
+None of these widespread epidemics suggested sanitary improvement, but
+they were regarded as “visitations,” and attributed to the wrath of God,
+or to the malice of Satan. It is not unlikely that such phenomena,
+even, as the dancing mania, the processions of Flagellants, trials of
+innocence, and the persecutions of Jews and witches depend in part upon
+the fact that communities and nations, no less than individuals, lacking
+real physical hardihood, were often crazed by nervous excitement, and
+impelled by an overstimulated emotional nature fell an easy prey to weird
+delusions and morbid fancies, of which a series of moral epidemics was
+the natural result.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+W. E. H. Lecky, “History of European Morals from Augustine to
+Charlemagne” (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1869), =2=, pp. 107 ff.
+
+I. Gregory Smith, “Christian Monasticism from the Fourth to the Ninth
+Centuries of the Christian Era.” London, A. D. Innes & Co., 1892.
+
+Abbot Gasquet, “English Monastic Life.” London, Methuen & Co., 1904.
+Contains illustrations, maps, and plans.
+
+Herbert B. Workman, “The Evolution of the Monastic Ideal from the
+Earliest Times Down to the Coming of the Friars.” London, Charles H.
+Kelly, 1913.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] Lecky gives a striking series of examples in his History of European
+Morals, vol. =2=, pp. 114-119.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MONASTERY AND CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS.
+
+
+In the cities of Northern Italy the dying out of the old Roman schools,
+as a result of internal decay and the inroads of the Teutonic barbarians,
+was not followed by the complete extinction of the race of lay teachers,
+and here, and throughout southern Europe generally, education therefore
+never became exclusively ecclesiastical; but in transalpine Europe, from
+the sixth till the twelfth century, the Benedictine monasteries were the
+chief if not the only seats of learning, and education was almost wholly
+in the hands of monks of that order. There were schools attached to the
+cathedrals, also, but they drew their teachers from the monasteries and
+seldom rose to more than local importance until in the course of the
+twelfth century intellectual activity was gradually transferred to them
+and they became the germ out of which the universities of the Middle
+Ages developed. The reform legislation of Charles the Great fixed this
+intimate relation between the Church and education by requiring that
+every monastery and every cathedral throughout his broad empire should
+have its school. The origin of these institutions is to be found in the
+need of educated ecclesiastics, and the earliest scholars were candidates
+for admission to the Benedictine order, or for the priesthood; but about
+the beginning of the ninth century “exterior schools” began to be added,
+open to boys who were intended for secular callings.
+
+The course of study, intended to prepare the way for a proper
+understanding of the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the Church
+Fathers, was everywhere limited to the so-called seven liberal arts.
+These included the fundamental _trivium_—grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic
+or logic—and the less important _quadrivium_—music, arithmetic, geometry,
+and astronomy. It was the world to come for which men were trained;
+theological doctrines and religious interests absorbed human thought,
+and the present world was deemed unworthy of attention. So long as the
+spirit of asceticism remained in the ascendant there could be no such
+thing as physical training in schools conducted by the Church. The
+soul was the one object of solicitude, and the body was regarded with
+contempt. Uncleanliness and physical neglect were not incompatible with
+intellectual eminence. The monastic discipline in all its severity
+was an essential part of school life. Other forms of punishment were
+common, but the rod was the favorite instrument; it was used on the least
+occasion, and sometimes periodically, “as a kind of general atonement
+for sins past and possible.” Even the humane Alcuin, Master of Charles
+the Great’s Palace School at Aix (782-796), would have a separate master
+for every class “that the boys may not run about in idleness or occupy
+themselves in silly play.” Their lessons were to furnish them all the
+play and diversion needed.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+S. S. Laurie, “The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, with a
+Survey of Mediæval Education.” New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1887.
+
+A. F. West, “Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools.” New York,
+Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1892.
+
+Any standard history of education, such as F. P. Graves, “A History of
+Education during the Middle Ages and the Transition to Modern Times” (New
+York, The Macmillan Co.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+CHIVALRY.
+
+
+Chivalry, or the body of law and custom relating to knighthood, prevailed
+almost universally throughout western Europe between the eleventh and
+sixteenth centuries. Its usages were international, and in its ideal of
+war, religion and gallantry was summed up the whole duty of the gentleman
+of that age. The system can be traced in part to various customs of
+the ancient Germans, developed later under the influence of feudalism;
+but its final form was not received until the time of the Crusades
+(1096-1270), when the Church, in order to further her own designs,
+adopted and modified its practices. It was in large measure the inroads
+of Mohammedan warriors in Christian territory and their profanation of
+the Holy City which led to a substitution of military Christianity for
+the ascetic ideal cherished hitherto, and caused war with the infidels
+to be pronounced a religious duty and the battlefield a direct road to
+salvation. This union of chivalry with religion—the consecration of
+military prowess to the service of the Church—is typified in the three
+orders of soldier monks, the Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic
+Knights, which had their origin in the twelfth century. The hermit of
+early Catholic legends had thus been displaced as a popular hero by the
+king and the knight who figure in the romances of Arthur and of Charles
+the Great. The decline of chivalry as a military system began soon after
+the last crusade (1270), and in the fifteenth century became complete;
+for the introduction of gunpowder in warfare, with the increased
+importance attached to infantry and artillery, made the arms and armor
+of the knight of no avail and lessened the opportunities for personal
+distinction on the field. At the same time the growing centralization
+of power in the hands of the sovereign was rapidly destroying the
+independence of the nobility of lesser rank.
+
+The early training of a knight bore no resemblance to the ascetic type
+seen in the monastery and cathedral schools. Although the boy intended
+for such a career was sometimes brought up at home, it was the common
+custom to send him away, at the age of seven or soon after, to the
+court or castle of some nobleman, in whose household, among other young
+attendants of gentle birth, he might learn the principles, acquire the
+breeding, and become proficient in the practices of chivalry. As a
+_page_ he was expected to render to his master and mistress personal
+service of all sorts, even the most humble and domestic, waiting on
+them at the table, carrying messages, following them to the chase or
+camp, and in visits to neighboring castles. Meanwhile, under the tuition
+of the ladies, he was mastering the rudiments of reading and writing,
+together with the rules of courteous behavior and the first principles
+of gallantry. He gained some familiarity with Latin and French, the
+universal languages, tried his hand at playing the harp and in games
+of chess and backgammon, picked up many facts of history, learned much
+of heraldry, and became acquainted with the songs and poetry of the
+troubadours. But the principal part of his training was carried on
+outdoors, where he was already imitating grown men in his play, learning
+the business of a _squire_, and seeking to prove himself worthy of
+advancement to that rank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Knight Templar (Gasquet).]
+
+Promotion to this second grade did not come until after the age of
+fourteen, though it is probable that the change from page to squire
+was not a sudden one. The personal service to his lord became more
+responsible in its nature, and thus led to a more dignified position in
+the household; but vigorous sports and martial exercises, in which he had
+already made some progress as a page, now occupied his time increasingly.
+Instruction in dancing was a part of his discipline in polished manners.
+He was early taught how to train a falcon and handle him in hawking, and
+in the pursuit of the stag and wild boar found occasion for the display
+of greater skill and daring. Running, jumping, wrestling, swimming,
+climbing ropes and poles and ladders, hurling stones, casting the spear,
+shooting with the bow and cross-bow, wielding the battle-axe, and
+fencing, at first with dull wooden swords, helped to harden his body and
+give mastery of its powers for future need. The most essential exercise,
+however, was horsemanship, including the adroit use of shield and lance,
+and the ability to endure the weight and overcome the hindrance of full
+armor. There was practice in leaping into the saddle without the help
+of stirrups, dismounting quickly, and reaching down to pick up objects
+from the ground. Tilting at the ring or quintain, or afterwards with a
+living opponent, developed a firm seat and the skill required to govern
+the galloping charger with the legs alone while one received and parried
+a thrust with the shield upon his left arm, and with the right guided
+the lance so as to lift his antagonist from the saddle, if possible, by
+striking him squarely in the throat or upon the center of his shield.
+
+The young squire also followed his master to the field, sharing with
+him all the dangers and privations of a military career. He helped him
+to adjust and fasten the numerous pieces that composed his armor, after
+taking care that these were in perfect condition, assisted him to mount,
+held extra horses, supplied fresh lances as they were needed, raised
+him if unseated, attended to his wounds, received and guarded whatever
+prisoners were taken, sought to release him if he were taken captive,
+or bore away his dead body to give it proper burial. After this long
+apprenticeship, in case he had proved his fitness for the dignity and
+possessed the means to support so costly a profession, the squire who
+had reached the age of twenty-one might hope to take the final step.
+By a blow upon the shoulder with the flat of a sword some knight or
+noble ended his tedious years of waiting and admitted him to the great
+brotherhood of chivalry.
+
+A public spectacle no less brilliant and fascinating than the
+pan-Hellenic games or the gladiatorial shows of the Roman world, and
+equally characteristic of their age, were the tournaments common all
+over Christendom in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Originally
+the rough trials of strength and skill that were a natural occurrence
+whenever knights met at leisure, they were little by little modified and
+regulated until they became the chief pastime of nobles and gentlemen,
+a school of war in times of peace, where the young contestant not only
+displayed but developed his personal bravery, presence of mind, and
+ability to find at once the right means of attack and defense, the field
+in which he often won his first laurels or attracted the attention and
+interest of influential men. After the decline of chivalry as a military
+system tournaments lost their value as an image of war, and became more
+and more a means of mere amusement and an occasion for display, though
+they did not pass entirely out of fashion until toward the close of the
+sixteenth century.
+
+In tournaments proper groups of combatants on each side fought together
+with lance and sword in a miniature cavalry battle; while in the joust,
+which was far more frequent although it also formed a part of many
+tournaments, two horsemen only met each other, with lance and shield,
+sometimes continuing the combat on foot with swords after one of them
+had been unseated. The contestants, in both cases, appeared in full
+armor, and commonly, but not always, the swords were blunt and the lances
+tipped with flat or slightly toothed plates of metal; but injuries,
+nevertheless, were not infrequent, and heavy falls or suffocation from
+heat and dust, or serious wounds when the lance struck fair and did not
+split cost many a life.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Paul Lacroix, “Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the
+Period of the Renaissance.” London, Chapman and Hall, 1874.
+
+Léon Gautier, “La Chevalerie.” Paris, 1883.
+
+Alwin Schultz, “Das höfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger.” Leipzig, S.
+Herzel, 1879 and 1880 (second edition, 1889).
+
+Julius Bintz, “Die Leibesübungen des Mittelalters.” Gütersloh, C.
+Bertelsmann, 1880.
+
+F. Warre-Cornish, “Chivalry.” London, Swan Sonnenschein, and New York,
+The Macmillan Co., 1901.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
+
+
+A succession of influences operating in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries had widened the scope of human interests and produced a vague
+longing after knowledge which was not to be satisfied by the traditional
+teaching of the schools. Along with the demand for a different type and
+more advanced grade of instruction, there arose here and there famous
+lecturers, such as Abelard (1079-1142) at Paris, who gathered about
+themselves great numbers of disciples. Centers were thus created to which
+other teachers and their followers were attracted, and this in turn
+led to an informal association of masters and pupils, out of which the
+medieval university developed. The complete university came at length to
+include four departments—theology, law, medicine, and philosophy or the
+arts. Certain texts were thought to contain explicitly or implicitly the
+sum of ascertainable secular truth, just as the Bible and the writings
+of Church Fathers held all religious truth; and this was to be extracted
+by prescribed methods of reasoning, with no fresh resort to the facts of
+observation and experience. Instead of seeking new harvests, the typical
+schoolmen of that day were content with the continual threshing over of
+old straw.
+
+As regards treatment of the body, the influence of asceticism was
+still supreme. Provision for lawful amusements was rarely made in the
+university statutes, which appear frequently to regard harmless attempts
+at pleasure with more hostility than they display toward actual vice
+and crime. The sports of chivalry—hunting and hawking, jousts and
+tournaments—were not considered seemly for the student, even if he had
+the means to indulge in them. Dancing was seldom countenanced in any
+form. “Playing with a ball or bat” is sometimes found included in the
+list of “insolent” games, and other prohibitions make mention of “profane
+games, immodest runnings, and horrid shoutings.” The ideal student would
+appear to be the one who denied himself all recreation and amusement; but
+we may be sure that no such suppression of animal spirits was possible
+for the average full-blooded young man of that age. In the absence of
+any authorized outlet they found vent in drinking, gambling, and grosser
+forms of vice, in street brawls and rough practical joking, and not
+infrequently in violent outbreaks of organized lawlessness.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+S. S. Laurie, “The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, with a
+Survey of Mediæval Education.” New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1887.
+
+Gabriel Compayré, “Abelard and the Origin and Early History of
+Universities.” New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1893.
+
+Hastings Rashdall, “The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages.”
+Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1895.
+
+J. B. Mullinger, article “Universities” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_,
+11th edition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION.
+
+
+The universities of the Middle Ages had made their contribution to
+the intellectual advancement of Europe, but they could not break the
+bands of ecclesiastical tyranny that still fettered the human mind. It
+required the joint action of other and more potent forces to provide
+escape from a conception of the world and the flesh which associated them
+with the devil, and to weaken the authority of that theological dogma
+which centered the thought and imagination of men for centuries upon
+the rewards and punishments of a future state and meanwhile paralyzed
+or thwarted every effort to master the resources or investigate the
+phenomena of the material universe. Man’s rightful heritage upon this
+earth was not yet restored to him. In some way the feeling of personal
+dignity and independence must be aroused, the spirit of emulation
+provoked, and his powers of achievement challenged as they had never
+been before. Among the chief factors in this process of transition
+from the medieval to the modern world was the Revival of Learning,
+that appreciative study of the Greek and Latin classics and all the
+long-neglected records of ancient civilization which supplied the Western
+nations with a new ideal of life and culture. The recovered masterpieces
+of literature and art excited the passionate admiration of scholars; they
+revelled in the free existence of what seemed to them a Golden Age, rich
+in such treasures as they had begun already to covet for themselves.
+
+To the Italian “humanists” of the fifteenth century we owe what is still
+known as a classical education. The greatest school-master of them all
+was Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446), who undertook the training of the
+sons of Marquis Gian Francesco Gonzaga at Mantua in 1423. So earnest and
+successful was this teacher and so widely did his fame extend that other
+pupils were added from time to time, until most of the princely houses
+of Italy, together with some in foreign countries, were represented
+at the school, to which many in humbler station were also admitted.
+Latin, Greek, and classical archeology formed the basis and main body of
+instruction. The chief end was to enable pupils to read and understand
+the best works of the ancients and to express themselves with elegance
+in these foreign languages. It was, in fact, an attempt to train new
+citizens of Greece and Rome, and to reproduce for them the life of the
+past.
+
+The customs of chivalry had not ceased to shape the early training
+of an Italian gentleman, and it was therefore natural that Vittorino
+should incorporate in his school some of the characteristic features of
+knightly education. The staff of assistants included special teachers
+of dancing, riding, fencing, and swimming, and to these exercises were
+added wrestling, running and jumping, archery, ball games, hunting and
+fishing, and mock battles between two parties, or contests in which one
+side sought to storm the castle or surprise the camp of its opponents.
+The ample grounds about the villa which had been converted into a
+school building were well adapted for such sports, and all the pupils
+were required to share in them. Vittorino himself often joined them, it
+is said, and occasionally led them on excursions into the surrounding
+country, extending as far as Lago di Gardo, Venice, and the Alps. He
+insisted on moderation in food and drink, and did not allow weather or
+season to interfere too much with life in the open air.
+
+Vittorino had thus succeeded in combining physical with mental training
+and bringing them within the reach of every pupil; but outside of
+the schools for young noblemen, which continued to exist in various
+parts of Europe as late as the eighteenth century, he seems to have
+had few, if any, successors in this respect until Basedow opened the
+“Philanthropinum” at Dessau in 1774. During the more than three hundred
+years that intervene, however, much was written by educational reformers
+and others in commendation of bodily exercises and recognition of its
+right to a place in the curriculum; and some of these authors, theorists
+though they were, occupy an important position in the history of physical
+training, as links between the present and the past. Vittorino, indeed,
+had only applied in practice the pedagogical principles already outlined
+by another Italian humanist, _Pietro Paulo Vergerio_ (1349-1428), in
+a brief treatise on education sent to the young Ubertino di Carrara,
+whose tutor he had been at the court in Padua. This letter, which was
+afterwards printed and passed through many editions, refers repeatedly
+to ancient Greeks and Romans, as authorities or by way of illustration,
+and devotes two of its chapters to the subject of physical exercise.
+_Maffeo Vegio_ (1407-1458), who began life as a scholar and poet but
+later entered the service of the Church at Rome and finally joined the
+order of Augustinian monks, wrote one of the most notable pedagogical
+works of the fifteenth century, and in the chapters relating to physical
+training shows in a similar way the influence of his classical studies.
+To the same category belong _Enea Silvio Piccolomini_ (1405-1464), better
+known as Pope Pius II, who was at one time a secretary at the court of
+Emperor Frederick III, and in 1450 prepared a tractate on the subject of
+princely education; _Francesco Filelfo_ (1398-1481), who wrote to the
+Duchess Regent of Milan, about 1475, suggesting a method of education
+suitable for her young son; and _Jacopo Sadoleto_ (1477-1547), humanist
+and churchman, friend of Luther, Melanchthon, Erasmus, and Sturm, and
+author of a book (1530) on education which indicates a return to the old
+Athenian ideal and type.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Hieronymus Mercurialis: Title page of first
+edition of his _De arte gymnastica_.]
+
+Two other Italian writers are worthy of more extended notice. _Girolamo
+Cardano_ (1501-1576) had studied at Pavia and Padua, and traveled in
+France, England, Scotland, the Netherlands, and Germany. He obtained his
+doctorate in medicine and practised that profession, devoting much of
+his time, however, to researches which bore fruit in a long series of
+scientific and philosophical works. In his interesting autobiography he
+tells of his own early practice in running and jumping, riding, fencing,
+and swimming, and elsewhere describes at length a great variety of
+ancient and modern feats of strength and skill. His work on the care
+of health (_De sanitate tuenda, libri iv_), of which several editions
+appeared, contains an independent, systematic, and scientific treatment
+of the hygiene of bodily exercise, discussing its value and effects in
+general, the physiological classification of exercises into violent or
+light, rapid or slow, continuous or interrupted, etc., and the nature and
+usefulness of numerous special forms, which belong not only to past ages
+but also to contemporary life and customs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Hieronymus Mercurialis: Title page of second
+edition of his _De arte gymnastica_.]
+
+_Hieronymus Mercurialis_ (1530-1606), a famous physician, and widely
+known throughout Europe on account of his medical writings, while he
+was still a young man, in the household of Cardinal Alexander Farnese
+at Rome, began his literary career with a treatise on the gymnastics
+of the ancients (_De arte gymnastica_)[6]—a book which seems to have
+enjoyed a remarkable degree of popularity and is often cited by more
+recent writers. It was first published at Venice in 1569, but at least
+three more editions appeared in Venice and one in Paris during his
+lifetime, and others after his death, including one in Amsterdam as
+late as 1672. Out of his rich store of classical learning—the first
+edition contains a list of ninety-six Greek and Latin authors upon whom
+he has drawn—Mercurialis seeks to reproduce for his readers the ancient
+gymnasia and gymnastic exercises; but in the second half of the volume
+he leaves the descriptive and historical and turns to the hygienic and
+medical aspects of exercise, as viewed from the critical standpoint of
+the physician. Somewhat like Cardano, he first considers the value of
+exercise in conditions of health and disease and the general principles
+that govern its application, and then takes up the nature and effects of
+particular exercises in some detail. According to the title page the work
+was not intended for the use of physicians only, but for all who were
+interested in the study of archeology or in the preservation of health.[7]
+
+In Germany _Martin Luther_ (1483-1546) realized the recreative and
+moral value of bodily exercise, and recommends especially such knightly
+sports as fencing and wrestling. The Swiss reformer _Ulrich Zwingli_
+(1484-1531), writing on the subject of education in 1524, makes
+suggestions regarding diet and clothing, and refers to running, jumping,
+hurling stones, wrestling, and fencing as a means of acquiring strength
+and skill. He also considers wrestling and fencing a useful preparation
+for military service. _Joachim Camerarius_ (1500-1574), who taught in
+Nuremberg, Tübingen, and the University of Leipsic, and was the friend
+and biographer of Melanchthon, published in 1544 a brief dialogue on
+bodily exercise (_Dialogus de gymnasiis_).[8] The author believes that
+boys should be encouraged to run, jump, wrestle, fence, and play ball
+outdoors, and one of the speakers, after mentioning the gymnastics of
+the ancients and the performances of the old Germans, describes to his
+companion a model school for the common people in which the teacher
+provides for indoor practice in hanging from a bar, climbing a rope,
+lifting weights, and matching strength with an opponent in various
+ways, and for a number of active games in the open air, some of them
+described in the text. Among the most illustrious names in the history
+of educational reform is that of _Johann Amos Comenius_ (1592-1671), a
+Moravian pastor and teacher who suffered persecution and banishment in
+the course of the Thirty Years’ War. In his writings he allots eight
+hours of the day to sleep, eight to work, and eight to meals, the care of
+the health, exercise of the body, etc. He would have about every school
+building a playground, where the boys might run and jump and enjoy their
+games, since it is necessary to put the body in motion and allow the mind
+to rest. A half hour of recreation is to follow each hour of study. He
+would let pupils play to their hearts’ content, but forbids wrestling,
+boxing, and swimming as either useless or dangerous.
+
+_Juan Louis Vives_ (1492-1540), a well-known Spanish scholar, born at
+Valencia, educated there and in the University of Paris, after 1514 a
+resident of Bruges and Louvain, but dividing his time between Flanders
+and England in the years 1522 and 1528 as lecturer at Oxford and tutor
+in the family of Henry VIII, published several works on education which
+contain frequent mention of bodily exercise. He regards it as necessary
+for the health of growing boys, and appreciates the recreative value of
+games.
+
+The typical figure of the French Renaissance is _François Rabelais_
+(1490-1553), monk, physician, and humorist, whose novels _Gargantua_
+(1535) and _Pantagruel_ (1533) contain his revolutionary views on
+education. The young gentleman Gargantua is provided with an ideal
+tutor in the person of Ponocrates. After three hours of lectures in the
+morning they spend an hour or so in ball games out-of-doors, followed
+by dinner, an hour of music or quiet games, and three more of study in
+the afternoon. Now his physical training, the object of which is plainly
+to prepare for “the gentleman’s occupation, war,” begins in earnest.
+With the author’s habitual exuberance of detail Esquire Gymnast is made
+to teach his pupil horsemanship, how to handle the lance while in full
+armor, vault on horseback and leap from one horse to another, wield the
+battle-axe, handle pike, sword, dagger, and shield, and hunt the bear,
+deer, wild boar, and lesser game. He also practises wrestling, running,
+broad and high jumping, swimming, rowing and sailing a boat, climbing
+ropes, masts, trees and walls, throwing stones, hurling spears, shooting
+with bow and cross-bow and with firearms, hanging and travelling sideways
+on a pole fixed in two trees, and putting up leaden dumb-bells.[9]
+
+The eminent French essayist _Michel de Montaigne_ (1533-1592), in
+discussing at some length the education of children, has comparatively
+little to say of their physical training; but his few words on that
+subject have been frequently quoted, and will still bear repetition.
+They are found in Book I, Chapter 25, of the _Essays_ (1580). Health and
+strength are necessary, he says, for “the soul will be oppressed if not
+assisted by the body.... I know very well how much mine groans under
+the disadvantage of a body so tender and delicate that eternally leans
+and presses upon her.... Our very exercises and recreations, running,
+wrestling, music, dancing, hunting, riding, and fencing will prove to be
+a good part of our study. I would have his outward behavior and mien, and
+the disposition of his limbs, formed at the same time with his mind. It
+is not a soul, it is not a body, that we are training up; it is a man,
+and we ought not to divide him into two parts; and as Plato says, we are
+not to fashion one without the other, but make them draw together like
+two horses harnessed to a coach. By which saying of his does he not seem
+to allow more time for, and to take more care of, exercises for the body,
+and to believe that the mind in a good proportion does her business at
+the same time too?... Inure him to heat and cold, to wind and sun, and to
+danger that he ought to despise. Wean him from all effeminacy in clothes
+and lodging, eating and drinking; accustom him to everything, that he may
+not be a Sir Paris, a carpet-knight, but a sinewy, hardy, and vigorous
+young man.”
+
+An English contemporary of Rabelais, and of Henry VIII, was _Sir Thomas
+Elyot_ (1490?-1546), intimate with Sir Thomas More, deeply stirred by the
+spirit of the Renaissance, and held in high repute for his scholarship.
+“The Boke named the Governour,” published by him in 1531, relates to the
+education suitable for a gentleman’s son who is preparing to serve the
+commonwealth. It passed through a half-dozen editions within the next
+fifty years, and has been recently reprinted in London and New York.
+Book I, Chapters 16-22, 26 and 27, comprising more than an eighth of
+the entire work, are concerned with physical training, which is treated
+under the following heads: “Of sundry forms of exercise necessary for
+a gentleman. Exercises whereof cometh both recreation and profit” (here
+he mentions the use of dumb-bells of lead or other metal, lifting or
+throwing the heavy stone or bar, wrestling, running, swimming, handling
+the sword and the battle axe, riding and vaulting.) “The ancient hunting
+of Greeks, Romans, and Persians. Dancing. Of other exercises which,
+moderately used, be to every estate of man expedient. That shooting
+in a long bow (the ‘noble art of archery’) is principal of all other
+exercises.”[10] Elyot’s fondness for the classics appears in his very
+numerous references to Greek and Roman examples or authorities.
+
+While Mercurialis was writing his _De Arte Gymnastica_ and Montaigne his
+_Essays_, _Richard Mulcaster_ (1530?-1611) was doing hard work for scant
+pay as Master of the Merchant Taylors’ School in London (1561-1586).
+Among other striking points of difference, he stands in pleasant contrast
+with his more successful contemporary Sturm, at Strasburg, in his
+attitude toward the bodies of the young. His _Positions_, which appeared
+in 1581 and was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, deals with the principles
+to be observed in the training of children, “either for skill in their
+book or health in their body.” A third of the volume is given up to the
+physical side of education, and the nature of the contents cannot be
+better revealed in brief space than by a partial list of the chapter
+headings, slightly altered and condensed: Chapter 4, That exercise must
+be joined with the book, as the schooling of the body. 6, The importance
+of exercise and physical training (as an agent of health). 7, The order
+followed in the present treatment of the subject. 8, Definition and
+varieties of exercise (athletics, martial exercises, exercises for
+health, etc.). 9, Choice of exercises. 10-15, Of loud speaking, loud
+singing, loud and soft reading, much talking and silence, laughing and
+weeping, holding the breath. 16-27, Dancing, wrestling, fencing, top
+and scourge, walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, hunting,
+shooting (archery), ball games. 28-34, Circumstances to be considered
+in exercise, nature and quality of exercise, the bodies which are to
+be exercised; place, time, quantity, and manner of exercise. 35, The
+training master (the same teacher is to serve for both mind and body). Of
+all books on gymnastics, he says in this last chapter, “I know not any
+comparable to Hieronymus Mercurialis, a very learned Italian physician
+now in our time, which hath taken great pains to sift out of all writers
+whatsoever concerneth the whole gymnastical and exercising argument,
+whose advice in this question I have myself much used, where he did fit
+my purpose.” Mulcaster seems never to have caught the ear of the age in
+which he lived, and it is only within the last few decades that he has
+been rescued from oblivion and rated at his real worth, as a man far in
+advance of his time. His book was reprinted in London in 1888.
+
+Standing at the very end of this period of the Renaissance and the
+Reformation is _John Milton_ (1608-1674), whose _Tractate on Education_
+(1644), though not of great value in itself, is yet deserving of mention
+here because it associates a form of bodily exercise with mental and
+moral training. In his model school, intended to bring up gentlemen’s
+sons “to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices
+both private and public, of peace and war,” he would have the young men,
+between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, live together in barracks,
+like the Spartan youth. “About an hour and a half ere they eat at noon
+should be allowed them for exercise, and due rest afterwards; but the
+time for this may be enlarged at pleasure.... The exercise which I
+commend first is exact use of their weapon, to guard and to strike safely
+with edge or point; this will keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and
+well in breath; is also the likeliest means to make them grow large and
+tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage.... They
+must be also practised in all the locks and gripes of wrestling, wherein
+Englishmen were wont to excel, as need may often be in fight to tug or
+grapple, and to close....” About two hours before supper they are to
+be called out for their military motions under sky or covert; “first
+on foot, then, as their age permits, on horseback, to all the art of
+cavalry; that, having in sport, but much exactness, and daily muster,
+served out the rudiments of their soldiership ... they may as it were out
+of a long war, come forth renowned and perfect commanders in the service
+of their country.”
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+R. H. Quick, “Essays on Educational Reformers.” New York, D. Appleton &
+Co., 1890.
+
+F. P. Graves, “A History of Education during the Middle Ages and the
+Transition to Modern Times.” New York, The Macmillan Co., 1910.
+
+Foster Watson, “Notices of Some Early English Writers on Education, with
+Descriptions, Extracts, and Notes.” In annual Reports of the United
+States Commissioner of Education for 1900-01 (I: 861-884), 1902 (I:
+481-508), 1903 (I: 319-350), and 1904 (I: 633-701).
+
+W. H. Woodward, “Studies in Education during the Age of the Renaissance
+(1400-1600).” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1906.
+
+W. H. Woodward, “Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators: Essays
+and Versions.” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1897.
+
+Wilhelm Krampe, “Die italienischen Humanisten und ihre Wirksamkeit für
+die Wiederbelebung gymnastischer Pädagogik. Ein Beitrag zur allgemeinen
+Geschichte der Jugenderziehung und der Leibesübungen.” Breslau, W. G.
+Korn, 1895.
+
+O. Richter, “Die Ansichten und Bestrebungen italienischer Humanisten
+auf dem Gebiete der Leibeserziehung. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der
+Leibesübungen.” In _Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_ 14 (1895); 98-107,
+139-149, 193-200, and 262-270. Berlin, R. Gaertners Verlagsbuchhandlung.
+
+Carl Rossow, “Italienische und deutsche Humanisten und ihre Stellung zu
+den Leibesübungen.” Leipzig, C. G. Naumann, 1903.
+
+S. S. Laurie, “John Amos Comenius, Bishop of the Moravians: His Life and
+Educational Works.” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1895.
+
+M. W. Keatinge, “The Great Didactic of John Amos Comenius now for the
+first time Englished, with Introductions, Biographical and Historical.”
+London, Adam and Charles Black, 1896.
+
+W. S. Monroe, “Comenius and the Beginnings of Educational Reform.” New
+York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1900.
+
+Foster Watson, “Vives: On Education. A Translation of the _De Tradendis
+Disciplinis_ of Juan Luis Vives, together with an Introduction.”
+Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1913.
+
+Foster Watson, “Vives and the Renascence Education of Women.” New York:
+Longmans, Green & Co.; London, Edward Arnold, 1912.
+
+Arthur Tilley, “François Rabelais.” Philadelphia and London, J. B.
+Lippincott Co., 1907.
+
+Walter Besant, “Readings in Rabelais.” Edinburgh and London, William
+Blackwood and Sons, 1883.
+
+M. E. Lowndes, “Michel de Montaigne: A Biographical Study.” Cambridge
+(England), at the University Press, 1898.
+
+Edward Dowden, “Michel de Montaigne.” Philadelphia and London, J. B.
+Lippincott Co., 1905.
+
+L. E. Rector, “Montaigne: The Education of Children. Selected,
+Translated, and Annotated.” New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1899.
+
+H. H. S. Croft, “The Boke named The Governour, Devised by Sir Thomas
+Elyot, Knight. Edited from the first edition of 1531.” In two volumes.
+London: Kegan, Paul & Co., 1880.
+
+Sir Thomas Elyot, “The Boke Named the Governour.” London, J. M. Dent &
+Co.; New York, E. P. Dutton & Co. (Foster Watson’s Introduction is dated
+1907). Number 227 in _Everyman’s Library_.
+
+R. H. Quick, “Positions: By Richard Mulcaster, First Headmaster of
+Merchant Taylors’ School (A.D. 1561-1586); with an Appendix, containing
+Some Account of His Life and Writings.” London and New York: Longmans,
+Green, & Co., 1888.
+
+Oscar Browning, “Milton’s Tractate on Education. A Facsimile Reprint from
+the Edition of 1673. Edited with an Introduction and Notes.” Cambridge
+(England), at the University Press, 1890. The _Tractate_ is also
+published in Barnard’s _American Journal of Education_ II (1856): 76-85.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] The first edition, dedicated to Cardinal Alexander Farnese, has
+the following title-page: “Artis Gymnasticæ apud Antiquos celeberrimæ,
+nostris temporibus ignoratæ, Libri Sex. In quibus exercitationum
+omnium vetustarum genera, loca, modi, facultates & quicquid denique ad
+corporis humani exercitationes pertinet, diligenter explicatur. Opus
+non modo medicis, verum etiam omnibus antiquarum rerum cognoscendarum,
+& valetudinis conservandæ studiosis admodum utile. Palæstræ descriptio
+ex Vetruvio sub litera B. Auctore Hieronymo Mercuriali Foroliviensi,
+Medico & Philosopho. Venetiis, Apud Juntas. MDLXIX.” The second edition,
+like the third and the fourth, is illustrated, and dedicated to Emperor
+Maximilian II. The title-page is changed to read: “Hieronymi Mercurialis
+de arte gymnastica Libri Sex, in quibus exercitationum ... admodum utile
+(as in first edition). Secunda editione aucti, & multis figuris ornati.
+Ad Maximilianum II. Imperatorem. Venetiis apud Juntas, MDLXXIII.” The
+Paris issue of this second edition substitutes the words “Parisiis, Apud
+Jacobum du Puys, via Joannis Lateranensis, sub signo Samaritanæ. 1577.”
+The third edition (“Tertia editione correctiores, & auctiores facti”)
+was published “Venetiis, MDLXXXVII. Apud Juntas,” and the fourth edition
+(“Quarta editione correctiores, & auctiores facti”), “Venetiis, apus
+Juntas. MDCI.”
+
+The title-page of the Amsterdam edition reads: “Hieronymi Mercurialis
+Foroliviensis de Arte Gymnastica Libri Sex: in quibus exercitationum
+omnium vetustarum genera, loca, modi, facultates, & quidquid denique ad
+corporis humani exercitationes pertinet diligenter explicatur. Editio
+novissima, aucta, emendata, & figuris authenticis Christophori Coriolani
+exornata. Amstelodami, Sumptibus Andreæ Frisii,” (1672).
+
+In this connection may be mentioned also “The Muscles and Their Story,
+from the Earliest Times; including the Whole Text of Mercurialis, and
+the Opinions of Other Writers Ancient and Modern, on Mental and Bodily
+Development. By John W. F. Blundell, M.D., Licentiate of the Royal
+College of Edinburgh, Author of ‘Medicina Mechanica,’ etc.” London,
+Chapman & Hall, 1864.
+
+[7] The table of contents, translated, is given in full at the foot of
+pp. 477-479 in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education
+for 1891-1892, vol. =1=.
+
+[8] Translated by Karl Wassmannsdorff in _Deutsche Turnzeitung_, =17=
+(1872); 272, 279.
+
+[9] Chapter 23. The entire passage is given in English at the foot of pp.
+472-474 in the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for
+1891-1892, vol. =1=.
+
+[10] Quotations from these chapters will be found in Barnard’s _Am. Jour.
+Educ._, =16=, 490-496 (1866). In 1545 _Roger Ascham_ (1515-1568), author
+of The Scholemaster, published his “Toxophilus, the schole of shootinge
+conteyned in two bookes.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+LOCKE AND ROUSSEAU.
+
+
+The best of the Renaissance writers on education had begun to break
+away from authority and tradition, and with reason as a guide were
+groping their way toward a training better suited to the nature and
+present needs of man than any the past could supply. That their ideas
+gained currency throughout all Europe and the way was thus prepared for
+practical reforms is very largely due to the powerful influence exerted
+by two philosophers, _John Locke_ (1632-1704) and _Jean Jacques Rousseau_
+(1712-1778), the former of whom published “Some Thoughts on Education” in
+1693, and the latter his “Émile, a Treatise on Education” in 1762.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.—John Locke (1632-1704).]
+
+Locke was an Oxford graduate and lecturer, had studied medicine and
+been physician in the household of Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl
+of Shaftesbury, and his chief work, the “Essay Concerning Human
+Understanding,” had already appeared (1690). His views, therefore,
+commanded attention at once, and whatever relates to the physical side
+of education came with the added weight of special knowledge. The author
+begins by dwelling at some length upon the hygiene of childhood. “Keep
+the body in strength and vigor,” he says, “so that it may be able to obey
+and execute the orders of the mind.... A sound mind in a sound body, is
+a short but full description of a happy state in this world: he that has
+these two has little more to wish for; and he that wants either of them
+will be but little the better for anything else.... He whose mind directs
+not wisely will never take the right way; and he whose body is crazy and
+feeble will never be able to advance in it....
+
+“Most children’s constitutions are either spoiled, or at least harmed, by
+cockering and tenderness.” They should not be too warmly clad or covered,
+winter or summer, and to prevent colds the boy’s feet are to be washed
+every day in cold water, and his shoes made “so thin that they might leak
+and let in water whenever he comes near it.” For safety and for health’s
+sake he must learn to swim. He is to be “much in the open air, and very
+little, as may be, by the fire, even in winter.” Clothing should never be
+made tight, especially about the breast, and the diet ought to be very
+plain and simple, with only small beer for drink, and that after eating.
+Serving his meals at irregular intervals will train him to endure hunger,
+if necessary. As regards fruit, “our first parents ventured paradise
+for it, and it is no wonder our children cannot stand the temptation,
+though it cost them their health.” Some kinds are wholesome and may be
+taken freely before or between meals, but others are forbidden. Allow
+no sweetmeats—“one of the most inconvenient ways of expense that vanity
+hath yet found out; and so I leave them to the ladies.” Nothing is more
+to be indulged children than sleep, but insist upon early rising, and
+let the bed be hard and rather quilts than feathers. All may be summed
+up in these rules: “Plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep; plain diet,
+no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic; not too warm and
+strait clothing; especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet
+often used to cold water and exposed to wet.”
+
+Further on, in the body of his work, Locke comes to what we should now
+call physical training proper. He recognizes that “besides what is to be
+had from study and books, there are other accomplishments necessary for a
+gentleman, to be got by exercise, and to which time is to be allowed, and
+for which masters must be had. Dancing being that which gives graceful
+motions all the life, and above all things, manliness and a becoming
+confidence to young children, I think it cannot be learned too early....
+As for the jigging part, and the figures of dances, I count that little
+or nothing, farther than as it tends to perfect graceful carriage. Music
+... wastes so much of a young man’s time to gain but a moderate skill in
+it ... that amongst all accomplishments I think I may give it the last
+place.... Fencing, and riding the great horse, are looked upon as so
+necessary parts of breeding that it would be thought a great omission
+to neglect them: the latter of the two, being for the most part to be
+learned only in great towns, is one of the best exercises for health
+which is to be had in those places of ease and luxury ... and ... is of
+use to a gentleman, both in peace and war.... As for fencing, it seems to
+me a good exercise for health, but dangerous to the life, the confidence
+of their skill being apt to engage in quarrels those that think they have
+learned to use their swords.... If ... a man be to prepare his son for
+duels, I had much rather mine should be a good wrestler than an ordinary
+fencer; which is the most a gentleman can attain to in it, unless he will
+be constantly in the fencing school, and every day exercising....
+
+“I would (also) have him learn a trade, a manual trade; nay, two or
+three, but one more particularly.... Manual arts, which are both got and
+exercised by labor, do many of them by that exercise not only increase
+our dexterity and skill, but contribute to our health too; especially
+such as employ us in the open air....” He “is not for painting;” but
+proposes “one, or rather both these, viz., gardening or husbandry in
+general, and working in wood, as a carpenter, joiner, or turner; these
+being fit and healthy recreations for a man of study or business.”
+
+The effects produced by Rousseau’s educational romance, “Émile,” upon
+the modern pedagogic world it would be difficult to exaggerate. The
+times were ripe for a revolt, and close upon the radical criticism of
+existing methods to which this theorist gave such convincing expression
+followed the actual reforms inaugurated by Basedow, Pestalozzi, and other
+innovators. It will be sufficient here to mention only a single phase of
+the education which this disciple of Locke would give to his imaginary
+hero. “The body,” says Rousseau[11] in Book I, “must needs be vigorous in
+order to obey the soul: a good servant ought to be robust.... The weaker
+the body, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the better it obeys.”
+Upon the subject of sleep, cold bathing, and the clothing suitable for
+young children his views are those of Locke.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.—Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).]
+
+In Book II we read: “If ... you would cultivate the intelligence of
+your pupil, cultivate the power which it is to govern. Give his body
+continual exercise; make him robust and sound in order to make him wise
+and reasonable; let him work, and move about, and run, and shout, and be
+continually in motion; let him be a man in vigor, and soon he will be
+such by force of reason.... It is a very deplorable error to imagine that
+the exercise of the body is injurious to the operations of the mind; as
+if these two activities were not to proceed in concert, and the second
+were not always to direct the first!... These continual exercises, thus
+left wholly to the direction of Nature, not only do not brutalize the
+mind while fortifying the body, but on the contrary they form within us
+the only species of reason of which childhood is susceptible, and the
+most necessary at any and all periods of life. They teach us thoroughly
+to understand the use of our powers, the relations between our own bodies
+and surrounding bodies, and the use of the natural instruments which
+are within our reach and which are adapted to our organs.... In order
+to learn to think, we must ... exercise our limbs, our senses, and our
+organs, which are the instruments of our intelligence; and in order to
+derive all the advantage possible from these instruments, it is necessary
+that the body which furnishes them should be robust and sound. Thus, so
+far is it from being true that the reason of man is formed independently
+of the body, it is the happy constitution of the body which renders the
+operations of the mind facile and sure....
+
+“... Let him learn to make jumps, now long, now high; to climb a tree,
+to leap a wall. Let him always find his equilibrium; and let all his
+movements and gestures be regulated according to the laws of gravity,
+long before the science of statics intervenes to explain them to him....
+When a child plays at shuttlecock he trains his eye and arm in accuracy;
+when he whips a top he increases his strength by using it, but without
+learning anything. I have sometimes asked why we do not offer children
+the same games of skill which men have, such as tennis, fives, billiards,
+bow and arrow, football, and musical instruments. I have been told, in
+reply, that some of these sports are beyond the strength of children,
+and that their limbs and organs are not sufficiently developed for the
+others. I find these reasons bad.... I do not mean that he shall knock
+the balls in our tennis courts, nor that his little hands shall be made
+to hold the racket of an expert; but that he shall play in a hall whose
+windows are protected; that at first he use only soft balls; that his
+first rackets shall be of wood, then of parchment, and finally of catgut
+stretched to accord with his progress.... To spring from one end of the
+hall to another, to estimate the bound of a ball still in the air, and to
+send it back with a strong and steady hand, such sports do not befit a
+man but they serve to train a youth....
+
+“... I insist absolutely that Émile shall learn a trade,” Rousseau
+continues, in Book III. This is not so much for the trade itself, as for
+overcoming the prejudices that despise it. “His apprenticeship is already
+more than half done, through the tasks with which we have occupied our
+time up to the present moment.... He already knows how to handle the
+spade and the hoe; he can use the lathe, the hammer, the plane, and the
+file; the tools of all the trades are already familiar to him. All he
+has to do in addition is to acquire of some of these tools such a prompt
+and facile use as to make him equal in speed to good workmen using the
+same tools, and in this point he has a great advantage over all others;
+he has an agile body and flexible limbs, which can assume all sorts of
+attitudes without difficulty and prolong all sorts of movement without
+effort.... All things considered, the trade which I would rather have be
+to the taste of my pupil is that of cabinetmaker. It is cleanly, it is
+useful, and it may be practised at home; it keeps the body sufficiently
+exercised; it requires of the workman skill and ingenuity, and in the
+form of the products which utility determines, elegance and taste are not
+excluded....”
+
+As he approaches maturity (Book IV) Émile requires “a new occupation
+which interests him by its novelty, which keeps him in good humor, gives
+him pleasure, occupies his attention, and keeps him in training—an
+occupation of which he is passionately fond and in which he is wholly
+absorbed. Now the only one which seems to me to fulfil all these
+conditions is hunting.... Émile has everything necessary for success in
+it: he is robust, dexterous, patient, indefatigable. Without fail he will
+contract a taste for this exercise; he will throw into it all the ardor
+of his age; for a time, at least, he will lose in it all the dangerous
+inclinations which spring from idleness. Hunting toughens the heart as
+well as the body....”
+
+Book V is concerned with the education of Sophie, Émile’s future wife.
+“... Plato, in his _Republic_, enjoins the same exercises on women as
+upon men, and in this I think he was right.... Since the body is born,
+so to speak, before the soul, the first culture ought to be that of the
+body; and this order is common to both sexes. But the object of this
+culture is different; in one this object is the development of strength,
+while in the other it is the development of personal charms. Not that
+these qualities ought to be exclusive in each sex, but the order is
+simply reversed: women need sufficient strength to do with grace whatever
+they have to do; and men need sufficient cleverness to do with facility
+whatever they have to do. The extreme lack of vigor in women gives rise
+to the same quality in men. Women ought not to be robust like them, but
+for them, in order that the men who shall be born of them may be robust
+also. In this respect the convents, where the boarders have coarse fare,
+but many frolics, races, and sports in the open air and in gardens, are
+to be preferred to the home where a girl, delicately reared, always
+flattered or scolded, always seated under the eyes of her mother in
+a very close room, dares neither to rise, to walk, to speak, nor to
+breathe, and has not a moment’s liberty for playing, jumping, running,
+shouting, and indulging in the petulance natural to her age; always
+dangerous relaxation or badly conceived severity, but never anything
+according to reason. This is the way the young are ruined both in body
+and in heart.... Delicacy is not languor, and one need not be sickly in
+order to please.”
+
+While Locke and Rousseau were urging the necessity of some sort of
+physical training in the scheme of education, and philologists and
+students of ancient art kept alive the knowledge of Greek gymnastics, a
+number of medical writers had been directing attention to the importance
+of bodily exercise in the restoration and preservation of health. In
+London, in 1705, _Francis Fuller_ (1670-1706), a graduate of St. John’s
+College, Cambridge, published “Medicina Gymnastica: or a Treatise
+Concerning the Power of Exercise with Respect to the Animal Œconomy,
+and the Great Necessity of it in the Cure of Several Distempers.”[12]
+A German translation appeared in 1750,[13] after the book had already
+passed through seven or eight editions in England. _Friedrich Hoffmann_
+(1660-1742), a distinguished German physician referred to several times
+by GutsMuths in his “Gymnastics for the Young,” and the first professor
+of medicine at Halle University, published in Latin an essay “On Motion,
+the Best Medicine for the Body”[14] in 1701; and eighteen years later
+several of his articles on the hygienic influence of exercise appeared
+at Halle under the title “The Incomparable Advantages of motion and of
+Bodily Exercises, and How They are to be Employed for the Preservation
+of Health.”[15] _Joh. Friedrich Zückert_ (1737-1778), a Berlin physician
+quoted by Basedow, in discussing the hygiene of infancy and childhood
+(1764-1765),[16] mentions various bodily exercises, such as wrestling,
+dancing, riding, vaulting, bowling, skating and swimming. Upon his
+appointment to the chair of medicine at Lausanne, in 1766, _Simon
+André Tissot_ (1728-1797) delivered a Latin discourse on the health
+of the literary class (_De valetudine litteratorum_), in which he
+recommends games and gymnastics for the youth of both sexes. A French
+translation of the address was published in 1767,[17] a German one
+in the following year,[18] besides later editions in both languages,
+several in English,[19] and at least one in Swedish,[20] “Italian, and
+six other languages.” A well-known French physician, _Clement Joseph
+Tissot_ (1750-1826), published in Paris in 1780 his “Medical and Surgical
+Gymnastics: an Essay on the Use of Motion and of Different Exercises
+of the Body in the Cure of Disease.”[21] Translations of the work were
+printed in Leipsic[22] and Stockholm.[23]
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+R. M. Quick, “Some Thoughts concerning Education, by John Locke. With
+Introduction and Notes.” Cambridge (England), at the University Press,
+1880. Revised edition, 1884.
+
+J. W. Adamson (Editor), “The Educational Writings of John Locke.” New
+York: Longmans, Green & Co.; London, Edward Arnold, 1912.
+
+W. M. Payne, “Rousseau’s Émile: or, Treatise on Education. Abridged,
+Translated, and Annotated.” New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1892.
+
+Thomas Davidson, “Rousseau and Education according to Nature.” New York,
+Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1898.
+
+Gabriel Compayré, “Jean Jacques Rousseau and Education from Nature.”
+Translated by R. J. Jago. New York, Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1907.
+
+R. L. Archer (Editor), “Rousseau on Education.” New York: Longmans, Green
+& Co.; London, Edward Arnold, 1912.
+
+Karl Wassmannsdorff, “Aerztlicher Einfluss auf die sogenannte Erneuerung
+der Leibesübungen in Deutschland; ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der
+Turnkunst,” in _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_ =15= (1869): 111-133.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] These quotations are taken from Rousseau’s Émile, abridged,
+translated, and annotated by William H. Payne. New York, 1892.
+
+[12] London: Printed by John Matthews, for Robert Knaplock, at the
+Angel and Crown in St. Paul’s Church Yard, 1705. A second edition, with
+additions, followed in the same year, a third (“printed for Robert
+Knaplock, at the Bishop’s-Head in St. Paul’s Church-Yard”) in 1707, a
+fourth in 1711, a fifth in 1718, a sixth in 1728, another in 1740, and
+the “ninth and last” in 1777.
+
+[13] Medicina gymnastica, oder von der Leibesübung, in Ansehung der
+animalischen Oeconomie, oder der zu Erhaltung der Gesundheit des
+menschlichen Lebens nöthigen Ordnung; und wie solche bey Curirung
+verschiedener Krankheiten unumgänglich nöthig sey, von Franz Fuller, aus
+der sechsten Englischen Herausgabe übersetzt. Lemgo, Johann Heinrich
+Meyer, 1750.
+
+[14] “De motu, optima corporis medicina.”
+
+[15] “Vorstellung des unvergleichlichen Nutzens der Bewegung und
+Leibes-Uebungen und wie man sich derselben zur Erhaltung der Gesundheit
+zu bedienen habe.”
+
+[16] “Unterricht für rechtschaffene Eltern, zur diätetischen Pflege ihrer
+Säuglinge” (Berlin, A. Mylius, 1764. Second edition, 1771); and “Von der
+diätetischen Erziehung der entwöhnten und erwachsenen Kinder bis in ihr
+mannbares Alter” (Berlin, A. Mylius, 1765. Second edition 1771).
+
+[17] “Avis aux gens de lettres et aux personnes sédentaires sur leur
+santé, trad. du latin” (Paris, Herissant Fils, 1767). It was later
+corrected by the author and published under the title “De la santé des
+gens de lettres” (Lausanne, F. Grasset & Cie.; Lyon, Benoit Duplain; and
+Paris, P. F. Didot le jeune, 1768). Other editions bearing the same title
+appeared at Lausanne in 1769, 1770, 1772, and 1788; at Lyon in 1769; and
+a “nouvelle édition, augmentée d’une notice sur l’auteur et de notes, par
+F.-G. Boisseau,” in Paris (J.-B. Baillière) in 1825 and 1826.
+
+[18] “S. A. D. Tissot, der Arzneygelahrtheit Doctor und öffentlicher
+Lehrer zu Lausanne, der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
+zu London, der Medicinisch-Physischen Akademie in Basel, und der
+Oekonomischen Gesellschaft in Bern Mitglied, von der Gesundheit der
+Gelehrten. Aus dem Französischen übersetzt von Joh. Rud. Füesslin.”
+Zurich, Füesslin und Compagnie, 1768. Later editions are said to have
+appeared in Zurich in 1769 and 1775. The German translation was also
+published in Leipzig (J. G. Müller) in 1768 and 1775.
+
+[19] “An Essay on Diseases Incident to Literary and Sedentary Persons.
+With Proper Rules for Preventing Their Fatal Consequences, and
+Instructions for Their Cure. By S. A. Tissot, M.D., Professor of Physic
+at Berne.... The Second Edition, with very large Additions. With a
+Preface and Notes by J. Kirkpatrick, M.D. London: Printed for J. Nourse
+... and E. and C. Dilly ... MDCCLXIX.” The English translation was also
+published in Dublin (“Printed for James Williams, at No. 5, Skinner Row.
+MDCCLXXII.”)
+
+[20] “Råd till de Lärde och till dem som föra ett stillasittande
+lefnadssätt. Af Tissot. Öfversättning i sammandrag. Pendant till
+Underrättelse om Gymnastik. Upsala, hos Palmblad och C. 1821.” The
+dedication “till studerande corpsen” is signed “Gustav von Heidenstam.”
+
+[21] “Gymnastique médicinale et chirurgicale, ou essai sur l’utilité du
+mouvement, ou des differens exercices du corps, et du repos dans la cure
+des maladies; par M. Tissot, Docteur en Médecine, & Chirurgien-Major du
+quatrième Regiment des Chevaux-Légers.” Paris: Bastien, Libraire, 1780.
+
+[22] “Medicinische und chirurgische Gymnastik, oder Versuch über den
+Nutzen der Bewegung oder der verschiedenen Leibesübungen, und der Ruhe
+bey Heilung der Krankheiten. Aus dem französischen des Herrn Tissot,
+mit Anmerkungen des Herausgebers bereichert. Mit Churfürstl. Sächs.
+Privilegio. Leipzig, bey Friedrich Gotthold Jacobäer und Sohn, 1782.”
+
+[23] “Medicinsk och Chirurgisk Gymnastik, eller Försök om nyttan af
+Rörelse och Stillhet vid Sjukdomars botande. Af Herr Tissot, M.D., Öfver
+Fältskär vid fjerde Regementet af Franska lätta Cavallerier. Stockholm,
+Tryckt hos Bokhandlaren Joh. Dahl. 1797.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790).]
+
+_Johann Bernhard Basedow_ (1723-1790), the son of a Hamburg wigmaker,
+attended school in his native city and was for several years a student
+of theology in Leipsic, later accepted a position as private tutor, and
+for eight years, from 1753 till 1761, was professor of moral philosophy
+and belles-lettres in the school for young noblemen (Ritterakademie)
+at Soröe, in Denmark. This institution belonged to a type common in
+Continental countries during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[24]
+It had been founded in 1623 by Christian IV, who merely followed the
+custom of the age when along with teachers of the literary branches he
+appointed professional masters of riding, fencing, and dancing, a master
+of gymnastics, and a special teacher of various games of ball. Basedow,
+therefore, had before his eyes a system of education which actually made
+the attempt to combine physical with mental training, in the case of
+youth of a certain class. After leaving Soröe he taught for seven years
+in Altona, near Hamburg. Thoughts of reform in school life had already
+begun to fill his mind, and the appearance of Rousseau’s Émile (1762)
+just at this time no doubt influenced him profoundly. In 1768 he gave
+up teaching in order to devote himself wholly to the improvement of
+educational methods.
+
+For some years Basedow had been pondering plans for a model school which
+should embody his ideas and force them upon the attention of educators,
+and where among other innovations physical training should be given a
+place in the daily program. The support of the Duke of Anhalt, at whose
+invitation he removed to Dessau in 1771, enabled him to realize this
+project, and on December 27, 1774, he opened there his private academy,
+named by him the Philanthropinum. A year and a half later the number of
+pupils was only fifteen, including Basedow’s daughter, and only three of
+these were above eight years of age. But in spite of the unwillingness
+of parents to subject their children to the new methods, and although
+the founder himself soon resigned his position at the head of the
+institution, the effects produced by the experiment were far-reaching
+and it was watched with the greatest interest. Basedow severed all
+connection with the school in the spring of 1778, but other men, with
+greater capacity for organization and administration than he possessed,
+continued the work in conformity with his views until 1793, when the
+Dessau Educational Institute, as it had been called after the first few
+years, finally closed its doors.
+
+According to the prospectus issued in December of 1774, five hours a day
+were to be allotted to studies, three hours to recreation in fencing,
+riding, dancing, music, etc., and two hours to manual labor. Basedow
+promises that if the numbers are sufficient and the ages suitable there
+will be drill in military positions and movements, and frequent marches
+on foot; he also hopes to have the school dwell under tents in the field
+for two months of the summer, and in this way to give opportunities for
+hunting and fishing, boating, bathing, climbing, and jumping, as well
+as for the study of geography and the natural sciences. The physical
+training of the pupils was first entrusted, as a part of his duties, to
+_Johann Friedrich Simon_, a teacher in the Philanthropinum from January
+2, 1776, to October 20, 1777; and he was succeeded by _Johann Jakob
+Du Toit_, whose connection with the school lasted from Easter of 1778
+until the end came in 1793. The earliest exercises mentioned are weekly
+lessons in dancing, free instruction in fencing for the older boys, and
+six lessons a week in the Duke’s private riding-school. The latter’s
+riding-master also gave free instruction in vaulting the (living) horse.
+Thus the “knightly exercises,” as these four were called, had all been
+introduced, and Basedow himself refers to this fact, evidently recalling
+the school at Soröe.
+
+But children of such tender age plainly required a different sort of
+bodily training, and accordingly it was not long before Simon began to
+give his pupils lessons in what he termed “Greek gymnastics,” apparently
+including under this head nothing more than orderly contests in running,
+wrestling, throwing, and jumping, such as formed the staple of discipline
+in the Greek palæstra. For the broad-jumping he used ditches, cut so
+that they were perhaps eight feet across in the middle, but tapered
+almost to a point at either end, the pupils starting with a width which
+they could easily clear and working gradually toward the center as their
+strength and skill increased. For the high-jump two vertical poles were
+fixed at a distance of two and a half feet from each other in the ground,
+reaching about five feet above its surface; into holes bored in these,
+at intervals of an inch, wooden pegs were set at any desired height, and
+a stick resting crosswise upon the pegs furnished a barrier which would
+not injure the person who happened to strike it with his foot. Another of
+Simon’s devices was a long round beam raised about four feet above the
+ground and fastened firmly between posts at its thicker end and again
+near the middle, but with the smaller half left unsupported. The pupils
+were taught to balance themselves upon this beam, first at the fixed end,
+while the teacher lent a hand from below, and then, as they accustomed
+themselves little by little to the feat, upon the swaying portion, and
+without assistance. A simpler exercise of the same character consisted in
+crossing ditches on a narrow plank. The list of games, all of which were
+under the oversight of a teacher, included shuttlecock, tennis or fives,
+skittles, and playing with a large ball filled with air. For the younger
+children there were also hoops and seesaw.
+
+Under Simon’s successor, Du Toit, other varieties of exercise were added
+from time to time—singing and reading aloud; swimming, skating, shooting
+with the bow and with firearms; marching in time and playing soldier;
+making excursions on foot into the surrounding country; walking up the
+rounds of a ladder set obliquely, without the help of the hands, or
+swinging from its under side and climbing hand-over-hand; carrying bags
+full of sand with the arms stretched out horizontally at the sides,
+while a teacher, walking among them, counted his steps aloud, and the
+pupils noted the number when their muscles began to pain them, and when
+they were finally overcome with fatigue, gauging thus the daily increase
+in strength and endurance. Gardening is mentioned, and in the fall of
+1777 working in wood was introduced—the use of the lathe and plane, and
+cabinetmaking. Thus, at the very beginning of modern physical training,
+and under these earliest teachers of the art, we find in embryo most of
+the varied forms which have been advocated at one time or another since
+that day, _i.e._, simple games and athletic sports, gymnastics, military
+drill, manual labor and manual training, and school excursions. It will
+be observed, further, that these exercises had been incorporated into the
+plan of education as an essential factor, and that they were entrusted,
+not to a special master, but to one of the regular teachers in the school.
+
+Other institutions were soon started in imitation of the Dessau
+Philanthropinum. The first of these was opened in October of 1775 at
+Marschlins, in Switzerland, but closed its doors in the following year. A
+second, at the castle Heidesheim, not far from Mannheim, lived only from
+the first of May, 1777, until some time in 1779. The task of organization
+in each instance was confided to Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, who had spent
+four weeks at Dessau and was recommended by Basedow himself. But one
+philanthropinistic school, the Schnepfenthal Educational Institute,
+long outlived its parent, and has survived even to the present day. Its
+founder, _Christian Gotthilf Salzmann_ (1744-1811), had been called
+from a pastorate in Erfurt to become liturgist and teacher of religion
+in the Philanthropinum at Dessau, remaining there from the spring of
+1781 until the end of February, 1784, and he himself attributed much of
+his later success to what he saw and learned in these three years. A
+growing desire to carry out independently his ideas of education, upon
+similar principles but with some important differences in organization
+and surroundings, finally induced Salzmann to give up his position in
+order to found a new school in the country, remote from the influences
+of city life. The site selected for the venture was Schnepfenthal, an
+estate in the vicinity of Gotha. Toward its purchase Duke Ernst II of
+Saxe-Gotha contributed four thousand thaler, and the cornerstone of the
+main building was laid June 18, 1784.
+
+Besides the Director’s four children, there were during the first
+year nine pupils, all of them under twelve years of age, and for the
+instruction of this small number five assistants were employed. On July
+18, 1785, _Christian Carl Andre_ entered upon his duties as a teacher
+at the Institute, and to him Salzmann assigned the physical training of
+the pupils. About eleven o’clock they were called away from other tasks
+for the gymnastic lesson, commonly given in an open space under the oaks
+which shaded a neighboring hill. Here a jumping-ditch had been dug, and a
+balance-beam and pair of upright poles set up, like the ones at Dessau.
+The new exercises mentioned at this period are throwing at a target,
+running through the long jumping rope, pole-vaulting, and running up
+and down hill. When the weather was unfavorable they practised indoors
+various movements and positions intended to teach the proper carriage of
+the body—the beginnings of our present “free exercises.” The knightly
+exercises had not yet been introduced. After the midday meal the children
+were allowed the time until two o’clock for relaxation and games, and
+again in the evening these alternated with “musical entertainments.” The
+whole of Sunday afternoons was set apart for amusements, excursions on
+foot, and games under Andre’s direction. Pupils who showed proficiency in
+the events of the morning were distinguished by a few oak leaves on the
+hat, and as a further reward they were sometimes permitted by the teacher
+to choose the exercises for the following day.
+
+In July of 1786 this portion of Andre’s work was turned over to _Johann
+Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths_ (1759-1839), who continued to discharge
+the duties of the position for nearly fifty years. During fifteen years
+of this time, _i.e._, from October of 1787 till 1802, Christian Ludwig
+Lenz assisted him by giving instruction in swimming and vaulting. The
+preëminence of GutsMuths among pioneers of modern physical education does
+not rest upon priority in time—as we have seen, he was not the first,
+but the fourth teacher of gymnastics in a school open to all classes
+of society—but it is due rather to his long period of service, to the
+character and results of his teaching and the favorable impression which
+it made upon visitors, and to the series of volumes from his pen which
+formed what has been aptly called the first normal school of physical
+training for other teachers, and not in Germany alone, but elsewhere in
+Europe and even beyond its borders. For these reasons his career deserves
+somewhat extended notice.
+
+GutsMuths, son of a tanner in moderate circumstances, was born August
+9, 1759, in the ancient Prussian town of Quedlinburg. The boy’s
+first library consisted of a great Bible illustrated with beautiful
+copper-plate engravings, an old geography with woodcuts of the different
+races of men, and, best beloved of all, the “Acerra philologica,” in
+German. This last book, containing hundreds of selections from the
+writings of well-known Greek and Latin authors, he read through a score
+of times, he said, and it may have given him his first introduction to
+the gymnastics of the ancients. He was also fond of working with tools,
+and skilful with his pencil and afterwards with brush and paints. In
+the spring of 1773, while he was in his third year at the _Gymnasium_
+or classical secondary school of Quedlinburg, his father died. Four
+years later, upon recommendation of the prorector of the _Gymnasium_, he
+became private tutor in the family of Dr. Friedrich Wilhelm Ritter, a
+respected physician in the town and medical adviser to the then abbess
+of Quedlinburg, Princess Anna Amelia, sister of Frederick the Great.
+GutsMuths now found his time fully occupied. Besides preparing his own
+school tasks, he must teach the two oldest of Dr. Ritter’s four sons and
+a merchant’s boy whom he had also accepted as a pupil, and to fit himself
+the better to discharge the new duties he studied carefully Basedow’s
+“Elementarwerk” (1774) and especially the “Methodenbuch” (1770).
+
+In 1779 GutsMuths entered the university of Halle, intending to take
+up the study of theology; but inclination led him to attend as well
+courses in mathematics, physics and modern languages (including English
+and Italian), and pedagogy, too, continued to interest him greatly.
+After three years in Halle he returned to Quedlinburg to resume his old
+position in the Ritter household, where there were now six children,
+five of them boys and the oldest barely nine years old. The next to the
+youngest, aged three, was Karl, the geographer-to-be. Only two years
+later, in June, 1784, Dr. Ritter succumbed to a severe attack of typhoid
+fever. His young widow found herself unable to continue the salary which
+GutsMuths had been receiving, but he was unwilling to desert the family
+in its time of need and was easily persuaded to remain for another year
+in spite of the changed circumstances.
+
+During this same year Salzmann was making preparations to open his new
+educational institution at Schnepfenthal, about seventy miles away
+to the south and west in a straight line. Already teachers had been
+selected, but outside of his own large family there were no pupils on the
+grounds. He decided to receive without charge, as the first of these,
+some promising lad not yet beyond his sixth year, and having learned of
+Dr. Ritter’s death from a published announcement, sent two friends to
+Quedlinburg to see whether there might not be among his sons a suitable
+candidate. As a result, Frau Ritter was asked to part with her favorite
+Karl. June 7, 1785, taking the boy and his brother Johannes, four years
+older, she set out for Schnepfenthal, accompanied by GutsMuths, and
+reached there at noon of the 9th. A stay of several days led to such
+favorable impressions on both sides that she accepted Salzmann’s offer to
+receive _both_ children, and GutsMuths consented to remain as a permanent
+assistant. He made the return journey to Quedlinburg with the widow,
+arranged his affairs in the home city, and on the 30th of the same month
+was again in Schnepfenthal, ready to take up the new tasks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.—J. C. F. GutsMuths (1759-1839) and Karl Ritter
+(Anders monument in Quedlinburg).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.—Portrait of GutsMuths, and Views of Schnepfenthal
+and Vicinity (Deutsche Turn-Zeitung).]
+
+The life story of GutsMuths during the next half century, apart
+from his work as teacher and author, is soon told. In a letter to a
+university friend, written in June, 1791, he speaks of his garden, and
+of cabinetmaking and wood-turning; he has daily gymnastic exercises with
+the children in good weather, goes shooting in the fall, and in winter
+skates on the meadows and coasts down the neighboring hills; he is an
+industrious botanist, still takes up his brush occasionally, painting
+portraits especially, but also landscapes from Nature, and enjoys the use
+of a very good pianoforte by one of the best German makers; he mentions
+the many distinguished visitors (Goethe, Wieland, Kotzebue and others),
+but says that of more importance to him is the Gotha library of seventy
+thousand volumes from which he has permission to draw whatever books he
+desires, through a messenger who makes trips back and forth every day or
+two. The school itself has a good collection of books, and he has been
+made librarian. Together with an English pupil he has read much in that
+language.
+
+Twelve years after his arrival in Schnepfenthal, on August 15, 1791,
+GutsMuths was married to Sophie Eckardt, a niece of Salzmann’s wife.
+They occupied a storehouse on the grounds, at first, but after fifteen
+months moved into a home of their own in the little village of Ibenhain,
+a half mile distant in the valley. There they gradually improved and
+beautified the dwelling and its surroundings, laid out a garden which
+became famous for its flowers and fruit, and by the purchase of adjoining
+pieces of ground from time to time came at length to be possessors of a
+considerable estate, the source of much pleasure and not a little profit.
+The family life seems to have been an ideal one. Eight sons and three
+daughters were born to the couple, and two of the children who married
+during his lifetime presented their parents with six grandchildren.
+“Father” Salzmann died in 1811, but his son Karl succeeded to the
+directorship and the new administration brought no change in GutsMuths’
+relations with the school. The completion of fifty years of teaching,
+celebrated June 1, 1835, found him still in full enjoyment of his powers
+and busy in his calling. He continued in active service up to the end of
+March, 1839, and died on the 21st of the following May, after a brief and
+painless illness.
+
+In the earlier years, while pupils and teachers were few, GutsMuths gave
+instruction in various elementary subjects, but especially in geography
+and the French language. Gymnastics was added, as we have seen, in July,
+1786. Later, when he had moved to Ibenhain, he confined himself to his
+favorite subjects—the gymnastic lesson from 11 to 12 daily (until the
+summer of 1835), and geography and technology between 2 and 4. After 1802
+he was swimming teacher as well. Salzmann had expected not more than
+twelve pupils at the start, but in the fall of 1785 there were already
+thirteen, including four of his own children, and the numbers steadily
+increased during the next two decades, to forty-nine in 1790, fifty-two
+in 1800, and sixty-one in 1803. The war which broke out in 1806 led to
+a marked falling off, followed by another rise, from twenty-two at the
+beginning of 1814 to thirty-six three years later, and forty-one in 1823.
+
+For full information regarding the sort of gymnastic exercises which
+GutsMuths practised with his pupils we turn, of course, to his books.
+With few exceptions they were taken outdoors, in a spot set apart for
+the purpose and provided with the necessary apparatus. Already at
+Dessau, and by his predecessor Andre at Schnepfenthal, a varied list of
+suitable forms had been elaborated: Marching in time, walking on the
+balance beam and crossing ditches on the edge of a plank, jumping over
+a stick placed on jump stands, pole vaulting, jumping across a ditch,
+vaulting, carrying weights with outstretched arms, throwing at a target,
+foot-races, running and jumping through a long rope swung by two persons,
+simple free exercises indoors, skating and coasting, and long walks. Most
+or all of these GutsMuths continued to employ, modifying them, however,
+and making numerous additions as experience suggested. During the summer
+of 1794, for example, or before it, he has the pupils going up and down
+a rope ladder, swinging on vertical ropes, climbing a mast, hanging
+and travelling on the under side of a horizontal beam, balancing rods
+on the fingers, going through various exercises while standing on one
+foot, jumping over a rope swung close to the ground, throwing a wooden
+discus, wrestling, pushing against each other, lifting a weight hung on
+a rod and moved toward or from the hands according to the strength of
+the individual, estimating distance with the eye, and reading aloud so
+as to be heard by a person stationed at varying distances. He kept an
+accurate record of each pupil’s performance in order to note his needs
+and progress.
+
+Meanwhile gardening and other forms of manual labor and training were
+not neglected by Salzmann. Terraces were laid out upon the sides of a
+hill near the school, and here each pupil had his own patch of flowers,
+vegetables, and fruit to cultivate, earning pocket money by selling
+produce to the Institute. During the first year a bookbinder in the
+neighboring village of Waltershausen had given instruction in his trade
+and in the manufacture of little boxes, pen cases, and baskets out of
+pasteboard; and after the spring of 1796 one of the regular teachers,
+who had been employed in various mechanical pursuits and was unusually
+skilful with his hands, continued this instruction in pasteboard work
+and also taught the pupils to make wooden models of tools and machines
+used in the various handicrafts, in milling, etc. Now and then a whole
+day was passed in the open air by teachers and pupils, who enjoyed their
+lunch together at some attractive spot in the woods. Longer excursions
+on foot, when the smaller children were left at home and a wagon was
+required to carry the baggage of the party are occasionally mentioned.
+Thus we read of a four days’ excursion in October, 1798, undertaken by a
+company numbering forty-five persons; and in another year the journeys of
+Salzmann with his pupils amounted altogether to more than a hundred miles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.—Title-page of “Gymnastik für die Jugend” (1793).]
+
+Joseph Röckl, a professor of pedagogy, passed nine days at the school in
+1805, and in a published record of his observations commends the frugal
+diet there, the light and simple clothing, the unusually airy rooms for
+sleeping and study, the regard for personal cleanliness, the active
+outdoor life, regular walks, work in the garden, and especially the
+gymnastic exercises. He visited, with GutsMuths, the newly erected riding
+school, the grounds for jumping and vaulting, and the swimming pool;
+watched the pupils handling saw, plane, and chisel, or engaged in paste
+work; and learned of the occasional festivals and the yearly excursions.
+He doubts whether anywhere in all Germany there is an educational
+institution which devotes more care to the physical well-being of its
+scholars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.—One of the plates in “Gymnastik für die Jugend”
+(1793).]
+
+Other visitors also came to Schnepfenthal, and went away to spread
+the news of what was undertaken and accomplished there. The lasting
+fame of GutsMuths, however, depends less upon the example furnished
+by his fifty years of teaching than upon his books, two of which, at
+least, the “Gymnastics for the Young” (1793), and its continuation, the
+“Games” (1796), not only constitute the first modern manuals on those
+subjects, but deserve to rank as classics. The former[25] was issued in
+two volumes, which contain altogether about seven hundred pages, nine
+copper-plate illustrations of various exercises, and a folding sheet
+with explanatory drawings of apparatus. The first volume is divided into
+five chapters: 1, We are weak because it does not occur to us that we
+could be strong if we only would. 2, Consequences of the common method
+of education, and especially the neglect of bodily training. 3, All the
+means hitherto employed against lack of hardihood are insufficient. 4,
+Gymnastics proposed and objections answered. 5, The effects and object
+of gymnastics. The second and larger volume is a practical handbook,
+arranged as follows: Chapter 6, Gymnastics defined, the open-air
+gymnasium described, the exercises classified. 7-15, Different sorts of
+jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing, balancing, lifting,
+carrying, pulling, dancing, walking, military exercises, bathing and
+swimming. 16, Behavior in case of fire, keeping watch at night, fasting.
+17, Loud reading and declaiming. 18, Exercises of the senses. 19, The
+exercises classified, according to the different parts of the body which
+each affects. 20, Method, use of time, general rules. 21, Manual labor
+and training. A second edition of the work, so much altered that it is
+virtually a new treatise, was published in 1804.[26]
+
+In the volume “Games,”[27] of which two editions appeared in the first
+year and a third in 1802, an introduction of about fifty pages is
+followed by detailed descriptions of one hundred and five different
+games, arranged in natural groups and according to the faculties which
+they test or tend to develop, _e.g._, attention, observation, memory,
+judgment. The other works of GutsMuths include a “Manual of the Art of
+Swimming” (1798, 2d ed., 1833),[28] “Mechanical Avocations for Youths
+and Men” (1801, 2d ed., 1809),[29] “Book of Gymnastics for the Sons of
+the Fatherland” (1817),[30] and “Catechism of Gymnastics: a Manual for
+Teachers and Pupils” (1818).[31] Some idea of the wide influence exerted
+by these books may be gained from the fact that the “Gymnastics for the
+Young” was pirated outright in Austria (the 2d ed., Vienna, 1805);[32]
+appeared in the form of translations more or less altered and condensed
+in Denmark (Copenhagen, 1799),[33] England (London, 1800),[34] the United
+States (Philadelphia, 1802. This is a reprint of the London edition, and
+in both the work is wrongly attributed to _Salzmann_ on the title page.
+See footnote on p. 89),[35] and Holland (The Hague, Amsterdam, and Breda,
+1806);[36] was epitomized and issued under a different name in Bavaria
+(Stadtamhof, 1800),[37] France (Paris, 1803),[38] and Sweden (Lund,
+1813);[39] was freely drawn upon by Clias in the “Elements of Gymnastics”
+which he published in German (1816), French (1819) and English (1823);
+and with these books of Clias served as the basis of Young’s Italian
+manual (Milan, 1825).[40] Of the “Games,” six editions (revised) have
+been published since the author’s death, the last of them in 1914. In
+addition to his books on physical training GutsMuths wrote numerous ones
+devoted to _Geography_, and rendered an important service to educational
+science through the _Bibliothek der paedagogischen Litteratur_, which he
+edited and published in the years 1800-1820 (53 volumes).[41]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Title-page of the English translation of
+“Gymnastik für die Jugend” (1800).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.—Footnote on p. 89 of the English translation of
+“Gymnastik für die Jugend.”]
+
+Chronologically the names of _Franz Nachtegall_ (1777-1847), _Per
+Henrik Ling_ (1776-1839) and _Friedrich Ludwig Jahn_ (1778-1853) should
+follow those of the German pioneers who taught and wrote in Dessau and
+at Schnepfenthal. These men, however, are best studied in connection
+with the later results of their life work, _i.e._, statewide physical
+education in Denmark, the Swedish system of school gymnastics, and the
+popular gymnastic societies (Turnvereine) of Germany, to each of which a
+separate chapter is devoted.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+
+_General_
+
+Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens und der verwandten
+Gebiete. In Verbindung mit zahlreichen Fachgenossen herausgegeben von Dr.
+Carl Euler, Schulrat, Professor, Unterrichts-Dirigent der königlichen
+Turnlehrerbildungs-Anstalt in Berlin. Wien und Leipzig, A. Pichler’s
+Witwe & Sohn, 1894-1896. Three volumes.
+
+Geschichte des Turnunterrichts. Bearbeitet von Professor Dr. Carl Euler,
+Unterrichts-Dirigent der Königl. Zentral-Turnanstalt in Berlin. Zweite
+Auflage. Gotha, E. F. Thienemanns Hofbuchhandlung, 1891. There is also a
+“dritte Auflage, neu bearbeitet von Carl Rossow, Turnlehrer am Königl.
+Wilhelms-Gymnasium in Berlin,” issued by the same publisher in 1907.
+
+Die Turnübungen in den Philanthropinen zu Dessau, Marschlins, Heidesheim
+und Schnepfenthal. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des neueren Turnwesens. Von
+Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff. Sonderabdruck aus der _deutschen Turnzeitung_.
+Heidelberg, Karl Groos, 1870.
+
+Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst (NJT). Published in Dresden (vols.
+1-27) and Leipzig (vols. 28-40) 1855-1894. There were six numbers a year
+1855-1881, and twelve numbers 1882-1894. In 1880 the name was changed to
+“Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst.”
+
+Deutsche Turn-Zeitung (DTZ). Leipzig, since 1856. This is the official
+organ (weekly) of the Deutsche Turnerschaft.
+
+Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen (MT). Berlin, 1882-1920.
+
+Körper und Geist (KG). Published under this title, 26 numbers a year,
+in Leipzig from April 1, 1902 (vol. XI), through December, 1920 (Vol.
+XXIX). It was started April 1, 1892, as the “Zeitschrift für Turnen und
+Jugendspiel” (24 numbers a year), and ten volumes were published under
+that title.
+
+Karl Wassmannsdorff, in NJT 1855: 28, 153, 247, and 323; 1887: 56; MT
+1882: 18, 49, and 76; and DTZ 1887: 700 and 715.
+
+Ferd. Brehmer, in DTZ 1911: 806.
+
+G. Meier, in NJT 1890: 257, 311, and 408.
+
+W. Moestue, in KG 13: 213, 327, and 359 (1904 and 1905).
+
+Jaro Pawel, in NJT 1891: 15.
+
+Otto Richter, in DTZ 1890: 470, 603, and 622.
+
+Richard Winter, in DTZ 1910: 189, 358, and 597.
+
+
+_GutsMuths_
+
+GutsMuths’ pädagogisches Verdienst um die Pädagogik, die Geographie und
+das Turnen. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doctorwürde der
+Hohen Philosophischen Facultät der Universität Leipzig vorgelegt von
+Adolf B. Netsch, aus Oberkunnersdorf bei Löbau in Sachsen. Hof. a. S.,
+Rud. Lion, 1901.
+
+Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths. Erweiterter Separatabdruck aus der
+Festschrift zur Feier des 100jährigen Bestehens von Schnepfenthal. Von
+Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff. Heidelberg, Karl Groos, 1884.
+
+Karl Wassmannsdorff, in DTZ 1865: 400, 409; 1884: 317, 354; NJT 1884:
+233, 290, 340, 392, 430, 476; 1888: 3, 49; 1890: 41; 1894: 15, 53, 101,
+and 145.
+
+H. Brendike, in DTZ 1886: 551.
+
+Carl Euler, in DTZ 1871: 133; NJT 1872: 2, 149; MT 1885: 217; 1886: 201;
+1899: 136.
+
+P. M. Kawerau, in DTZ 1859: 61.
+
+M. Kloss, in NJT 1858: 249.
+
+E. Witte, in KG 13: 33 (1904).
+
+Other articles in DTZ 1861: 241; MT 1902: 302; and KG 13: 124, 127, and
+142 (1904).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff has described in the _Deutsche Turnzeitung_
+(1870, pages 35-40 and 41-42) two of the oldest German _Ritterschulen_,
+the first founded in 1575 at Selz, in Alsace, and the second the
+_Collogium Illustre_ at Tübingen, Württemberg, opened in 1594. The
+article is reprinted in Hirth’s “Das gesamte Turnwesen,” second edition,
+1893, =1=: 290-303.
+
+[25] “Gymnastik für die Jugend. Enthaltend eine praktische Anweisung zu
+Leibesübungen. Ein Beytrag zur nöthigsten Verbesserung der körperlichen
+Erziehung. Von GutsMuths, Erzieher zu Schnepfenthal.” Schnepfenthal:
+Verlag der Buchhandlung der Erziehungsanstalt, 1793. Bound in two
+volumes. The centenary of the book’s appearance was the occasion of
+complete and partial reprints as follows:
+
+“Gymnastik für die Jugend von GutsMuths. Unveränderte Ausgabe der ersten,
+in Jahre 1793 erschienenen Auflage, veranstaltet von Gustav Lukas ... Mit
+11 Tafeln.” Wien und Leipzig, A. Pichler’s Witwe & Sohn, 1893.
+
+“GutsMuths, 1793, 1893. Die Kupfer und Einiges vom Texte des ersten
+Turnunterrichtsbuches der Welt, ‘Schnepfenthal 1793.’ Mit einer
+turngeschichtlichen Einleitung von Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff, einem
+Facsimile der Handschrift Jahn’s in Schnepfenthal, dem Idealturnplatze
+Basedow’s vom J. 1771 und einem Bilde des Herausgebers.” Leipzig, Eduard
+Strauch, 1893.
+
+[26] “Gymnastik für die Jugend, enthaltend eine praktische Anweisung
+zu Leibesübungen. Ein Beytrag zur nöthigsten Verbesserung der
+körperlichen Erziehung. Von J. C. F. GutsMuths, Fürstlich N. W. Hofrath
+und Mitarbeiter an der Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal. Zweite
+durchaus umgearbeitete und stark vermehrte Ausgabe mit 12 von dem Verf.
+gezeichneten Tafeln.” Schnepfenthal, Buchhandlung der Erziehungsanstalt,
+1804.
+
+[27] “Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes, für die
+Jugend, ihre Erzieher und alle Freunde unschuldiger Jugendfreuden.
+Gesammelt und praktisch bearbeitet von GutsMuths, Erzieher zu
+Schnepfenthal. Mit einem Titelkupfer und sechzehn kleinen Rissen.”
+Schnepfenthal, Verlag der Buchhandlung der Erziehungsanstalt, 1796.
+
+A second edition of the “Spiele” appeared in 1796, and a third in 1802;
+a fourth, revised and with a new introduction by F. W. Klumpp, in 1845;
+and a fifth, sixth, and seventh, revised by O. Schettler, with Klumpp’s
+additions and 33 woodcuts, in 1878, 1884, and 1885. An eighth edition,
+edited by Dr. J. C. Lion, was published at Hof (Rudolf Lion) in 1893, and
+a ninth at the same place in 1914, “neu bearbeitet von Georg Thiele.”
+
+Danish translations of the “Spiele” were published as follows; R.
+Nyerup, “Beskrivelse over nogle Lege,” in _Borgervennen_ 1800 nos.
+41-44, 1801 nos. 11 and 12, and 1802 no. 4; and Jo. Werfel, “Nyeste
+Samling af gymnastiske Lege, Selskabslege og Julelege, til Tidsfordriv
+og Fornöjelse. Efter Gutsmuths,” Copenhagen 1801 (The same book was
+published again in Copenhagen in 1802 under the title: “Walter og hans
+Elever i deres Fritimer.”).
+
+[28] “Kleines Lehrbuch der Schwimmkunst zum Selbstunterrichte; enthaltend
+eine vollständige praktische Anweisung zu allen Arten des Schwimmens
+nach den Grundsätzen der neuen Italienischen Schule des Bernardi und
+der älteren Deutschen, bearbeitet von J. C. F. GutsMuths, Mitarbeiter
+in der Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal. Weimar, im Verlage des
+Industrie-Comptoirs, 1798.” A Danish translation was published under the
+title:
+
+“J. C. Fr. GutsMuths: Lærebog i Svømmekonsten til Selvundervisning;
+indeholdende en fuldstaendig praktisk Anvisning til alle Arter af
+Svømmen. Overs. og udg. (translated and published) af L. Reistrup.”
+Copenhagen, 1800.
+
+“Kleines Lehrbuch der Schwimmkunst zum Selbstunterrichte; enthaltend eine
+vollständige practische Anweisung zu allen Arten des Schwimmens nach den
+Grundsätzen der neuen Italienischen Schule des Bernardi und der alten
+allgemeinen Schwimmschule bearbeitet von Hofrath J. C. F. GutsMuths,
+Mitarbeiter in der Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal. Zweite genau
+durchgesehene, verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage.” Weimar: Im Verlage des
+Landes-Industrie-Comptoirs. 1833.
+
+[29] “Mechanische Nebenbeschäftigungen für Jünglinge und Männer,
+enthaltend eine praktische, auf Selbstbelehrung berechnete Anweisung zur
+Kunst des Drehens, Metallarbeitens und des Schleifens optischer Gläser.
+Als Anhang zu seiner Gymnastik von J. C. F. GutsMuths, Mitarbeiter in der
+Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal.” Leipzig und Altenburg, bei J. C.
+Hinrichs, 1801. Second edition, unchanged, in 1809.
+
+[30] “Turnbuch für die Söhne des Vaterlandes. Von Joh. Chr. Fried.
+GutsMuths. Mit vier Kupfertafeln.” Frankfurt am Mayn: Bei den Gebrüdern
+Wilmans, 1817.
+
+[31] “Katechismus der Turnkunst (Kurzer Abriss der deutschen Gymnastik),
+ein Leitfaden für Lehrer und Schüler von J. C. F. GutsMuths.” Frankfurt
+a. M.: Bei den Gebrüdern Wilmans, 1818.
+
+[32] Wien: In Kommission bei Anton Doll, 1805. This is the second
+edition, reprinted with a few unimportant alterations.
+
+[33] “Kort Anviisning til Legemsøvelser. Et Udtog af Gutsmuths Gymnastik,
+Udgivet paa Dansk af V. K. Hjort.” Copenhagen: Paa Hofboghandler S.
+Poulsen’s Forlag. 1799.
+
+[34] “Gymnastics for Youth: or a Practical Guide to Healthful and
+Amusing Exercises for the Use of Schools. An Essay toward the Necessary
+Improvement of Education, Chiefly as it relates to the Body; freely
+translated from the German of C. G. Salzmann. Master of the Academy at
+Schnepfenthal, and author of Elements of Morality, Illustrated with
+Copper Plates.” London: J. Johnson. 1800.
+
+[35] The title page differs from that of the London edition only in the
+imprint: “Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, No. 106 Market Street,
+1802.”
+
+[36] “Volledig Leerstelsel van kunstmatige Ligchaams-oefeningen. Een
+Bijdrage tot de Opvoeding der Jeugd. Gevolgt naar het Hoogduitsch van
+J. C. F. GutsMuths, Hofraad, en Leeraar op de Kweekschool van den Heere
+Salzmann, te Schnepfenthal, door Jan van Geuns ... ’s Gravenhage,
+Amsterdam en Breda: Bij de Gebroeders van Cleef en W. van Bergen & Comp.”
+In two volumes, published in 1806 and 1813. A second edition, unchanged,
+appeared in 1818.
+
+[37] “Entwurf zu einer Gymnastik, oder Anleitung zu Leibesübungen für
+die Jugend, grössten Theils nach Art der alten Römer und Griechen; aber
+alle nach den Bedürfsnissen und Umständen unsers Zeitalters gesammelt,
+und in ein regelmässiges Ganzegebracht, von Johann Nepomuck Fischer,
+Weltpriester. Stadtamhof, bey Joh. Mich Daisenberger. 1800.”
+
+Reprinted under the title: “Des Weltpriesters Joh. Nep. Fischer Auszug
+aus GutsMuths’ Gymnastik für die Jugend v. J. 1793, verfasst i. J. 1799.
+Neu herausgegeben von Karl Wassmannsdorff. Den Freunden der Geschichte
+des deutschen Turnwesens gewidmet.” Hof, Grau & Co. (Rud. Lion). 1872.
+
+[38] “La Gymnastique de la jeunesse, ou traité élémentaire des jeux
+d’exercice, considérés sous le rapport de leur utilité physique et
+morale; par M. A. Amar Durivier, et L. F. Jauffret. Ouvrage orné de 30
+gravures. A Paris, chez A. G. Debray, Libraire, près le Louvre, place du
+Muséum, no. 9. An XI (1803).”
+
+[39] “Gymnastik för Swenska Ungdomen, eller Kort Anvisning till
+Kroppsöfningar. Öfversättning (by H. F. Sjöbeck, docent at the University
+of Lund). Med ett Kopparstick. Lund, 1813. Tryckt uti Berlingska
+Boktryckeriet.”
+
+[40] “Ginnastica elementare o sia corso analitico e graduato degli
+esercizi atti a sviluppare ed a fortificare l’organizzazione dell’
+uomo, estratto dalle opere dei celebri autori di ginnastica Professori
+Clias e Guts-Muths, compilato da E. Young, colonello ... ed arricchito
+di 13 Tavole in rame.” Milano: Per Giovanni Silvestri. 1825.
+“Elementar-Gymnastik oder zergliederte, stufenweise Anleitung zu jenen
+Leibes-Übungen, welche vorzüglich geeignet sind, den menschlichen Körper
+zu entwickeln, auszubilden und zu stärken. Nach den Werken der rühmlichst
+bekannten Gymnastiker und Professoren Clias und GutsMuths bearbeitet
+von E. Young, Oberst, Kommandant der K. K. Militär Erziehungs-Anstalt
+in Mailand.... Mit 22 Kupfertafeln. Aus dem Italienischen übersetzt von
+K. K. Oberleutnant S. Poschacher. Mailand, aus der kaiserl. königl.
+Buchdruckerey. 1827.”
+
+[41] The “Encyclopædia of Bodily Exercises” (_Encyklopädie der
+Leibesübungen._ Three volumes, 1794, 1795, 1818) published by Gerhard
+Ulrich Anton Vieth (1763-1836) of the Dessau _Hauptschule_ (not the
+Philanthropinum), and the important pioneer work of Don Francisco Amoros
+(1770-1848) in Madrid and Paris and of Phokion Heinrich Clias (1782-1854)
+in Switzerland, England, and France, are omitted here for lack of space,
+but have been discussed at length in an article which appeared in the
+_American Physical Education Review_ for June, 1904 (IX: 89-110). The
+sketches of Amoros and Clias, without bibliography, are reprinted as
+chapters V and VI in the writer’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training”
+(New York, Association Press, 1915).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAHN, AND POPULAR GYMNASTICS IN GERMANY.
+
+
+Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, the father of popular gymnastics (_Volks-_ or
+_Vereinsturnen_) in Germany, was born August 11, 1778, at Lanz, a
+Prussian hamlet lying midway between Hamburg and Berlin and only a few
+miles distant from the right bank of the Elbe. His father, the village
+pastor, was a large and vigorous man, faithful to all the varied duties
+of his office, and at the same time a thrifty manager of the parochial
+estate, fond of his garden, and with hop-fields and sheep of his own. The
+mother was a strong, brave woman of Puritan type, devoutly religious,
+severely plain in her manner of living, industrious and economical, and
+not unlike the peasant women of the parish in outward appearance. Their
+only other child was a daughter, born two years before.
+
+The first thirteen years of the boy’s life were spent at home, mostly
+outdoors and in the company of older persons. At the age of four he began
+to read with his mother in Luther’s translation of the Bible, a book
+with which he afterwards showed great familiarity. This was followed by
+Pufendorf’s record of the Great Elector’s deeds and by the historical
+writings of Frederick the Great. The latter monarch died when Jahn was
+eight years old, and was made a very real hero to him by the tales of
+veterans of the Seven Years’ War living in the neighborhood and of
+troopers attracted by the rich pasturage there. In addition to Latin his
+father taught him history, geography, and the German language, which
+soon became his favorite studies and continued to interest him deeply
+throughout his school and university days.
+
+Rich cultivated lands and broad meadows alternate with pine woods
+and patches of arid, sandy soil on the surface of the alluvial plain
+which reaches out in all directions from Lanz. Not allowed to mingle
+much with the peasant children, Jahn roamed these neighboring fields
+and forests, learned from grown-up acquaintances to ride and swim and
+shoot, helped his father in the garden, went with him across the Elbe
+to market the hops at Dannenberg, in the electorate of Hannover, and
+accompanied other hop-growers as far as Lübeck, Wismar, and Rostock,
+on the Baltic. His mother came from Neustadt, in the adjoining duchy
+of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and frequent trips with smugglers across
+the borders of this state, only ten miles away to the north, made him
+thoroughly at home on every road and foot path leading thither. It was
+this frontier life and his early visits to other states that made it
+easy for Jahn in later years to disregard sectional barriers and to view
+as citizens of a common country all who spoke the German language. The
+relation of lord and vassal was unknown in Lanz and most of the peasants
+owned the farms they tilled. Jahn breathed in the prevailing spirit of
+self-reliance and independence, and grew up sturdy and fearless, fond of
+his native language and customs, and proud of the history of Prussia, and
+of Brandenburg, his own province, in particular.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852).]
+
+On October 8, 1791, he entered the higher classical school (_Gymnasium_)
+at Salzwedel, an old Prussian town about twenty-five miles to the
+southwest of Lanz. Notwithstanding the lack of system and completeness
+in his home training the boy’s marked natural ability, his gift of quick
+perception, and his retentive memory must have led to rapid progress;
+for three years later (September 27, 1794), at the age of sixteen, he
+was received into the eighth class (_Unter-prima_) at the _Gymnasium zum
+grauen Kloster_ in Berlin. On the 17th of the following April, after
+spending only six months at this second school, he left for home suddenly
+and without taking leave, so that for a time the authorities supposed
+some accident had befallen him. In contrast with the outdoor life and the
+comparative freedom from restraint of his earlier years, he had found
+the confinement and orderly discipline of the classroom doubly irksome;
+and his country plainness, not to say roughness, of speech and manners
+and want of familiarity with city ways, together with his independent
+spirit and the absence of intimate companionship with boys of his own age
+while he was living at home, had led to repeated misunderstandings with
+teachers and fellow-pupils alike.
+
+His university career was even more irregular and stormy, but now his
+native capacity for leadership and a certain rugged eloquence in public
+speaking began to reveal themselves. For five years, dating from April
+27, 1796, he was a student in the University of Halle. In obedience to
+his father’s wish he undertook the study of theology; but it was not in
+his nature, nor had his imperfect preparation fitted him, to take one
+of the usual professional courses. Prussian and German history and the
+German language and literature, subjects generally neglected at that
+day but dear to his own heart from childhood, absorbed more and more
+of his time and thought. Thus, after three years we find him selling,
+for ten thalers, the manuscript of a small treatise on “The Promotion
+of Patriotism in Prussia,”[42] a glorification of that state and its
+rulers, and a plea for more attention to the study of Prussian history in
+the schools and universities as a means of developing love of country.
+The purchaser published the work a year later, with his own name on the
+title page. Meanwhile Jahn’s habits of study continued to be desultory.
+Although he attended lectures, and in the philological seminar of F. A.
+Wolf won that scholar’s commendation for his “language instinct,” few of
+the courses begun were completed in orderly fashion, and his work was
+interrupted by frequent excursions on foot to various parts of Germany.
+
+Another disturbing factor was the war which he soon declared against
+the student clubs and associations of fellow-countrymen known as
+_Landsmannschaften_, the predecessors of the present _Corps_.
+The sectional character of these “circles” is evident from their
+names—Westphalians, Pomeranians, Silesians, Magdeburgers, Anhalters,
+etc.; and it seems to have been their spirit of narrow provincialism,
+coupled with the dissolute life and constant duelling of their
+members, which roused him to an almost fanatical opposition and was
+the occasion of incessant brawls. His increasing difficulties with the
+Landsmannschaften and the effort to unite against them all students
+outside their ranks brought him at length into conflict with the academic
+authorities, and he left Halle to continue the same passionate struggle
+for a time at Jena, where his eloquence gained him a considerable
+following among the students.
+
+Apparently it was a desire to study the Northern languages that carried
+him next into what was then Swedish Pomerania, where he was received
+into the University of Greifswald May 31, 1802, enrolling himself under a
+false name. Here, too, in spite of poverty, he soon became a recognized
+leader. It was rumored that he belonged to the proscribed secret order
+of Unitists. However this may have been, before many months had passed
+certain wild student pranks and the violent outcome of a factional feud
+resulted in his appearance before the academic authorities, by whom he
+and a fellow student were given, on February 7, 1803, the _consilium
+abeundi_.
+
+After the turmoil of his school and university life there now succeeded
+a period of quiet teaching and literary labors, during which the man
+gathered himself together, formed those settled convictions which were
+the mainspring of his future career, and gave evidence of his underlying
+strength and soundness of character. For two years he was a private
+tutor, in Neubrandenburg until the end of September, 1804, and then at
+the Torgelow glass-works, twenty-five miles westward. The first of these
+years witnessed a foreshadowing of the great work begun seven years later
+in Berlin. Every evening he gave his pupils, the sons of Baron Lefort,
+instruction in swimming, in a brook near the town, followed by practice
+in running, climbing, jumping, and wrestling on a neighboring height,
+and by a few lively games. Any other boys who happened to be present,
+although strangers to him and with no claim upon his services, were made
+welcome, and in this way the number was increased to twenty or thirty.
+New and equally vigorous outdoor exercises were substituted in the late
+fall and winter months.
+
+On October 1, 1805, Jahn took public leave of his Mecklenburg friends
+through the columns of the _Strelitz’scher Anzeiger_. His next move,
+made in the interest of literary plans and to favor his own advancement,
+was to Göttingen. Some months were spent in linguistic studies at the
+University, and in the summer of 1806 he removed to Jena, where he
+completed a volume of “Contributions to High German Synonymy,” embodying
+material collected in all parts of Germany during the excursions of his
+university days. The book is the work of an ardent friend of the German
+language, and not of a scientific philologist; and it reveals the keen
+observer of the country and its inhabitants, as well as the student of
+popular dialects.
+
+Jahn had hoped to get a footing in the university at Göttingen, it
+seems; but in the fall of 1806, while he was sojourning in the Harz
+Mountains, his plans were suddenly changed and his thoughts turned
+from the classroom to the camp. Napoleon’s incursions and his insolent
+treatment, which were threatening the very existence of Prussia, had at
+last compelled Frederick-William III to take up arms against the French.
+Learning that war was inevitable, Jahn immediately gave up his visit
+and hastened toward the army which was gathering in Thuringia, intending
+to volunteer his services. Delayed by swollen streams, he reached Jena
+on the day of the battle (October 16, 1806), saw the last struggle and
+the crushing defeat, and joined the fleeing soldiery as a “volunteer
+fugitive.” Frederick-William’s ill-prepared and poorly officered troops
+had proved an easy prey for the French. One by one the great fortresses
+were surrendered and garrisoned by the enemy’s forces, the royal family
+was forced to flee from Berlin, and by the Treaty of Tilsit (July, 1807)
+Prussia lost half her territory and became virtually a mere province of
+France, overrun by the soldiers of the conqueror and entirely at his
+mercy.
+
+Jahn’s flight and later wanderings led him by wide detours to Halle and
+Magdeburg, down the Elbe, across to the Baltic and westward along the
+coast to Lübeck (November 5), thence into Silesia, apparently, and back
+again to Jena, where he remained until the Treaty of Tilsit. Afterwards,
+until the fall of 1809, he spent a portion of his time at home, but lived
+for the most part with a friend at Dammeretz, on the Elbe some distance
+below Lanz. Before the outbreak of the war he had been engaged on two
+works, a “Handbook for Germans,” and “German Nationality” (_Deutsches
+Volksthum_); but the manuscript of both seems to have been lost in
+the days following the battle of Jena. The former was not rewritten,
+but the latter, his chief literary work, was again ready in 1808 (the
+introduction is dated October 14, at Lanz) and appeared at Lübeck in
+the spring of 1810. Its central thought is the unity of Germany, and in
+its pages his controlling passion for the German language, customs, and
+history, his intense love for the fatherland, and his desire to see it
+bound together into one strong nation, able to throw off the foreign
+yoke, found full and forcible expression.
+
+Late in December of 1809 Jahn arrived in Berlin, where, as he says, love
+for the fatherland and his own inclination led him again to teaching.
+Disappointed in his original idea of finding a position in the new
+Berlin University, and failing to receive a promised head mastership at
+Königsberg when the results of his faulty school and university training
+became apparent, he at first received some private pupils, and the next
+Easter entered a training school for teachers (the _Königliche Seminar
+für gelehrte Schulen_). He also began to give instruction in history,
+German, and mathematics at the _Gymnasium zum grauen Kloster_, the
+school from which he had run away fifteen years before. This position
+he retained for a year and a half, until Christmas, 1811, and in the
+meantime he had been given some classes in Dr. Plamann’s flourishing
+Pestalozzian School for Boys.
+
+It was the custom at the Graue Kloster for teachers to spend some of
+the Wednesday and Saturday half-holiday afternoons outdoors with pupils
+of the lower classes. In the spring of 1810 Jahn began to make this
+his practice, meeting the boys from time to time outside the Halle and
+Kottbus gates for games and simple exercises like running, jumping,
+and wrestling, or going farther south with them to the _Hasenheide_, a
+hilly and wooded stretch of unused land on the southern slope of the
+Spree valley, and to the adjoining _Rollberge_ and the _Tempelhofer
+Berg_. Older scholars were welcomed whenever curiosity and inclination
+tempted them to join the band, and the numbers rapidly increased from
+week to week. They played at “Black Man,” or at “Robber and Traveler”
+(afterwards known as “Knight and Townsman”), using a fowler’s hut for
+the robbers’ den and the foot of an oak as the city or castle from which
+the travelers set forth. The first apparatus, furnished by Jahn, was a
+pair of light poles tipped with iron points so that they could be thrust
+into the sand, and a rope with a sandbag at either end, which was placed
+across the top as a barrier to be jumped over. Long, straight sticks
+were used like spears for hurling at any mark that might be chosen.
+The limb of an oak, their first horizontal bar, sufficed for hanging
+exercises and for attempts to draw themselves up by the arms. Preparatory
+jumping exercises, borrowed from GutsMuths, were occasionally practised.
+One afternoon Jahn went on foot with ten or twelve boys as far as the
+_Britzer Heide_, to the southeast, where they had a game together and
+then walked back. The report of this first _Turnfahrt_ (gymnastic
+excursion) roused the desire for others of a similar sort.
+
+Jahn knew how to vary the exercises and make each one interesting, and
+the moments of rest were filled with jokes and banter or with stories
+drawn from history and from his own experiences. Winning thus the
+respect and love of all his young companions, he was able to overcome
+the spirit of dissension which at the start was ready to break out on
+slight provocation, and made harmony and discipline prevail. During the
+following winter a part of those who had been regular in attendance still
+held together, and were allowed a share in the indoor exercises of the
+pupils at Plamann’s school—fencing with light broadswords and shooting at
+a target with crossbows. This group formed a nucleus for the next year’s
+work.
+
+The spring of 1811 saw Jahn again at the Hasenheide with pupils from the
+Graue Kloster and Plamann’s school. But now he had a more definite plan
+in mind. Immediately after school hours on Wednesdays and Saturdays work
+was begun in an opening in the woods, opposite a few public houses. They
+first fenced in a rectangular area and built in the background a small
+hut or arbor where clothing could be left, and then set up within the
+enclosure their simple apparatus. This comprised a horizontal mast or
+balance-beam, a rope hung from a yard which was fastened crosswise in the
+limbs of two trees, a group of horizontal bars made by tying three small
+fir trunks, at a height of seven feet, to three pines which stood at the
+points of a triangle, a roughly made inclined ladder, two climbing masts,
+one fifteen and the other twenty feet or more in height, and two sets
+of fixed standards for use in high jumping and pole-vaulting. They also
+made a jumping ditch, and laid out a figure-of-eight track, one circle of
+which served as a wrestling place. Games were to be played outside the
+enclosure.
+
+Early in June this first _Turnplatz_[43] was opened. Each boy was
+assessed fourteen groschen (thirty-three cents) to meet the expense of
+keeping grounds and apparatus in condition; but Jahn evidently advanced
+much of the original cost himself, and he granted free admission to any
+boys of good character who were unable to pay the light charge. Meanwhile
+the attendance had increased to eighty or a hundred, and later in the
+summer it rose to two hundred. A friend of Jahn’s came with many of his
+pupils from the _Friedrich-Wilhelms- und Werder’schen Gymnasium_, and
+two other teachers brought boys from the Schindler’schen Orphan Asylum.
+Seeing the need of a special suit for the exercises, Jahn appeared one
+day clad in long trousers and a short jacket of gray unbleached linen,
+a costume so cheap and durable that its use soon became general on the
+Turnplatz, and an enemy of the turners was in the habit of referring to
+them later as “the unbleached rascals.” All distinctions of rank and
+class disappeared with the adoption of this uniform costume. Lunches
+consisted of bread and salt, or of bread and butter and eggs, and pure
+spring water was the usual drink. Tobacco and brandy, together with all
+sweetstuffs, were forbidden.
+
+Tuesday and Friday afternoons were added to the usual half-holidays
+during the months of July and August. Besides the games, wrestling, in
+which Jahn was himself uncommonly proficient, retained its popularity in
+spite of the new apparatus. There was no wooden horse as yet, but one day
+Friedrich Friesen, a fellow teacher with Jahn at Plamann’s school, showed
+them how to vault from the rear and the side to a seat on the thick end
+of the balance beam. The exercises were not yet orderly or organized, but
+every boy was an inventor and shared the result with others, learning
+from them in turn. It was hardly in Jahn’s nature to be systematic,
+and such a thing as a formal school of gymnastics was foreign to his
+purpose. The essential thing was the active, wholesome, common life
+in the open air, and especially the games, training the boys to work
+together in harmony, and he sought also to kindle in them a public spirit
+which might some day be of service to the nation.
+
+With the approach of winter all movable apparatus at the Hasenheide was
+stored away, and now Jahn and his oldest pupils began to read eagerly
+whatever they could find on the subject of physical training, studying
+with special care the books of GutsMuths and Vieth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Jahn’s Hasenheide _Turnplatz_, from a
+contemporary print (1818).]
+
+A year’s experience had shown that the first Turnplatz was too small,
+too near the public houses, too exposed to “weather, wind, and wit.”
+With the first spring sun of 1812 work was therefore begun on a new site
+farther to the east and south, the free use of which was granted by the
+authorities. It lay on a tableland at the head of the slope, close to
+the Rollberge, and was protected from the wind on three sides by dense
+thickets of pine, fir, and oak. Paths were made leading to this spot,
+the surface was levelled off, more trees were set out, another hut was
+erected, in the center of the grounds this time and with a meeting and
+resting place near it (the _Tie_), and the apparatus was brought away
+from the old Turnplatz. The equipment received numerous additions. Three
+vaulting bucks or horses without pommels, three, four, and five feet high
+respectively, were constructed out of tree-trunks. Nearby stood the
+first crude models of our parallel bars—three pairs of thin beams about
+twelve feet long, those in each set placed parallel with each other and
+about two feet apart. They corresponded in height with the bucks, and
+the original aim in using them was merely to gain the strength of arm
+and hand necessary for lifting and supporting the body during vaulting
+exercises. New jumping ditches and running tracks, a larger balance beam,
+targets with movable iron-mounted heads, and more elaborate devices for
+hanging and climbing exercises were provided.
+
+Jahn had already begun to note down and arrange the various exercises,
+but everything was still in process of development. Although the other
+apparatus was not neglected, the parallel bars and the horizontal bar
+soon became the favorite pieces, and the boys vied with each other in
+inventing new performances on them. Three turners who had received
+private instruction in vaulting during the winter preceding met for
+further practice at special hours with little groups of skilled
+companions, and for this purpose Friesen arranged to have a live horse
+brought to the Turnplatz on certain days. Less interest was taken in
+jumping, and games did not hold such a prominent place as formerly.
+Once a month Jahn used to stay all night at the grounds, going through
+the exercises by moonlight with his pupils. It was also the custom for
+several of them to keep watch there regularly, as a precaution against
+thieving. The _Turnfahrten_ were renewed, and gave a great impetus
+to excursions of all sorts. More than a hundred turners are said to
+have gone off on foot during the summer vacation, some of them on very
+considerable journeys.
+
+Before the season was over the attendance had reached five hundred, new
+arrivals streaming in from all classes of society. On Sundays adults
+were allowed to take part. In general, the popular attitude toward the
+movement was very favorable. Spectators of every rank and by the hundred
+gathered at the sides of the Turnplatz, and the evident physical benefit
+from the work, the harmony that existed and the strong national feeling
+cultivated there were at once appreciated. Jahn worked alone, for the
+most part, assisted, however, by the older and more experienced pupils,
+whom he was now able to employ as squad leaders (_Vorturner_). If
+something new was to be practised he selected a few of the most skilful
+and showed them the exercise himself, and they in turn spread it from
+group to group. In spite of the numbers, accidents were unknown during
+this and the preceding summers. Occasionally gentle measures were not
+sufficient to preserve discipline. It it said that Jahn knew how to use a
+rope-end, and that when two boys had quarreled he used to furnish each of
+them with a pliant root, with which they fought it out in the presence of
+their comrades, clad in their thin linen breeches, and striking with all
+their might lest they should appear cowardly.
+
+In the winter of 1812-13 some of the best turners, with Friesen at their
+head, organized a society for the critical study of gymnastics and to
+work out an artistic arrangement of the material which had accumulated.
+A hall was also rented, a wooden vaulting horse was purchased with
+a hundred thalers which some of them had collected, and practice in
+vaulting and fencing was continued.
+
+The momentous events of the next three years, which drew all Europe
+into the conflict with Napoleon and culminated in his final overthrow
+at Waterloo (June 18, 1815), put a temporary check upon the further
+development of Jahn’s work at the Hasenheide, at the same time that they
+emphasized its value. On March 17, 1813, King Frederick-William III of
+Prussia declared war upon France and appealed to his people to join in
+the great War of Liberation. Jahn was among the first to respond. He
+entered Lützow’s famous Free Corps, and his example was quickly followed
+by most of the turners who were old enough to bear arms. Although he
+made occasional visits to the Turnplatz in 1813 and 1814, and remained
+in Berlin during the campaign of 1815 to watch over the work there, he
+had entrusted it, before joining the Corps, to lottery director Johann J.
+W. Bornemann, who had shown great interest in the movement. He had also
+persuaded one of his earliest and most capable pupils, Ernst Eiselen,
+the state of whose health incapacitated him for military service, to
+undertake the direction of the exercises, and this position Eiselen seems
+to have retained throughout the three seasons. At the suggestion of
+Minister von Schuckmann and with the approval of Chancellor Hardenberg,
+Jahn’s annual allowance was increased from 500 to 800 thalers, Eiselen
+was provided with a salary of 400 thalers, and for the support of the
+Turnplatz a yearly grant of 150 thalers was made, together with free
+timber for building purposes.
+
+Some important additions were made at the grounds meanwhile, and work
+went on as usual, though with diminished numbers. In August of 1814
+General Blücher paid a visit to the spot, and after watching some of
+the exercises made a brief address. The Crown Prince, who also appeared
+there, was especially pleased with the wrestling. The wife of Prince
+William came with her children, and the sons of Prince Radziwill, the
+King’s brother-in-law, were on intimate terms with the turners. Jahn
+was married at Neubrandenburg on August 30, 1814, to Helene Kollhof,
+whom he had met while he was a private tutor in Mecklenburg, nearly
+ten years before. During the same summer Bornemann published a “Manual
+of the Gymnastics Revived by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn under the name
+of _Turnkunst_,”[44] intended to prepare the way for Jahn’s own book
+which was not ready until two years later. A society of older turners,
+consisting originally of nine members, was organized in the fall of 1814,
+and met every Saturday with Massmann, one of their number, to practise
+songs, discuss regulations, revise the exercises by series, fix rules for
+the games, and choose leaders for the squads. The first anniversary of
+the Battle of Leipsic (October 18 and 19) was celebrated at the Turnplatz
+with huge signal fires, songs by all the turners, and a great exhibition.
+The number of spectators on this occasion was estimated at ten thousand,
+including many persons of distinction and delegates from six neighboring
+towns.
+
+In the fall of 1815 and the following winter gymnastics was again made
+the subject of associated investigation, and now the results of so much
+study and experience were gradually brought together into book form.
+Eiselen undertook the technical portions, with the help of Massmann,
+Dürre, and others, while Jahn wrote the remainder, decided in doubtful
+cases, and revised the whole. March 31, 1816, he signed the preface,
+and on April 29 the finished volume was published under the title _Die
+Deutsche Turnkunst_ (“German Gymnastics”).[45]
+
+No analysis of this book can convey any idea of the charm and vigor of
+its style, or of the lofty patriotism that pervades it. The preface
+(pages iii-xlviii) tells the story of the Hasenheide Turnplatz, the
+origin of the word Turnkunst, and how the present volume came to be
+written. The author believes that, though incomplete, it reveals the
+spirit of the workers, and will serve as a guide in similar undertakings
+elsewhere. Only preliminary and fundamental forms of exercises have
+been described; such others as fencing, swimming, dancing, and military
+exercises must be left for a larger work. The early history of
+gymnastics, especially in connection with popular festivals, deserves
+careful investigation, for contests of strength and skill are a necessary
+feature on these occasions. The German nomenclature of gymnastics is
+explained and defended. Certain Prussian authorities who have proved
+themselves promoters and patrons of Jahn’s efforts are mentioned; and
+finally a gymnastic annual is promised, the first number to appear
+the following year at Eastertide. Part I, The Gymnastic Exercises (pp.
+3-166), is arranged in eighteen sections, devoted respectively to
+walking, running, jumping, vaulting the horse, balancing, the horizontal
+bar, the parallel bars, climbing, throwing, pulling, pushing, lifting,
+carrying, holding the body outstretched horizontally, wrestling, jumping
+with the hoop, and with the rope, and miscellaneous exercises. In each
+case the necessary apparatus is described. Part II, Gymnastic Games
+(pp. 169-183): Gymnastics and games are links in the same chain, and
+a gymnasium without a playground is inconceivable; games prepare for
+social life, and in them one comes to know his mates thoroughly; the
+characteristics of a good game are given, and six selected games are
+described—black man, prisoner’s base, knight and townsman, the hunt,
+storming, and German ball. Part III (pp. 187-206) tells how to lay
+out and fit up an outdoor gymnasium, and gives specifications for the
+complete equipment of one which will accommodate four hundred persons
+working in squads. Dimensions of each piece of apparatus, and of its
+parts, are stated in detail, so that the cost in any given locality
+can be figured out. Part IV (pp. 209-244) discusses the management of
+the grounds and exercises, with sections on the art of gymnastics, the
+gymnasium, the teacher, the exercises, the exercise period, costume,
+meeting place (the _Tie_), and spectators; and gives the general and
+special rules to be observed by the turners. Part V (pp. 247-288)
+contains a classified bibliography of gymnastics, with about 170 titles;
+and explains the plan of an outdoor gymnasium shown on the first of two
+large folding plates. A portion of the first plate and all of the second
+illustrate various forms of apparatus.
+
+After the appearance of the book work was continued at the Hasenheide
+throughout the seasons of 1816-18 with little change, from early spring
+until the exercises of October 18, the anniversary of the Battle of
+Leipsic. Gymnastics must still hibernate during the winter, from lack
+of suitable accommodations indoors. On October 22, 1816, Jahn reported
+that the number of turners in Berlin had passed the thousand mark. The
+next year it increased to 1074, and life on the Turnplatz reached its
+culmination. Hans Ferdinand Massmann had returned to Berlin at Easter,
+after a year at Jena, and from July 15 until September 2 he took the
+place of Eiselen at the grounds, while the latter was absent at Kiel in
+the interest of his health. More trees were planted, seats were provided
+around the _Tie_, and other improvements and additions were made. The
+turners began the afternoon with whatever form of exercise each preferred
+for himself (_Kürturnen_); then followed a period of rest, after which
+all took part in the orderly exercises (_Turnschule_), grouped in squads
+and divisions according to age. Each squad had its leader (_Vorturner_),
+who also kept a record of the attendance and proficiency of its members.
+Massmann had prepared a set of instructions for the guidance of these
+leaders, and there were written lists of exercises in tabular form
+(_Turntafeln_) to show the steps of progression in each group.
+
+Whole days were often given up to games, which were still popular, and
+almost every Saturday they were played all night long. Excursions, with
+older turners especially, and enlivened by Jahn’s talk and by many a
+song, were continued during this and the following summer. The nights
+were passed in haylofts or on the straw in some shed, and at sunrise they
+started on, first singing together a selection more or less devotional.
+For Jahn was an earnest Christian; his knapsack always contained a
+Bible, and he frequently read aloud from it to his companions, showing
+a preference for prophetic passages from the Old Testament. At the
+celebration of October 18 thousands were present. Jahn first gave a
+review of the year’s progress; following this all joined in a song,
+and then came competitive exercises, a torchlight procession to the
+Rollberge, more speechmaking and singing, and the lighting of huge
+bonfires. On the 31st of the same month the universities of Jena and
+Kiel each conferred on Jahn the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
+in recognition of his services to the fatherland in time of need, his
+stimulating influence on the young, his power as a public speaker, and
+his efforts in behalf of the German language.
+
+The number of turners dropped to 815 in the season of 1818, but there
+seems to have been no weakening in Jahn’s hold upon the love of his
+followers. We hear again of the close friendships formed among them, the
+manly qualities encouraged, the earnest effort to be purely German in
+speech, custom, and dress, and the underlying seriousness of their joyous
+life together. After the day’s exercise they used to return to the city
+in groups, each with some favorite leader as its center. Singing and
+conversation alternated until the Kottbus gate was reached; there they
+halted until all had come up, joined in a final song, and then scattered
+to their homes.
+
+The next spring (1819) the Turnplatz did not open at the usual time. The
+Prussian Ministry had in mind a union of gymnastics with the whole scheme
+of instruction in the schools. Summer and winter exercises alike were to
+be under its supervision. Additional grounds were to be opened, and one
+site had already been secured near Berlin. The plan was nearly ready, and
+Jahn was informed that for the present, until it should be perfected, the
+authorities desired that the Hasenheide Turnplatz should remain closed.
+
+The years 1814-18 had witnessed a rapid and remarkable spread of the
+Jahn _Turnen_ far beyond the narrow bounds of its first home, throughout
+the length and breadth of the Prussian provinces, and into other German
+states as well. Outdoor gymnasia had been opened, for example, at
+Königsberg, Elbing, Marienwerder, and at least four other cities in
+East and West Prussia; at a score of places in Silesia, beginning with
+Breslau and Liegnitz, and including Bunzlau, Frankenstein, Waldenburg,
+Strehlen, Hirschberg, Neisse, Leobschütz, Gleiwitz, Brieg, and Kreuzburg;
+at Friedland, Neubrandenburg, Neustrelitz, and Malchin in Mecklenburg;
+Potsdam, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and Prenzlau in Brandenburg; the free
+cities of Hamburg and Lübeck; in central Germany at Leipsic, Halle,
+Jena, Erfurt, Gotha, Eisenach, Rudolstadt, Mühlhausen, Nordhausen, and
+Heiligenstadt; at Frankfort, Hanau, and Offenbach on the Main, and
+along the Rhine at Mainz, Bonn, Cologne, and Düsseldorf; at Darmstadt
+and Giessen in Hesse, Heidelberg in Baden, Stuttgart and Tübingen in
+Württemberg, and Erlangen and Hof in Bavaria.
+
+In general the early history of these Turnplätze resembles that of
+the parent organization in Berlin. A majority of them were started in
+connection with higher schools for boys, but they often included in
+their membership teachers and university students, clerks and young
+mechanics,—all classes of society. Usually the prime mover was some
+teacher, impelled, like Jahn, by a motive which was patriotic rather than
+pedagogical; and afterwards local, provincial, or state authorities not
+infrequently added their support. Sometimes it was the public officials
+themselves who inaugurated the movement. The common incentive was the
+great tidal wave of love for the fatherland which swept over Germany
+at the time of the War of Liberation. Many a teacher who had fought in
+Lützow’s or some other volunteer corps and joined in the stirring songs
+of Karl Theodor Körner about the campfire or on the march went back to
+his classroom filled with a desire to see developed in his young charges
+a stronger patriotism, a simpler, more vigorous, and more manly type
+of life, less regard for distinctions of rank and wealth, a spirit of
+mutual helpfulness and a willingness to unite with others for the common
+welfare. Jahn’s _Turnen_ had already shown its fitness for these ends.
+
+In many cases assistance was received directly from Berlin. Thus in
+September of 1814 Jahn sent Eduard Dürre,[46] one of his Vorturners, to
+Friedland in Mecklenburg, where two teachers were trying to introduce
+the exercises in the Gelehrtenschule; and the same year Massmann started
+a Turnplatz at Schwerinsburg. At the request of the _Oberpräsident_
+of the Rhine Province Jahn recommended in 1816 a teacher of gymnastics
+for Cologne, and a similar request from two Jena professors was met
+by persuading Massmann and Dürre to continue their studies in that
+university for a time. When the _Deutsche Turnkunst_ appeared in 1816
+it became at once the authority on all Turnplätze and the guide in
+opening new ones. A glance at the contents will show how admirably and
+completely it meets the requirements of such a manual. Minister von
+Schuckmann ordered fifty copies sent to the West Prussian authorities in
+Marienwerder, at their request, and two hundred more for distribution
+among other provincial officials. In Westphalia, for example, twenty-four
+higher classical schools for boys were thus supplied. Numerous visitors,
+too, came to Berlin for a longer or shorter time to be trained as
+teachers of gymnastics. Some did this at their own motion and expense,
+and others received state support. In 1816 there were, among others,
+three normal school students from Weissenfels, and teachers from Neumark,
+Neustadt a. d. Dosse, Wusterhausen, and Neurippen. Jahn made them all
+welcome, charged no fees, gave his time and personal interest freely in
+regular hours and out, and saw that each one obtained the best possible
+preparation.
+
+His own brief trips and longer excursions should also be mentioned in
+this connection. A short visit which he paid to Frankfort-on-the-Main
+in 1815 led a band of school boys there to fit up a private Turnplatz.
+In September of the next year he was very cordially received by a
+congress of seventy school inspectors, clergymen, and teachers at
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and delivered an address on gymnastics which made
+a deep impression. A month’s excursion with eighteen older turners in
+July and August of 1817 took him through Mecklenburg and Pomerania to
+the Island of Rügen, in the Baltic. The party was hospitably greeted and
+entertained by the turners in Neustrelitz, Neubrandenburg, and Friedland,
+joining with them in exercises on the Turnplatz, or matching strength at
+tug-of-war and wrestling. They met other turners from Prenzlau, and at
+Puttbus, before a large audience, gave a sort of gymnastic exhibition
+with an accompaniment of national songs. Again the next summer he set
+out with thirteen school boys, intending to be absent four weeks. They
+journeyed southeast through Hirschberg and Waldenburg to Breslau, spent
+several days with turners in the Silesian capital, and on the way back
+visited Liegnitz, Züllichau, and Frankfort-on-the-Oder.[47]
+
+Still another agency in the spread of Jahn _Turnen_ is found in the
+_Burschenschaften_, or general student unions, organized in the German
+universities as one result of the War of Liberation. Students who had
+served in Lützow’s Free Corps, the most national of the volunteer
+regiments, took the lead in forming the first of these at Jena, where it
+was publicly announced on the 12th of June, 1815. The new association was
+intended to correct the abuses of the _Landsmannschaften_ or sectional
+clubs, to promote the physical and moral vigor of its members, and to
+awaken love for the common German fatherland and a desire to see it free
+and united. Gymnastics was at once introduced and practised after the
+Berlin fashion. Jahn watched the inception and spread of the movement
+with the keenest interest, if he did not himself have a hand in sketching
+the plan of organization; and he sent to Jena two of his most trusted
+pupils, Dürre and Massmann, whose activity there was not confined to the
+Turnplatz. Other Burschenschaften were soon formed in the universities at
+Halle, Leipsic, Giessen, Heidelberg, Bonn, Erlangen, and elsewhere, and
+with them wandering students from Berlin, Breslau, and Jena carried the
+art of the Hasenheide _Turnvater_. Thus Karl Völker, one of the directors
+of the Jena Burschenschaft, after completing his studies there went to
+Tübingen in 1818 to accept an invitation from students in that university
+to help them organize a Burschenschaft and start a Turnplatz. The city
+offered a site, upon condition that the boys in its _Bürgerschule_ and
+_Gymnasium_ should be allowed a share in the exercises.[48]
+
+The key to the history of the Hasenheide Turnplatz and the scores of
+others patterned after it in the years 1814-18 we have found in the
+spirit of the German War of Liberation. To this also are to be traced the
+repressive measures which suddenly checked the growth of the seemingly
+lusty organization before the completion of its first decade, and for
+more than twenty years banished it as a factor in the popular life.
+When the common people rose in arms against Napoleon it was with the
+hope that war would result, not only in freedom from the foreign yoke,
+but in closer union between the semi-independent German states, and the
+substitution of constitutional liberty for the absolutism of personal
+rule. They secured promises of ample concession to these cravings, but
+found, after peace was declared, that their rulers had no intention of
+meeting engagements made under duress. The Germanic Confederation of 1815
+was a sorry substitute for the vigorous empire anticipated, and under
+the lead of Prince Metternich, Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, the
+Holy Alliance at once adopted a reactionary policy which was hostile
+to the free movement of ideas and sought to allay the agitation of the
+popular mind. The turners represented a political tendency, and therefore
+incurred suspicion.
+
+Beginning January 17, 1817, Jahn had delivered in Berlin a series of
+twenty-one semi-weekly public lectures on his favorite subject, German
+Nationality. Among the great number of persons from all classes who
+heard him some were offended by his blunt speech, and various extreme,
+unguarded, and misunderstood statements gave a handle to opponents who
+accused him of revolutionary principles. He was eccentric and independent
+always, and with his followers on the Turnplatz took exception to much
+that was customary in dress, speech, and manners. Disquieting rumors were
+in circulation regarding his conduct on the Rügen and Breslau excursions,
+and it was suggested that the large gatherings at the anniversary
+celebrations of the Battle of Leipsic were dangerous to public order
+and afforded a chance for demagogues. In the summer of 1817 Jahn was
+unfavorably criticized by two writers in the Berlin press, who attributed
+to his work in the Hasenheide injurious physical, mental, and moral
+effects; and the discussion did not cease when reports from the directors
+of three higher schools and a special investigation made by Medical
+Councilor Dr. von Könen, at the request of Minister von Schuckmann, had
+failed to sustain the objections raised, and on the contrary brought
+complete vindication.
+
+Under the auspices of the Burschenschaften hundreds of students from
+many German universities met in Eisenach October 18, 1817, to celebrate
+the anniversary of the Battle of Leipsic and the tercentenary of the
+Protestant Reformation. There were appropriate exercises in the town and
+in the Hall of the Minnesingers at the Wartburg Castle, and when evening
+came all gathered about a huge bonfire for more speeches and singing.
+Suddenly Massmann appeared with friends carrying bundles of waste-paper
+done up and labeled to represent books. After recalling Luther’s burning
+of the papal bull he read off from a prepared list the titles of certain
+reactionary writings hostile to German unity, constitutional government,
+and free institutions; and as each item was reached the corresponding
+bundle was pitchforked into the fire with suitable comments. Common
+opinion credited Jahn with being the real originator of this student
+prank. It naturally aroused the anger of the authors concerned, among
+whom Kotzebue and Kamptz deserve mention here since their names appear
+again in the next paragraph. Metternich saw in the performance the
+indication of a widespread conspiracy.[49]
+
+A conference of monarchs at Aix-la-Chapelle in the fall of 1818 did
+much to confirm Frederick-William III of Prussia in his suspicions
+of intrigue. Metternich also laid before Prince Wittgenstein, the
+Prussian Minister of State, a memorial in which he declared that the
+_Burschenschaften_ were nurseries of revolution and the _Turnplätze_
+preparatory schools for university disorders; both must be suppressed,
+for no palliative measures would suffice. A more forcible argument was
+the assassination of the German dramatist Kotzebue by Karl Ludwig Sand at
+Mannheim, on the 23d of March, 1819. Kotzebue was a paid spy of Russia
+and a reactionary writer who had attacked with especial bitterness the
+student unions and the turners. Sand was a turner, and had visited
+Jahn and others in Berlin the year before; he was a member of the Jena
+_Burschenschaft_, and had been present at the Wartburgfest. Without any
+proof of the fact, it was assumed that he had carried out the decision of
+an organization. On the night of July 13-14 Jahn was arrested and taken
+to the fortress of Spandau, on suspicion of “secret and most treasonable
+associations.” Meanwhile Kamptz had been made Prussian Minister of
+Police and clothed with extraordinary powers, and a special commission
+had been charged with the prosecution of demagogues. A little later a
+conference of German ministers adopted the oppressive Carlsbad Decrees,
+which were ratified by the Frankfort Diet September 20. These provided
+for censorship of the press, police supervision of the universities, and
+a central commission of seven to search out “the origin and ramification
+of revolutionary conspiracies and demagogic associations.” The
+_Burschenschaft_ was dissolved, and January 2, 1820, Frederick-William
+III decreed that _Turnen_ should absolutely cease throughout Prussia.
+
+Jahn was kept at Spandau for a few days, transferred to Küstrin July 17,
+brought back to Berlin for trial early in October, and by an official
+report of February 15, 1820, the chief charges against him were declared
+null and void. A cabinet order of May 31 released him from arrest, but
+stipulated that he should reside, until further notice, in the fortress
+of Kolberg, on the Baltic, and placed him under the oversight of the
+commanding officer there. The 1000 thalers which he had been receiving
+from the state—800 as teacher of gymnastics and 200 from the Ministry of
+War—was to be continued. After prolonged investigation the supreme court
+at Breslau, by its decision of January 13, 1824, absolved him from all
+suspicion of complicity in the murder of Kotzebue, but sentenced him to
+two years additional confinement in a fortress on account of “repeated
+irreverent and insolent utterances regarding existing conditions and
+regulations in the state.” From this decision Jahn appealed, and sent in
+his “self-defence” (_Selbstvertheidigung_, finished October 9, 1824) to
+the supreme court at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, by which body he was entirely
+acquitted March 15, 1825.
+
+But a cabinet order of May 3 forbade his living in Berlin or within
+a radius of ten miles from the capital, or in any city containing
+a university or higher school for boys; and wherever he settled he
+was to remain under police surveillance. The thousand-thaler pension
+remained unchanged. Jahn selected for his home the Thuringian town of
+Freyburg-on-the-Unstrut, about thirty miles west and south of Leipsic.
+The accession of Frederick-William IV to the throne of Prussia in 1840
+was followed by the final removal of all police restrictions, and brought
+him also the long-expected decoration of the Iron Cross. By a cabinet
+order of June 6, 1842, gymnastics was “formally recognized as a necessary
+and indispensable part of male education and received into the circle
+of means for popular education.” _Turnen_ began to revive with this,
+but though Jahn followed its development with interest and received
+hospitably the turners who visited his home, he took no active part in
+the movement. In 1844 he attended the centennial exercises of his first
+school, the _Gymnasium_ at Salzwedel. Four years later he was present as
+a delegate in the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, but
+returned to his home bitterly disappointed. He died at Freyburg, after a
+brief illness, October 15, 1852.[50]
+
+Although Prussia’s example in suppressing public _Turnen_ was followed
+by other German states, the procedure was by no means universal. Thus
+the reaction did not directly affect the Kingdom of Württemberg, the
+Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg and Oldenburg, the Duchy of Brunswick, and
+the Free Cities of Hamburg and Lübeck; and it was not of long duration
+in the Kingdom of Bavaria. Between 1820 and 1840 the old organizations
+continued without interruption, therefore, in scattered cities, and new
+societies of older boys or young men who met regularly for exercise were
+formed in Hanover (1831), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1833), Plauen in Saxony
+(1834), and Pforzheim in Baden (1835). Even in Berlin Ernst Eiselen
+(1793-1846), Jahn’s faithful assistant, was allowed to open a private
+indoor and outdoor gymnasium in 1828. The venture prospered, and he added
+a gymnasium for girls in 1832, and four years later opened a branch
+institution in another part of the city. The latter was transferred to
+his helper Wilhelm Lübeck (1809-1879) in 1839. Both men trained many
+teachers of gymnastics, and wrote valuable manuals,[51] bridging over in
+this way the gap between the older and the newer _Turnen_.
+
+With the accession of Frederick-William IV to the Prussian throne in
+1840 the hopes of his people were kindled afresh, and during the next
+decade all Germany was stirred by an agitation for reform which steadily
+gathered force until the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1848
+brought it to a climax. One sign of this quickened national and political
+life was a general revival of the Jahn gymnastics. The incorporation of
+physical training in school programs led to the formation of separate
+societies (_Männerturnvereine_) for adults, in which the bond of union
+was at first merely an agreement to meet for exercise at certain fixed
+hours; but this was soon followed by the adoption of by-laws, the
+appointment of boards of directors, and the fixing of definite dues.
+Partly as a result of excursions and exhibitions new societies sprang
+up everywhere, until at the close of the decade they numbered nearly
+three hundred. The desire for union which early showed itself was
+met by holding district conventions (_Turntage_) and gatherings for
+gymnastic exercises (_Turnfeste_). So we find turners from Frankfort,
+Hanau, and Mainz coming together in Frankfort-on-the-Main September 5,
+1841, for the first of several annual _Turnfeste_, and on the Feldberg
+in 1844 inaugurating the important series of _Feldbergfeste_; and in
+Saxony, where progress had been especially active and orderly, the
+first _Turntag_ at Dresden, October 31, 1846, attended by delegates
+from fifty-four societies. Periodicals devoted to the interests of the
+turners also began to make their appearance—Karl Euler’s “Jahrbücher
+der deutschen Turnkunst” (1843 and 1844) and “Turn-Zeitung” (1846
+and 1847),[52] “Der Turner” (1846-52),[53] the “Mainzer Turnzeitung”
+(1846),[54] and Ravenstein’s “Nachrichtsblatt für Deutschlands
+Turnanstalten und Turngemeinden” (1846 and 1847).[55] But a second
+period of reaction set in with the revolutionary movements of 1849, in
+which many of the turners, the Saxon and South German ones especially,
+took an active part. In carrying out their policy of repression the
+various governments again disbanded or put under careful supervision
+the gymnastic societies, and not only those directly concerned in
+disturbances, but others which had been well-disposed and preferred to
+keep _Turnen_ free from partisan politics. Of the three hundred societies
+in existence in 1849 hardly a third survived the next ten years. A few,
+however, continued vigorous and active, and this number included some of
+the largest and best Turnvereine in Saxony and Württemberg. Here Theodor
+Georgii started his “Turnblatt für und aus Schwaben” (1850-1853),[56]
+followed by the “Esslinger Turnzeitung” (1854-1856),[57] and this in
+turn was succeeded by the “Deutsche Turnzeitung” (since 1856),[58] the
+present organ of the German Turnerschaft. In Dresden Moritz Kloss began
+to publish the “Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst” (1855-1894).[59]
+
+Toward the close of the fifties signs of life began to multiply. The
+war of France and Sardinia with Austria (1859) and uncertainty as to
+future relations between France and the German states helped to rouse the
+slumbering societies and fill abandoned _Turnplätze_ once more. A summons
+printed in the Deutsche Turnzeitung in March of 1860 and signed by
+Theodor Georgii and Karl Kallenberg resulted in the first general German
+convention and _Turnfest_, held at Coburg June 16-19 of that year—the
+anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo. More than a thousand adult
+turners were present, representing one hundred and thirty-nine cities
+and villages. Formal organization into a national body was impossible
+as yet, but notwithstanding this a feeling of union was established and
+a great impulse was given to further growth. The next year the fiftieth
+anniversary of the opening of the Hasenheide _Turnplatz_ was celebrated
+by a second convention and _Turnfest_ at Berlin, August 10-12. The
+attendance rose to 2812 adult turners, 1659 of them from outside the
+capital. Two hundred and sixty-two places were represented. This time a
+standing “Committee of the German _Turnvereine_,” composed of 15 members,
+was appointed to look after matters of general interest. The committee,
+at its meeting in Gotha the following December, organized by electing
+Theodor Georgii chairman and Dr. Ferdinand Goetz business manager; it
+decided that _Turnvereine_ as such must hold themselves unconditionally
+aloof from all political partisanship, took action which put a damper on
+those who wished to have military exercises introduced in all societies,
+and charged Georg Hirth with an investigation which led to the first
+“Statistical Annual of German Turnvereine” (Leipsic, 1863).[60] According
+to this there were on July 1, 1862, in 1153 towns and cities, 1284
+societies, not less than 1050 of them organized since 1860. In 1863,
+the semi-centennial of the Battle of Leipsic, more than 20,000 turners
+gathered in that city for the third convention and _Turnfest_. Another
+statistical annual issued two years later[61] showed an increase of 650
+societies and more than 33,000 members over the numbers recorded in the
+first volume (July 1, 1862 to November 1, 1864).
+
+Enthusiasm had reached such a pitch that a reaction was inevitable, and
+the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, by diverting attention and draining
+the resources of the people, interfered with further expansion and
+threatened to paralyze the existing _Turnvereine_. In the five years
+between November 1, 1864, and August 1, 1869, there had been a falling
+off of nearly 400 societies and 40,000 members, according to the
+statistical annual of 1871.[62] A Turnfest planned for July 22-24, 1866,
+in Nuremberg, had to be given up; but two years later 168 delegates
+assembled for the fourth general convention in Weimar (July 20 and
+21, 1868), and there formally organized the _Deutsche Turnerschaft_, a
+firm union of all German gymnastic societies, including the Austrian
+Germans. A constitution was adopted, the old committee was increased to
+22 members, and Georgii and Goetz were continued in their positions as
+chairman and business manager. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71
+15,000 turners followed the colors to the field and many gymnasia were
+converted into hospitals. But in spite of this temporary check the war
+brought what Jahn and his followers had looked forward to for sixty years
+and more—the unification of Germany. Experiences of march, battlefield,
+and camp had driven home to the minds of all the need and value of
+physical efficiency, as nothing else could do it; and after the formation
+of the new Empire popular _Turnen_ began, at first slowly and then
+more rapidly, to flourish as never before, and this time with the full
+approval of the state.
+
+The following table shows the development that has taken place since
+the first statistical investigation was made, in 1862. The second
+column gives the number of German towns and cities in which there were
+popular gymnastic societies (_Turnvereine_), and the third column the
+total number of these societies irrespective of membership in the
+_Turnerschaft_. “Active” turners are those who actually take part in the
+gymnastic exercises.
+
+  ----------------+-------+------------+----------------------------------
+                  |       |            |Belonging to Deutsche Turnerschaft
+                  |       |            |          (Since 1869.)
+       Date.      |Places.|Turnvereine.+----------+-----------+-----------
+                  |       |            |Societies.|  Members. |  Active
+                  |       |            |          |           | Turners.
+  ----------------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+-----------
+  1862, July 1    | 1153  |    1279    |          |  134,507  |  96,272
+  1864, November 1| 1769  |    1934    |          |  167,942  | 105,676
+  1869, August 1  | 1415  |    1546    |          |  128,491  |  80,327
+  1876, November 1| 1532  |    1788    |   1547   |  156,590  |  69,872
+  1880, January 1 | 1741  |    2226    |   1971   |  170,315  |  86,159
+  1885, January 1 | 2413  |    3208    |   2878   |  267,854  | 144,134
+  1890, January 1 | 3340  |    4434    |   3992   |  388,513  | 195,375
+  1895, January 1 | 4536  |    6061    |   5312   |  529,925  | 270,528
+  1900, January 1 | 5509  |    7238    |   6483   |  647,548  | 310,374
+  1905, January 1 | 6063  |            |   7264   |  766,347  | 357,849
+                  |       |            |    [63]  |      [63] |     [63]
+  1910, January 1 | 7621  |            |   9101   |  946,115  | 435,511
+  1915, January 1 | 9851  |            | 11,769   |1,072,274  |
+  1920, January 1 | 8518  |            | 10,010   |1,008,375  |
+  ----------------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+-----------
+
+General German _Turnfeste_ and conventions (_Turntage_) of the Deutsche
+Turnerschaft (since 1868) have been held as follows:
+
+  -----+----------------------------+-------------------------------
+       |         Turnfeste.         |           Turntage.
+   No. +---------+------------------+--------------+----------------
+       | Place.  |      Date.       |    Place.    |     Date.
+  -----+---------+------------------+--------------+----------------
+     I  Coburg   |1860, June 17-18  |Coburg        |1860, June
+    II  Berlin   |1861, August 10-12|Berlin        |1861, August
+   III  Leipsic  |1863, August 2-5  |Leipsic       |1863, August
+    IV  Bonn     |1872, August 3-6  |Weimar        |1868, July 20-21
+     V  Frankfurt|1880, July 25-28  |Bonn          |1872, August 3
+    VI  Dresden  |1885, July 19-21  |Dresden       |1875, July 25-26
+   VII  Munich   |1889, July 28-31  |Berlin        |1879, July 27-28
+  VIII  Breslau  |1894, July 22-24  |Eisenach      |1883, July 24-25
+    IX  Hamburg  |1898, July 23-27  |Coburg        |1887, July 19-20
+     X  Nuremberg|1903, July 18-22  |Hannover      |1891, July 21-22
+    XI  Frankfurt|1908, July 18-22  |Esslingen     |1895, July 22-23
+   XII  Leipsic  |1913, July 12-15  |Naumburg a. S.|1899, July 30-31
+  XIII           |                  |Berlin        |1904, April 4-5
+   XIV           |                  |Worms         |1907, July 28-29
+    XV           |                  |Dresden       |1911, July 27-28
+   XVI           |                  |Erfurt        |1919, Oct. 15-16
+  ---------------+------------------+--------------+----------------
+
+The Bonn _Turnfest_ fell in the period of decline, and one planned for
+Breslau in 1878 was given up because disturbed political conditions
+threatened its success; but beginning at Frankfort-on-the-Main two years
+later these great national gatherings have brought together not less
+than 10,000 turners, and at Hamburg and Nuremberg between 25,000 and
+30,000 were present. Successive conventions have left the outward form
+of the German Turnerschaft almost unchanged, although various details
+have been modified. The Esslingen _Turntag_ defined its object to be “the
+promotion of German gymnastics as a means to physical and moral vigor,
+and the fostering of patriotic sentiment and a spirit of racial unity
+among Germans.” In 1887 Georgii gave up his position as chairman of the
+committee and was succeeded by Alfred Maul, of Karlsruhe, who resigned in
+1894. The next year Dr. Ferdinand Goetz was appointed to that office, and
+his place as business manager was given to Dr. Hugo Rühl, of Stettin. Dr.
+Goetz died October 13, 1915. Dr. Theodor Toeplitz then became chairman,
+but died June 2, 1919, and the position passed to Dr. Oskar Berger, of
+Aschersleben.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.—District Display at the 11th German _Turnfest_,
+Frankfurt, 1908.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.—A Competitor on the Horizontal Bar at the 11th
+German _Turnfest_, Frankfurt, 1908.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Mass Exercises (17,000), at the 12th German
+_Turnfest_, Leipsic, 1913.]
+
+Turnvater Jahn is still held in loyal and grateful remembrance, as the
+apostle of German unity and the man who gave to the German people a love
+for gymnastics. The one hundredth anniversary of his birth (1878) and
+the fiftieth anniversary of his death (1902) were celebrated throughout
+the entire _Turnerschaft_. That body has erected monuments in his honor
+at the Berlin _Turnplatz_, and in Lanz, Freyburg, and other places; has
+built a memorial gymnasium (_Turnhalle_) over his grave in Freyburg; and
+has brought together there, in the “Jahn Museum,” numerous relics of
+the man and his work. In 1903 a separate building was provided for this
+collection.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Dr. Carl Euler’s “Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens”
+and “Geschichte des Turnunterrichts,” and files of the _Neue Jahrbücher
+für die Turnkunst_, _Deutsche Turnzeitung_, and _Monatsschrift für das
+Turnwesen_ (see page 82).
+
+Das gesammte Turnwesen. Ein Lesebuch für deutsche Turner. 133
+abgeschlossene Muster-Darstellungen von den vorzüglichsten älteren und
+neueren Turnschriftstellern. Herausgegeben von Georg Hirth. Mit den
+Bildnissen von GutsMuths, Vieth, Jahn, Eiselen, Harnisch, Passow, Spiess,
+Martens. Leipzig, Ernst Keil, 1865.
+
+Das Gesamte Turnwesen. Ein Lesebuch für deutsche Turner. In erster
+Auflage herausgegeben von Georg Hirth. Aufsätze turnerischen Inhaltes
+von älteren und neueren Schriftstellern. Zweite erweiterte Auflage in 4
+Abteilungen. Besorgt von Dr. F. Rudolf Gasch. Hof, Rud. Lion, 1893. Three
+volumes. A “Geschichtliche Einleitung (Ergänzungsband)” was added in 1895.
+
+Moritz Zettler, “Bausteine zur Geschichte des deutschen Turnens.” In
+_Deutsche Turnzeitung_ 1885-1900. A long series of articles, based on the
+study of original documents.
+
+Handbuch der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Im Auftrage des Ausschusses
+derselben herausgegeben von Dr. med. Ferdinand Goetz, Geschäftsführer
+des Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Leipzig-Lindenau, Verlag
+des Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnerschaft, 1879. The second to sixth
+editions of the Handbuch were published in Hof, by Rud. Lion, in 1884,
+1888, 1892, 1896, and 1899; and the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth in
+Leipzig, by Paul Eberhardt, in 1904, 1908, 1912 and 1920. The editor,
+since 1899, has been Dr. Hugo Rühl.
+
+Jahrbuch der Turnkunst: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Edited
+by Dr. Rudolf Gasch, and published in Leipzig-Zwickau by Emil Stock,
+annually since 1907. The volumes are illustrated and range from eighty or
+a hundred up to nearly three hundred pages.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[42] Über die Beförderung des Patriotismus im Preussischen Reiche. Allen
+Preussen gewidmet von O. C. C. Höpffner. Halle, 1800.
+
+[43] In his own opposition to everything foreign Jahn had applied the
+name _Turnen_ to his exercises, believing that it was a term of German
+origin, and from this root he built up many new compounds—_Turner_
+(gymnast), _Turnkunst_ (the gymnastic art), _Turnplatz_ (the grounds
+where the exercises were practised), _Turntag_ (gathering of gymnasts),
+etc.
+
+[44] Lehrbuch der von Friedrich Ludwig Jahn unter dem Namen der Turnkunst
+wiedererweckten Gymnastik. Mit Kupfertafeln, darstellend die Geräthe,
+Gerüste und Uebungen auf dem Turnplatz in der Hasenheide bei Berlin. Zur
+allgemeinern Verbreitung jugendlicher Leibesübungen herausgegeben von
+(Johann Jakob Wilhelm) Bornemann. Berlin, W. Dieterici, 1814. See also
+his “Der Turnplatz in der Hasenheide,” published in 1812.
+
+[45] Die Deutsche Turnkunst zur Einrichtung der Turnplätze dargestellt
+von Friedrich Ludwig Jahn und Ernst Eiselen. Mit zwei Kupferplatten.
+Berlin, auf Kosten der Herausgeber, 1816. The volume, without the plates,
+has been issued in _Reclams Universal-Bibliothek_ (Leipzig, Philipp
+Reclam jun.), with an introduction by Hugo Rühl dated 1905.
+
+[46] Dr. Christian Eduard Leopold Dürre. Aufzeichnungen, Tagebücher und
+Briefe aus einem deutschen Turner- und Lehrerleben. Herausgegeben von Dr.
+Ernst Friedrich Dürre. Leipzig, Eduard Strauch, 1881.
+
+[47] Des Berliner Turners Franz Lieber’s “Die Fahrt nach Schlesien im
+Jahre 1818, um vom Tie vorzulesen beschrieben.” Eine Turn-Reliquie aus
+dem Jahre 1818 (with introduction and notes by Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff).
+In _Deutsche Turnzeitung_ 1895: 637-642, 686-690.
+
+[48] See Eduard Dürre’s “Rückblicke und Träume eines alten Turners,” in
+_Deutsche Turnzeitung_ 1872: 103-107, 127-129, 136 and 137.
+
+[49] Moritz Zedtler (Zettler), “Das Wartburgfest am 18. October 1817,”
+in _Deutsche Turnzeitung_ 1877: 309-312, 331-333, 343-346, 351 and 352.
+See also his “Ein geckenhafter Gegner des Turnens,” in 1880: 9-11, 25-28,
+41-45. Other articles published in the _Deutsche Turnzeitung_ are Dr.
+Th. Bach’s “Aus Metternich’s nachgelassenen Schriften” (1881: 409-411,
+422-424, 429 and 430), Karl Wassmannsdorff’s “Das burschenschaftliche
+Schauturnen bei Gelegenheit des Wartburgfestes am 18. Oct. 1817”
+(1882: 461), and Hans Brendicke’s “Die Wartburgfeier der Deutschen
+Burschenschaft und ihre ältere Literatur” (1887: 624 and 625).
+
+[50] Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s Leben. Nebst Mittheilungen aus seinem
+literarischen Nachlasse. Von Dr. Heinrich Pröhle. Berlin, Franz Duncker,
+1855. A second edition, unchanged, was published in 1872.
+
+Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, Sein Leben und Wirken. Von Dr. Carl Euler,
+Professor, Unterrichts-Dirigent der K. Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt in
+Berlin. Stuttgart, Carl Krabbe, 1881.
+
+Friedrich Ludwig Jahns Werke. Neu herausgegeben, mit einer Einleitung und
+mit erklärenden Anmerkungen versehen von Dr. Carl Euler. Hof, G. A. Grau
+& Cie. (Rud. Lion), 1884-1887. Three volumes.
+
+[51] Turntafeln. Das ist: Sämmtliche Turn-Uebungen auf einzelnen Blättern
+zur Richtschnur bei der Turnschule und zur Erinnerung des Gelernten
+für alle Turner herausgegeben von Ernst Wilh. Bernh. Eiselen. Berlin,
+gedruckt und verlegt bei G. Reimer, 1837. The 46 printed pages contain
+numbered lists of exercises.
+
+Über Anlegung von Turnplätzen und Leitung von Turnübungen. Als Vorläufer
+einer neuen Auflage der _Deutschen Turnkunst_ herausgegeben von E. W. B.
+Eiselen. Berlin, G. Reimer, 1844.
+
+Abbildungen von Turn-Uebungen gezeichnet von H. Robolsky und A. Töppe.
+Durchgesehen, vervollständigt und geordnet herausgegeben von E. W. B.
+Eiselen. Berlin, G. Reimer, 1845. A fifth edition, prepared by Karl
+Wassmannsdorff, was published in 1889.
+
+Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s Deutsche Turnkunst. Zum zweiten Male und sehr
+vermehrt herausgegeben. (Erste Hälfte des Werkes). Berlin, G. Reimer,
+1847. The preface is signed “Die vereinten Herausgeber” (Eiselen,
+Massmann, Feddern, Ballot, Böttcher, and Wassmannsdorff).
+
+Lehr- und Handbuch der deutschen Turnkunst, von W. Lübeck, Turn- und
+Fechtlehrer am Königl. Kadetten-Hause zu Berlin und Vorsteher einer
+Turnanstalt. Frankfurt a. O., Gustav Harnecker und Comp., 1843. A second
+“ganz umgearbeitete, vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage” was published in
+1860.
+
+[52] Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst. Herausgegeben von Karl Euler,
+Turn- und Fechtlehrer in Königsberg in Preussen, Mitglied der deutschen
+Gesellschaft zu Berlin. Erstes Heft. Danzig, S. Anhuth, 1843.
+
+Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst. Herausgegeben von Karl Euler, Turn-
+und Fechtlehrer in Köln a. Rh., Mitglied der deutschen Gesellschaft zu
+Berlin. Zweites Heft. Solingen, Albert Pfeiffer, 1844.
+
+Turn-Zeitung, von K. Euler und Dr. Lamey. Karlsruhe, 1846.
+
+Turn-Zeitung, von K. Euler und Prof. Schach. Karlsruhe, 1847.
+
+[53] Der Turner. Zeitschrift gegen geistige und leibliche Verkrüppelung.
+Dresden, H. M. Gottschalk, 1846-1852. Seven volumes.
+
+[54] Mainzer Turn-Zeitung, herausgegeben von Eduard Müller. Mainz, 1846.
+
+[55] Nachrichtsblatt für Deutschlands Turnanstalten und Turngemeinden.
+Frankfurt a. M., 1846 and 1847. Two volumes.
+
+[56] Turnblatt für und aus Schwaben. Von Theodor Georgii. Esslingen, four
+volumes, 1850-1853.
+
+[57] Turnzeitung. Zeitschrift für Turn- und Feuerlöschwesen. Von Theodor
+Georgii. Esslingen, C. Weichardt. Three volumes, 1854-1856.
+
+[58] Deutsche Turn-Zeitung. Leipzig, since 1856. The publishers have been
+Ernst Keil (1856-1874), Eduard Strauch (1875-1899), and Paul Eberhardt
+(since 1900).
+
+[59] Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst (volumes 1-25). In 1880 the name
+was changed to “Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst” (volumes 26-40).
+Published annually 1855-1881 in Dresden (volumes 1-27) and 1882-1894
+in Leipzig (volumes 28-40). There were six numbers a year 1855-1881,
+and twelve numbers 1882-1894. Beginning with volume 28 Woldemar Bier
+succeeded Kloss as editor.
+
+[60] Statistisches Jahrbuch der Turnvereine Deutschlands. Im Auftrage
+des Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnvereine herausgegeben von Georg Hirth.
+Leipzig, Ernst Keil, 1863.
+
+[61] Zweites statistisches Jahrbuch der Turnvereine Deutschlands. Im
+Auftrage des Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnvereine herausgegeben von
+Georg Hirth. Leipzig, Ernst Keil, 1865.
+
+[62] Drittes statistisches Jahrbuch der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Im
+Auftrage des Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnerschaft herausgegeben von Dr.
+Ferd. Goetz und A. F. Böhme. Leipzig, Ernst Keil, 1871.
+
+[63] District (_Kreis_) XV (German Austria), which on January 1,
+1904, contained 525 societies with 61,166 members and 25,316 active
+turners, withdrew from the Deutsche Turnerschaft on September 25,
+1904, and formed an independent association under the name “Turnkreis
+Deutsch-Oesterreich.” It is therefore not included in the figures for
+1905 and later.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+ADOLF SPIESS, THE FATHER OF GERMAN SCHOOL GYMNASTICS.
+
+
+By the Prussian cabinet order of June 6, 1842, already referred to (page
+101), physical training was “formally recognized as a necessary and
+indispensable part of male education.” Minister Eichhorn, who was charged
+with putting this decree into effect, received that same summer a visitor
+from Switzerland who for eight years had been teaching gymnastics to boys
+and girls of all ages, as a regular branch of their school work, and
+who therefore seemed to have solved successfully, on a small scale, the
+problem of incorporating the subject into the school plan. He was asked
+by the Minister to submit in writing a statement of the measures which in
+his judgment would accomplish the same result in the Prussian state, and
+the reply to this request, dated at Burgdorf on the 18th of the following
+October, was contained in some “Thoughts on the method to be followed
+in making gymnastics an integral element in popular education.”[64]
+The steps therein advocated have since been taken, in part at least,
+by almost every German state, and the author, Adolf Spiess, now enjoys
+the undisputed title of “founder of school gymnastics in Germany and of
+gymnastics for girls in particular.”
+
+Spiess was a native of the Grand Duchy of Hesse and born February 3,
+1810, in Lauterbach, a small town on the northeastern slope of the
+Vogelsberg. His father, Johann Balthasar Spiess (1782-1841), himself the
+son of a Thuringian farmer and master smith, had first prepared himself
+for a position as teacher in the elementary schools, but after some
+years of professional experience at Frankfort-on-the-Main decided upon
+further study, and so completed a course in theology at the University
+of Giessen, and immediately after passing his examination, in 1807,
+became teacher and sub-rector at the Latin school in Lauterbach. Thither
+he soon brought as bride Luise Werner, of Saarbrücken, first met in
+Frankfurt, and Adolf was the oldest of their five children. In 1811 the
+father accepted a pastoral position in the Evangelical Lutheran church
+at Offenbach, across the Main from Frankfurt, and in addition to his
+clerical duties opened a private school which prepared for the upper
+classes of the _Gymnasium_ (higher classical school) or for a mercantile
+career. Ten years before this he had observed the methods in use at
+Schnepfenthal, and made the acquaintance of GutsMuths and other teachers
+there, renewed by frequent later visits. It was therefore natural that
+one feature of the daily program should be gymnastics, as described
+and practised by GutsMuths—walking the balance beam, jumping, running,
+climbing, throwing, skating, swimming, etc., and games of all sorts.
+Every week throughout the year there were also excursions with teachers,
+and dancing lessons were given in the winter months.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Adolf Spiess (1810-1858).]
+
+Adolf entered this school at the age of six or less. A few years later,
+in 1819, Fritz Hessemer, just back from the University of Giessen, made
+the pupils acquainted with the new Jahn gymnastics, and parallel bars
+and a horizontal bar were now added to the equipment. In 1824 some
+of the boys organized a little society for the purpose of practising
+gymnastics regularly outside of school hours. They met in the private
+garden _Turnplatz_ of Hofrath A. André, using Jahn’s “Deutsche Turnkunst”
+as a guide and inspiration, and soon afterwards entered into friendly
+relations with other turners in Hanau, a few miles to the east, with whom
+joint excursions on foot to the Taunus Range were made in 1826 and the
+following year.
+
+In the spring or summer of 1828 Spiess went to the University of Giessen
+to pursue the study of theology. He at once joined the _Burschenschaft_,
+which had been organized ten years previously and now concealed itself
+under the name _Waffenverbindung_, and his active habits at once took the
+form of assiduous practice in fencing, the favorite student exercise.[65]
+Before the end of the year he had become proficient in the art. There
+were also many excursions with friends to neighboring peaks and castles,
+and an acquaintance has borne witness to the skill he displayed in all
+forms of physical activity—riding, swimming, skating, dancing, and
+gymnastics. Music and drawing, too, for which he possessed both taste and
+talent, absorbed a portion of his leisure. With other students he left
+Giessen at Easter of 1829 and journeyed on foot across the Vogelsberg
+to Schnepfenthal, where as a schoolboy he had met GutsMuths nine years
+before, and then on to Halle, there to continue his theological studies
+in the university. An excursion through the Harz Mountains later in the
+same season was made the occasion of a visit to Jahn. In Halle there
+were opportunities for renewed practice on the horizontal bar, the
+parallel bars, and the horse, and fencing, too, was not neglected; but
+the greatest interest was excited by certain outdoor games. For these
+they used to gather twice a week, and often to the number of a hundred or
+more, in Passendorf, singing and playing together until nightfall. About
+Christmas time of the same year Spiess went up to Berlin for some months.
+This gave an opportunity to frequent Eiselen’s private gymnasium, and
+though that master himself was confined to his home by illness the young
+student saw and learned many new exercises from Philipp Feddern, his
+assistant.
+
+For a year or more following the spring of 1830 Spiess was again in
+Giessen, and active in the life of its Burschenschaft.[66] He now began
+to give regular instruction in gymnastics, first to a dozen boys on a
+garden Turnplatz, and then, as interest grew, to nearly 150 in one of
+the city parks; and already he was modifying the traditional method
+by gathering the entire number into one band at the commencement of
+each period for various simple exercises performed in rhythm as they
+stood or marched, or for running and jumping under the leadership of
+a single teacher. But the Hessian authorities were on the lookout for
+agitation looking toward a united Germany, and had already given notice
+to the University that no student who was affiliated with forbidden
+organizations, like the _Burschenschaft_, would be admitted to the
+regular examinations. The July revolution in France, however, exerted
+a stimulating influence. Early in 1831 the local association allied
+itself with the general German _Burschenschaft_, and members were openly
+displaying signs of their sympathy with the radical element. Under such
+circumstances any revival of the old _Turnen_ was certain to be viewed
+with apprehension. In the spring of 1831 the former prohibition was
+renewed, and there could be no more exercising by groups in public. After
+some months of private study at Sprendlingen, his father’s new parish,
+Spiess returned to Giessen and successfully passed his examinations in
+theology, April 2, 1832. He then became private tutor in the family of
+the Hessian Count Solms-Rödelheim, at Assenheim.
+
+Before taking this position, or on one of his visits home, he received
+a foretaste of what awaited him if he remained in his native state. A
+friendly magistrate informed his father one evening that if the young man
+was found in the house on the following morning he would be subject to
+arrest. Spiess therefore left at once, and reached Assenheim in safety.
+The next year (1833) a newspaper notice brought word to Sprendlingen that
+the city of Burgdorf, in Switzerland, was in search of someone who could
+take charge of physical training in its elementary school. The clergyman,
+recognizing that a sojourn in a neutral country was the only safe course
+for his son, in view of existing political conditions, at once wrote
+to propose Adolf for the place. Word came in August that he had been
+appointed teacher of gymnastics, singing, writing, and drawing.[67] On
+October 5 he left home with his youngest brother, Hermann, and traveling
+by way of Basel reached Burgdorf on the 21st, ready to begin work in the
+alien state which was to be his fosterland for fifteen busy and fruitful
+years (1833-1848).
+
+The city authorities had erected a new, attractive, and roomy building
+for the school, and now placed at its head Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852),
+already widely known for his book “The Education of Man” (1826), and
+Heinrich Langethal (1792-1879) and Wilhelm Middendorf (1793-1853), who
+had been associated with Froebel for fourteen years in his school in
+the Thuringian village of Keilhau and after the few years in Burgdorf
+were again to be his helpers when the first kindergarten was opened at
+Blankenburg, another Thuringian town. All three had been members of
+Lützow’s Free Corps during the War of Liberation, and through residence
+in Berlin had come under the influence of Jahn and his work on the
+Hasenheide Turnplatz. Spiess found these colleagues ready to coöperate
+with him at every step, and all worked together in perfect harmony to
+give the broadest possible training to the children under their care.
+The open-air gymnasium, originally laid out after the Jahn plan in
+1824, and beautifully situated in a grove near the left bank of the
+Emme, overlooked to the east by wooded sandstone cliffs beyond the
+stream and on the west by an ancient castle, was now doubled in size and
+entirely refitted in accordance with the wishes of the new teacher. In
+the castle itself, where Pestalozzi had conducted his school for five
+years (1799-1804) and written “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children” (1801),
+a hall was equipped for winter use. In the spring of 1834 the boys of
+the school, including even the youngest, began to receive systematic
+instruction in gymnastics for two successive hours on three afternoons of
+each week, and before long the interest of the girls, also, was awakened
+and special classes were formed and suitable exercises devised to meet
+their needs. There were frequent excursions on foot into the surrounding
+country, and once a year, in the autumn, an exhibition or _Turnfest_ was
+held. The new discipline, which reached pupils of both sexes and all
+ages, was regarded as an essential part of their school training.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.—The original Spiess _Turnplatz_ at Burgdorf, in
+the grove between the Emme and the Castle.]
+
+It was not long before the attention of the cantonal school authorities
+was attracted to the Burgdorf experiment, and as a result Spiess received
+in 1835 the added appointment of teacher of gymnastics in the normal
+school (_Landschullehrer-Seminar_) at Münchenbuchsee, ten miles to the
+southwest, where in addition to eighty children in the model school he
+found about a hundred pupils. He also undertook a similar task at various
+other schools in the neighborhood, among them one for girls in Kirchberg,
+and for his own pleasure and further training joined a small gymnastic
+society of adults (_Männerturnverein_) in Burgdorf, visited the Turners
+in Bern and Hofwyl, and attended the annual Swiss _Turnfeste_ held in
+Bern (1839), Basel (1841), and Zurich (1842).
+
+Experience with all grades of pupils had proved to Spiess that the
+material and methods of Jahn’s “Deutsche Turnkunst” were not sufficient
+for his needs. Little by little he began therefore to develop and
+test new groups of exercises, and first of all what he called “Free
+Exercises,” or those which require either no apparatus at all, or only
+such as can be carried in the hands. They were intended to secure ready
+control and graceful carriage of the body under ordinary conditions,
+while the pupil was standing or walking on the usual supporting surface,
+and differed in this particular from the forms commonly practised on the
+old Turnplatz. The attempt to instruct large numbers of pupils at once in
+these free exercises led to the elaboration of another group, the class
+exercises in marching (_Ordnungsübungen_), by means of which the entire
+mass was made to move as one individual, and in this way discipline and
+order were improved, since each pupil learned to handle himself as part
+of the whole, and any desired arrangement of the units could be promptly
+secured. The next step was a review of all the gymnastic material in the
+effort to devise a more satisfactory classification than the one adopted
+in the books of GutsMuths, the “Deutsche Turnkunst,” and Eiselen’s
+“Turntafeln” (1837). The result of this study was the publication in 1840
+of the first part (Free Exercises) of his “System of Gymnastics” (_Lehre
+der Turnkunst_),[68] followed by a second (Hanging Exercises) in 1842,
+and a third (_Stemmübungen_ or supporting exercises, including balancing
+and vaulting) in 1843.
+
+In the summer of 1842 Spiess returned to Germany, drawn by the signs of
+approaching gymnastic revival in Prussia and the desire to discuss his
+own views with other men of like interests. He found Massmann,[69] at
+Munich, too firmly wedded to the _Turnen_ of student days to receive
+with any sympathy the proposed innovations; but Jahn, whose guest he was
+for two days in Freyburg, and Eiselen, whom he saw at a watering-place
+near Berlin, were more cordial in their attitude. The visit to Minister
+Eichhorn (August 10), and the formal statement of his ideas regarding the
+essential features of a state system of physical training for the schools
+which followed it, have been mentioned already in the opening paragraph.
+Two years before Spiess had married a former pupil, Marie Buri, and
+the need of finding a larger and more remunerative field of usefulness
+no doubt had much to do with the journey to Berlin; but the summons of
+Massmann to the Prussian capital in 1843 put an end to all hopes in that
+direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.—The Basel _Turnplatz_, from a plate in the
+_Turnbuch_ of Spiess (1847).]
+
+Attempts to secure a footing in Darmstadt and in Basel met at first with
+no better success; but afterwards he received from the latter city a
+call to the position of teacher of gymnastics and history in two higher
+schools for boys—the _Gymnasium_ and the _Realschule_—and at the orphan
+asylum, entering upon these duties in May of 1844. The following March he
+was relieved of the work in history in order that he might have time for
+instruction in gymnastics at the public girls’ school (_Töchterschule_),
+and preparations were also made for progressive improvement in physical
+training at all the city schools. Free at last to devote all his thought
+to the one subject, he finished in 1846 the fourth and final part (Class
+Exercises in Marching, _Gemein-_ or _Ordnungsübungen_) of his “System of
+Gymnastics,” and the next year was able to publish the first volume of
+a practical manual for teachers (_Turnbuch für Schulen_),[70] containing
+graded series of exercises suitable for boys and girls between the ages
+of six and ten. The second volume, covering the ages from ten to sixteen,
+was completed in 1851, after he had left Basel and returned to his native
+land.
+
+In May of 1848 Spiess accepted an offer from Minister von Gagern of
+Hesse, and moved to Darmstadt, the capital of the Grand Duchy, to
+undertake the task of introducing gymnastics into the schools of that
+state, beginning with the higher schools and the common schools of such
+communities as were prepared to take the step at once. He was also
+to train the requisite teaching force, and afterwards to superintend
+their work. The salary of the new “_Oberstudien-Assessor_” was fixed
+at two thousand gulden. Lessons were immediately begun with classes in
+two secondary schools for boys (the _Gymnasium_ and the _Realschule_)
+and in the higher school for girls (_Mädchen-_ or _Töchterschule_),
+and in a large garden lying near the center of the city the hall of a
+former public house was converted into a gymnasium by setting up along
+one side rows of vertical poles and horizontal bars and ladders, and
+adding to these a giant stride, parallel bars, bucks, jump stands and
+jumping ropes, stilts, and poles for use in vaulting. A new gymnasium or
+_Turnhaus_, surrounded by a double Turnplatz and containing a hall one
+hundred by sixty feet which could be changed into two rooms by means of a
+movable partition, was opened for use June 14, 1852, with classes of boys
+and girls from various schools. It was the first building of the kind in
+Germany. Public exhibitions the next year and again in 1855 acquainted
+parents, teachers, the grand ducal family, and the state and city
+authorities with the nature of his work, and increased their interest in
+it.
+
+A four weeks’ normal course was given in February of 1849 to about
+thirty teachers in elementary and higher schools, most of them from
+Darmstadt, but one from Dresden and ten from Mainz, Offenbach, Worms,
+and other Hessian towns. Instruction was chiefly by means of model
+classes, conducted by Spiess in their presence, and after observing these
+the teachers themselves were given an opportunity to practice the same
+exercises. No other formal courses were given in Hesse, but in response
+to an invitation he took charge of a similar one in Oldenburg, capital of
+the Grand Duchy of the same name, in the fall of 1851. He also visited
+many places in Hesse in the interest of physical training, and teachers
+from all parts of the state came to Darmstadt from time to time during
+the next few years to become familiar with his method. To all these he
+gladly rendered whatever assistance they desired. A list of foreign
+visitors during the period 1852-1854 has been preserved, and on it are
+found the names of educators from Sweden[71], Belgium (1), Switzerland
+(3), Austria (4), Prussia (6), Saxony (2), Württemberg (2), Baden (5),
+Oldenburg (4), Frankfort-on-the-Main (8), and others from the smaller
+German states. More than half of the number remained long enough to
+receive practical instruction under Spiess, and to this group belong
+Nyblæus, Kawerau and Kluge from the Central Institute (Royal Normal
+School of Gymnastics) in Berlin, and Moritz Kloss, Director of the Normal
+School of Gymnastics in Dresden. Another list covering the same period
+shows that the Spiess method had been, or was about to be, adopted in
+more than thirty-five schools in ten cities outside of Hesse, including
+Berlin, Neurippen, Breslau, Frankfort, Dresden, Oldenburg, Vienna, and
+Bern, besides Basel and Burgdorf.
+
+Failing health compelled Spiess to interrupt, in the summer of 1855,
+his hitherto unceasing activity. Tuberculosis had developed in the lung
+wounded during his student days, and attempts to stop its progress by
+residence in the Taunus and for two years at Vevey, on Lake Geneva,
+proved unavailing. He returned to Darmstadt, visiting the _Turnhaus_
+there for the last time in the fall of 1857, and died the following year,
+on the 9th of May.
+
+The chief service which he rendered to physical training in Germany, and
+wherever German influence has been felt, was the attempt to make it a
+part of the school life. The _Turnplatz_ was not to exist side by side
+with the school, as a counterpoise to the exclusively mental training
+of the latter, and in charge of some independent individual or society;
+but the school should concern itself with the whole life of the young,
+physical as well as mental, and gymnastics, recognized by the state as
+a means of education, should be thoroughly incorporated and treated on
+an equality with other branches of instruction and discipline, enjoying
+the same rights and conforming to the same pedagogic principles. It
+should therefore be made a required exercise, from which nothing except a
+physician’s certificate of defect or illness would excuse any pupil. In
+addition to the open-air gymnasium and the playground the community or
+the state would have to provide and equip closed halls, in or near the
+school building, so that instruction need not be interrupted by season
+or weather. Elementary classes require an hour each day for gymnastics
+and games. Less time might suffice for the older children, but the
+lesson periods, in either case, should be included within the school
+hours, or stand in immediate proximity to them. Periodical examinations
+in gymnastics coming at the same time with general examinations, and
+annually recurring exhibitions or _Turnfeste_ were to be held. Those who
+teach the subject must be educators by profession, and closely identified
+with the life of the school, receiving their training in this branch, as
+in all others, at the normal schools and the universities, or in part at
+institutions intended for that purpose exclusively—the normal schools
+of gymnastics. In elementary schools instruction would be in the hands
+of the grade- or class-teacher, and in higher schools there should be
+special teachers of gymnastics, just as in the case of mathematics,
+or languages, or science. The exercise-material must be arranged in
+progressive steps suitable for the different school grades, and a series
+of manuals prepared to fit the different conditions and needs in country
+and city schools, in common schools, higher schools for boys, and schools
+for girls.
+
+In preparation for the process of sorting out and distributing to each
+sex and age appropriate forms of exercise Spiess thought it necessary
+first of all to collect, analyze, and classify the whole mass of possible
+positions and movements of the body. This he endeavored to do in his
+“System of Gymnastics” (_Die Lehre der Turnkunst_), but without seeking
+at the same time to separate the useful from that which is unessential
+or undesirable. The book is not intended, therefore, as a practical
+guide for the teacher. That function was reserved for his second work,
+the _Turnbuch für Schulen_, which has been a mine of instruction and
+suggestion for authors of later manuals. Here he leads gradually from the
+simplest exercises to the most difficult combinations, pointing out what
+material is to be used for each sex and age, and explaining the method
+to be pursued during the lesson hour. He devised new forms of apparatus
+on which the whole class, or a considerable fraction of it, could work
+at once under the teacher’s eye and at his command. The “Free Exercises”
+and the “Class Exercises in Marching” (_Ordnungs-_ or _Gemeinübungen_)
+which he elaborated were a fresh contribution to the stock of German
+gymnastics, and with his simpler exercises on apparatus supplied material
+for girls and younger boys. His musical gifts[72] rendered possible that
+rhythmical arrangement of the free exercises which has continued to be
+so conspicuous a feature in the teaching of his followers ever since, and
+enabled him also to combine artistically certain marching or dancing or
+other rhythmical movements into a fixed series which could be executed
+by pupils to the accompaniment of some familiar song, or other musical
+composition, as in the case of the Miller-_Reigen_ and the whole group of
+_Lieder-_ and _Tanz-Reigen_.[73]
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Euler’s “Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens” and
+“Geschichte des Turnunterrichts” (see p. 82), and the following articles
+in the _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_ (NJT), _Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_
+(DTZ), and _Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_ (MT):
+
+Wassmannsdorff in NJT 1855: 330-334 and 1858: 81-90; and in DTZ 1859:
+22-23 and 1863: 137-140.
+
+Lion in DTZ 1858: 91-93, 98-99, and 102-103.
+
+Marx in NJT 1885: 57-66.
+
+Schmeel in DTZ 1910: 82-85, 97-101, 117-120, and 133-136.
+
+Schmuck in DTZ 1911: 453-457.
+
+Neuendorff in MT 1910: 122-128.
+
+The Spiess centenary in 1910 was the occasion of three important
+publications: (1) Adolf Spiess: Sein Leben und seine Wirksamkeit.
+Dargestellt nach Vorträgen, gehalten bei Anlass der Spiess-Feier im
+Basler Turnlehrerverein von J. Bollinger-Auer, Lehrer an der Höhern
+Töchterschule in Basel (Basel, Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1910.) (2) Adolf
+Spiess. Ein Gedenkblatt zu seinem hundertjährigen Geburtstage. Von
+Prof. Dr. Karl Roller, Oberlehrer in Darmstadt (Berlin, Weidmannsche
+Buchhandlung, 1910); and (3) Adolf Spiess, der Begründer des deutschen
+Schulturnens. Ein Lebensbild von H. Schmeel, Stadtschulinspektor in Worms
+(Giessen, Emil Roth, 1910).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] Gedanken über die Einordnung des Turnwesens in das Ganze der
+Volkserziehung, von Adolf Spiess. Basel, Schweighauser’sche Buchhandlung,
+1842. Reprinted on pages 15-41 of “Kleine Schriften über Turnen von
+Adolf Spiess. Nebst Beiträgen zu seiner Lebensgeschichte. Gesammelt und
+herausgegeben von J. C. Lion.” Hof, G. A. Grau & Cie. (Rud. Lion), 1872.
+Second edition, 1877.
+
+[65] See Herman Haupt’s “Adolf Spiess, der Begründer des deutschen
+Schulturnens, als Giessener und Hallischer Burschenschafter 1828-1831,”
+on pp. 306-330 of “Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der
+Burschenschaft und der deutschen Einheitsbewegung,” Band II, Heft 3-4
+(Heidelberg, Carl Winter’s Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1911).
+
+[66] To a sword-thrust in the lung received as second in a student duel
+at this period (November, 1830) his family traced the disease which in
+middle life brought his career to an untimely end.
+
+[67] Upon his reappointment, for a term of six years, on October 13,
+1835, instruction in geography and history was substituted for the
+writing and drawing.
+
+[68] Die Lehre der Turnkunst von Adolf Spiess. Basel, Schweighauser’sche
+Buchhandlung. Four volumes, as follows:
+
+I. Theil: Das Turnen in den Freiübungen für beide Geschlechter, 1840. II.
+Theil: Das Turnen in den Hangübungen für beide Geschlechter, 1842; second
+edition in 1871. III. Theil: Das Turnen in den Stemmübungen für beide
+Geschlechter. Mit einem Anhang der Liegeübungen, 1843; second edition
+in 1874. IV. Theil: Das Turnen in den Gemeinübungen, in einer Lehre von
+den Ordnungsverhältnissen bei den Gliederungen einer Mehrzahl für beide
+Geschlechter, 1846; second edition (Basel, Benno Schwabe) in 1885.
+
+[69] Hans Ferdinand Massmann (1797-1874), pupil and friend of Jahn in
+Berlin, member of the Jena _Burschenschaft_ and present at the Wartburg
+episode in 1817, was summoned to Munich in 1827 to take charge of
+gymnastics, first in the royal _Kadettenkorps_ and then in a public
+outdoor _Turnanstalt_ which was to serve all the schools of the city. In
+1841 he was called to Berlin to confer with Minister Eichhorn regarding
+the revival of physical training in Prussia. Two years later he was
+entrusted with the carrying out of the plan, but proved unequal to the
+task, and retired from the position in 1851.
+
+[70] Turnbuch für Schulen als Anleitung für den Turnunterricht durch
+die Lehrer der Schulen, von Adolf Spiess. Basel, Schweighauser’sche
+Buchhandlung. Two volumes, as follows: I. Theil: Die Uebungen für die
+Altersstufe vom sechsten bis zehnten Jahre bei Knaben und Mädchen, 1847;
+second, “vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage, besorgt von J. C. Lion,”
+in 1880. II. Theil: Die Uebungen für die Altersstufe vom zehnten bis
+sechszehnten Jahre bei Knaben und Mädchen 1851; second edition, as above
+(Basel, Benno Schwabe), in 1889.
+
+[71] Gustav Nyblæus, then teacher of gymnastics at the University of
+Lund, but afterwards Director of the Central Institute (Royal Normal
+School of Gymnastics) in Stockholm.
+
+[72] The father of Spiess had begun to play the organ for church services
+at the age of nine, and in his school at Offenbach paid particular
+attention to instruction in singing. Adolf himself learned to play
+the violin and the pianoforte, and his strong boyish voice developed
+into a beautiful tenor. He was made an honorary member of the Swiss
+_Musikverein_ in 1838, sang solo parts from the oratorios of Spohr
+and Neuhaus in the presence of the composers at a musical festival in
+Lucerne, and the tenor solos in Mendelssohn’s “St. Paul” at Zurich, and
+took the title role in Handel’s “Samson” at the national musical festival
+in Basel in the summer of 1840. It was at his suggestion that Max
+Schneckenburger wrote “Die Wacht am Rhein” that same year, and when it
+was read to a little company gathered in the Burgdorf “Stadthaus” Spiess
+was the first to sing it, to an accompaniment which he improvised on the
+pianoforte.
+
+[73] Spiess committed to Karl Wassmannsdorff, his friend and associate
+for two years in Basel, the preparation of his material on _Reigen_ for
+publication. See “Reigen und Liederreigen für das Schulturnen aus dem
+Nachlasse von Adolf Spiess. Mit einer Einleitung, erklärenden Anmerkungen
+und einer Anzahl von Liedern herausgegeben von Dr. K. Wassmannsdorff.”
+Frankfurt a. M., J. D. Sauerländer’s Verlag, 1869. A second “verbesserte
+und mit einem Anhange ‘Gang- und Hüpfarten für das Mädchenturnen’
+vermehrte Auflage” was published in 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS.
+
+
+The astonishing development of popular interest in gymnastics which
+has taken place in Germany and other European countries can be traced
+directly to Jahn’s work at the Hasenheide, near Berlin, in the years
+1810-1818; and between 1833 and 1858, in Switzerland and Hesse, Spiess
+laid the foundation of German school gymnastics. But although the first
+definite step looking toward physical training in the Prussian schools
+was the cabinet order of 1842 (p. 101), it was not until after the
+accession of William I to the throne, in 1861, that conditions became at
+all propitious. During the latter half of the reign of Frederick-William
+III, from 1819 to 1840, the one man who with his pupils and assistants
+kept alive the tradition of _Turnen_ in Berlin, adding to and further
+systematizing its content, and won for it gradually increasing
+recognition, was Ernst Eiselen, among Jahn’s earliest followers and his
+most faithful fellow-worker. Under Frederick-William IV (1840-1861) there
+were at first encouraging signs of revival, but the unfortunate choice
+of Massmann to direct the carrying out of the new plans (1843-1850),
+followed by Rothstein’s untactful and somewhat bigoted attempt to
+substitute the gymnastics of Ling for that of Jahn in the Royal Central
+Institute of Gymnastics at Berlin (1851-1863), made the whole period a
+disappointing one of storm and stress, without much evidence of real
+progress. Each of these early phases deserves a few words of explanation.
+
+Ernst Wilhelm Bernhard Eiselen (1793-1846), after the closing of the
+Hasenheide _Turnplatz_ in the spring of 1819, became a teacher in the
+Plamann school for boys. In April of 1825, using rented quarters,
+he began to give courses in foil- and sabre-fencing and vaulting to
+students in the University of Berlin, and two years later succeeded in
+obtaining permission to offer private instruction in gymnastics. May 1,
+1828, he opened his own gymnasium, with indoor and outdoor equipment,
+at Dorotheenstrasse 31d (now 60). Courses for the training of teachers
+were added in 1831, and the next year corrective exercises for girls,
+for whose accommodation a special room was provided. By 1836 the number
+of his pupils had increased to such an extent that a second gymnasium
+was built in another part of the city (Blumenstrasse 3, now 63a),
+and placed under the management of Wilhelm Lübeck (1809-1879), who
+afterwards (1839) became its independent director. Arsenical poisoning
+in his youth had permanently impaired Eiselen’s health, and this fact
+and his retiring disposition may have led the Prussian authorities to
+prefer Massmann as their agent in 1843. Eiselen was put in charge of a
+great public _Turnplatz_ in the suburb of Moabit in 1846, but died a few
+months later at Misdroy, a sea-bathing resort on the Island of Wollin.
+Attention has already been called to his writings (p. 102). Among his
+pupils and assistants who afterwards filled important teaching positions
+were Wilhelm Ballot, Moritz Böttcher, Philipp August Feddern, and Wilhelm
+Lübeck.
+
+In 1836 Dr. Karl Ignaz Lorinser (1796-1853), state medical counsellor
+at Oppeln, in Prussian Silesia, published a striking article on
+“Safeguarding Health in the Schools,”[74] in which he urged that too
+exclusive training of the mind in the higher schools was threatening
+national vigor. His paper and the widespread discussion which followed
+called the attention of the ministry of education anew to the need
+of reform, and led to various orders looking toward more or less
+systematic introduction of bodily exercises under the supervision of
+teachers. Participation, however, depended upon parental consent and
+the inclination of pupils. The cabinet order of June 6, 1842, and the
+summons of Massmann to Berlin in the spring of 1843 to organize a system
+of statewide physical training aroused expectations which were slow
+in being realized. Instead of the Spiess plan of separate facilities
+at each school and a graded scheme of exercises incorporated in the
+school program, Massmann clung tenaciously to the idea of great central
+exercising grounds (_Turnplätze_), preferably a single one even for the
+larger cities, and a gathering here of all ages and classes for free
+activity, especially on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons—a system of
+public playgrounds, rather than one of orderly physical training.
+
+But his endeavor to revive the Jahn gymnastics on a new _Turnplatz_
+laid out in the neighborhood of the old Hasenheide site met with
+little success, and the numbers in attendance dwindled rapidly. The
+times had changed, and there was no one to supply Jahn’s inspiring
+leadership. Teachers were needed, but Eiselen’s death had cut short
+a plan to have him give two courses a year, of six weeks each, in
+his private gymnasium. A “Central Training School for Teachers of
+Gymnastics” (_Zentral-Bildungsanstalt für Turnlehrer_), under Massmann’s
+direction, was therefore organized instead. It was to give annually two
+three-months’ courses, beginning April 1 and August 1, to a maximum
+of thirty pupils in each. The opening took place May 1, 1848, in the
+Eiselen gymnasium; but the courses were discontinued before the end
+of the following year. The attendance had been disappointingly small,
+and those who came manifested little interest in their work. Massmann,
+already a discredited leader with whose projects the school authorities
+themselves had shown little sympathy, was retired in 1850. The government
+attitude toward the Jahn _Turnen_ was still one of suspicion and
+antagonism, and meanwhile attention had been drawn to the claims of a new
+system of gymnastics, built up on foreign soil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.—Hugo Rothstein (1810-1865).]
+
+Hugo Rothstein (1810-1865), second lieutenant in the Prussian artillery
+and teacher in the artillery school at Berlin, paid a visit to Sweden in
+1843, and upon his return published in _Der Staat_ (September, 1844) an
+article on “Gymnastics in Sweden and Ling’s System of Gymnastics.” It
+attracted favorable notice in military circles, and Minister of War von
+Boyen commissioned him to revisit the country in order to become better
+acquainted with the subject. Accordingly in June of 1845, now first
+lieutenant and accompanied by another officer, he went to Stockholm for a
+full course at the Central Institute of Gymnastics (_Kongl. Gymnastiska
+Centralinstitutet_), adding three months in Copenhagen to observe the
+fencing and other instruction at the Danish Royal Institute of Military
+Gymnastics (_Det Kongelige Militære Gymnastiske Institut_). During his
+second sojourn in the Swedish capital he saw much of Director Branting
+and Head Teacher Georgii, and was also a frequent guest at the palace of
+King Oscar I. In the autumn of 1846 both officers were back in Berlin.
+The following year Massmann published a translation of Ling’s writings
+on gymnastics,[75] and Rothstein had begun work at once on a series of
+volumes on the Ling system which appeared at intervals between 1847 and
+1859.[76]
+
+A direct result of the reports by Rothstein and Techow (the infantry
+lieutenant who had been his companion) was the founding in Berlin
+of a “Central Institute for Gymnastic Instruction in the Army”
+(_Zentralinstitut für gymnastischen Unterricht in der Armee_), with
+the two officers as teachers. Lübeck’s gymnasium on Blumenstrasse was
+used for the practical exercises, and the first course there was begun
+October 1, 1847; but the rioting which broke out in Berlin the next
+spring, following the February revolution in Paris, brought it to a
+sudden close. Two years later, however, the foundations of a new building
+were laid in Scharnhorststrasse, and now it was decided to train both
+military and civilian teachers in a single school, rechristened “Royal
+Central Institute of Gymnastics” (_Königliche Zentral-Turnanstalt_)
+and opened to pupils October 1, 1851. Rothstein was made director of
+instruction (_Unterrichtsdirigent_). In his own teaching he employed
+the Ling apparatus and exercises, making light of Jahn’s _Turnen_,
+and for anatomical and physiological reasons rejecting the parallel
+bars unconditionally. This action gave rise to repeated protests from
+_Turnvereine_ in Berlin and other German cities, who regarded it as
+a part of the government’s reactionary policy, and led to a violent
+controversy (the _Barrenstreit_) in the years 1861 and 1862. Dr. Carl
+Philipp Euler (1828-1901), who became civilian teacher in 1860, had
+proposed that the banished apparatus be restored. Petitions, memorials,
+and opinions for and against its use multiplied, and the discussion
+was widened to include the whole subject of the comparative merits
+of the Ling-Rothstein gymnastics and the Jahn _Turnen_. Emil Du
+Bois-Reymond (1818-1896), professor of physiology in the University
+of Berlin, entered the lists as a powerful champion on the side of
+the Turners.[77] On the last day of 1862 appeared an opinion from the
+highest medical authority in Prussia, the Royal Scientific Deputation
+for Medical Affairs, to the effect that exercises on the parallel bars
+“are justifiable and not to be rejected.”[78] It was therefore ordered
+that both parallel bars and horizontal bar should be used with civilian
+pupils. Rothstein withdrew from the school in 1863, left Berlin for
+Erfurt, his birthplace and early home, and died there March 23, 1865.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.—Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818-1896).]
+
+The later history of the Central Institute may be briefly outlined here.
+A second civilian teacher, Gebhard Eckler (1832-1907), was added in
+October of 1864. In 1877 the military and civilian sections, which had
+existed side by side, were permanently separated, the former retaining
+the old site on Scharnhorststrasse and hereafter called the Royal
+Military Institute of Gymnastics (_Königliche Militär-Turnanstalt_),[79]
+and the latter, under the name “Royal Training School for Teachers of
+Gymnastics” (_Königliche Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt_), opening its doors
+in temporary quarters on October 8, but after two years occupying its
+own new home at 229 Friedrichstrasse (October 15, 1879). As early as
+1866 Euler had begun to conduct private classes for women who desired
+to become teachers of gymnastics, and in 1880 regular state courses
+were added to meet their special needs. The first of these began
+April 19 and closed July 6. Euler became “director of instruction”
+(_Unterrichtsdirigent_) in 1877, and Dr. Ignaz Küppers (1840-) was added
+as second director in 1891. Following Euler’s death, September 15, 1901,
+Eckler was given the same title (1902), but retired in 1905, followed by
+Küppers in October of the next year. A new office, that of director of
+the school, was now created, and its first incumbent (May, 1905) was Dr.
+Paul Diebow (1861-1920). In the autumn of 1911, after a further change of
+name (to _Landesturnanstalt_, April 1, 1908), the institution was moved
+to its present home in Spandau, eight miles northwest of Berlin, where
+it enjoys ample facilities for indoor and outdoor training of all sorts.
+The full course for men, at the outbreak of the Great War, covered seven
+months (April-November), and that for women six months (January-June).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.—Carl Philipp Euler (1828-1901).]
+
+To meet the great demand for teachers, examinations for persons trained
+in city or private courses outside the Central Institute had been
+given under its auspices after 1866. Beginning in 1889, arrangements
+for similar state examinations for both men and women have been made
+in Bonn, Breslau, Halle, and Königsberg, and in the case of women at
+Bielefeld, Cassel, Danzig, Hannover, Kiel, Magdeburg, Stettin, and a few
+other cities. The next noteworthy step was the introduction of teachers’
+training courses in the Prussian universities, in each of which (Berlin,
+Bonn, Breslau, Göttingen, Greifswald, Halle, Kiel, Königsberg, Marburg,
+and Münster) a student could in 1914 take work in the theory and practice
+of physical education, in preparation for a teacher’s certificate in
+that subject, and could take the examination itself at the university
+where he was studying.[80] In general such courses are governed by
+regulations contained in the Prussian ministerial order of July 9, 1892,
+originally intended for the University of Halle, and a supplemental order
+of February 20, 1909, which relates to training in outdoor exercises.
+The former provides for courses under the immediate oversight of the
+University _Kurator_, to begin in the middle of October and continue
+until the close of the winter semester—something less than five months.
+They are open to candidates who have already qualified as teachers in the
+schools, and to university students who have completed four semesters
+of work. There is no charge for tuition. Each course embraces both
+theoretical instruction and practical exercises, and occupies about
+eighteen hours a week. As a rule one-third of the time is devoted to
+lectures on the history of physical education, methods, the forms and
+construction of apparatus (_Gerätkunde_), the structure and functions
+of the human body, hygiene as related to exercise, and first aid in
+accidents; and the remaining two-thirds to the attainment of personal
+dexterity in the field of school gymnastics, and the actual teaching
+of others, and direction of games, etc. Four hundred and ninety-eight
+students attended these winter courses in the Prussian universities in
+the year 1910-1911.
+
+The later order, directed to the _Kuratoren_ of Prussian universities,
+requires that as soon as possible the above courses be supplemented by
+summer ones, lasting about four weeks and devoted solely to the subject
+of games and athletic sports (_Volks- und Jugendspiele und volkstümliche
+Übungen_). It was recommended that they cover from fifty to sixty hours
+altogether, including from four to six lectures on the value of games and
+athletic sports, about eight on theory and method, eight hours devoted to
+practice in teaching or directing, and the rest to practical exercises.
+The courses may be compressed within four weeks, or made to occupy two
+or three hours each on two afternoons a week and spread over an entire
+summer semester, thus interfering less with the student’s other work.
+In many cases admission has been granted to students in the departments
+of medicine, theology, and law, as well as to those enrolled in the
+department of philosophy and preparing directly for the examination for
+a state certificate as teacher of physical education. Hereafter the full
+certificate is to be granted only to those who have completed both winter
+and summer courses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.—The Prussian _Landesturnanstalt_ at Spandau.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Gymnasium of the _Realschule_ at
+Gross-Lichterfelde, near Berlin.]
+
+In spite of all this progress, there was at the beginning of 1913 no
+professorship of physical education in any German university, although
+the establishment of such a chair had been proposed at the University of
+Giessen.
+
+The Prussian cabinet order of June 6, 1842, had “formally recognized
+bodily exercises as a necessary and indispensable part of male
+education.” A ministerial circular of February 4, 1844, sent out to the
+provincial school authorities, directed that in towns and cities indoor
+and outdoor space should be provided for gymnastics at all higher schools
+(_Gymnasien, höhere Stadtschulen_) and training-colleges for teachers
+(_Schullehrer-Seminaren_), in order that the exercises might be practised
+uninterruptedly throughout the year. Instruction was to be in the hands
+of some regular member of the teaching staff who gave only part of his
+time to this branch, rather than one who taught no other subject. The
+exercises were to come as a rule on the half-holiday afternoons of
+Wednesday and Saturday, or under certain conditions they might be given
+daily during the hour following the afternoon session. It was left to his
+parent or guardian to decide whether or not any pupil should participate.
+Certificates of graduation from the schools were to note whether and with
+what success use had been made of the instruction in gymnastics. A later
+order (November 27, 1866) extended this last provision to cover semester
+reports as well.
+
+An order of September 10, 1860, reveals the intention of the ministry to
+introduce gymnastics into _all_ schools for boys and young men, from the
+elementary or folkschool to the university.[81] Special short courses
+at training colleges for teachers, to reach those already in service,
+are recommended as a means of filling the immediate need of competent
+instruction, which will later be cared for by the regular graduates. The
+indifference of many members of the teaching body in higher schools is
+rebuked, together with the excessive number of excuses from attendance,
+but attention is also called to praiseworthy progress made at other
+institutions where the new movement receives earnest and sympathetic
+support. University authorities are advised to furnish their students
+with facilities for continuing habits of bodily activity, and reminded
+of the advantage to the state if those who are to be leaders in church
+and school affairs are given an opportunity here to become familiar with
+a branch of education which they may later be called upon to oversee or
+inspect.
+
+Early in 1862 an official “Manual for Instruction in Gymnastics in the
+Prussian Elementary Schools” was published, replaced by a “New Manual”
+in the summer of 1868. This latter was again revised in 1895.[82] By
+ministerial order of June 4, 1862, such instruction is declared to
+be an integral part of the course for males in schools of this grade
+(_Volksschule_), and attendance at the exercises is made compulsory.
+Suitable grounds and the equipment called for by the Manual must be
+provided. Teachers are prepared in training colleges (_Seminare_),
+where special attention is given to actual handling of classes in model
+schools, choosing and arranging suitable material for the different
+grades from the official manual, and in the senior class to instruction
+in methods, the installation of apparatus, the recent history of physical
+education, the hygiene of exercise, and first aid.
+
+The apparatus mentioned in the official manual of 1895 includes wooden
+and iron wands, long jumping rope, jump stands and jumping board, balance
+beam, climbing ropes and poles, ladders, adjustable horizontal bar, and
+parallel bars. It recommends enough fixed apparatus so that four pupils
+can exercise at a time. In its one hundred and fifty pages are described
+a variety of marching and free exercises, and exercises with the
+different forms of apparatus just mentioned, and in conclusion sixteen
+selected running games and seven ball games. Beyond outlining the general
+plan of each lesson, calling attention to the need of orderly progression
+throughout the year, and indicating which of the exercises are intended
+for the upper grades, the manual offers no direct assistance to the
+teacher in laying out his course, _i.e._, it contains no tables showing
+sample lessons and no series of exercises arranged in order of increasing
+difficulty.
+
+A third hour of exercise a week was added to the curriculum in higher
+schools in 1892, and in elementary schools by order of June 13, 1910,
+which was intended especially to encourage the use of games and other
+activities in the open air. This same order made compulsory for all
+schools the ten-minute periods of exercise for the promotion of good
+carriage, deep breathing, and quickened blood-flow recommended in 1907
+for days on which there was no regular lesson in gymnastics. The “Guide
+for Use with Boys in Elementary Schools without Indoor Gymnasia,”
+published in 1909,[83] lays down principles which are binding for boys’
+schools of every sort. In it the class exercises in marching introduced
+by Spiess are omitted. Free exercises and exercises on apparatus are
+selected with the specific needs of the pupil in mind, and show the
+influence of Swedish teaching and practice. They are supplemented
+by running exercises, games, dry-land-swimming, and other forms of
+activity, and attention is called to the value of _Spielstunden_
+or play-afternoons. A recent development in higher schools is the
+organization and rapid spread of voluntary gymnastic, running, tramping,
+and athletic clubs of all sorts, conducted under the oversight of
+teachers.
+
+It was not until the ministerial order of May 31, 1894, that instruction
+in gymnastics became a required subject in higher schools for _girls_.
+Two lessons a week were to be given, and by women teachers. An order
+of March 30, 1905, extended the requirement to elementary (_Volks_-)
+and intermediate (_Mittel_-) schools in cities and large towns, and
+recommended that teachers encourage also the playing of games after
+school hours. The manual of 1895 was to form the basis of instruction.
+A further step was taken on July 11, 1911, when the time allotted to
+gymnastics was increased to three hours a week for the upper grades, and
+all elementary schools not covered by former orders were urged to add
+the subject to their curriculum. An official “Manual for the Physical
+Training of Girls in Prussian Schools” was published in 1913.[84]
+
+To an American the German universities and technical schools seem
+singularly backward in the matter of physical education. At none of
+them is there a full professorship devoted to the subject, and at
+least a third have not even an instructor in gymnastics (_Turnlehrer_)
+on the teaching staff. There are two student associations which may
+be considered the survivors of the _Burschenschaften_ of Jahn’s day,
+so far as the practice of gymnastics is concerned. One of them, the
+_Akademischer Turnbund_, or “A. T. B.” (_Verband nichtfarbentragender
+akademischer Turnvereine und -Verbindungen auf deutschen Hochschulen_),
+organized June 27, 1883, on the Schweizerhöhe near Jena, included 39
+societies and about 1900 student members in 1919, and belongs to the
+German _Turnerschaft_. Its first competitive meet (_Turnbundfest_) was
+held at Arnstadt, August 5 and 6, 1893, and the 6th at Coblenz July
+28-31, 1912.[85] The other, the _Verband farbentragender Turnerschaften_,
+or “V. C.” (_Vertreter-Convent_), to which 55 societies with about 1800
+student members belonged in 1919, was given its present name and form
+at a convention held in Berlin, June 11 and 12, 1885. Only a small
+proportion of its societies have affiliated themselves with the German
+_Turnerschaft_. The first general competitive meet (_Turnfest_) was held
+at Sangerhausen May 26-29, 1882, and the sixteenth in Gotha May 13-16,
+1913.[86] In 1911 an _Akademischer Bund für Leibesübungen_ was formed,
+including the two associations mentioned, the _Akademischer Ruderbund_,
+the _Kartelverband akademischer Rudervereine_, the _Akademischer
+Sportbund_, and other similar organizations. This union held a “German
+Academic Olympia” in Breslau, August 1-3, 1911, and another at Leipzig,
+October 17-19, 1913. There had already been gatherings of this sort at
+Leipzig, July 11, 1909, and Berlin, July 2 and 3, 1910.
+
+There have been two attempts at a statistical survey of school gymnastics
+covering all of the German states, the first by J. C. Lion in 1873,
+and the second by Carl Rossow in 1908.[87] A general convention of
+German teachers of gymnastics was held in Berlin, August 9-11, 1861, in
+connection with the second general German _Turnfest_. Others have been
+held at intervals ever since, and at the twelfth (Hof a. Saale, July 17
+and 18, 1893), a _Deutscher Turnlehrerverein_ (German Society of Teachers
+of Gymnastics) was formally organized. The eighteenth convention met in
+Breslau May 29 and 30, 1914.[88]
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Euler’s “Geschichte des Turnunterrichts” and “Encyklopädisches Handbuch
+des gesamten Turnwesens” (see pp. 81 and 82).
+
+Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens und der verwandten Leibesübungen. In
+Verbindung mit zahlreichen Fachmännern herausgegeben von Studienrat Prof.
+Dr. Rudolf Gasch, Dresden. Mit 44 Tafeln (teils in Farbendruck), mit 394
+Einzelabbildungen und 566 Abbildungen im Texte. Wien und Leipzig, A.
+Pichlers Witwe & Sohn, 1920.
+
+Verordnungen und amtliche Bekanntmachungen das Turnwesen in Preussen
+betreffend. Gesammelt von Schulrat Prof. Dr. C. Euler und Prof. Gebh.
+Eckler. (First edition 1869, second edition 1884) Dritte neubearbeitete
+Auflage herausgegeben von Prof. Gebh. Eckler. Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1902.
+
+Verordnungen und amtliche Bekanntmachungen das Turnwesen in Preussen
+betreffend. Mit einem Anhang: Die wichtigsten Turnverordnungen anderer
+Bundesstaaten im Auszuge. Unter Benutzung der Sammlung von Euler und
+Eckler neu gesammelt und herausgegeben von Dr. E. Neuendorff und H.
+Schröer. Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1912.
+
+The _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_, _Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_, and
+_Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_ (see p. 82).
+
+The _Jahrbuch der Turnkunst_ (see p. 108).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[74] “Zum Schutz der Gesundheit in den Schulen.” In _Medizinische Zeitung
+des Vereins für Heilkunde in Preussen_, 1836, No. 1. Reprinted by T. C.
+F. Enslin, Berlin, in 1861. Quoted at some length in Euler-Rossow 1907,
+pp. 115-117.
+
+[75] P. H. Ling’s Schriften über Leibesübungen. Aus dem Schwedischen
+übersetzt von H. F. Massmann, Dr. Professor &c. Magdeburg,
+Heinrichshofen’sche Buchhandlung, 1847.
+
+[76] Die Gymnastik, nach dem Systeme des Schwedischen Gymnasiarchen P.
+H. Ling, dargestellt von Hg. Rothstein. Berlin, E. H. Schroeder. In five
+parts as follows: I. Allgemeine Einleitung (with life of Ling). Das
+Wesen der Gymnastik, Grundlegung und Gliederung ihres Systems, u. s. w.
+1848 and 1849. II. Die Pädagogische Gymnastik, 1847; second edition in
+1857. III. Die Heilgymnastik, 1847. IV. Die Wehrgymnastik, 1851. V. Die
+Aesthetische Gymnastik, 1854-1859.
+
+With Dr. A. C. Neumann, Rothstein also published four volumes of an
+“Athenaeum für rationelle Gymnastik.” Berlin, E. H. Schroeder, 1854-1857.
+(Rothstein’s name appears alone on the title page of volumes III and IV.)
+
+Other books by Rothstein were “Die gymnastischen Freiübungen nach dem
+System P. H. Lings” (Berlin, E. H. Schroeder, 1853; fifth edition in
+1861), and “Die gymnastischen Rüstübungen nach P. H. Lings System”
+(Berlin, E. H. Schroeder, 1855; second edition in 1861).
+
+[77] “Ueber das Barrenturnen und über die sogenannte rationelle
+Gymnastik” (Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1862), and “Herr Rothstein und der
+Barren” (Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1863).
+
+[78] The report is reprinted in Georg Hirth’s “Das Gesamte Turnwesen,”
+second edition, =3=, pp. 492-506 (Hof, Rud. Lion, 1893).
+
+[79] It was moved to Zossen, about twenty-five miles south of Berlin, in
+1919.
+
+[80] Similar provision was also made in at least three other German
+universities, Heidelberg, Jena, and Leipzig. Students at the last named
+took their examination in Dresden, after a final eight weeks at the state
+_Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt_ there.
+
+[81] As generally in Europe, there are two distinct kinds of schools in
+Germany, the elementary or common schools, and the secondary or higher
+schools. The former (_Volksschule_) does not lead up to the latter, but
+is designed to furnish that kind and degree of education which the State
+requires of every citizen irrespective of class or calling. Its course
+of eight years covers the period of “school age” (six to fourteen).
+The higher school (_Gymnasium_, _Realgymnasium_, _Realschule_) gives a
+broader training intended to prepare for later study at the university
+and the professional and higher technical schools, or to meet the
+conditions for admission to any but the lowest grades of government
+employ. In order to enter one must be at least nine years old, having
+obtained his earlier education in special preparatory classes or in the
+ordinary _Volksschule_, and the average age of those who complete the
+full nine years’ course is between eighteen and twenty.
+
+[82] Leitfaden für den Turn-Unterricht in den Preussischen Volksschulen.
+Mit 29 in den Text gedruckten Figuren in Holzschnitt. Berlin, Wilhelm
+Hertz, 1862.
+
+Neuer Leitfaden für den Turn-Unterricht in den Preussischen Volksschulen.
+Zweite erweiterte Auflage des “Leitfadens für den Turn-Unterricht” 1862.
+Mit 53 in den Text gedruckten Figuren in Holzschnitt. Berlin, Wilhelm
+Hertz, 1868.
+
+Leitfaden für den Turnunterricht in den Preussischen Volksschulen, 1895.
+Berlin, Wilhelm Hertz, 1895.
+
+[83] Anleitung für das Knabenturnen in Volksschulen ohne Turnhalle.
+Berlin, J. G. Cotta’sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, 1909.
+
+[84] Leitfaden für das Mädchenturnen in den preussischen Schulen, 1913.
+Berlin, J. G. Cotta’sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, 1913.
+
+[85] See the Handbuch für den Akademischen Turnbund. Im Auftrage
+des Bundes herausgegeben von Dr. rer. pol. Kurt Blaum (A. H.
+Burgund-Strassburg). 1908. Strassburg i. E., Selbstverlag des A. T. B.,
+Universitätsplatz 7.
+
+[86] See Der Turnerschafter. Handbuch des deutschen V.-C.-Studenten.
+Zehnte Auflage. Bearbeitet von Herbert Meyer. Leipzig-Reudnitz, August
+Hoffman, 1908.
+
+[87] Statistik des Schulturnens in Deutschland. Im Auftrage des
+Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnerschaft herausgegeben von J. C. Lion.
+Leipzig, E. Keil, 1873.
+
+Zweite Statistik des Schulturnens in Deutschland. Mit Unterstützung der
+Ministerien der deutschen Bundesstaaten, der Deutschen Turnerschaft
+und des Zentralausschusses zur Förderung der Volks- und Jugendspiele
+unter Mitarbeit vieler Schulmänner im Auftrage und unter Mitwirkung des
+Deutschen Turnlehrer-Vereins herausgegeben von Carl Rossow. Gotha, E. F.
+Thienemann, 1908. The contents of this second survey are summarized in
+_Jahrbuch der Turnkunst_ 1907 (Leipzig, Emil Stock, 1907), pp. 145-157.
+
+[88] See Euler-Rossow, Geschichte des Turnunterrichts (Gotha, E. F.
+Thienemann, 1907), pp. 415-423.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN GERMANY.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.—Konrad Koch (1846-1911).]
+
+The beginnings of the playground movement in Germany can be traced back
+to a time when the Franco-Prussian war was a very recent memory, and
+its pioneers were men moved by the same spirit and motives which led
+Jahn to the Hasenheide sixty years before. In the summer of 1872 Konrad
+Koch[89] (1846-1911), a teacher in the Gymnasium (higher classical
+school) Martino-Katharineum in Brunswick, with his colleague, Hermann
+Corvinus, having in mind their own participation as schoolboys in the
+outdoor exercises of a Jahn club, began to take pupils on free Wednesday
+afternoons to St. Leonhardplatz, on the outskirts of the city, to
+practise a variety of running and ball games. Three years of experience
+with German games such as _Barlaufen_ (prisoners’ base), _Kaiserball_,
+etc., revealed to them the need of something more highly organized, and
+of a sport which might be practised in the winter months. The teacher
+of gymnastics (_Turnlehrer_) at the _Gymnasium_ was August Hermann
+(1835-1906), whose wife’s sister conducted a flourishing private boarding
+school for girls in Brunswick and in its interest spent several months
+a year in England. Hermann’s own house was a _pension_ which usually
+contained a number of English boys, and Koch’s father-in-law, Dr. med.
+Friedrich Reck, had observed with interest in his travels abroad the
+widespread popularity of active games in Great Britain.[90] At Dr. Reck’s
+suggestion Hermann therefore procured from England a football, and one
+day in October, 1874, threw it among the boys on the playground. The
+history of the Rugby game in Germany dates from this moment. American
+baseball was introduced in 1875, and English cricket in 1876, as summer
+games, and the steady increase in the number of players demonstrated the
+wisdom of the changed program.
+
+Saturday afternoon had now been added to Wednesday’s. In the summer of
+1878 the games were made an integral factor of the school life. Certain
+classes were freed from other work on two afternoons a week (Thursday
+and Friday) in order that the pupils might engage regularly, the two
+teachers whose time had hitherto been given voluntarily to the task were
+now relieved from a part of their school duties and formally delegated to
+this one, Mk. 200 a year was appropriated toward the cost of equipment,
+and in the spring of 1879 participation in the games was made obligatory
+for pupils in the lower and middle classes. The rule was extended to
+cover the upper classes also in 1882. The Gymnasium Martino-Katharineum
+thus became the first school in Germany to give to active games
+a place in the curriculum. In 1885 the Realgymnasium and the new
+Wilhelm-Gymnasium took the same step. Other higher schools in the Duchy
+followed, and the movement reached the intermediate _Bürgerschulen_ of
+the city in 1905, and the lower ones in 1908.
+
+Skating competed with football for winter popularity, but cricket was
+still the favorite summer game. Koch, who later became the recognized
+psychologist and philosopher of the entire games movement in Germany, was
+impressed from the start with its fundamental educational value. Like
+Thomas Arnold, he attached great value to the influence of games on the
+emotions and the will, and was not satisfied with the too exclusively
+intellectual training of the schools. His “Die Erziehung zum Mute durch
+Turnen, Spiel und Sport,”[91] a book devoted to the psychical aspects of
+bodily exercise, deservedly ranks as a classic, and stands almost alone
+in its field.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.—August Hermann (1835-1906).]
+
+The German _Turnlehrer_ held their eighth general convention at Brunswick
+July 27-30, 1876.[92] August Hermann opened the morning session on
+the 28th with an address in which he urged the necessity of arousing
+an interest in competitive exercises and games if bodily exercise was
+ever to become a truly national custom in Germany, calling attention
+particularly to English experience, and in conclusion referring to
+what had already been accomplished in Brunswick with English football
+and cricket. Dr. Reck described at length how he had himself seen all
+England at play, and not merely those of one class or age or sex. He
+also spoke of the value of such habits as a means of training the will
+and developing initiative. Others who took part in the debate (Kloss of
+Dresden and Jäger of Stuttgart) had been witnesses of the athletic sports
+of English residents in German cities. On Saturday, the 29th, pupils
+from the intermediate classes of the _Gymnasium_ gave the visitors an
+impressive exhibition of their skill and interest in football and cricket
+on St. Leonhardplatz, under the direction of Hermann and Koch.
+
+Five years later (November, 1881) the movement in favor of games and
+other outdoor sports, which had been slowly gaining headway among
+German teachers of gymnastics and educators in general, received a
+sudden impetus and gained a powerful champion, when Emil Hartwich
+(1843-1886), judge in the Prussian district court at Düsseldorf, issued
+his pamphlet “Woran wir leiden. Freie Betrachtungen und practische
+Vorschläge über unsere moderne Geistes- und Körperpflege in Volk und
+Schule.”[93] Hartwich was the son of a leading pioneer in German railroad
+construction, and educated at the Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtische Gymnasium
+at Cologne (1856-1862) and the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin
+(1862-1865). After completing the required year of military service in
+a regiment of dragoons at Berlin he began to practise his profession of
+public magistrate, and became judge in the Düsseldorf court in 1873. By
+enthusiastic application in his leisure moments he had acquired skill in
+gymnastics, music, and painting. Deeply impressed with the importance
+of the problems which modern education is called upon to solve, and
+convinced that the physical point of view, though fundamental, was too
+much neglected, he determined to undertake the task of agitation for
+reform.[94]
+
+The pamphlet of 1881 was the first result of the decision. A second
+edition, enlarged, was published the following year, and later a third
+made its appearance. “Next to untarnished honor, health is the greatest
+good on earth.” This is the motto with which he begins. While in England,
+the home of open-air sports, many an old man has a youthful look, the
+German schoolboy too often shows a pale, precocious face. What has become
+of the games which freshen body and soul alike, and the school excursions
+and long walks? Our modern pedagogy, he complains, has forgotten the
+great outdoors. With thirty hours or more a week given to mental training
+in stuffy classrooms, and only a pitiful two hours to gymnastics as the
+sole counterpoise, the harmonious balance between body and mind cannot
+fail to be disturbed. A sound body and good spirits must be recognized
+as of equal value with a well-trained mind. Give the morning to the mind,
+he says, and the afternoon to body and spirit, to what brings enjoyment
+and strengthens the will to withstand the trials of everyday life. This
+quality of courage and good spirits is vastly more important than the
+training of the intellect now so excessively emphasized.
+
+To coördinate and direct all efforts for improvement and reform Hartwich
+proposed the organization of a _Zentralverein für Körperpflege in Volk
+und Schule_—a permanent national body which should hold itself aloof
+from all political, sectarian, and other factional discussions, should
+unite all classes of society for the common end, and should allow
+complete independence in the sections which it was to comprise and
+entire freedom of organization in the different cities. The separate
+sections established in town and country were to be bound together by the
+common purpose to promote care of the body and its active exercise. The
+following divisions were suggested: (1) For gymnastics, (2) for skating,
+(3) for school interests, (4) for bathing, swimming, and rowing, (5)
+for games and festivals suited to both old and young, (6) a section to
+serve as a propaganda working through the public press, and (7) a medical
+section.
+
+The appearance of “Woran wir leiden,” which was widely read and quoted
+throughout Germany, led at once to a lively discussion of the claims of
+the body and the value of open-air exercise, and to a great accession
+of popular interest in these subjects. Men of letters, government
+officials, and others in high position rallied to the support of
+Hartwich, and Gustav von Gossler, Prussian minister of public worship and
+instruction, invited him to an interview (November 4, 1882). Meanwhile
+the _Zentralverein_ became a reality—it was formed in Düsseldorf, March
+6, 1882—and in this and the following year local societies (_Vereine für
+Körperpflege_) were organized in Witten, Bonn, Barmen, and Hagen, in each
+case with an address from Hartwich as part of the program at the initial
+gathering.[95] Playgrounds were secured and equipped in Düsseldorf,[96]
+Bonn, Witten, Berlin (Park bei Treptow) and other cities; much continued
+to be written on school conditions in general and on brain forcing in
+particular; and a number of handbooks of games made their appearance.
+Bremen and Chemnitz opened playgrounds in 1884, and public games were
+introduced in Dresden, Salzburg, Darmstadt, and Frankfort-on-the-Main. At
+the sixth national _Turnfest_ of the German _Turnerschaft_, in Dresden,
+July 19-21, 1885, there was an exhibition of games by schoolboys and
+girls.
+
+To keep members of the _Zentralverein_ in touch with the movement and
+furnish newspapers with reports and items of information Hartwich had
+started a periodical, _Körper und Geist_, to be issued at irregular
+intervals. Only five numbers were actually published, the first in the
+spring of 1883 and the last in April of 1886. In his address at the
+organization of the society he had referred to the educational value
+which the English attribute to their games, and to the obligatory school
+games in Brunswick. He wrote to Koch at Brunswick, requesting a few lines
+from him on the subject of English games for German playgrounds, having
+in mind already as part of the program for his _Volks-_ and _Kinderfeste_
+competitions in running, swimming, throwing the spear and the discus,
+wrestling, football, cricket, etc. Koch replied under date of November 1,
+1883, with a recital of his own experience.[97]
+
+The _Vereine für Körperpflege_ were largely confined to Rhenish Prussia
+and Westphalia, a fact explained by the support which newspapers in these
+provinces, and notably the _Kölnische Zeitung_, gave to the movement. The
+membership, in both size and character, and the sums contributed fell
+short of what had been expected, and proved that a considerable portion
+of the public remained to be won over. Some teachers of gymnastics were
+hearty and loyal in their coöperation, but not a few _Turnvereine_ and
+leaders in the national _Turnerschaft_ adopted an attitude of apathy, or
+of positive opposition. “Into the open” was the cry of Hartwich, and he
+seemed to them to ignore, or not to appreciate, the solid achievements
+of the followers of Jahn and Spiess. There were many, too, who protested
+against the importation of English games and athletic sports in seeming
+disparagement of German _Turnen_ and native games. The early and tragic
+death of Hartwich—he was shot in a duel and died December 1, 1886—brought
+with it the collapse of the _Zentralverein_, for no other leader
+possessed of equal skill and courage came forward to take his place.
+
+Elsewhere in Germany, however, new adherents were at work, and the
+movement which had begun in Brunswick and been greatly extended by the
+Düsseldorf judge was soon to become national in its scope. One state, and
+that the leading one, had already given its official sanction. Gustav von
+Gossler (1838-1902), Prussian minister of public worship and instruction
+in the years 1881-1891, himself trained in gymnastics as a schoolboy in
+Potsdam and Königsberg, an expert fencer in his university days, a good
+oarsman and a strong swimmer and skater, had been an interested listener
+at the sessions of the ninth national convention of German teachers
+of gymnastics, held in Berlin, June 7-9, 1881, while he was still
+under-secretary. There the first morning was taken up by two papers which
+urged the necessity of systematic use of games and school excursions on
+foot as a supplement to formal gymnastics, and by a discussion which led
+to the adoption of recommendations to that effect.[98] In the following
+November Hartwich’s pamphlet appeared, and a year later von Gossler, as
+we have seen, invited him to an interview; but before this took place
+the minister had already issued (October 27, 1882) his momentous “Order
+relating to the provision of playgrounds for the promotion of gymnastics
+in the open air and to stimulate participation in active games.”[99]
+
+He begins by saying that when gymnastics was first made an integral part
+of the instruction in higher and lower schools, effort was naturally
+directed toward securing room indoors where the exercises might be
+carried on without regard to season and weather. But the playground is
+not less valuable, and he sums up impressively the beneficial influence
+it may exert on the entire life of the pupil, concluding with these
+words: “The school must foster play as an expression of youthful life
+salutary for body and mind, for heart and soul alike, along with the
+increase in physical strength and skill and the ethical effects which
+attend it, and this must be done not merely now and then, but as a matter
+of course and in a systematic way.” Attempts in this direction have been
+few and scattered hitherto. He then refers to the books of GutsMuths and
+Jahn and to some recent works, mentions a number of suitable games, calls
+attention to certain articles which contain useful hints, and among them
+one of Koch’s on the history and organization of the Brunswick school
+games, and suggests at some length practical ways of carrying out the
+purpose of the order. School excursions, swimming, and skating are also
+recommended. Other ministerial orders and announcements which followed
+within the next few years touch upon every phase of gymnastics and games,
+and for girls as well as for boys and young men.
+
+While the von Gossler _Spielerlass_ of 1882 met with general approval and
+exerted a stimulating influence felt beyond the bounds of his own state,
+the immediate and visible results were disappointing. One experiment
+which it inspired was, however, momentous in its consequences. The scene
+was Görlitz, in Prussian Silesia, and the prime mover, soon to become a
+national figure, was Emil von Schenckendorff (1837-1915), formerly member
+of the city council and now member of the Prussian chamber of deputies.
+He had spent ten years in the army (1855-1865) and nine in the telegraph
+service (1867-1876), resigning from each on account of impaired health,
+and having made his home in Görlitz occupied himself altogether, for the
+balance of his life, with public affairs in city, state, and nation.[100]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.—Emil Theodor Gustav von Schenckendorff
+(1837-1915).]
+
+In Sweden, in 1872, August Abrahamson (1817-1898) had opened a sloyd
+school for boys on his estate at Nääs, about eighteen miles from
+Gothenburg, under the direction of his nephew, Otto Salomon (1849-1907),
+and in the autumn of 1874 a training school for teachers of that branch
+of education was added. Adolph Clauson-Kaas (1826-1906) had made
+societies for home industry popular in Denmark. Von Schenckendorff
+was familiar with both movements, and in his desire to provide some
+counteragent to the one-sided mental exertion of the schools organized
+in 1881 the Görlitz Manual Training Society (Verein für Handfertigkeit)
+and opened a workshop for boys. He was also, that same year, one of
+the founders of the German Central Committee for Manual Training and
+Home Industry (in 1886 the name was changed to _Deutscher Verein für
+Knabenhandarbeit_). As early as 1882 he was in communication with
+Hartwich at Düsseldorf, approving his efforts and asking advice with
+regard to the introduction of games among the young people of Görlitz.
+In 1883 he persuaded the Görlitz Manual Training Society to add this
+new form of activity to its program. With the hearty coöperation of
+his friend Gustav Ernst Eitner (1835-1905), director of the city
+_Gymnasium_, a beginning was made with boys from the lower classes of
+that school, who met for the purpose on Wednesday afternoons. Soon
+the pupils of the intermediate classes became interested, and in the
+spring of the following year the older boys, who viewed the innovation
+with indifference at the start, were gradually drawn into the ranks
+of players. _Oberturnlehrer_ Friedrich Wilhelm Jordan (1842-1896) and
+several younger teachers in the _Gymnasium_ assumed the direct oversight
+of the games. The next step was to make provision for the elementary
+schools, and thus the movement spread from year to year, and methods
+of organization and administration were perfected, until not only the
+school children, but older boys and young men and even adults had been
+reached by the efforts of the society. Annual _Spielfeste_ helped to make
+the playing of games more and more a matter of habit among the entire
+populace.[101]
+
+An opportunity to bring the results of all this experience to the
+attention of German teachers generally was afforded by the fortieth
+national convention of philologists, held in Görlitz, October 1-5, 1889.
+Eitner realized that in spite of widespread desire for a revival of
+games in the schools few teachers were familiar with them, or knew how
+to set about introducing them among the children, and these in turn had
+forgotten how to play. He thought it would be of service to show the
+Görlitz plan in actual operation, and so arranged for an exhibition of
+games as a part of the program for the second afternoon. The applause
+which greeted the spectacle was gratifying. One of the visitors deplored
+the fact that in his home there was no one capable of introducing and
+directing a similar plan, and he therefore proposed that there should be
+started in Görlitz a teachers’ course in games for such persons as were
+interested in the subject, in order to diffuse a knowledge of it more
+widely. Von Schenckendorff took up the idea with enthusiasm, readily
+secured the approval and support of Minister von Gossler, and it was
+arranged that Eitner should undertake the direction of such a course with
+the assistance of _Oberturnlehrer_ Jordan.
+
+After careful preparation on the part of these two men the first course
+was given during the week of June 9-14, 1890, and a second September
+1-6. In the following year there were two more, June 22-27 and August
+31-September 5. The total attendance for the four weeks, not counting
+about 30 who remained for a few days only, was 120 teachers, of whom 82
+were from various parts of Prussia (Silesia 48, Posen 11, Pomerania 2,
+East Prussia 4, Brandenburg 3, Hannover 4, the province of Saxony 2,
+Westphalia 1, Hesse-Nassau 3, and the Rhine province 4), 2 from Baden,
+1 each from Saxony, Oldenburg, Lauenburg, Thuringia, and Anhalt, 30
+from Austria (13 of these from Vienna), and 1 from Russia. There was
+no tuition fee. Each morning of the week Eitner lectured for an hour
+on the theory of games in general and discussed individual ones in
+some detail, with demonstrations of the apparatus used, until about 60
+had been covered, including 34 ball games. Then followed two hours of
+practice under Jordan, and in the afternoons between four and six o’clock
+there was a demonstration of the methods employed in the different
+city schools. A much wider audience was reached by Eitner’s manual
+of games,[102] six editions of which were called for in the year of
+publication (1890), a seventh in 1891, and an eighth in 1893.
+
+Meanwhile other measures looking toward nationwide agitation and
+instruction were being taken. As a preliminary step it was desirable to
+ascertain the exact present status of the games movement in Germany, and
+for the collection and tabulation of such statistical information von
+Schenckendorff was able to secure the services of a man who had already
+made an important contribution in the realm of physical education.
+Hermann Raydt (1851-1914), born in the Prussian province of Hannover,
+educated in the Lingen _Gymnasium_ of which his father was rector and in
+the Universities of Berlin, Heidelberg, and Göttingen, was from 1878 till
+1892 teacher (_Oberlehrer_) in the _Gelehrtenschule_ at Ratzeburg, a town
+twelve miles southeast of Lübeck. In 1886, as the first appointee under
+the terms of the Bismarck-Schönhausen foundation for the advancement of
+teaching, he travelled in England and Scotland, studying especially the
+methods of education and manner of life in the English public schools.
+The results of his observations were embodied in an interesting and
+stimulating volume[103] published three years later, in which he proposes
+an adaptation of the English playground to German school conditions. The
+book appeared at an opportune moment and met with a favorable reception
+everywhere. The Prussian ministry of instruction warmly recommended it
+to the attention of all higher schools and teachers’ colleges. It also
+brought Raydt into communication with von Schenckendorff, who persuaded
+him to undertake the task already mentioned. The Görlitz Society for
+the Promotion of Manual Training and School Games bore the expense of
+the investigation, and in April of 1890 circulars were sent out to
+all German cities with a population of 8000 or more asking what had
+already been done in the way of games and playgrounds, and whether the
+authorities were inclined to welcome their introduction. Two hundred and
+seventy-three replies were received. Raydt studied these carefully and
+made them the basis of another volume[104] which appeared early in the
+following year.
+
+The time for organized endeavor on a large scale had evidently arrived.
+Von Schenckendorff therefore invited a number of prominent men—leaders
+in the German _Turnerschaft_, pioneers in the games movement, and
+persons of influence—to meet in Berlin on May 21, 1891, and then and
+there the “Central Committee for the Promotion of Games in Germany”
+(_Der Zentral-Ausschuss zur Förderung der Volks- und Jugendspiele
+in Deutschland_) was formed. The thirteen in actual attendance
+included Director Bier of the Dresden _Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt_,
+_Unterrichtsdirigent_ Euler of the Berlin _Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt_,
+Goetz and F. A. Schmidt of the Committee of the _Deutsche Turnerschaft_,
+Koch and Hermann from Brunswick, Raydt from Ratzeburg, von
+Schenckendorff, and teachers or public officials from Hamburg, Hannover,
+Magdeburg, Rendsburg, and Stralsund. After an opening address by von
+Schenckendorff, and a general exchange of views it was agreed that
+the committee type of organization, with great freedom of action, was
+preferable to an association bound by a constitution and a fixed program.
+Three sub-committees of seven members each were decided upon, and the
+chairmen of these together with the officers of the Central Committee
+were to constitute a board of directors. Von Schenckendorff was the
+unanimous choice for chairman of the Central Committee, Schmidt of Bonn
+was elected vice-chairman, Raydt corresponding secretary or business
+manager, Koch treasurer, Eitner of Görlitz chairman of the sub-committee
+on games for boys, Hermann of Brunswick chairman of the sub-committee on
+games for girls, and Schmidt of Bonn chairman of the sub-committee on
+games for older persons (_Volksspiele_). The Central Committee itself,
+in its original form, was composed of thirty-five men, whose names
+are attached to the formal summons to the German people (“_Aufruf zur
+Förderung der Jugend- und Volksspiele in Deutschland_”) prepared at the
+Berlin meeting.[105]
+
+A good idea of the methods adopted by the Central Committee, and the
+results of its work during the twenty years 1891-1911, can be gained
+from a review of that period which von Schenckendorff, still chairman,
+prepared and published in 1912.[106] The Committee has endeavored from
+the start to supplement and support the work of individuals or local
+organizations and to prepare the way for the actual introduction of games
+into any community. Its membership is limited to one hundred, selected
+from men and women in all parts of the empire who have had experience
+and met with success in the field of physical education. Besides games
+in the narrower sense, it aims to foster all forms of active exercise
+in the open air, such as excursions on foot, swimming, rowing, skating,
+skeeing, bob-sledding, etc. There were the following sub-committees in
+1912: (1) Technical, (2) on public exhibitions of games (_Jugend- und
+Volksfeste_), (3) on the German universities, (4) on continuation and
+professional schools, (5) on promotion of national defense (_Wehrkraft_)
+through education, (6) on country children and youth, (7) on excursions
+(_Wandern_) and winter exercises in the open air, and (8) on measures for
+increasing the physical fitness of girls and women. The activities of the
+Central Committee may be classified in three main groups, as follows:
+information, constructive work proper, and indirect measures.
+
+_Information._ To bring its work to the attention of the public at
+large the Committee has made use of the organs which mould and give
+expression to public opinion, _i.e._, about three hundred newspapers and
+other periodicals—political, social, pedagogical, and medical, as well
+as those published in the interest of physical education and athletic
+sports. It possesses also two organs of its own, the semi-monthly _Körper
+und Geist_, started in 1892 (April 1) under the title _Zeitschrift für
+Turnen und Jugendspiel_,[107] and a year-book[108] averaging more than
+three hundred pages. In addition to these a long list of pamphlets
+and small volumes have been issued. The first of a series of national
+congresses in the interest of games was held in Berlin, February 3 and
+4, 1894, and others have followed, in different parts of the empire, at
+intervals of one or two years.[109] Persons whose official position
+gave them an influence which might be of great value in furthering the
+objects of the Committee were approached directly. In this way permanent
+relations have been established with about five thousand town and city
+authorities, district magistrates and school inspectors, provincial
+school commissioners, heads of institutions for the training of teachers,
+and members of state ministries of instruction.
+
+_Constructive Work Proper._ Here belongs first of all the arranging of
+courses for men and women teachers who wish to prepare themselves as
+playground leaders. By the end of 1904, _i.e._, in fifteen years if we
+include the Görlitz courses of 1890 and 1891, a total of 175 courses
+for men had been held in 54 different places, with 5805 participants,
+and 74 for women in 20 places, with 2814 participants. For the entire
+period 1890-1911 the totals were 409 courses to 14,269 men, and 206
+courses to 6287 women.[110] In general the Görlitz pattern, as already
+described, was followed. There were no fees for instruction, and the
+persons in charge of the work gave their services in every case. Since
+1905 the Prussian school authorities have also offered playground courses
+(about 60,000 teachers had been trained in them up to the time when von
+Schenckendorff wrote his review), and others have been given at the
+various state normal schools of gymnastics. Next in importance to the
+demand for competent leaders was that for authoritative descriptions
+of the most important games, with the rules which govern them. The
+technical committee met this need by issuing and frequently revising a
+series of pocket-size booklets, in board covers, which sell for about
+five cents each and have become the standard guides on nearly all the
+German playgrounds. By 1912 there were twelve of these little volumes,
+covering sixteen games. The Central Committee has also published ten
+booklets (“Kleine Schriften”) containing information and suggestions on
+such subjects as how to set about introducing games into a community, the
+management of competitive and other exercises for public exhibitions,
+active games for girls, games at the German universities, winter sports,
+excursions on foot, _Geländespiele_, games for use in the army, etc.
+
+_Indirect Measures._ For a number of years the Committee worked
+energetically to bring about the inauguration of periodical German
+_Nationalfeste_, which should serve as an inspiration and pattern
+for smaller public exhibitions (_Jugend- und Volksfeste_) all over
+the country, and at the same time stimulate national spirit. Growing
+opposition on the part of the German _Turnerschaft_, which saw in such
+occasions a menace to the success of its own quadrennial _Turnfeste_,
+together with other difficulties, finally led to the abandonment of the
+plan. The Committee now seeks to work from the bottom up, by encouraging
+regular exhibitions with competitive sports in separate localities. The
+conviction that national efficiency (_Volkskraft_) and national defense
+(_Wehrkraft_) are merely different expressions of the same thing, and
+that whatever promotes or disturbs the one affects the other similarly,
+has led to careful study of the latter question. A volume of some size
+(“Wehrkraft durch Erziehung”), published in 1904, in place of the usual
+year-book, sets forth educational measures which foster _Wehrkraft_ by
+increasing _Volkskraft_, and a special “Committee of Defense” (Ausschuss
+zur Förderung der Wehrkraft durch Erziehung) has met repeatedly to
+discuss the subject, with representatives of the Prussian war ministry
+and the head of the general staff present on one occasion (March 12,
+1911). Games were incorporated in the course of military gymnastics
+by imperial order of May, 1910, and the Committee’s special manual
+(“Militärisches Spielbuch”) is now in use everywhere.
+
+Looking back over twenty years of effort along these varied lines of
+activity, von Schenckendorff is forced to admit that much remains to
+be accomplished. In the schools, while play-afternoons with voluntary
+attendance have spread widely, the obligatory play-afternoon on a par
+with required instruction in gymnastics has been introduced only here
+and there. Brunswick, Württemberg, Baden, and Saxony are farthest
+advanced in this respect. The continuation schools have taken only the
+first step looking toward physical development. At the universities
+there is increased interest in gymnastics and athletic sports, but
+facilities for their practise are still inadequate. The state has not
+met its responsibility in the matter of building gymnasia, fitting up
+playgrounds, and providing the means for swimming, rowing, and the like.
+
+Von Schenckendorff, the foremost figure in the German playground
+movement, died March 1, 1915, and was succeeded as chairman of the
+Central Committee by Dr. F. A. Schmidt of Bonn, the former vice-chairman.
+Of the other members of the original board of directors Raydt died
+December 6, 1914, Koch April 13, 1911, Eitner September 4, 1905, and
+Hermann February 20, 1906. The board in 1915 was constituted as follows:
+Chairman, Schmidt; corresponding secretary, Kohlrausch of Hannover (since
+Raydt’s death); treasurer, Dominicus of Berlin-Schöneberg (following
+Koch); and Hagen of Schmalkalden, Sickinger of Mannheim, and Neuendorff
+of Mühlheim-on-the-Ruhr.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[89] Born in Brunswick, attended for eight years the Gymnasium
+Martino-Katharineum, where his father was one of the teachers, studied
+classical and German philology at the universities of Göttingen, Berlin,
+and Leipzig, 1864-1867, and for the rest of his life taught Greek, Latin,
+middle high German, and history at the Gymnasium Martino-Katharineum,
+becoming _Oberlehrer_ in 1874 and Professor in 1886. Consult _Jahrbuch
+für Volks- und Jugendspiele_ 1912, pp. 238-245; _Monatsschrift für
+das Turnwesen_, =1=, 97-104; =30=, 241-245. For Hermann consult
+_Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_, =6=, 321-329; =25=, 130-137; _Körper
+und Geist_, =14=, 421-427.
+
+[90] When Thomas Arnold’s fourteen years as head master at Rugby
+Public School were ended by his death in June of 1842, cricket was the
+recognized summer sport at the English public schools and at Oxford and
+Cambridge universities; rowing was firmly established as a fall and
+spring exercise at Eton College, and the Oxford-Cambridge boat race was
+an annual affair; football was regularly played at Rugby and others of
+the public schools; and continuous records of the “big-side runs” of
+the Rugby School Hare and Hounds—forerunners of the later track and
+field athletics—were already five years old. By the time Thomas Hughes
+published his “Tom Brown’s School Days,” fifteen years later (April,
+1857), all of the public schools had adopted football as the chief winter
+game, and the first steps looking toward organized track and field
+athletics as a recognized branch of public school and university sports
+had been taken. The annual track meets between Oxford and Cambridge
+date from 1864. The first of the annual Cambridge-Oxford contests in
+Rugby football was held in 1872, and two years later a similar series
+in the Association game began. (“Association football” dates from the
+publication of rules by the London Football Association, December 1,
+1863. The Rugby Football Union was organized in London, January 26, 1871).
+
+[91] Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1900.
+
+[92] Consult the _Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_, 1876, pp. 305-310 and 313-319;
+and _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_, 1876, pp. 94-95, 145-150,
+163-186, 241-247.
+
+[93] Düsseldorf, L. Voss & Co. Second edition, enlarged, 1882.
+
+[94] Consult _Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_, 1887, pp. 29 and 30, and
+_Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_, 1887, pp. 14-24.
+
+[95] Hartwich’s addresses were collected and published by M. Eichelsheim,
+city _Turnlehrer_ in Düsseldorf, in 1883 under the title “Reden über die
+vernachlässigte leibliche Ausbildung unserer Jugend von Emil Hartwich”
+(Düsseldorf, L. Schwann). A second edition, enlarged, was published in
+1884.
+
+[96] Opened June 21, 1882. See _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_, 1882,
+pp. 248-249, and _Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_, 1882, p. 206.
+
+[97] The letter is published in _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_,
+1888, pp. 242-252.
+
+[98] For reports of the convention consult _Neue Jahrbücher für
+die Turnkunst_, 1881, pp. 97-105, 208-212, 273-276; and _Deutsche
+Turn-Zeitung_, 1881, pp. 190, 257-260, 281-284, 301-304, 325-330.
+
+[99] Printed in full in _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_, 1882, pp.
+409-412; _Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_, 1882, pp. 321-325; Neuendorff
+and Schröer, “Verordnungen und amtliche Bekanntmachungen das Turnwesen in
+Preussen betreffend” (Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1912), pp. 56-61.
+
+[100] Consult _Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele_, 1915, pp. 1-26;
+_Körper und Geist_ =16=, 33-41, and =24=, 4-16; and _Monatsschrift für
+das Turnwesen_, 1912, pp. 201-208, and 1915, pp. 129-137, 193-200.
+
+[101] Consult Eitner’s own account in _Jahrbuch für Volks- und
+Jugendspiele_, 1892, pp. 59-61 and 79-82.
+
+[102] “Die Jugendspiele. Ein Leitfaden bei der Einführung und Übung von
+Turn- und Jugendspielen, verfasst von Dr. Eitner, Gymnasialdirektor in
+Görlitz.” Kreuznach und Leipzig, R. Voigtländer, 1890.
+
+[103] “Ein gesunder Geist in einem gesunden Kröper. Englische Schulbilder
+in deutschem Rahmen nach einer Studienreise aus der Bismarck-Schönhausen
+Stiftung geschildert von H. Raydt, Subrektor in Ratzeburg.” Hannover,
+Carl Meyer, 1889.
+
+[104] “Die deutschen Städte und das Jugendspiel. Nach den amtlichen
+Berichten der Städte bearbeitet von Konrektor H. Raydt in Ratzeburg.”
+Hannover-Linden, Karl Manz, 1891.
+
+[105] This summons, and von Schenckendorff’s account of the formation
+and plan of organization of the Central Committee, are contained in
+the first year-book of the Committee (“Über Jugend- und Volksspiele,”
+Hannover-Linden, 1892), pp. 103-111. The minutes of the Berlin meeting
+were printed in _Körper und Geist_, =16=, 41-47 (May 21, 1907).
+
+[106] _Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele_, 1912, pp. 1-11. Printed
+also in _Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen_, 1912, pp. 201-208.
+
+[107] Ten volumes appeared under the latter title, and volume =11=,
+beginning April 1, 1902, bears the new name.
+
+[108] _Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele._ The first number is that
+for 1892. Both organs are published by B. G. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin.
+
+[109] (2) Munich, July 10-13, 1896; (3) Bonn, July 2 and 3, 1898; (4)
+Königsberg, June 25 and 26, 1899; (5) Nuremberg, July 7 and 8, 1901;
+(6) Dresden, July 5-7, 1903; (7) Frankfurt, September 15-18, 1905; (8)
+Strasburg, July 6 and 7, 1907; (9) Kiel, July 19-21, 1908; (10) Gleiwitz,
+July 2-5, 1909; (11) Barmen, July 1-4, 1910; (12) Dresden, July 1 and 2,
+1911; (13) Heidelberg, June 28-July 1, 1912; (14) Stettin, June 28-30,
+1913; (15) Altona, June 19-22, 1914.
+
+[110] These are the official figures. Dr. F. A. Schmidt, in a review
+of “Zwanzig Jahre Spielkurse” on pp. 143-152 of the 1911 _Jahrbuch für
+Volks- und Jugendspiele_, gives the totals as 14,301 men and 6233 women.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+PER HENRIK LING, FATHER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SWEDEN.
+
+
+For more than a century gymnastics in Sweden has been undergoing
+development along three more or less distinct lines, educational,
+military, and medical, _i.e._, as an integral factor in school life,
+as an agent in the training of men for the army and navy, and as a
+therapeutic measure. The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics at
+Stockholm, where teachers of these various branches receive their
+preparation, was opened in 1814, and its originator and first director
+(1814-1839) was Per Henrik Ling. He was born November 15, 1776, in
+Småland, one of the southern provinces, where his ancestors had lived for
+seven generations or more. Up to the time of his grandfather, Mathias
+Månsson (1687-1748), they had belonged to the peasant class; but this
+man, taking the name Ling, prepared himself for the ministry and married
+a clergyman’s daughter. His son, Lars Peter Ling (1723-1780), who
+followed the same calling, was settled in the country parish of Ljunga,
+in Kronoberg county, and died there when Per Henrik, the youngest of
+six children, was only four years of age. A year and a half later the
+mother, a great granddaughter of the famous Swedish author Olof Rudbeck
+and herself a woman of superior intelligence, married the new pastor, but
+died in 1789.[111]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.—Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839).]
+
+These early bereavements, acting on the serious, sensitive, and
+affectionate nature of the boy, and in spite of his stepfather’s watchful
+care, gave a touch of sadness to the whole period of his childhood, to
+which he rarely referred in later years, and then only in the fewest
+possible words. The romantic scenery about his home must have heightened
+this effect, besides producing others of its own. The church and
+parsonage stood near the border of a lake encircled by forests, and all
+around stretched desolate heath, a strange jumble of hills and broken
+rocks, swamps and reedy lakes, and forests of pine and deciduous trees
+with here and there a cleared space in their midst. In 1784 he left these
+scenes to attend the _läroverk_ (higher classical school) in Vexiö,
+capital of the same district, where the botanist Linnæus had studied
+sixty years before. Here he gave evidence of rich mental gifts, a strong
+will, and a fondness for independent and original thinking and acting;
+but in November of 1792, taking part in certain boyish pranks, he broke
+a pane of glass in the rector’s house one Sunday morning, and left the
+school rather than accept the harsh terms imposed as the condition of his
+reinstatement. In February of the next year, however, upon furnishing
+proof of repentance, continued progress in his studies, and good conduct
+meanwhile, he received from the rector a certificate admitting to the
+university in Lund.[112]
+
+The young Ling was registered as a student in the Småland _nation_ at
+Lund—the “nations” are provincial clubs at the Swedish universities, and
+each student is expected to enroll himself in one of them, according to
+his birthplace—on April 19, 1793, and remained there during the spring
+and fall semesters. In September of 1796 he wrote to Lund from Stockholm
+requesting a university certificate, and on the 22nd of the following
+November applied for a clerkship in one of the city offices at the
+capital, where an older brother, Carl, was already installed in a similar
+position. Two days later he received the appointment. April 9, 1797, in
+a letter to his stepfather, he refers to “these years” in Stockholm,
+and tells of private lessons in French and German which he is giving to
+bookkeepers outside of office hours. Although he registered with the
+Småland nation at Upsala December 21, 1797, and took out his certificate
+there on June 5, 1799, he seems never to have attended that university
+through an entire semester, and there is no record of the theological
+examination which he is reported to have passed on the former date.[113]
+
+It will be seen that not much is definitely known, then, regarding
+his life in the years 1794-1799. It was plainly a time of poverty and
+struggle, and it is not strange that even the members of his own family
+and his nearest friends learned little or nothing of its secrets from
+his lips. By the time he left Stockholm for Copenhagen, in the summer
+of 1799, he was able to speak French, German, and English,—the first
+of the three with especial ease—and this fact alone may explain the
+legend of extensive wanderings on the Continent and in England. He
+possessed, however, a quick mind and undoubted talent for language, and
+was a diligent and enthusiastic student of any subject that aroused his
+interest. Moreover, it was not necessary to leave Sweden in order to find
+natives of those countries with whom he might converse, and it now seems
+probable that he resided at first near Stockholm as private tutor and
+later in that city itself as clerk during most or all of the period in
+question. Although there is nothing impossible in the frequently repeated
+story of travel and military service in foreign parts, but very little
+direct evidence has been urged in its support.[114]
+
+In July of 1799 Ling arrived at Copenhagen, and remained in the Danish
+capital for more than five years, until September or October of 1804.
+According to his own statement he entered the university there March 27,
+1801. Although he was voluntarily enrolled on the side of the Danes when
+Nelson and his English fleet, by the battle fought in Copenhagen harbor
+April 2, 1801, broke up the Northern Alliance, the company to which he
+belonged was not brought into action on that occasion. Linguistic studies
+continued to engross his mind at first. He worked diligently in the Royal
+Library, took every opportunity to extend his knowledge by conversation
+with foreigners, and acquired complete mastery of the Danish language,
+both written and spoken. Afterwards his attention became transferred from
+language to literature. Schelling, the distinguished Jena professor and
+the favorite philosopher of the Romantic school of writers in Germany,
+was then at the height of his fame. Among his enthusiastic auditors had
+been a young Norwegian, Henrik Steffens, who appeared in Copenhagen in
+1802, full of the new doctrines, and began to lecture there on philosophy
+and on Goethe. Through him Oehlenschläger, soon to be hailed as Denmark’s
+foremost poet, caught the spirit of the Romantic movement and began to
+breathe new life into the old Norse mythology, rousing in the breasts
+of his countrymen a feeling of Scandinavian nationality. These men
+introduced Ling to the treasure-house of the Eddas and the Northern
+sagas, whose gods and heroes were thenceforth never absent from his
+thought. After composing short poems in French, German, and Danish, and
+translating into Swedish the “Balders Död” (Balder’s Death) of Johannes
+Evald, the chief lyric poet of Denmark, he wrote himself, in Danish,
+a three-act comedy, _Den Misundelige_ (The Envious Man), which was
+published in Copenhagen in 1804. Here also he conceived the plan of his
+later dramatic works, designed to set forth momentous epochs in Swedish
+history. “Eylif the Goth,” printed in Stockholm in 1814, was written at
+this period, and reveals his desire to revive in the rising generation
+the old Norse vigor.
+
+Perhaps it was the opportunity afforded for practice in a foreign
+language that first attracted Ling to the fencing school in Copenhagen
+conducted by two French _émigrés_, Beuernier and the Chevalier de
+Montrichard. For three years he continued to frequent the place, and
+made such progress that Montrichard gave him a paper which certified to
+his great skill with the foil and his ability to give instruction in the
+art. There is a story that Ling had suffered from gout in the arm, as
+one result of the privations to which he was constantly subjected, and
+finding the case much relieved by his fencing, was thus led to study
+the effects of exercise in general. At any rate, he visited the private
+gymnasium which Nachtegall had started in Copenhagen in the fall of 1799
+(see page 179). GutsMuths’s “Gymnastics for the Young” appeared in 1793
+and Hjort’s translation into Danish six years later, and two volumes of
+Vieth’s “Encyclopedia of Bodily Exercises” were published at this time;
+but how much Ling was indebted to these German sources for inspiration
+and suggestion is purely a matter of conjecture.[115]
+
+In the fall of 1804 he returned to Sweden, to act as substitute for the
+aged fencing-master at the University of Lund. The latter died shortly
+after his arrival, and Ling, who had applied for the position December 8,
+was appointed his successor, at a small salary. Writing to a Copenhagen
+friend December 28th he says that the fencing-master at a Swedish
+university must be able to give instruction in vaulting the horse, and he
+wishes therefore to have a good vaulting buck sent him. A riding-school,
+also, is about to be opened, and his assistance is wanted there. Though
+he has almost entirely lost his skill in that art he is confident that
+practice will to some extent restore it. At that time gymnastics proper
+was unknown in Sweden, but Ling soon arranged apparatus for general
+exercise, and some years later, when a new university building had been
+completed, he was allowed to use an older one for this purpose and as
+a fencing hall.[116] In 1806 he began to apply himself to the study
+of anatomy and physiology. A year later he had worked out a system of
+bayonet fencing and was practising it with his pupils. He seems to have
+won the respect and esteem of teachers and students alike. The new
+exercises became very popular, and it was not long before interest in his
+fencing method, a simplification of the French, and in his gymnastics
+as well, spread beyond the bounds of Lund. Invitations to introduce the
+double art were received from Gothenburg, Malmö, and Christianstad, and
+in the first and second of these cities, at least, he gave instruction
+repeatedly during the course of the long summer vacations. Thus
+Gothenburg papers of July 9 and 10, 1807, announce his presence there
+for six weeks to give instruction “in all parts of the art of fencing
+and in gymnastics;” another of July 25, 1809, informs the public that
+he will remain three months to teach fencing, gymnastics, and swimming;
+and again July 5, 1811, he gives notice that until the middle of August
+he will receive pupils in sabre and foil fencing and gymnastics. On the
+occasion of this last visit arrangements were also made to have him give
+instruction in “the art of swimming and other gymnastic exercises” to
+certain poor children of the city.
+
+Ling remained eight years in Lund. In 1809 he married Sofia Maria
+Rosenqvist, and a daughter, Jetta, was born April 8th of the following
+year. “Agne,” a tragedy in five acts, his most successful dramatic work,
+was printed there in 1812, and a year after his death was presented on
+the stage in Stockholm at the opening of the new theater. The condition
+of Sweden just at this time was a desperate one. Gustavus IV had allowed
+intense hatred of Napoleon to draw him into the great coalition of 1805
+(the third, formed by England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden), and as a
+consequence French troops had occupied Swedish Pomerania and in 1807 had
+taken Stralsund and Rügen, the last of the Swedish possessions south
+of the Baltic. By opening his ports to English vessels the King next
+incurred the enmity of Russia, whose troops invaded and conquered the
+whole of Finland in 1808, and so deprived the Swedes of territory which
+had been theirs for centuries. Gustavus was meanwhile deserted by his
+English allies, his armies were driven back from Norway, and the Danes
+invaded the southern provinces. In 1809 he was dethroned, and succeeded
+by his uncle, Charles XIII. One of Ling’s poems, “Gylfe” (1810, 1812,
+1816), deals with this loss of Finland, which the Swedes bitterly
+deplored, and shows how intense was his patriotism and his hatred of
+Russia. We have here the reason for his desire to see his countrymen
+strong in body and soul, and hence prepared to meet the enemy. This was
+the inspiring motive of his poems and his gymnastics alike, though in the
+latter he saw a means of restoring health, as well as developing the
+race and defending the fatherland. One who visited him in Lund in 1812
+refers to his enthusiasm and to the system introduced into his methods
+of instruction. During these eight years he had been thinking out the
+principles upon which his later work was based, seeking first of all to
+understand the human body and discover its needs, and then to select and
+apply his exercises intelligently, with these needs in view. Nachtegall,
+in Copenhagen, had already begun to train teachers of gymnastics for
+the army and the schools of Denmark, and now Ling conceived the idea of
+opening in Stockholm a central training school from which all Sweden
+should be supplied with teachers of the new art.
+
+With this plan in mind he went up to the capital early in 1813, applying
+first for the position of fencing-master in the Royal Military Academy at
+Karlberg, just outside the city to the northwest, and then, on January
+29th, handing in to the recently appointed Committee on Education a
+written proposal of the new institution. He refers to what he has already
+accomplished in Lund, Malmö, and Gothenburg, explains his purpose in
+seeking to make Stockholm a center of influence for the physical training
+of the young, and asks government approval and support for the project.
+To the secretary of the Committee, Jakob Adlerbeth, he brought a letter
+of introduction (dated January 15, 1813) from Esaias Tegnér, at that
+time a teacher in the University at Lund, who had roused the Swedes in
+1808 by his “War Song for the Militia of Scania,” three years later won
+for himself national fame and the great prize of the Swedish Academy by
+his patriotic poem “Svea,” and was soon to receive worldwide recognition
+as the author of “Frithiofs Saga” (1825). Ling was already favorably
+known for his own literary labors, and appears to have been fortunate in
+his Stockholm quest from the start. He was given the Karlberg position,
+at a salary of 250 rix-dollars and lodging; the Committee received his
+proposal February 1st, and the same day reported the matter to the King
+with its strong recommendation; and a royal letter of May 5th formally
+approved the plan. Ling was to receive a salary of 500 rix-dollars as
+director of the school, an annual allowance of 100 more to cover the rent
+of a room for his exercises, and a single grant of 400 rix-dollars for
+the purchase of equipment. The salary was doubled in 1830, and before
+his death was raised again to 2000 rix-dollars. The school was opened
+in 1814, and at the Committee’s suggestion the King gave it some time
+later the name it still bears—The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics
+(_Kongl. Gymnastiska Central-Institutet_).[117]
+
+In the northern suburb Norrmalm, at what is now the corner of Hamn-Gatan
+and Beridarebans-Gatan and on the site ever since occupied, Ling equipped
+the necessary rooms—a gymnasium, a fencing hall, and others—in some old
+buildings which had once belonged to a cannon-foundry. Soon considerable
+improvements were possible, for in a letter dated December 13, 1815, the
+King informed the Committee that a further grant of 9800 rix-dollars had
+been made, in order to provide for the better housing of the Institute
+and its director. The next fall means were furnished for an assistant,
+and others were added from time to time until in 1830 the personnel
+included, besides the director, a head teacher and two ordinary teachers.
+Lars Gabriel Branting, who had already been his assistant for a year
+at Karlberg, became second teacher at the Institute in 1818, and head
+teacher in 1830; Carl August Georgii was made extra teacher in 1829 and
+regular teacher six years later; and Gustav Nyblæus joined the staff as
+assistant teacher in 1838.
+
+Ling believed that gymnastics had a rightful place in education,
+medicine, and national defence, and almost from the start instruction
+was accordingly given in the three corresponding branches, educational,
+medical, and military gymnastics. He continued to teach fencing to the
+cadets at Karlberg until 1825, and on the 4th of December, 1821, was also
+appointed instructor in gymnastics and fencing at the Artillery School
+in Marieberg, about equally distant to the southwest, in the latter
+capacity receiving a salary of 300 rix-dollars. In 1810 the Swedish
+Diet had elected Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s marshals, to succeed the
+childless King Charles XIII. He assumed the title Crown Prince at once,
+and from 1818 to 1844 reigned as Charles XIV. Quick to see the importance
+of Ling’s work for the army, he had officers detailed to complete the
+course at the Institute and afterwards employed to teach gymnastics and
+bayonet fencing to the rank and file. Soldiers from cavalry and artillery
+regiments in the city were also sent to the school to receive practical
+instruction in the same arts, and Branting and Ling were allowed to
+introduce them among the troops assembled in the various training camps.
+The later order giving these exercises a place in all Swedish regiments
+did not meet with a cordial reception at the start; but afterwards, when
+it was learned that French and Prussian soldiers were being drilled
+in bayonet fencing, investigation and comparison led to the choice
+of Ling’s method in preference to either of the others, and thus won
+for it a somewhat tardy recognition. In 1836 he published a manual of
+gymnastics (_Reglemente för Gymnastik_) and another of bayonet fencing
+(_Reglemente för Bajonettfäktning_) for use in the army, and in 1838 a
+small handbook covering both subjects (_Soldat-Undervisning i Gymnastik
+och Bajonettfäktning_). In view of the general absence of well-equipped
+gymnasia and teachers thoroughly trained in the system he found it
+necessary to limit the exercises to simple forms, and to such as require
+little or no apparatus.
+
+Medical gymnastics he had begun to develop after the first year in
+Stockholm. The new ideas not unnaturally aroused much bitter opposition
+on the part of conservative physicians, but he went his way nevertheless,
+and was content to let the future determine the value of his method of
+treatment. His school gymnastics comprised only a few strong movements,
+in which the pupil himself and his fellows constituted the most important
+apparatus. Swedish educational gymnastics in its present form is a
+comparatively recent growth, and its introduction in the elementary
+schools of the state and in schools for girls was not brought about until
+long after Ling’s death. The first law requiring physical training in the
+secondary schools for boys was published in 1820.
+
+In spite of his regular duties as director and teacher, Ling’s literary
+activity was unceasing. For some years he belonged to the Gothic
+Society, organized by Tegnér in 1811, and the moral support of its
+distinguished members was of no slight assistance in the long struggle
+to win recognition for his work at the Institute and to see it firmly
+established in spite of small beginnings and scant resources. In 1816
+he delivered public lectures on the Northern Myths. Three years later
+appeared his “Symbolism of the Eddas, for the Unlearned,” a prose work;
+and his “Asarne” (the Aesir, or Northern gods), including the entire
+mythology and ancient legendary history of the Scandinavian race, first
+published in 1816, was reissued in revised and more complete form in
+1833, winning for him the great prize of the Swedish Academy. This august
+body of eighteen scholars, created by Gustavus III in 1786 after the
+pattern of the French Academy, paid him the further tribute of election
+to a seat in its midst, and he was accordingly made a member by the King
+in 1835. He was also given the title Professor, and decorated with the
+Order of the North Star. A long series of dramatic and other poetical
+works was added to those already mentioned, so that his collected
+writings[118] fill three large volumes, of whose more than 2500 pages
+only about 350 have to do with gymnastics.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.—Ling’s grave at Annelund, near Stockholm.]
+
+Ling’s first wife died in 1817, and he had previously lost two sons,
+leaving him only the daughter Jetta. About two years later he married
+Charlotta Catharina Nettelbladt (1798-1889). Of their seven children
+only five survived him, and three of these became teachers of
+gymnastics—Hjalmar (1820-1886) and Hildur (1825-1884) at the Institute,
+and Wendla (1834-1911) both there and at two normal schools for women.
+After some years of impaired health, his own death occurred in 1839, on
+the 3d of May. He was buried at Annelund, a few miles north of the city,
+where he owned some property, and the grave, on a high bank overlooking
+Brunnsviken, a bay of Lake Mälaren, is now marked by a memorial stone
+erected by friends in 1848. Branting and Georgii were the men he
+considered best fitted to carry on his work. The task of arranging his
+literary remains he laid upon the latter of the two in company with
+Dr. P. J. Liedbeck (1802-1876), who had been one of his pupils and
+afterwards taught anatomy at the Institute and had married his daughter
+Jetta in 1833. The year after his death they accordingly published,
+in the incomplete and often fragmentary form in which he had left it,
+his “General Principles of Gymnastics,”[119] a treatise begun as far
+back as 1831. After an opening section devoted to the laws of the human
+organism, the book takes up, in order, the principles of educational,
+military, medical, and aesthetic gymnastics, and closes with a few pages
+of miscellaneous suggestions and comment. It is a small volume of less
+than 250 pages, and like the rest of Ling’s writings possesses little
+of present interest to any but the student of history. As one of his
+successors at the Institute has said, his greatest service to gymnastics
+was the attempt to give it a scientific basis, and it must therefore
+change and develop with every advance in the sciences upon which it rests.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+All the earlier sketches of Ling’s life must now be viewed in the
+light of recent critical studies by Carl August Westerblad, of Upsala,
+and particularly his “Pehr Henrik Ling: en lefnadsteckning och några
+synpunkter” (Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1904). His later
+discussion of “The Ling Gymnastics in the Days of Its Founder” (1913)
+has just been mentioned in a footnote. To other articles referred to in
+footnotes should be added one by Jetta Ling Liedbeck in _Tidskrift i
+Gymnastik_ =3=, 870-891 (1893), originally published in _Aftonbladet_
+(Stockholm) in 1852.
+
+Massmann’s translation of Ling’s writings, and Rothstein’s version of the
+Ling gymnastics, were spoken of on p. 123.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[111] E. Wrangel in _Lunds Universitets Årsskrift_, =9= (1913), Nr. 6;
+and Richard J. Cyriax in _Svenska Gymnastiken i In- och Utlandet_, =9=,
+92-94 (1913).
+
+[112] Westerblad 1904, p. 6.
+
+[113] Ibid., p. 7.
+
+[114] The story appears, along with other statements unsupported or
+flatly contradicted by later investigations, in Atterbom’s address before
+the Swedish Academy May 29, 1840 (Proceedings =20=, 82-202), von Beskow’s
+memoir of 1859 (pp. vi and vii), and Georgii’s “Biographical Sketch” of
+1854 (p. 2). On the contrary see Törngren in _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_,
+=4=, 415 (1896), Westerblad 1904 pp. 7-12, and Norlander in _Lunds
+Universitets Årsskrift_, =9= (1913).
+
+[115] The chief authority for this Copenhagen period is E. C. Werlauff’s
+“Bidrag til P. H. Lings Biographie,” in _Frey: Tidskrift för Vetenskap
+och Kunst_ (Upsala), 1848, pp. 92-105. Werlauff (1781-1871), later well
+known as historian and teacher in the University, was employed in the
+Royal Library at the time of Ling’s sojourn in Denmark and became his
+close friend. See also Westerblad 1904, pp. 13-21.
+
+[116] See Carl Norlander, “Per Henrik Lings första Gymnastik- och Fäktsal
+med dithörande redskap” (Lund, Ph. Lindstedts Univ. Bokhandel, 1908).
+
+[117] Kungl. Gymnastiska Centralinstitutets Historia 1813-1913. Med
+Anledning av Institutets Hundraårsdag utgiven af dess Lärarekollegium.
+Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1913.
+
+[118] Samlade Arbeten af P. H. Ling. Utgifne under ledning af Bernhard
+von Beskow. Stockholm, Adolf Bonnier, 1859-1866. Pp. 433-786 of vol. =3=
+were also published separately, under the title “P. H. Lings Gymnastiska
+Skrifter. Aftryck ur Lings Samlade Arbeten” (Stockholm, Adolf Bonnier,
+1866).
+
+[119] Gymnastikens allmänna Grunder af Ling, dels af Författaren,
+dels enligt dess yttersta vilja, efter dess död, redigerade och på
+trycket utgifna. Upsala, Leffler & Sebell, 1840. On Ling’s writings
+see Kåre Teilnann, “Lings Gymnastik og dens udvikling,” in _Gymnastisk
+Selskabs Aarsskrift_ 1912 (Copenhagen, H. Hagerup, 1913), pp. 65-134;
+C. A. Westerblad, “Den Lingska Gymnastiken i dess upphofsmans dagar”
+(Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1913); and also Dr. E. M. Hartwell
+in the _American Physical Education Review_ =1= (1896), 1-13 (Reprinted
+in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the year
+1898-99, =1=, pp. 539-546).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+LING’S SUCCESSORS AT THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE IN STOCKHOLM.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Lars Gabriel Branting (1799-1881).]
+
+Immediately after Ling’s death, and in accordance with his wishes,
+_Branting_ was appointed Director in his stead, and retained the position
+for twenty-three years (1839-1862). Born July 16, 1799, he had grown
+up a weak and sickly boy, and in the very first year of the Institute
+had been sent to Ling for treatment by means of medical gymnastics.
+Improvement was rapid, and the master was so impressed with the evident
+talent of his young patient that he offered to train him as a teacher
+of the art. Thenceforth the relation between the two resembled that
+of father and son. For several years Branting was a student at the
+Karolinska Mediko-Kirurgiska Institut (the largest medical college in
+Sweden) and attended clinics in the Serafimer-Lazarett (hospital),
+receiving instruction in chemistry under Berzelius, and showing such a
+fondness for anatomy and physiology that A. A. Retzius bore witness to
+his skill in the former subject. He learned to speak German, French,
+and English fluently, and travelled repeatedly in Germany and Austria.
+For more than twenty years he had been a member of the teaching staff
+at the Institute, under Ling, assisting the latter with his fencing at
+Karlberg and Marieberg, successfully introducing gymnastics among the
+girls at the large Hillska School, just outside the city, where he became
+teacher of gymnastics and music in 1831, and applying himself with marked
+enthusiasm to medical gymnastics. Ling gave him the first place among
+all his pupils, and turned over to him gradually a large share of the
+responsibility for both theoretical and practical instruction.
+
+As director, Branting devoted himself chiefly to the development of
+medical gymnastics in accordance with the theories of his predecessor,
+and brought that branch to a high degree of perfection. He insisted that
+the beneficial effects are due not alone to changes produced in the
+muscular system, but mainly to the influence exerted upon the nerves
+and bloodvessels—a novel view at that time. He also elaborated a rich
+store of gymnastic material, and worked out a terminology which with
+a few changes is still generally employed in Sweden. It was at this
+period, too, that the work of the Institute began to awaken interest
+in other countries. As we have seen (pp. 122 and 123), two Prussian
+army officers, Lieutenants Rothstein and Techow, were sent to Stockholm
+to take the regular course of instruction in 1845-1846, and Rothstein
+afterwards wrote extensively on the Ling gymnastics and in 1851 became
+the first director of the Berlin “Central-Institute,” founded on the
+pattern of the Swedish school but without its department of medical
+gymnastics. Many other foreigners came for visits of varying duration,
+and physicians, especially, were attracted by the new system, among them
+Drs. Eulenburg and Neumann of Prussia, Melichor of Vienna, and Mathias
+Roth of London. Branting was made a knight of the orders of the North
+Star and the Red Eagle (Prussian) in 1847 and of St. Olaf and Dannebrog
+(Danish) in 1855, and in 1873 Commander of the Order of Vasa. After
+retiring from the position of Director in 1862 he was still actively
+engaged in the practice of his profession until his death, March 27,
+1881.[120] During his term of office the staff of instruction was
+enlarged, provision having been made for one additional teacher in 1841,
+and for two more, a man and a woman, in 1848. Some of these teachers
+deserve particular mention. _Carl August Georgii_ (1808-1881), trained at
+the Karlberg Military Academy and made lieutenant in the army in 1836,
+had entered upon his service at the Institute ten years before Ling’s
+death, was chosen by the latter to edit and publish, with Dr. Liedbeck,
+his “General Principles of Gymnastics,” and in 1859 married the oldest
+daughter of Liedbeck and Jetta Ling. He became head teacher in 1839,
+giving instruction in anatomy and in the three branches of practical
+gymnastics. In 1846 he went to Paris to introduce the Swedish system,
+and the next year published in French a treatise on the Ling method
+of kinesitherapy and physical education. Two years later, in 1849, he
+withdrew from his Stockholm position and removed to London, where for
+twenty-eight years he presided over a private institution, giving lessons
+in fencing and conducting school gymnastics in addition to his medical
+work. His published writings in England include “Kinesipathy” (1850), a
+biographical sketch of Ling (1854), a lecture on “Rational Gymnastics”
+(1873), and “Kinetic Jottings” (1881). The last four years of his life
+were spent in Stockholm.[121] The first woman to be regularly appointed
+as teacher at the Institute was _Gustafra Lindskog_ (1790-1851), in 1848,
+and at her death she was succeeded by Ling’s daughter Hildur (1825-1884).
+Besides assisting in medical gymnastics they both devoted a portion of
+their time to the physical training of school girls. Two other teachers,
+Hjalmar Ling and T. J. Hartelius, who began their activity during this
+period, will be referred to again at some length farther on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Gustaf Nyblæus (1816-1902).]
+
+Branting’s successor was Col. _Gustav Nyblæus_ (1816-1902), who filled
+the position of director for twenty-five years, from 1862 until 1887. He
+was trained as an officer in the army, and had been added to the staff
+of instruction at the Institute during the last year of Ling’s life.
+The school, which had hitherto been under the control of the Stockholm
+educational authorities, was now given its own board of directors,
+appointed by the King; the length of the course was increased from
+one year to two years of six months each (October 1 to April 1), and a
+regular course for women was opened; and the royal statutes of January 8,
+1864, reorganized it into three sections, the pedagogical or educational,
+the military, and the medical, each with a head teacher and a second
+teacher. Provision was also made for extra teachers, both men and women,
+and a sum of over 167,000 rix-dollars was granted in 1863 for remodelling
+and adding to the buildings. Nyblæus himself became the head teacher
+in the section of military gymnastics, and the corresponding positions
+in the other sections were given to Ling’s son Hjalmar, in school
+gymnastics, and to Hartelius in medical gymnastics. Nyblæus visited at
+various times other European countries to study the systems of physical
+training employed in their schools[122] and armies, and published several
+manuals of fencing for use at the Institute and in the Swedish army, and
+others of gymnastics and military exercises to meet the needs of teachers
+in elementary schools.[123]
+
+_Truls Johan Hartelius_ (1818-1896) had taken the course at the Institute
+in the year 1851-1852, and began to give instruction there immediately
+after his graduation. He afterwards completed a course in medicine,
+became a regularly qualified physician, and held the position of head
+teacher in medical gymnastics from 1864 until 1887. Finding no text-books
+suitable for his classes, he prepared small manuals of anatomy,
+physiology and histology, and hygiene, and wrote a larger work on medical
+gymnastics which was translated into German, French, and English. When
+the corps of teachers decided to start a semi-annual periodical devoted
+to gymnastics in all its phases and therefore began the publication
+of the _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_[124] in 1874, Hartelius undertook the
+editorship, and for fifteen years served in this capacity, contributing
+many articles on his own and related subjects and important biographical
+sketches of fellow workers along similar lines.[125]
+
+To _Hjalmar Fredrik Ling_ (1820-1886) Swedish educational gymnastics is
+largely indebted for its present form, and the school gymnasium for the
+nature and arrangement of the equipment now in common use. He also made
+it possible to introduce physical training generally in the elementary
+schools and in schools for girls. The only surviving son of Per Henrik
+Ling, he was born in Stockholm, April 14, 1820, received an education
+equivalent to that given in the Swedish secondary schools, completed
+the course at the Institute (1842), and was installed as teacher there
+in 1843, devoting himself to educational and medical gymnastics under
+Branting’s direction, and studying anatomy with Dr. Liedbeck. In 1854
+at Georgii’s suggestion he went to Paris to spend the better part of
+a year in study there, paying particular attention to anatomy, both
+human and comparative, but attending also Claude Bernard’s lectures on
+experimental physiology and the clinics at the Hôtel Dieu, and meanwhile
+acquiring a thorough knowledge of the French language and literature.
+During this same period he also paid two long visits to Berlin, to
+assist in introducing the Swedish method of medical gymnastics at the
+institutions of Drs. Eulenburg and Neumann, and took advantage of the
+opportunity to familiarize himself with the German language. From Paris
+he returned to Stockholm, became head teacher under Branting in 1858, and
+upon the reorganization of the course in 1864 was placed at the head of
+the section of school gymnastics. This position he continued to fill for
+eighteen years, until his retirement on a pension in September of 1882.
+For some years he was also in charge of the physical training in one of
+the city’s higher schools for boys (the Nya Elementarskola).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.—Hjalmar Fredrik Ling (1820-1886).]
+
+Following closely the ideas of his father, and with the sole thought of
+completing the latter’s work, he devised new forms of apparatus adapted
+to the needs of the school and so arranged them that large numbers could
+exercise at the same time, in this way greatly increasing the number
+of useful exercises and bringing them all within the reach of every
+pupil. Then collecting a mass of gymnastic material he selected the most
+suitable exercises and arranged them in groups according to the effects
+produced upon the individual, providing further an orderly progression
+in each group, and combining these into a complete lesson-scheme—the
+original “day’s order.” It was now possible to assign to different ages
+and degrees of ability, and to the two sexes, the appropriate material
+from the graded series of exercises, so that the benefits of gymnastics
+could be extended to girls and younger boys.
+
+Hjalmar Ling published two pamphlets[126] intended primarily as guides
+for his students at the Central Institute, and in 1866 a work on
+kinesiology (_Rörelselära_) or the science of bodily movements. He also
+assisted Hartelius with the _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_ and for ten years
+(1874-1883) was one of its associate editors and a frequent contributor.
+Although not a clear writer, he was a deep thinker and an industrious
+compiler, familiar with the whole range of gymnastic literature,—German,
+French, and English—as a glance at the pamphlets just mentioned will
+show. He left behind a carefully arranged collection of nearly two
+thousand pen-drawings of positions and movements used in gymnastics, made
+by himself. These are preserved in the library of the school, and about
+a quarter of the entire number appear in a book[127] since published
+with the help of a gift from Mrs. Mary Hemenway, the founder of the
+Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. The younger Ling died March 9, 1886,
+and was buried near his father at Annelund.[128] He sought first of all
+to analyze the conditions of school life and the needs of the growing
+child, and then to devise forms of exercise, to select, invent, and
+arrange apparatus, and to elaborate a lesson plan which should meet these
+conditions and needs efficiently and with the greatest economy of time
+and effort. Opinions may differ as to the merits of particular details
+in the system he helped to perfect, but his method of approach to the
+problem deserves ungrudging commendation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.—Lars Mauritz Törngren (1839-1912).]
+
+The head teachership in school gymnastics left vacant in 1882 was filled
+by the promotion of Captain _Lars Mauritz Törngren_ (1839-1912), at that
+time second teacher in the same section and an officer in the navy; and
+he was further advanced to the position of director upon the retirement
+of Nyblæus in 1887. A third year (medical gymnastics only) was now added
+to the course, the school year was lengthened, and other minor changes
+were made. In 1894 a grant of 80,000 kronor made possible improved
+facilities for instruction and practice. Among Professor Törngren’s
+earlier writings had been a book on school games (_Fria Lekar_,
+Stockholm, 1879; 2d ed., 1880), the fruit of a visit to England in 1877,
+and an official manual of gymnastics for the Swedish navy (1878; 2d ed.,
+1879). _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_ for 1890 (=3=: 145-195) contains further
+observations on physical education in English public schools, based on a
+second visit in 1889. In the spring of 1893 he came to the United States,
+and was present at the department Congress of Physical Education and the
+eighth annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Physical Education held in Chicago in July of that year. He was on
+the editorial staff of the _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_ from its beginning in
+1874, assuming more direct responsibility after Hartelius withdrew in
+1888, and revised and reissued the pamphlets (_Tabeller_ and _Tillägg_)
+prepared by Hjalmar Ling. His last and most important book was a manual
+of gymnastics[129] for use in institutions which train teachers for the
+elementary schools. Major _Carl Silow_ (1846-), second teacher in the
+section of school gymnastics 1883-1906, was very active and successful
+in the work of his department and made further improvements in the
+construction and arrangement of apparatus. The official handbook of
+gymnastics for the Swedish army and navy published in 1902[130] is
+largely his work. For careful arrangement of material, detailed treatment
+of the different exercises, and clearness and beauty of the illustrations
+it is probably the most satisfactory manual of gymnastics yet issued
+anywhere.
+
+Törngren was succeeded as director by Col. _Viktor Gustav Balck_ (1844-)
+in 1907, and two years later retired from his position as head teacher
+in the section of school gymnastics. Balck, who in turn gave place to
+Major _Nils Fredrik Sellén_ in 1909, had been head teacher of military
+gymnastics since 1887, following Nyblæus. He has been an ardent advocate
+of outdoor and other sports for young and old, organizing societies
+for their promotion, editing a series of a dozen volumes devoted to
+the various forms,[131] and founding in 1881 the _Tidning för Idrott_
+(Sporting Times). He has also done much to promote the formation and
+spread of popular gymnastic societies, and to make Swedish gymnastics
+known in other countries. With this object in view he accompanied squads
+of fellow countrymen to _Turnfeste_ at Brussels in 1877 and 1880, and
+in Paris in 1889 and 1900. Exhibitions were also given in London,
+Copenhagen, and Berlin, in connection with these trips. Together with
+Major Silow and other teachers he was a member of the committee which
+prepared the new handbook of gymnastics for the Swedish army and navy.
+
+
+THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE IN 1900
+
+The influence of the system of school gymnastics perfected by Hjalmar
+Ling and his associates and successors in the Central Institute at
+Stockholm began to be felt abroad, in Europe and America, in the years
+just preceding and following the appointment of Törngren as director.
+For this reason, as well as its age and intrinsic merits, a description
+of the institution as it was in the fall of 1900, based on first-hand
+studies[132] deserves a place here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.—The Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics.]
+
+Leaving behind him the cluster of rocky islands which once held all
+there was of Stockholm, and passing north on the mainland through one
+of the linden-bordered promenades of the “King’s Garden,” the visitor
+soon reaches Hamn-Gatan, its farther limit. If he turn to the left
+along this busy thoroughfare his eye will be caught by a steep hill
+just ahead, and at its summit a slight bend of the street to the right
+reveals on the south side a low and very plain two-story building
+constructed, like most of its neighbors, of large bricks coated with
+plaster over the entire free surface, and painted a weather-worn buff.
+From the crest of this hill the ground is seen to fall away rapidly on
+the other side, so that the building gains an additional story at its
+corner on Beridarebans-Gatan. The north front stretches for about two
+hundred feet along Hamn-Gatan. Beridarebans-Gatan crosses this street
+obliquely, the two forming an acute angle in which the property of the
+Institute lies. This explains its unsymmetrical arrangement; for half
+way down the Beridarebans-Gatan side, which measures about 240 feet, a
+building forty feet wide has been carried in at right angles to that
+street. Near the center of the Hamn-Gatan front is a large archway,
+and over this in raised gilt letters are the words “_Kongl. Gymnastika
+Central-Institutet_.” It leads into a triangular paved court (A)
+surrounded by plain structures of plastered brick, and a second archway,
+bisecting the opposite side of this court, communicates with a gravelled
+yard (B) at the rear. The director and some of the other teachers make
+their homes in the three-story sections C and D, which also contain
+servants’ quarters and on the ground floor a few dressing-rooms. The
+lower story of E is devoted to medical gymnastics for free patients,
+and overhead are the library (remarkably rich in the older literature
+of physical training) and a reading room, two lecture rooms, and others
+for student use and for the storage of anatomical collections and the
+like. A hallway starting from the east angle of the court opens into
+the men’s dressing room (F), with shower baths adjoining. G and H, two
+stories in height, contain on the ground floor large halls equipped for
+school gymnastics and fencing, and above these two other halls intended
+for patients who pay for treatment by medical gymnastics, and employed
+also for school gymnastics and as classrooms. There is a small one-story
+building (I) for practical exercises in anatomy, and opposite this in the
+yard is a low shed (J) about 80 by 30 feet, with corrugated iron roof and
+smooth concrete floor, supplied with a variety of gymnastic apparatus.
+It is open except on the street side. In the narrow rooms marked KK the
+schoolboys who receive their physical training at the Institute store
+their slippers and hang up coats and caps.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.—The Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics.
+(Diagram showing arrangement of rooms).]
+
+The general control is vested in a Board appointed by the King and
+composed of a president and three other members, of whom one must
+belong to the army or navy, one must be a teacher (_skolman_), and
+one a physician. The corps of instruction includes a head teacher and
+a second teacher in each of the three departments, the hygienic or
+educational, the military, and the medical; two women teachers, one of
+them in hygienic and the other in medical gymnastics; and extra teachers,
+both men and women, as these are required—a total of fifteen persons
+in 1900-1901. The royal statutes provide that all who give instruction
+at the school must be graduates from its courses. From among the head
+teachers the King selects one to act as director of the Institute, in
+immediate charge of the buildings and their contents and of the work that
+goes on in the halls and classrooms. This appointment is for five years,
+and is renewable.
+
+The school year, divided into a fall and a spring semester, begins on the
+15th of September and closes on the 25th of May, with an intermission of
+two weeks at Christmas time. For male pupils three courses are offered.
+The “Instructor’s Course,” extending through a single school year, gives
+the one who completes it the right to teach gymnastics in the elementary
+schools (_folkskolor_) or in one of the lower (five-year) secondary
+schools (_lägre allmänna läroverk_). In the “Gymnastic Teacher’s Course”
+a second year is added, and the graduate is eligible to a position as
+teacher of gymnastics in any public educational institution, civil or
+military, in the country. The course in medical gymnastics, leading to
+the title “Gymnastic Director,” requires still another year of study
+and practice, although for students of medicine the prescribed work may
+be shortened. No person, unless he is himself a physician, is allowed
+to give treatment by means of medical gymnastics in Sweden except in
+cases where a duly authorized physician has prescribed it in writing.
+Young women can complete both the gymnastic teacher’s course and that
+in medical gymnastics in two years, on account of the smaller range of
+practical exercises to be covered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.—Students (men) at the Stockholm Central Institute
+in 1900-1901.]
+
+The men in attendance are for the most part young army and navy officers
+who have received orders to take the course. The balance consists of
+non-commissioned officers in the army and of young men in civil life. All
+must have passed such an examination as would entitle them to admission
+into one of the national universities; they must also possess a sound
+constitution and some aptitude for gymnastic exercises, and for all
+but physicians the age limit is thirty years. Young women must present
+certificates which would allow them to enter the national Higher Normal
+School for Women. There are no charges for tuition in any of the courses,
+and foreigners are admitted to them within certain limits. The total
+number of men present at any one time is commonly about sixty, and the
+women, formerly not half so numerous, are now rapidly approaching the
+same figure. During the autumn of 1900 there were in the student body
+two men from Greece and one each from Norway, Denmark, Finland, and the
+United States, while Russia, Holland, and England were represented among
+the women.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.—Class of Women Students at the Stockholm Central
+Institute.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.—Class of Schoolboys at the Stockholm Central
+Institute.]
+
+Work begins on Monday morning and continues through Saturday afternoon,
+as in other Swedish schools, for Sunday is the only holiday. The
+theoretical courses come at nine and at one o’clock, and the practical
+courses at seven, eleven, and two. At ten o’clock three hundred boys
+from the New Elementary School (it is a higher school, in spite of the
+name) visit the Institute to receive their gymnastic lesson in three
+of the large halls, affording material for practice in teaching, and
+further opportunity is given at three, when two hundred more arrive
+from the Jakobs Secondary School. The hours from eight to nine and
+twelve to one are free, and there are no exercises after four o’clock.
+The theoretical courses of the first-year men include: (1) Lectures and
+recitations on the anatomy of the bones, ligaments, and muscles (three
+times a week through the year); (2) the physiology of the circulation and
+of the organs of nutrition, including respiration (twice a week during
+the second semester); (3) the theory of school gymnastics, covering the
+discussion of the various positions and movements, the commands employed
+and the common faults observed, the arrangement of exercises in a lesson,
+and progression in each lesson and from day to day (twice a week through
+the year); (4) military gymnastics (twice a week during the first
+semester), and (5) the theory of fencing (twice a week through the year).
+There is one hour of practical instruction each day in school gymnastics,
+another in fencing with foils, and a third in fencing with saber and
+bayonet, together with daily practice in teaching under the supervision
+of the director and members of his staff. The five hundred boys who come
+to the Institute meet in the various halls according to school grade, and
+the hundred or so in each room are subdivided into a half-dozen squads,
+which exercise separately under the direction of first-year students
+during part of the lesson and are watched and corrected by them when the
+whole roomful is receiving commands from a single leader.
+
+The theoretical courses of the second year include (1) the study of
+anatomy three hours a week in the lecture room, and in addition two
+exercises a week in the dissecting room during a large part of the year;
+(2) two lectures a week on the physiology of the blood, the circulation,
+respiration, digestion, and excretion; (3) lectures on kinesiology or
+the theory of bodily movements (twice a week); (4) the theory of school
+gymnastics (twice a week); and (5) instruction and practice in the
+forms of treatment employed in medical gymnastics, followed by special
+study of the class of cases likely to be met with in the schools. The
+practical work, besides that just mentioned, again covers the branches
+of school gymnastics, fencing with foils, fencing with saber and
+bayonet, and actual teaching, the students in the two years meeting in
+each case at the same hour and in the same rooms. In the hour devoted
+to school or hygienic gymnastics, however, the division of the class
+into two sections for exercises in hanging and climbing and in jumping
+and vaulting allows some difference to be made in the work of the two
+years; and in the fencing, where the men are grouped in squads, the work
+of each corresponds with the stage of progress reached by its members,
+and the second-year students also meet twice a week by themselves, in
+the presence of their instructors, for practise in free fencing. Each
+man is now required to take his turn at directing one of the classes of
+a hundred or more schoolboys for a week at a time, making out his own
+“day’s order” for the opening exercises, in which the entire class work
+as a unit, then supervising the exercises of the different squads, and
+handling the whole number again during the marching and running. One
+of the instructors at the Institute is always present, but the student
+assumes all the responsibility of leadership for the time being. The
+second-year man is also called upon to give individual instruction in
+foil fencing twice a week to men of the lower class, as assistant to
+the regular instructor, and a somewhat similar plan is followed in the
+courses in saber and bayonet fencing. Though swimming is not included
+in the curriculum, no one can receive a certificate as graduate from
+the “Gymnastic Teacher’s Course” without furnishing evidence that he
+possesses a satisfactory degree of skill in that art.
+
+Third-year pupils attend lectures six times a week in anatomy, the
+physiology of the muscles and the nervous system, and pathology, are
+further instructed in the theory and practice of medical gymnastics, and
+assist in giving treatment to patients who visit the Institute. Women in
+both courses receive separate instruction throughout, for there is no
+such thing as coeducation at the school. Their theoretical work includes
+anatomy, physiology, the theory of bodily movements and of pedagogical
+gymnastics, medical gymnastics, and pathology; and there is practise in
+pedagogical and medical gymnastics, and opportunity to teach gymnastics
+daily, under supervision, at one or the other of two private schools.
+
+
+PROPOSED REORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE (1912).
+
+On April 8, 1910, the King of Sweden appointed a special committee to
+consider plans for the reorganization of the Royal Central Institute
+of Gymnastics, and the provision of a new site and buildings. Their
+report,[133] dated March 7, 1912, recommends numerous radical and
+far-reaching changes in the venerable institution, and would substitute
+civilian for military teachers of gymnastics in the great majority of
+Swedish secondary schools. As was to be expected, it has called out much
+discussion on either side. Whatever the outcome may be, the document
+remains a memorable study of every public aspect of physical education,
+and the committee has rendered a service of the very highest value, not
+only to the Swedes, but to all who are confronted by the problem of
+training teachers for the physical education of the people.[134]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[120] _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_ =1=, 931-941 (1881).
+
+[121] _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_, =1=, 989-999 (1881).
+
+[122] See page 117 for his visit to Adolf Spiess at the Darmstadt
+_Turnanstalt_.
+
+[123] _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_, =5=, 680-687 (1904).
+
+[124] Tidskrift i Gymnastik. Utgiven af Svenska
+Gymnastikläraresällskapet. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner. Two numbers
+a year through 1904, and four numbers a year since 1905. Organ of the
+Swedish Association of Teachers of Gymnastics.
+
+[125] _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_, =4=, 449-455 (1896).
+
+[126] Tabeller för Gymnastiska Central-Institutets Lärokurs (och för
+“friskrotar” af vuxne). The first (1866), second (——), third (1869), and
+fourth (1876) editions are by Hjalmar Ling. A fifth (1888) and sixth
+(1897) were edited by L. M. Törngren.
+
+Tillägg vid användningen af de Tabeller hvilka varit begagnade för
+Gymnastiska Centralinstitutets pedagogiska lärokurs. The first (1869),
+second (1871), and third (1880) editions are by Hjalmar Ling. The fourth
+(1894) was edited by L. M. Törngren.
+
+[127] En Samling Gymnastiska Ställningar och Rörelseformer, utgifven
+af Kungl. Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet i Stockholm. Stockholm, P. A.
+Norstedt & Söner, 1893. An English edition bears the title-page: “A
+Collection of Gymnastic Positions. Issued by the Royal Gymnastic Central
+Institute, Stockholm. Stockholm: Royal Print, P. A. Norstedt & Sons,
+1893.”
+
+[128] _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_, =3=, 365-367; =6=, 891-903, 950-952.
+_Gymnastik Selskabs Aarsskrift_ (Copenhagen) 1912, pp. 93-134.
+
+[129] Lärobok i Gymnastik för Folksskollärare- och
+Folksskollärarinneseminarier. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1905.
+A German translation (“Lehrbuch der schwedischen Gymnastik”) by G. A.
+Schairer was published in 1908 (Esslingen a. N., Wilh. Langguth).
+
+[130] Handbok i Gymnastik för Arméen och Flottan, utgifven på nådigste
+befallning. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 1902. Two volumes.
+
+[131] Illustreradt Bibliotek för Idrott. Stockholm, C. E. Fritze.
+
+[132] During three months, from September 17 to December 15, 1900, the
+writer was a student at the Central Institute, in almost daily attendance
+at some of its classes and a frequent visitor at others. A more detailed
+description was published in the _American Physical Education Review_
+(=5=, 301-311) for December, 1900.
+
+[133] Underdånigt Utlåtande och Förslag angående Omorganisation af
+Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet äfvensom rörande anskaffande af nya lokaler
+för detsamma. Stockholm, Ivar Hæggström, 1912.
+
+[134] A brief summary of the report is contained in the _American
+Physical Education Review_ (=19=, 192-199) for March, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS OF SWEDEN.
+
+
+In Sweden, as in Germany,[135] there are two types of public schools,
+the elementary, common, or _folkskola_ (people’s school), and the
+secondary, or _allmänna läroverk_, corresponding in general to the German
+_Gymnasium_ and _Realschule_ and the French _lycée_. An American college
+student at the end of his sophomore year has received an education
+roughly equivalent to that of the graduate from a Swedish _allmänna
+läroverk_. In the matter of equipment, organization, and method there
+is such uniformity throughout Sweden that if allowance is made for less
+favorable conditions in smaller cities and in country regions a fairly
+accurate, and more definite conception of physical training in the
+schools will be obtained by confining attention to Stockholm, the capital
+and largest city.[136] It will be convenient to consider, in order, the
+_folkskola_, the _allmänna läroverk_, the higher schools for girls, and
+private schools.
+
+Of the more than 35,000 children of school age in Stockholm over
+three-fourths attend the thirty _folkskolor_. These are grouped in eight
+school systems, corresponding to the parishes or districts into which
+the city is divided, and at the head of every such system is placed a
+“first teacher.” The different grades in a single building are cut up
+into parallel sections, so that the average number of children under one
+teacher does not exceed 35. The great Kungsholms _folkskola_, intended
+to accommodate 3,500-4,000 children, and one of the largest school
+buildings in the world, is in many ways typical of them all, in spite
+of its greater size. It consists of two L-shaped portions, each four
+stories high with a basement, their long arms forming the opposite ends
+of a rectangular gravelled yard and separating this from the street, and
+their short arms turned toward each other on one side of the yard. At the
+center of this third side is an archway, flanked by one-story structures
+which contain offices and the janitor’s quarters. Next to these the
+loftier gymnastic halls complete the front by joining on to the ells. The
+area of the yard is not far from one and a half acres. The classrooms,
+ninety-four in number, occupy the entire street side of the building, and
+open into long corridors which look out upon the central yard and lead
+down into it. On every floor drinking fountains and stationary washbowls
+supplied with hot and cold water are distributed at frequent intervals
+along these passage-ways. Besides the recitation rooms there are eight
+larger halls for pasteboard, wood, and metal sloyd and the sewing
+classes; three rooms for the use of cooking schools; two gymnasia; two
+bathing outfits, which include dressing-rooms, a hot-air chamber, shower
+baths, and a pool seven by fourteen feet; steam disinfection apparatus,
+laundry and drying rooms; dining rooms, and counters where milk and bread
+are sold to the children; the living apartments of the First Teacher, and
+a room for the use of other teachers; offices, and janitor’s quarters.
+The old wing is heated by steam and the newer one by hot air. The total
+cost, exclusive of the site, was over $200,000.
+
+In the classrooms of this building the single desks are arranged one
+behind the other so as to leave aisles between adjacent rows and next
+to the wall at the sides and rear. Space is thus afforded for simple
+marching exercises and for others which either require no apparatus or
+may be practised with the help of desks and seats. The two halls set
+apart for gymnastics measure about 55 by 25 feet, and have a height
+considerable greater than that of the other rooms. Their side walls are
+lined with stallbars, and the floor space is divided crosswise into
+three nearly equal parts by two pairs of Swedish horizontal bars, when
+these are set up; but the bars and central post of each pair can be
+dropped below the floor and concealed from view by trapdoors when not
+in use, and then the entire area from wall to wall is left free. The
+remaining equipment includes Swedish ladders, climbing poles, ropes
+and rope-ladders hanging from the ceiling, long benches for use at the
+stallbars, and bucks for vaulting exercises. Each of the other school
+districts has also its special room or rooms for gymnastic instruction.
+
+The three lower classes of the various _folkskolor_ have marching and
+other exercises without apparatus daily, in the schoolroom, the work
+alternating with other instruction and directed by the same teacher. In
+the case of higher classes special periods, three a week as a rule, are
+set apart for the gymnastic lesson, and this is given sometimes in the
+schoolroom, utilizing the desks and seats as apparatus, but at least once
+a week in the gymnasium, where its duration is commonly about half an
+hour. Little or no change of costume is attempted, beyond the laying off
+of coats by the boys. The school report for 1898 relates that “since many
+of the children wear wooden shoes, unsuitable for the gymnastic lesson,
+four hundred pairs of special shoes were bought and distributed among the
+districts for use in the gymnasia.”
+
+As regards teachers in the _folkskolor_, the women outnumber the men
+five to one. All must have completed a four-years’ course at one of
+the twelve Swedish training colleges for this grade of instructors,
+and of that course gymnastics everywhere forms a part, directed by a
+graduate of the Central Institute at Stockholm and occupying three
+hours a week throughout the entire four years. There is always a model
+school attached, which affords the future teacher an opportunity to test
+his skill and to acquire experience in this as well as other branches
+of instruction. In Stockholm teachers receive additional counsel and
+direction from a special instructor in gymnastics, who divides his time
+among all the _folkskolor_ in the different districts; but the general
+guide followed is C. H. Liedbeck’s Manual of Gymnastics.[137] Besides the
+formal exercises this book contains a large number of games. These are
+introduced occasionally as part of the gymnastic lesson, and are also
+encouraged in the schoolyards during recess. Of the twenty-eight tables
+of exercises contained in the manual only six call for no apparatus of
+any sort, six can be given with nothing more than desks and seats, and
+the balance require a hall supplied with stallbars, Swedish horizontal
+bars, poles, ropes, ladders, benches, mats, etc.
+
+Instruction in military tactics and target shooting is given to the older
+boys in the spring and early fall, under the general direction of an army
+officer who is assigned to this service in all the elementary schools of
+the city. There is drill by squads in exercises for the recruit, together
+with occasional company drill, a few longer marches in battalion, and
+training as subalterns for the most advanced. During the summer months
+pupils may also receive instruction in swimming, at a large swimming
+school in Lake Mälaren, near one of the city bridges. Over 3000 boys and
+2500 girls availed themselves of this privilege in 1899, and a total of
+6000 in 1900. The number of these who could swim increased in the former
+year from 602 at the beginning of the season to 1510 at its close.
+
+There are seven _higher schools_ for boys at Stockholm. At two of these
+the gymnasium is a separate building of brick, located at one side of a
+gravelled yard at least an acre and a half in extent. Each cost about
+$17,000 and consists of a lofty main hall, eighty by forty or forty-five
+feet, with a wing containing dressing-rooms, the teacher’s office, and
+a few shower baths. At a third school the gymnasium occupies a spacious
+two-story wing which projects from the rear of the main building; in two
+other cases a hall in the main building is fitted up for gymnastics,
+and pupils in the remaining two schools go for their exercises to the
+halls of the Central Institute. The following list of apparatus noticed
+in the gymnasium of the Realläroverk (a non-classical higher school
+for boys) is fairly representative: Sixty sections of stallbars, seven
+Swedish horizontal bars, two vertical Swedish ladders and two horizontal
+ones, eight rope ladders, twenty-four climbing ropes and eight poles,
+two double inclined ropes, a few sections of stallbars continued to
+the ceiling as ladders, storming boards and short benches for use with
+stallbars, bar saddles, two Swedish horses, two vaulting boxes, two
+bucks, jump stands with cord and pins, some thin mats about four feet
+by three, and a number of cheap fencing foils. The horizontal bars are
+arranged to drop beneath the floor. The inclined ropes are attached to
+the ceiling at either end, and to a hook beneath the floor, when in use,
+by means of a tackle block at the center. Near the ends they are crossed
+by vertical ropes, used by the pupils in reaching or leaving the inclined
+ropes. All of these ropes can be hoisted out of the way readily, and a
+small trap door conceals the hook.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.—Rear View of a Higher School for Boys (_Norra
+Latinläroverket_) in Stockholm. (The gymnasium occupies the lower half of
+the projection in the foreground).]
+
+The royal statutes require that in every public secondary school in
+Sweden there shall be at least three hours a week of pedagogical
+gymnastics, arranged in daily half-hour periods when possible. In
+Stockholm the division into half-hour lessons is the most common one.
+Less frequently there are three periods of an hour each, and in a few
+cases a class meets twice for a half-hour and twice for an hour, or
+fifty minutes four times a week, or forty minutes six times, or in four
+one-hour periods. In a majority of cases the time chosen for exercise
+lies between ten and one o’clock, though the hours from two to four in
+the afternoon are used not infrequently. Military exercises take the
+place of gymnastics for boys of the sixth to ninth years in the early
+part of every fall semester, occupying three hours daily for twenty days
+as a rule, and during this period their usual school duties are cut down
+by a corresponding amount. Each of the seven schools has its special
+teacher of gymnastics, and no one is eligible to such a position until he
+has completed a two-years’ professional course at the Central Institute
+of Gymnastics. In the fall of 1900 these teachers and their assistants
+were all officers in the army, and five of the nine were on the staff of
+instruction at the Institute. One had the rank of major, and the rest
+were captains and lieutenants.
+
+Occasionally a “weak section” is formed of boys selected from the whole
+or part of the school, but in general the division into classes is based
+upon school grade, the boys of the sixth to ninth years exercising
+together as a rule, and the rest variously subdivided according to their
+numbers. The size of some of these classes is noteworthy. They rarely
+contain fewer than 60 or 70, while 100-125 is not an unusual number, and
+150-200 are sometimes seen together under a single teacher. To facilitate
+the handling of so many it is usual to separate them into squads of from
+12 to 20, on the basis of physical fitness, and to place at the head
+of each squad one of the best pupils, who sees that his portion of the
+lines is correctly formed at the beginning of the hour, reports upon
+attendance, and directs the work of his division when the teacher is not
+giving commands for the whole class. Before exercising it is the practice
+to remove coats, collars, cuffs, and suspenders, and the dickey, or
+detachable shirt-front, if a boy has arrived at the dignity of wearing
+that common article of clothing. Shoes are exchanged for rubber-soled
+canvas slippers, of the sort so often seen in American gymnasia.
+
+The ease and quickness with which apparatus is made ready or put out of
+the way by pupils must strike every observer. It is this which allows
+such frequent changes during a single lesson, and the great variety of
+forms given to the “day’s order.” As a rule the teaching which one sees
+is remarkably well done. Perfect discipline and prompt and accurate
+execution of commands are secured, and yet there is no oppressive
+military strictness, nor anything but the pleasantest relation between
+teacher and pupils. Opportunities for relaxed attention and brief
+outbreaks of high spirits are frequent, the boys take hold with a vigor
+which proves their interest, and many squad leaders, even the youngest,
+show uncommon earnestness and ability to direct. In a few cases it will
+be found that the control over a class is less perfect and listless,
+slovenly work is tolerated. Where pupils are sent to the Central
+Institute for their instruction, and receive it largely from students
+at that school, the frequent change of leaders and the great variety
+of personality among them produce a natural mingling of good and bad
+teaching.
+
+So far as the fencing instruction given to boys of the four higher grades
+was observed it formed a portion of the gymnastic lesson, and included
+brief practice in the fundamental positions and movements by the whole
+class, and an exchange of thrusts and parries between two opposing lines.
+The military exercises of the same boys in the fall semester cover target
+practice with the rifle, besides squad and company drill and the manual
+of arms. The school yard serves not only for these evolutions and for
+games, but part or all of the gymnastic lesson is often given outdoors
+when the weather is favorable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.—The Gymnasium of a Mixed School in Trelleborg,
+Sweden.]
+
+In all Sweden there are only two _higher schools for girls_ under state
+control. These are the Royal Higher Normal School for Women (_Kungl.
+högre lärarinneseminarium_), in Stockholm, and the model school
+associated with it. One of the halls in the school building used by the
+two in common is fitted up as a gymnasium, and except in the lowest
+classes at the model school a half-hour of gymnastic instruction is
+given daily throughout the entire course of study at both institutions.
+In the case of _private schools_, the great majority of which are for
+girls only, or admit boys to none but the lowest classes, there is no law
+prescribing the amount of physical training to be given, and the practice
+varies accordingly. Thus in 1899 there were 46 such schools, with a
+total of 5157 pupils, and out of this number 2909, in 33 schools, were
+reported as receiving instructions in gymnastics. The oldest institution
+of them all, with 240 pupils, has (1900) nothing but a small room some 40
+by 25 feet and 9 feet high, supplied with a Swedish horizontal bar, six
+climbing ropes, three long benches with balance beams on the under side,
+a vaulting box, jump stands, and a rubber ball. Most of the lower classes
+exercise here for half an hour every other day, and the higher ones twice
+a week, under a special teacher. Another school for girls provides for
+nearly the same number of pupils a room 60 by 20 feet and of good height,
+situated on the ground floor, and for its size as well equipped with
+apparatus as any of the _allmänna läroverk_. Its gymnastic instruction
+is in the hands of Major Silow, of the Central Institute, assisted by
+students in the course for women at that school. His capacity as an
+organizer and his rare talent as a teacher render the quality of work
+done by these girls quite as good as the best to be seen in the boys’
+schools of the city.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Dr. F. A. Schmidt of Bonn and Captain C. J. J. Lefebure of Brussels,
+who visited Stockholm in 1899, have recorded their observations and
+impressions in the following:
+
+Dr. Schmidt—“Die Gymnastik an den schwedischen Volksschulen nebst einem
+Anhang: Die Militärischen Übungen an den höheren Schulen in Stockholm.”
+Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1900 (Reprinted from the _Monatsschrift für das
+Turnwesen_ for 1900). Second edition 1909. Third edition, revised and
+enlarged, under the title “Die schwedische Schulgymnastik,” in 1912
+(Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung).
+
+Captain Lefebure—“L’Éducation Physique en Suède.” Brussels, H. Lamertin;
+Paris, A. Maloine, 1903. Second edition 1908 (Paris, Felix Alcan).
+
+The Swedish Department of Church Affairs and Education (_Kungl.
+Ecklesiastik-Departmentet_) publishes statistical reports covering the
+work of the common schools (_Berättelse om folkskolorna_) and the higher
+schools for boys (_Berättelse om Statens Allmänna läroverk för gossar_).
+The board of directors of the common schools and the rectors of the
+various higher schools for boys in Stockholm also prepare elaborate
+annual reports which contain information regarding the physical training
+of pupils.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[135] See footnote page 128.
+
+[136] A description based primarily on extensive personal observation,
+supplemented by interviews and the study of official documents, has so
+many advantages over a compilation made at a distance that this chapter
+has been left substantially in the form given to it soon after the period
+of residence in Stockholm referred to on page 163. It therefore applies
+to conditions as they existed in 1900. A second, briefer visit in the
+spring of 1913 revealed minor changes, but the general impression given
+by the article as it first appeared in the _American Physical Education
+Review_ (=6=, 1-13) for March, 1901, and in condensed form in _Mind and
+Body_ (=11=, 105-111) for July, 1904, remains essentially correct.
+
+[137] Gymnastiska Dagöfningar för Folkskolan. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt &
+Söner, 1881. Second edition in 1891. A German translation by J. A. Selter
+and J. H. Jarisch, under the title “Das schwedische Schulturnen,” was
+published in 1907 (Marburg, N. G. Elwert).
+
+This book has now been superseded by Törngren’s manual of 1905 (see
+footnote on p. 162). Special attention should also be called to Elin
+Falk’s three-volume “Dagövningar i Gymnastik för Stockholms Folkskolor”
+(Stockholm, P. Palmquist, 1915 and 1916).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK.[138]
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.—Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847).]
+
+Denmark was the first European state to introduce physical training
+into its schools as an essential part of the course, and to prepare
+teachers of that subject by offering systematic instruction in theory
+and method of gymnastics. The leader in this movement, and its director
+for more than forty years, was Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847), the son
+of a Copenhagen tailor. His early education was received in a private
+school, and he had begun the study of theology in the university; but
+the death of his father prevented him from taking the final examination
+for his degree and threw upon him the support of an invalid mother. For
+a time he gave private lessons in Latin, history, and geography, but the
+small pay necessitated such long hours that his health began to suffer.
+From boyhood he had been interested in forms of physical activity, and
+as a university student gained considerable proficiency in fencing
+and vaulting. Inclination, therefore, and the reading of GutsMuths’s
+“_Gymnastik für die Jugend_”[139] started him upon what was to become
+a life-work. He began to teach gymnastics, first to some students at
+his own home, and then, early in 1798, to a club of university students
+and tradesmen which he organized and directed. This brought him, a
+year later, an invitation to give lessons in the private school which
+Court Chaplain Christiani had opened in May of 1795, in accordance with
+the philanthropinistic ideals of Basedow and his followers. A rival
+institution, the Schouboe school which Nachtegall had himself attended
+as a boy, soon secured a share of his time for the same purpose. Other
+schools in the city, public as well as private, followed the example of
+these two, so that by 1805 at least nine were furnishing instruction in
+gymnastics to their pupils.
+
+On November 5, 1799, having definitely decided to give himself wholly
+to the new calling, Nachtegall opened a private outdoor gymnasium in
+the yard of number 45 Østergade, the first institution in modern times
+devoted exclusively to physical training. The 5 pupils with whom he began
+had increased to 25 by the end of the year, and in the winter of 1803-04
+the number reached 150, both children and adults, under six teachers whom
+he had himself trained. When in 1804 the King appointed him professor
+of gymnastics in the university he had already given, for two years,
+lectures on the history and method of physical training, with the help
+of a former pupil, to an audience made up of students there and in a
+college for teachers, with an admixture of military men. Meanwhile the
+training of military and naval cadets and the instruction in gymnastics
+given in schools for non-commissioned officers had also been entrusted
+to him, and when the King established a Training School for Teachers of
+Gymnastics in the Army (_det militære gymnastiske Institut_), by decree
+of August 25, 1804, Nachtegall became its first director. From this as
+a center the new teaching was to be spread throughout the entire army
+and navy, including the Norwegian regiments. Four years later civilians
+were also admitted to the courses, the institution now attempting to do
+for the schools and the people at large what it had already accomplished
+for the army, and to prepare instructors for teachers’ colleges and the
+elementary schools especially. The usual length of the course was fifteen
+to eighteen months, though the first pupil was graduated in August of
+1809. By 1814 the civilian training school, caught in the stress of hard
+times, had ceased to exist. Meanwhile a total of only 31 students had
+completed its course, but 10 of these went out to occupy positions at
+_Seminarier_ (teachers’ colleges), and so became in turn the instructors
+of other teachers-to-be.
+
+The disastrous results of collisions between Denmark and Great Britain
+during the Napoleonic wars (1801-1814) and the economic distress
+which followed the loss of Norway (1814) made the period 1809-1825 an
+unfavorable one for educational reforms, and yet the efforts of the
+Danish government to introduce gymnastics into the curriculum of the
+schools did not stop altogether with provision for the training of
+teachers. An ordinance of November 7, 1809, stated in general that
+grammar or secondary schools (“_de lærde Skoler_”) should furnish
+instruction in gymnastics “when and where it was possible” to do so.
+In the school code of 1814 gymnastics was made an integral part of the
+course for boys in all elementary schools (_Folkeskoler_)—nearly three
+decades before any other European country took such action. Wherever
+the teacher possessed the requisite ability he was to give his pupils a
+daily lesson in gymnastics, outside of school hours proper, and for this
+purpose every school must have the necessary apparatus and an outdoor
+space of 800-1200 _Alen_ (3200-4800 square feet). At the _Seminarier_
+gymnastics became a required subject under the regulations of 1818,
+and in 1821 Nachtegall was appointed _Gymnastikdirektør_ (Director
+of Gymnastics), with oversight of both civil and military gymnastics
+throughout the state. But with here and there a notable exception, the
+result of so much favorable legislation left much to be desired. Teachers
+were most of them without training, hard times interfered with the
+purchase of grounds and apparatus, and appreciation of the importance of
+school gymnastics as a pedagogical measure was by no means general.
+
+Beginning with the middle twenties and lasting till the death of King
+Frederick VI (December 3, 1839) there was some improvement. In Copenhagen
+itself gymnastics was now introduced in many public and private schools,
+and some of the village schools in Copenhagen county took similar action,
+assisted by the government (1826), which desired to see all the schools
+in a single county reached before further statewide measures were
+attempted. Within a few years this had been accomplished. November 25,
+1826, a circular was sent out to the school authorities all over Denmark
+urging them to do what they could to favor instruction in gymnastics.
+In the summer of the next year a considerable number of teachers from
+Copenhagen county came to the city for a course in gymnastics. They felt
+the need of some opportunity for practice with children along with the
+instruction they themselves received. At Nachtegall’s suggestion the
+King therefore ordered (August 21, 1827) that 40 to 50 children from one
+of the public schools should be received at _det militære gymnastiske
+Institut_, for instruction in gymnastics, and that this public school
+should establish such relations with the Institute that both together
+would constitute a teachers’ college which might serve as a normal school
+of gymnastics (_Normalskole for Gymnastikken_), where not only the
+military and civil pupils at the Institute but also teachers in public
+and private schools could have an opportunity to conduct classes under
+supervision. The Normal School, under this new arrangement, was opened on
+January 28, 1828 (at the same time a new building, at Solvgaden barracks,
+was ready for use), and during that year more than 200 teachers were in
+attendance, 160 boys from the garrison school coming to the Institute to
+serve as a model school. In summer their place was taken by pupils from
+charity schools.
+
+June 25, 1828, the King approved the _manual of gymnastics_[140] for use
+in the middle and common schools (_Folkeskolerne_) on which Nachtegall
+and four other members of a commission appointed for the purpose had been
+at work for a year. This was the first book of the sort to be authorized
+by any European government. Copies were sent (4000 of them) at the King’s
+expense to all Danish schools and school authorities. On the same day,
+June 25, was issued an order which required the immediate introduction
+of instruction in gymnastics in all schools throughout the state. A
+city inspector of gymnastics was appointed in Copenhagen, where every
+child received three lessons a week and the teachers were most of them
+non-commissioned officers. It was estimated that by the end of 1830 2000
+elementary schools (_Almueskoler_) were already complying with the order,
+and that by the time of the King’s death 2500 out of the (approximately)
+2600 public schools in Denmark were making at least some provision for
+systematic bodily exercise.
+
+The secondary schools were at first slow to take adequate measures, but
+a special order of September 20, 1831, directed that this be done just
+as soon as circumstances permitted. An administrative order of February
+14, 1832, made the introduction of instruction in gymnastics a necessary
+condition of permission to open any private school for boys. September
+14, 1833, Nachtegall’s manual and regulations for secondary schools[141]
+received the King’s approval, and it was published the following year.
+In 1836 he was sent on a tour of inspection among the _Seminarier_, to
+see what was being done in them and to give any needful counsel and
+suggestions. He found the interest in gymnastics general, but lack of
+sufficient apparatus in some places and in others faulty methods, and
+therefore arranged to have the teachers of gymnastics at three of the
+_Seminarier_ take a summer course at the Normal School in 1837. In
+obedience to an order of March 7, 1838, he made a second tour, primarily
+to inspect the Latin schools, but took advantage of the opportunity to
+visit the _Seminarier_ again.
+
+Hitherto it had been boys and young men alone who were reached by
+gymnastics in the schools, but an order of March 28, 1838, given in
+response to Nachtegall’s proposal, established an experimental school
+for girls. Thirty pupils, ranging in age from six to fifteen years, were
+selected from among the girls at the garrison school, and beginning in
+the spring of the same year these received three lessons a week from
+five teachers (three sergeants and two women) at the Military Gymnastic
+Institute, under the general direction of Nachtegall and a physician.
+The success of this experiment suggested a normal school of gymnastics
+for women (_Normalskole for Kvindegymnastik_). An order of February 20,
+1839, approved the plan, and prescribed that women teachers, and others
+who wished it, should receive an opportunity at the Institute to become
+acquainted with methods of teaching and that the exercises practised
+there and the mode of progression adopted should serve as a model for the
+schools for girls which introduced gymnastics. These latter were also put
+under Nachtegall’s supervision. The number of pupils at the Normal School
+now increased. In the summer of 1839 lessons in the new subject were
+begun with girls in the royal navy schools (_Søetatens Skoler_), and many
+other Copenhagen schools took a similar step.
+
+After the death of Frederick VI, December 3, 1839, Nachtegall’s own
+efforts (he was now sixty-two years old) began to slacken. In 1840 and
+1843 he made new tours of inspection among the _Seminarier_. In 1842
+he turned over to la Cour the headship of _det militære gymnastiske
+Institut_, but continued to discharge the duties of _Gymnastikdirektør_
+until his death, which occurred May 12, 1847. He was not the inventor of
+a system of his own, but borrowed his types of exercise from Dessau and
+Schnepfenthal, and used the manuals of GutsMuths as a guide. He was a
+good teacher and organizer, tactfully winning the goodwill and support
+of leading men, skilful in accommodating himself to actual conditions,
+and indefatigable in his efforts to advance the work to which he had
+committed himself with so much devotion. Denmark owes it to him that
+during the first third of the nineteenth century she held the leading
+place among European nations in the realm of physical education.[142]
+
+Captain Niels Georg la Cour (1797-1876), who succeeded Nachtegall
+as Director of Gymnastics in Denmark (1847-1870), met with little
+success in his endeavor to improve conditions. As head of the Military
+Institute he published a new manual for the army, upon which was based
+his later manual for the elementary schools.[143] But interest was now
+at low ebb. Beginning in 1859 it came to be the practice to supply the
+need of teachers of gymnastics in the _Seminarier_ by “loaning” them
+non-commissioned officers for a term of three years. (This continued
+to be the rule until 1901!) In the schools of Copenhagen, also, and in
+garrison towns, such instruction was in the hands of military men. But in
+the army the broad educational aims of gymnastics had been subordinated
+to mere attainment of skill, so that the soldier too often regarded it
+with dread as a means of discipline and punishment. These officers,
+too, held themselves aloof from the general school life and from the
+other teachers. When la Cour, who possessed more energy than tact and
+lacked Nachtegall’s conciliatory manner, called attention to neglect
+or defective equipment revealed by his tours of inspection, and when
+official circulars directed the school authorities to exercise a keener
+and more vigorous oversight, the result in many cases was to arouse a
+feeling of irritation and indignation.
+
+Upon la Cour’s retirement from the position of _Gymnastikdirektør_
+in 1870 this office was abolished, and a new one was created—that of
+inspector of gymnastics (_Gymnastikinspektør_) for civil schools only.
+But there was no actual separation from military control, for until 1904
+it was the army which supplied candidates for the place. The first man to
+fill it (1870-1886) was Col. Johann Theodor Wegener (1810-1886). He chose
+for his assistant Captain (later Lieut.-Col.) Julius Amsinck (1833-1902),
+director of the Military Institute[144] 1867-1885, who later became his
+successor (1886-1899). Amsinck published in 1883 a manual for school use,
+based on that of la Cour.
+
+After the war of 1864 with Prussia and Austria, in which the Danes lost
+Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, there was a period of great depression,
+soon followed, however, by a variety of measures looking toward national
+regeneration. In two institutions which date from this time, the rifle
+clubs (_Skytteforeninger_) and the people’s or folk high schools
+(_Folkehøjskolerne_), gymnastics was among the means employed, as it had
+been in Germany by Jahn and his followers a half-century before. For
+some years before the outbreak of the war the attitude of Germany in the
+Schleswig-Holstein dispute had been growing more and more threatening,
+and in January, 1861, an artillery captain, Valdemar Mønster, proposed
+in the columns of the Danish paper _Fædrelandet_ the organization of
+voluntary clubs on the plan of the English National Rifle Association, in
+order that young men subject to military service might have opportunity
+to become familiar with the use of weapons and fit themselves to defend
+the country’s right by force of arms. The suggestion met with general
+approval, and a few months later a Central Committee, with Captain
+Mønster as its secretary, was formed to guide and assist the rifle clubs
+which were being started all over Denmark.[145] By the close of 1863
+there were over a hundred of them in existence.
+
+At first the _Skytteforeninger_ confined their attention to rifle
+shooting and military drill, but after the war had given great headway
+to the whole movement gymnastics began to be introduced as a related
+activity, and gradually won for itself a more and more prominent place. A
+firmer organization had now been effected, for the smaller clubs, whose
+number had increased to several hundred, united into county rifle clubs
+(_Amts-Skytteforeninger_). Denmark is divided for administrative purposes
+into eighteen counties or _Amter_, and in 1871 the original Central
+Committee was succeeded by a Board of Directors (_Overbestyrelse_)
+chosen by representatives of the various units. According to information
+gathered by the new _Overbestyrelse_, eleven clubs practised gymnastics
+in 1872, and nine of these had 2100 members actively engaged, of whom 763
+belonged in Svendborg county alone, where the efficient leadership and
+persevering efforts of Captain Edvard Nielsen had contributed largely
+toward such a favorable showing and had made that club a model for others.
+
+The exercises were necessarily limited at the start to what could be
+done in the open air and with little or no apparatus, or use was made of
+barns or rooms for public gatherings. In 1871, at Ryslinge (island of
+Fünen), the first special _Øvelseshus_ (house for exercise, gymnasium)
+was erected. Other places were quick to follow the example, so that
+by 1897 there were nearly 300 such buildings, provided by the club
+members themselves, and in them 10,000 young countrymen were practising
+gymnastics. Trained instructors could be borrowed from the army in
+garrison towns and the regions adjacent to them, or school teachers were
+employed or men who had returned from military service. Many clubs, in
+order to secure better qualified squad leaders, organized brief teachers’
+courses (_Instruktionsmøder_) in charge of army instructors. When
+various people’s high schools, notably those at Askov and Vallekilde,
+opened their doors for such leaders’ courses (_Delingsførerkursus_) in
+gymnastics they became an important source of supply. The first course
+of this kind at Vallekilde was given in 1878. A handbook of gymnastics
+(“Vejledning i Gymnastik”) prepared for the rifle clubs by _Hærens
+Gymnastikskole_ in 1882, at the instance of the _Overbestyrelse_, does
+not appear to have been widely used, but Captain Amsinck’s manual of 1883
+was made the basis of instruction.
+
+At the general _Skyttefest_ (gathering of rifle clubs for competitive
+shooting) in 1869 at Horsens the Svendborg county club, the university
+club from Copenhagen, and others gave exhibitions of gymnastics which
+must have contributed toward its spread, and this was still more true
+of the general _Gymnastikfest_ at Svendborg in 1878 and the general
+_Skytte- og Gymnastikfest_ at Nyborg in 1881, both of them arranged
+by the Svendborg county rifle club. At the former there were nearly
+1100 participants, who came from 16 towns and 110 country parishes.
+Six hundred were from Svendborg county alone. County and lesser
+_Skyttefester_ exerted a similar influence. Advantage was taken of the
+interest thus aroused to seek state aid for the purchase of apparatus.
+Captain Edvard Nielsen proposed such a measure at the meeting of
+delegates in 1879, and a motion requesting the _Overbestyrelse_ to take
+suitable steps led to an initial annual grant of 2000 Kr. from the
+government, increased to 5000 Kr. in 1882 and to 6000 Kr. the following
+year. Attempts to obtain similar grants to assist in the erection of
+_Øvelseshuse_ and the giving of courses of instruction for squad leaders
+(_Delingsførere_) met with no success at this time.
+
+The people’s or folk high schools (_Folkehøjskoler_),[146] like the
+rifle clubs, date from before the Schleswig-Holstein war of 1864; but
+their great popularity and rapid spread began with the period of reform
+which succeeded it. They are not public institutions, though nearly
+all now receive a certain amount of government aid, but are privately
+owned in most cases, or belong to a self-perpetuating corporation, and
+depend for their success upon the personality of the director and his
+associates. The total number opened in the years 1844-1911 was 143, and
+80 of these were in existence at the close of the period. The great
+majority of the students are young countrymen eighteen to twenty-five
+years of age, who after completing the required course at free rural
+elementary schools have been engaged in practical agriculture and
+household duties, either at home or on some model farm. The attendance
+in the years 1864-1884 averaged about 3000 annually, but doubled in the
+following decade, and in the school year 1898-1899 reached a total of
+3491 young men and 2646 young women. In 1906 the numbers at the different
+high schools ranged from 10 to 400; 53 per cent of the pupils were
+males, and it was estimated that a third of the young people among the
+rural population passed through these schools, although attendance is
+altogether voluntary. A few are coeducational, but the usual plan is to
+offer a winter course of five to six months (November-May) to young men,
+and a summer one of three months or more to young women. An hour a day is
+allotted to gymnastics as a rule.
+
+The people’s high schools and the rifle clubs have stood in close
+relation with each other, some of the former organizing clubs of their
+own, or supplying leaders for neighboring clubs, and others, like
+the ones at Askov and Vallekilde, arranging for teachers’ courses in
+gymnastics and rifle-shooting under professional instructors from the
+army. The aims of the two institutions are similar in many ways.
+Although the people’s high schools all give instruction in handwork and
+household economics for women and many offer courses in agriculture,
+horticulture, masonry, carpentry, etc., their chief purpose is
+cultural—to mold character and ideals, inspire patriotism, train the
+students to think for themselves, reveal the dignity and possibilities of
+country life, and lay the foundation for later work in local agricultural
+schools and schools of household economics. The lecture method prevails
+in the classroom. Courses in history and literature may be considered
+the backbone of the curriculum, with frequent discussion periods and
+much singing of folk and patriotic songs and hymns. Students room in
+the school dormitories, and are thus brought into close and sympathetic
+association with each other and with their teachers,—the foundation of
+that spirit of coöperation which is so characteristic of rural life in
+Denmark today.
+
+The revival of general interest in physical education in Denmark had its
+origin thus among young adults, and not in the schools. At first it was
+the GutsMuths gymnastics as developed by Nachtegall which they practised
+in the rifle clubs and the people’s high schools, with the gradual
+addition of exercises borrowed from the Jahn _Turnen_; but beginning in
+1884 the Ling or Swedish system was introduced, and made rapid headway
+until by the close of the century it had been generally adopted in the
+people’s high schools, had outstripped its Danish-German rival in the
+rifle clubs, and formed the basis of a new official manual for the
+schools.[147]
+
+It was not to be expected that the friends of the GutsMuths-Nachtegall
+gymnastics would watch the encroachments of the foreign system without
+a vigorous protest. The struggle began as early as 1885, with army
+officers almost without exception opposed to the innovation, and a few
+years later was at its height. The attention of school authorities was
+drawn to the subject by conflicting claims put forward in the press and
+by what the followers of Ling were already accomplishing in Denmark, and
+some of them recognized that with the help of the new exercises school
+gymnastics might perhaps be resuscitated, especially in the country,
+where conditions were quite unsatisfactory.
+
+The most important result of all this agitation was the appointment
+(April 5, 1887) of a commission of three by the ministry of church and
+school affairs (_Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvæsenet_), to
+recommend improvements in gymnastics as taught in the schools and to
+present plans for the founding and organizing of an institution in
+which men and women should be trained as teachers of gymnastics. Its
+members were Lieutenant-Colonel Amsinck, the new state inspector of
+gymnastics, chairman, communal physician (_Kommunelæge_) Axel Hertel,
+and Professor K. Kroman. They spent several weeks in Stockholm, at the
+_Centralinstitut_ and in the schools, and then went to Berlin for a
+similar purpose. Upon their return they submitted a report (April, 1888)
+containing a number of definite suggestions for the better organization
+of physical education, the training of teachers, and the grouping of
+exercises in a lesson plan. They also proposed the appointment of a
+second and larger commission which should prepare a new manual of school
+gymnastics along the lines indicated. This body was accordingly named
+November 30, 1889. It included the former members, with the addition of
+_Kommunelæge_ Chr. Fenger, regimental surgeon (_Korpslæge_) Johan Kier,
+Cand. polyt. N. H. Rasmussen, and the head of _Hærens Gymnastikskole_,
+Captain L. V. Schleppegrell. The result of their labors was the “Handbook
+of Gymnastics” (_Haandbog i Gymnastik_) published in 1899[148] and at
+once authorized by the government for use in all schools under its
+control. The new manual follows the general principles of the Ling
+gymnastics and adopts practically all of the Swedish exercises, but
+uses also many of the forms already current in Denmark, and introduces
+exercises on the horizontal and parallel bars, flying rings, and trapeze
+along with others which require the apparatus commonly found in gymnasia
+in Sweden.
+
+The commission of 1887 had proposed that the government should start an
+institution for the training of men and women as teachers of gymnastics
+(_Gymnastik Læreranstalt_), with a two-years course of study and
+practice. But in view of the unsettled condition of the whole question
+the authorities were unwilling to take such action. Professor Hans Olrik,
+director of the State Teachers’ Course (_Statens etaarige Lærerkursus_,
+later known as the _Lærerhøjskole_) then suggested, in 1897, that
+instruction in gymnastics be included as a separate division in that
+course. The government gave its approval to the plan, the _Rigsdag_ voted
+the necessary funds, 13,500 Kr., and on March 30, 1898, an official
+announcement of the organization and character of the new course (_det
+etaarige Gymnastikkursus_) was published. It was opened September 1 of
+that year in N. H. Rasmussen’s _Gymnastikhus_ on Vodroffs Vej, under
+the direction of Cand. theol. K. A. Knudsen.[149] The next year (1899)
+Amsinck retired from his position as state inspector of gymnastics. His
+successor, Lieutenant-Colonel Ramsing (1837-1904), already over sixty
+years old when he was appointed to the office, died August 18, 1904, and
+now, for the first time in the history of the inspectorship, it was given
+(September 2) to a non-military man, K. A. Knudsen, the director of the
+one-year teachers’ course.[150]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.—Knud Anton Knudsen (1864-).]
+
+The training school for civilian teachers of gymnastics (_det civile
+gymnastiske Lærerinstitut_) founded in 1808, and the normal school
+of gymnastics (_Normalskole for Gymnastikken_) opened twenty years
+later were both short-lived and both had been appendages of _det
+militære gymnastiske Institut_; since 1859 the teachers of gymnastics
+in the _Seminarier_ had been non-commissioned officers in the army,
+assigned to this duty for three-year periods only; and though the
+non-military schools were given a state inspector of their own in 1870,
+this position had always been held by an army officer. But with _det
+etaarige Gymnastikkursus_ of 1898-1899, the _Haandbog_ of 1899, and the
+appointment of Knudsen to the state inspectorship in 1904 gymnastics in
+the Danish schools entered upon an independent career. This fact was
+made plain by a new school law (1899) which prescribed, among other
+things, that no one should be regularly employed as teacher in the public
+schools unless he had received professional training in a _Seminarium_.
+The _nur-Turnlehrer_ was thus to give place to the _auch-Turnlehrer_,
+an integral part of the teaching staff, and payment for instruction in
+gymnastics was to be at the same rate as for any other subject in the
+curriculum. It was therefore chiefly _Seminarium_-trained teachers, both
+men and women, who attended the one-year course, and from 1901 onward
+examinations based on the _Haandbog_ of 1899 were given to all candidates
+for graduation at the sixteen _Seminarier_.[151]
+
+In the higher (secondary) schools also gymnastics was to be taken out
+of the hands of special or professional teachers and entrusted to
+instructors who give a part of their time to other subjects. University
+graduates already occupying positions in such schools and university
+students who looked forward to teaching as a profession were therefore
+found among the pupils in the one-year course, and in 1905 the government
+decided to permit the work of that course to be spread over three or four
+years in the case of students who wished to complete it at the same time
+they were carrying on their studies in the university. April 1, 1911,
+the one-year course ceased to be a part of _Statens Lærerhøjskole_, and
+September 1, 1911, under a new name and as an independent institution
+(_Statens Gymnastik Institut_), it moved into a building of its
+own.[152] Two years before this (November 1, 1909) the authorities of the
+University at Copenhagen had added to the faculty of that institution,
+on a six-year appointment, a _Docent_ in anatomy, physiology, and theory
+of gymnastics (Johannes Lindhard, a physician), under whose direction
+students who desired to add instruction in gymnastics to other teaching
+after graduation were allowed to take one of their minor courses in
+preparation for the final examination (_Skoleembedseksamen_) leading to
+a degree, and so qualifying them to become candidates for positions in
+higher schools. The instruction in practical gymnastics and games was
+to be given at _Statens Gymnastik-Institut_, or under the oversight of
+its director, and was to be at least equal to that given in the one-year
+course.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.—Interior of the Danish Central Institute of
+Gymnastics, at Copenhagen.]
+
+The demand for teachers trained in the _Haandbog_ of 1899 could not
+be met by graduates from these more extended and thorough courses of
+preparation, however. For men and women already employed in the schools
+who could not afford to leave their regular duties the state therefore
+arranged short vacation courses of four weeks each. Thirty-four attended
+the first one of these, given in Copenhagen in 1899. The next year it
+was decided to move them out into the country, to _Seminarier_ and
+_Folkehøjskoler_, and the numbers rose at once to 200. Between 1900 and
+1911 the work thus offered was completed by 1027 men and 1680 women—an
+average attendance of 225. In 1913 it reached 349. Still briefer courses,
+of a single week’s duration (_Instruktionskursus_), brought a measure
+of preparation to older teachers who were unable to leave their homes,
+and these were often attended by the same persons for several years
+in succession. Two thousand five hundred and twenty-six men and 519
+women were enrolled in them in the years 1901-1911. The total number of
+teachers trained in the newer gymnastics, in the state one-year course,
+the university, the sixteen _Seminarier_, and the longer and shorter
+vacation courses reaches therefore well into the thousands, and to these
+should be added the other thousands who have attended the month-long
+leaders’ courses (_Delingsførerkursus_) arranged by the rifle clubs or
+their _Overbestyrelse_ since 1889.
+
+The Danes have not been the only ones to profit by the agencies just
+enumerated. Up to 1911 the one-year course had been taken by 15
+foreigners (4 men and 11 women), from Norway, Finland, Poland, Germany,
+Switzerland, Holland, England, and America; and 49 foreigners (25 men
+and 24 women) had completed vacation courses. At the invitation of
+Yorkshire school authorities _Gymnastikinspektør_ Knudsen conducted a
+special vacation course for English teachers at Scarborough in 1905, and
+two graduates of the one-year course, H. G. Junker and H. P. Langkilde,
+were afterwards employed to train teachers in the schools of West Riding,
+Yorkshire. Langkilde was engaged by the British ministry of war in 1906
+to introduce the Ling gymnastics in the army gymnasium at Aldershot.
+Two other graduates of the one-year course, Braae-Hansen (in 1908, as
+director) and Frøken P. Brandt (in 1909), were installed as instructors
+in state-supported training schools for men and women teachers of
+gymnastics, organized at the Southwestern Polytechnic Institute in
+London. In 1908 Junker began to give one-month courses for English
+teachers at Silkeborg, in Denmark, which have been largely attended by
+both men and women (more than 80 in each of the years 1910 and 1911), and
+in 1910 he opened in the same place a one-year course for Englishmen.
+Danish women have also served as teachers of gymnastics at various
+English teachers’ colleges and in the schools of that country.
+
+The school code of 1814 had made practice in gymnastics obligatory, in
+the case of boys, at all elementary schools (_Folkeskoler_), whether
+town or country. A law of 1904 extended its provisions to include girls,
+as well; and within six years of that date more than 95 per cent of the
+girls in town and city elementary schools and nearly 50 per cent of those
+in the country were receiving such instruction. Lack of suitable rooms
+was the greatest difficulty which confronted the country schools. To
+meet this condition the _Rigsdag_ voted that beginning with April 1,
+1907, the state should bear one-half of the expense (up to 15,000 Kr.)
+incurred by any community in building a gymnasium (_Gymnastikhus_) for
+its schools. Two years later the grant was increased, so as to include
+town schools, and made to cover the cost of providing playgrounds also.
+It became necessary to withhold state aid after April 1, 1911, on account
+of financial stringency, but up to that time nearly 300 gymnasia had been
+erected in the country regions, at an average cost of about 5000 Kr. By
+the following year (1912) 488 country schools had gymnasia of their own,
+and 559 others were using rented gymnasia, usually those which belonged
+to rifle clubs. The other two-thirds of the 3500 or more country schools
+were obliged to content themselves with exercise out of doors on the
+playgrounds, which are gradually being equipped with such gymnastic
+apparatus as stall bars, Swedish horizontal bars, bucks, vaulting boxes,
+etc.
+
+Not content with merely providing facilities for physical education, the
+_Rigsdag_ also appropriated funds sufficient for the appointment of 17
+_Gymnastikkonsulenter_ (14 men and 3 women, most of them trained in the
+one-year course) or assistants to the state inspector of gymnastics,
+who are able to visit nearly 900 schools a year, arousing interest in
+teachers, pupils, and parents, demonstrating the proper handling of
+a class, meeting the teachers for conference and suggestions, and in
+general working for a better understanding of the object and means of
+physical education and greater uniformity in methods. A step which has
+done much to improve the standing of gymnastics in higher schools was the
+decision to grade pupils on their work in this subject, in connection
+with two of their public examinations (the _Mellemskoleeksamen_, since
+1907, and _Realeksamen_, since 1908, but not yet in the final or
+_Studentereksamen_), and to give to such a grade (_Aarskarakter_) equal
+value with those secured in any other branch of study or practice.
+
+Starting thus among young adults in the people’s high schools and
+rifle clubs, the newer gymnastics has made its way into the elementary
+schools and the _Seminarier_ and thence into the higher schools and the
+university. In contrast with what one sees in Sweden, the instruction is
+almost wholly in the hands of civilians, regular members of the teaching
+staff who give only a portion of their time to this branch; the average
+number of pupils in a class is only about 30, instead of the 150 or even
+200 sometimes led by a single teacher across the Sound; and the rooms
+provided for exercise are smaller and more numerous—so frequently two
+for a single school that this may be considered the rule. On the other
+hand the Danish teacher receives at most a ten-months’ course of special
+training, in contrast with the two years usually spent at the Stockholm
+_Centralinstitut_.
+
+It is now more than a hundred years since Denmark made gymnastics an
+essential part of the curriculum of its public schools, antedating
+Prussia in the step by over a quarter of a century; but her German
+neighbor, on the other hand, takes precedence in the matter of
+systematic efforts to foster games among school children. Minister
+von Gossler’s playground order was issued in 1882, fourteen years
+before its Danish counterpart, and the German “Central Committee for
+the Promotion of Games,” formed in Berlin in 1891, was six years old
+before a corresponding body was organized in Copenhagen. The beginnings
+of the movement, in each country, reveal the influence of English
+customs, and the ball games of the English schoolboy were among the
+first forms introduced. In certain of the higher schools of Denmark,
+particularly in boarding schools located in the country, open-air games
+were already firmly established when in 1891 the Copenhagen Playground
+Association (_Legepladsforening_) first undertook to bring them within
+the reach of children in public elementary schools (_Folkeskoler_), by
+opening playgrounds in various sections of the city and organizing the
+play-life there. This attempt suddenly took on national proportions when
+Wilhelm Bardenfleth, Minister of Church and School Affairs, on August
+31, 1896, sent out his “Circular to all school authorities regarding
+the introduction and regular use of games for children in the public
+schools.”[153]
+
+Games which require agility and strength, the Minister said, deserve a
+place side by side with formal gymnastics, not only as healthful forms of
+recreation, but because they train the players to make decisions promptly
+and carry them out energetically, rouse a feeling of responsibility,
+require subordination and coöperation, and play a large part in the
+development of personality. Hitherto this valuable educational agency,
+which supplements, but should not replace, gymnastics, has been left
+too much to the initiative of the young themselves and the results
+have been largely a matter of chance. School authorities should make
+it their business to provide playgrounds of sufficient size and
+conveniently located. Teachers must interest themselves in the matter,
+joining the pupils in their sports, preserving order, and supplying the
+necessary supervision and direction, and a place ought to be found in
+the curriculum for such activities, in addition to voluntary practice
+outside of school hours. The Minister announces his readiness to render
+assistance in furthering the movement, by including the subject of
+organized play in the annual vacation courses for teachers. Attention is
+called to a list of books containing directions for a variety of games.
+The Commission of 1889, appointed to work out a new manual of gymnastics,
+was also preparing a brief guide to the use of appropriate games,[154]
+and this, it was hoped, could be sent out to all public and private
+schools.
+
+On December 1, 1896, three months after the appearance of the Bardenfleth
+circular, the Copenhagen Playground Association proposed to the ministry
+an annual grant from state funds to be used in making it effective,
+and offered to form a committee which should undertake to manage the
+practical details of the project. The suggestion was approved, the
+_Rigsdag_ voted an appropriation of 5000 Kr. a year for three years,
+and the expenditure of the fund was entrusted to a group of men and
+women from all parts of the country who met in Copenhagen April 11,
+1897, at the invitation of the Playground Association, and constituted
+themselves a National Committee for Promoting Group Games among School
+Children.[155] The original membership included Fru Rigmor Bendix,
+Copenhagen, chairman; school principal Emil Slomann, Frederiksberg,
+vice-chairman; wholesale merchant Carl H. Melchior, Copenhagen,
+treasurer; Dr. med. H. Forchhammer, Copenhagen, secretary; district
+physician Axel Hertel, Copenhagen, and school director Joakim Larsen,
+Frederiksberg, additional members of the executive committee; and fifteen
+other persons residing in various parts of Denmark, among them Professor
+Poul la Cour of the Askov people’s high school, and Cand. theol. K. A.
+Knudsen, then living in Frederiksberg.
+
+The regulations adopted at the time of organization have governed the
+operations of the Committee ever since. They define its object as the
+furtherance of group games in the open air. Among the means employed are
+lectures and the distribution of pamphlets explaining its work, guidance
+in the use of games, the training of teachers, grants of money to help
+in procuring apparatus and hiring teachers, and assistance in securing
+and equipping playgrounds. As a rule it is expected that in each case
+the community concerned, or private individuals, will provide an amount
+equal to that furnished by the Committee from the funds placed at its
+disposal. The Committee also reserves the right to supervise activities
+toward which it contributes, and to require annual reports regarding
+them; but local organizations are independent in matters of detail. It
+does not solicit contributions outside of the state grant, although it
+has a small income from other sources. Effort has been largely centered,
+from the start, on two lines of work, the preparation of teachers to act
+as play leaders in the schools, and the furnishing of expert advice and
+direct assistance in particular cases where these are requested.
+
+Minister Bardenfleth, in his circular of 1896, had offered to include
+instruction and practice in group games in the annual vacation courses
+for teachers conducted by the state. Special courses of this sort, under
+the direction of the secretary of the National Committee, were therefore
+provided for men in the summers of 1897-1900, and for women in 1898
+and 1899, and the subject of games was added to the vacation course in
+gymnastics for women in 1897 and 1898. Since the fall of 1898 group games
+have been taken up as a regular part of the state’s one-year course in
+gymnastics. In the spring of 1897 and again in 1898 the Committee offered
+short courses of its own for women teachers, especially those in the
+Copenhagen schools. With its help group games were made a part of various
+teachers’ courses organized primarily for other purposes, and later it
+arranged a long series of special courses, beginning and repetition,
+term-time and vacation, for men, for women, and for both sexes.
+
+The usual length of these special courses has been three weeks. Men have
+devoted four or five hours daily to the work, or a total of eighty to
+ninety hours, and most of it has been practical, with chief emphasis on
+the more complicated games, such as _Langbold_ (a Danish-Norwegian ball
+game), cricket, football, and hockey. The aim has been to give a complete
+understanding of the theory of each game, and enough practice in it to
+make the teacher a capable guide for his pupils. Not much time has been
+allotted to the simpler games. In the early courses for women instruction
+was more elementary, and limited at first to a total of eighteen to
+twenty-four hours, since most of the participants were quite unused to
+strenuous bodily exercise. _Langbold_ was the favorite game, but later
+football was found to be excellent for young girls up to the age of
+puberty, and hockey after that period. The amount of time given to daily
+practice was also increased, until it reached three or four hours, and
+the total advanced from between thirty and thirty-five hours to between
+fifty and sixty. Hockey steadily gained in popularity, but children’s
+games received relatively more attention than was the case in courses
+for men. Fr. Knudsen, secretary of the National Committee, has published
+a handbook of games, a guide to hockey, and with Ahrent Otterstrøm a
+football manual.
+
+The demands upon the National Committee in its other field of effort,
+the giving of expert advice and direct assistance in particular cases,
+have been numerous and constant from the start. In 1897 help was given
+to 43 schools or communities; 64 others were added to the list the
+following year, and 120 in the period 1890-1901, and since that time the
+additions have averaged about 25 a year, so that by the end of 1913 a
+total of 532 had received aid. The needs of public elementary schools
+(_Folkeskoler_) have naturally been the first to receive attention, but
+a few _Realskoler_ and _Højskoler_ in the provinces are included in the
+number. Experience demonstrated the importance of competent oversight,
+and since April 1, 1901, assistance has been granted in new cases only
+when a professionally trained teacher of gymnastics is employed, or a
+graduate of one of the state or Committee courses in group games. Tours
+of inspection are made by the secretary of the National Committee, who
+visited 387 schools or communities in the years 1900-1913. Other trips
+were made to give advice or help in the laying out of playgrounds.
+Commonly the Committee first suggests the games which seem most
+appropriate in the locality concerned, and then sends on the necessary
+apparatus (for _ball_ games, exclusively), except such as can be bought
+on the spot without much expense. A sum of money to be used in procuring
+or improving playgrounds is sometimes added; but the original idea of
+providing compensation for teachers has not been carried out.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+The chief sources of information have already been given in the
+footnotes. Others will be found in the chapter as originally published in
+1918 (see page 178).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[138] This chapter is condensed from one of two “Studies in the History
+of Physical Education” published for the author by the Society of
+Directors of Physical Education in Colleges, in 1918.
+
+[139] See page 77. An abridged translation of this book, by V. K. Hjort,
+curate at Holmens Kirke, was published in Copenhagen in 1799 (see page
+79).
+
+[140] “Lærebog i Gymnastik for Almue- og Borger-Skolerne i
+Danmark. Kjøbenhavn 1828. Trykt hos Andreas Seidelin, Hof- og
+Universitets-Bogtrykker.” A German translation was published: “Lehrbuch
+der Gymnastik für Volks- und Bürgerschulen. Aus dem Dänischen übersetzt
+von C. Kopp, Gymnastiklehrer am Königl. Schullehrer-Seminar in Tondern,
+Dannebrogsmann. Mit vier Steindrücken. Tondern 1831. Gedruckt in der
+Königl. privilegirten Buchdruckerey der Wittwe Forchhammer.” Tondern was
+then a Danish town, but the German language was used in the _Seminarium_.
+State aid was given toward the publication of the book.
+
+[141] “Lærebog i Gymnastik til Brug for de lærde Skoler i Danmark.
+Ved F. Nachtegall, Direkteur for og Professor i Gymnastikken; Ridder
+af Dbr. og Dbm. Kjøbenhavn. Trykt i det Poppske Bogtrykkeri. 1834.”
+Bound with the above: “Regulativ for den gymnastiske Underviisning ved
+de lærde Skoler i Danmark.” Of this book also a German translation
+appeared: “Lehrbuch der Gymnastik zum Gebrauch für die gelehrten Schulen
+in Dänemark. Von F. Nachtegall, Directeur und Professor der Gymnastik,
+Ritter von Dannebrog und Dannebrogsmann. Aus dem Dänischen übersetzt
+von C. Kopp, Gymnastiklehrer am Königl. Schullehrer-Seminar in Tondern,
+Dannebrogsmann. Tondern 1837. Gedruckt in der Königl. privilegirten
+Buchdruckerei der Wittwe Forchhammer.” Bound with the above: “Regulativ
+für den gymnastischen Unterricht bei den gelehrten Schulen in Dänemark.”
+
+[142] Sources for Nachtegall and his time:
+
+1. Joakim Larsen, “Gymnastikundervisningen i Danmark paa Nachtegalls
+Tid (Foredrag ved Gymnastiklærermødet i Stockholm 1895; her meddelt i
+en noget udvidet Skikkelse).” In _Vor Ungdom_ (periodical, Copenhagen),
+1895, pp. 465-512.
+
+2. Joakim Larsen, article “Nachtegall” in C. F. Bricka’s “Dansk
+Biografisk Lexikon,” =12= (Copenhagen, 1898).
+
+3. Joakim Larsen, “Gymnastikundervisningens Indførelse i vore Folkeskoler
+for 100 Aar siden.” In Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift 1913-1914
+(Copenhagen, 1914), pp. 5-28.
+
+4. K. A. Knudsen, article “Gymnastik” in “Salmonsens store illustrerede
+Konversationsleksikon,” =8= (Copenhagen, 1898).
+
+5. K. A. Knudsen, “Gymnastikken i Danmark i hundrede Aar 1814-1914.”
+Foredrag ved de baltiske Lege i Malmö 1914. Copenhagen, 1914.
+
+6. Jens Bergmann, “Hærens Gymnastikskole og Skolegymnastikken.” In
+Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift 1904.
+
+7. Illeris og Trap, “Grundtræk af Gymnastikkens Historie” (Copenhagen,
+1909), pp. 72-79.
+
+[143] “Lærebog i Gymnastik for Borger- og Almueskoler.” Copenhagen, 1856
+(1855?). Second edition 1860. There was also a “Tillæg til Lærebog i
+Gymnastik for Borger- og Almueskolerne.” Copenhagen, 1869.
+
+[144] Now known as the “Army School of Gymnastics” (_Hærens
+Gymnastikskole_).
+
+[145] For the history of the Rifle Clubs consult Lieut.-Col. Peter
+Ramsing’s “Gymnastiken i de danske Skytteforeninger,” published in the
+“Beretning om det skandinaviske Gymnastiklærerselskabs femte almindelige
+Møde i København den 12-14. August 1899” (Copenhagen, 1902), pp. 48-73;
+and Kristen A. Lange’s “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909”
+(Copenhagen, 1909), pp. 60-87.
+
+[146] Sources: “Le Danemark. État actuel de sa civilisation et de son
+organisation sociale. Ouvrage publié à l’occasion de l’exposition
+universelle de Paris 1900 par J. Carlsen, H. Olrik, C.-N. Starcke”
+(Copenhagen, 1900), pp. 180-190; Harold W. Foght, “The Educational System
+of Rural Denmark” (U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin 1913, No. 53.
+Washington, 1914); L. L. Friend, “The Folk High School of Denmark” (U. S.
+Bureau of Education Bulletin 1914, No. 5. Washington, 1914); and Kristen
+A. Lange’s “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909” (Copenhagen,
+1909), pp. 14 and following.
+
+[147] For the history of the Ling gymnastics in Denmark consult: Ramsing
+1899 (as above, under rifle clubs); Knudsen 1914 (as above, under
+Nachtegall), pp. 12-30; Kristen A. Lange’s “Den Lingske Gymnastik i
+Danmark 1884-1909” (Copenhagen, 1909); Kåre Teilmann’s “Den Lingske
+Gymnastik i Danmark,” in _Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift 1913-1914_
+(Copenhagen, 1914), pp. 94-142; “Haandbog i Gymnastik” (Copenhagen,
+1899); Prof. K. Kroman, “Den nye danske Skolegymnastik,” in “Beretning
+om det skandinaviske Gymnastiklærerselskabs femte almindelige Møde i
+København den 12.-14. August 1899” (Copenhagen, 1902), pp. 20-30 (see
+also pp. 31-40); “Die Leibespflege in Dänemark: Bericht über eine
+einjährige Studienreise von Turnlehrer Otto Plaumann (Beilage zu dem
+Jahresbericht des Reform-Realgymnasium zu Kiel.” Kiel, 1910. 48 pages);
+“Leibesübungen in Dänemark: Bericht über eine einjährige Studien-Reise
+von J. B. Masüger, Turnlehrer an der Kantonsschule in Chur” (Chur, 1912.
+104 pages).
+
+[148] Copenhagen, J. Frimodt.
+
+[149] Born at Orte, Island of Fünen, August 21, 1864, and graduated from
+the Latin school in Odense in 1883. He had completed his theological
+studies in Copenhagen in 1889, and the two-years course at the Stockholm
+_Centralinstitut_ in 1891, taught in the Ryslinge (Fünen) people’s high
+school 1891-1895 (and during this time was active in spreading the Ling
+gymnastics in the Svendborg and Odense county rifle clubs), and besides
+practising medical gymnastics had been connected with Frøken Natalie
+Zahle’s school and the Rasmussen gymnasium in Copenhagen 1895-1898.
+
+[150] Inspector Knudsen has written the following, all of them published
+in Copenhagen, “i Hovedkommission hos J. Frimodt”:
+
+1. “Grundsætninger for Gymnastikundervisning.” 1897. Fourth edition, 1908.
+
+2. “Øvelselære. Forklaring af typiske gymnastiske Øvelser.” 1900. Fourth
+revised edition 1911. A German translation (_Turnerische Übungslehre_) by
+Ana Iversen, was published by B. G. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin, in 1915.
+
+3. “Timesedler til Brug ved Gymnastikundervisning for mandlige Elever.”
+1900. Fourth edition, 1912.
+
+4. “Timesedler til Brug ved Gymnastikundervisning for kvindelige Elever.”
+1900. Fifth edition, 1912.
+
+5. With Sigrid Nutzhorn, “Legemsøvelser for Pigeskolen, ordnede efter
+Skoleaar.” Udgivet med Understøttelse fra Ministeriet for Kirke- og
+Undervisningsvæsenet. 1913.
+
+6. “Lærebog i Gymnastik for Seminarierne.” 1916. An English translation
+(“A Text-book of Gymnastics”) by Ruth Herbert and H. G. Junker was
+published in 1920 (London, William Heinemann; Philadelphia, J. B.
+Lippincott Co.).
+
+[151] For the later history of physical education in the Danish schools
+consult Knudsen in “Salmonsens store illustrerede Konversationsleksikon,”
+=19= (Copenhagen, 1911), pp. 631-634; his “Gymnastikken i Danmark
+i hundrede Aar 1814-1914” (Copenhagen, 1914), and “Beretning om
+Statens Kursus i Gymnastik og om Gymnastikkens Tilstand i de danske
+Skoler i 1911” (Copenhagen, 1912); Docent J. Lindhard, “Akademiske
+Gymnastiklærere,” in _Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift_ 1912, pp. 169-177;
+and Kristen A. Lange, “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909”
+(Copenhagen, 1909).
+
+[152] Temporary quarters, on rented land in a corner of the University
+Ball Club’s grounds (_Akademisk Boldklubs Bane_), out Tagensvej near
+the corner of Jagtvej. On April 1, 1921, the _Rigsdag_ voted the sum of
+500,000 Kr. for new buildings.
+
+[153] “Circulære til samtlige Skoledirektioner om Indførelse af ordnede
+Lege for Folkeskolens Børn.” The circular is given in full in the
+appendix to the first report (Første Beretning, 1897-1899) of _Udvalget
+for danske Skolebørns Fælleslege_ (Copenhagen, 1899).
+
+[154] “Lege, Boldspil og anden Idræt. Kort Vejledning til Brug for
+Skoler udarbejdet af Gymnastikkommission.” Copenhagen, 1897. The same
+material, somewhat modified, is contained on pp. 275-404 of the “Haandbog
+i Gymnastik” of 1899.
+
+[155] _Udvalget for danske Skolebørns Fælleslege._ The Committee, whose
+headquarters are in Copenhagen, at Holsteinsgade 11², has issued six
+reports, covering respectively the years 1897-1899, 1899-1902, 1902-1905,
+1905-1908, 1908-1911, and 1911-1914.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+
+While the _Turnverein_, or popular gymnastic society, was spreading
+over Germany, and systems of school gymnastics were being developed in
+that country and in Sweden, a variety of sports and organized games had
+become an established feature of life in the English public schools and
+universities.[156] As might be expected, these different types or phases
+of physical training have later begun to react upon each other, and
+each has been copied in more or less modified form in other countries.
+Most European states now have societies modelled after the German
+_Turnverein_, and the gymnastics of Spiess won friends among educational
+authorities far beyond the bounds of Switzerland and Hesse. We have found
+the playground movement making headway in Germany and Denmark, but shall
+also see the Swedish system of school gymnastics gain a foothold in
+England, as it had already done in Denmark.
+
+In the first chapter of his “Athletics and Football” (The Badminton
+Library of Sports and Pastimes) Montague Shearman has reviewed the
+history of athletic sports in England. He attempts to show “that
+competitions in running, jumping, and hurling of heavy weights are
+not only indigenous to the land, but have been one of the chief
+characteristics of both town and country life in England as far back as
+chronicles will reach; and that athletic sports, though they have had
+their days of waxing and waning, have always been a feature of life in
+‘Merrie England.’” Young Londoners in the reign of Henry II (1154-1189)
+practised “leaping, wrestling, casting of the stone, and playing with the
+ball,” together with other exercises, in open spaces set apart for their
+use near the city. We have seen (p. 55) that Sir Thomas Elyot, in _The
+Boke_ published in 1531, refers to lifting or throwing the heavy stone or
+bar, wrestling, running, swimming, handling the sword and the battle-axe,
+riding, vaulting, and shooting in a long bow. Some idea of the universal
+prevalence of vigorous forms of recreation in the early part of the
+seventeenth century we gain from a passage in Robert Burton’s _Anatomy
+of Melancholy_. Writing of exercise as a cure (Partition 2, section 2,
+member 4), he first considers hunting and fishing, and then goes on to
+say that “many other sports and recreations there be, much in use, as
+ringing, bowling, shooting (archery), which Ascham recommends in a just
+volume (_Toxophilus_, 1545) ...; keelpins, tronks, quoits, pitching bars,
+hurling, wrestling, leaping, running, fencing, mustering, swimming,
+wasters (fencing with wooden swords), foils, football, balloon, quintain,
+etc., and many such, which are the common recreations of the country
+folks; riding of great horses, running at rings, tilts and tournaments,
+horse-races, wild-goose chases, which are the disports of greater
+men....” The ordinary occasions for the pastimes of the common people
+were Sundays and church festivals, and the numerous country fairs. Joseph
+Strutt’s volume on “The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England,”
+published in 1801, gives an entertaining description of town and country
+recreations practised “from the earliest period to the present time,” and
+it also reflects the general interest in such matters at the opening of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.—Eton College: The Wall Game (From “Football, the
+American Intercollegiate Game,” by Parke H. Davis).]
+
+When we come to the particular forms of active sport or pastime which
+have been popular in Great Britain at one time or another we are amazed
+at their number and variety. Activities once practised as a necessary
+part of daily life survive in the sports of hunting, shooting, falconry
+or hawking, fishing with rod and line, and archery, and the same is true
+of walking, mountaineering, rowing and sailing, swimming, skating, and
+the like. The primeval joy of combat has been furnished by wrestling,
+boxing, fencing with foil and sabre, single-stick and quarter-staff. Man
+has matched himself against man in foot-races, broad and high jumping,
+weight-throwing and putting the stone or shot, the hammer-throwing and
+caber-tossing of the Scottish highlands, and the pole-vaulting which
+probably had its origin in contests between messengers whose calling
+required them to cross ditches and hedges with the help of jumping-poles.
+The game of bowls has been traced back to the thirteenth century or
+farther, and curling has been popular in Scotland for three centuries or
+more. Skittles, quoits, and hockey or shinny (shinty) have been played
+time out of mind. Golf was a formidable rival of archery in Scotland as
+far back as the middle of the fifteenth century; but English interest
+in the sport is comparatively recent. Polo was not introduced from the
+East until about fifty years ago. Tennis and fives, racquets and squash
+racquets have long had their devotees, and lawn tennis is now added to
+the list. Cricket, while it existed in England as long ago as 1600, did
+not become widely popular until towards the middle of the next century;
+but football “is undoubtedly the oldest of all English national sports.
+For at least six centuries the people have loved the rush and struggle of
+the rude and manly game” (Shearman).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.—Football at Rugby School (From H. H. Hardy’s
+“Rugby.”)]
+
+Certain ones of these sports are common to several or many countries,
+and no nation has a monopoly of games; but Great Britain has been
+preëminently the home of such pastimes, and nowhere else have they won
+such an enthusiastic following among all classes of society or affected
+so large a part of the population. In variety of sports cultivated,
+elaborate attention to details, and the perfection of play attained in
+games like cricket and football she was long without a rival. Price
+Collier, in the chapter on sports in his “England and the English from an
+American Point of View” (New York, 1909), quotes some figures which “an
+accepted authority upon all matters of sport in England has compiled as
+to the investment and expenditures upon sport by the forty odd millions
+of inhabitants of Great Britain. His estimates, when they have been
+criticized, have been criticized mainly because they were too low.” From
+these figures Collier concludes “that some $233,066,250 are invested
+permanently, and $223,887,725 spent annually for sport.” He goes on to
+say: “Travel by train or motor anywhere in England and you see games
+being played—particularly if it be a Saturday—from one end of the country
+to the other. The open spaces of England seem to be given over to men and
+some women batting, kicking, or hitting a ball. The attendance at games
+on a Saturday is very large.... Even at the beginning of the football
+season the gate receipts show an attendance of more than 200,000 people.
+When the big and final games take place, I have calculated that out
+of the male adult population of England and Wales on a great football
+Saturday one in every twenty-seven is in attendance at a game of some
+sort, and this leans to the error of being too few rather than too many.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.—Oxford University: The “Eights” on the Thames.]
+
+Foreigners visiting England, and particularly men interested in education
+and brought into contact with the athletic life of the great public
+schools and Oxford and Cambridge Universities, could not fail to be
+impressed by such facts as we have mentioned, and to report them in the
+books which were the outcome of their travels. The influence of English
+practices on Koch, Hermann, and Hartwich, pioneers of the playground
+movement in Germany, and Raydt’s journey of 1886 and the volume embodying
+the result of his observations (1889) have been already cited (Chapter
+XIV). Professor Törngren, from the Central Institute of Gymnastics in
+Stockholm, visited England in 1877 and published a volume on school games
+shortly after (p. 162). The results of a later visit (1889) are reported
+in the _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_ for 1890 (3: 145-195). English customs,
+also, seem to have been partly responsible for starting the playground
+movement in Denmark (p. 194). Paschal Grousset, the French journalist,
+recorded his impressions in “La vie de collège en Angleterre” (Paris, J.
+Hetzel, 1880), writing under the _nom de plume_ “André Laurie.” Pierre
+de Coubertin, who began his visits to England in 1884, has done the same
+in his “L’éducation en Angleterre: collèges et universités” (Paris,
+Hachette, 1888). Chapters II-IV in the volume on Physical Education of
+the Young by Professor Angelo Mosso, the Turin physiologist (German
+translation, 1894; French translation, 1895) reveal his indebtedness to
+English experiences. In the United States we have had Caspar Whitney’s
+“A Sporting Pilgrimage” (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1894), and John
+Corbin’s “School Boy Life in England” (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1898)
+and “An American at Oxford” (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1902).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.—Oxford University: The “Eights” Passing the
+College Barges.]
+
+To an outsider, attempting to review the earlier history of physical
+education in England, it seems that apart from her outdoor sports, in
+the form they have assumed at the public schools and universities, her
+greatest contribution has been made through the teaching and writings of
+Archibald Maclaren, for many years proprietor of a gymnasium at Oxford.
+He was born in 1819 or 1820[157] at Alloa, a seaport on the north bank of
+the Forth, in Scotland. His daughter writes that she believes his father
+was the minister of a neighboring kirk, and the boy was brought up a
+Presbyterian. At the age of sixteen or a little older he went to Paris,
+and for some years was a student of fencing and gymnastics there. He
+also studied medicine; but was most interested in physical training, and
+determined to reform gymnastics, make a real science of it, and put it on
+a plane where it belonged as a part of education. He therefore settled in
+Oxford, and opened a fencing school in Oriel Lane, afterwards converting
+it into a gymnasium. In 1858 he erected a building of his own, the
+University Gymnasium, on Alfred Street at the corner of Bear Lane.[158]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.—Archibald Maclaren (C. 1820-1884). Copied from a
+portrait made about six years before his death.]
+
+An interesting sidelight on Maclaren’s qualities of mind and heart is
+afforded by certain events which belong to this period. William Morris
+and Edward Burne-Jones, poet- and painter-to-be, entered Exeter College,
+at Oxford, in January of 1853, and both young men soon began to frequent
+the fencing rooms on Oriel Lane. J. W. Mackail[159] recalls how “between
+them and Maclaren himself, a man in the prime of life, cultivated and
+full of enthusiasm, a mutual intimacy and liking sprang up, and grew
+into a warm friendship. Three or four times in the term they would go
+and dine with him in Summertown....” And Lady Burne-Jones[160] speaks
+of Maclaren as a “man of the highest character and with warmth and
+tenderness underlying reserve of manner. His home at Summertown, then a
+small village separated by a stretch of country road from Oxford, was a
+sanctuary seldom opened to the outer world.”[161] She calls him one of
+the truest friends her husband ever had, and one whose eyes discerned his
+pupil’s genius from the first.[162]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.—Maclaren’s Oxford Gymnasium (From frontispiece to
+his “A System of Physical Education,” 1869).]
+
+About 1860 Maclaren was asked to work out a system of physical education
+for the British army. The result was “A Military System of Gymnastic
+Exercises for the Use of Instructors” (London, H. M. Stationery Office,
+1862), “approved by the General Commanding in Chief and to be adopted
+at all stations where the means of carrying it out may be provided,”
+according to a general order issued in February, 1862. Already, in
+1861, a gymnasium built on the plan of the Oxford one had been erected
+at Aldershot, and Maclaren himself has described[163] the next step in
+carrying out the plan of the military authorities. “Two detachments
+of non-commissioned officers, under the command of the officer (Major
+Hammersley) selected by the authorities to direct its introduction
+(_i.e._, the Maclaren system) and conduct its future extension—an
+officer specially selected for his high qualifications for the difficult
+work of introducing into the Army a new and hitherto entirely untried
+institution—were sent to Oxford to be qualified as instructors, and
+thence removed to Aldershot to form a normal school for the preparation
+of other teachers, and form the center of the military gymnastic system.
+
+“The first detachment of non-commissioned officers, twelve in number,
+sent to me to qualify as Instructors for the Army were selected from all
+branches of the service. They ranged between nineteen and twenty-nine
+years of age, between five feet five inches and six feet in height,
+between nine stone two pounds and twelve stone six pounds in weight, and
+had seen from two to twelve years’ service. I confess I felt greatly
+discomfited at the appearance of this detachment, so different in
+every physical attribute; I perceived the difficulty, the very great
+difficulty, of working them in the same squad at the same exercises; and
+the unfitness of some of them for a duty so special as the instruction
+of beginners in a new system of bodily exercise.... But I also saw that
+the detachment presented perhaps as fair a sample of the army as it was
+possible to obtain in the same number of men, and that if I closely
+observed the results of the system upon these men, the weak and the
+strong, the short and the tall, the robust and the delicate, I should be
+furnished with a fair idea of what would be the results of the system
+upon the Army at large. I therefore received the detachment just as it
+stood, and following my method of periodic measurements, I carefully
+ascertained and registered the developments of each at the commencement
+of his course of instruction, and at certain intervals throughout its
+progress.”[164]
+
+To this period belong Maclaren’s article on “National Systems of Bodily
+Exercise,” published in _Macmillan’s Magazine_ for February, 1863
+(VII: 277-286), and another on “Military Gymnasia” which appeared in
+Volume VIII of the _Journal of the Royal United Service Institution_
+(Oxford, 1864). He also compiled “A System of Fencing, for the Use of
+Instructors in the Army” (London, H. M. Stationery Office, 1864). A
+general order of July 31, 1864, states that this system, “having been
+approved by the Field Marshal Commanding in Chief, is to be adopted in
+the Military Gymnasia, and at other stations where the means of carrying
+it out may be provided.”[165] The next volume, “Training in Theory and
+Practice,”[166] reveals Maclaren at his best. He centers his remarks
+about a single exercise, rowing, and “in a great measure the mode in
+which that exercise is practised at our Universities and Public Schools.”
+This selection is made because he believes rowing to be “the exercise
+most susceptible of being influenced by a judicious system of bodily
+preparation, being at once an art of considerable intricacy, demanding
+long and assiduous practice, and an exercise of considerable difficulty,
+involving the possession—although not in an equal degree—of both muscular
+and respiratory power, to promote which is the object of all training.”
+Exercise (pp. 2-59), diet (60-119), and sleep, air, bathing, clothing
+(120-158) are discussed in turn in a clear, sane, and masterly fashion,
+with frequent sharp and skilful thrusts at time-honored customs and
+beliefs. Fourteen appendices contain diagrams and tables relating to
+boats, diet, training systems, etc. It remains today one of the most
+valuable books of its class. A second edition, in 1874,[167] is enlarged
+by the addition of a practical course of training for the several kinds
+of boat-races practised at the university (pp. 119-160), a review of J.
+E. Morgan’s “University Oars” (161-192), reprinted from _Nature_,[168]
+and an appendix on the subject of the sliding seat.
+
+Outside of England, at least, Maclaren is best known through his latest
+volume, “A System of Physical Education, Theoretical and Practical,”
+published in 1869.[169] The book is arranged in three parts: (1) Growth
+and Development (pp. 3-101), (2) Practical System of Gymnastic Exercises
+(105-472), and (3) Appendices A-K (475-518). While the second part, which
+makes up nearly three-quarters of the volume, is not without interest as
+a manual of gymnastics embodying the author’s ideas and the results of
+his long and varied experience,[170] it is the first hundred pages and
+certain of the appendices which have raised it to the rank of a classic
+in its field. After pointing out that “exercise alone of all the agents
+of growth and development can be regarded in an _educational_ light—alone
+is capable of being permanently systematized and administered as a
+means of progressive bodily culture,” he proceeds to discuss its nature
+and effects in terms of the physiological science of his day, much of
+it now outgrown. Health, rather than strength, should be the aim, he
+says. “Scholarships Junior and Senior, Examinations, open Fellowships,
+speculations, promotions, excitements, stimulations, long hours of work,
+late hours of rest, jaded frames, weary brains, jarring nerves—all
+intensified and intensifying—seek in modern times for the antidote to be
+found alone in physical action.” School-games, sports and pastimes he
+finds, “from their very nature, are inadequate to produce the uniform and
+harmonious development of the entire frame, because the employment which
+they give is essentially partial.... Recreative exercise in sufficient
+amount is usually in itself sufficient to maintain health and strength
+after growth and development are completed, but it does not meet the many
+wants of the rapidly-changing and plastic frames of youths spending a
+large portion of their time in the constrained positions of study.”
+
+He dwells at length upon conditions in the army, the attempt which he
+had made to meet them with his military system, and the results secured
+(pp. 64-94). “Now if all this arrangement and method were considered
+necessary in the organization of the bodily exercise of full-grown
+men—men of mature frame and hardy habit, and at the period of life when
+all the physical energies are at their highest point of power, at least
+as much precaution and forethought and method, it would be expected,
+would be adopted on its administration with boys and lads at school,
+whose frames are all incomplete and impressionable in the highest degree;
+capable of being affected for good or evil by every surrounding agency.
+But what are the facts? Except the two Military Colleges of Woolwich
+and Sandhurst, and Radley College, not one of our large educational
+establishments is provided with a regularly organized Gymnasium
+with properly qualified teachers.... In our day if gymnastics mean
+anything,—that is, anything worth the serious thought of parent, teacher,
+or pupil,—they mean a gradual, progressive system of physical exercise,
+so conceived, so arranged, and so administered, that it will naturally
+and uniformly call forth and cultivate the latent powers and capacities
+of the body, even as the mental faculties are developed and strengthened
+by mental culture and mental exercise.”
+
+In the appendix Maclaren illustrates certain forms of growth and
+development, regular and irregular, at different ages (A. Figs. 1-14);
+gives tables showing the state of growth and development between the ages
+of ten and eighteen years (B), and of men on arriving at the University
+(C); one which shows the influence of systematized exercise, extending
+over periods of several years, on boys of different conditions of growth
+and development, and on men of different degrees of physical power (D);
+and others containing measurements of non-commissioned officers before
+and after their course of training under him (E), and corresponding
+figures for youths at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich (F), and for
+two pupils of his own (G); explains his system of measurements (H), goes
+into some detail regarding the construction and requirements of gymnasia
+(I), and closes with tables of best performances at certain athletic
+meetings (K). It is this practical demonstration of what regular exercise
+will accomplish, as well as his impressive setting forth of the need for
+it, that has caused his book to be so often quoted and makes it one of
+permanent value.
+
+The first trace of the Ling system of medical gymnastics in England we
+find in 1838, when Lieutenant Govert Indebetou (the name is also written
+_In de Betou_), after completing the course at the Central Institute of
+Gymnastics in Stockholm, moved over to England and began the practice
+of that art in London. His work was continued for a time by an English
+physician, John W. F. Blundell. Another Swede, Lieutenant C. Ehrenhoff,
+settled in London for the same purpose in the early forties. Much more
+significant was the arrival of Carl August Georgii from Stockholm,
+where he had been a teacher at the Central Institute since 1829 and head
+teacher after 1840. He opened a private institute in London in 1850,
+and continued in active practice and teaching there until 1877. One of
+his pupils was the English physician M. J. Chapman, and another was Dr.
+Mathias Roth.[171] All of these men published pamphlets or more elaborate
+treatises on the subject. Of the Swedish system of school gymnastics,
+originated by P. H. Ling, but given its present form by his son Hjalmar
+in the years 1864-1882, we hear first in 1878. Dr. Roth had interested
+Mrs. Alice Westlake, a member of the London School Board, in this form
+of physical education, and in that year she persuaded the Board to
+engage Miss Concordia Löfving, a graduate of the Central Institute in
+Stockholm in 1870, to give a course in the theory and practice of Swedish
+gymnastics to women teachers under the Board, leading to a special
+certificate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.—Martina Bergman Österberg (1849-1915).]
+
+In 1881, at the end of the summer term, Miss Löfving withdrew from the
+service of the Board, and Miss Martina Bergman (later Mme. Bergman
+Österberg)[172] was appointed superintendent of physical exercise in
+girls’ and infants’ schools. Within the next six years, under her
+direction, the system was introduced into 300 schools, and 1000 teachers
+were trained. September 23, 1885, Miss Bergman opened a Training College
+for (women) Teachers of Physical Education at Reremonde, Broadhurst
+Gardens, Hampstead, N. W. (a borough of London), removing it ten years
+later to Kingsfield, Dartford Heath, Kent, and in her thirty years at
+the head of this school she built it up into an institution of more than
+national influence and importance. In 1893 she was present at the eighth
+annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Physical Education and the Congress of Physical Education in Chicago, and
+in 1900 she attended the International Congress of Physical Education
+in Paris and gave a demonstration there with her pupils.[173] Captain
+J. D. Haasum, graduated at the Stockholm Central Institute in 1872 and
+teacher there since 1873, spent six months in London in 1884 and gave the
+first training course in Swedish gymnastics to a number of men teachers
+under the School Board, with the help of a gymnasium fitted up at the
+Crampton Street schools, Walworth. This work was continued by Allan
+Broman (Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics 1883), who at a later
+period (October, 1911) opened in London a “Central Institute for Swedish
+Gymnastics, for Men Students of Physical Training.”
+
+How the Swedish system was introduced into the British Navy and
+substituted, in large part, for the Maclaren gymnastics in the Army,
+may be told in a few words. Commander N. C. Palmer of the Navy spent
+some weeks in Stockholm in the autumn of 1902, in order to study the
+organization and management of instruction in gymnastics there, and upon
+his return set in motion plans for the training of instructors from
+among officers and non-commissioned officers. In the summer of 1903
+Allan Broman was put in charge of the first course at Portsmouth, given
+to sixty officers in the British Navy. That same year a _Handbook of
+Physical Training_, published by authority of the Lords Commissioners
+of the Admiralty, was issued.[174] Part I (pp. 4-73) is evidently based
+upon the Swedish Army and Navy Manual of 1902 (see p. 163), in both
+text and illustrations. A new Handbook, much enlarged and altogether
+Swedish, was published in 1910, the work of Lieutenant Lockhart Leith,
+who during a winter in Stockholm had taken part in the exercises at the
+Central Institute of Gymnastics. In 1906 the Army authorities decided
+to introduce the same system, but instead of going to Sweden they
+applied to the Danish government for a man capable of teaching it at the
+Aldershot training school for instructors. H. P. Langkilde (p. 192) was
+selected for the task. He began a course with the sixteen teachers at
+the school in August, and the next month a regular four-months’ course
+with non-commissioned officers. By the first of the next year (1907)
+the transition to the new system was complete. A _Manual of Physical
+Training_, worked out by Major Moore in collaboration with Langkilde on
+the basis of the Danish _Haandbog_ of 1899, the Army and Navy Manual
+(Danish) of 1905, and the books of Knudsen was published in 1908.[175]
+
+March 31, 1902, King Edward VII appointed a commission of nine “to
+enquire into the opportunities for physical training now available in
+the State-aided schools and other educational institutions of Scotland;
+and to suggest means by which such training may be made to conduce to
+the welfare of the pupils; and further, how such opportunities may be
+increased by continuation classes and otherwise, so as to develop, in
+their practical application to the requirements of life, the faculties
+of those who have left the day schools, and thus to contribute towards
+the sources of national strength.” This commission reported under date
+of March 14, 1903,[176] and perusal of the second volume shows the
+Swedish system still in use in elementary schools for girls under the
+London School Board, and in two Merchant Company’s higher schools for
+girls in Edinburgh, the Edinburgh Ladies’ College and George Watson’s
+Ladies’ College. Having regard to the findings of this Royal Commission
+an “Interdepartmental (_i.e._, English and Scotch) Committee on the
+Model Course of Physical Exercises,” under date of March 10, 1904,
+presented to both Houses of Parliament a report directed to “the Right
+Honorable the Lord President of the (English) Board of Education and
+the Right Honorable the Vice-President of the Committee of the Privy
+Council on Education in Scotland.”[177] On pp. 10-49 is the proposed
+Syllabus of Physical Exercises, based in general on the Swedish system.
+In consequence of this report the English Board of Education published
+its first official “Syllabus of Physical Exercises for Use in Public
+Elementary Schools” in 1904.[178] The next year it was reprinted, with
+slight alterations; but the third edition,[179] four years later,
+contains “further amendments and extensive revisions, which are based
+upon experience.... Speaking generally the new Syllabus, like its
+predecessor, is based on the Swedish system of educational gymnastics
+which has been adopted in several European countries, and is now the
+basis of physical training in the Army and Navy in this country” (p. vi).
+
+The part played by Denmark in this transplantation of an alien system to
+British soil has been already indicated (p. 192). Even in the endowed
+Public Schools, the very strongholds of athletic sports, we find it
+introduced as a general requirement, to supplement the effects of
+outdoor recreation. Lieutenant F. H. Grenfell, who had taken work at the
+Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics, brought it to Eton College in
+1907, and Captain E. C. Brierly, of the Army, undertook a similar task
+at Rugby in September of 1911. Harrow and Winchester, at least, among
+the other public schools, also possess gymnasia in addition to their
+extensive playgrounds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.—Eton College: The Gymnasium (1913).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.—Rugby School: The Gymnasium (From H. H. Hardy’s
+“Rugby”).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.—Dunfermline College of Hygiene and Physical
+Education: The New College and Clinics Building.]
+
+To this fragmentary review of certain phases of physical education
+in Great Britain a paragraph on the Dunfermline College of Hygiene
+and Physical Training should be added. The Carnegie Dunfermline Trust
+was formed in August of 1903, and in the hands of its Trustees Andrew
+Carnegie placed a princely fund to be used for the benefit of the town
+of his birth. A gymnasium was opened October 21, 1904, and the New Baths
+March 31, 1905. Physical training was introduced into the schools soon
+after the Trustees came into office, and medical inspection of school
+children was begun in 1906. October 4, 1905, a College of Hygiene and
+Physical Training (for women) was opened, offering a two-year course and
+housed at first in the Gymnasium and Swimming Pool, on Pilmur Street.
+Three years later a men’s department was added, and the two departments
+were united in 1911. By the next fall 75 students had received diplomas
+for the full course. Meanwhile, in July of 1909, the Trustees learned
+that the College had been recognized by the Scotch Education Department
+as a Central Institution for the purpose of the Education (Scotland) Act
+of 1908, _i.e._, for the training of teachers for the schools of that
+country; and by an arrangement approved in 1912 the services of certain
+teachers on the college staff are available for the work of inspecting
+the teaching of physical exercises in schools throughout Scotland.
+Venturefair Park, seven acres in extent, was leased for the games of the
+College students and opened July 27, 1909, and in September of 1914 a new
+building, the foundation stone of which had been laid by Mr. Carnegie two
+years before, was occupied by the College and the School Clinics. Early
+in 1911 the original gift to the Trust had been increased by one half,
+raising the fund to $3,750,000.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+The Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes (London: Longmans, Green &
+Co.; Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 28 volumes, 1885-1896) is unique in its
+field. Robert Scott Fittis, in “Sports and Pastimes of Scotland” (Paisley
+and London, Alexander Gardner, 1891), offers some material of historical
+interest. Other sources have been mentioned or suggested in the text.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[156] See footnote, page 133.
+
+[157] He died February 20, 1884, at the age of sixty-four.
+
+[158] Described in the _Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_ for January, 1860 (V: 8).
+
+[159] In “The Life of William Morris” (London and New York: Longmans,
+Green & Co., 1899).
+
+[160] In “Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones” (New York, The Macmillan Co.,
+1904).
+
+[161] “Mrs. Maclaren was the daughter of D. A. Talboys, the Oxford
+printer, and under her father had been trained as a first-rate classical
+scholar” (Charles L. Graves, in “Life and Letters of Alexander
+Macmillan,” London, Macmillan & Co., 1910).
+
+[162] The first step in the artistic life of Burne-Jones, she says, “was
+a series of pen-and-ink designs made at the suggestion of his friend Mr.
+Maclaren. These drawings were intended for illustrations to a volume of
+Ballads upon the Fairy Mythology of Europe, which Maclaren had written
+with the intention of publishing immediately.... The scheme included a
+frontispiece, title-page, illustrations and ornamental letters. They were
+begun early in 1854 and carried on for about two years and a half, and in
+the series may be traced his development from the time that he first went
+into the Wytham woods to draw leaves and branches until the day when he
+discovered that the human form was the alphabet of the language which he
+was henceforth to use.” The frontispiece, title-page, and a tail-piece on
+page 279 are all that appear in “The Fairy Family: a Series of Ballads
+and Metrical Tales Illustrating the Fairy Mythology of Europe,” which
+Maclaren published anonymously in 1857 (London: Longman, Brown, Green,
+Longmans, and Roberts). A second edition, published in 1873, bears
+Maclaren’s name on the title-page and is dedicated “To my daughter Mabel”
+(London, Macmillan & Co.).
+
+[163] In his “System of Physical Education,” 1869, pp. 72, 73 and 93.
+
+[164] Maclaren’s “system of measurements to determine the rate of growth
+and development” is given in Appendix H of the volume just quoted.
+Appendix E contains a “table of measurements of first detachment of
+non-commissioned officers selected to be qualified as military gymnastic
+instructors,” showing increases for the seven and a half months between
+September 11 and April 30; and a similar table of measurements of the
+second detachment, with increases for the period extending from October
+27, 1862, to July 12, 1863.
+
+[165] In September of 1864 Mrs. Maclaren opened at Summertown a private
+school intended to prepare boys for the (endowed) public schools. The
+venture proved a very successful one from the start, and was continued
+by her son-in-law. Alexander Macmillan, one of the founders of the
+publishing house which bears that name, had made the acquaintance of the
+Maclarens in the summer of 1864, and by his efforts did much to enlist
+the interest of influential patrons, in addition to sending his own son
+George and two nephews. See pp. 225-227 in the “Life and Letters of
+Alexander Macmillan,” by Charles L. Graves (London, Macmillan & Co.,
+1910).
+
+[166] London, Macmillan & Co., 1866.
+
+[167] London, Macmillan & Co.
+
+[168] Vol. =7=, 397-399, 418-421, and 458-460 (March 27, April 3 and 17,
+1873).
+
+[169] Oxford, Clarendon Press. A second edition, unchanged, was issued
+the year after the author’s death (Oxford, 1885), and a third, reëdited
+and enlarged by his son, Wallace Maclaren, appeared ten years later
+(Oxford, 1895).
+
+[170] “The system which I advocate is the result of my professional
+life—developed and matured by every means which I could bring to bear
+upon it by physiological theory or practical test. The period of its
+preparation extends over nearly a quarter of a century, for during that
+period I have been, as it were, standing in the midst of a living stream
+of men and boys flowing in from every school, public and private, in the
+kingdom; youths possessing every degree of physical power—presenting
+every phase of physical weakness. On these, _by_ these, every exercise
+in the system has been tested; its nature, its character defined and its
+results ascertained, its place in the progressive courses slowly and
+carefully determined” (pp. 89 and 90).
+
+[171] Born in Kassa (Kaschau), Hungary, in 1818; studied in Vienna and
+Pavia, and won his medical degree at the latter university in 1839; took
+part in the Hungarian War of Independence (1849), and afterwards made his
+way to England as a political refugee. See _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_ =2=,
+225-235 and =9=, 293-297.
+
+[172] Born in Skåne, south Sweden, October 7, 1849; graduated from the
+Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm in 1881; died July 29, 1915.
+
+[173] See _Tidskrift i Gymnastik_, =6=, 687-694 (1908).
+
+[174] London, H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+[175] London, H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+[176] Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland),
+presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty.
+Edinburgh, H. M. Stationery.
+
+[177] London, H. M. Stationery Office.
+
+[178] Ibid.
+
+[179] The Syllabus of Physical Exercises for Schools. 1909. London, as
+above.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+INTERNATIONAL GATHERINGS.
+
+
+The types or systems of physical training found in Europe can all be
+reduced to three elemental forms, illustrated by the _Turnverein_ or
+popular gymnastic society of Germany, the athletic sports and active
+games of the English public schools and universities, and the school
+gymnastics of Germany and Sweden. Corresponding to each of these, in
+a way, there have been international gatherings of three sorts in
+recent years, _i.e._, conventions and competitive meets of the European
+gymnastic federations, “games” and congresses held under the auspices of
+the International Olympic Committee, and a series of congresses organized
+with a view to better understanding of the principles and methods of
+physical education.
+
+In 1881 Nicolas Jan Cupérus of Antwerp, president of the _Fédération
+belge de Gymnastique (Belgische Turnbund)_, proposed an association
+of the various national organizations of popular gymnastic societies
+in Europe. Preliminary conventions were held at Liège on July 23d
+of that year and again on August 14-16, 1896, and arrangements were
+completed in Brussels, July 3-5, 1897. A permanent committee (_Bureau_)
+was appointed, with Cupérus as president. The articles of agreement
+provided for an exchange of publications and official documents,
+established rules governing invitations to national meets and conditions
+of participation in them, recognized only such national organizations
+as held themselves aloof from political and religious controversies,
+and stated the attitude of the union towards professionalism and in
+regard to the sort of prizes which should be awarded in competitions.
+The following federations subscribed to these articles: the Belgian,
+Czech, French, British (the National Physical Recreation Society, Amateur
+Gymnastic and Fencing Association, Irish Amateur Gymnastic Association,
+Scottish Amateur Gymnastic Association, and later the Welsh Amateur
+Gymnastic Association), Italian, Luxemburg (Grand Duchy), Hungarian,
+Netherlandish, Norwegian, and Swedish. The Danish federation was added
+later, but the German _Turnerschaft_ and the Swiss _Eidgenössischer
+Turnverein_, together with smaller organizations in Austria, the Balkan
+States, Russia, Finland, and Portugal have never become affiliated. Seven
+statistical “Annuals”[180] have been published under the editorship of
+Cupérus. Since 1897 conventions have been held at Antwerp (August 14,
+1903), Berne (July 14, 1906), Prague (July 1, 1907), Paris (November 21,
+1908), and Luxemburg (July 21, 1909); and there have been international
+meets for competition at Antwerp (1903), Bordeaux (1905), Prague (1907),
+Luxemburg (1909), Turin (1911), and Paris (1913).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.—Pierre de Coubertin (1863-).]
+
+The story of the modern Olympic Games, and the events which led up to
+them may best be told in the words of Dr. Albert Shaw[181] and Professor
+William Milligan Sloane.[182] Its central figure in the early years is
+Baron Pierre de Coubertin, scion of an old French family, born January 1,
+1863, and educated in the schools of Paris. “It was in 1884, when only
+twenty-one years of age,” says Dr. Shaw, “that M. de Coubertin began
+his visits to England, with the prime object of acquainting himself
+intimately with the life of the great public schools,—Rugby, Eton,
+Harrow, and the others of that type. He had become strongly convinced
+that there was an element in English education that was sadly lacking in
+the French schools. Obviously and conspicuously, the English training in
+athletics, and the English devotion to outdoor sports and exercises, were
+almost totally unknown in the French lyceums and collegiate institutes.
+But Coubertin clearly perceived that something even more serious was
+concerned than the mere question of physical culture. He understood that
+in the rowing, football, and cricket of the English schools, and all
+their other games, contests, and field-day exercises, there was involved
+an element of moral discipline and strength that supplied in some sense
+a key to the secret of England’s power. Not merely a manliness expressed
+in muscular force and physical bearing was developed in the English
+arena of school sports or neighborhood contests and pastimes, but also
+a fine spirit of fair play, a hatred of meanness, lying, and all forms
+of deceit, and that fundamental kind of honor and integrity of character
+that causes Englishmen to be trusted and respected, even if not greatly
+beloved, by all races, in all lands. Furthermore, this love of hardy
+games and contests seemed to Coubertin the best sort of protection to the
+young men of our times from the temptation to unworthy indulgences that
+tend to undermine personal vigor and thereby to diminish the vitality of
+the nation.
+
+“The drift in France among young men of education was towards softness
+and overrefinement, and the vices that are somewhat dangerously akin to
+certain phases of aesthetic development. The ideals of youth in England
+seemed, as compared with those of France, to make for the clear eye,
+the steady hand, the firm will,—in short, for self-control and the
+conservation of energy. It was, therefore, with no mere boyish fondness
+for the excitement of athletic contest, considered as a thing desirable
+in itself, that M. de Coubertin devoted himself to the development or
+the revival of a high type of manhood among French students.... He was
+ready at length in 1888, at the age of twenty-five, to publish his book
+_L’Éducation en Angleterre_ (see p. 202), an account of school life in
+England, which, while valuable on any account, was of particular use
+in the advancement of the cause to which all his efforts were really
+devoted. The book attracted very favorable attention in France, and its
+success gave the young author and reformer prestige enough for the public
+launching of his practical movement, this taking the form of a ‘committee
+for the propagation of sports and physical exercises in education,’ with
+that eminent statesman, scholar, and educational authority, Jules Simon,
+as president of the committee.”
+
+In 1889, in connection with the Paris Exposition, he organized a congress
+on physical education, and that autumn visited the United States, under
+commission from the National Department of Public Instruction, to study
+the organization, work, and life of American colleges. “Meanwhile,”
+continues Shaw, “all this work for the encouragement of the athletic
+spirit in the French institutions had begun to tell strongly; and
+in the season of 1891-1892 it was possible under M. de Coubertin’s
+leadership to organize what is now the well-known _Union des Sociétés des
+Sports Athlétiques_. This central body is a confederation of about two
+hundred French athletic clubs and societies, half of which are in the
+universities and colleges. With a view to keeping the French student’s
+interest from flagging, M. de Coubertin endeavored to make some plans for
+English and American competitions. Thus, in 1892, international football
+matches were begun between French and English teams, Lord Dufferin
+himself presiding over the first one held at Paris. M. de Coubertin
+also succeeded in securing the recognition of the French Union by the
+Henley Regatta Committee, and the admission of French rowing crews to the
+university contests on the Thames. Again, in that same season, he secured
+the visit to Paris of a team of American university athletes, as the
+result of the efforts of an American committee which he had organized and
+in which his friend Professor Sloane, then of Princeton University, was
+especially active....
+
+“To crown the work of the year, M. de Coubertin, at the end of November
+(1892), gave a lecture in the amphitheater of the Sorbonne, in which
+he disclosed his plan for the reëstablishment of the Olympic games.
+The enlistment of American interest in this ambitious project for a
+modern quadrennial tournament of games and sports that should be open to
+amateurs—particularly those of the student class—from all nations, was
+much facilitated by M. de Coubertin’s second visit to the United States,
+which occurred in 1893.... Before leaving this country in the autumn of
+1893 he had aroused a very general interest, especially in the college
+world, in his plan for the Olympic games. A little later, in the early
+weeks of 1894, he was actively at work in England holding conferences and
+forming his committee for the promotion of the idea of the quadrennial
+athletic tournament. In June of that year the subject was taken up by a
+great conference or congress, held at the Sorbonne in Paris (June 16-24),
+a dozen or more nations being represented. King George of the Hellenes
+sent his best wishes; and the eight-day conference, with its accompanying
+fêtes and sports in the Bois du Boulogne, was fairly successful,
+resulting in the formation of an international committee to carry the
+Olympic plan into effect.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.—The Stadium at Athens (1906).]
+
+So far Dr. Shaw. Professor Sloane quotes from a preliminary circular of
+January 15, 1894, the final sentence of which reads as follows: “The
+reëstablishment of the Olympic Games on a basis and under conditions
+conformable to the needs of modern life would bring together every
+four years representatives of all nations, and it is permissible to
+suppose that these peaceful and courteous contests would supply the
+best of internationalisms.” “To this circular,” he says, “came a very
+irregular and scattering response. The German federations took no notice
+whatever, the gymnastic element in France was hostile, the British were
+lukewarm, the Belgians frankly and actively embattled. They had always
+held and still were of the opinion that gymnastics and sports were two
+inimical things and would always combat the latter as opposed to the
+former. Italy, Spain, Greece and above all Sweden sent regular delegates.
+Somehow or another seventy-nine persons representing something or another
+appeared at the congress. The many sessions were well attended, the
+accompanying festivities were dignified and inspiring. No one present
+can ever forget the great assemblage at the Sorbonne, the inspiring
+address of Courvel, the superb poem of Sicard, the wonderful execution
+of the hymn to Apollo, recently discovered at Delphi, nor the enthusiasm
+of the closing banquet. These were but a few of the notable events of
+the week. The climax of the proceedings was a unanimous vote for the
+reëstablishment of the Olympiads with the opening of the new century; but
+second thoughts were even more enthusiastic than first and it was finally
+determined to hold the first one at Athens in 1896.
+
+“Greek royalty was already enrolled among the patrons of the scheme,
+Greek patriotism might be relied upon for material and effective
+support. Such at least was the opinion of M. Bikelas, the Greek member,
+the greatest modern Greek man of letters, exerting by the charm of his
+manner, the weight of his character and the gifts of his liberal hand,
+such an influence on the evolution of modern Greece as no other single
+man has been able to deploy. The event showed the correctness of his
+judgment and the weight of his personal influence. The president of the
+International Committee was received in Athens with enthusiasm, a wealthy
+Greek merchant of Alexandria, M. Averoff, caused the ancient Stadium to
+be restored and newly lined with Pentelic marble at his personal cost. A
+princely gift of a million drachmæ, other lavish personal contributions,
+and what amounted to a subsidy from the Greek Government completed the
+necessary fund. A very considerable legacy to the state from the brothers
+Zappas, designated for the furtherance of physical culture, was through
+the untiring persistency of M. de Coubertin, aided by two devoted Greek
+friends, M. Antonopoulo and Alexander Mercati, appropriated by government
+consent for Olympic purposes. The enterprise was therefore brilliantly
+launched.
+
+“The succession of Olympic Games is well known: after Athens in 1896,
+Paris in 1900, St. Louis in 1904, London in 1908, Stockholm in 1912,
+Berlin (designated for 1916 and actually prepared but lapsed owing
+to war) and Antwerp in 1920. Each has been more amazing than its
+predecessor: in the number of nations represented, in the number and
+quality of competitors, in the greater perfection of preparation for each
+sport, in the number of sports clustered around the Olympic week of field
+and track events, in the social arrangements for better acquaintance
+among competitors and the ever-growing throng of visitors, and above all
+in the passionate interest of all peoples in all lands.... While track
+and field sports are the nucleus of the sport-plexus, they are not the
+whole of it. Nor is sport in the narrow sense the whole of it. All kinds
+of outdoor exercises and games have attached themselves to the Olympic
+week of track and field athletics—central and focal in modern as in
+ancient Olympiads—to such an extent that no national Olympic council
+can provide for all in the arrangements for the Olympiad to be held.
+Instead of an Olympic week we already have Olympic months and a very
+powerful movement was started some years ago to include winter sports of
+every kind, and expand into an Olympic year. It has become absolutely
+necessary, if there are to be Olympiads, that contraction should be
+substituted for expansion in the number of admitted sports or games
+represented by federations, national or international.
+
+“Furthermore, the Olympic idea comprehends something, yes much, quite
+aside from contests of foremost experts in sport and play. For the
+Antwerp Olympiad arrangements included lectures, preliminary in the not
+too distant future to contests in belles lettres and the fine arts. Such
+competition is already in evidence as actually existent though still
+inchoate. In particular, however, and poignantly the Olympic idea as
+represented by its carriers proposes ‘all sports for all’ in the literal
+sense of the words. The Committee hopes that the day is not far distant
+when through its moral influence, orient as well as occident may be
+nationally organized for competition and that the benefits of ‘play for
+country’ as well as for self may by such organizations be alluringly
+offered to youths and adults of both sexes in every walk of life. To
+this end its plans are already laid, and already great portions of the
+globe hitherto inert athletically are girding themselves for Olympic
+organization. The field therefore of the Olympic idea is not merely
+sportive and social, it is educational and sociological as well. The
+intercourse of athletes and their friends makes for reciprocal goodwill
+and international peace; but in its largest aspect the idea makes for
+the general uplift and personal purity of untold millions....”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.—The Stockholm Stadium (1912).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.—Stockholm, 1912: The Swedish Gymnasts Marching
+into the Stadium.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.—Stockholm, 1912: Swedish Women on the Long
+Horizontal Bar (_Bom_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.—Stockholm, 1912: The Danish Gymnasts.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.—Stockholm, 1912: The Finnish Gymnasts.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.—Stockholm, 1912: Finnish Women on the Ladders.]
+
+The first international congress for the promotion of physical education
+was held at Paris, June 8-15, 1889, in connection with the Universal
+Exposition. Its organizer and general secretary was Pierre de Coubertin,
+and the presiding officer was Jules Simon. At the same time came the
+fifteenth annual fête (_Turnfest_) of the _Union des Sociétés de
+gymnastique de France_, attended also by representatives from gymnastic
+societies in Belgium, Holland, the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, the three
+Scandinavian countries, Bohemia, and Switzerland. The Scandinavians
+did not take part in competition, but the delegations from each of the
+three countries went through their exercises separately in front of the
+tribune. In addition the group of Stockholm gymnasts, under the direction
+of Captain Viktor Balck of the Central Institute, appeared before the
+international congress on the 14th, at the Nouveau Cirque, rue St.
+Honore, in another exhibition of the Swedish system. A second _Congrès
+international de l’Éducation physique_ met in Paris August 30-September
+6, 1900, during the progress of the _Exposition universelle_ of that
+year, with M. Georges Demeny (1850-1917) as general secretary.[183]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.—Georges Demeny (1850-1917).]
+
+Demeny, at first won over to the Swedish system by what he saw and heard
+at Paris in 1889 and during a mission to Sweden with Dr. Fernand Lagrange
+(1845-1909) in the autumn of 1890, afterwards withdrew from association
+with men like Dr. Philippe Tissié who advocated the Ling gymnastics for
+French schools, and sought to build up an eclectic (“French”) system
+of his own. Both parties were represented at the _Congrès Olympique
+international de Sport et d’Éducation physique_ in Brussels June 9-14,
+1905, and the _Deuxième Congrès international de l’Éducation physique de
+la jeunesse_ at Liège, August 28-September 1 of that year,[184] and there
+were preliminary skirmishes at the latter; but the first real battle
+was fought a few weeks later, at the _Congrès international d’Expansion
+économique mondiale_, in Mons (September 24-27). Five years later each
+group organized its own congress, the friends of the Swedish system a
+_Congrès international de Gymnastique pédagogique, militaire, médicale
+et esthétique_, which met in Brussels, August 4-6, 1910,[185] and Demeny
+and his followers a (third) _Congrès international d’Éducation physique_
+in the same city a week later (August 10-13).[186] A Danish committee
+representing friends of the Ling system organized another international
+congress, which held its sessions in Odense, Denmark, July 7-10,
+1911.[187] The last congress to be called together before the outbreak
+of the Great War met in Paris under the auspices of the _Faculté de
+Médecine_, March 17-20, 1913.[188]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[180] Annuaires des Fédérations Européennes de Gymnastique, 1898 (14
+pages), 1899 (16), 1900 (21), 1901 (47), 1902 (32 pages of text and
+17 plates containing portraits), 1906 (49), and 1913 (? Not seen, but
+reviewed in _Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_ 1913, pages 138 and 141).
+
+[181] In “The Evolution of France under the Third Republic,” by Baron
+Pierre de Coubertin. Translated from the French by Isabel F. Hapgood.
+Authorized edition with special Preface and Additions and Introduction by
+Dr. Albert Shaw, Editor of _The Review of Reviews_. New York and Boston,
+Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1897. See Introduction, pages iii-xxiii.
+
+[182] First American member of the International Olympic Committee.
+Quoted from his chapter (pages 71-83) in “Report of the American Olympic
+Committee, Seventh Olympic Games, Antwerp, Belgium, 1920.”
+
+[183] See his “Procès-verbaux sommaires,” Paris, Imprimerie Nationale,
+1900.
+
+[184] See the _Règlement et rapports préliminaires_ and the _Compte
+rendu_ of the second congress (Nivelles, Lanneau & Despret).
+
+[185] See the _Rapport-général_, Brussels, 1910.
+
+[186] There is a report by the delegates from the United States in the
+Bureau of Education Report for 1910 (I: 598-601).
+
+[187] See “Procès-verbal du Congrès international de l’Éducation physique
+à Odense (Danmark)” (Copenhagen, J. H. Schultz, 1911).
+
+[188] “Congrès international de l’Éducation physique (programme and
+announcement), Paris, Faculté de Médecine, 17-20 Mars 1913.”
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+UNITED STATES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF THE JAHN GYMNASTICS INTO AMERICA.
+
+
+The different systems or sorts of physical training which were brought
+forward for trial and the agencies which promoted its spread in the
+United States during the nineteenth century fall into three groups,
+centered about 1830, 1860, and the decade from 1880 to 1890. The first
+group includes Captain Alden Partridge and his military academies;[189]
+the introduction of the Jahn gymnastics and the opening of school,
+college, and city or public outdoor gymnasia under the direction of the
+German refugees Beck, Follen, and Lieber; the attempt to provide manual
+labor as a system of exercise in educational institutions;[190] and the
+use of “calisthenics” for girls and women, by Catharine Beecher in her
+schools in Hartford and Cincinnati.[191] Space limits have prevented the
+discussion of any but the second member of this group in the present
+volume.
+
+The first school, college, and public gymnasia in the United States—all
+of them outdoor ones of the early Jahn type—were opened in the years 1825
+and 1826 in Massachusetts, at Northampton, Cambridge, and Boston. All
+three were laid out and directed by university trained Germans, who had
+been active participants in the Jahn gymnastics in their student days
+and had left their native land for the United States in order to escape
+arrest or constant persecution under the reactionary policy adopted by
+the Holy Alliance.
+
+One of these men was Charles Theodore Christian Follen (German, _Karl
+Follenius_ or _Follen_), born September 4, 1796, in Romrod, a market-town
+north of the Vogelsberg. His father was counsellor at law and judge
+at Giessen, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, and he received his own early
+training at the classical secondary school and the university in that
+city. When the German War of Liberation broke out, in 1813, like most of
+the Giessen students he joined the army, with his brothers August (later
+called Adolf Ludwig) and Paul, but was taken sick with typhus fever
+within a few weeks, and though he returned to his regiment afterwards
+he was never under fire. When peace was concluded (1814) he resumed the
+study of jurisprudence at Giessen, and in March of 1818 received his
+diploma from the university as doctor of the civil and ecclesiastical law.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.—Charles Follen (1796-1840).]
+
+Like many another German student, Follen had come back from the war
+filled with ideas of moral and social reform. In place of the provincial
+clubs (_Landsmannschaften_), with their carousing and the duel as their
+only arbiter of quarrels, he desired to see the entire student body
+united in one Christian brotherhood, with no distinctions of class or
+rank, ruled by the will of the majority determined in open assembly after
+free discussion, and settling all disputes according to the principles
+of right and justice. The purity of his own life and the moral greatness
+of his character, the eloquence with which he urged his views, and his
+confident enthusiasm soon won a following of like-minded friends, in
+whose eyes he took on the dignity of a very prophet. The first motion
+toward union was taken in the late summer of 1816. A few days after
+the following Christmas, at a general gathering of students, a formal
+“code of honor” (_Ehrenspiegel_), Follen’s work in great part, was
+proposed. A majority of those present evinced their hostility to the
+project by withdrawing at once; but about sixty who remained organized
+themselves into an association, under Follen’s leadership. Looked upon
+with suspicion by the authorities on account of their liberal tendencies,
+hated and proscribed by a majority of the students, who nicknamed
+them “Blacks” (_Schwarzen_) from the dark clothing they affected and
+their somber demeanor, the reformers became only more extreme and
+uncompromising in their attitude. Reaching far beyond the bounds of
+the university, their plans already contemplated a great Christian
+republic formed of freed and united Germany. Tyranny was to be met with
+resistance, and Follen now taught that armed insurrection, and even
+perjury and assassination, were justified when other measures failed in
+the struggle for popular freedom. Some of the Blacks drew back at this,
+but others, known as “Unconditionals” in contrast with the “Moderates,”
+were undismayed at the radical doctrines of their revered leader.
+
+Development of the physical powers formed an essential part of
+the program of the Giessen “Blacks,” just as in the case of the
+_Burschenschaften_ at other universities. In the summer of 1816 a
+gymnastic society was formed, enrolling boys in the secondary school,
+young merchants and others, as well as university students. Here
+again the leadership fell to Follen, who is described as an excellent
+gymnast, a skilful hand with the broadsword, and a powerful swimmer. The
+“Deutsche Turnkunst” of 1816 was the guide in Giessen, as elsewhere, and
+Jahn’s rules formed the basis of order during the exercises. National
+anniversaries were celebrated, a _Turnfest_ was held at the end of July,
+1818, excursions were organized, and trips were taken with companions
+from Darmstadt, Heidelberg, and other places. Upon leaving Giessen
+students transferred their membership to _Turnvereine_ in the new home,
+or sought to form such societies where they did not already exist. The
+efforts of Karl Völker at Tübingen have already been mentioned (p. 98) in
+describing Jahn’s life and work.
+
+Upon completing his courses in jurisprudence Follen remained at the
+University as _Privat-docent_, studying at the same time the practice of
+law in his father’s court. Early in the fall of 1818 he undertook the
+cause of several hundred communities in the province of Upper Hesse which
+desired to remonstrate against a government measure directed against the
+last remnant of their political independence, and drew up a petition to
+the Grand Duke in their behalf. It was printed and widely circulated, and
+aroused public opinion to such a pitch that the obnoxious measure was
+repealed; but it also brought upon its author such unrelenting hatred on
+the part of the influential men whose selfish plans were thereby thwarted
+that any thought of a further career in his home city became impossible.
+He therefore accepted an invitation from Professor Fries to lecture
+on the Pandects as _Privat-docent_ in the University of Jena, and left
+Giessen in October of 1818.[192]
+
+An attempt to force upon the Jena Burschenschaft his radical views
+regarding moral and political reform excited the opposition of all but a
+small minority. Friends, even, were alienated by his stern, intolerant
+attitude, and by the charge of weakness or cowardice with which he met
+dissent from the extremities to which he pushed his principles; so that
+the number of “Unconditionals” at Jena was never more than a small
+handful. One of these, however, was Karl Sand, whose murder of Kotzebue
+on March 23, 1819, was the logical outcome of Follen’s teaching, acting
+upon a mind unbalanced by fanatical zeal in the cause of popular liberty.
+To the authorities all student associations became objects of suspicion,
+and under the reactionary measures that followed the Giessen “Blacks” and
+the _Burschenschaften_ at Jena and other universities suffered alike.
+Follen was forbidden to lecture any longer at Jena, and he therefore
+returned to his home in Giessen.[193] Here, however, he found himself
+a proscribed man. Learning that the government intended to send him to
+prison, he left Giessen for Strasburg in the winter of 1819-20, visited
+for a time in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Lafayette and,
+through him, of other distinguished men, and in the summer of 1821
+settled in Basel, as public lecturer on jurisprudence and metaphysics in
+the recently organized University.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.—Charles Beck (1798-1866). (From a Portrait in the
+Library of Harvard University).]
+
+Among the German refugees whose friendship Follen enjoyed during his
+three years at Basel were the distinguished theologian De Wette, and
+his stepson Charles (German, _Karl_) Beck. Beck was born in Heidelberg
+August 19, 1798. His father, a merchant, died when the boy was still
+young, and his mother afterwards became the wife of Wilhelm De Wette,
+professor in the university of Heidelberg. In 1810 the family removed to
+Berlin, whither De Wette had been called to fill the chair of theology
+in the new Prussian university. There, as a student in the Werder’sche
+_Gymnasium_, Beck soon came under Jahn’s influence, began to frequent
+the Hasenheide Turnplatz, and owing to his natural robustness of body,
+and the enthusiasm with which he applied himself to the exercises,
+developed more than usual proficiency in all the arts of the _Turner_.
+After the assassination of Kotzebue in 1819, De Wette, who had long been
+a friend of the Sand family, wrote a letter to the mother, in which he
+endeavored to console her with the thought that her son’s act, though
+wicked, arose from a mistaken notion of duty. The Prussian authorities,
+upon learning of this letter, accused the eminent teacher of seeking to
+excuse the crime, and in token of their displeasure deprived him of his
+chair and even banished him from the kingdom. After several years in
+retirement he accepted, in 1822, the professorship of theology in the
+University of Basel, and passed the remainder of his life in that city.
+Beck, meanwhile, had become an accomplished classical scholar at the
+University of Berlin. He afterwards studied theology, was ordained to the
+Lutheran ministry at Heidelberg, July 7, 1822, and the next year obtained
+his doctor’s degree in theology from the University of Tübingen. He had
+been active in the movement for a true Christian _Burschenschaft_, and
+finding that his republican sentiments stood in the way of a successful
+career in Germany, he, too, removed to Switzerland and joined the rest
+of the family at Basel, where he found an opportunity to teach the Latin
+language and literature.
+
+Meanwhile the allied sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia had
+requested repeatedly that Follen be surrendered to them for trial on
+the ground of complicity in revolutionary movements, and acting on the
+advice of friends he left the city for a few months, seeking concealment
+in Baden at first, and in the spring of 1824 revisiting Paris. Here he
+again saw much of Lafayette, who introduced him to the American Minister
+(James Brown) and sought his company on an approaching visit to the
+United States. Although longer residence in Basel appeared unsafe, he
+returned to his duties in the university; but on October 27, 1824 he
+again left the city, and three days later, travelling by mail-coach and
+provided with a false passport, he reached Paris. Here he found Beck, who
+had already left Switzerland a few days in advance, convinced that even
+this asylum was no longer free from danger for Germans known to cherish
+liberal opinions. The two men went at once to Havre, engaged passage
+on the vessel “Cadmus,” and sailed for the United States on the 5th of
+November.
+
+They reached New York December 19. Three days later Follen wrote to
+General Lafayette, who was then revisiting this country at the invitation
+of Congress and receiving everywhere a welcome which gave to his
+movements the character of a triumphal procession. Acting at once on his
+suggestion that they go first of all to Philadelphia, they reached that
+city on January 12, and were soon busily engaged in the study of English.
+Letters from Lafayette secured them a kind reception and introduction to
+agreeable and influential men, among others to Duponceau, a prominent
+lawyer of French descent, who had been his friend for more than half a
+century. George Ticknor, professor of the French and Spanish languages
+and literature and of belles-lettres at Harvard University 1819-1835,
+was then visiting in Washington. Lafayette sought to interest him in
+the two German refugees, and on his return through Philadelphia, early
+in February, Ticknor accordingly hunted them up, and found in Follen’s
+possession a letter from Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, a friend of the
+Follen family and one of the son’s favorite teachers in Giessen, and
+afterwards professor in the University of Göttingen, where Ticknor, a
+student there in the years 1815-1817, had made his acquaintance.[194]
+
+Ticknor’s letter to George Bancroft, to whom De Wette had already
+directed a letter recommending his stepson, secured for Beck an
+immediate appointment as instructor in Latin and gymnastics at the Round
+Hill School, Northampton, Massachusetts, and by the middle of the month
+(February, 1825) he had left Philadelphia to take up his new duties.
+Except for a visit to Beck at Northampton the next summer, Follen
+continued to reside in or near Philadelphia, applying himself with
+diligence and success to his English studies, and preparing a course of
+lectures on the civil law, which he hoped to deliver in the following
+fall and winter. He had also enrolled himself with Duponceau as a law
+student and was reading Blackstone. But in November, owing to the efforts
+of Professor Ticknor, Duponceau, and others, Harvard University offered
+him the position of Instructor in German, at a salary of $500—the first
+time that subject had been included in its curriculum. Expecting to add
+to his income by lectures on the Roman law, to be delivered in Boston,
+he at once accepted the offer, visiting Beck once more on the way, and
+before Christmas was settled in Cambridge.
+
+One of the most important and successful educational innovations of its
+time was the Round Hill School, opened on the first of October, 1823,
+by Joseph Green Cogswell (1786-1871) and George Bancroft (1800-1891). A
+descriptive circular issued a year after Beck’s appointment—it is dated
+March 25, 1826[195]—reveals the serious purpose with which they undertook
+the introduction of gymnastics and other forms of physical training.
+“It may be impossible,” they say, “to engraft on any modern nation a
+system of education corresponding to that which prevailed in ancient
+Greece. But something must be done. Food, sleep, and exercise must be
+regulated, purity protected, life guaranteed against casualties, and
+temperance and exercise be set, even in the dawn of existence, to keep
+watch over health. Games and healthful sports, promoting hilarity and
+securing a just degree of exercise, are to be encouraged. Various means
+of motion are to be devised and applied; and where these are regularly
+used everything is done to assist nature in strengthening the youthful
+constitution. If in addition to regularity in the use of exercise,
+the kinds of it are so arranged that the several powers of the body
+may successively be brought into action and gradually led to greater
+exertions, it will not be long before the physical being assumes a new
+appearance, and in addition to the acquisition of a control of the body,
+beneficial results will be visible in general industry, deportment,
+and morals. The attempt, therefore, to provide the various means for
+gymnastic exercises merits to be encouraged; and whether the methods are
+by turns strange or common, complicated or simple, the best that are
+known should be employed. We are deeply impressed with the necessity
+of uniting physical with moral education; and are particularly favored
+in executing our plans of connecting them by the assistance of a pupil
+and friend of Jahn, the greatest modern advocate of gymnastics. We have
+proceeded slowly in our attempts, for the undertaking was a new one; but
+now we see ourselves near the accomplishment of our views. The whole
+subject of the union of moral and physical education is a great deal
+simpler than it may at first appear. And here, too, we may say, that we
+were the first in the new continent to connect gymnastics with a purely
+literary establishment.”
+
+Of the nature of this “first gymnasium on this side of the Atlantic,”
+and the work done in it, not much direct evidence has come down to
+us. One former pupil (Thomas G. Appleton)[196] writes: “‘Pitching the
+bar’ was generally done near the schoolhouse; but the regular exercise
+of gymnastics was upon a plateau just below the hill, where gymnastic
+appliances, then freshly introduced from Germany, were in abundance.”
+Dr. George C. Shattuck, another “Round Hiller,” is quoted by Dr. E. M.
+Hartwell[197] as follows: “Dr. Beck, the teacher of Latin, afterward the
+professor of Latin in Harvard University, was the teacher of gymnastics.
+A large piece of ground was devoted to the purpose and furnished with
+all the apparatus used in the German gymnasia. The whole school was
+divided into classes, and each class had an hour three times a week for
+instruction by Dr. Beck.” A newspaper article copied in the _American
+Journal of Education_ for July, 1826, states that classes begin at 5:30,
+others at 6:15, and breakfast comes at 7; from 7:30 till 9 the only
+exercises are in declamation and dancing, 9 till 12 other classes, 12
+until 1 rest, dinner at 1, 2 until 5 more classes, 5 until 7 “exercise
+and amusement. At this time the classes in gymnastics have their
+instruction, when the weather permits.” The evening meal follows, and
+devotional exercises are held at 8, after which the smaller boys go to
+bed, and the rest study for an hour longer.
+
+Indirect proof that the Round Hill “gymnasium” was only a miniature
+Hasenheide _Turnplatz_ is abundantly furnished by the “Treatise on
+Gymnasticks, taken chiefly from the German of F. L. Jahn,” a translation
+of the “_Deutsche Turnkunst_” of 1816, which Beck completed and turned
+over to the publisher in January, 1828.[198] In the preface he tells us
+that “The same causes which occasioned the publication of the original,
+in Germany, about twelve years ago, render a translation desirable
+in this country.... The school of Messrs. Cogswell and Bancroft, in
+Northampton, Mass., was the first institution in this country that
+introduced gymnastick exercises as a part of the regular instruction,
+in the spring of 1825. Since that time, the interest for this branch
+of education has been rapidly increasing, and frequent inquiries have
+been made respecting a subject much esteemed for its expected salutary
+effects, but little known as to its particulars.... Wishes were expressed
+to me, by several of the most zealous and able friends and advocates
+of physical education, to translate a work which would be suitable ...
+or compile one.... I did not doubt to which of the two ways proposed
+to give the preference. I fixed upon the treatise of Jahn, for reasons
+contained in the preceding lines.” Jahn’s preface and Part V (containing
+the bibliography) are omitted altogether by the translator; Parts III and
+IV have been transposed, a chapter on dumb-bell exercises is introduced
+in Part I, and there are a few other omissions and additions suggested by
+recent experience. Plates VII and VIII are reproductions of the two in
+the original, but the sixty-three figures in the remaining six plates are
+new.
+
+Leaving Beck at work in the first school gymnasium established in the
+United States, we have now to return to Charles Follen, waiting in
+Cambridge, in late December of 1825, to begin his duties as first teacher
+of the German language in Harvard University. Within a year he also was
+introducing the Jahn gymnastics in his new field, and had opened the
+first college gymnasium this country had seen, at Harvard University, and
+the first public gymnasium, in Boston. He had visited Beck at Northampton
+in July of 1825 and again early in December, and on March 5 of the next
+year, only a little more than two months after his arrival in Cambridge,
+used these words in a letter to his friend: “I expect our University
+will particularly apply to you on the subject of gymnastics. I have
+commenced gymnastic exercises with the students. The College furnishes
+the implements, and will give us a place. At present I use one of the
+dining-halls. All show much zeal. In Boston a gymnasium is soon to be
+established.”[199]
+
+The third instalment of “Reminiscences of Harvard, 1822-26,” by Rev.
+Cazneau Palfrey, printed in _The Harvard Register_ of October, 1880,
+contains this passage: “The first movement in the direction of gymnastics
+made in college was made in my senior year.... The medical professors of
+the College published an appeal to the students, strongly recommending
+to them the practice of gymnastic exercises; and a meeting of all the
+classes was held in the College chapel (such a meeting as I do not
+remember hearing of on any other occasion), at which a response was
+made to this appeal, and resolutions passed expressing our readiness to
+follow the suggestions made in it. One of the unoccupied commons halls
+(on the first floor of University Hall) was fitted up with various
+gymnastic appliances; and other fixtures were erected on the Delta, the
+enclosure now occupied by Memorial Hall. But Dr. Follen did not confine
+his operations to these two localities. One day he was to be seen issuing
+from the College yard at a dogtrot, with all college (the total number of
+undergraduates at that period was not more than two hundred) at his heels
+in single file, and arms akimbo, making a train a mile long, bound for
+the top of Prospect Hill. Great was the amazement and amusement of all
+passersby. I was one of the bobs of that living kite; but, as I dropped
+prematurely, I cannot speak confidently of the end....”
+
+Anyone familiar with the appearance of a German _Turnplatz_ of the Jahn
+type will readily understand the allusions made by Thomas Wentworth
+Higginson in his chapter on “The Gymnasium, and Gymnastics in Harvard
+College,” in the second volume of “The Harvard Book” (Cambridge, 1875).
+“One of my most impressive early reminiscences,” he says, “is of a
+certain moment when I looked out timidly from my father’s gateway, on
+what is now Kirkland Street, in Cambridge, and saw the forms of young men
+climbing, swinging, and twirling aloft in the open playground opposite.
+It was the triangular field then called the ‘Delta,’ where the great
+Memorial Hall now stands. The apparatus on which these youths were
+exercising was, to my childish eyes, as inexplicable as if it had been a
+pillory or a gallows, which indeed it somewhat resembled. It consisted
+of high uprights and crossbars, with ladders and swinging ropes, and
+complications of wood and cordage, whose details are vanished from my
+memory. Beneath some parts of the apparatus there were pits sunk in the
+earth, and so well constructed that they remained long after the woodwork
+had been removed. This early recollection must date as far back as 1830.”
+
+In the “Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University in
+Cambridge,” October, 1825, appears the name “Charles Follen, J.U.D.,
+Instructor in German, and Lecturer on the Civil Law.” The next catalogue
+(September, 1826) retains the name and title unchanged, but in that
+“for the Academical year 1827-1828” (published in 1827) he is called
+“Instructor in German, and Superintendent of the Gymnasium;” and in both
+these catalogues the following paragraph occurs: “The regular Gymnastick
+exercises, when the Superintendent of the Gymnasium is present, are on
+Wednesday and Friday, from 12 to 1 o’clock; or when the length of the
+day admits, after evening Commons. On Monday, the Monitors and Vice
+Monitors meet separately with the Superintendent, to prepare for the
+general exercises.” The catalogues for 1828-1829 (published in 1828) and
+1829-1830 (published in 1829) make no mention of “Gymnastick exercises,”
+and give Follen the title “Instructor in the German Language, in Ethics,
+and in Civil and Ecclesiastical History.” From 1826 through 1829 this
+further paragraph is included: “Military exercises are allowed on Tuesday
+and Thursday, from 12 to 1 o’clock, or after evening Commons; with
+music not oftener than every other time, and liberty of a parade on the
+afternoons of Exhibition days.”
+
+In a letter to Beck dated March 5, 1826, Follen had written: “In Boston
+a gymnasium is soon to be established.” The gentlemen interested in
+the project offered him a liberal salary if he would “superintend the
+erection of the proper apparatus and become the principal instructor,”
+and authorized him to engage a suitable assistant. September 26 he again
+wrote to Beck: “The day after tomorrow my rope-dancing begins in Boston.
+The gallows stand, in significant majesty, on the spot. There is no lack
+of gallows-birds, large and small, genteel and vulgar....” A petition had
+been presented to the Board of Aldermen of Boston on March 13, asking
+for the use of a certain piece of land “for the purpose of establishing
+a school of gymnastic instruction and exercise.” April 17 the city
+authorities granted this request. Following a call which appeared in the
+Boston _Daily Advertiser_ of June 12, a meeting of citizens was held June
+15, at the Exchange Coffee House, to take steps to carry out the plan for
+a public gymnasium. The official report is published in the _American
+Journal of Education_ for July, 1826, (Vol. I, p. 243). The meeting
+unanimously resolved “that it is expedient to attempt the establishment
+of a Gymnastic School in the city of Boston,” and appointed William
+Sullivan, Dr. John C. Warren, Prof. George Ticknor, Dr. John G. Coffin,
+and John S. Foster, with others to be selected by them, a committee to
+carry the resolution into effect, by securing and applying contributions
+from the citizens of Boston. Others mentioned as especially interested in
+the project are Judge Prescott, Josiah Quincy, Daniel Webster, Peter O.
+Thacher, John A. Lowell, Thomas Motley, and John B. Davis. Two hundred
+and fifty shares, at twenty dollars each, were offered by the committee,
+and according to Dr. Warren the contributions were “very liberal,”
+permitting the opening of the establishment “on a large scale.”
+
+The open-air gymnasium or _Turnplatz_ was ready for the public on
+September 28, not on the site originally selected, but in Washington
+Gardens, at the corner of West and Tremont Streets, opposite the Common.
+A notice in the _American Journal of Education_ for October mentions “the
+large number of pupils of various ages, and the high gratification it
+seems to afford;” and the November number of the same Journal uses these
+words, in the course of a more extended reference: “A month’s opportunity
+of observing its progress and participating in its exercises enables us
+now to say that thus far it gives the utmost satisfaction to those who
+have made the experiment of taking a course of lessons. The physical
+effects of the gymnastic exercise, on pupils of very different ages—from
+ten to fifty—are surprising. Many have doubled their vigor.... Pupils
+belong to great diversity of situations in life—physicians, lawyers, and
+clergymen are intermixed with young men from the counter and the counting
+house, and with boys from the public schools.” Follen was assisted by
+George F. Turner, a Harvard student. Mrs. Follen, then Miss Eliza Lee
+Cabot, first met her future husband in the autumn of 1826. She says: “He
+accompanied us and some other ladies to his gymnasium, to see his class
+of boys go through their exercises. He took us, when we first entered the
+place, to look at a very amusing caricature of his school, particularly
+of his elder pupils and himself, in the act of performing some of their
+most difficult exercises.”[200]
+
+In June of the following year (1827) Follen resigned his position at
+the Boston Gymnasium. To a committee of pupils there, who sent him a
+letter[201] expressing their appreciation of his services and their
+regret at losing him, he replied under date of July 3, referring to “the
+patriotic views to which the Boston Gymnasium owes its existence, and
+the efficient zeal with which these exercises have been carried on.”
+Meanwhile an attempt had been made to secure the services of no less a
+person than Friedrich Ludwig Jahn himself. Dr. Warren tells us[202] that
+he “addressed a letter to the distinguished philosopher and gymnasiarch,
+Professor Jahn, through my friend, William Amory, Esq., who was at that
+time residing in Germany. Mr. Jahn was so situated that we could not,
+without obtaining more means than were at our disposition, lead him to
+abandon his own country and establish himself for life in ours. The
+idea of obtaining his aid was therefore relinquished; and I afterwards
+addressed Dr. Lieber....”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.—Francis Lieber (1800-1872). (From Harley’s
+“Francis Lieber”).]
+
+This latter gentleman, who succeeded Follen at the Boston gymnasium
+late in June or early in July of 1827, was Francis (German, _Franz_)
+Lieber, born in Berlin on March 18, 1800. In 1811 he became acquainted
+with Jahn, at the Hasenheide _Turnplatz_. Although too young to join
+his older brothers in the first campaign of the War of Liberation,
+upon Napoleon’s return from Elba he entered (May 26, 1815) a volunteer
+regiment, the Pomeranian Rifles or Kolberg Regiment, took part in the
+battle of Ligny, was severely wounded at Namur, and later suffered from
+a prolonged siege of typhus fever in the hospitals at Aix-la-Chapelle
+and Cologne. After his return home he attended for a time the _Gymnasium
+zum grauen Kloster_, and now became one of the most ardent and tireless
+of Jahn’s turners, accompanying him on the month-long excursions to the
+Island of Rügen in 1817 and to Breslau the following year.[203] In July
+of 1819, a few days after Jahn’s arrest, Lieber was also seized as an
+enemy of the state. After four months in prison he was allowed to go
+free, but forbidden to study in any Prussian university. The universities
+of Heidelberg and Tübingen also refused him admission, but he met with
+better success at Jena, where he received his doctor’s degree (Ph.D.)
+in 1820, studying afterwards for brief periods in Halle and Dresden
+(1821). In December of that year Lieber joined at Marseilles a band of
+Philhellenes, who sailed from that port to give their services in the
+cause of freedom to a foreign race, since the reaction at home left
+no opportunity there for patriotic endeavor; but disgusted with the
+cowardice, incapacity, and lying met at every step in Greece, he returned
+in a small vessel to Ancona, on the eastern coast of Italy, reached Rome
+about the first of June, and spent the next year as private tutor in the
+family of Barthold Georg Niebuhr, the celebrated German historian, at
+that time Prussian ambassador at the Papal Court.
+
+The Prussian King, and later Kamptz, the Minister of Police, had assured
+Lieber that no further persecution need be feared in his own country,
+and for some months after his return to Berlin, which he reached August
+10, 1823, it seemed as though all was well. But in time it appeared
+that every movement was watched by the police. Foreseeing the fate that
+awaited him if he remained longer in Germany, he now took steps looking
+toward a career in some foreign land. Lessons in English were begun in
+February of 1826, and among other things he secured from Major-General
+von Pfuel, in charge of a swimming school in Berlin, a testimonial as to
+his skill in that art and his ability to conduct a similar institution
+with success. When all was ready he left Berlin, May 17, 1826, and ten
+days later reached London, travelling by way of Hamburg and Gravesend.
+
+Although he passed a year in the English metropolis, supporting himself
+by private instruction in German and Italian at six shillings a lesson,
+Lieber’s thoughts were soon turned from this uncertain means of
+livelihood to the possibility of a career in the United States. As early
+as August his diary contains this entry: “Mrs. Austin, the authoress,
+introduced me to Mr. Bentham, and to Mr. Neal” (p. 248). The _American
+Journal of Education_ for November of that year (Vol. I, pp. 699-701)
+quotes as follows from “a recent letter of our literary countryman Mr.
+Neal, who has taken a very active part in aiding the interests of Prof.
+Voelker’s establishment in London, and to whose attention we have been
+repeatedly indebted for intelligence on gymnastics”: ‘You know my zeal
+about gymnastics. I have been heartily engaged for above a year in the
+study and practice of them in every variety; and under a hope that I
+may be of use to my countrymen. I have found three men who I am told
+are qualified, almost beyond example, for teachers. I enclose you the
+proposals and the certificate of one, who was a chief personage with
+professor Jahn himself.’
+
+The certificate of Professor Jahn: “Francis Lieber, Doctor in Philosophy,
+has during several successive years, both in summer and winter, gone
+through the whole course of gymnastic exercises in the gymnasium over
+which I, the undersigned, presided; he has also accompanied me in several
+pedestrian excursions, among others in 1817 to the Island of Rügen,
+and in 1818 to the Riesen mountains, on which travels we visited many
+Prussian gymnasiums. Having found him of good moral behavior, ingenious
+and clever, and being a good leader and teacher of gymnastics, I thought
+it right as early as the year 1817 to propose him to the government of
+the Rhenish Provinces at Aix la Chapelle for the situation of a teacher
+of gymnastic exercises. Beloved by the young scholars, esteemed and
+respected by those of the same or a more advanced age than himself, he
+was elected a member of the committee which was intended to represent
+the society of ‘Turners’ and to promote the art generally, with a view
+as well to the art itself as to morals and science. At the time when Dr.
+Lieber was daily with me he zealously adhered to those eternal maxims
+of truth, duty, and liberty which form the only basis of the progress
+of human kind. The journeys which he has performed through Germany,
+Switzerland, to France, Italy, and Greece, have no doubt still farther
+formed his understanding and enlarged his mind; but on this point I
+cannot judge from my own knowledge, having since lost sight of him
+although he lives in my recollection. At the request of Dr. Lieber I
+have given this testimonial, stamped according to law, written with my
+own hand, with my seal affixed and certified by the municipality of my
+present abode. Freiburg on the Unstrut, in the Prussian Duchy of Saxony.
+August 1, 1826. (Signed) Frederick Lewis Jahn, Doctor in Philosophy.”
+
+“In addition to the above,” the Editor of the _Journal_ concludes, “Dr.
+Lieber has a very satisfactory certificate from Major General Pfuel, who
+invented the new method of teaching to swim and established the Prussian
+Military Swimming Schools. It may be proper to add that Dr. Lieber is
+known and approved by Dr. Follen, Professor (!) of civil law in Harvard
+University and Superintendent of the gymnasium in Boston.”
+
+April 13, 1827, in response to an invitation just received, Lieber wrote
+accepting a position as Follen’s successor at the Boston Gymnasium, and
+agreeing to establish a swimming school in that city. June 20 of the
+same year he landed in New York City, and proceeded at once to the scene
+of his new duties. The _Boston Medical Intelligencer_ of July 3 (Vol.
+V, p. 118) announces his arrival “to take charge of the gymnasium in
+Washington Garden and to open a swimming school;” and an advertisement in
+the same journal, dated July 14, gives notice that “Dr. Lieber’s Swimming
+School, situate on the north side of the Mill Dam, will be opened for the
+reception of pupils on Wednesday next, 18th inst....” The swimming school
+seems to have proved a successful venture from the start, and was still
+in existence at least as late as the season of 1832. The popularity of
+the gymnasium, on the other hand, soon waned. From a sketch of the life
+of William Bentley Fowle contained in Barnard’s _American Journal of
+Education_ for 1861 (Vol. X, p. 607) we learn that “about four hundred
+gentlemen attended at the opening term. Mr. Fowle was chosen treasurer,
+and was in fact the chief executive officer. When Dr. Follen resigned
+Dr. Lieber was invited over from London; but no talent could keep the
+gymnasium alive after the novelty had ceased, and some of the gymnasts
+had been caricatured in the print shops. The institution lingered about
+two years, when, only about four gymnasts remaining, Mr. Fowle closed its
+accounts.”[204]
+
+Beck left the Round Hill School in 1830, to take part in establishing
+another boys’ school, in Phillipstown, on the Hudson River opposite West
+Point. Two years later he was elected “University Professor of Latin,
+and Permanent Tutor,” in Harvard University, and for eighteen years
+discharged the duties of that position in a manner which won the respect
+and affectionate regard of pupils and colleagues. Upon resigning his
+chair, and until his death, which occurred suddenly on March 19, 1866, he
+was occupied with literary pursuits and classical studies, and also held
+various offices of public trust, representing Cambridge for two years
+in the State Legislature.[205] Bancroft, too, had withdrawn from the
+school at Northampton in 1830.[206] For some years longer, in the face
+of financial losses and in spite of failing health, Cogswell struggled
+to maintain its efficiency. In the spring of 1834 he finally gave up the
+attempt, and after two years at the head of a boys’ school near Raleigh,
+North Carolina, turned his back forever on a profession in which he had
+been in many ways singularly successful.
+
+Follen, as we have seen, resigned his position at the Boston gymnasium
+early in the summer of 1827; the title “Superintendent of the Gymnasium”
+at Harvard is given him only in the catalogue for 1827-1828, which also
+contains the last reference to “gymnastick exercises.” August 21, 1828,
+the Corporation of Harvard College appointed him “Instructor in Ethics
+and in Civil and Ecclesiastical History” in the Theological School,
+in addition to his work in the College. Two years later he received a
+five-year appointment as Professor of the German Language and Literature,
+three friends having guaranteed a portion of his salary for that period.
+The professorship was not renewed in 1835, and his connection with the
+University came to an end. In the summer of 1833 he became interested
+in the Anti-slavery Society which had been formed the year previous
+in Boston, and soon joined it, assisting later in the formation of a
+similar society in Cambridge, and at one time serving as a manager of
+the Massachusetts Society. As early as the winter of 1826-1827 he formed
+the acquaintance of Dr. William Ellery Channing, and decided to prepare
+himself for the ministry with the assistance of that distinguished
+Unitarian clergyman. On January 13, 1840, three days after completing
+a well-attended course of six lectures on German literature under the
+auspices of the Merchants’ Library Association of New York, he left that
+city for Boston on the steamboat “Lexington.” About fifty miles out, on
+the Sound, the vessel caught fire, and Follen, together with all but
+four of the crew and passengers, met his death. Charles Sumner, who had
+been his pupil, wrote to a friend “Dr. Follen is gone; able, virtuous,
+learned, good, with a heart throbbing to all that is honest and humane;”
+and Dr. Channing “said of him that he was, on the whole, the best man he
+had ever known.”[207]
+
+The career of Francis Lieber in the United States was more notable than
+those of either of his compatriots. A testimonial from Niebuhr, and his
+own force of intellect and character, secured him at once a very cordial
+reception on this side of the Atlantic, and upon the recommendation of
+the same distinguished patron a half-dozen leading periodicals in Germany
+appointed him American correspondent. At the close of his first season
+at the swimming school he turned with great energy to literary labors,
+and soon made up his mind to edit an encyclopedia, modelled after the
+seventh edition of the Brockhaus _Conversations-Lexicon_ and in part a
+translation of that famous German work, but adapted to English readers
+and supplied with numerous additional articles by distinguished American
+contributors. The first volume of the new “Encyclopædia Americana”
+appeared in 1829, and the thirteenth and last in 1833. It proved a
+successful venture financially and brought him also the acquaintance of
+prominent men in all parts of the country. In September of 1833 he moved
+his family from Boston to Philadelphia, and by October 19 had finished
+the draft of a constitution for Girard College. June 5, 1835, he was
+unanimously elected Professor of History and Political Economy in South
+Carolina College, at Columbia. May 18, 1857, he was elected Professor of
+History and Political Science in Columbia College, New York City, but
+later, in July of 1865, was transferred by the trustees to the chair
+of Constitutional History and Public Law in the Law School. Here he
+continued in active service until his sudden death, October 2, 1872.[208]
+
+The outdoor gymnasia at Northampton, Cambridge, and Boston, although for
+the historian they possess the greatest interest, were not the only ones
+established during the period (1825-1830) under consideration. Each had
+its imitators, and there were other attempts of a similar nature which
+seem to have been more or less independent, or inspired by direct contact
+with European models. The following information deserves a place as a
+contribution to this study of beginnings, and it is offered in the hope
+of arousing a curiosity which will result in additions to our present
+knowledge of the subject.
+
+No school of the period attracted more attention or enjoyed greater
+prosperity than did the New York High School, a private institution
+for boys, which the son of its founder[209] calls, at the time of
+its organization, “the first and the only pay school in this country
+established on the professed principle of cheap and efficient instruction
+based on ... the adoption and employment of the monitorial system, by
+which one teacher can communicate his knowledge to a large number of
+pupils.” It was located in New York City, on Crosby Street, above Grand,
+and opened March 1, 1825, with about 250 boys; but the numbers rapidly
+increased to more than 600, and there were still about 400 at the time
+of its discontinuance, near the close of 1831. The founder was John
+Griscom (1774-1852), who during a year of foreign travel had examined
+many famous European schools, and refers in the published account of
+his observations[210] to the gymnastic exercises which he saw in Paris,
+at the school of Amoros[211] (August 27, 1818), and in Switzerland
+at the schools of Fellenberg, in Hofwyl (October 2 and 3, 1818), and
+Pestalozzi, in Yverdon (October 8 and 9, 1818). In writing of the visit
+to Amoros he remarks: “A systematic course of instruction, with proper
+exercises, on the right use of their limbs, I have long thought would
+be very advantageous to boys;” and his opening address at the New York
+High School[212] contains the following: “I shall refrain from dwelling
+longer on the literary pursuits of this seminary; but I cannot dismiss
+my subject without adverting to one branch of instruction which it is
+equally the wish, I believe, of the trustees and principals to establish
+as a constituent part of our general plan, from a conviction of its
+advantages to the bodily vigor and of course to the intellectual strength
+and activity of our pupils. I allude to _gymnastics_.” The second annual
+report of the Trustees[213] informs the public that “Gymnastic exercises
+have been introduced, under the superintendence of an experienced and
+careful teacher, and they have been attended with evident advantage to
+the spirits and health of the pupils.”
+
+Other schools which introduced gymnastic exercises, or planned to do so,
+during the period under review, were the New Haven Gymnasium, conducted
+by two sons of President Timothy Dwight of Yale; the Berkshire High
+School, at Pittsfield, Mass.; the Mount Pleasant Classical Institution,
+at Amherst, Mass.; the Livingston County High School, near Geneseo,
+New York; the Buffalo High School; Gideon F. Thayer’s private school
+for boys, in Harvard Place, Boston; the Noyes School, at Andover, New
+Hampshire; Walnut Grove School, at Troy, New York; a High School in
+Utica, New York; the Brookline (Mass.) Gymnasium; Mount Hope Literary and
+Scientific Institution, near Baltimore, Maryland; and the Classical and
+Scientific Seminary at Ballston, New York.[214]
+
+After Harvard, Yale College seems to have been the first to introduce
+gymnastics among its students. A letter received from the University
+Library states “that the idea was taken from the gymnasium recently
+established at Harvard; that Tutor William M. Holland was sent to
+Cambridge in the summer of 1826 to procure the apparatus, and that he
+superintended the exercises, which was begun with the opening of the
+fall term of 1826.” At a meeting of the Corporation held September 12,
+1826, it was “Voted that a sum not exceeding three hundred dollars, to
+be expended under the direction of the faculty, be appropriated to the
+clearing and preparation of grounds for a Gymnasium and to the erection
+of apparatus for Gymnastic exercises, with a view to the promotion of the
+health and improvement of the Students.”
+
+A book entitled “Student Life at Amherst College,” compiled by George R.
+Cutting and published at Amherst in 1871, contains the following account
+of a similar movement at that institution: “In the summer of 1826 the
+students of the college petitioned the Faculty for a holiday in which
+to clear up the college grove. The petition was granted, and a second
+day was given for further completion of the work. Thus logs, stumps, and
+rubbish were removed, and the students had a fine grove at their command
+for outdoor exercise. Several months afterward a Gymnastic Society was
+formed, whose chief object was the erection and support of gymnastic
+apparatus in this grove. The first president of the society was Joseph
+Howard, M.D., of ’27. The Faculty concurred in the plans of the society,
+and as a result of their efforts a variety of useful apparatus was placed
+here, which was eminently serviceable to the students and contributed
+not a little to their health and happiness. By the enthusiasm and public
+spirit of the society a bathing house (10 × 12 feet) was also erected, in
+the southwest corner of the grove. Here shower-baths were provided for
+the members. This was afterwards burned down. In 1827-1828 the society
+contemplated the erection of bowling alleys, but the Faculty would not
+suffer the innovation.... Addresses were occasionally pronounced before
+the society, in the chapel, upon ‘physical culture.’ The society did
+not really cease to exist until 1859-1860, when the present (Barrett)
+gymnasium was erected. Its apparatus, ever and anon increased and
+repaired by the liberality of the students, was not removed from the
+grove until after that time.” Dr. E. M. Hartwell, in his “Physical
+Training in American Colleges and Universities” (Washington, 1886),
+tells us that “One who entered Amherst as a student in 1829 describes a
+gymnasium which consisted of ‘a few horses and parallel bars, with one or
+two swings in the grove, but even these belonged to a society of students
+who guarded their property with jealous care.’”
+
+May 9, 1827, the Trustees of Williams College voted “That a sum not
+exceeding one hundred dollars be appropriated to the procuring and
+erection of apparatus necessary to the practice of the gymnastic
+exercises, if the Faculty should think proper to introduce the same at
+this College.” At a meeting of the Faculty held June 15 “The President
+and Tutor (Mark) Hopkins,[215] a committee who had been appointed for
+this purpose at a former meeting, reported a plan of a gymnasium, and
+recommended a site for its location. The same committee were authorized
+to prepare the ground according to the plan reported.” The Trustees,
+again, on September 5, of the same year, voted “to appropriate a sum not
+exceeding $50, in addition to the $100 granted at the last meeting, to
+be expended on the Gymnasium.” The _Boston Medical Intelligencer_ for
+September 25, 1827 (Vol. V, p. 311) contains this note: “A traveller
+observes, ‘On a portion of the College grounds, in Williamstown, I
+perceived one day a large number of students at work, headed by their
+venerable President, and on examination found that they were preparing a
+Gymnasium. Here is a fine spot for exercise, and we may hope that our
+students will no longer, as in former years, leave college with emaciated
+frames and pallid countenances, through want of proper exercise.’”
+
+The following extracts are taken from a long letter[216] to the editor
+of the _Boston Medical Intelligencer_ by a correspondent who signs
+himself “G. F.” and writes under date of September, 1827. “Having lately
+been in Providence, Rhode Island, I have had the best opportunity of
+informing myself with respect to the success of the Gymnastic Exercises
+in Brown University, and knowing the interest you take in this subject
+I submit to your disposal some remarks on it. On the 11th of June
+last, near the commencement of the present term, the exercises opened
+under the most auspicious and flattering circumstances. Nearly all the
+students, with the exception of the senior class, to the number of about
+seventy, presented themselves on the exercise ground. The exercises
+were countenanced, and consequently enlivened, by the presence of the
+president, professors, and tutors of the university.... The officers,
+as I stated, appeared with the students, and under the direction of the
+teacher of gymnastics performed the exercises.... The students have taken
+a great interest in the exercises throughout the term, though not so much
+at the latter part of it as at first....” Late in July of 1827 Charles
+Follen spent a day in Providence on his way to Newport, and refers to
+the visit as follows in a letter to Beck: “I was for the most part with
+Dr. Wayland,[217] and my ex-assistant Haskins, and held in the evening
+a strict Gymnastic review. I spoke much with Dr. Wayland on education.
+He stated many fine views and seemed to be respected and beloved by the
+teachers. He exercises with all.” The University catalogue of 1827-1828
+announces that “a very complete Gymnasium, with every variety of
+apparatus for exercise, has lately been erected on the college grounds;”
+and the Treasurer’s Reports contain these items:
+
+  1827—June 28, Cash paid for digging, etc., for gymnasium  $ 26.06
+       July 27, Materials and labor for gymnasium            231.81
+         ”  31, Lumber for gymnasium                          24.14
+       Aug. 17, Dynamometer for gymnasium                     27.00
+        ”   27, Lumber, etc.                                   3.00
+        ”   27, George F. Haskins, on account of services as
+                  teacher in gymnasium                        15.00
+       Sept. 4, George F. Haskins services in full           135.00
+  1828—Jan.  5, Spar for gymnasium                            10.00
+       Feb.  4, Work on gymnasium                             10.22
+
+President Jasper Adams, D.D., of Charleston College, Charleston, S. C.,
+is thus quoted in the _Quarterly Review and Journal of the American
+Education Society_ for May, 1830 (Vol. II, p. 244): “A system of bodily
+exercise was adopted three or four years ago, and suitable apparatus
+was constructed; but it was not found useful, and the apparatus has been
+destroyed.”
+
+In speaking of Lieber’s year in England reference has already been
+made (p. 240) to an American, John Neal,[218] who was at that time
+residing in London. Neal had spent his early life in New England, in
+1815 established himself in business in Baltimore, studied law in that
+city and was admitted to the bar in 1819, and meanwhile, in order to
+support himself, had been writing articles for the _Portico_ and had
+followed these with a two-volume novel and a book of poems. A whole
+series of novels was produced within the next few years, and some of
+these were reprinted in London. Late in 1823 he left America to try his
+fortune as a pioneer of American letters in the British metropolis, and
+during his residence in London, from January of 1824 until April of
+1827, became a frequent contributor to the most important magazines and
+reviews, residing much of the time at the house of Jeremy Bentham, by
+invitation of that distinguished jurist and philosopher. While still in
+Baltimore he had been moved by signs of mental overwork to take lessons
+in boxing, fencing, and riding; in London these were continued, and
+when Carl Voelker[219] (German, _Karl Völker_), like Beck, Follen, and
+Lieber, a German refugee, opened there his gymnasia patterned after the
+Jahn _Turnplatz_ Neal became one of his most enthusiastic pupils and
+supporters. Returning to America in the summer of 1827 he opened a law
+office in Portland, Maine, where the remainder of his life was passed.
+The following words from his autobiography (pp. 333-335) evidently refer
+to the first year (1827-1828) of this residence:
+
+“The late Governor Enoch Lincoln was my mother’s nextdoor neighbor.
+Having understood that I was familiar with gymnastics, which he wanted
+to have introduced here, he proposed a lecture. A lecture! I had never
+been guilty of such a thing, in all my life; but as soon as my mind was
+made up about staying here I determined to establish a gymnasium, take
+charge of it myself, and refusing all compensation see what could be done
+for the people in that way. Our first gathering was in the upper story
+of the old town-hall, which I asked of the authorities; and succeeded in
+obtaining for certain purposes, though vehemently opposed by such young
+men as the late Colonel John D. Kinsman, then exceedingly popular with
+the militia power.... From the old town-hall we went to Silver Street,
+where we succeeded in obtaining a large hay magazine. There we set up
+our ladders, and ropes, and masts, parallel bars, wooden horses, etc.,
+with such success that before a month had gone over I had under my charge
+at least fifteen or twenty full classes. Among these were many capital
+gymnasts. After this, when the spring opened, we took the old fort on the
+top of Munjoy Hill, and established another gymnasium there, with ditches
+and leaping-poles; and then, having got into other and better business,
+with my law and literature, and fencing and sparring classes, at my
+office, I threw up these gymnasia; being, to say the truth, heartily sick
+of them after I found how little the members were inclined to do for
+themselves; not one of the whole being disposed to let me off, although
+I had trained forty or fifty for class-leaders, and they understood that
+I had my own living to get in other ways. Meanwhile I had established
+a gymnasium at Brunswick,[220] which has continued to this day (he is
+writing late in December, 1868), with two or three long interruptions,
+and another at Saco; and all this without asking or receiving a
+penny for my time and trouble; nay, more, at considerable expense to
+myself....”[221]
+
+Dr. John Collins Warren, who had helped to start the gymnasia at Harvard
+University and in Boston, bore reluctant testimony to the brevity of
+the period now under review in a lecture “On the Importance of Physical
+Education,” delivered at Boston in August of 1830 before the convention
+which organized the American Institute of Instruction. After urging
+the importance of suitable bodily exercise, for young women as well as
+young men, he adds: “The establishment of gymnasia through the country
+promised at one time the opening of a new era in physical education.
+The exercises were pursued with ardor, so long as their novelty lasted;
+but owing to not understanding their importance, or some defect in the
+institutions which adopted them, they have gradually been neglected and
+forgotten, at least in our vicinity. The benefits which resulted from
+these institutions, within my personal knowledge and experience, far
+transcended the most sanguine expectations.” And he still believes that
+“the diversions of the gymnasium should constitute a regular part of the
+duties of all our colleges and seminaries of learning.”
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+In addition to the references given in the text and footnotes consult
+Dr. E. M. Hartwell, Report of the Director of Physical Training,
+December, 1891 (Boston, School Document No. 22—1891), pp. 12-23; and B.
+A. Hinsdale, “Notes on the History of Foreign Influence upon Education
+in the United States,” Chapter XIII in the Report of the Commissioner of
+Education for the year 1897-1898 (Vol. I, pp. 591-629).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[189] See _Mind and Body_ for November, 1906 (=13=, 257).
+
+[190] See _Mind and Body_ for May-July, 1906 (=13=, 65, 97, 129).
+
+[191] See _Mind and Body_ for December, 1906 (=13=, 289).
+
+[192] For the Giessen period consult:
+
+Robert Wesselhöft, “Deutsche Jugend in weiland Burschenschaften und
+Turngemeinden.” Magdeburg, W. Heinrichshofen, 1828.
+
+Friedrich Münch, “Erinnerungen aus Deutschlands trübster Zeit.” St.
+Louis, Conrad Witter, 1873.
+
+Ferdinand Marx, “Die Giessener sogenannten _Schwarzen_ als Verbreiter
+des Turnwesens,” in _Neue Jahrbücher der Turnkunst_ =27= (1881): 23-30,
+66-73, and 106-113.
+
+Moritz Zettler, in _Deutsche Turnzeitung_ 1882, pp. 9, 25, 45.
+
+Karl Wassmannsdorff, in _Deutsche Turnzeitung_ 1882, pp. 269, 295, 319,
+333, 345, and 355.
+
+Kuno Francke, “Karl Follen and the German Liberal Movement,” in Papers of
+the American Historical Association, =5=, parts 1-2 (January and April
+1891).
+
+Herman Haupt, “Karl Follen und die Giessener Schwarzen.” Giessen, Alfred
+Töpelmann, 1907.
+
+Herman Haupt, “Zur Geschichte des Giessener Ehrenspiegels.” Pp. 202-214
+in “Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der Burschenschaft und der
+deutschen Einheitsbewegung,” Band II, Heft 1-2. Heidelberg, Carl Winter’s
+Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1911.
+
+[193] For the Sand episode, and Follen’s relation to it, consult J.
+Sauerbrey in _Neue Jahrbücher der Turnkunst_ =35= (1889): 98, 149, 196,
+253, 301, 341, and 405; and Hermann and Münch in _Deutsche Turnzeitung_
+1880, pp. 185 and 403.
+
+[194] See “Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor” (Boston, 1876),
+Vol. =1=, p. 351.
+
+[195] Same Account of the School for the Liberal Education of Boys,
+established on Round Hill, Northampton, Massachusetts, by Joseph G.
+Cogswell and George Bancroft. 19 pages.
+
+[196] “Some Souvenirs of Round Hill School.” In _Old and New_ (Boston)
+=6=, 27-41 (July, 1872).
+
+[197] In his “Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities.”
+Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1885.
+Washington, 1886. See page 22.
+
+[198] A Treatise on Gymnasticks, taken chiefly from the German of F. L.
+Jahn. Northampton, Mass., Simeon Butler, 1828.
+
+[199] Pages 104 and 105 in “The Life of Charles Follen,” by (his wife)
+E. L. Follen, Boston, Thomas H. Webb & Co., 1844. This “Life” also forms
+Vol. I of “The Works of Charles Follen, with a Memoir of His Life.” In
+five volumes, Boston, Hilliard, Gray & Co., 1842.
+
+[200] Page 107 in her “Life of Charles Follen.”
+
+[201] July 2. Quoted in part in the _Boston Medical Intelligencer_, =5=,
+p. 133, (July 10, 1827).
+
+[202] The Life of John Collins Warren, M.D. (Boston, Ticknor and Fields,
+1860).
+
+[203] A manuscript account of the latter trip, written by Lieber,
+was found among Massmann’s papers, and published in the _Deutsche
+Turnzeitung_ for 1895 (pp. 637-642 and 686-690), with introduction and
+notes by Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff.
+
+[204] Lieber’s own ideas regarding the nature and means of physical
+training are preserved for us in two articles contributed by him to the
+_American Journal of Education_ of August, 1827 (=2=, pp. 487-491), and
+the _American Quarterly Review_ of March, 1828 (=3=, pp. 126-150).
+
+[205] The main facts regarding Beck’s life are given in “The Christian
+Citizen. A Discourse Occasioned by the Death of Charles Beck.” Delivered
+March 25, 1866, before the First Parish in Cambridge, by William Newell.
+Cambridge, Sever and Francis, 1866. See also pp. 124-126 in Andrew P.
+Peabody’s “Harvard Reminiscences” (Boston, Ticknor & Co., 1888).
+
+[206] The first volume of his “History of the United States” was
+published four years later.
+
+[207] See also pp. 116-123 in Andrew P. Peabody’s “Harvard Reminiscences”
+(Boston, Ticknor and Co., 1888).
+
+[208] Sources: Thomas S. Perry, “The Life and Letters of Francis Lieber”
+(Boston, James R. Osgood & Co., 1882); and Lewis R. Harley, “Francis
+Lieber: His Life and Political Philosophy” (New York, The Columbia
+University Press, 1899). See also Eduard Dürre’s “Erinnerungen” in
+_Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_ 1872, pp. 286 and 293; and Karl Ulrich in
+_Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_ 1874, pp. 227 and 228.
+
+[209] “Memoir of John Griscom, LL.D.,” by his son, John H. Griscom, M.D.
+(New York, Robert Carter & Bros., 1859). An article based on this volume
+was published in Barnard’s _American Journal of Education_ for June, 1860
+(=8=, pp. 325-347).
+
+[210] “A Year in Europe, Comprising a Journal of Observations in England,
+Scotland, Ireland, France, Switzerland, the North of Italy, and Holland,
+in 1818 and 1819.” Two volumes. New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, 1823.
+
+[211] The word is spelled _Amonton_ in Griscom’s book!
+
+[212] See the _American Journal of Education_ for January, 1826 (=1=, pp.
+50-52).
+
+[213] See the _American Journal of Education_ for January, 1827 (=2=, pp.
+58-60).
+
+[214] See an article in _Mind and Body_ =12=, 313-319, based on an
+examination of volumes =1-3= of the American _Journal of Education_
+(1826-1828).
+
+[215] Dr. Hartwell (Report to the Boston School Committee, December,
+1891, page 20) says that Tutor Hopkins “had been sent on a mission to
+Round Hill to investigate the construction and working of its gymnasium.”
+
+[216] It was published in the _Intelligencer_ for September 18, 1827
+(=5=, pp. 291-294).
+
+[217] Francis Wayland, appointed President of Brown University in
+February, 1827.
+
+[218] Born in Portland, Maine, in 1793; died there in 1876. The chief
+source of information concerning Neal is his “Wandering Recollections
+of a Somewhat Busy Life. An Autobiography” (Boston, Roberts Brothers,
+1869). His letters from England are quoted in the _American Journal of
+Education_, =1= (1826), pp. 375 and 699-700; and =2= (1827), pp. 55 and
+56. Consult also _The_ (New York) _Continental Monthly_ for September,
+1862 (=2=, pp. 275-281), and _The New American Cyclopædia_, =12=, pp. 150
+and 151 (New York, 1861).
+
+[219] Voelker, born about 1796, was according to his own story a pupil of
+Jahn’s and had served among the volunteers in the War of Liberation. As
+a student at the University of Jena he assisted in organizing the first
+_Burschenschaft_, became one of its directors, and exercised on the Jena
+_Turnplatz_. In September of 1818 he went to Tübingen, at the request
+of a delegation of students from its university, to help them start a
+_Burschenschaft_ and open a _Turnplatz_ (see p. 98). In the course of the
+investigation that followed the murder of Kotzebue by Sand the government
+of Württemberg was asked to surrender Voelker for arrest as a suspected
+accomplice. This was refused, but so much pressure was at length brought
+to bear that in order to save the ministry further embarrassment he
+crossed into Switzerland. Some years later he arrived in London, bearing
+letters of recommendation to Jeremy Bentham and Henry Brougham (later
+Lord Chancellor). Apparently in the spring or early summer of 1825,
+after three months’ study of the English language, he opened with
+Bentham’s help a garden _Turnplatz_ at No. 1 Union Place, New Road,
+near Regent’s Park, at the same time receiving pupils in German. Later
+in the same season he rented Mr. Fontaine’s riding-school on Worship
+Street, Finsbury Square, using this also as a gymnasium. He afterwards
+returned to Switzerland, and lived there until his death at Kappel, in
+St. Gall, October 2, 1884. The fullest account of Voelker’s life is that
+by Eduard Dürre (“Rückblicke und Träume eines alten Turners”) in the
+_Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_ for 1872 (=17=, pp. 103-107, 127-129, 136 and
+137). See also _Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst_ for 1881, p. 72, and
+1885, p. 43. On the London gymnasium consult the _American Journal of
+Education_, =1= (1826), pp. 375, 430-432, 502-506, 625 and 626; and =2=
+(1827), pp. 55 and 56. Volume =1= of “The Every-Day Book” by William Hone
+(London, 1826) contains under date of September 25 (1825) some additional
+particulars, and a drawing made for this article “by Mr. George
+Cruikshank, after his personal observation of Mr. Voelker’s gymnasium in
+the New-road.”
+
+[220] In the pines back of the present site of Sargent Gymnasium. A
+report of the Visiting Committee to the Board of Trustees and Overseers
+of Bowdoin College, dated September 2, 1828, contains the following:
+“The committee would introduce to the favorable notice of the Trustees
+and Overseers the Gymnasium which has been recently established. We have
+had some opportunity of witnessing its exercises and are convinced that
+its effects are highly salutary.... These exercises are voluntary, few
+however decline them. Those who have associated as Gymnics have presented
+a request that a shed may be erected for their accommodation. But highly
+as we approve of the association we think that this request cannot now be
+acceded to. Other and more pressing wants of the college demand all its
+funds.” This outdoor gymnasium was in existence until the early sixties,
+when the college fitted up for similar uses a building formerly occupied
+as a college common.
+
+[221] For references to private gymnasia opened in New York and
+Philadelphia at this period see _Mind and Body_, =12=, 350 and 351
+(February, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+THE “NEW GYMNASTICS” OF DIO LEWIS.
+
+
+In the third and fourth decades of the nineteenth century four different
+systems of physical training had been brought forward for trial in the
+United States—the drill and discipline of the military academy, the Jahn
+gymnastics, manual labor on the farm or in the shop, and “calisthenics”
+for girls and women. The claims of each were pressed by enthusiastic
+advocates, and there was no lack of imitators of the educational
+institutions in which each had first become incorporated; but for various
+reasons not one of the four was generally adopted or won for itself more
+than temporary foothold. From 1835 until 1860, though educators were
+increasingly alive to the importance of physical training,[222] no one
+appeared with anything that seemed more likely to meet the conditions
+and needs of the time. Then came Dio Lewis, with his “new gymnastics
+for men, women, and children,” something definite and practical. His
+contagious enthusiasm created a wave of popular interest that spread
+to all parts of the country, and the “Normal Institute of Physical
+Education” which he opened in Boston in the summer of 1861 was the first
+attempt in America to prepare teachers of a subject whose right to a
+place in the school curriculum had long been conceded.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.—Dio Lewis (1823-1886).]
+
+Dioclesian, or, as he called himself in after life, Dio Lewis, came of
+vigorous Welsh stock and was born March 3, 1823, on a farm in Cayuga
+County, New York, within a few miles of Auburn. Loran L. Lewis, born two
+years later, who served two terms in the Senate of his native state,
+and from 1882 until 1896 was Justice of the New York Supreme Court, has
+written as follows regarding the early life of his elder brother:
+
+“At the age of twelve Dio was as large and mature as ordinary boys of
+fifteen. His mind was remarkably active; so were his movements. He could
+do anything he desired to do with more rapidity than any person I ever
+knew. When accustomed to committing to memory he could read a page in a
+book once, close the book, and repeat it all. He had an investigating,
+inquisitive mind. He liked miscellaneous reading, but did not relish
+digging into study. He learned a great many facts, but did not read
+many books thoroughly. He was enthusiastic in everything in which he
+engaged. He developed as a child a talent for declaiming, even before
+he could read much, and as a youth he engaged in debates and talked on
+temperance.... He was cheerful and full of fun.... At the age of twelve
+Dio left school and went into a cotton factory in Clarksville, near
+Auburn, where he remained perhaps six months, working some sixteen hours
+a day and receiving from $1.25 to $2.50 a week in orders on stores in
+Auburn. After this he worked in Wadsworth’s hoe, axe, and scythe factory
+for about two years, attending school at intervals....
+
+“At about the age of fifteen he began teaching school in our district.
+He surprised the patrons with novel ways of teaching and managing the
+school. Heretofore the masters had moved around the room with ferule in
+hand, always ready to deal a blow as occasion might offer. The young
+teacher discarded the whip and went to singing, and for a change he would
+march with the children into a piece of woods near the schoolhouse, and
+sometimes, after the children got tired, he would allow them to play
+hide-and-seek. Dio continued teaching near home for a year or two, and
+when eighteen years of age he went to what was then Lower Sandusky, now
+Fremont, Ohio, and organized a select school. Here he began the study of
+Latin and Greek, and the classes which he soon formed in them, as well
+as in algebra and geometry, kept him hard at work with his own studies
+in order to keep well ahead of his pupils. The school was patronized by
+most of the leading citizens, and gave so great satisfaction that in a
+few months some of them volunteered to erect a handsome school building.
+They obtained an act of incorporation, naming it, in compliment to Mr.
+Lewis, ‘The Dioclesian Institute,’ and the new quarters were occupied
+just before the close of the school year.”
+
+A severe and prolonged attack of ague compelled the young teacher to give
+up his work in Fremont at the end of a year, and he did not return to it.
+Having made up his mind to study medicine, he now entered the office of
+the physician at the Auburn State Prison, Dr. Lansing Briggs, with whom
+he remained for three years, with the exception of one winter devoted to
+teaching. In 1845 he went to Boston and spent some time in the Medical
+Department of Harvard University, but seems to have been prevented from
+completing the course by lack of means, and therefore came back to Port
+Byron, not far from his home, to enter at once upon the practice of his
+profession. By his partner, Dr. Lewis McCarthy, he was won over to the
+new system of homeopathy, and a little later, after establishing himself
+in Buffalo in 1848, began to edit a monthly publication called _The
+Homœopathist_. The honorary degree of Doctor of Medicine was conferred
+upon him in 1851 by the Homœopathic Hospital College of Cleveland, Ohio,
+then only two years old.
+
+A year after his removal to Buffalo Dr. Lewis married Miss Helen Cecelia
+Clarke, daughter of a physician whose country residence was in the
+neighborhood of Port Byron. Three of her sisters had died of consumption,
+and in the fall of 1851 she herself began to exhibit unmistakable
+symptoms of the same disease. Her husband, who was already urging in
+his medical journal the importance of _preventive_ measures, at once
+undertook the treatment of her case by hygienic means. These appeared to
+be successful for a time; but in the fall of 1852 her cough reappeared,
+and Dr. Lewis thereupon determined to give up his practice and go South
+with her for the winter. Early in January they reached Fredericksburg,
+Virginia. It was not in the man’s nature to remain idle, and he was soon
+talking on health subjects to pupils in the schools. To identify himself
+with a cause which had excited his interest ever since boyhood he now
+joined “The Sons of Temperance,” but with a protest, his biographer[223]
+tells us, “against the exclusion of women from membership. He urged
+upon the leaders that in failing to enlist woman in the work they were
+leaving out the element most essential and indispensable to success....
+Meeting only indifference to his appeal for the admission of women to
+the organized temperance work, he wrote a paper on ‘The Influence of
+Christian Women in the Cause of Temperance,’ and read it in a hall in
+the old town of Fredericksburg, Virginia, the same year (1853). This
+was his first appearance on the public platform. Directly afterward he
+gave lectures on this subject and on health topics in Fredericksburg,
+Richmond, Petersburg, Norfolk, and Portsmouth, Virginia.” The two
+succeeding winters were also spent with his wife in the South, where
+among other places he lectured in Paris, Lexington, and Georgetown,
+Kentucky. The same occupation was continued in New York State in the
+intervening summers. At the end of this time, after renewed and more
+careful attention to the matter of dress and exercise, Mrs. Lewis found
+herself fully restored to health.
+
+The next five years, until the summer of 1860, were devoted almost
+entirely to platform work in “the Middle and Northern United States and
+Canada.... It was his custom to speak on six evenings in the week on the
+laws of health, laying special stress on his favorite axiom, adapted to
+suit himself, ‘An ounce of prevention is worth a ton of cure.’ On Sunday
+evenings he presented in the churches, or, by preference, in a large
+hall, when such could be obtained, his favorite subject, ‘The Duty of
+Christian Women in the Temperance Work.’” In 1856 he made a short visit
+to Paris, chiefly to secure material suitable for demonstration in his
+popular lectures on physiology, although he also improved the opportunity
+to attend clinics at some of the city hospitals. Referring to this period
+he speaks of himself as “burdened with what I felt to be my life-work,
+that of urging upon the people their right to ‘a sound mind in a sound
+body,’ and the introduction of a new system of physical training into
+the schools of the country ...;” and how his thoughts were turned to
+gymnastics is told in these words: “During the eight years of lecturing,
+the spare hours were devoted to the invention of a new system of
+gymnastics. The old, or German gymnastics, the one so common throughout
+our country,[224] was obviously not adapted to the classes most needing
+artificial training. Athletic young men, who alone succeeded in the feats
+of that gymnasium, were already provided for. Boat clubs, ball clubs,
+and other sports[225] furnished them in considerable part with the means
+of muscular training. But old men, fat men, feeble men, young boys, and
+females of all ages—the classes most needing physical training,—were not
+drawn to the old-fashioned gymnasium. The few attempts that had been made
+to introduce these classes to that institution had uniformly and signally
+failed. The system itself was wrong.”
+
+After experimenting for some years with the new exercises he had devised
+Dr. Lewis determined to concentrate his efforts on the attempt to
+introduce them to the public, and in June of 1860 established his home
+in the vicinity of Boston for this purpose. “I thought,” he says, “that
+Boston would prove more hospitable to an educational innovation than
+any other city in the country;” and he was not disappointed. Evening
+classes in gymnastics were soon organized in West Newton, Newtonville,
+Newton, Newton Upper Falls, and Watertown. The English and classical
+school of Mr. N. T. Allen, in West Newton, was the first to introduce
+the new system, according to Dr. Lewis, and it was soon followed by the
+Normal School at Framingham, and in Boston by the institutions of Mr.
+Gannett in Pemberton Square and Madame de Maltchyce in Pinckney Street,
+the Concord Hall school, and many others in and near the city. A public
+gymnasium, also, for men, women, and children was opened at 20 Essex
+Street, in Boston. Among others, a class of clergymen and their wives met
+there regularly for an hour on Mondays—‘blue Monday’—to exercise with the
+proprietor and, as one of them expressed it, to “inhale hygiene in his
+presence, and in the atmosphere of his room.”
+
+In August of 1860 the ‘new system’ was all at once brought to the notice
+of leading educators gathered from the length and breadth of the United
+States. Dr. Lewis himself related the circumstances to a Boston audience,
+several years afterward,[226] as follows: “I may remark that the hour
+of my coming was most fortunate for my cause. Just then the American
+Institute of Instruction held its great Convention—the largest ever held
+in this country—in this city. I was so fortunate as to be invited to
+appear before that most august of all educational bodies, to explain and
+illustrate the new system of gymnastics. They told me ‘You may have half
+an hour on the second morning; we have the business so arranged that we
+cannot give you more.’ But when the half-hour had expired they said, ‘Go
+on;’ and I went on until two hours had passed, and then they voted that
+the next morning they would meet at half past eight (having announced
+important business for nine o’clock), to hear more about the new
+gymnastics. The next morning was foggy and dark, but the hall (Tremont
+Temple) was full, and they passed over their important business and gave
+me nearly two hours more, and at noon another hour. With such an opening
+as this, it is not remarkable that the interest spread over the entire
+country.”[227]
+
+One of Dr. Lewis’s objects in coming to Boston had been the establishment
+of a training school for teachers of the “New System,” and in the spring
+of 1861 the _Normal Institute for Physical Education_ was incorporated.
+President Cornelius C. Felton, of Harvard College, readily consented to
+serve as its president, and continued to take an active interest in the
+enterprise until his death, a year later. Upon the list of twenty-eight
+Directors appear the names of Governor John A. Andrew, Hon. George S.
+Boutwell, Dr. H. I. Bowditch, Rev. James Freeman Clarke, Rev. E. E.
+Hale, N. T. Allen, Prof. A. Crosby, and others of recognized standing.
+The members of the first faculty were Thomas H. Hoskins, M.D., Professor
+of Anatomy; Josiah Curtis, M.D., Professor of Physiology (the instruction
+in this subject, as well as in anatomy, was later given by Dr. Hoskins);
+Walter Channing, M.D., Professor of Hygiene; and Dio Lewis, M.D.,
+Professor of Gymnastics. The next year a department of Elocution was
+created, and Professor T. F. Leonard was called to the new chair. The
+first course opened July 5, 1861, and continued ten weeks. Other similar
+courses were to be given twice each year thereafter, beginning regularly
+on the second of January and the fifth of July.
+
+This Institute was not, as Dr. Lewis supposed, “the first ever
+established to educate guides in Physical Culture,” since normal schools
+of gymnastics had already been opened in Europe, _e.g._, at Stockholm
+(1814), Dresden (1850), and Berlin (1851); but it was the first attempt
+of the sort to be made in the United States, and as such merits more
+than passing notice. A report of the first course and announcement of
+the second, published in pamphlet form at Boston in 1861, yields the
+following: “Readers of our educational journals are, to some extent,
+familiar with Dr. Lewis’s system of Gymnastics, since in connection with
+his appearance before the American Institute of Instruction last year
+these journals, as also large numbers of the daily press, gave somewhat
+full accounts of the principal features of that system.[228] It is a
+novel system, novel alike in its philosophy and in its practical details.
+Dispensing with the whole cumbrous apparatus of the ordinary gymnasium,
+its implements are all light, easily managed, and designed less to impart
+mere strength of muscle than to give flexibleness, agility, and grace
+of movement. The exercises are accompanied by music, and all of them so
+arranged that both sexes participate in each....
+
+“The second course of the Institute will open on the second day of
+January, 1862, and continue ten weeks. Many peculiar and marked
+advantages will be enjoyed by the pupils of the winter term. D. B.
+Hagar, Esq., Ex-President of the American Institute of Instruction,
+Hon. Geo. Bradburn, Rev. Warren Burton, Rev. T. W. Higginson, and
+several other well known gentlemen, will deliver lectures before the
+class of the Institute....” In addition to the regular instruction in
+anatomy, physiology, hygiene, and gymnastics, the class will be taught
+“the principles of the ‘Swedish Movement-Cure,’[229] a department of
+the institution devoted to the treatment of curvature of the spine,
+paralysis, and other chronic maladies, affording rare opportunities to
+study in detail the application of Ling’s methods in treating such forms
+of chronic disease.... Each pupil, on being received into the Institute,
+will be critically examined with reference to strength, form, and health;
+and any deficiency thus disclosed will be at once placed under the most
+thorough treatment.... Each will be drilled by Dr. Lewis in person, with
+such care that he or she cannot fail to become a competent teacher of
+gymnastics. And each will have two drills a day.... All will be made
+familiar with at least two hundred different exercises ... and will be
+allowed, every one in turn, to lead a small class....”
+
+At this point a bit of contemporary testimony from a well-informed, but
+more impartial, source may be introduced. During the years 1858-1862 Mr.
+Thomas Wentworth Higginson contributed to the _Atlantic Monthly_ a series
+of vigorous and stimulating articles, full of good sense and literary
+charm, which were afterward collected and published in book form under
+the title “Outdoor Papers” (Boston, 1863; New York, 1894). One of them,
+on “Gymnastics,” which appeared in March of 1861, contains this reference
+to the ‘New System:’ “It would be unpardonable, in this connection,
+not to speak a good word for the favorite hobby of the day,—Dr. Lewis,
+and his system of gymnastics, or, more properly, of calisthenics. Dr.
+Winship[230] had done all that was needed in apostleship of severe
+exercises, and there was wanting some man with a milder hobby, perfectly
+safe for a lady to drive. The Fates provided that man, also, in Dr.
+Lewis,—so hale and hearty, so profoundly confident in the omnipotence
+of his own methods and the uselessness of all others, with such a ready
+invention, and such an inundation of animal spirits that he could flood
+any company, no matter how starched or listless, with an unbounded
+appetite for ball-games and bean-games. How long it will last in the
+hands of others than the projector remains to be seen, especially as some
+of his feats are more exhausting than average gymnastics; but, in the
+mean time, it is just what is wanted for multitudes of persons who find
+or fancy the real gymnasium to be unsuited to them. It will especially
+render service to female pupils, so far as they practise it; for the
+accustomed gymnastic exercises seem never yet to have been rendered
+attractive to them, on any large scale, and with any permanency.”
+
+In a volume published in 1868 Dr. Lewis says that more than two hundred
+and fifty persons had taken the diploma of the Normal Institute in
+the nine sessions which had been held. His biographer, on the other
+hand, makes this statement: “During the next seven years (after its
+establishment) four hundred and twenty-one ladies and gentlemen, in about
+equal numbers, were graduated from it. These were able to answer the
+demand for instructors in the ‘new gymnastics’ which soon came from the
+schools and from private classes in the larger cities of New England, and
+later from the remoter parts of the country, until at length the system
+was taught in every State of the Union.”
+
+Dio Lewis was a voluminous writer, but only two of his books require
+particular mention here—“The New Gymnastics for Men, Women, and
+Children,” first issued in 1862; and the tenth edition, practically a
+new work although it bears the same title, which appeared in 1868. Both
+were published in Boston, by Ticknor and Fields. The leading article,
+“The New Gymnastics,” in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for August of 1862 (Vol.
+X, pp. 129-148) is from his pen, and another of sixty-five pages was
+published in two instalments in Barnard’s _American Journal of Education_
+for June and December of the same year (Vol. XI, pp. 531-562; Vol. XII,
+pp. 665-700). Of the 275 profusely illustrated pages in the book of 1862
+only a little more than a third are filled with material of the author’s
+own devising. Pp. 102-115 (“Free Gymnastics”) contain exercises selected
+from Schreber’s “Aerztliche Zimmer-Gymnastik;”[231] on pp. 117-164
+“The Dumb Bell Instructor for Parlor Gymnasts,” by Maurice Kloss,[232]
+is given in condensed form and free translation; and pp. 165-255 are
+occupied with a similar translation of Schreber’s “The Pangymnastikon;
+or All Gymnastic Exercises brought within the Compass of a Single Piece
+of Apparatus.”[233] The first portion of the book begins with ten pages
+of introductory discussion relating to the need of special gymnastic
+training for children, the inadequacy of military drills and other forms
+of exercise commonly employed, the use of music with gymnastics, the
+gymnasium, and the gymnastic dress. Then follow (pp. 18-101) Lewis’s own
+exercises, grouped as follows: Bag exercises (30), exercises with rings
+(54), exercises with wands (68), dumb-bell exercises (34), club exercises
+(22), pin running (a game with clubs), games with birds’ nests (played
+with bean-bags), the arm pull, the gymnastic crown, and the shoulder
+pusher.
+
+In the tenth edition of “The New Gymnastics” (1868) the translations
+from German authors are omitted. In the words of the preface, “their
+places have been supplied by original exercises, now for the first time
+published. At the same time changes have been made in that portion of
+the book which was devoted to an illustration of the author’s system of
+Gymnastics. In the constant practice of the system for the past five
+years, among thousands of pupils, a multitude of new exercises have been
+added, and the entire method has been improved in many respects. This
+edition is an attempt to reflect upon the pages of a book the changes
+which have taken place in actual practice.” A few of the introductory
+pages are worth quoting here, since they contain Dr. Lewis’s own
+statement of the advantages of his system, his claims to originality, and
+the order in which the exercises were developed.
+
+“The advantages of the New System of physical culture are, in part the
+following: (1) The varied movements of the New System give opportunity
+for the full play of every muscle in the body, resulting in an all-sided
+development. (2) The exercises are constantly changed from one set of
+muscles to another, thus obviating weariness and undue disturbance of
+the circulation. (3) The centrifugal impulse of the predominating series
+secures a completeness and _grace_ attained by no other means, while
+the centripetal character of the old or German method has long been the
+opprobrium of physical culture, with the philosophical. (4) In the New
+System the exercises are subordinated to personal or individual wants,
+while in the old the person is entirely subordinated to the performance
+of difficult feats. (5) The physiological purpose of all muscle training
+is to perfect the intermarriage between nerve and muscle. The skill
+exacted by the accurate lines, changing attitudes, and difficult
+combinations of the new methods compels the most complete interaction
+between soul and body. (6) The New School employs apparatus which cannot
+strain and stiffen the muscles, not even in the extremely old and young
+or feeble, while the old school sanctions weights which must produce the
+slow, inelastic muscles of the cart-horse. (7) The New Gymnasium invites
+to its free and social life persons of both sexes and all ages, while
+every attempt that has been made to introduce the old, or the very young,
+or women, to the Old Gymnasium has failed. (8) In the New Gymnasium
+persons of both sexes unite in all the exercises with great social
+enjoyment, thus adding indefinitely to the attractions of the place,
+while the attractions of the Old Gymnasium are about equal to those of
+a ballroom from which ladies are excluded. (9) In the New Gymnasium
+everything is set to music. Marches, free movements, dumb-bells, wands,
+rings, mutual-help exercises. No apathy can resist the delightful
+stimulus. The one hundred persons on the floor join in the evolutions
+inspired by one common impulse. Under the old system each individual
+works by himself, deprived of the sympathy and energy evoked by music and
+the associated movement.”
+
+For three years, 1864-1867, Dr. Lewis conducted at Lexington,
+Massachusetts, a school for girls, in which Theodore Dwight Weld, once
+the confident advocate of manual labor as a system of exercise, was
+a leading teacher, and Catharine Beecher was for a time one of the
+lecturers.[234] In September of 1867 the school building was burned, and
+although temporary quarters were at once secured in a summer hotel at Spy
+Pond the project was abandoned at the close of another year. The number
+of pupils rose to 140 in the third year, drawn from all over the country,
+and nearly 300 were enrolled during the whole period. In the words of
+Dr. Lewis, “The character of the announcement, with what the public knew
+of my interest in physical education, drew together a company of bright
+girls, with delicate constitutions, such girls as could not bear the
+exclusively mental pressure of the ordinary school.... The girls went
+to bed at half-past eight every evening. They rose early in the morning
+and went out to walk, which walk was repeated during the day. They ate
+only twice a day, and of very plain, nourishing food. They took off their
+corsets. They exercised twice a day, half an hour, in gymnastics, and
+danced an hour about three times a week. This was the general course,
+and upon this regimen they rapidly improved. The gymnastic exercises
+proved invaluable, but the nine hours in bed, I believe, played a still
+more important part.” The Eastman biography states that “On entering the
+school pupils were measured about the chest, under the arms, about the
+waist, and around the arm and forearm. The average gain for eight months
+was in chest measure, two and a half inches; waist measure, five inches;
+size of arm, one and a half inches; of forearm, about one inch. The work
+was so hard that with all this remarkable development the weight of the
+pupils was often lessened.”
+
+The closing of his school for girls, in 1868, may be said to mark the end
+of Dio Lewis’s greatest activity in the interest of physical training.
+He had never relinquished altogether the lecture field, and now found
+more leisure for the work, speaking in Massachusetts and New Hampshire
+on his favorite topics, physical education and temperance. The winter
+of 1873-1874 was given up to an extensive course of lyceum lectures
+in the West, under the auspices of a lecture bureau, and again, as in
+the fifties, he devoted Sundays to the cause of Temperance, “always
+keeping in mind what he had for twenty years desired to see inaugurated,
+a practical movement on the part of women to close the saloons.” The
+balance of the year 1874 was filled with temperance work exclusively, and
+out of the “Women’s Crusades” which he inspired and helped to organize at
+this time was developed the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, formed
+at Cleveland in November. In 1875 he was obliged to heed the signs of
+approaching physical collapse, and went to California for three years of
+outdoor life.[235] The year 1884 saw him located on a farm at Smithtown,
+Long Island, in search of rest and trying meanwhile to “concentrate his
+attention on chickens,” but in July able to deliver a course of lectures
+and teach gymnastics at the Martha’s Vineyard Summer Institute. His death
+occurred at Yonkers, May 21, 1886.[236]
+
+Mr. James C. Boykin pays the following just tribute to Dio Lewis: “It may
+be true that ‘he was unconventional, sympathetic, plausible, oracular,
+and self-sufficient,’ and ‘not a scientist in any proper sense,’ as one
+writer has said.[237] But, notwithstanding all this, he rendered a real
+service. Even if he had nothing in his favor but the undoubted fact that
+he gave gymnastics in America a greater impulse than any man before him
+had done, that would be sufficient to earn for him the gratitude of all
+interested in physical training. But he did more. He first awakened
+the American public to the appreciation of the fact that the mere
+development of huge muscles is not the true idea of physical training.
+His contribution to the list of exercises and to gymnastic material was
+by no means insignificant, though, to be sure, his claims were out of
+all proportion to their value; but, more than all else, he lifted the
+gymnasium above the low plane it had occupied in the public mind as the
+resort of prize-fighters and bullies, and carried gymnastics into the
+schoolroom to an extent never before approached in this country, and into
+the home to an extent that no one else had ever attempted.”[238] His
+so-called ‘system’ was not of a sort to survive for many years the loss
+of the founder’s energetic leadership, and yet he prepared the soil for
+the broader and more substantial type of work of a later day.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+This chapter was first published in the _American Physical Education
+Review_ for June and September, 1906 (=11=, 83-95 and 187-198). It is
+given here in condensed form, with a few footnotes added. The chief
+sources of information have been already mentioned.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[222] Horace Mann (1796-1859), secretary of the Massachusetts Board of
+Education 1837-1848, in the annual reports of the Board and in the ten
+volumes of the _Common School Journal_ which he edited (1839-1848) had
+much to say of school sanitation and the importance of instruction in
+personal hygiene. In pp. 56-160 of the sixth report (1843) he attempted
+to vindicate the title of a study of physiology and hygiene to “the
+first rank in our schools, after the elementary branches.” Perusal of
+successive reports of the annual meetings of the American Institute of
+Instruction from the first (1830) to the thirtieth (1859), and of the
+_Massachusetts Teacher_ from 1850 to 1860 (Vol. =3-12=) and Barnard’s
+_American Journal of Education_ 1855-60 (Vol. =1-8=) reveals a cumulative
+interest in the problem of physical education as the end of that period
+approached. A. A. Livermore’s article in the _North American Review_ for
+1855 (=81=:51-69), Dr. D. W. Cheever’s in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for 1859
+(=3=, 529-543), and Thomas Wentworth Higginson’s series which began in
+the latter magazine in March of 1858 (afterwards collected and published
+under the title “Outdoor Papers”) point in the same direction, as do also
+the twenty-first and twenty-second reports of the Massachusetts Board of
+Education (1858 and 1859), that of the Boston School Committee for 1859
+(pp. 52 ff.), and a report to the New York State Teachers’ Association
+in the same year. “Tom Brown’s School Days,” first published in April
+of 1857, presented an attractive picture of vigorous boy-life; and the
+fourth chapter (Physical Education) of Herbert Spencer’s “Education” (New
+York, 1860), which had already appeared in the _British Quarterly Review_
+of April 1, 1859, was certain to attract attention. The following were
+the recent manuals available:
+
+Paul Preston’s Book of Gymnastics (Boston, Munroe & Francis, 1842). A new
+edition, revised, was published in 1861 (New York, Charles S. Francis).
+
+Walker’s Manly Exercises, revised by “Craven” (Philadelphia, John W.
+Moore, 1856).
+
+P. A. Fitzgerald, “The Exhibition Speaker” (New York: Sheldon, Lamport &
+Blakeman, 1856). Pp. 223-268 are devoted to “Gymnastics and Calisthenics.”
+
+N. W. Taylor Root’s “School Amusements” (New York, A. S. Barnes & Co.,
+1857). Pp. 95-143 have to do with gymnastics.
+
+R. T. Trall, “The Illustrated Family Gymnasium” (New York, Fowler &
+Wells, 1857).
+
+George Forrest (John George Wood!), “A Handbook of Gymnastics” (London
+and New York, G. Routledge & Co., 1858).
+
+Perhaps we should add that literary and pictorial curiosity, Henry de
+Laspée’s “Calisthenics, or the Elements of Bodily Culture on Pestalozzian
+Principles” (London, Darton & Co., 1856). A second edition was published
+in 1865 (London, Charles Griffin & Co.).
+
+[223] “The Biography of Dio Lewis,” prepared at the desire and with the
+coöperation of Mrs. Lewis by Mary F. Eastman. New York, Fowler & Wells
+Co., 1891.
+
+[224] The oldest gymnastic society (_Turnverein_) of the German type in
+the United States was the Cincinnati _Turngemeinde_, organized November
+21, 1848. By October of 1853 there were at least seventy in existence,
+and by September of 1856 ninety-six societies, with a membership of about
+five thousand, had united into a national body and at least twenty more
+were known to have been formed. At the outbreak of the Civil War there
+were a total of one hundred and fifty-seven societies, in twenty-seven
+states of the Union. See pp. 290 and 291.
+
+[225] The beginning of rowing clubs in the United States goes back to
+1833 and the few years following, and in the decade 1850-1860 interest in
+the sport spread all over the country. Baseball, starting in the forties
+and fifties, did not become a truly national pastime until the period
+immediately succeeding the Civil War. The “Caledonian games” of Scotch
+immigrants, forerunners of our track and field athletics, had been shown
+in Boston in 1853 and Hoboken in 1857, but did not become widely popular
+till the later sixties and seventies. Football existed only in its
+primitive form.
+
+[226] At the fourth commencement exercises of his Normal Institute for
+Physical Education, March 18, 1863.
+
+[227] See also the “Lectures Delivered before the American Institute of
+Instruction, at Boston, Mass., August 21, 1860, including the Journal of
+Proceedings, and a List of Officers” (published under the direction of
+the Board of Censors. Boston, Ticknor & Fields, 1861). The references to
+Dio Lewis occur on pp. 19-21, 23-25, 45 and 46, and 77 of the Journal
+of Proceedings. Another report of these sessions is printed in the
+_Massachusetts Teacher_, =13=, 378-393 (October, 1860).
+
+[228] Lewis had himself published articles on “Physical Culture” in
+the _Massachusetts Teacher_ for October and November of 1860 (=13=,
+375-377 and 401-406), and in the latter month issued the first number
+of a monthly periodical, _Lewis’ New Gymnastics for Ladies, Gentlemen
+and Children, and Boston Journal of Physical Culture._ Vol. =2= (1862,
+January-November, with one extra number) bore the title _Lewis’s
+Gymnastic Monthly and Journal of Physical Culture_.
+
+[229] It has already been noted (p. 157) that under Branting’s
+directorship of the Central Institute in Stockholm (1839-1862) foreign
+physicians began to be attracted by the new system of treatment, and
+among them Mathias Roth of London. Roth afterwards published “The
+Prevention and Cure of Many Chronic Diseases by Movements” (London,
+1851), a translation of “The Gymnastic Free Exercises of P. H. Ling,
+Arranged by H. Rothstein” (London, New York, and Boston, 1853), and
+“Handbook of the Movement Cure” (London, 1856). The first American
+physicians to write at length on the subject were the Taylor brothers of
+New York, George H. Taylor “An Exposition of the Swedish Movement Cure”
+(New York, Fowler & Wells) in 1860, and Charles F. Taylor his “Theory
+and Practice of the Movement Cure” (Philadelphia, Lindsay & Blakiston)
+a year later. Bayard Taylor spent the late winter and spring of 1857 in
+Stockholm, visiting the Central Institute regularly as a “patient,” and
+described his experiences in letters to the _New York Tribune_ and in his
+volume “Northern Travel” (London and New York, 1857. Consult pp. 202-206).
+
+[230] George Barker Winship, born at Roxbury, Mass., January 3, 1834,
+and died at the same place (of heart disease) September 12, 1876. He was
+educated at Harvard University (A.B. 1854, M.D. 1857), and in June of
+1859 gave his first lecture on physical training, with an exhibition of
+heavy lifting, in Music Hall, Boston, repeating these afterwards in many
+places throughout the northern states and Canada. In the sixties and
+early seventies he conducted a private gymnasium on Washington Street,
+Boston, next door to the Boston Theater. See his “Autobiographical
+Sketches of a Strength-Seeker,” in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for
+January, 1862 (=9=, 102-115), an article on “Physical Culture” in the
+_Massachusetts Teacher_ for April, 1860 (=13=, 126-132), and an item
+in the latter magazine for April, 1861 (=14=, 159). Among the literary
+announcements of Ticknor & Fields in the _Atlantic Monthly_ for August,
+1862, a book on “Health and Strength” by Dr. Winship is mentioned as “in
+press,” but it seems never to have been published.
+
+[231] _Aerztliche Zimmer-Gymnastik_, oder Darstellung und Beschreibung
+der unmittelbaren, keiner Geräthschaft und Unterstützung bedürfenden,
+daher stets und überall ausführbaren heilgymnastischen Bewegungen
+für jedes Alter und Geschlecht und für die verschiedenen speciellen
+Gebrauchszwecke, entworfen von Dr. med. Daniel Gottlob Moritz Schreber,
+pract. Arzte und Vorsteher der orthopädischen und heilgymnastischen
+Anstalt zu Leipzig; 45 xylographische Abbildungen enthaltend, Leipzig,
+Friedrich Fleischer, 1855. The third German edition of this work was
+translated by Henry Skelton and published by Williams & Norgate, London
+& Edinburgh, in 1856, with the title “Illustrated Medical Indoor
+Gymnastics, or a system of medico-hygienic exercises requiring no
+mechanical or other aid, and adapted to both sexes and all ages, and for
+special cases.”
+
+[232] _Das Hantel-Büchlein für Zimmerturner_, von Dr. Moritz Kloss,
+mit 20 in den Text gedruckten Abbildungen. Leipzig, J. J. Weber, 1858.
+Lewis’s translation is made from the second edition.
+
+[233] _Das Pangymnastikon_, oder Das ganze Turnsystem an einem
+einzigen Geräthe ohne Raumerforderniss als einfachstes Mittel zur
+Entwickelung höchster und allseitiger Muskelkraft, Körperdurchbildung
+und Lebenstüchtigkeit. Für Schulanstalten, Haus-Turner und Turnvereine,
+von Dr. med. D. G. M. Schreber, Director der orthopäd und heilgymnast.
+Anstalt zu Leipzig. Mit 108 Holzschnitten im Texte und 107 auf Tafeln.
+II. Theil der “Aerztlichen Zimmer-Gymnastik.” Leipzig, Friedrich
+Fleischer, 1862.
+
+[234] See the “Catalogue and Circular of Dr. Dio Lewis’s Family School
+for Young Ladies, Lexington, Mass., 1867” (Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow &
+Co., 1867).
+
+[235] Described in his “Gypsies” (Boston, Eastern Book Co., 1881).
+
+[236] Lewis’s published works include, in addition to those already
+mentioned, “Weak Lungs, and How to Make Them Strong” (1863), “Talks about
+People’s Stomachs” (1870), “Our Girls” (1871), and “Five-Minute Chats
+with Young Women” (1874), “Talks about Health” (1871), “Chastity” (1872),
+and “In a Nutshell” (1883). In 1864 Amherst College conferred on him the
+honorary degree of Master of Arts.
+
+[237] Dr. E. M. Hartwell, in his first report as Director of Physical
+Training in the Boston Schools (School Document No. 22, 1891), pp. 35 and
+36.
+
+[238] Report of the Commissioner of Education—1891-1892 (Washington,
+1894), =1=, pp. 517 and 518.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.
+
+
+Each of the four systems or sorts of physical training brought forward
+for trial during the decade whose middle point was 1830 had been adopted
+by one or more institutions of college rank. Under Follen’s guidance
+Harvard students were introduced to the Jahn gymnastics in the spring of
+1826 (pp. 235-237), and other outdoor gymnasia of the Hasenheide type
+were prepared soon afterwards at Yale, Amherst, Williams, Brown (pp.
+245-247), and Bowdoin (p. 249). In “A Memorial of the Class of 1827,
+Dartmouth College,” written by Jonathan Fox Worcester (Second edition,
+Hanover, N. H., 1867), there is also mention of “the interest awakened,
+during the latter part of our career, in the subject of physical
+education; the gymnastic apparatus set up behind the ‘College’ in 1826,
+by the students themselves ...; the cricket clubs which covered the green
+the next spring, adding this excellent game to our previous list of modes
+of exercise....” Manual labor, combined with study, played a large part
+in many sections of the country, and particularly in new colleges founded
+while that movement was at its height. Norwich University made military
+exercises and long marches on foot a regular part of the course, under
+Captain Partridge, its first president (1835-1843); and Mount Holyoke
+College, chartered as Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, opened in 1837 with
+both domestic work and “calisthenics” included in its plan. The latter
+was more properly dancing steps, accompanied by singing.[239]
+
+In the fifties there were many signs of a reviving interest in gymnastics
+as a means of exercise, culminating at the end of the decade in the
+erection of brick or stone gymnasia at Harvard, Yale, and Amherst
+colleges, at a cost of approximately $10,000 each. In the “Catalogue
+of the University of Virginia—Session of 1851-1852” (Richmond, 1852),
+following the list of “Faculty, Instructors and Officers” and the name of
+the “University Hotelkeeper,” is the note: “Gymnastics are taught under
+the authority of the Faculty, by Mr. J. E. D’Alfonce.”[240] The Board of
+Visitors reported in 1852 that they “have read with pleasure that J. E.
+D’Alfonce proposes to give instruction in that subject (gymnastics), and
+hereby renew the permission formally given for a site on the University
+grounds for a gymnasium, and are disposed to offer proper facilities....”
+John S. Patton, in Chapter XXII of his “Jefferson, Cabell and the
+University of Virginia” (New York and Washington, The Neale Publishing
+Co., 1906), says that “the gymnasium authorized by the Visitors was
+erected on the site of the present Academic Building, and on the banks
+of the little stream nearby was built a house for Russian baths. Both
+enterprises were directed by D’Alfonce, but fell into disuse during the
+Civil War, when the buildings were destroyed. As a teacher the Frenchman
+is said to have been unusually successful....”
+
+The note regarding D’Alfonce appears again in the same place in the
+catalogues issued by the University in 1853 and 1854, and in those from
+1855 to 1860 inclusive his name is listed under “Faculty, Instructors
+and Officers.” Professor William M. Thornton contributes the following
+picture: “A pretty sight might have been seen from the foot of the Lawn.
+As the visitor reached the apex of the triangle his eye would have rested
+on a great, circular framed building in the midst of the field below.
+Near it would have been seen a company of two or three hundred students,
+all in an easy uniform of blue blouse and grey trousers, drawn up in
+rank and file. At their head stood a lively Frenchman, an ex-soldier,
+issuing the word of command. And under his orders this regiment of
+college boys would go through a series of complex exercises, marching
+and countermarching, ... all out in the open air.... Or, entering the
+building at an earlier hour, he would have found these same boys turning
+upon bars, swinging upon ropes, brandishing broadswords or foils,
+dumb-bells and clubs. And then, as the sun descended and before the
+great bell of the Rotunda rang out its evening summons, he would have
+heard the Frenchman, in his splendid baritone, raise the chant of the
+Marseillaise, or some other martial strain, and all the boys would join
+in, and the great chorus of manly voices would rise ... upon the ... air.
+The soldierly Frenchman was D’Alfonce....”[241]
+
+Frederick Chase, writing on “the beginnings of athletics at
+Dartmouth,”[242] says that “gymnastics were introduced in a small way
+by the erection, in 1852, by the enthusiasts, in the ravine east of
+the observatory, of a frame popularly called the gallows, by some the
+‘Freshman’s Gallows....’ The apparatus consisted of nothing but two
+suspended ropes with rings, and a horizontal bar (it is referred to
+elsewhere as ‘two posts and a rude horizontal rail’).... It was a feature
+of that spot until superseded by Mr. Bissell’s Gymnasium building, with
+its wealth of apparatus, in 1867.”
+
+Allan Marquand, in “The Princeton Book,”[243] recites that “in the
+year 1856-1857 Robert Tarleton and Hugh L. Cole, of the class of 1859,
+resolved that Princeton should have a gymnasium. When a sufficient sum
+of money had been raised, a single-boarded structure was erected, and
+painted with the inevitable _red_, that it might resist the storms of
+heaven as its founders had resisted the objections of an unpropitious
+Faculty. All winter long, in this stoveless shanty, with the winds
+sweeping through from one end to the other, might have been seen a few
+enthusiastic gymnasts, at work on parallel bars, springboard, trapeze,
+and ladder, or swinging upon the rings and shaking the rafters in their
+efforts to touch the beam.... In the year 1864 the building was sadly in
+need of repair. Through an effort made by the class of 1866 sufficient
+money was raised to supply it with a stove and a new set of apparatus.
+Thus renovated, it answered the purpose of a gymnasium, until one night,
+during the summer vacation of 1865, a report was circulated that a tramp
+sick with the yellow fever was sleeping there. The next day the building
+was reduced to ashes by the frightened people of the town.”
+
+The Board of Trustees of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, at a meeting
+held July 2, 1857, adopted the following resolution, presented by William
+M. Corry, one of their number: “Resolved, that the Committee on Finance
+be instructed to report an appropriation of two hundred dollars for
+the construction of a plain and substantial gymnastic apparatus for
+the use of the students of the University.” J. C. Christin, M.D., a
+Cincinnati German who was Professor of the German and French Languages
+and Literatures at Miami University from 1856 to 1860, was made manager
+of the project, and thus outlined its history in a report to the Board
+of Trustees under date of July 4, 1859: “When in the fall of 1857 the
+gymnastic apparatus purchased by your committee was offered to the use
+of the students, a number of them organized themselves at once into
+a society called the Miami Gymnastic Association, engaged Mr. F. H.
+Roemler (a German) of Cincinnati as teacher at a salary of $40 a month,
+and rented a building (a little west of the campus) for their gymnasium
+at a cost of $60 a year.[244] During that entire first year the classes
+practised regularly three times a week, and with what success you have
+seen at our festival, where the young gymnasts of M. U. carried off the
+first honors of the day over their competitors, delegates from several
+of the old Turners’ societies. But to bring about this happy result we
+were obliged to complete our gymnasium by purchasing about $300 worth
+more of apparatus. This the Association did, encouraged as they were
+by a generous donation of $150 from the citizens of Oxford and other
+friends, and believing that they could pay their debt soon by the aid of
+friends and the proceeds of some exhibitions. At the beginning of the
+fall session of 1858 the society was reorganized, and Mr. Roemler again
+engaged as teacher at a salary of $480; but as the number of members
+during these two sessions was on an average only about 75 (out of 220
+students) they were, for want of funds, obliged to rescind the contract
+with their teacher at the end of March last, whereupon Mr. Roemler went
+to Dayton.... After his departure the number of students at the exercises
+of the gymnasium, which under their faithful teacher’s direction had
+always been from 60 to 80, dwindled down in a few weeks to about a dozen,
+and today the gymnasium is closed altogether, for want of interest in the
+students and citizens to continue their exercises without a teacher.”
+
+The annual catalogue of Miami University issued in May of 1859,
+apparently oblivious of the sudden collapse of the plan, announces
+that “An extensive Gymnastic Apparatus has been erected in the College
+Campus, and an expert Teacher instructs the students in all the
+branches of Gymnastics under the direction of Professor Christin,
+M.D.” The “festival” to which the latter refers took place June 29,
+1858,[245] on the day before Commencement. Apparatus had been set up
+on the campus between the Main Building and the South Dormitory, and
+“thousands of spectators of both sexes came.” A report published in the
+_Cincinnati Daily Gazette_ of July 2, 1858, states that about twenty-five
+representatives of the Hamilton _Turnverein_ and other delegates from
+the Cincinnati _Turngemeinde_ and Young Men’s Gymnastic Association
+were present. The program opened at 2 P.M. with a song by the Hamilton
+Turners. William M. Corry then addressed the audience on the subject of
+physical education, and the gymnastic exercises followed, continuing
+until late in the afternoon. The eight young men to whom the judges
+awarded prizes, four of them members of the Miami Gymnastic Association,
+“were each crowned with a wreath of evergreen in the presence of the
+multitude.”[246]
+
+In the Williams College catalogue for 1851-1852, published in the former
+year, it is stated that “A well furnished Gymnasium, with which are
+connected facilities for bathing, is now provided.” The same sentence is
+repeated in catalogues for 1852-1853 and 1853-1854, but modified in those
+for 1854-1855 and the three years following to read: “For their physical
+training a well furnished Gymnasium, with which are connected facilities
+for bathing, is owned and controlled by the students.” The catalogue for
+1858-1859, issued in 1858, announces that “a new stone Gymnasium, to be
+owned and controlled by the students, is about to be erected, with which
+will be connected facilities for bathing;” and in the next year we are
+told that “a convenient Gymnasium, owned and controlled by the students,
+has just been erected.”
+
+President James Walker of Harvard University, in his annual report dated
+December 31, 1858, after remarking that “the need of greater facilities
+for exercise suited to our climate, and for the physical education of
+students, has long been felt, and is felt more and more,” announced that
+“a friend of the College, whose name is not divulged, has given $8000 to
+be expended in the erection and equipment of a Gymnasium, for the use of
+‘all undergraduates and officers of the College, and such other persons
+as the College Faculty may permit’....” The next December he reported
+that “a suitable building has been erected during the past year, with all
+the necessary apparatus, accommodations, and means of instruction. Almost
+all the students, both undergraduates and members of the professional
+schools (there were then 431 undergraduates, and the total enrollment was
+839), have begun to avail themselves of the advantages thus supplied,
+each one paying a small fee (two dollars a term) in order to defray the
+current expenses of the establishment.” The Treasurer’s Statement dated
+December 1, 1859, noted that “the want of a Gymnasium has been supplied
+by the presentation of $8000, through Rev. Dr. Huntington, by a gentleman
+who declines to be known except as a ‘Graduate’ of the College.[247] The
+building has been erected and furnished, at a cost of $9488.05.” Further
+details are supplied by _The Harvard Magazine_ for October, 1859 (VI:
+38): “The spot selected for the building was the little Delta at the
+junction of Cambridge Street and Broadway. The ground was broken March
+23, 1859. The building is in the Italian style, and was erected under the
+direction of Mr. E. C. Cabot, architect, Boston.... The Gymnasium was
+opened for use on Wednesday, September 14. Meanwhile, most fortunately,
+the services of Professor (!) A. Molineaux Hewlett had been secured. He
+came with an experience in gymnastic training of fourteen years, the
+last five of which had been devoted most acceptably to the citizens of
+Worcester....”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.—The Harvard Gymnasium of 1859.]
+
+In “The Harvard Book” (Cambridge, 1875) Thomas Wentworth Higginson
+describes the gymnasium as “of brick, octagonal in form, 74 feet in
+diameter and 40 feet high. It includes as great a variety of apparatus as
+is compatible with the size of the building; there are also two bowling
+alleys, and there are dressing-rooms, but no bath-rooms.... The first
+teacher of gymnastics in Harvard College was Abram Molineaux Hewlett. He
+was a professional teacher of boxing, and had established a gymnasium
+of his own in Worcester, Mass., where he was highly esteemed. He was a
+mulatto, of very fine physique, and of reputable and estimable character.
+He was, moreover, a fair gymnast and a remarkably good teacher of boxing.
+In the first years of his term of service there was a good deal of
+activity in the Gymnasium, and regular class-exercises went on. After a
+few years the interest fell off in some degree, or concentrated itself
+chiefly on the rowing-weights. Mr. Hewlett died December 6, 1871, and ...
+Mr. Frederic William Lister was appointed in 1872.” Hewlett’s name does
+not appear in the list of “Officers of Instruction and Government” in the
+Harvard catalogues, but from 1867 to 1871 he is mentioned with the title
+“Instructor and Curator” in a brief statement regarding the “College
+Gymnasium.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.—The Yale Gymnasium of 1860.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.—The Yale Gymnasium of 1860.]
+
+At Yale College a gymnasium was erected in 1859, on Library Street near
+the corner of High, behind the college grounds proper, and “dedicated on
+Monday evening, January 30th” of the following year.[248] It was a plain
+brick structure 100 by 50 feet, with a main hall 25 feet high to the
+crossbeams, and large gable windows. Across the front (south) end of the
+hall stretched a gallery 25 feet deep, in which were dressing closets and
+a room or rooms for an instructor or janitor. A basement story, about
+10 feet high, contained bath-rooms and bowling alleys. The total cost
+was something over $11,000, of which $10,000 was appropriated by the
+Corporation and George Merriam of Springfield, Mass., contributed $500 of
+the balance. Yale catalogues from 1860 on through the decade state that
+for the privileges of the gymnasium, “including instruction, the sum of
+$4 a year will be charged to each academical student.” Catalogues of 1867
+and later years add that “those who use the bathing-rooms connected with
+the Gymnasium pay a small fee for tickets.” Lyman B. Bunnell, B.A., is
+listed as Instructor in Gymnastics in 1860 and 1861, and Follansbee G.
+Welch[249] during the years 1867-72.[250]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.—The Amherst (Barrett) Gymnasium of 1860.]
+
+The fourth president of Amherst College, Rev. William Augustus
+Stearns,[251] in his inaugural address (November 22, 1854) and his
+annual reports to the trustees urged impressively, again and again,
+the adoption of measures designed to protect the health of students.
+“Physical education is not the leading business of college life,” he
+said in 1854, “though were I able ... to plan an educational system
+anew, I would seriously consider the expediency of introducing regular
+drills in gymnastic and calisthenic exercises.” And in 1859 he states
+his belief that “if a moderate amount of physical exercise could be
+secured to every student daily, I have a deep conviction ... that not
+only would lives and health be preserved, but animation and cheerfulness,
+and a higher order of efficient study and intellectual life would be
+secured.” At their meeting in August of 1859 the trustees took steps to
+carry out at once the president’s wishes. Work on the new building was
+begun in the fall of that year, and the next summer “Barrett Gymnasium”
+was completed.[252] The name commemorates a liberal donor, Dr. Benjamin
+Barrett, of Northampton, who had been a near neighbor of the Round Hill
+School throughout its entire life history. August 6, 1860, following
+still the lead of the president, the trustees voted to establish a
+department of hygiene and physical education, the head of which should
+be a thoroughly educated physician, and the equal of any other member of
+the college faculty. “It is distinctly understood that _the health of the
+students_ shall at all times be an object of his special watch, care, and
+counsel.” John Worthington Hooker (1833-1863), a graduate of Yale College
+and Medical School (1854 and 1857), was appointed to the position at
+once; but failing health led to his resignation within a year, and by the
+action of the trustees on August 8, 1861, Dr. Edward Hitchcock[253] was
+called from Williston Seminary to take the place thus left vacant. His
+connection with the department continued without interruption for only a
+few months less than fifty years, until his death on February 16, 1911.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.—Edward Hitchcock (1828-1911). (From a photograph
+taken in 1867.)]
+
+His own attitude toward physical training, and a foreshadowing of what
+he was soon to undertake, will be found in the course of nine pages
+of “Remarks upon Muscular Development” in an “Elementary Anatomy and
+Physiology, for Colleges, Academies, and other Schools,” which Dr.
+Hitchcock had just published (New York, 1860) in conjunction with his
+father. An article which he prepared in 1878 for the Tenth Annual Report
+of the Massachusetts Board of Health sums up as follows the essential
+features of the “Amherst plan” as it had been worked out under his
+direction: “This department was not created, nor has it been developed,
+for the purpose of extraordinary attention to the muscular system.
+Its sole object has been to keep the bodily health up to the normal
+standard, so that the mind may accomplish the most work, and to preserve
+the bodily powers in full activity for both the daily duties of college
+and the promised labor of a long life.... At the same time, it has been
+equally desired, that the so-called exercises of this department should
+be mentally as well as physically enjoyed by the students, and not be
+made a tedious, mechanical, or heavy drill.... An essential feature of
+it is, that each student with his class by itself, at a stated hour on
+four days of the week, appears at the gymnasium, and performs his part
+in systematic and methodical exercises timed to music. Each class has
+its own organization of officers and men.... The exercises are commonly
+known as those of light gymnastics, which consist of various bodily
+movements accompanied and guided by music; the larger part of them with
+a wooden dumb-bell in each hand....[254] Especially during the colder
+season of the year, running is practised by the class on the floor
+of the gymnasium. A few marching movements are also undertaken by the
+classes. This amount of exercise is required of every student who is
+sound of limb.” In the fall of 1861 Dr. Hitchcock began to note in the
+case of each freshman the age, weight, height, girths of chest, arm, and
+forearm, and strength of upper arms (pull-up), repeating the examination
+afterwards at the end of each year of the course. Other measurements
+were added from time to time, and about twenty years later the list was
+considerably extended. The tabulated results appear in the Anthropometric
+Manual published in 1887, and in the revised editions of 1889, 1893, and
+1900.[255]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.—Vassar College: “The Calisthenic Hall” of 1866.]
+
+As a matter of record the following data regarding other college gymnasia
+erected or equipped during the sixties and seventies deserve a place
+here. At _Bowdoin College_ in 1860 or soon afterwards a gymnasium was
+fitted up in what had been a dining hall. Before the middle of the next
+decade it was removed to unfinished Memorial Hall, and in 1882 to the
+lower floor of Winthrop Hall. William Colyer Dole was “Director of the
+Gymnasium” 1863-1869, and Dudley Allen Sargent 1869-1875. Men students
+in _Oberlin College_ organized a Gymnasium Association in 1860 and
+erected a one-story wooden structure about 75 by 25 feet, opened March
+30, 1861. Samuel Putnam, member of the Worcester, Mass., Gymnastic Club
+and highly recommended by Rev. Thomas Wentworth Higginson, was secured as
+instructor of the classes which were at once organized, but left within
+a month to join the Massachusetts troops at Washington. Another wooden
+building of similar size, and again the result of student effort, was
+opened in October of 1873, the earlier one having been removed in 1867.
+At _Wesleyan University_ a one-story wooden structure with one room 70
+by 40 feet was built and equipped in 1863-1864 at a cost of $5000. A
+large room in Goodrich Hall, erected at _Williams College_ in 1864, was
+fitted up with gymnastic apparatus, and there was a bowling-alley on
+the lowest floor. A wooden gymnasium built in 1881 was blown down in
+1883. Charles Russell Treat served as Professor of Physiology, Vocal and
+Physical Culture 1866-1869, Henry Wilson Smith (A.B., ’69) as Instructor
+in Physical Training 1870-1874, and Luther Dana Woodbridge (A.B., ’72)
+in the same position 1874-1876. A gymnasium hall 80 by 30 feet and 19
+feet high was ready for use at _Mt. Holyoke Seminary_ in the summer
+of 1865. After 1862 the Dio Lewis gymnastics had replaced the earlier
+“calisthenics” there. _Vassar’s_ gymnasium (80 by 30 feet) and riding
+school was occupied at the opening of the second college year, in the
+fall of 1866. Here, too, the Dio Lewis exercises were employed. In March
+of 1867 a two-story gymnasium of brick with stone trimmings was opened at
+_Dartmouth College_, to which George H. Bissell gave nearly $24,000 for
+the purpose. The architect was Joseph R. Richards of Boston. F. G. Welch
+was Instructor in Gymnastics 1867-1868, Charles Franklin Emerson (A.B.,
+’68) 1868-1871, Devinel French Thompson (B.S., ’69) 1871-1872, Solon
+Rodney Towne (A.B., ’72) 1872-1875, and Thomas Wilson Dorr Worthen (A.B.,
+’72) 1875-1893. “In the spring of 1869 and during the greater part of
+the year 1869-1870 the students (of _Brown University_) had the use of a
+private gymnasium on Canal Street, the college bearing half the expense”
+(Bronson 1914, p. 377). _Princeton’s_ gymnasium, the gift of Robert
+Bonner and Henry G. Marquand, was a two-story structure of gray stone,
+planned by George B. Post of New York, and with the ground on which it
+stood cost $38,000. The main hall was 80 by 50 feet. George Goldie[256]
+was Superintendent of the Gymnasium 1869 (it was opened January 13,
+1870)-1885. The annual report of the Board of Regents for the year ending
+September 30, 1870, records that at the _University of Wisconsin_ “a
+building for drill and gymnastic exercises has just been completed at a
+cost of about $4000.... The main building is 100 by 30 feet,” with a wing
+containing an armory. Before 1870 _Washington University_ (St. Louis)
+had provided for its students a one-story gymnasium with a main hall 70
+by 50 feet, at a cost of $7000. Other institutions known to have made
+similar provision were Pennsylvania College, at Gettysburg (1870, wood,
+$3000), Beloit (1874, wood, $5000), University of California (1878, wood,
+$12,000), and Vanderbilt University (1879, brick, $22,000).[257]
+
+The three decades which witnessed the gradual revival of interest in
+gymnastics in the colleges were not without other signs of a growing
+desire for some sort of physical activity suited to the conditions and
+needs of the undergraduate world. The Civil War brought inevitably to the
+front the idea of a trained citizen soldiery which had animated Captain
+Partridge’s endeavors forty years before, and the beginnings of athletic
+sports in the colleges go back to the period immediately preceding and
+following the death-grapple between North and South.
+
+The momentous Land-Grant Act of 1862, introduced by Justin S. Morrill
+of Vermont, passed by both houses of Congress in June and signed by
+President Lincoln July 2, allotted to each state a quantity of public
+land equal to 30,000 acres for each senator or representative in
+Congress, the proceeds from the sale of these lands to be used for “the
+endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college, where the
+leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical
+studies and _including military tactics_, to teach such branches of
+learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such
+manner as the legislatures of the states may respectively prescribe in
+order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial
+classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.” The clause
+relating to military instruction “was not in the original bill, but
+was introduced ... because the advantage of the South over the North
+at the beginning of the war was attributed to the numerous military
+schools there, and it was thought that at least one college in each
+state should teach military subjects.”[258] In accordance with this Act
+nineteen states, among them Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, and New
+Hampshire, have organized independent colleges of agriculture and the
+mechanic arts; in twenty-one others the college of agriculture is a part
+of the state university, as in California, Illinois, Maine, Minnesota,
+Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, and Wisconsin; and in a few cases all or a
+part of the income goes to a privately endowed institution, like Cornell
+University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Purdue University, and
+Rutgers College. Army officers are detailed to serve as instructors in
+military science and tactics, and in 1915-1916 the number of young men
+who received such instruction under the Act of 1862 was 33,445.[259]
+
+Rowing was the first sport to gain a foothold in American colleges.
+The earliest organizations were the boat clubs formed at Yale in 1843
+and at Harvard in 1844. Crews from the two colleges met for a race on
+Lake Winnipiseogee, August 3, 1852. The next year the Yale Navy was
+organized, University of Pennsylvania students formed a university barge
+club in 1854, 1856 marks the beginnings of rowing at Dartmouth, Brown’s
+first crew was the one of 1857, and on May 26, 1858, Harvard, Yale,
+Brown, and Trinity organized the College Union Regatta, the first races
+occurring July 26, 1859, and the second July 24, 1860, both at Worcester,
+Massachusetts. The outbreak of the Civil War interrupted the series of
+regattas, and after its close the crews of Harvard and Yale were the
+only ones to renew the annual contests. But the Harvard-Oxford race over
+the Putney-Mortlake course August 27, 1869, attracted the attention of
+other colleges to the sport, and interest in rowing culminated in the
+years 1870-1876. Amherst, Princeton, Cornell, and the Massachusetts
+Agricultural College formed boat clubs in 1870, and Trinity became active
+again. In the spring of 1871 representatives of Amherst, Bowdoin, Brown,
+and Harvard organized the Rowing Association of American Colleges, and in
+July of this and the five succeeding years this body held regattas, on
+the Connecticut River at Springfield for three years, and afterwards at
+Saratoga Lake. Thirteen colleges sent crews to the great regatta of 1875.
+The list of those who competed at one or more of the races during this
+period includes Amherst, Bowdoin, Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth,
+Hamilton, Harvard, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Princeton,
+Trinity, Union, Wesleyan, Williams, and Yale. Rutgers and the College of
+the City of New York had also sought admission to the Association, and at
+the University of Pennsylvania a boat club was organized in 1872.
+
+College baseball had its beginning in the years 1858-1860, with the
+appearance of teams at Amherst, Princeton, Williams, and Yale. The first
+intercollegiate game seems to have been that between Amherst and Williams
+representatives at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, July 1, 1859. During the
+course of the Civil War the game was introduced at Harvard and Brown, and
+Bowdoin had a nine as early as 1864. In the years immediately following
+the war interest in the game became general and intense over the entire
+United States, and clubs were formed everywhere, in the colleges and
+outside of them.
+
+Intramural football, in a primitive form, was all that existed
+in American colleges up to 1869. Traces of it are found at Yale,
+Princeton, Harvard, Dartmouth, Rutgers, Brown, and Amherst. The first
+intercollegiate football game in this country was played by Princeton and
+Rutgers teams at New Brunswick, New Jersey, November 6, 1869, and by 1876
+the present form of game was definitely established.
+
+The general practice of track and field athletics can be traced back
+to three influences—the example of students at Oxford and Cambridge
+Universities, the “Caledonian Games” of Scotch immigrants organized into
+clubs for the purpose of keeping up interest in their native language
+and customs, and the contests arranged as appendages of the rowing
+events at Saratoga in 1874, 1875, and 1876. A letter from George Rives,
+a graduate of Columbia University who was present at the annual meets of
+the two English universities in 1868, led to the formation of an athletic
+association at Columbia, and to its first meet, in June of 1869. The
+first of the Caledonian Clubs was organized in Boston March 19, 1853,
+and its earliest games were held later in the same year. The New York
+Caledonian Club dates from 1856, and its first meet was on St. George’s
+Cricket Grounds, Hoboken, in October of 1857. Similar clubs were formed
+in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Montreal, and other cities. The
+annual games of these organizations were especially popular in the ten
+or fifteen years following the Civil War, and they may be considered
+the precursors of our modern amateur athletic clubs. George Goldie,
+long a member of the New York Caledonian Club, at one time director of
+its gymnasium, and twice a winner of the championship medal at national
+Caledonian meets, was director of the Princeton gymnasium from 1869 to
+1885, and under the inspiration of his presence the Princeton Athletic
+Club was organized in the spring of 1873. The club had its first field
+day on June 21 of that year. Yale students held a field meet May 4, 1872.
+In the fall of 1873 the University of Pennsylvania Athletic Association
+was formed, and the Harvard Athletic Association a year later. Among the
+colleges which competed in five events at Saratoga in 1874 were Columbia,
+Cornell, Harvard, Princeton, Wesleyan, Williams, and Yale. Amherst,
+University of Pennsylvania, and Union were added in 1875, and Dartmouth
+in 1876. Although an intercollegiate athletic association was organized
+in this last year (1876), the present widespread interest in track and
+field athletics was not reached until the following decade. Nineteen
+colleges were represented at the Mott Haven (New York) games in 1886. The
+New York State Intercollegiate Athletic Association, made up of seven
+colleges, was already in existence (1885), and delegates from seven other
+colleges formed the New England Intercollegiate Athletic Association on
+November 23, 1886.[260]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.—Dudley Allen Sargent (1849-).]
+
+Twenty years after the octagonal gymnasium on Cambridge Street and
+Broadway was opened to students in Harvard University a structure ten
+times as costly, the gift of Augustus Hemenway, Harvard 1875, to his
+_alma mater_, was nearing completion at the corner of Cambridge Street
+and Holmes Place, facing the College Yard. The selection and arrangement
+of apparatus and the details of system and method were left to the newly
+appointed director, Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, a man whose stimulating and
+molding influence upon physical training in American colleges in the next
+few decades was to be more potent and more widely felt than any other
+that can be named. His interest in gymnastics reached back to boyhood
+days, and during ten years of experience as a teacher in that field he
+had evolved certain unique plans of equipment and administration which
+were now to be carried out under most favorable conditions.
+
+He was descended from New England ancestry, the son of a ship carpenter
+and sparmaker in Belfast, Maine, on the west side of Penobscot Bay, and
+was born there on September 28, 1849. The harbor and the bay furnished
+abundant opportunity for youthful activity and enterprise, and the early
+death of his father made it necessary to give much of the time outside of
+school hours and in the long vacations to varied forms of manual labor on
+land and sea, under the direction of an uncle. Meanwhile he had joined
+with other high school boys in putting up a horizontal bar and some other
+apparatus on the school grounds and starting a gymnastic club. Reports of
+exhibitions given at Bowdoin College, in Brunswick, sixty miles away to
+the southwest, added to their zeal, and constant practice brought such
+a degree of skill that they ventured to give similar public exhibitions
+of their own, first in the town-hall at home, and later in some of the
+neighboring towns.
+
+An invitation to become director of the gymnasium at Bowdoin College, in
+the fall of 1869, opened the way to further study for the young expert
+and started him on a career which was followed thenceforth without
+interruption. Two years later he was ready to enter the college as a
+freshman, retaining still the position to which he had been originally
+appointed, and now the authorities required all students to attend
+regular class exercises in the gymnasium for a half-hour daily during
+most of the fall and winter terms, _i.e._, when they were not occupied
+with military drill. During his sophomore year Sargent spent three
+months at Yale College, introducing there the same plan of work, and
+he continued to divide his time between the two institutions until his
+graduation from Bowdoin (A.B.) in 1875. The fall of that year found
+him instructor in gymnastics in Yale College and a student in the Yale
+Medical School, and from the latter he obtained the degree of M.D. in
+January of 1878.
+
+The next move was to New York City, where for a year he conducted
+a private gymnasium on the site afterwards occupied by the Madison
+Square Theatre Company. “I elaborated my old system of measurements,”
+he says, referring to this period, “and had the first patterns of my
+long-contemplated developing appliances constructed. These consist
+of what are familiarly known as chest-weights, chest-expanders and
+developers, quarter-circles, leg-machines, finger-machines, etc., to
+the number of forty different pieces....[261] The attempt was made to
+ascertain the strength and physical condition of the individual by
+dynamometers, and other testing and measuring appliances, and then to
+adapt the apparatus by means of pulleys, levers, adjustable weights,
+etc., to the strength or weakness of the person as determined by the
+physical examination.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.—Frontispiece to Captain Chiosso’s “The Gymnastic
+Polymachinon” (1855).]
+
+Meanwhile the Hemenway Gymnasium was nearing completion, and the
+attention of the Harvard authorities, in search of a man able to insure
+the best use of such splendid facilities for physical training, was
+turned to Dr. Sargent by alumni living in New York, and especially by
+William Blaikie (1843-1904), whose “How to Get Strong and How to Stay
+So” had just been published (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1879). In the
+chapter on “What a Gymnasium Might Be and Do” he sets forth Harvard’s
+opportunity in language that now sounds prophetic, and here and elsewhere
+in the book makes repeated mention of Dr. Sargent’s work at Bowdoin and
+Yale and of the new apparatus which he was then introducing. On September
+22, 1879, the Corporation appointed him assistant professor of physical
+training and director of the Hemenway Gymnasium.[262] His first task
+was to determine the equipment and to superintend its construction
+and installation, and the building, therefore, was not ready for use
+until the following January. In the _Harvard Register_ a month later
+he explains that the older gymnasia were “filled with crude appliances
+that have been handed down in stereotyped forms for several centuries
+(!). To use this apparatus with benefit, it is necessary for one to have
+more strength at the outset than the average man possesses.... When it
+is considered that only one man out of five can raise his own weight
+with ease, the need of introductory apparatus to prepare one for the
+beneficial use of the heavy appliances becomes quite apparent. It was
+the realization of this need that led to the invention of the numerous
+contrivances that have been introduced into the Hemenway Gymnasium; the
+desire to strengthen certain muscles, in order to accomplish particular
+feats on the higher apparatus, was the original motive.... The results
+which followed were so satisfactory that the same appliances were
+afterwards used as a means of attaining a harmonious development. For
+this last-named purpose each machine has its own use. Each is designed to
+bring into action one or more sets of muscles, and all can be adjusted to
+the capacity of a child or of an athlete....”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.—Harvard University: Hemenway Gymnasium (1885).]
+
+According to the university catalogue published in 1880, “The attendance
+is voluntary, and the system adopted is one designed to meet the special
+wants of each individual. Realizing the great diversity in age, size,
+and strength, as well as in health, of the students who attend the
+University, the Director makes no attempt to group them into classes
+which pursue the same course of exercises. Upon entering the University,
+each student is entitled to an examination by the Director, in which
+his physical proportions are measured, his strength tested, his heart
+and lungs examined, and information is solicited concerning his general
+health and inherited tendencies. From the data thus procured, a special
+order of appropriate exercises is made out for each student, with
+specifications of the movements and apparatus which he may best use.
+After working on this prescription for three to six months, the student
+is entitled to another examination, by which the results of his work are
+ascertained, and the Director (is) enabled to make a further prescription
+for his individual case.”[263]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.—Harvard University: Hemenway Gymnasium (1885).]
+
+A “Handbook of Developing Exercises” was printed in 1882, and a revised
+and enlarged edition, with illustrations, in 1889. The skeleton
+Anthropometric Chart (percentile) described in _Scribner’s Magazine_ for
+July, 1887 (II: 3-17), had been issued the year before, and in 1893 table
+charts were ready, “designed to show the distribution of any American
+community as to physical power and proportions,” and ranging “from ten
+to twenty-six years of age for either sex, there being one for each
+age, except that the ages from twenty-two to twenty-six for men, and
+from eighteen to twenty-six for women are combined.” In this same year
+the life-size statues of typical American students, man and woman, were
+exhibited at the World’s Fair in Chicago.
+
+As early as 1881 Dr. Sargent had begun to train teachers, in the
+“Sanatory Gymnasium” opened in Cambridge that year, primarily to meet
+the needs of young women studying in the “Harvard Annex,” now known as
+Radcliffe College. In 1883 accommodations were secured at 20 Church
+Street, and here during the next two decades more than two hundred and
+fifty women completed the prescribed two years’ normal course of theory
+and practice. The commodious new building on Everett Street was ready for
+use in the school year 1904-1905, and the course, now extended to cover
+three years, was thrown open to men also. Summer courses in physical
+training, lasting five weeks and given in Hemenway Gymnasium under the
+auspices of Harvard University, have been offered since 1887. The annual
+attendance in the first twenty-five years averaged over one hundred
+students, of whom nearly one third were men.[264]
+
+The continuous and rapid development of physical education in American
+colleges and universities which has taken place in recent years may
+be dated from the opening of the new Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard
+University, with Dr. Sargent’s novel equipment and methods, in January
+of 1880, and the publication of Dr. Hartwell’s report by the Bureau of
+Education in 1886. First came an era of gymnasium building. In the brief
+interval between the two events just named the list of institutions
+includes Smith College (1880, $4000), Lehigh University (1882, $40,000),
+Cornell University (1882-83, $40,000), Tufts College (1882-83, $10,000),
+University of Wooster (1882-83, $4200), Johns Hopkins University (1883,
+$10,000), Amherst College (1883-84, $65,000), Bryn Mawr College (1884,
+$18,000), Dickinson College (1884, $8000), Lafayette College (1884,
+$15,000), and University of Minnesota (1884, $34,000). Twenty-five years
+later 114 institutions reported gymnasia, and in 1920 the number had
+increased to 209.[265]
+
+Next came the organization of departments of physical education. By 1909
+at least 111 institutions were giving regular instruction in gymnastics,
+and in 1920 such departments existed in 199 colleges and universities.
+In 187 of them the head of the department had a seat in the faculty,
+and in 157 the rank of a full professor. It must be recalled in this
+connection that postgraduate courses like those offered in theology,
+medicine, law, and general education have not hitherto been available
+for men and women looking forward to a career in physical education, so
+that not many candidates have been able to measure up to the standards
+of general and special preparation which have determined appointment to
+other college professorships. A course in medicine, which has seemed to
+many the natural portal of entry to the new profession, cannot be viewed
+as anything but a makeshift solution of the problem, and until this need
+is met in some more adequate way it must be difficult for the department
+of physical education to win and hold a status equal to that of others
+long established. A national Society of (men) Directors of Physical
+Education in Colleges was organized in New York City December 31, 1897,
+and has held annual meetings during the Christmas holidays ever since. A
+corresponding Association of Directors of Physical Education for Women
+has been in existence since 1910, but until 1915 it included only the New
+England colleges.
+
+It early became the practice to prescribe courses in physical education
+for students as a part of their required work. This was the case at
+95 institutions in 1909, and at 180 in 1920. Freshmen were included
+in the requirement at 157 colleges in the latter year, sophomores at
+137, juniors at 44, and seniors at 29. The next step was the giving of
+positive credit toward graduation for courses in physical education.
+By 1909, 60 colleges were doing this, and in 1920 there were 139.
+More recently the department has begun to take over the control and
+administration of intercollegiate athletics,[266] to develop recreational
+activities for the entire undergraduate body of students on a large
+scale, and to offer both theoretical and practical courses of instruction
+and training open to students who intend themselves to teach the subject
+later on. These courses are sometimes grouped into a major, like those
+offered in other departments of the college or university, and may
+be considered the first step toward regularly organized professional
+courses for graduate students. The relation of a department of physical
+education to instruction in hygiene, the care of student health, and the
+sanitation of the college community varies in different institutions. In
+some a part or all of the latter functions are entrusted to a separate
+“students’ health service.”[267]
+
+Perhaps present-day tendencies can be best indicated by printing here in
+full the report of a special committee appointed in 1919 by the Society
+of Directors of Physical Education in Colleges to formulate the aims and
+scope of physical education. It was published in the _American Physical
+Education Review_ for June, 1920, and adopted by the Society without
+change at the annual meeting in Chicago, December 30, 1920, as expressing
+its attitude in general on the various questions involved. After an
+introductory paragraph the report proceeds as follows:
+
+“DEFINITION. The term physical education is sometimes regarded as
+identical with the hygiene of childhood and youth. Others would limit
+it to more or less systematic exercise of the neuromuscular apparatus
+in order to promote and conserve the perfect functioning of the entire
+human mechanism, to make it what Huxley called ‘the ready servant of the
+will,’ and to develop correct motor habits. A usage more in conformity
+with the present conception of man’s nature as a unit is that which sees
+in measures insuring bodily health and the right kind and amount of motor
+activity an avenue of approach through which the whole individual may be
+influenced for good, in mind and character as well as in body; it employs
+the word physical to denote the means, and not the end. Probably no one
+would contend that education in general is identical with hygiene in its
+broader meaning, which takes account of mental and moral soundness, and
+there seems no better warrant for making physical education synonymous
+with hygiene in the narrower sense. Obviously something more than health
+is in the mind of one who adopts the newer definition proposed above, and
+improved coördination is not the only goal in sight.
+
+“AIMS. 1. If we conceive the perfecting of the individual in his social
+relations to be of greater importance than more purely personal values
+we may well begin our list of aims with certain qualities developed by
+appropriate group activities, particularly games and athletic sports,
+practised under favorable conditions. It is through these agencies
+that the child and youth most readily and naturally acquire habits of
+obedience, subordination, self-sacrifice, coöperation and friendliness,
+loyalty, capacity for leadership, ability to lose without sulking and win
+without boasting, a spirit of fair play, and all that is implied in the
+word sportsmanship.
+
+“2. Other qualities of marked, though indirect, significance to the
+community are self-confidence and self-control, mental and moral poise,
+good spirits, alertness, resourcefulness, decision and perseverance,
+courage, aggressiveness, initiative. These traits, developed by the farm
+life and varied home activities of an earlier age, must now be insured
+through other means than those which the average family can itself supply.
+
+“3. Underlying such aims must be the purpose to promote the normal growth
+and organic development of the individual, conserve his health and
+provide a fair degree of strength and endurance, and to secure an erect
+and self-respecting carriage of the body and the neuromuscular control
+required for prompt and accurate response and graceful and effective
+movements. Emergencies should be anticipated by training in exercises of
+which swimming may be taken as a type, and by others which accustom one
+to bear physical punishment coolly and to defend himself successfully.
+
+“4. But the teacher’s vision should not be bounded by the limits of
+the school or college or university period. To engender in youth an
+intelligent and healthful interest that shall lead to lifelong practice
+of forms of active exercise which favor not only a continued high level
+of physical efficiency but also mental sanity and stimulating social
+contact is certainly not the least service he may seek to render.
+
+“SCOPE. 1. The scope or range of physical education is suggested by what
+has already been said. Physical examinations intended to reveal the
+condition and needs of the individual and to allow the application of
+various tests constitute a necessary introduction and accompaniment. The
+educational procedure itself involves _two related lines_ of work: (1)
+an orderly and progressive program of _activities_ designed specifically
+to develop the qualities listed above, including regular and frequent
+exercise of the fundamental muscle groups, and suitable employment of
+corrective exercises in cases of faulty posture and other remediable
+defects reached through such agencies; and (2) _instruction_ in personal
+hygiene and public sanitation, and inculcation of health habits, together
+with advice and suggestions to students confronted by individual health
+problems. Special courses in school hygiene and in the theory of physical
+education should be added in normal schools, colleges, and universities,
+in order that students preparing for the teaching profession may be
+adequately trained under the most favorable conditions.
+
+“2. _Vocational training_ and industrial occupations supply a certain
+amount of motor activity for a large part of the population, it is true,
+but in forms which are in general too one-sided and too much limited
+to the accessory mechanisms of the hand and fingers to be of serious
+hygienic value, and too often they are practised under insanitary
+conditions. The isolated exercises of _formal gymnastics_, if wisely
+chosen, are serviceable for corrective purposes, and may be utilized
+for bringing into play the fundamental muscle groups, and securing
+erect posture and a good degree of neuromuscular control. They permit a
+maximum economy of time and space and offer the advantages of skilled
+supervision, and they may be made to yield a foundation of strength
+and skill without which interest and success in games are likely to
+be lacking. Carefully selected and arranged exercises in _hanging and
+climbing_ and in _jumping and vaulting_ are especially valuable as
+supplying elementary training in self-confidence, alertness, decision,
+and courage, in addition to their hygienic and corrective uses and the
+advanced training in coördination which they furnish. _Combat exercises_
+make their unique contribution in the form of capacity for self-defense
+and ability to take punishment coolly. Folk, esthetic, and athletic
+_dancing_ have an obvious place with relation to fundamental muscle
+groups and graceful control of the body as a whole. _Group games_, which
+are lacking in corrective value and compare unfavorably with formal
+exercises as a school of good posture and general coördination, may give
+excellent results in the way of improved health, and their special field
+is the development of sturdy character and right ethical standards.
+
+“3. The _relative importance_ to be assigned to the different aims and
+means of physical education mentioned varies, of course, with the age,
+sex, environment, and other conditions of life and work. The teaching of
+hygiene and the health habits emphasized must be related to the grade
+of intelligence and the special needs and interests of the individual
+at each stage, from early childhood to full maturity. The activities
+of the _kindergarten_ and the _lower school grades_ should be directed
+chiefly toward promotion of normal growth and organic development, by
+exercise of the fundamental muscle groups, and particularly through the
+agency of simple games, which also furnish a valuable social training
+at this period. In the _upper grades_ and the _high school_ training
+in coördination, with suitable attention to posture, should become a
+prominent feature. Too often, nowadays, the _college or university_
+department of physical education is called upon to adopt measures which
+would be quite unnecessary with an adequate system in the elementary
+and secondary schools, and to remedy conditions of malgrowth and
+maldevelopment which ought never to have been allowed to develop. After
+the high school period conservation of health and the higher social
+values would normally become the dominant objectives. Outside the limits
+of school life, _i.e._, in dealing with _industrial or professional
+groups_, conditions of occupation and environment must determine the aim
+and content of whatever plan is adopted.
+
+“RELATIONS. 1. Closely associated with the purposes of physical
+education are _other procedures_ which any complete health program in a
+school, college, university, or system of schools will include. These
+are measures intended to secure (1) prompt _detection of illness_ and
+physical defects, through preliminary and periodic medical inspection
+and physical examinations, and (2) _adequate treatment_, by means of
+hospital, dispensary, or private service; and (3) to provide _sanitary
+safeguards_, such as attention to food and water supplies, sewage
+disposal, light and ventilation, rooming conditions, and the early
+recognition and isolation of cases of communicable disease. Such measures
+call for the employment of a practising physician and health officer,
+whose services might also be utilized in the examinations given by the
+department of physical education and in the instruction in personal
+hygiene and public sanitation. For all other purposes mentioned in this
+report the oversight of a specially trained educator is required.
+
+“2. The influence of a well-organized department of physical education
+ought to be felt in every phase of school work, through _coöperation_ in
+attempts to promote mental hygiene and to follow hygienic principles in
+the choice of methods of instruction and management. Teachers in other
+departments may be stimulated and helped to maintain themselves in a
+condition which renders their own work more effective.”
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+The portions of this chapter which have to do with the life and work of
+Dr. Edward Hitchcock and Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent have already appeared
+in print, as Chapters XIII and XIV in the writer’s “Pioneers of Modern
+Physical Training” (New York, The Association Press, 1915). Other
+references are given in the text and footnotes.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[239] Mrs. J. H. McCurdy, “The History of Physical Training at Mount
+Holyoke College,” in the _American Physical Education Review_ for March,
+1909.
+
+[240] See “Instructions in Gymnastics, containing a full description
+of more than eight hundred exercises, and illustrated by five hundred
+engravings. By J. E. D’Alfonce, late Professor in the Military School in
+St. Petersburgh, and in Paris.” New York, George F. Nesbitt & Co., 1951.
+The author speaks in the preface of “seven years’ practice with pupils
+of all ages,” and of “the debt which I owe to America for the freedom I
+enjoy, and for the hospitality and friendship I have received from her
+citizens....”
+
+[241] Page 60 of “The University of Virginia: Glimpses of Its Past and
+Present,” by John S. Patton and Sallie J. Doswell (Lynchburg, Va., 1900).
+See also a letter (“Due Tribute”) published in _The Outlook_ for May 18,
+1907 (=85=, p. 122).
+
+[242] In Bartlett and Gifford’s “Dartmouth Athletics” (Concord, N. H.,
+1893).
+
+[243] The Princeton Book. A Series of Sketches Pertaining to the History,
+Organization and Present Condition of the College of New Jersey. By
+Officers and Graduates of the College. Boston: Houghton, Osgood & Co.,
+1879. See p. 268.
+
+[244] It was opened for use December 8, 1857, according to an item in the
+_Deutsche Turn-Zeitung_ for 1858, p. 44.
+
+[245] This is the date given in _Jahrbücher der Deutsch-Amerikanischen
+Turnerei_ (New York), =3=, 55 (December, 1893). See also a reference in
+=2=, 267 (July, 1893).
+
+[246] For references in the University catalogue and the records of the
+Board of Trustees, and for a copy of the report in the _Cincinnati Daily
+Gazette_ I am indebted to the kindness of Professor J. E. Bradford, of
+the department of history at Miami. The first hint of any such episode
+as the above was gained from the _Jahrbücher_ mentioned in the footnote
+preceding this one.
+
+[247] The donor was Henry Bromfield Rogers, Harvard 1822.
+
+[248] The _Yale Literary Magazine_ of March, 1860 (=25=, 230).
+
+[249] Follansbee Goodrich Welch was born at Concord, N. H., June 8, 1843,
+and graduated from Dio Lewis’s Normal Institute for Physical Education.
+In addition to his duties at Yale he served as “Instructor in Physical
+Culture” at Dartmouth College from the spring of 1867 through the year
+1867-68, and instructor in gymnastics at Wesleyan University 1868-69,
+besides conducting for a number of years an eight weeks summer “Normal
+Institute for the Training of Teachers in Dio Lewis’s New Gymnastics,”
+at the Glenwood Ladies’ Seminary, West Brattleboro, Vermont. In 1869 he
+published “Moral, Intellectual, and Physical Culture; or the Philosophy
+of True Living” (New York, Wood & Holbrook), Part I of which deals with
+“The Gymnasium,” and Part II with “the Dio Lewis System of Gymnastics.”
+The New York Homeopathic Medical College conferred on him the degree of
+M.D. in 1870, and he afterwards practised medicine in New York City.
+
+[250] See “Four Years at Yale,” by a Graduate of ’69 (Lyman H. Bagg) (New
+Haven, Charles C. Chatfield & Co., 1871), pp. 31 and 402-405; and Dudley
+A. Sargent in “Yale College: A Sketch of Its History....” (New York,
+Henry Holt & Co., 1879), =2=, pp. 458 and 459.
+
+[251] He had been a student in Harvard College at the time when Follen
+introduced the Jahn gymnastics there, and was in Andover Theological
+Seminary while the “Mechanical Association” was still flourishing.
+
+[252] It was 72 by 50 feet and two stories high, with walls of Pelham
+gneiss or granite. The first floor contained an office, dressing rooms,
+and bowling alleys, and above this was the main hall for gymnastic
+exercises. The architect was Charles E. Parkes of Boston, and the total
+cost of the building and fixtures amounted to $15,000.
+
+[253] He was born May 23, 1828, at Amherst, Massachusetts, where his
+father had been appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in
+the college three years before and was afterwards to become its third
+president (1845-1854). Upon completing his preparatory studies at Amherst
+Academy, and at Williston Seminary, in Easthampton, eleven miles to
+the southwest, he entered Amherst College and graduated with the class
+of 1849. Then from 1850 to 1861, with the exception of a single year
+(1852-53), he was teacher of elocution and natural science at Williston
+Seminary, and early in this period obtained the degree of doctor of
+medicine from the Harvard Medical School (1853).
+
+[254] See the “Manual of Gymnastic Exercises, Arranged on Hygienic
+Principles and Adapted to Music. Compiled by E. H. Barlow, Captain of
+the Class of ’66, Barrett Gymnasium, Amherst College” (Amherst, 1863).
+A second edition was published in 1866, and a third in 1875. It will be
+recalled that in 1864 Amherst College conferred on Dio Lewis the honorary
+degree of Master of Arts.
+
+[255] The gift of a new gymnasium to Amherst College in 1884, by C. M.
+Pratt of the class of ’79, brought new and much-needed facilities, to
+which important additions have been made during more recent years; but
+the unique contribution of the College, and of Dr. Hitchcock, himself,
+to the advancement of physical training in America was made in the
+two decades which succeeded the trustee meeting of August, 1859. Dr.
+Hitchcock was chairman of the meeting in Brooklyn at which the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education was organized
+(November 27, 1885). He was also its first president, a member of the
+committee on statistics and measurements, and a frequent contributor to
+the early programs.
+
+[256] Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, 1841, March 16; removed to New York
+City at the age of thirteen, and in 1861 became a professional gymnast;
+as a member of the New York Caledonian Club was a leading figure in
+its annual games, and at national Caledonian meets he twice won the
+championship medal. He died at Princeton February 23, 1920.
+
+[257] See Dr. E. M. Hartwell, “Physical Training in American Colleges and
+Universities” (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No. 5, 1885.
+Washington, 1886), pp. 39, 60-67. It is possible that Cornell University
+and Hamilton, Union, and Wabash Colleges should be added to the list.
+
+[258] See “The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman,” by Fabian Franklin (New York:
+Dodd, Mead & Co., 1910), pp. 70-73.
+
+[259] See Bulletin 1918, No. 13 of the United States Bureau of Education
+(Benjamin F. Andrews, “The Land-Grant of 1862 and the Land-Grant
+Colleges”), and an article by Herman Balson in _The Outlook_ for May 4,
+1901 (pp. 81-85).
+
+[260] See “Rowing and Track Athletics: Rowing by Samuel Crowther, Track
+Athletics by Arthur Ruhl” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1905); and
+“Football, the American Intercollegiate Game,” by Parke H. Davis (New
+York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1911).
+
+[261] The idea of the pulley weight is an old one. See an illustrated
+article in the _Deutsche Turnzeitung_, 1902, pp. 289-292, and Captain
+Chiosso’s “The Gymnastic Polymachinon” (London, Walton & Maberly; Paris
+and New York, H. Ballière, 1855).
+
+[262] The appointment as assistant professor was for the usual term of
+five years. After that period, and until his retirement in September of
+1919, his title was simply “Director of the Hemenway Gymnasium.”
+
+[263] See Dr. Hartwell’s Report on “Physical Training in American
+Colleges and Universities” (Washington, 1886), pp. 41-59.
+
+[264] At the meeting in Brooklyn which resulted in the organization of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, in
+1885, Dr. Sargent was elected one of three vice-presidents. In 1890 he
+was chosen president, and held the same office again in the years 1892-94
+and 1899-1901. He was also an active member of the Society of Directors
+of Physical Education in Colleges from the time of its organization
+in 1897, serving as president in 1899. Outside of these professional
+associations he has been busy with voice and pen in the interest of
+wholesome and nationwide physical training, and against excesses in
+athletics, the abuse of military drill in the public schools, and other
+unwise measures. A list of his more important papers and addresses
+would include no less than forty titles (see pp. 9-22 in the “Fiftieth
+Anniversary” volume prepared in 1919 and presented to Dr. Sargent at a
+dinner given in his honor at Hotel Vendome, Boston, on the evening of
+December 27th of that year). Twelve papers and essays were collected
+into a volume under the title “Physical Education” and published in
+1906 (Boston, etc., Ginn & Co.), and two years earlier another volume,
+“Health, Strength and Power,” had appeared (New York and Boston, H. M.
+Caldwell Co. Reissued in 1914 by the Dodge Publishing Co., New York).
+
+[265] See the reports of a standing committee of the Society of Directors
+of Physical Education in Colleges, based on questionnaires sent out in
+1909, 1915, and 1920, and published in the _American Physical Education
+Review_ for February, 1912, March, 1916 and November, 1921. These reports
+supply the other figures quoted in succeeding paragraphs.
+
+[266] An important step looking toward effective faculty control of
+intercollegiate athletics was taken when the Intercollegiate Athletic
+Association of the United States was formed in 1906. Four years later the
+name was changed to “National Collegiate Athletic Association.” Annual
+conventions have been held during the Christmas holidays since 1906.
+
+[267] An “American Students Health Association” was organized in Chicago
+March 4, 1920, and held its first annual meeting in that city on December
+31st of the same year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+GERMAN-AMERICAN GYMNASTIC SOCIETIES AND THE NORTH AMERICAN TURNERBUND.
+
+
+The first introduction of the Jahn gymnastics into the United States,
+in the years 1825-1828, we owe to Follen, Beck, Lieber, and Völker, men
+who had been associated with the German _Turnvater_ or had come under
+his influence during their university days in Europe and who fled from
+their native land to America or England in consequence of the reactionary
+measures adopted by the Holy Alliance after the murder of Kotzebue by
+Karl Sand in 1819. Although Prussia’s example in suppressing public
+_Turnen_ was followed by other German states, the procedure was by no
+means universal, so that between 1820 and 1840 not only did the old
+organizations continue without interruption in certain cities, but a
+number of new societies of older boys or young men, who met regularly for
+exercise, were formed here and there. One sign of the quickened political
+life which followed the accession of Frederick-William IV to the Prussian
+throne in 1840 was a general revival of the Jahn gymnastics, we have seen
+(p. 102). New societies sprang up everywhere, until at the close of the
+decade they numbered nearly three hundred. The desire for union which
+early showed itself was met by holding district conventions (_Turntage_)
+and gatherings for gymnastic exercises (_Turnfeste_). Agitation for
+reform in state and nation found many bold and able adherents among these
+later disciples of Jahn, and Saxon and South German turners, especially,
+took an active part in the revolutionary movements of 1848 and 1849. The
+prompt suppression of all such popular outbreaks and the new reactionary
+policy pursued by the various governments led to an exodus of thousands
+of disappointed patriots to the United States, and these brought with
+them, together with other institutions and customs of the fatherland, the
+German _Turnen_.
+
+The Cincinnati _Turngemeinde_, the oldest German-American gymnastic
+society in this country, was organized November 21, 1848, at the
+temporary home and with the coöperation of Friedrich Hecker, now an
+exile, but the popular hero of a republican uprising in South Germany
+earlier in the same year. He had been one of the foremost leaders of the
+advanced revolutionary party. A week later another group of men, most of
+them turners before their migration and former followers of Hecker and
+Struve, met in Hoboken and organized the New York _Turngemeinde_. Other
+societies followed in rapid succession, so that within three years there
+were 25 or more in existence, with an aggregate membership of nearly
+2000. These were scattered all the way from _New England_ (Boston), _New
+York_ (New York, Brooklyn, Poughkeepsie, Utica, and Rochester), _New
+Jersey_ (Newark), _Pennsylvania_ (Philadelphia, Reading, Pittsburgh, and
+Allegheny), and _Maryland_ (Baltimore), to _Ohio_ (Cincinnati, Columbus,
+and Cleveland), _Kentucky_ (Louisville), _Indiana_ (Indianapolis),
+_Illinois_ (Peoria), and _Missouri_ (St. Louis) in the west, and as
+far as New Orleans in the southwest. Four societies, in New York,
+Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Cincinnati, contained about half of the
+total membership.
+
+The first steps looking toward union through the formation of a national
+_Turnerbund_ were taken in New York as early as July of 1850, and at
+Philadelphia on the 5th of the following October delegates from Boston,
+New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, and Baltimore effected a provisional
+organization, under the name of the “United _Turnvereine_ of North
+America.” The next August (1851) the Philadelphia _Turngemeinde_ invited
+all the societies in the country to join in a general _Turnfest_ (the
+first) in that city on September 29 and 30. Between six and seven
+hundred turners responded, and at a second convention held on October 1
+and 2 delegates from nine societies completed the details of permanent
+organization. The name was now changed to the “_Socialistic Turnerbund_.”
+New York was made the headquarters of the Executive Committee (_Vorort_),
+the members of which were to be chosen by the New York _Socialistischer
+Turnverein_. The first number of the monthly _Turnzeitung_, the official
+organ of the _Bund_, was issued November 15, 1851, and reported that 11
+societies, with 1072 members, had already joined.
+
+By October of 1853, when Philadelphia became the seat of the Executive
+Committee, the number of societies had increased to about 60, and 10
+others, recently organized, were expected to announce their accession
+shortly. Seven years later there were altogether above 150 societies,
+and the total membership had risen to between 9000 and 10,000. A list of
+all those in existence at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 reveals
+the following distribution: Massachusetts (4 societies), Connecticut
+(5), Rhode Island (1), New York (12), New Jersey (13), Pennsylvania (7),
+Delaware (1), Maryland (1), District of Columbia (2), Virginia (1),
+West Virginia (1), Ohio (11), Indiana (8), Michigan (3), Illinois (29),
+Wisconsin (13), Minnesota (7), Iowa (11), Missouri (6), Kansas (5),
+Kentucky (4), Tennessee (2), South Carolina (1), Alabama (2), Louisiana
+(2), Texas (1), and California (4)—a total of 157 societies in 27 states
+of the Union.
+
+These early societies, most of whose members had been profoundly
+stirred by the popular uprising in Germany, did not confine their
+activity to the practise of gymnastic exercises. On the other hand,
+leavened by men of education, character, and superior ability, they
+were centers of agitation for a great variety of reforms. American
+socialism, for example, found here its first home. The “Statutes”
+adopted by the Convention in Philadelphia October 5, 1850, announce
+that the organization aims to secure the most complete independence of
+the individual, along with his physical development, and declare the
+promotion of socialism and the efforts of the Social-democratic Party
+a matter of supreme importance. The _Turnerbund_ sought to assist each
+member to a clear understanding of proposed political, social, and
+religious reforms, to the end that in a spirit of radical progress he
+might lend them effective aid, either individually or through the agency
+of the _Bund_. The shadow of approaching Civil War helped to give to
+love of freedom immediate objects of thought and endeavor. The Buffalo
+Convention of 1855 (September 24-27) put itself on record as opposed
+to slavery, and especially to its extension into free territories; to
+the so-called American Party or Know-nothings, and to any other body
+of similar spirit; and to all temperance legislation, which was deemed
+undemocratic in principle and unjust and unpractical in operation.
+
+In view of this multiplicity of interests it is not strange that the
+history of physical training in the early societies was a checkered
+one. For a time the official _Turnzeitung_ contained excellent articles
+on gymnastics by Magnus Gross and Eduard Müller. The first Executive
+Committee of the _Turnerbund_ distributed drawings of pyramids, and
+employed Louis Winter, an expert turner from Leipzig, to visit the
+smaller societies as itinerant teacher and to assist them in fitting up
+outdoor gymnasia. Among the members of the larger societies were usually
+to be found men able to direct the exercises of adults and older boys.
+At the Cincinnati Convention of 1852 the Committee was asked to arrange
+for the preparation of a suitable manual of gymnastics. The task was
+committed to Eduard Müller (1803-1886), who completed it before the end
+of the year.[268] Müller was born in Mainz, and becoming acquainted with
+the Jahn _Turnen_ while a student of drawing and painting at the Munich
+Academy organized a _Turnverein_ in his native city, and later became
+its leader, city teacher of gymnastics, and editor and publisher of the
+_Mainzer Turnzeitung_ (p. 103). When the disturbances of 1848 drove him
+to America he continued his activity in the New York _Turnverein_, and
+until 1858 was teacher of gymnastics in its school. His manual of nearly
+350 pages was illustrated with numerous lithographed plates. It did not
+prove as satisfactory a guide as had been hoped, partly on account of the
+clumsy terminology adopted, and not half of the thousand copies printed
+were sold at the published price (seventy-five cents).
+
+A few years later a period of decline set in. Membership fell off, for
+the older turners began to discontinue their gymnastic practice and
+the young German-Americans, trained in this country, did not always
+sympathize with the ideals of their parents. _Turnen_ in Germany was
+suffering from the reactionary measures which followed the events
+of 1848-1849, so that good gymnasts were less numerous among recent
+immigrants, and this continued to be the case until the marked revival of
+interest in the sixties. The Executive Committee was absorbed in politics
+and aside from offering prizes to the victors in _Turnfest_ competitions
+did little or nothing to make physical training other than a subordinate
+phase of society life. The same retrogression was manifest in the pages
+of the _Turnzeitung_ and the proceedings of the national Conventions.
+Only the larger societies employed professional teachers of gymnastics,
+and nothing was done to recruit their ranks or to provide well trained
+assistants. An attempt was made to remedy the latter condition in 1858
+by establishing _Vorturner_ schools in various cities, but it met with
+slight success. By this time, as a result of dissensions, the _Bund_ was
+divided into two mutually suspicious and unfriendly groups of societies,
+an Eastern and a Western, each with its own Executive Committee. One
+noteworthy feature of the report of the Western Committee, presented at a
+Convention in Indianapolis (September 4-8, 1858), was the statement that
+fifteen gymnastic societies had been organized by native Americans (in
+Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Louisville, and New Orleans, for example) after
+the German model and were in flourishing condition, and that these had
+held their first _Turnfest_, with competition for prizes, in Oxford, Ohio
+(June 29, 1858. See p. 267).
+
+A list of national _Turnfeste_ held by the societies of the _Turnerbund_
+between 1851 and 1860 is added here, as a matter of record:
+
+     I. 1851, September 29 and 30     Philadelphia.
+    II. 1852, September 11-14         Baltimore (Eastern societies).
+   III. 1852, September 26-28         Cincinnati (Western societies).
+    IV. 1853, May 30 and 31           Louisville (Western societies).
+     V. 1853, September 3-7           New York (Eastern societies).
+    VI. 1854, September 2-7           Philadelphia.
+   VII. 1855, September 15-18         Cincinnati.
+  VIII. 1856, August 26-29            Pittsburgh.
+    IX. 1857, August 29-September 2   New York (Eastern societies).
+     X. 1857, August 29-September 2   Milwaukee (Western societies).
+    XI. 1858, August 30-September 2   Belleville, Illinois.
+   XII. 1859, August 20-23            Williamsburg, N. Y. (Eastern
+                                        societies).
+  XIII. 1859, August 27-30            Baltimore (Western societies).
+   XIV. 1860, June 30-July 5          St Louis.
+
+As early as 1851, at the Philadelphia Convention, the _Turnerbund_
+had announced itself in favor of the Free-soil party platform. The
+delegates to the Pittsburgh Convention in September of 1856 announced
+their adhesion to the platform of the new Republican party and to
+its candidates, Fremont and Dayton. In October of 1860 the Executive
+Committee, now located in Baltimore, sent out letters calling upon
+societies everywhere to support the Republican platform and vote for
+Lincoln in the coming election. This advice was generally followed, even
+in the slave states. The next spring, during the riot of April 19 and 20,
+a mob sacked the hall of the Baltimore society when their demand that the
+national flag floating above it be replaced by the state one was refused,
+and on the 22nd the office of the _Turnzeitung_ met a like fate. The
+editor and most of the members of the _Turnverein_ were forced to flee
+from the city. The _Turnerbund_ was therefore left without headquarters
+or official organ, and since no attempt at recovery could prove effective
+in the face of the approaching struggle, which engrossed all attention,
+each society was left to shift for itself throughout the years of Civil
+War as best it could.
+
+President Lincoln’s call for volunteers, issued just before these events
+in Baltimore, met with an immediate response among the German-Americans,
+whose actions at this time demonstrate beyond question the sincerity
+of their enthusiasm for freedom and human rights. Exact figures are
+not available, but it seems tolerably certain that out of the total
+membership of nine or ten thousand at the outbreak of the war between
+five and six thousand turners joined the Union army, and to this number
+should be added about two thousand more who had formerly belonged to
+societies and now fought side by side with their old comrades. In the
+St. Louis _Turnverein_ three full companies, well drilled and completely
+equipped, were ready to take the field at once. The Seventeenth Missouri
+Regiment was made up chiefly of members of societies in the Southwest
+and was therefore known as the Western _Turnregiment_. The Twentieth New
+York State Volunteer Regiment, twelve hundred strong, contained three
+companies of New York turners, two from Williamsburg, one from Newark,
+and others from societies along the Hudson and in the interior of the
+state, with some men from Boston and Philadelphia. More than half the
+membership of the Cincinnati _Turngemeinde_ enlisted at the first call,
+and these and other turners from neighboring cities composed a large
+part of the Ninth Ohio Volunteer Infantry. On the evening that the
+Philadelphia _Turngemeinde_ decided to raise a battalion of volunteers
+86 men out of a membership of about 260 signed their names to the roll,
+and within eight days four companies were formed. These were attached to
+the Twenty-ninth New York or Astor Regiment. The Chicago _Turngemeinde_
+met in extra session the day following Lincoln’s summons to hear the
+excuses of such members as were unable to enlist, and had a company of
+105 men ready to march by the night of April 17. A second company was
+organized immediately afterwards. Turners from the Milwaukee and other
+Wisconsin societies were incorporated in the Fifth Wisconsin Regiment as
+Company C, known as the “Turner Rifles.” Many societies were so reduced
+in numbers by enlistment that they found it necessary to disband, and
+effort was everywhere centered on the support of those who were hastening
+to the field, or had already gone. The roll of turner dead is a long and
+honorable one.
+
+During the years of the Civil War the _Turnerbund_ retained only a
+nominal existence. The old Executive Committee remained in office, but
+few societies kept up their connection with this central body and it
+received no financial support. Immigration from Germany, where _Turnen_
+was now making rapid strides forward, had given an impetus to gymnastics
+in the larger societies meanwhile, and _Turnvereine_ in and near New
+York City had effected a district organization, with monthly conventions
+and _Turnfeste_. At their suggestion the New York _Turnverein_ undertook
+to manage a general _Turnfest_, in which societies all over the country
+were invited to share, and after which the matter of reorganizing the
+_Bund_ was to be discussed. On September 14, 1864, accordingly, delegates
+from twenty-two societies outside the New York district met with their
+hosts in a sort of improvised national convention, which reaffirmed the
+former platform and appointed a provisional central committee. In less
+than five months six other district organizations, after the New York
+plan, had reported their existence. The next spring at Washington (1865,
+April 3-5) fifty-eight societies were represented by delegates in regular
+convention, and on the first day the details of reorganization were
+completed under the name _Nordamerikanischer Turnerbund_ (North American
+Gymnastic Union).[269] The headquarters of the Executive Committee were
+established in New York, and its members were to be chosen by the New
+York district (_Turnbezirk_). Physical training was declared to be the
+first object of the societies. All active members were to take part in
+the gymnastic exercises up to their thirtieth year, after a uniform
+system based on the Jahn-Eiselen model and the “free exercises” of
+Spiess, and suitable classes for boys and girls were also to be provided.
+
+The following table reveals the progress made in the next two decades:
+
+  ------+----------+------------+---------+----------------+----------
+  Year. |Societies.| Membership.|  Active | In classes for | Teachers
+        |          |            | members.+--------+-------+ employed.
+        |          |            |         |  Boys. | Girls.|
+  ------+----------+------------+---------+--------+-------+----------
+  1866  |     96   |     6,320  |   3,240 |  3,317 |   120 |
+  1868  |    148   |    10,200  |         |        |       |
+  1872  |    187   |     9,920  |   4,500 |  4,770 |   394 |
+  1877  |    167   |    11,653  |   3,906 |  6,318 | 1,069 |
+  1878  |    162   |    11,313  |   3,799 |  7,307 | 1,795 |
+  1879  |    178   |    12,376  |   3,044 |  6,972 | 2,083 |
+  1880  |    186   |    13,387  |   4,199 |  8,337 | 2,388 |
+  1881  |    188   |    14,885  |   5,586 |  9,286 | 2,701 |
+  1882  |    183   |    16,349  |   7,357 | 10,141 | 3,040 |   97
+  1883  |    187   |    17,537  |   7,372 | 10,312 | 3,186 |  111
+  1884  |    199   |    19,713  |   8,439 | 11,392 | 3,572 |  106
+  1885  |    213   |    21,809  |   5,117 | 12,228 | 4,005 |   98
+  1886  |    231   |    23,823  |   5,562 | 13,161 | 3,888 |   95
+  ------+----------+------------+---------+--------+-------+----------
+
+During the same period national _Turnfeste_ were held as follows:
+
+     XV. 1865, September 2-6    Cincinnati.
+    XVI. 1867, June 10-13       Baltimore.
+   XVII. 1869, August 7-11      Chicago.
+  XVIII. 1871, August 5-10      Williamsburg (now Brooklyn, E. D.).
+    XIX. 1873, June 26-29       Cincinnati.
+     XX. 1875,                  New York.
+    XXI. 1877, July 18-23       Milwaukee.
+   XXII. 1879, August 2-6       Philadelphia.
+  XXIII. 1881, June 4-7         St. Louis.
+   XXIV. 1885, June 20-24       Newark, N. J.
+
+A paragraph added to the by-laws of the _Turnerbund_ at the Convention
+held in Pittsburgh September 1-5, 1856, provided that a school for the
+complete preparation of teachers in the theory and practice of physical
+training should be established in the city where the Executive Committee
+was located. This was almost five years before Dio Lewis opened his
+Normal Institute for Physical Education in Boston. The next September the
+Executive Committee, whose headquarters at that time were in Cincinnati,
+reported to the Detroit Convention that lack of means had prevented the
+carrying out of the provision. At the Rochester Convention in 1860 (July
+30 to August 2) the Committee reaffirmed the necessity of establishing
+a central normal school, at the same time that it acknowledged the want
+of success which had hitherto attended its efforts. Soon after the
+reorganization of the _Turnerbund_ in 1865 the new Executive Committee,
+in New York City, took up the matter again, and worked out a plan to
+be laid before the next national convention. Resolutions adopted by a
+conference of teachers of gymnastics which followed the Cincinnati
+_Turnfest_ of 1865 also recommended that the step be taken. Both actions
+were reported to the St. Louis Convention of 1866 (April 1-4), and
+it was decided to open such an institution at once, with a one-year
+course which should include lectures on the history and aims of German
+_Turnen_, anatomy and aesthetics in their relation to gymnastics, and
+first aid, together with gymnastic nomenclature, the theory of the
+different systems, and practical instruction with special regard to
+the training of boys and girls. Only persons whose qualifications as
+teachers were attested by some _Turnverein_ were to be admitted, and
+certificates of attendance and proficiency were to be awarded to pupils
+who were successful in examinations given at the close of the course. The
+direction of instruction was entrusted to three persons to be appointed
+by the Executive Committee.
+
+In accordance with this decision the normal school was opened in _New
+York City_, November 22, 1866, ten years after the original proposal,
+with an attendance of nineteen men from different parts of the country.
+The practical instruction was given by Wilhelm Heeseler, formerly a pupil
+at Hermann Otto Kluge’s gymnasium in Berlin, and the lecturers were Dr.
+H. Balser, Dr. Julius Hofmann, Eduard Müller, and Heinrich Metzner. Nine
+men remained for the final examinations, on February 13, 1867, and five
+of these received diplomas. The second course was opened in New York
+January 3, 1869, and at its close on July 2 of the same year diplomas
+of the first grade were granted to five pupils and those of the second
+grade to three. At the Pittsburgh Convention of 1870 (May 29 to June 1)
+it was voted to move the normal school from New York to _Chicago_. The
+third course (six months, beginning in January, 1871), conducted in that
+city under the direction of August Lang, John Gloy, and George Brosius,
+fell short of expectations, although there were ten participants, of whom
+four obtained diplomas as teachers and two as _Vorturner_. The great fire
+of October 8-10, 1871, made another change necessary, and the fourth
+course was therefore held in _New York City_ again, from October 27,
+1872, to the end of May, 1873. Seven diplomas of the first grade and four
+of the second were granted, and three pupils received certificates as
+_Vorturner_. The Rochester Convention of 1874 (May 24-27) transferred the
+school to _Milwaukee_, and there in the years 1875-1888 ten courses were
+completed.
+
+The technical director of the Normal School during all these years in
+Milwaukee was George Brosius, who becomes therefore the most important
+single figure in the earlier history of _Turnvereine_ of the German type
+in America. His father was born in Hesse-Darmstadt in 1815 and his mother
+near Leipsic in 1818, but both came to this country with their parents in
+the early thirties, and settled in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Here they met
+and married, and here the boy was born, September 9, 1839. In 1842 the
+family moved to Milwaukee, which was thenceforward to be his home except
+for a few brief intervals. He was educated first in the public schools
+and afterwards in the Engelmann School, now known as the German-English
+Academy. Eduard Schulz, a political fugitive from Berlin, was conducting
+a private gymnasium in the city, and this the boy attended. When the
+_Turnverein_ “Milwaukee” opened its classes for children in 1854 he
+joined one of them, becoming a junior member (_Zögling_) of the society
+soon after and entering into full membership in 1858. Already he had
+developed such great ability as a gymnast that he was able to win the
+first prize for juniors at the _Turnfest_ of the Western societies held
+in Milwaukee in 1857. In that year he was also admitted to the militia
+company commanded by his father. After the latter’s death (1859) he moved
+to St. Louis, and was following there the trade of painter and decorator
+at the outbreak of the Civil War. Although married only a few months
+before, he immediately returned to Milwaukee, enlisted as a volunteer
+for the three-year term, and was made sergeant in Company E of the Ninth
+Wisconsin Regiment, later receiving a commission as second lieutenant in
+the Thirty-fifth Regiment of Wisconsin Volunteers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.—George Brosius (1839-1920).]
+
+The career of Brosius as a teacher of gymnastics, which was to continue
+without interruption for fifty fruitful years, began in the autumn
+of 1864, when he undertook the direction of the various classes of
+_Turnverein_ “Milwaukee.” The regular exercise soon restored his
+former degree of strength and skill, and a long list of successful
+appearances in local, district, and national _Turnfeste_ gave evidence
+of his own merit as a practical gymnast and of his gift for developing a
+corresponding proficiency in his pupils. In 1866 the Engelmann School,
+one of the first to introduce physical training into its curriculum,
+secured a part of his time as teacher, and during the same period he was
+also conducting the exercises at the Milwaukee Gymnasium, frequented
+chiefly by native Americans. Then followed a year in Chicago (1870-1871),
+in the service of the “Aurora” and Scandinavian societies. When the third
+course of the _Turnerbund’s_ Normal School was opened there, in January
+of 1871, he became one of the three teachers who directed it. But the
+great fire of October sent him back to Milwaukee, to open a private
+gymnasium and take up again his work at the Engelmann School, and in 1873
+to resume his former position at _Turnverein_ “Milwaukee.”
+
+The next period of his life, and the most fruitful one, opens in
+1875, with the transfer of the Normal School of the _Turnerbund_ to
+_Turnverein_ “Milwaukee.” Brosius became its technical director, as we
+have seen, and in the ten courses held between 1875 and 1888 more than
+a hundred teachers of gymnastics were graduated from the institution,
+to become leaders in _Turnvereine_ all over the country, and many of
+them to undertake the direction of physical training in important city
+school systems or in other positions of large influence. From 1875 to
+1883 Brosius himself served as superintendent of physical training in
+the public schools of Milwaukee, and after 1878 as instructor in the
+National German-American Teachers College (_Lehrerseminar_), which had
+been established there.[270] The rules in force at the time the ninth
+course was given in Milwaukee (1885-1886) required that it should last
+not less than ten months, and should include systematic instruction in
+the following subjects: Practical gymnastics, gymnastic nomenclature,
+the value and uses of the different pieces of apparatus, the preparation
+of series of graded lessons in gymnastics; the history and literature of
+physical training, including systems and methods, with special attention
+to modern times; the history of civilization, in connection with the
+preceding course; the essentials of anatomy and physiology; hygiene,
+medical gymnastics, and first aid; the principles of education, and
+practical hints derived from them; the German and English languages and
+literature; simple popular and _Turner_ songs; foil, sabre, and bayonet
+fencing; swimming. There was also to be frequent observation of classes
+in gymnastics, for adults and for school children, and practice in
+conducting them. It was deemed desirable that every graduate should be
+able to use the English language in his teaching.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.—Gymnasium of the Milwaukee _Bundesturnhalle_.]
+
+Some idea of the organization and activities of the _Turnerbund_ as
+it was in January of 1886 may be gathered from the annual statistical
+summary published by the Executive Committee in that year. This shows 231
+societies, grouped in 30 districts (_Turnbezirke_). The total membership
+reported was 23,823, of which number 18,164 were citizens of the United
+States, 5562 were on the list of active turners, and 3201 actually took
+part in the gymnastic exercises. Ninety-five professional teachers of
+gymnastics were employed. There were 1028 members in the junior societies
+(_Zöglingsvereine_), and 587 had passed from these into the regular
+_Turnvereine_ during the preceding year; 13,161 boys and 3888 girls were
+enrolled in the classes for children; 436 members took part in fencing,
+and 399 in rifle-shooting; 1722 belonged to singing sections. The society
+libraries contained 44,139 volumes; 224 lectures had been delivered
+and 283 debates conducted, and during a single month 109 meetings for
+intellectual improvement were held. The attendance at day schools
+supported by the societies was 1921, at night schools 428, and at Sunday
+schools 1482. One hundred and forty-four societies occupied buildings of
+their own, and the total value of society property was $2,556,018, of
+which amount $1,662,583 was free from debt.
+
+The year 1886 may be regarded as a turning point in the history of the
+German-American gymnastic societies, and there is some reason for calling
+the period which precedes this date the German one, and that which
+follows the American. The immigrants not unnaturally gravitated toward
+cities or sections where communities of fellow-countrymen were already
+established. They continued to use the mother-tongue among themselves,
+and the consequent imperfect command of English, together with certain
+continental customs which they retained, serve to explain the fact
+that few Americans outside of their own ranks appreciated the aims of
+the _Turnvereine_ or knew how much they were doing to provide physical
+training for children and adults. For example, Dr. E. M. Hartwell, for
+two years a resident of Cincinnati, and director of the gymnasium at
+Johns Hopkins University at the time he was asked to prepare for the
+Bureau of Education a report on physical training in American colleges
+and universities, had travelled widely in states east of the Mississippi
+before completing his manuscript in the spring of 1885, and yet did not
+learn of the existence of _Turnvereine_ in the United States until his
+visit to Germany that summer. Two pages of the appendix to the report,
+added after his return, are devoted to the North American _Turnerbund_.
+
+At its national convention in Boston in the summer of 1886 the
+_Turnerbund_ authorized its executive committee to appoint delegates to
+the second annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Physical Education, and before this body, in Brooklyn on the 26th of
+November following, three papers were accordingly read by representatives
+thus named, and an exhibition of German gymnastics was given by classes
+from New York and Brooklyn societies. This was the beginning of a
+systematic campaign undertaken to acquaint American educators and the
+public in general with the claims and merits of the German system.
+Representation by delegates at the annual meetings of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education was continued, and
+at Philadelphia in 1892 a paper by William A. Stecher made an especially
+favorable impression; a special committee of well-known men (Doctors
+Hitchcock, Sargent, and Hartwell) was invited to attend the national
+_Turnfest_ in Milwaukee in 1893 as guests of the _Turnerbund_, and other
+similar committees were appointed at several succeeding _Turnfeste_;
+there were demonstrations and exhibits at the World’s Fair in Chicago
+(1893), together with the distribution of great quantities of printed
+matter; a monthly periodical, _Mind and Body_, started in March, 1894,
+has been issued regularly ever since;[271] a summer school was held at
+Milwaukee under the auspices of the _Turnerbund_ in 1895 and the three
+years following; and a “Text-book of German-American Gymnastics” was
+published in 1896.[272]
+
+For years the _Turnvereine_ had provided classes for children of school
+age, directed by their own teachers of gymnastics and held in their own
+gymnasia. These enrolled 13,161 boys and 3888 girls in January of 1886,
+and ten years later the numbers had risen to 18,582 boys and 10,274
+girls. But within the same decade of expansion (1886-1896) falls the
+introduction of physical training into the public school systems of many
+cities under the supervision of graduates from the Normal School of the
+_Turnerbund_. Among the very first to take such a step was Kansas City,
+Missouri, in 1885, and the career of Carl Betz, the man who proposed the
+action and himself directed the work during the next thirteen years, may
+be taken as typical of this phase of the second period in the history of
+German-American gymnastics.
+
+His father and mother, both natives of Bavaria, came to America in 1843
+and 1844, and were married at Baltimore in the latter year. Their second
+home was Belleville, Illinois, where the boy was born June 1, 1854.
+Two years afterwards they moved again, to St. Paul, and in this young
+capital the father’s social and political activity made him member of
+the common council and of the school-board, United States assessor,
+one of Minnesota’s Presidential electors, and a speaker (in German) in
+the Greeley campaign of 1872. Carl was educated in the public schools,
+and took one year of the high school course, but then discontinued
+his studies to enter a bank as office boy. Four years later he had
+advanced to the position of general bookkeeper and assistant teller.
+In April of 1875 he was employed as teacher of gymnastics by the St.
+Paul _Turnverein_, and the next autumn decided to fit himself further
+for the work by attending the Normal School of the _Turnerbund_, which
+had just been transferred to Milwaukee. The four-months’ course there
+was completed early in 1876, and for most of the decade following he
+was actively engaged in the practice of his new profession in various
+western societies—at South Bend, Indiana (1876-1877), Louisville,
+Kentucky (1877-1882), Terre Haute, Indiana (1882-1883), St. Paul again
+(1883-1884), and finally in the _Socialer Turnverein_ of Kansas City,
+Missouri, beginning in January of 1885.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.—Carl Betz (1854-1898).]
+
+At a meeting of the Kansas City Teachers’ Institute on May 2, 1885, Mr.
+Betz was present with a class of a dozen girls and led them in a series
+of exercises with wands and Indian clubs which excited much interest. In
+the discussion that followed, the need of some sort of physical education
+in the schools was generally recognized. He assured the teachers that
+he could work out a plan which might be successfully introduced, and
+a motion was carried requesting him to do so. The result was a little
+pamphlet of eighteen pages, published by the _Socialer Turnverein_. The
+next October the School Board accepted his proposal to conduct gymnastic
+exercises in the public schools for three months without pay. Before the
+end of that period, however, on December 5, 1885, they appointed him
+director of physical training, and thus he was launched upon the career
+which ended only with his death, on April 28, 1898. During the last two
+years of his life he was also supervisor of music in the city schools.
+The executive committee of the _Turnerbund_ made him a member of the
+committee which represented the German-American gymnastic societies at
+the second meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Physical Education (November 26, 1886, in Brooklyn), but the paper which
+he presented there, on the introduction of gymnastics into the public
+schools, does not appear in the published _Proceedings_ of that year.
+Another, read at the sixth annual meeting (April 4, 1891, in Boston)
+describes the system and methods employed in Kansas City, and will be
+found, much abridged, in the corresponding volume of _Proceedings_. Mr.
+Betz was also director of the first summer school conducted under the
+auspices of the national _Turnerbund_, at its Normal School in Milwaukee
+(July 1 to August 10, 1895).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.—Gymnasium of the Washburn School, Cincinnati.
+(From a photograph loaned by Dr. Robert Nohr).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.—Gymnasium of the Westwood School, Cincinnati.
+(From a photograph loaned by Dr. Robert Nohr).]
+
+A letter written in 1887 explains his plan of instruction as follows: “On
+every Saturday the director of physical training drills the principals
+of the different ward schools. These in turn drill their assistants, the
+regular teachers, on every Monday. The assistants take up the new drill
+for the week on every Tuesday. The drill is obligatory, and is taken as
+any of the other studies. At ten o’clock all principals strike a gong,
+and at this signal all teachers take up the drill at once (daily). Thus
+at the same time all school children throughout the city have the same
+exercise. Each teacher is furnished with a manual of instruction, which
+clearly marks the work to be accomplished. The scholars, of course, do
+not leave the schoolroom.... As yet we have only free gymnastics, but
+as soon as possible dumb-bells, wands, poles, rings, and clubs will
+follow. Then gymnastic games and popular gymnastics will be taken up, and
+lastly heavy gymnastics on apparatus.” The little manual of instruction
+to which he refers was afterwards expanded into a _System of Physical
+Culture in a Series of Four Books, i.e., Free Gymnastics_ (Kansas City,
+1887), _Gymnastic Tactics_ (1887), _Light Gymnastics_ (1887), and
+_Popular Gymnastics: Athletics and Sports of the Playground_ (1893).
+Later editions of these books, all more or less revised, were published
+in Chicago (A. Flanagan Co.). Additional volumes were planned, and even
+announced as “in preparation,” but never completed. The ones named were
+adopted as guides in the schools of numerous other cities, and also
+served as models for similar works prepared by fellow-graduates of the
+Normal School who occupied corresponding positions elsewhere.
+
+Among the considerable number of cities which soon followed the example
+of Kansas City in introducing systematic instruction in gymnastics into
+the public schools under the direction of graduates from the Normal
+School of the _Turnerbund_ were Chicago, in 1886, under Henry Suder
+(class of ’75); Davenport, Iowa, 1887, under William Reuter (’78);
+Cleveland, Ohio, 1887, under Karl Zapp (’75); St. Louis, 1890, under
+George Wittich (’82); Sandusky, Ohio, 1890, under Hans Ballin (’90);
+Columbus, Ohio, 1892, under Anton Leibold (’77); Cincinnati, Ohio, 1892,
+under Carl Ziegler (’86); Milwaukee, 1892, under Hans Rasmussen (’88);
+and Dayton, Ohio, 1892, under Robert Nohr (’90). Schoolroom manuals like
+those of Betz were published by Ballin, Leibold, and Rasmussen.[273]
+Karl Kroh (’79) was head of the department of physical training in the
+Cook County, Illinois, Normal School 1891-1899, and in the University of
+Chicago School of Education 1901-1907. William A. Stecher (’81), after
+three years as supervisor of physical training in the public schools of
+Indianapolis (1904-1906), was appointed director of physical education in
+the Philadelphia schools in January of 1907; and in the same year George
+Wittich (’82), who had been successor to Brosius at the Normal School of
+the _Turnerbund_, became supervisor of physical training in the Milwaukee
+schools. Reports from societies to the National Executive Committee under
+date of January 1, 1920, show that in 51 cities 171 men and 91 women
+graduated from the Normal School of the _Turnerbund_ (now known as the
+Normal College of the American Gymnastic Union) were employed as teachers
+in the public schools.
+
+The varying fortunes of the _Turnerbund_ since 1886 are suggested by
+the following table, compiled from statistical reports which reveal
+conditions in the constituent societies on January 1 of the year
+mentioned.
+
+  -----+----------+-----------+--------+----------------+---------
+  Year.|Societies.|Membership.| Active | In classes for |Teachers
+       |          |           |members.+-------+--------+employed.
+       |          |           |        | Boys. | Girls. |
+  -----+----------+-----------+--------+-------+--------+---------
+  1887 |   237    |  26,722   |  5704  |14,123 | 4,765  |  104
+  1890 |   277    |  35,912   |  7337  |17,145 | 7,735  |  148
+  1893 |   316    |  41,877   |  7604  |17,389 | 8,702  |  172
+  1895 |   314    |  39,870   |  7647  |18,879 | 9,992  |  180
+  1900 |   258    |  33,964   |  5675  |17,252 | 9,756  |  166
+  1905 |   244    |  37,090   |  5843  |18,033 |10,823  |  167
+  1910 |   234    |  39,207   |  5134  |12,870 | 7,897  |  146
+  1915 |   218    |  37,941   |  4989  | 9,264 | 7,958  |  165
+  1920 |   186    |  33,853   |  4135  | 6,782 | 6,958  |  125
+  -----+----------+-----------+--------+-------+--------+---------
+
+On January 1, 1920, there were also 2760 juniors (boys fourteen to
+eighteen years of age), 1904 older men, and 6565 women enrolled
+in classes; 123 in fencing, 971 in singing, and 283 in dramatic
+sections; and 6404 in the Women’s Auxiliary, organized at the time of
+the Twenty-seventh National Convention of the _Turnerbund_, held in
+Louisville, Kentucky, June 22-24, 1919, and intended to “unify as much
+as possible the efforts of the women’s societies connected with the
+gymnastic societies, and to increase their efficiency.” One hundred and
+forty-two societies owned their gymnasia, and the total value of the
+property of all societies was $6,842,224, of which amount $4,995,718 was
+free from debt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.—Kansas City Turners at the Thirty-first
+_Bundesturnfest_, Denver, 1913 (From a photograph loaned by Dr. Robert
+Nohr).]
+
+To the list of national _Turnfeste_ given on p. 296 the following have
+been added:
+
+     XXV. 1889,  June 22-25       Cincinnati.
+    XXVI. 1893,  July 21-25       Milwaukee.
+   XXVII. 1897,  May  6-10        St. Louis.
+  XXVIII. 1900,  June 18-23       Philadelphia.
+    XXIX. 1905,  June 21-25       Indianapolis.
+     XXX. 1909,  June 23-27       Cincinnati.
+    XXXI. 1913,  June 25-29       Denver.
+   XXXII. 1921,  June 29-July 3   Chicago.
+
+We have seen (p. 299) that in the years 1889-1891, while Brosius was
+in New York City and the new gymnasium of the _Turnerbund_ was being
+built in Milwaukee, its Normal School occupied temporary quarters in
+Indianapolis, with the _Socialer Turnverein_ and under the direction
+of William Fleck (class of ’81). Two courses were given here, and 32
+men and 1 woman were graduated. The last three courses under Brosius
+(1895-1899) covered two years each. Upon his retirement George Wittich
+(class of ’82) was called from St. Louis to serve as technical director,
+the scope of the school was broadened, and in the years 1902-1907 five
+more courses, each of one year’s duration, were held in the Milwaukee
+_Bundesturnhalle_, graduating a total of 36 men and 23 women. At the
+close of that period the building was sold, and on September 23, 1907,
+the newly christened “Normal College of the North American Gymnastic
+Union,” incorporated under the laws of Indiana and authorized to confer
+academic titles and degrees, was opened in the German House of the
+Indianapolis _Socialer Turnverein_. The name was changed to “Normal
+College of the American Gymnastic Union” in June of 1919. Karl Kroh
+(class of ’79) was the technical head for two years (1907-1909), and
+since that time the position has been held by Emil Rath (’98).
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Jahrbücher der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Turnerei. Dem gesammten Turnwesen
+mit besonderer Berüchsichtigung der Geschichte des Nordamerikanischen
+Turnerbundes gewidmet. Herausgegeben und redigirt von Heinrich Metzner.
+Three volumes of six numbers each, published in New York from November,
+1890, through October, 1894.
+
+Jahresberichte des Vororts des Nordamerikanischen Turnerbundes. In 1920
+the English language was substituted for the German in these and the
+title now reads “Annual Report of the National Executive Committee,
+American Gymnastic Union.” Each report covers a period extending from
+April 1 to April 1.
+
+The _Amerikanische Turnzeitung_ (weekly), the official organ of the
+_Turnerbund_ since January 1, 1885.
+
+Proceedings of national conventions, reports of national _Turnfeste_,
+catalogues of the Normal College, and numerous other occasional
+publications issued by the National Executive Committee.
+
+The “Brosius 1864-1914” illustrated souvenir.
+
+I am indebted to Mrs. Carl Betz for material relating to her husband’s
+life and work. Most of what is said of Brosius and Betz has already
+appeared in print, as Chapters XV and XVI in the author’s “Pioneers of
+Modern Physical Training” (New York, 1915).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[268] “_Das Turnen. Ein Leitfaden für die Mitglieder des Sozialistischen
+Turnerbundes und alle Freunde der Leibesübung. Im Auftrage des
+Vororts dargestellt von Eduard Müller, Turnlehrer. Mit erläuternden
+Zeichnungen._” New York, Buchdruckerei von John Weber, 58 Chatham St.,
+1853.
+
+[269] The name was changed to _American Gymnastic Union_ June 24, 1919.
+
+[270] The “Central _Turnverein_” of New York City drew him away for two
+years (1889-1891) with its $800,000 building and its membership of 3000,
+to take charge of classes which soon enrolled 160 actives, 100 older men,
+150 women, and from 1400 to 1500 children. Meanwhile the Normal School
+of the _Turnerbund_ had been moved to Indianapolis, but a building of
+its own was now ready in Milwaukee, connected with the new home of the
+Teachers College and the German-American Academy (the model school of
+the College), and in these commodious quarters Brosius took up again the
+task of training teachers. Seven courses were held and 59 more men were
+graduated under him between 1891 and 1899. In the latter year he retired
+permanently from the Normal School, but took up his earlier position in
+_Turnverein_ “Milwaukee,” to continue there his active teaching until
+in June of 1914 he had rounded out a full half-century of professional
+achievement. He died in Milwaukee March 17, 1920.
+
+No account of his career would be complete without mention of the
+famous “Frankfort Squad” of 1880. The fifth general German _Turnfest_
+was to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Main on July 25-28 of that year, and
+_Turnverein_ “Milwaukee” decided to send a team of seven members, under
+their teacher Brosius, to take part in the exercises and compete for
+prizes. To the amazement of everyone, at home and abroad, they succeeded
+in winning second, third, fifth, sixth, thirteenth and twenty-first place
+in the competitions. Herman Koehler, whose mother was the oldest sister
+of Brosius, carried off the second prize. He afterwards completed the
+course at the Normal School (1882) under his uncle, and since 1885 has
+been Master of the Sword and director of physical training at the West
+Point Military Academy, with the present rank of Colonel.
+
+[271] The editors have been Hans Ballin (March, 1894—June, 1896), Franz
+Pfister (August, 1896—December, 1906), and William A. Stecher (since
+January, 1907).
+
+[272] A Text-book of the German-American System of Gymnastics, Specially
+Adapted to the Use of Teachers and Pupils in Public and Private Schools
+and Gymnasiums. Edited by W. A. Stecher, Secretary of the Committee on
+Physical Training of the North American Gymnastic Union. Boston, Lee and
+Shepard.
+
+[273] Gymnastics in the School Room: A Manual for the Use of Teachers. By
+Hans Ballin. Erie, Pa., Herald Printing and Publishing Co., 1891.
+
+Manual of Physical Culture for Public Schools, by Anton Leibold.
+Columbus, Ohio, Journal-Gazette Press, 1892.
+
+Physical Culture for Public Schools: A Manual for the Use of Teachers. By
+Hans Rasmussen. Chicago, Geo. Sherwood & Co., 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.
+
+
+In 1869, eighteen years after the introduction of the Young Men’s
+Christian Association into America, the first Association buildings to
+contain gymnasia were dedicated, in San Francisco and New York, and in
+the latter city William Wood took up his duties as the first director
+of an Association gymnasium. By the close of another eighteen years,
+when the number of gymnasia reported had increased to 168, and the paid
+directors to 50, it had become apparent that steps must be taken to
+provide adequately trained leaders for this phase of work in individual
+Associations and some sort of general oversight for the whole country.
+Accordingly in 1887 a department of physical training was added to
+the Young Men’s Christian Association Training School in Springfield,
+Massachusetts, a summer school for gymnasium directors was opened at that
+institution, and the International Committee established a department for
+supervision of the physical work with a special secretary at its head.
+Luther H. Gulick, a young student who had just finished his first year
+in the medical department of New York University, was chosen to fill the
+office thus created, and was also made one of two instructors in the
+new department at the Springfield Training School. The other, Robert
+Jeffries Roberts, was a veteran of twelve years’ experience as director
+of the gymnasium at the Boston Young Men’s Christian Association, and at
+that period the most influential and widely known teacher of gymnastics
+engaged in Association work.
+
+His colleagues in the earlier days had been drawn in many cases from the
+ranks of professional gymnasts, trained in difficult and showy feats
+of strength and skill. William Wood, an Englishman born in December,
+1819, had conducted a private gymnasium in New York for thirty years
+before he was called upon to superintend the equipment and exercises
+in the new Twenty-third Street building (1869-1889).[274] At the
+Brooklyn Association in the eighties was James Douglas Andrews, born in
+Kilmarnock, Scotland, July 25, 1839, who became proficient in gymnastics
+and athletics under the tuition of the Huguenins in London, and for
+nearly a score of years had been in charge of private and other gymnasia
+in Glasgow, Belfast, Ottawa, Toronto, and at various points on the
+Pacific coast. John C. Doldt, of the Providence Association, was the
+first manager and instructor at the Tremont Gymnasium, on the corner of
+Eliot and Tremont Streets in Boston (opened in 1859), and afterwards
+travelled about the country as a professional athlete. Roberts himself
+had come under the influence of Doldt and of Dr. George Barker Winship,
+a graduate of Harvard College and Medical School, who went about
+lecturing on physical culture and giving exhibitions of heavy lifting
+in the sixties, and whose interesting “Autobiographical Sketches of a
+Strength-Seeker,” published in the _Atlantic Monthly_ in 1862, have
+already been mentioned (p. 258).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.—Robert Jeffries Roberts (1849-1920).]
+
+It was such models as these that Roberts sought to copy during his own
+years of apprenticeship. Born in England June 29, 1849, he was brought
+to America in early infancy, and thereafter resided in Boston with the
+exception of three years in Springfield and Utica (1887-1890). He nearly
+completed the course of study at the Phillips Street Grammar School,
+at fifteen entered the service of the Western Union Telegraph Company,
+first as messenger boy and afterwards as delivery clerk, and finally
+gave up this position to earn his living by the wood-turner’s trade.
+Primarily to escape from the evil influences of the streets, he joined
+the Tremont Gymnasium in 1864, and a few years later was both exercising
+and giving instruction at the Union Gymnasium, 300 Washington Street,
+and also visiting Dr. Winship’s gymnasium across the way, next door to
+the Boston Theater. When the Young Men’s Christian Association bought
+out the Tremont Gymnasium, in 1872, he continued his membership there,
+and now made it his practice to go two nights a week each, in regular
+rotation, to the Union, Association, and Winship gymnasia. In 1875,
+having determined to devote himself to the new calling, he asked to be
+made superintendent of the Association gymnasium, and on the first of
+July began to discharge the duties of that position.
+
+A list of his best performances at about this time will serve to show
+the aims and results of the strenuous course of discipline to which
+Roberts had subjected himself hitherto. Although only five feet five
+inches high, he weighed 145 pounds and had a 43-inch chest, 32-inch
+waist, 23-inch thigh, 14½-inch calf, and 15-inch upper arm. With a
+yoke on his shoulders he lifted 2200 pounds, could rise from a lying to a
+sitting posture while holding a 100-pound weight back of his neck, push
+up a 120-pound dumb-bell with each hand, pull himself up to the chin 3
+times with either hand and 35 times with both, had covered more than 12
+feet in one broad jump and 35 feet in three, cleared 4 feet 6 inches in
+a standing high jump from either side, 5 feet 4 inches in a leap with
+running start, and 9 feet with the pole, put the 16-pound shot 35 feet
+right and left, threw the 16-pound hammer 70 feet, walked a mile in less
+than eight minutes and 6 miles an hour, ran 100 yards in eleven seconds
+and 5 miles in thirty minutes, had learned to box and wrestle, and was a
+good swimmer and oarsman.
+
+But this is not the type of work which Roberts advocated in 1887, when
+he was called from Boston to Springfield, or for which he is remembered
+in Association circles today. After a few years of experience, he says,
+it began to dawn upon him that health did not necessarily improve as
+strength increased, and that the Winship plan of heavy lifting was not
+calculated to yield “the greatest good to the greatest number, physically
+speaking,” any more than the Dio Lewis exercises, which he considered
+too light and easy. “I noticed when I taught slow, heavy, fancy, and
+more advanced work in acrobatics, gymnastics, athletics, etc.,” he
+writes,[275] “that I would have a very large membership at the first of
+the year, but that they would soon drop out because they could not do
+the work, and ... the weak members would not renew the next season.... I
+give most of my attention to those who need it most, the beginners and
+those who cannot for various reasons do the more advanced work. By ...
+pushing simple work I can get more men to go into it, and find it easier
+to find leaders to teach it, and also can run more classes in a day....
+In competitive work and the harder kind of safe exercises ... the men
+leave the classes and become spectators, but when I teach easier work
+the crowd do the work and the few look on.” He was also led to emphasize
+trunk exercises rather than those of the legs and arms, in order to
+influence respiration and circulation favorably and keep the abdominal
+organs in a condition of healthy activity; and special attention was
+given to those muscles which expand the chest, draw back the head and
+shoulders, and hold the body erect.
+
+According to the Roberts “platform,” as it came to be known, all
+exercises should be “safe, short, easy, beneficial, and pleasing.” They
+must be safe for the man who does them, _i.e._, well within the limits
+of his capacity at the time. When apparatus is employed such work must
+be selected that the members of the squad or class follow each other
+rapidly, without tedious waits. No exercise must represent more than
+a slight advance over others which have preceded it. Each “must serve
+some definite and useful end,” instead of being chosen at random and
+with nothing in mind beyond the mere desire to keep the class busy. It
+must give pleasure if it is to exert its full effect and not degenerate
+into a sort of monotonous and mechanical “grind.” These principles found
+illustration in the _Roberts Dumb-bell Drill_, the _Home Dumb-bell
+Drill_, and the little volume of _Classified Gymnasium Exercises, with
+Notes_,[276] which were very generally used in Association gymnasia
+thirty years ago.
+
+While he was still in Boston Roberts had been conducting a sort of
+training school, and during the years 1885-1887 25 or 30 men went out
+from his gymnasium to become instructors. At Springfield the summer
+session of 1887 (six weeks) was attended by 24 men, or 48 per cent of
+the whole number then engaged in Association work; that of 1888 (July 17
+to August 21) by 50 men; and the third, in 1889 (June 30 to July 31),
+by 57 men. At the regular sessions of the Training School there were 5
+juniors and 1 senior in the Gymnasium Department in the year 1887-1888,
+and 6 juniors and 2 seniors in 1888-1889. After two years in Springfield
+Roberts resigned to take charge of a new Association gymnasium in Utica,
+New York, but the next year (1890) accepted an invitation to return to
+his old position in Boston, where he continued his activities as teacher
+almost to the day of his death, December 22, 1920. Together with several
+assistants he conducted four-weeks summer courses there in July of 1893
+and 1894, himself giving instruction in the system of floor work which he
+had made so widely popular.[277]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.—Luther Halsey Gulick (1865-1918).]
+
+Luther Halsey Gulick, associated with Roberts at the Springfield
+Training School in 1887-1889, was superintendent of its physical
+department for twelve years (1889-1900), and for sixteen years special
+secretary charged with supervision of the physical work in the Young
+Men’s Christian Associations of North America, under the International
+Committee—the first man to be appointed to such a position. He was the
+third son and fifth child of Dr. Luther Halsey Gulick, a missionary
+located for a time in the Hawaiian Islands, and was born in Honolulu
+December 4, 1865.[278] The first fifteen years of the boy’s life were
+far from monotonous. In 1870 the father was called to New England, to
+act as a temporary district secretary of the American Board, and here
+his family soon joined him. Late in 1871, upon the Board’s decision
+to undertake missionary work in Roman Catholic countries, they sailed
+for Spain, to make their home in Barcelona for two years and a half.
+August of 1873 found them settled in Florence, but the closing of the
+mission in Italy the next year was followed by Dr. Gulick’s return to the
+United States, and in 1875 he accepted a call to become the agent of the
+American Bible Society in China and Japan, with headquarters in Yokohama.
+Meanwhile the family had remained in Europe for six months after his own
+departure for America, and now Mrs. Gulick and four of the children were
+left behind in California, and did not follow him to Japan until 1877.
+Three years later Luther Halsey, Jr., again crossed the Pacific, to make
+his home for a time with an older sister whose husband had just been
+appointed to a professorship in Oberlin College.
+
+Two uncles had graduated from Williams College, and his two older
+brothers, Sidney Lewis and Edward Leeds, completed the course at
+Dartmouth in 1883, but his own desire for a college education was not to
+be gratified. Although he was enrolled in the preparatory department of
+Oberlin College during a part, at least, of the school years 1880-1882
+and 1883-1884, severe headaches which now made their appearance rendered
+continuous application to study impossible and finally compelled a change
+of plan. He had entered the middle preparatory class in the fall of 1885,
+but was taking some work in the college department and rooming with a
+sophomore, Thomas D. Wood, now Dr. Wood of Teachers College, Columbia
+University. What happened just at this time may be told in his own
+words.[279] “The advent of one of Dr. Sargent’s graduates, Miss Delphine
+Hanna, now Dr. Hanna, had brought to our minds in a more vivid way then
+ever before, that there was really such a thing as scientific teaching
+of gymnastics, genuine body building. We had both of us been very much
+interested in the gymnastics and athletics of the college, had identified
+ourselves thoroughly with all the work that was going on in these lines,
+and had read as far as we were able what had been written on the subject
+at that time. Blaikie’s _How to Get Strong_, particularly the chapter
+entitled ‘What a Gymnasium Might Be and Do,’ filled us with enthusiasm.
+One Sunday afternoon we took a long walk out into the woods, and sitting
+beside a rail fence (I can picture the situation even now), we looked
+forward to the future of physical training. We spoke of the relation
+of good bodies to good morals, we thought of the relation of bodily
+training to mental training.... The glimpse which we secured that day of
+the future has remained ... a prophecy of the work which each of us was
+to do....”
+
+His own course thus determined upon, Gulick at once left Oberlin for
+Cambridge, Mass., to spend the winter in Dr. Sargent’s Normal School
+of Physical Training. On April first following (1886) he began his
+professional career, as superintendent of the gymnasium with the Young
+Men’s Christian Association of Jackson, Michigan; but withdrew from this
+position the next fall in order to take up the study of medicine at the
+University of New York, from which his father had graduated thirty-six
+years before. For six weeks in July and August of 1887, together with
+Robert J. Roberts, he conducted the first summer school for directors
+of Association gymnasia, at the Springfield, Massachusetts, Training
+School, and these two men constituted the special teaching staff of
+the department of physical training which was added to the school at
+this time and opened its first regular session on Armory Hill early in
+September of the same year. The next month the International Committee
+secured a part of his time for the task of supervising the physical
+side of Association work in the country at large. Meanwhile his medical
+studies in New York were continued, and completed in 1889. He also served
+in 1887-1888 as medical examiner at the Twenty-third Street Association,
+where William Wood was still superintendent of the gymnasium, and during
+a part of the New York period was in charge of the physical training at a
+girls’ school in Harlem.
+
+For thirteen years, until the close of the school year 1899-1900, Dr.
+Gulick retained his position at the International Young Men’s Christian
+Association Training School in Springfield, after 1888 as superintendent
+of the physical department and during most of the time as instructor
+in the history and philosophy of physical training. The service under
+the International Committee was continuous from October of 1887 until
+his appointment as director of physical training in the public schools
+of Greater New York, in 1903. The problem that confronted him was
+twofold—first to find and train new men for the physical directorship and
+to unite and guide and stimulate those already in the field; and second
+to develop a type and methods of work suited to Association conditions.
+In 1887 there were only 50 “superintendents” and 3 assistants employed
+in the 168 gymnasia reported by American Associations. By 1900 the
+number had increased to 244 physical directors and 22 assistants, in
+491 gymnasia, and nearly 80,000 men and 20,000 boys were being reached
+by physical agencies. The regular course at the Springfield Training
+School covered two years until 1895, when it was extended to three, and
+meanwhile, in 1890, a second and independent institution of similar
+sort had been incorporated in Chicago. For five years, from 1887 through
+1891, summer courses, lasting from four to six weeks, were given at the
+Training School, and attended, respectively, by 25, 50, 57, 33, and 23
+men. A western section, at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, in July of 1890, had
+an attendance of 16. These were succeeded by summer “conferences,” more
+informal and intended for directors already in the work, which met for a
+week or ten days each year from 1892 through 1895. In 1896 and thereafter
+the conferences were held under the auspices of the International
+Committee. Additional educative means were the correspondence courses
+for physical directors, first offered by the Training School in the fall
+of 1891 and continued for four years, and the monthly Athletic League
+Letter, beginning in November of 1898. The Physical Directors’ Society
+of the Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America was organized
+during a conference held at Lakewood, on Chautauqua Lake, New York, June
+16-18, 1903.
+
+The relation of physical training to Association work as a whole, and
+the type and methods suited to Association conditions, Dr. Gulick
+considered in a paper on “Our New Gymnastics,” read at the Twenty-eighth
+International Convention (Philadelphia, May 11, 1889), and one on “The
+Distinctive Features of the Physical Work in the Association” at the
+Twenty-ninth Convention (Kansas City, May 9, 1891). He urged that man is
+a unit, that the Associations “are working for _young men_, not simply
+for their bodies, minds and souls, but for the salvation, development and
+training of the whole man complete as God made him,” and that physical
+education therefore forms a vital part of the Association program.
+The objects of exercise and the sorts needed in Association gymnasia
+were discussed at the first and second summer conferences of physical
+directors (1892 and 1893) and in the columns of _Physical Education_ for
+May, 1892, and January and October, 1893. He furnished the chapter on the
+Physical Department for a “Hand-Book of the History, Organization and
+Methods of Work of Young Men’s Christian Associations,” issued by the
+International Committee in 1892 (pp. 297-339), and presented the claims
+of “The Physical Directorship of the Young Men’s Christian Association as
+a Life Work” in a pamphlet published by that body in 1890.
+
+A desire to render anthropometric methods uniform and useful resulted
+in a “Manual for Physical Measurements in connection with Association
+Gymnasium Records,” which was ready in 1892. An anthropometric chart was
+also compiled and published. He read a paper on “The Value of Percentile
+Grades” before the American Statistical Association February 10, 1893,
+and for Volumes II and III of _Physical Education_ (November, 1893, to
+January 1895), prepared a series of articles on “Physical Measurements
+and How They Are Studied.” In connection with the summer conferences
+various “hygienic drills” and lists of exercises on apparatus suitable
+for Association use were elaborated. James Naismith, an instructor
+at the Training School, invented basket ball in the autumn of 1891
+to meet the need of a good indoor game, and it was described in the
+_Triangle_, the school paper, for January 15, 1892. To promote all-around
+development a _Pentathlon_, comprising the hundred-yard dash, throwing
+the twelve-pound hammer, the running high jump, the pole vault, and the
+mile run, was recommended, with a scheme for uniform scoring. Some years
+of agitation and discussion led in 1895 to the formation of the Athletic
+League of Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America, designed
+primarily “to band together those who feel that athletics are often large
+elements in the formation of character, and to arrange for them lines of
+coöperation;” and “to foster a better spirit of manliness in connection
+with these activities that will banish from them the discourtesy and
+dishonesty by which they have been too often disgraced.” The first
+official handbook of the League was issued in 1897.
+
+Gymnastic therapeutics formed the subject of a course of lectures given
+at the Thousand Islands Conference in 1900, and a series of articles
+published in Volumes I and II of _Physical Training_ (November, 1901,
+to April, 1903); and material prepared originally for classes at the
+Training School and for the Athletic League Letter appeared later
+under the title “Physical Education by Muscular Exercise” as Part II
+of the seventh volume (“Mechanotherapy”) in _A System of Physiologic
+Therapeutics_, edited by Dr. S. S. Cohen (Philadelphia, 1904). The duty
+and opportunity of the Association in its relation to boys was emphasized
+at the Mobile, Alabama, Convention in 1897, in Volumes VII and VIII of
+the _Association Outlook_ (1897-1899), and before the Physical Directors’
+Conference at Dayton, Ohio, in June of 1899. Other studies led to papers
+on “Some Psychical Aspects of Muscular Exercise” (Appleton’s _Popular
+Science Monthly_, October, 1898) and “Psychological, Pedagogical, and
+Religious Aspects of Group Games” (_Pedagogical Seminary_, March,
+1899). How indefatigable was Dr. Gulick’s pen may be gathered from the
+bare enumeration of the periodicals which he employed successively as
+a regular means of expression: The Physical Department of the _Young
+Men’s Era_ (1890, to September 1), the _Triangle_ (February, 1891, to
+January 15, 1892), _Physical Education_ (March, 1892, to July, 1896),
+_International Training School Notes and Association Outlook_ (January
+to July, 1897), the _Association Outlook and Training School Notes_
+(October, 1898, to July, 1900, two volumes), and _Physical Training_
+(November, 1901, to June, 1903, two volumes). He was also editor of the
+_American Physical Education Review_ from June of 1901 through 1903.[280]
+
+In the summer of 1890 the Springfield Training School, hitherto a
+department of Rev. David Allen Reed’s “School for Christian Workers,” was
+separately incorporated under the name “Young Men’s Christian Association
+Training School,” changed early the next year to “International Young
+Men’s Christian Association Training School,” and in the spring of 1891
+thirty acres of land bordering on Massasoit Lake, on the outskirts of
+Springfield, were secured as a site for future buildings. A gymnasium,
+the first structure erected on the new grounds, was completed in the
+summer of 1894 and formally opened October 26, a dormitory and recitation
+hall was added in 1896, Woods Hall, a social center, in 1904, Pratt Field
+in 1910, the west gymnasium in 1911, and a library and a natatorium in
+1913. Dr. James Huff McCurdy, who was to become Gulick’s successor as
+director of the physical course, joined the staff in the fall of 1895,
+and at that time the course of study and practice was extended to cover
+three years. In 1905 the Massachusetts Legislature authorized the school
+to confer the degrees bachelor and master of physical education (B.P.E.
+and M.P.E.), and in April, 1912, its name was changed to “International
+Young Men’s Christian Association College.” Three years later the
+trustees voted to make the course for physical directors a four-year one,
+beginning in September of 1916.
+
+At a secretaries’ conference held in Montreal in June of 1884 the plan
+of a permanent summer camp and “institute” was proposed, and in August,
+while a number of Association men were together at Camp Collie, Lake
+Geneva, Wisconsin, a committee settled upon that lake as the site of
+such a camp, adopting the name “Western Secretarial Institute.” Land was
+purchased in the spring of 1886 and on the 6th of October the institute
+was incorporated under the laws of Wisconsin. July 1-29, 1890, a summer
+school for physical directors was held on the camp grounds, under the
+auspices of the Springfield, Massachusetts, Training School and the
+direction of Dr. Luther H. Gulick. Meanwhile, on June 28 of the same
+year, the “Young Men’s Christian Association Training School” (Chicago)
+had been incorporated, with the object of training young men for the
+duties of general secretary, physical director, and other Association
+officers. It opened its first two-year course September 10th, in rooms of
+the Central Young Men’s Christian Association, 148 Madison Street, with
+Dr. E. L. Hayford “principal of the physical department,” and in 1891 and
+following summers conducted at Lake Geneva courses similar to those given
+there in July of 1890. In May of 1896 the Chicago school and the Lake
+Geneva Institute were consolidated under the title “Secretarial Institute
+and Training School of Young Men’s Christian Associations,” changed to
+“Institute and Training School of Young Men’s Christian Associations” in
+1903, and ten years later to “Young Men’s Christian Association College.”
+The summer school at Lake Geneva was made an integral part of the
+Training School, _i.e._, a required summer term, in 1901, and the course
+for physical directors became a three-year one in the fall of 1908. The
+purchase of a block of land lying between Fifty-third and Fifty-fourth
+Streets and Drexel and Ingleside Avenues, as a site for an independent
+College home, was announced early in 1912, and the new building erected
+there (5315 Drexel Avenue) was formally dedicated November 30, 1915.
+George W. Ehler was principal of the physical department 1892-1897,
+John W. Shaw 1897-1900, and Dr. Winfield S. Hall 1900-1903. Dr. Henry
+F. Kallenberg, who had been assistant principal since 1896, then became
+director of the department of physical training, and retained the
+position until the fall of 1917, when he was succeeded by Martin I. Foss.
+
+January 1, 1898, the International Committee added to the part-time
+services of Dr. Gulick as secretary for the Physical Department the whole
+time of George T. Hepbron, whose chief task was to promote the Athletic
+League. Hepbron resigned in 1905, and the next year Dr. George J.
+Fisher was called to the position from the physical directorship of the
+Brooklyn, New York, Association. He was already serving as president of
+the Physical Directors’ Society of the Young Men’s Christian Associations
+of North America and editor of its official organ, _Physical Training_,
+which had resumed publication under the new auspices in November of
+1905 (Volume III. Volumes I and II had been published by Dr. Gulick at
+Springfield between November, 1901, and June, 1903). A second secretary,
+Dr. John Brown, Jr., was added to the department in June of 1910, and
+a third, William H. Ball, in November of the same year. Dr. Fisher
+resigned November 1, 1919, to become Deputy Scout Executive of the Boy
+Scouts of America, and Dr. Brown then became senior secretary. The years
+since 1900 have seen the influence of the Associations reaching beyond
+the bounds of their own membership into the community at large. Work
+for boys, as well as young men, has been organized, and leadership has
+been furnished to a great variety of social agencies providing physical
+training and working for health betterment—to playgrounds, Sunday-school
+athletic leagues, swimming campaigns, summer camps, etc., etc. A handbook
+of “Physical Work: Management and Methods” was compiled by a special
+committee of the Physical Directors’ Society and published in 1913 (New
+York, Association Press). This served as the basis of discussion at an
+eight-day conference held early in the following year, out of which
+grew a new volume, “Physical Education in the Young Men’s Christian
+Associations of North America,” issued in 1914 (New York, Association
+Press), and revised and republished under the same title in 1920 (New
+York, Association Press). Chapter ten in the latest revision describes
+briefly the very great service rendered by the physical department of
+the Young Men’s Christian Associations in organizing recreative work
+during the Great War, in army camps and naval stations at home and among
+the allied troops in Europe.[281] The Physical Directors’ Society has
+held annual conferences since 1903 (except in 1917 and 1920), and has
+continued the publication of _Physical Training_ (monthly, except July
+and August) since November of 1905.
+
+The number of Associations reporting attention to physical training,
+through gymnasia or other means, the number of members participating, and
+the number of physical directors and assistants employed, as reported in
+the _Year-Books_, have been as follows:
+
+  ----+-------------+----------+-------------+---------------+-----------
+      |Associations.| Gymnasia.| Other means.| Participating.| Directors.
+  ----+-------------+----------+-------------+---------------+-----------
+  1885|    131      |   101    |      54     |               |    35
+  1890|    466      |   407    |     262     |               |   151
+  1895|    559      |   495    |     355     |               |   227
+  1900|    556      |   507    |     357     |     80,433    |   294
+  1905|    673      |   571    |             |    133,627    |   342
+  1910|    724      |   658    |             |    271,506    |   495
+  1915|   1112      |   728    |             |    447,351    |   650
+  1920|    899      |   838    |             |    488,478    |   663
+  ----+-------------+----------+-------------+---------------+-----------
+
+The number of swimming pools increased from 151 in 1905 to 293 in 1910
+and 610 in 1920; and the number of athletic fields from 143 in 1905 to
+205 in 1920. The _Year-Book_ covering the period from May 1, 1919, to
+April 30, 1920 reports 151,209 men and 157,772 boys enrolled in regular
+classes at the Association gymnasia, 2927 men and 6469 boys in leaders’
+clubs, 916 leaders in community service, and 107,580 persons aided by
+this community service. Nine summer schools for physical directors were
+held in 1920, attended as follows: Springfield, Mass. (86 men); Silver
+Bay, N. Y. (101); Blue Ridge, N. C. (45); Lake Geneva, Wis. (100);
+Hollister, Mo. (14); Estes Park, Colo. (20); Asilomar, Calif. (34);
+Seabeck, Wash. (16); and Lake Couchiching, Ontario (43).
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Catalogues of the Springfield and Chicago colleges and the Springfield
+periodicals mentioned on page 317, official Handbooks of the Athletic
+League of the Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America,
+_Physical Training_, and the Year-books and other publications of the
+International Committee. The biographical sketches of Roberts and Gulick
+have already appeared in print, as Chapters XVII and XVIII in the
+author’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York, 1915).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[274] See his “Manual of Physical Exercises: Comprising Gymnastics,
+Calisthenics, Rowing, Sailing, Skating, Swimming, Fencing, Sparring,
+Cricket, Baseball. Together with Rules for Training and Sanitary
+Suggestions.” New York, Harper & Brothers, 1867. Second edition,
+enlarged, in 1870.
+
+[275] Quoted by Dr. Gulick in the _Association Seminar_ for May, 1908, in
+the course of an authoritative and exhaustive paper on Roberts and his
+work.
+
+[276] Compiled by A. K. Jones. Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1889. Other editions
+later.
+
+[277] See “The Body Builder, Robert J. Roberts,” by B. Deane Brink. New
+York and London, Association Press, 1916.
+
+[278] Some knowledge of Dr. Gulick’s ancestry is required if one seeks
+to explain the work he accomplished with such limited preparation of a
+formal sort. Peter Johnson Gulick (1797-1877), the third of seven sons
+of a New Jersey farmer, and a descendant of Hendrick Gulick, who came to
+this country from the Netherlands in 1653, was graduated from Princeton
+College in 1825, studied afterwards in Princeton Theological Seminary,
+married Fanny Hinckley Thomas, of English ancestry, and in November of
+1827 sailed with her from Boston under appointment as a missionary of the
+American Board. The following March, only eight years after the opening
+of the mission to the Hawaiian Islands, they reached Honolulu by way of
+Cape Horn, and in this field he remained in active service for forty-six
+years. Of his eight children one died during student days in America,
+and all the rest became missionaries. Luther Halsey, the oldest son
+(1828-1891), came to the United States and entered an academy in Auburn,
+New York, in the fall of 1841, and after further study with a physician
+in Amboy, New Jersey, went to New York City for three years in medicine,
+first in the College of Physicians and Surgeons and then in the medical
+department of the University of New York, from which he was graduated
+in the spring of 1850. The next year he was ordained as a missionary,
+married Louisa Lewis, daughter of a New York merchant, and started back
+on the long journey around Cape Horn. For eight years (1852-1860) he was
+stationed at Ponape and Ebon Islands, in Micronesia. At the end of that
+time, broken in health, he returned to Honolulu. Several years of public
+speaking on missionary topics in the United States followed, and then
+from January of 1864 till February of 1870 he was secretary of the Board
+of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association, the agent of the American Board
+on the Hawaiian Islands and in Micronesia. See “Luther Halsey Gulick,
+Missionary in Hawaii, Micronesia, Japan, and China,” by Frances Gulick
+Jewett (Boston and Chicago, Congregational Sunday School and Publishing
+Society, 1895).
+
+[279] _Physical Education_ =1=, 25 (April, 1892).
+
+[280] In 1900, not yet thirty-five years old, Dr. Gulick resigned his
+position at the Springfield Training School in order to become principal
+of the Pratt Institute High School, in Brooklyn. Three years later he was
+appointed director of physical training in the public schools of greater
+New York, but retained this office only until 1908, and then accepted the
+directorship of the department of child hygiene under the Russell Sage
+Foundation. In 1913 he became president of the “Camp Fire Girls.” A study
+of his labors since 1900, in these new fields, in organizations like the
+American Physical Education Association and the Playground Association of
+America, and as an advocate of the Efficient Life by spoken and written
+words which reached an ever-growing audience would carry us beyond
+the immediate object of this sketch, which is to suggest the place he
+has filled in the evolution of ideals, means, and methods of physical
+training in the Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America.
+He died at Camp Gulick, on Sebago Lake, Maine, August 13, 1918. The
+following books suggest his later interests: “The Efficient Life” (1907);
+“Mind and Work” (1908), “Medical Inspection of Schools” (with Leonard P.
+Ayres, 1909), “The Healthful Art of Dancing” (1910), “The Dynamics of
+Manhood” (1917), and “A Philosophy of Play” (1920).
+
+[281] See the “Army and Navy Athletic Handbook,” New York, Association
+Press, 1919.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+SWEDISH SCHOOL GYMNASTICS IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+The system of medical gymnastics which we owe to the labors of Per
+Henrik Ling and his successors at the Royal Normal School of Gymnastics
+(the “Central Institute of Gymnastics”) in Stockholm was brought to the
+attention of Americans as long ago as the early fifties (see p. 258). By
+the end of that decade writers on physical education had begun to refer
+to it under the name of “the Swedish movement cure,” and authors of
+manuals intended for school use were borrowing some of their exercises
+from this source. But to meet the needs of growing boys and girls Ling
+had also devised a system of school gymnastics. This had been further
+elaborated by his son Hjalmar (1820-1886), and teachers trained in the
+Central Institute, or by its graduates, were everywhere using it in
+Sweden, in common schools and high schools alike. Of the aims, content,
+and methods of this branch of the “Ling gymnastics” little or nothing was
+known in this country until near the close of the eighties in the last
+century. Hartvig Nissen, a native of Norway and the head of a “Swedish
+Health Institute” in Washington, D.C., began to use it with teachers and
+pupils in the Franklin school in that city in 1883, and with students
+at Johns Hopkins University, in Baltimore, early in 1887. A Swedish
+gymnasium with its equipment was also shown at the World’s Industrial
+and Cotton Centennial Exposition held in New Orleans 1884-1885, in
+connection with the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, and Commissioner
+Eaton had placed Mr. Nissen in charge of this and other gymnastic
+apparatus. Other isolated instances might be cited, but it was not until
+1889, however, that the claims of Swedish educational gymnastics were
+brought forward in the United States so prominently and stated with
+such clearness and cogency as to attract general attention. Boston was
+the center from which the movement radiated, and its initiation was due
+to the public spirit and liberality of Mrs. Mary Hemenway (1820-1894)
+and the executive ability of her assistant, Miss Amy Morris Homans,
+coupled with the thorough professional training and forceful personality
+of Baron Nils Posse (1862-1895), the agent who first made their plans
+effective and afterwards conducted an independent and vigorous campaign
+of enlightenment until his untimely death.
+
+Baron Posse was born in Stockholm, Sweden, where his father, Baron Knut
+Henrik Posse, a major in the army, was at one time head of the Royal
+Army Staff College (_Kungl. Krigshögskolan_, at Marieberg). Both parents
+ranked among the Swedish nobility. The boy, an only son, was graduated
+from a private high school at the age of eighteen, and afterwards
+completed the fifteen-month course at the Royal Military School (_Kungl.
+Krigsskolan_, at Karlberg), and the two years of study and practice then
+offered at the Central Institute of Gymnastics, including medical as well
+as educational and military gymnastics. Meanwhile for five years he had
+been enrolled in the Swedish army, half of that time as a private and
+later as second lieutenant, first in the Life Grenadier Regiment and then
+in the Royal Svea Artillery. Outside of this formal training his fondness
+for physical activity led him to join the Stockholm Gymnastic and Fencing
+Club, the Gymnastic Association, the Rowing Club, and two skating clubs,
+and in fancy skating he won his title as amateur champion over some of
+the most accomplished masters of that art in all Sweden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.—Nils Posse (1862-1895).]
+
+It was on his twenty-third birthday (May 15, 1885), that Baron Posse
+graduated from the Central Institute of Gymnastics. Three months later
+he was on his way to America, and in October, after a visit to Nissen,
+then vice-consul of Norway and Sweden in Washington, he took up his
+residence in Boston with the hope of interesting physicians there in
+medical gymnastics and building up for himself, with their coöperation,
+a practice in that method of treatment. The first attempts were not
+encouraging, and progress was slow, yet after three years of such efforts
+opportunity at length knocked at his door—an opportunity not of his own
+choosing, but it found him ready. In the interval he had been married
+to Miss Rose Moore Smith of Newburyport. Besides writing a sixteen-page
+pamphlet on Medical Gymnastics (Boston, 1887), he had also completed
+an abridged translation into Swedish of an article on Massage by Dr.
+Douglas Graham (Lund, 1889), and was at work on an English translation of
+the Swedish physician Björnström’s work on “Hypnotism: Its History and
+Present Development” (in the _Humboldt Library of Science_, New York,
+1889). These labors help to explain that rare command of the language of
+his adopted country for which he was afterward conspicuous.
+
+Mrs. Mary Hemenway, whose only son had given the new gymnasium to Harvard
+College in 1879, was herself widely known as one of the wealthiest women
+in Boston and as a wise and generous dispenser of her riches for the
+promotion of worthy objects, at home and elsewhere. The introduction
+of systematic training in sewing and of the kitchen garden and school
+kitchen into the city schools were among the results of her efforts.
+Together with Miss Homans, who has been called “one of her right hands”
+in the execution of such projects, she had been impressed with the need
+of some efficient system of physical training for school children. A
+friend suggested Swedish gymnastics, and spoke of the graduate of the
+Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics who was at that time living
+in Boston. Baron Posse was accordingly consulted, and in October of
+1888 Mrs. Hemenway employed him to demonstrate the system in a course
+of lessons given to twenty-five or more women teachers gathered from
+the public schools. A small room on Boylston Place was leased for the
+purpose, and larger quarters, in Park Street, were afterwards secured.
+
+On the twenty-fifth of the following June the Boston School Committee
+accepted her offer to furnish free training for one year, beginning in
+September, to “one hundred public-school teachers, who may be permitted
+to use the system in their school work, thus enabling your Honorable
+Board, and educators in general, to decide upon its merits by actual
+results produced upon the school children within the environment of
+the schoolroom.” At the same meeting the Board of Supervisors was
+authorized “to report in print upon the subject of physical training
+in the schools.” September 24 the committee accepted Mrs. Hemenway’s
+further offer to provide “a teacher of the Ling system of gymnastics for
+service in the Normal School for one year, free of expense to the city.”
+October 8 the Board of Supervisors reported, recommending “that the Ling
+system of gymnastics be the authorized system of physical training in
+the public schools,” and at the same meeting a letter was read in which
+Mrs. Hemenway expressed her willingness “to provide instruction, free of
+expense to the City of Boston, for those masters and submasters who may
+desire to make a thorough study of the Ling system for the benefit of the
+Boston public schools.” The report was laid on the table, but the offer
+was accepted two weeks later. Baron Posse continued to give instruction
+to all these various classes up to January of 1890. Several small normal
+classes were also organized in 1889, which mark the beginning of the
+Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, established and afterwards endowed
+by Mrs. Hemenway, and with Baron Posse as its first director. In his
+annual report dated March 31, 1890, Superintendent Seaver writes that
+these demonstrations of Swedish educational gymnastics had already been
+attended by “30 masters, 24 submasters, and 166 other teachers. These
+have imparted their knowledge to yet other teachers, so that there are
+now 360 teachers prepared to use the ‘Ling system’ in their classes.
+In addition to these may be counted 97 recent graduates of the Normal
+School, who have all received instruction in this system.”
+
+Mrs. Hemenway and Miss Homans were also responsible for the calling
+together and successful conduct of that notable “Conference in the
+interest of Physical Training” which was held in Boston on November
+29 and 30, 1889.[282] From one to two thousand persons attended each
+of the four sessions, which were presided over by William T. Harris,
+United States Commissioner of Education, and addressed by many
+well-known educators and by representatives of a variety of systems. At
+the beginning of the second session Baron Posse set forth “The Chief
+Characteristics of the Swedish System of Gymnastics” in a masterly paper,
+followed by a demonstration of that system by a class of women under his
+leadership. One result of this wisely planned and persevering agitation
+of the subject was the action of the Boston School Committee taken June
+24, 1890, in line with the report and recommendation of its committee on
+physical training presented two weeks before, which ordered “that the
+Ling or Swedish system of educational gymnastics be introduced into all
+the public schools of this city.” In November of that year Dr. Edward
+Mussey Hartwell of Baltimore was elected Director of Physical Training,
+to hold office from January 1, 1891.
+
+Meanwhile Baron Posse had been succeeded at the Boston Normal School of
+Gymnastics by Claës J. Enebuske in the middle of January, 1890; but on
+the first of the following month he opened a gymnasium and training
+school of his own in the Harcourt building, on Irvington Street. The
+six years of life that remained were crowded with incessant teaching
+and writing. During this period, it is said, “gymnastics according
+to his methods were officially introduced into the public schools of
+fifty-two cities and towns, and into as many more private institutions
+and academies. Clinics for medical gymnastic treatment were established
+by him in most of the larger Boston hospitals, and instruction was given
+to the nurses of many hospitals in adjacent towns.” Summer courses for
+teachers and others were conducted at the Martha’s Vineyard Summer
+Institute (1890, 1891, 1892), in his Boston gymnasium (1892, 1894, 1895),
+and at Harvey, Illinois, while he was in charge of the elaborate exhibit
+sent to the Chicago World’s Fair by various Swedish gymnastic societies
+and athletic clubs.
+
+A book more complete than anything published in the Swedish language,
+at the time it appeared, was his volume on “The Swedish System of
+Educational Gymnastics” (Boston, Lee and Shepard; New York, Charles
+T. Dillingham, 1890), republished the next year with additions. In a
+third edition (1894), considerably enlarged, the title was changed to
+“The Special Kinesiology of Educational Gymnastics” (Boston, Lee and
+Shepard). His small “Handbook of School Gymnastics of the Swedish System”
+(Boston, Lee and Shepard) was ready in 1892. Among his more important
+papers were “How Gymnastics Are Taught in Sweden” (The _Academy_, Boston,
+V: 485-493, December, 1890), a series on “The Scientific Aspects of
+Swedish Gymnastics” (_The Doctor_, New York, October, 1890, to August,
+1892, Volumes IV-VI), “The Necessity of Physical Education and the Means
+of Introducing it into American Schools” (_Popular Educator_, Boston,
+IX: 122 and 123, December, 1891), “Modifications of the Swedish System
+of Gymnastics to Meet American Conditions” (_Physical Education_,
+Springfield, Mass., I: 169-174, November, 1892), and “Swedish Gymnastics
+_vs._ German” (_Posse Gymnasium Journal_, Boston, July, 1893). Four of
+these are included in his “Columbian Collection of Essays on Swedish
+Gymnastics” (Boston, 1893). The first number of the _Posse Gymnasium
+Journal_ (monthly) was issued in December of 1892, and for four years
+thereafter nearly every number contained at least one contribution from
+his pen. Baron Posse’s death occurred on December 18, 1895, but as late
+as 1905 the _Journal_ was still publishing material selected or prepared
+from his literary work.
+
+The Boston “Conference in the Interest of Physical Training,” held
+in November of 1889, is a landmark that grows in significance as the
+years give perspective. Leading educators attended its sessions, and
+the published report of papers and discussions reached a larger
+audience. German and Swedish gymnastics, the systems employed at Amherst
+College and Harvard University, the claims of military drill, physical
+training for purposes of emotional expression, and for mental and moral
+quickening—these were all set forth by able champions. But the first
+place on the program, after the opening remarks by Commissioner Harris,
+was assigned to a judge and not an advocate, to a trained biologist and
+thorough scholar, able to speak with authority regarding the effects of
+exercise upon body and mind, familiar with the history of this phase
+of education at home and abroad, and made acquainted with the various
+systems by travel and personal observation. It was peculiarly fitting
+that Dr. Edward Mussey Hartwell should be chosen to discuss “The Nature
+of Physical Training, and the Best Means of Securing Its Ends,” on that
+occasion, and his appointment as director of physical training in the
+Boston schools a year later came as a further testimonial to proved
+ability. There was need in those years of just such a keen and fearless
+critic, impatient of assumption and half-knowledge, conscious of adequate
+mastery of his theme, and gifted with a pungent vigor of expression that
+compelled attention.
+
+Dr. Hartwell came from a long line of New England ancestry. Shattuck
+Hartwell, his father, a graduate of Harvard College and Law School, was
+just closing the fourth year of service as tutor in Latin at Harvard when
+the boy was born (May 29, 1850, at Exeter, New Hampshire). The mother was
+a daughter of Dr. Reuben Dimond Mussey, who after holding for almost a
+quarter-century a professorship in the medical department of Dartmouth
+College, his _alma mater_, had moved to Cincinnati twelve years before to
+become professor of surgery in the Medical College of Ohio. In the fall
+of 1850 Shattuck Hartwell took up his residence in the same city, but
+after less than seven years in the practice of law returned to Littleton,
+Mass., his birthplace, thirty miles northwest of Boston. This was
+henceforward the family home. With the exception of a few years, he was
+employed in the Boston Custom House from the fall of 1865 until his death
+in 1899.
+
+Edward, the oldest of eight children, graduated from the Public Latin
+School in Boston at the age of nineteen. It is worth noting that as one
+of Captain Hobart Moore’s orderly sergeants in the school battalion he
+gained experimental knowledge of military drill at this period. Then
+followed four years at Amherst College (A.B. 1873, A.M. 1876, LL.D.
+1898), and the fact that he was chosen captain of his class in the
+gymnasium in the junior year, rowed on class and other crews, and was at
+one time commodore of the navy, suggests not only physical fitness and
+gifts of leadership, but also the influence of Dr. Edward Hitchcock and
+the department of hygiene and physical education. In 1871 he won the gold
+medal for excellence in human physiology. College days were succeeded
+by four years of teaching, first as vice-principal of the high school
+in Orange, New Jersey (1873-1874), and then as “usher” in the Public
+Latin School in Boston (1874-1877), where he had once been a student. At
+the latter Hobart Moore was still instructor in military drill, and in
+obedience to the wish of the head master Hartwell introduced the Amherst
+plan of class exercises in light gymnastics among the smaller boys.
+
+Greatly interested in natural science, he had already attended the summer
+school at Penikese Island, and this inclination now led him to abandon
+teaching for a time. An uncle, Dr. William Heberden Mussey, was professor
+of surgery in the Miami Medical College in Cincinnati, and prominent
+in scientific and educational circles in the city. Thither he came,
+therefore, to take up the study of medicine (1877-1878), but interrupted
+the course for three years in biology at Johns Hopkins University
+(1878-1881), leading to the degree of Ph.D., and did not receive his M.D.
+in Cincinnati until 1882. In Baltimore, where he was fellow in biology
+for two years in succession (1879-1881), he made animal physiology, under
+Professor H. Newell Martin, his principal study, and the subordinate
+ones animal histology and morphology under Dr. William K. Brooks.
+Membership in and papers before the Scientific Association, the History
+and Political Science Association, and the Metaphysical Club attest the
+breadth of his view at this time, and reveal a fondness for historical as
+well as biological research.
+
+After a summer’s work in Baltimore in 1881, and before entering upon the
+second and final year in Cincinnati, Dr. Hartwell went home to Littleton
+for a brief vacation, and in Cambridge looked over the new Hemenway
+gymnasium and made the acquaintance of Dr. Sargent. Interested in what
+he saw and heard, he spoke of the visit to Herbert B. Adams, another
+Amherst man, then associate in history at Johns Hopkins University. The
+students at the university were agitating the subject of a gymnasium. It
+was therefore natural that his advice should be sought, and the next fall
+(1882) he was offered the position of instructor in physical culture.
+The death of Dr. Mussey in Cincinnati, on the first of August, had left
+him without definite plans for the future, and a leaning toward hygiene
+moved him to accept the call to Baltimore. In June of 1883 the trustees
+authorized the construction of a $10,000 gymnasium, which was ready for
+use before the Christmas holidays. It was supplied with the Sargent
+developing appliances, and he at once introduced the Sargent plan of
+physical examinations and prescribed individual work, in place of class
+exercises, and also gave lectures to undergraduates on health topics.
+After two years of service he became Associate in Physical Training
+and Director of the Gymnasium, and remained at Johns Hopkins in that
+capacity until the end of 1890.
+
+An address which Dr. Hartwell delivered to the students of the university
+and others on the occasion of the formal opening of the new gymnasium,
+December 7, 1883, contained a review of the history of physical training
+in ancient and modern Europe and in America. Soon afterwards Commissioner
+John Eaton, of the United States Bureau of Education, asked him to
+prepare a special report for that department. The result was a visit to
+college and other gymnasia from Maine to Tennessee, in the summer of
+1884, and the manuscript for a volume of 150 pages on “Physical Training
+in American Colleges and Universities,” with illustrations and plans,
+which was handed in on the fourth of March following. Immediately upon
+completing it he sailed for Europe, to look up matters relating to
+hygiene as well as gymnastics. After a brief visit to England he spent
+most of the time in Frankfort and Berlin, with a side trip to Dresden for
+the Sixth General Gymnastic Festival of the German _Turnerschaft_, and
+some attendance upon clinics in Vienna. A 25-page appendix on “Physical
+Training in Germany” was now added to the former report, and 2 pages
+on the North American _Turnerbund_, whose existence he had discovered
+while abroad, and the whole was issued as No. 5—1885 of Circulars of
+Information of the Bureau of Education (Washington, 1886).
+
+It seems to have been this visit of Dr. Hartwell’s to Germany which
+led, directly or indirectly, to the presence of representative
+German-Americans at the second annual meeting of the American Association
+for the Advancement of Physical Education, in Brooklyn November 26, 1886,
+where for the first time the work of the North American _Turnerbund_
+was brought prominently before native American teachers, by descriptive
+and historical papers and by illustrative classes of men and children.
+Dr. Hartwell himself was elected treasurer of the Association at this
+meeting, and read a paper on “The Physiology of Exercise,” not printed
+in the _Proceedings_ but later amplified and rewritten and published in
+the _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_ for March 31 and April 7, 1887
+(Vol. 116, pp. 297-302 and 321-324). As far back as September of 1884
+Commissioner Eaton had introduced him to Hartvig Nissen, at the latter’s
+Health Institute in Washington. Early in 1887 Mr. Nissen was invited to
+give a course of lessons in “Swedish free movements” and German apparatus
+exercises to Johns Hopkins students, and this instruction was continued
+in 1887-1888, from November to the middle of April. From the following
+May until the end of August, 1889, Dr. Hartwell was in Europe on leave of
+absence, interested especially in the hygienic and medical application of
+exercise and with the thought of developing a practice in this specialty
+upon his return. The winter was spent in Stockholm, with almost
+daily visits to the Zander Institute and the Royal Central Institute
+of Gymnastics. He went also to St. Petersburg, revisited Vienna, and
+received six weeks of instruction in Bonn. December 20, 1889, he read
+a paper on “Mechano-Therapy in Sweden and Germany” before the Clinical
+Society of Maryland, and repeated it in March before the Johns Hopkins
+Hospital Medical Society. In this connection attention may be called to
+the 45 pages on General Exercise which he prepared for Vol. I of Dr. H.
+A. Hare’s “System of Practical Therapeutics” (Philadelphia, 1891), and
+to his translation, from the Swedish, of Dr. Emil Kleen’s “Handbook of
+Massage” (Philadelphia, 1892).
+
+Meanwhile he had been consulted in the preparation of plans for the
+Boston Conference of 1889, and an examination of the printed proceedings
+will show how conspicuous a part he played at the various sessions. The
+summer of 1890 was devoted to a third visit to Europe, this time to
+gather material relating to school gymnastics and playgrounds. The trip
+took him to England, France, Switzerland, parts of Austria and Germany,
+and again to Stockholm. June 24 the Boston School Committee had voted
+to introduce the Ling or Swedish system of educational gymnastics into
+all the public schools, and on November 25 they elected him director
+of physical training. Still hoping to become eventually the head of an
+institution for mechano-therapy, he consented to inaugurate the work of
+the new department, and his resignation was therefore presented to the
+Johns Hopkins trustees, to take effect December 31.
+
+A part of the story of the next seven years is contained in his series
+of five “Reports of the Director of Physical Training” to the School
+Committee of Boston, dated December 31, 1891 (75 pages. School Document
+No. 22—1891), June, 1894 (151 pages. School Document No. 8—1894), 1895
+(82 pages. In School Document No. 4—1895), March 15, 1896 (pages 159-192
+in School Document No. 4—1896), and March 15, 1897 (pages 135-143 of
+School Document No. 5—1897). On September 1, 1897, he resigned his
+position in the Boston schools to become secretary of the newly created
+Department of Municipal Statistics in that city. One must also examine
+the contents of the published _Proceedings_ of the American Association
+for the Advancement of Physical Education, from the sixth meeting (1891)
+onward, and of their successor, the _American Physical Education Review_,
+to appreciate fully the yeoman’s service he rendered to physical training
+in the country at large, during these years and also after his direct
+connection with the work had ceased. In 1891-1892 he was president of the
+Association, and again from 1895 to 1899, and he was author of the plan
+of reorganization on the basis of local and district societies which was
+adopted in 1895. Chapter XII (Physical Training) in the Report of the
+Commissioner of Education for 1897-1898 (Washington, 1899), and Chapter
+XVII (On Physical Training) in that for 1903 (Washington, 1905), give
+final expression to the results of his years of study and observation.
+His long series of reports and papers which began in 1885 constitute the
+most scholarly contribution hitherto made to the literature of physical
+training in English, and no other man in America has done so much to win
+for physical training a position of dignity and recognized worth. Dr.
+Hartwell died in Boston February 19, 1922.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.—Hartvig Nissen (1855-).]
+
+Other pioneers of Swedish school gymnastics who deserve further mention,
+or should be included here, are Hartvig Nissen, Claës J. Enebuske, Jakob
+Bolin, Louis Collin, and William Skarstrom. Nissen, born in Kongshavn,
+near Christiania, July 13, 1855, was educated in the large private higher
+school (_Latin- og Realskole_) opened in the Norwegian capital by his
+father, Ole Hartvig Nissen, studied gymnastics and massage with private
+teachers here and later in Dresden (1878-1879, in the _Allgemeiner
+Turnverein_) and Stockholm (summer of 1890), for three years taught
+gymnastics in towns near Christiania, and in March of 1883 established
+a “Health Institute” in Washington, D.C., as we have seen. 1891-1897
+he worked with Dr. Hartwell in the Boston public schools as assistant
+director of physical training, and 1897-1900 himself served as director.
+In 1891 he became instructor in Swedish gymnastics and massage in the
+Harvard University Summer School, and five years later in the Sargent
+Normal School of Physical Education. 1900-1912 he was director of
+physical training in the Brookline public schools, and then resigned to
+remove to Portland, Oregon. But he soon returned to Boston, and in May
+of 1915 acquired a controlling interest in the Posse Normal School of
+Gymnastics, of which he became president.[283]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.—Claës Julius Enebuske (1855-).]
+
+Enebuske was born in Ystad, southern Sweden, May 6, 1855, graduated as
+a student of pharmacy in Stockholm (1877), and took his doctor’s degree
+(Ph.D.) at the University of Lund in 1886. After a year of special work
+in school and medical gymnastics, under Colonel Norlander, fencing-master
+and teacher of gymnastics at the university, he came to New York City in
+1887. Dr. William G. Anderson, then in charge of physical training in
+Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn, had begun to train teachers there (February
+1, 1886), and at Chautauqua, New York (summer school, in 1886), and he
+secured Enebuske’s services at the latter in the summers of 1889 and
+1890, and in his normal school in Brooklyn during the intervening year.
+We have said that Enebuske succeeded Posse at the Boston Normal School
+of Gymnastics early in 1890. Here his chief work was done, in the eight
+years that followed, and meanwhile (1896) he graduated from the medical
+department of Harvard University. In 1898 he left the Normal School, and
+in 1902 removed to Paris, receiving the degree _Docteur en Médecine_ from
+the _Faculté de Médecine de Paris_ four years later. He was a scholarly
+gentleman and a thorough teacher.[284]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.—Jakob Bolin (1863-1914).]
+
+Bolin, born in Stockholm November 5, 1863, and educated in the higher
+schools of Visby and Stockholm and at the Stockholm University, spent two
+years in the United States (1885-1887) and then returned to Sweden for
+a year to study medical gymnastics in Liedbeck’s Institute (Stockholm).
+From 1888 until he accepted the professorship of physical education in
+the University of Utah (Salt Lake City) in 1910 he practised medical
+gymnastics and massage in New York City, but in the meantime followed
+Enebuske as teacher of Swedish gymnastics at the Anderson Normal School
+of Physical Education (transferred from Brooklyn to New Haven, Conn., in
+1892 and since 1901 known as the New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics),
+until 1907, and at Chautauqua Summer School of Physical Education
+1891-1909. He died in Salt Lake City May 15, 1914.[285]
+
+Carl Oscar Louis Collin, born February 1, 1866, at Sölvesborg, a seaport
+near Kristianstad in southern Sweden, graduated from the higher classical
+school in Kristianstad in 1884 and as a student there was for four years
+class leader under Major Carl Silow, who afterwards became second teacher
+in the section of school gymnastics at the Stockholm Central Institute
+of Gymnastics. From September of 1884 until October of 1888 Collin was
+a student in the University of Lund, taking courses in gymnastics under
+Colonel Carl Norlander at that time, and in November of 1888 joined
+Enebuske in New York City. He taught gymnastics at Chautauqua with the
+latter in the summers of 1889 and 1890, and went with him to Boston
+in the fall of 1890 to become instructor in practical gymnastics and
+afterwards in anatomy also at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics.
+From April till August of 1892 he studied under Major Silow in Stockholm,
+in 1898 graduated from the medical department of Harvard University,
+spent six weeks of the summer in the medical gymnastic clinic of Dr.
+Anders Wide in Lysekil, Sweden, succeeded Enebuske that fall as chief
+instructor in the theory and practice of gymnastics at the Normal
+School, and continued in that position for three years after it became
+the department of hygiene and physical education of Wellesley College,
+in September of 1909. He taught in the Battle Creek Normal School in
+1912-1913, and in the latter year became an instructor in the Chicago
+Normal School of Physical Education.
+
+William Skarstrom was born in Stockholm June 15, 1869, and educated in
+the Nya Elementarskola (higher school for boys), whose pupils received
+their physical education in the halls of the Central Institute of
+Gymnastics. For two years following the fall of 1891 he was in New
+York City, a member of the Twenty-third Street Young Men’s Christian
+Association and volunteer instructor of classes in its gymnasium, and
+during one winter taking a correspondence course with the Springfield
+Training School. He entered the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics as
+a student in the fall of 1893 and completed the course there in 1895,
+acting as Bolin’s substitute at Chautauqua in the summer of 1894, and in
+1901 received the degree of doctor of medicine from Harvard University.
+From the fall of 1899 through the spring of 1903 he gave instruction in
+gymnastics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and also at the
+Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. 1903-1912 he was instructor in the
+Columbia University gymnasium, giving courses in Teachers College also
+and in the Summer School. In 1912 he was appointed associate professor
+and later (1918) professor in the department of hygiene and physical
+education at Wellesley College. He has written “Gymnastic Kinesiology: A
+Manual of the Mechanism of Gymnastic Movements” (Springfield, Mass., The
+F. A. Bassette Co., 1909), and “Gymnastic Teaching” (Springfield, Mass.,
+the American Physical Education Association, 1914).
+
+Alice Tripp Hall, a graduate of Wellesley College (1881) and the Woman’s
+Medical College in Philadelphia (1886), visited the Central Institute of
+Gymnastics in Stockholm in the spring of 1889, and that fall when she
+took up her duties as professor of physiology, hygiene, and physical
+training in the Woman’s College of Baltimore (now Goucher College)
+classes in the new gymnasium, Bennett Hall, were put in charge of a
+graduate of the Central Institute, Mathilda Kristina Wallin (class of
+’85). Miss Wallin was followed two years later by Gulli Öberg (’85) and
+Maria Palmquist (’91), under whom a demonstration of Swedish gymnastics
+was given April 7, 1892, before visitors on their way to the seventh
+annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Physical Education, in Philadelphia. Thereafter the instructors employed
+in the gymnasium were regularly graduates of the Stockholm Central
+Institute, or of the Physical Training College at Dartford Heath,
+England, which was directed by Madame Bergman Österberg, herself a
+graduate of the Central Institute in 1881.
+
+In a similar manner Dr. Kate Campbell Hurd, also a graduate of the
+Woman’s Medical College in Philadelphia, and under appointment as the
+first medical director at the Bryn Mawr School for Girls, in Baltimore,
+spent the winter of 1889-1890 at the Central Institute in Stockholm
+and the spring with Madame Bergman Österberg in London (Her Physical
+Training College was removed to Dartford Heath, Kent, in 1895), and
+engaged as her first assistant in the gymnasium Fanny Schnelle (Stockholm
+Central Institute, class of 1891), whom she had met in Sweden. After
+Miss Schnelle came one of Madame Bergman Österberg’s graduates, to be
+succeeded in turn by young women trained at the Boston Normal School
+of Gymnastics, Miss Senda Berenson, a graduate of the latter school,
+introduced the Swedish system at Smith College, in Northampton, Mass.,
+where she was director of physical training in the years 1892-1911.
+
+In this connection attention may be called again to Mrs. Hemenway’s
+gift which made possible the publication of a portion of Hjalmar Ling’s
+collection of pen-drawings illustrating positions and movements used in
+gymnastics (see p. 161). One half of the edition was presented to the
+Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. Director Törngren of the Stockholm
+Central Institute also accepted her invitation to come to Boston as her
+guest, reached that city May 14, 1893, and spent some time at the Normal
+School, in June watched the classes in gymnastics at many of the Boston
+schools, and the next month read a paper on “The Royal Central Institute
+of Gymnastics in Stockholm” at the eighth annual meeting of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, in Chicago (see
+_Proceedings_ VIII: 50-52). The clearest and most intelligent exposition
+of the system under discussion which has yet been written by an American
+is “A Review of Swedish Gymnastics,” by Theodore Hough, first prepared as
+a lecture in 1899 while its author was assistant professor of biology in
+the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and instructor in physiology
+and personal hygiene at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. It was
+published in pamphlet form (Boston, George H. Ellis, 1891, forty pages),
+and later reprinted in the Report of the United States Commissioner of
+Education for 1898-1899 (Vol. I, pp. 1209-1226, Washington, 1900).
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+The first part of this chapter, including the biographical sketches of
+Posse and Hartwell, has already appeared in print as Chapters XIX and XX
+in the author’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York, 1915).
+It is based on personal correspondence and conversations with the persons
+concerned, supplemented by information gleaned from catalogues, reports,
+and other authentic sources.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[282] See “A Full Report of the Papers and Discussions of the (Physical
+Training) Conference held in Boston in November, 1889. Reported and
+edited by Isabel C. Barrows” (Boston, 1890).
+
+[283] The numbers of the _Posse Gymnasium Journal_ for February and May,
+1920, contain portions of an autobiography by Nissen, covering his early
+years in Norway. He also published in 1891 an “ABC of the Swedish System
+of Educational Gymnastics” (Philadelphia, F. A. Davis).
+
+[284] His chief literary work was the “Progressive Gymnastic Day’s
+Orders, according to the Principles of the Ling System,” first published
+in Boston in 1890 and reissued in 1892 (New York, etc., Silver, Burdett
+& Co). Other publications include: “The Place of Physical Training in a
+Rational Education” (in _Boston Conference Report_, 1889, pp. 35-41),
+“The Gymnastic Progression of the Ling System” (_Proceedings_ of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, =5=
+(1890), pp. 21-35), “The Pedagogical Aspect of Swedish Gymnastics,”
+read before the American Institute of Instruction at its annual meeting
+in Bethlehem, N. H., July 8, 1891, (_Popular Educator_, Boston,
+=9=, 52 and 53, October, 1891), “Some Measurable Results of Swedish
+Pedagogical Gymnastics” (_Proceedings_ of the American Association for
+the Advancement of Physical Education, =7= (1892), pp. 207-235), “An
+Anthropometric Study of the Effects of Gymnastic Training on American
+Women” (Quarterly Publications of the American Statistical Association,
+December, 1893, =3=, pp. 600-610), “A Diagram of Working Capacity and
+Resistance as manifest in Gymnastic Exercises” (_Proceedings_ of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, =9=
+(1895), pp. 11-17), and “Pedagogical Gymnastics” (_American Physical
+Education Review_, =2=, 81-88, June, 1897).
+
+[285] His publications were: Three articles on “Den svenska gymnastiken
+och dess representanter i Amerika” (_Valkyrian_, New York, January,
+February, and March, 1891, =2=, pp. 28-30, 91-94, 138-143), “Mental
+Growth through Physical Education” (18-page pamphlet, 1893), “The
+Physical Processes Involved in the Nutrition of Muscle” (_Proceedings_
+of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education,
+=10=, 1895, pp. 83-89), President’s address at the annual meeting of the
+Physical Education Society of New York and Vicinity, December 4, 1896
+(_American Physical Education Review_, =2=, 1-11, March, 1897), another
+President’s address (_American Physical Education Review_, =3=, 25-29,
+March, 1898), “On Group Contests” (_American Physical Education Review_,
+=3=, 288-294 and =4=, 66-72, December, 1898, and March, 1899), “What is
+Gymnastics” and “Why Do We Teach Gymnastics” (28- and 57-page pamphlets,
+New York, by the author, 1902 and 1903), and a posthumous volume,
+“Gymnastic Problems” (New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1917).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.
+
+THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN AMERICA. STATEWIDE PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
+
+
+The playground movement, which we have already traced in Germany (pp.
+132-145) and Denmark (pp. 194-197), was slow in gathering headway in
+the United States. Minister von Gossler’s playground order was issued
+in Prussia October 27, 1882, and the German “Central Committee for the
+Promotion of Games” was organized in Berlin May 21, 1891. The Danish
+minister Bardenfleth sent out his games circular August 31, 1896, and
+a group of men and women met in Copenhagen April 11, 1897, to form a
+“National Committee for Promoting Group Games among School Children.” In
+this country certain Boston children had access to a sand pile, under
+supervision, as far back as the summer of 1885, and a public outdoor
+gymnasium was opened in that city August 27, 1889; but not more than
+10 cities are known to have established playgrounds before 1900, and
+26 others in the years 1900-1905, _i.e._, up to the founding of the
+Playground Association of America, at Washington, D.C., in April of 1906.
+In the four years following (1906-1909) 83 cities were added to the list,
+and by the end of 1916 a total of 480 had been reached, according to a
+report in _The Playground_ for March, 1917.
+
+The first step in the Boston experiment is recorded as follows by
+Mrs. Kate Gannett Wells, chairman of the executive committee of the
+Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association, in the second annual
+report of that body (May, 1886. The Association was organized in 1884):
+“Last summer (1885), at the suggestion of Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, and
+in accordance with the plan in Berlin, which has proved so useful to
+children, a large heap of sand was placed in the yard attached to the
+Parmenter-street Chapel.... An average of fifteen children connected with
+the chapel came there three days in the week, through July and August,
+and under the guidance of Mrs. Gamble, dug in the sand with their little
+wooden shovels and made countless sand-pies, which were remade the next
+day with undismayed alacrity. They sang their songs and marched in their
+small processions, and when weary, were gathered in the motherly arms
+of the matron.... The same plan was tried at the West End Nursery, but
+as the children there were hardly two years old they cared little for
+it. Your committee hope, however, that the success of the experiment in
+Parmenter Street may have sufficiently demonstrated the usefulness of the
+sand-garden to secure its adoption elsewhere....”
+
+The third annual report (May, 1887) announces that three sand-gardens
+“are now permanently established during the summer seasons in the
+playyards of Parmenter-street Chapel, of Warrenton-street Chapel, and
+of the Children’s Mission. They are maintained in the interest of
+hygiene and amusement.... An awning has been placed over the sand at
+the Children’s Mission; and there, with wooden shovel, broken bricks,
+and much sand, the long days are passed out of doors....” In 1887 “the
+number of these gardens increased from three to ten. No rent was paid
+for them. The sand was given ..., and the School Committee granted the
+use of the Wait School yard.... The matrons in charge of each garden
+were generally women who lived in the neighborhood, and who watched, in
+their play, the children, to whom shovels and pails were given, with
+which they made castles and pies. At the end of the season the sand was
+stored in barrels for future use.... This spring (1888) the Association
+petitioned the School Committee for the use of schoolyards which would
+be suitable as playgrounds for little children kept in town through the
+summer....” As a result, during this fourth season (1888) “seven school
+yards situated in the neighborhoods where children swarm, were open for
+three hours on four fair days of each week. A kindly matron was ready
+to welcome the children, and offered them sandheaps and shovels, balls,
+tops, skipping-ropes, reins, bean-bags, building-blocks, flags to march
+under, and transparent slates to draw upon. Besides these seven yards
+which were dignified by the name of ‘Playgrounds,’ there were three
+‘Sand-Gardens,’ where only sand and shovels were furnished....” A year
+later “there were eleven playgrounds instead of seven; there were 1000
+instead of 400 children; there was double the number of tops, twice the
+amount of sand....”
+
+In the seventeenth annual report of the Boston Board of Park
+Commissioners, for the thirteen months ending January 31, 1892, the
+open-air gymnasia at Charlesbank are described in detail. The site is
+a strip of land containing about ten acres, and lies along the Boston
+shore of the Charles River between the Craigie and West Boston bridges.
+It measures about 2200 feet in length by 200 in width. A sea-wall and the
+filling behind it were completed in 1886, and the plan of the grounds was
+drawn up by Frederick Law Olmsted, the landscape architect. It included
+a level promenade, 25 feet wide, overlooking the salt waters of the Back
+Bay, and behind this, on the side toward the city, stretches of lawn
+planted with trees to resemble a natural grove, but with a space 500
+by 150 feet at the north end fitted up as a gymnasium for men and boys,
+and another at the south end, 370 by 150 feet in extent, enclosed with
+a screen of shrubbery and prepared especially as an exercise-ground
+for women and girls. At either end there was to be a landing for
+boats, offered for hire, and near this and the entrance a house with
+waterclosets, toolrooms, and offices of administration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.—View of Charlesbank, Boston, looking north.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.—Charlesbank: Men’s Gymnasium.]
+
+The men’s gymnasium, surrounded by an iron fence, was reached only from
+the upper story of one of the houses just mentioned, connected with
+the grounds inside by a bridge on which turnstiles were placed, for
+registering attendance. The equipment, designed by Dr. Sargent of Harvard
+University, consisted of two sheds with twelve sets of chest-weights in
+each, including six high and six low pulleys, “two giant-strides, eight
+sets of horizontal bars, eight sets of parallel bars, six jumping-boxes,
+seven boxes for quoit-pitching and shot-throwing, two sets of jumping
+standards and ropes, two sets of sandbags and attachments, four vaulting
+poles, three shots, two heavy weights, twenty-four quoits, twenty
+pairs of dumb-bells, ten sets of hurdles, and two large frames, each
+160 feet long, to which are attached the following apparatus: four
+balance-swings, eight breast-bars, four single swings, two double
+swings, five swinging-ropes, one rope ladder, one iron Jacob’s ladder,
+one perpendicular ladder, one inclined ladder, four pairs of flying
+rings, four single trapezes, one climbing-pole, two inclined poles, two
+perpendicular poles. Around the outside of the ground there is a running
+and bicycle track 15 feet wide and ⅕ mile long.” The men’s grounds were
+opened to the public on August 27, 1889, in charge of Superintendent John
+Graham, and the next season extended from April 1 to about the middle of
+December, an average of 447 men and boys a day entering for use of the
+apparatus during this period. In May of 1891 thirteen electric arc-lamps
+were added, and thereafter the gymnasium was kept open until 9.30 P.M.
+The total number of visitors this year was 169,219, and on the three days
+showing the largest attendance the turnstiles registered 1649 (May 3),
+1480 (July 30), and 1572 (July 31) admissions.
+
+Entrance to the women’s gymnasium and the children’s playground was
+likewise through the upper story of the women’s lavatory building. The
+apparatus included “two balance-swings and frames, two seesaws (with
+side-rails and guards), two seesaws (plain), two single swings, two pole
+ladders, two perpendicular ladders, four hanging ropes (fastened at the
+bottom), one long inclined rope and attachments, four long and four short
+inclined poles, four perpendicular ladders combined, five serpentine
+ladders united (with guard-rails), two perpendicular climbing-poles,
+twelve swinging-ropes, one horizontal rope-ladder, two sets horizontal
+bars and stanchions (with heights adjustable), one set of movable
+parallel bars, one set of high parallel bars, one set of vaulting-bars,
+eleven travelling rings and attachments, two single trapezes (with
+height made adjustable by pulley and chain attachments), two sets of
+flying-rings (with height made adjustable as above), twelve pairs of
+chest-weights to run in wooden boxes, one set of jumping standards and
+ropes, two giant-strides (ropes, handles, and fixtures), twenty-four
+ring quoits and pins, twelve jumping-ropes, twelve hoops, twenty-five
+long and ninety-eight short wands, ninety-eight pairs dumb-bells,
+ninety-eight pairs Indian clubs.” In the rear of the building were sand
+courts for the younger children. “The problem of the proper supervision,
+management, and care of this gymnasium was satisfactorily settled by our
+acceptance of the proposition of the Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene
+Association, which is under the management of well-known ladies, to
+take the entire charge and oversight of it without expense to the city,
+beyond the furnishing of supplies, cleaning the rooms, and taking care of
+the grounds and apparatus.” Miss Elizabeth C. McMartin, a pupil in Dr.
+Sargent’s Normal School, was appointed superintendent, and the matron had
+had six years of experience as assistant in a kindergarten. The informal
+opening occurred at noon on June 1, 1891. From this time until November 1
+the average daily attendance was 945, and the largest was 2477 (July 6),
+2368 (July 9), and 2389 (July 11).[286]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.—Charlesbank: Women’s Gymnasium.]
+
+At Wood Island Park, in East Boston, another outdoor gymnasium and
+playground, nine acres in extent, was opened September 6, 1895. Men were
+admitted on four days of the week, and women on two. Beginning in 1896,
+and with the effective coöperation of Mayor Josiah Quincy (1895-1899),
+there was a rapid expansion of public facilities for recreation of all
+sorts in and about Boston, including playgrounds, indoor gymnasia,
+beach baths, floating bath-houses, swimming pools and all-the-year
+baths, and provision for skating and coasting in winter. This whole
+series of progressive steps is outlined in Joseph Lee’s “Constructive
+and Preventive Philanthropy” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1902), along
+with corresponding steps in other cities, and details will be found in
+reports of the Boston Park Commissioners, the Boston Department of Baths,
+and for the North End Playground the instructive annual reports of the
+Massachusetts Civic League (after 1900). The first municipal indoor
+gymnasium was the East Boston (Paris Street) building, a one-story,
+truss-roofed structure 137 by 98 feet, with a main hall 100 by 80 feet.
+Originally a skating rink, it was purchased by Esther P. (Mrs. Daniel)
+Ahl and turned over to the East Boston Athletic Association for use as a
+combined gymnasium and bath, and in 1897 given to the city and opened to
+the general public. The South Boston (D-Street) gymnasium, the first to
+be built by the city, was opened in the winter of 1899-1900.
+
+Next to Boston, Chicago occupies a prominent place in the early history
+of the playground movement. As Mrs. Charles Zueblin points out in
+_The Playground_ for July of 1907 (pp. 3-5 and 11-13), it has passed
+through three distinct phases of growth in that city, represented by
+the independent, schoolyard, and municipal playgrounds. The independent
+experiments, now almost forgotten, deserve mention, to quote Mrs.
+Zueblin, “because their experiences and lessons and accomplishment were
+of proved value later on. In 1893 Hull House opened a large playground
+in an empty lot, the land belonging to Mr. William Kent; it was equipped
+with swings, seesaws, giant stride and sandbins, and was maintained under
+their management for five years.... Play was totally disorganized both
+on the part of the children and of the supervisors, and everything from
+games to management had to be learned.... This playground later passed
+under the number of municipal playgrounds. In 1896, under the auspices
+of the University Settlement of the Northwestern University, and through
+the great generosity of Mr. Livingston Fargo, a large and splendidly
+equipped playground was opened accommodating from three thousand to four
+thousand children. Besides a fine equipment for play, there was a large
+shelter with plenty of benches and retiring rooms. A police officer and
+a matron had charge of the grounds, which were maintained for two years,
+until the playground had to be abandoned, owing to the extension of the
+tracks of the Northwestern Railway Company. For six years, beginning in
+1896, the University of Chicago Settlement, under the leadership of Miss
+Mary McDowell, maintained a very successful playground, where there was
+provision also for mothers with little babies.”
+
+“The first school playground in Chicago,” according to Mrs. Zueblin,
+“was maintained in the Washington School’s yard in 1897 by the West
+End District of the Associated Charities. In the spring of 1898 an
+appropriation of $1000 was obtained from the City Council ($750
+additional being later subscribed by individuals) for ‘temporary small
+parks,’ the administration of which was turned over to the Vacation
+School Committee of Women’s Clubs.” Miss Sadie American, chairman of
+that committee, writing of “The Movement for Small Playgrounds” in the
+_American Journal of Sociology_ for September of 1898 (pp. 159-170) says
+that “the use of six schoolyards, basements, and one room to be used
+on hot and rainy days was asked of the board of education, and, being
+granted, the yards were equipped with swings, seesaws, sandbins, and
+cedar building-blocks. The Turnverein was greatly interested, and loaned
+portable apparatus for each school, such as parallel bars, horizontal
+bars, horse, ladders, etc., which were taken into the building at night.
+The playgrounds chosen were all in densely populated districts and among
+various nationalities.... For each there were engaged a kindergartner
+and a man who should be a ‘big brother to the boys,’ for the older boys
+were considered equally or more than the younger ones.... The men were
+inexperienced, but entered into the spirit of the work with enthusiasm,
+and from week to week rose in efficiency on the mistakes of the foregoing
+days.”
+
+But it is the municipal aspect of the movement that demands more than
+passing mention. The _City Club Bulletin_ of March 4, 1908, presents the
+significant features of the story as follows: “During the last half-dozen
+years Chicago has achieved a development of small parks and playgrounds
+more remarkable than has taken place in any other city of the world.
+It is remarkable, first, because of its extent, and second, because of
+its unique character. Eight years ago there were, besides the six main
+parks of the city, fifteen or sixteen small public parks and squares,
+some maintained by the three divisional park commissions and some by
+the city Department of Public Works. There was not a public playground,
+however, in all Chicago nor a public bathing beach. Today there are in
+the city over 30 such small parks and squares, 13 public playgrounds,
+17 combination small park playgrounds and 3 bathing beaches—in all, 63
+public neighborhood centers of rest, beauty, recreation and culture. This
+number is also being added to and does not include school playgrounds.
+
+“This expansion has been carried out by four separate authorities,
+_i.e._, the Lincoln Park Commission, the regular park authority for the
+north side of the city; the South Park Commission, the regular park
+authority for the south side; the West Park Commission, the regular park
+authority for the west side; and the Special Park Commission, whose
+field is the entire city. The first three commissions were created by
+the legislature about 1870. The Special Park Commission was created by
+the City Council in 1899, to investigate and report upon the need both
+for small parks and playgrounds, and for an outer belt park system.
+While investigating and reporting upon these two subjects it also
+became, by the very pressure of the subject with which it was dealing,
+both a promoting and an administrative body. In 1900 it secured from
+the City Council an appropriation of $10,000 and opened four ‘municipal
+playgrounds’ in thickly populated neighborhoods of the city. The
+next year it secured legislation authorizing the three regular park
+commissions to raise and expend $2,500,000—that is, $1,000,000 each on
+the south and west sides, and $500,000 on the north side—for small parks
+and playgrounds.
+
+“The Park Commissions of the north and west sides were slow in securing
+the necessary amendment, and approval on referendum, of their laws in
+this matter, but in 1903 the South Park Commission secured the amendment
+of the law applying to its district, together with legislative authority
+for a still larger expenditure for like purposes, and the proposed bond
+issues having been approved at the polls, the Commission entered upon an
+unparalleled career of small park and playground development.[287] In
+1904 and 1905 it acquired fourteen sites, ranging in size from 7 to 300
+acres, and equipped ten of them on an entirely novel plan. Two more of
+these are being thus equipped, and three more sites are being acquired.
+The proposed bond issue for the west side was approved on referendum in
+1905, and the West Park Commission has within the last year and a half
+secured and nearly finished the equipment, after the south side plan, of
+two sites in crowded neighborhoods. It is now acquiring a third site. It
+has also made ‘Holstein Park’ a very attractive playground. The Lincoln
+Park Commission, having secured approval on referendum for its proposed
+$500,000 bond issue, has now acquired three sites, and they are nearly
+equipped in somewhat like fashion. Two of the three lack park features
+proper, on account of limited space, but they provide equipment similar
+to the park-playgrounds, among which they are here counted. The sites for
+these various park-playgrounds range in size from 4 to 60 acres, have
+cost from $40,000 to $290,000 each, and the buildings cost from $60,000
+to $100,000 for each site. Each of these centers calls for an annual
+maintenance budget of from $20,000 to $30,000....
+
+“Small park and playground development in Chicago is even more remarkable
+because of its unique character than because of its extent. The
+assemblage of functions represented in the small park-playgrounds which
+we have been considering is a new thing in the world, and its creation
+three or four years ago by the South Park Commission was an event of
+civic imagination and adventure of which Chicago is worthily proud. A
+typical center includes both outdoor and indoor activities. The outdoor
+activities comprise as the central feature a liberally planned bathing
+pool, with sandbanks, dressing rooms, cleansing showers, life-guards
+and bathing suits. Collateral to this are an outdoor gymnasium for men,
+another for women, another for boys, another for girls, running tracks,
+wading pools, and sand courts for the youngsters; also tennis courts and
+ball fields—turned into skating rinks in the winter time. The interior
+features include a thoroughly equipped gymnasium for men, another for
+women, each having a trained director and being furnished with baths
+and lockers, a lunch room, reading and library room, one or two small
+club rooms for small gatherings, and a large and beautiful assembly hall
+for neighborhood meetings, lectures or pleasure parties. The entire
+construction is on a liberal plan and is carried out in accordance with
+high standards. So is the maintenance....”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.—South Parks, Chicago: Plan of Armour Square.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.—South Parks, Chicago: Typical Outdoor Gymnasium
+for Girls.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.—South Parks, Chicago: Typical Swimming Pool
+Scene.]
+
+It is not necessary to repeat here in detail the experiences of other
+cities in connection with the playground movement. A special report
+(“General Statistics of Cities, 1916”) of the United States Bureau of the
+Census relating to the recreation service of cities having a population
+of over 30,000 contains this statement of progress, prepared by Joseph
+Lee, president of the Playground and Recreation Association of America:
+
+“Thirty years have passed since the birth of the movement to protect
+children’s play—an era which has seen the spread of the movement from
+Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York to Chicago and the Pacific
+coast; which has witnessed at least the theoretical establishment of the
+children’s right to play in safety under good influences and of a man’s
+right to spend his leisure hours, through the provision of the proper
+facilities by the city in which he lives, in a way which will fit him to
+make the best use of his working hours, and will keep alive in him those
+ideal interests for which his work too often furnishes no scope.
+
+“In these thirty years playgrounds have been established in large and
+small cities and in rural communities throughout the country. A national
+organization, the Playground and Recreation Association of America, has
+been called into existence to act as a clearing house for information
+and, through the publishing of literature and educational work, to
+further the recreation movement. Buildings used wholly for recreational
+purposes have been erected. Reports made to the Playground and Recreation
+Association of America in December, 1916, show that 38 communities
+have recreation buildings, valued at $4,093,525. In rural communities
+has come a great awakening to the need of wholesome recreation to
+counteract immoral influences and to conserve for the community its
+young men and women who would otherwise go to large cities to find their
+opportunities. Both large and small cities have established systems,
+at the head of which have been placed workers employed throughout the
+year, corresponding to school superintendents in our educational system.
+Schools have introduced organized play in connection with their school
+playgrounds and specially trained play directors are employed, who spend
+their entire time directing the play of the pupils. Cities have come to
+see the economic waste of great buildings used a few hours each day for
+educational purposes and have thrown their schoolhouses open at night
+for the use of all the people for evening recreation-center activities,
+for dramatic clubs, orchestras, social dancing, gymnasium work, mothers’
+clubs, civic forums, lectures, and motion pictures. In December, 1916,
+127 cities reported that their school buildings were being used as
+neighborhood recreation centers. Legislation making possible such a
+use of school buildings has been passed in a number of states. The
+creation of special recreation departments and playground and recreation
+commissions to administer playground work has been authorized by law in
+many states and cities. Increasingly has the emphasis been laid on the
+importance of considering recreation work as a governmental function
+and of administering it as one of the duties of a municipality to its
+citizens.
+
+“These facts are borne out by the information gathered by the Bureau of
+the Census in its study of playgrounds and athletic fields, the results
+of which are to be found in Table II. It is a very significant fact
+that during the fiscal year 1916, the 213 cities of more than 30,000
+population conducted 2190 playgrounds with a total area of 4662.1 acres.
+There were, in addition, 19 athletic fields, exclusive of those located
+in parks, with an area of 148.7 acres. For this work there were payments
+from public funds for expenses amounting to $2,502,902; and for outlays,
+$1,017,539. Three thousand seven hundred and ninety-four workers were
+in charge of the activities of these playgrounds. Graphic as these
+figures are, they by no means represent the total municipal provision
+for play and recreation even in the 213 cities themselves. In many of
+these cities the schools have playgrounds equipped with apparatus and
+with play leaders in charge, and organized play periods are conducted in
+connection with their school program. Nor do these figures attempt to
+include the evening recreation-center work conducted at many schools at a
+considerable expense to the school board, nor the municipal golf courses,
+tennis courts, skating facilities, and community music provided for the
+public from city funds. The public provision of recreational facilities
+is by no means limited to cities of over 30,000. Reports sent to the
+Playground and Recreation Association of America show that many cities of
+less than 30,000 inhabitants are maintaining playgrounds and neighborhood
+recreation centers, while approximately 50 communities of less than 5000
+carried on recreational work privately or publicly during the year ending
+December 1, 1916.”
+
+The founding of the Playground and Recreation Association of America has
+already been mentioned on p. 337. One must turn to the _Proceedings_ of
+the first, second, and third “Annual Playground Congresses,” the volumes
+of _The Playground_, and other publications of the Association for the
+full story of its achievements.
+
+Although there had been legislation favoring statewide physical
+education prior to the outbreak of the Great War (_e.g._, North Dakota,
+1899; Ohio, 1904; Idaho, 1913), it was without doubt the same military
+motive which has operated in the case of European countries, or that
+realization of the fundamental values of physical fitness which always
+comes with the approach of war, that led twenty-five of our states,
+in the years 1915-1921, to enact laws requiring or permitting the
+introduction of physical education into their schools. The list is as
+follows: In 1915—Illinois; 1916—New York; 1917—California, Nevada, New
+Jersey, Rhode Island; 1918—Delaware, Maryland; 1919—Alabama, Indiana,
+Maine, Michigan, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington; 1920—Georgia,
+Kentucky, Mississippi, Virginia; 1921—Connecticut, Massachusetts,
+Missouri, North Carolina, West Virginia. These laws differ considerably
+in their statement of the educational aims in view and the means to be
+employed in attaining them, in the ages or school grades affected, and
+the time requirements, and in the provision made for a central authority,
+supervision, the training of teachers, and financial support to make the
+legislation effective.[288] Some of the state authorities have already
+published manuals of physical training.[289]
+
+Three examples, quoted from Bulletin 40, 1918, of the United States
+Bureau of Education, will serve to illustrate the general character and
+range of the State laws already adopted. The Illinois law (approved June
+26, 1915) “provides for physical training in all of the public schools
+and in all of the normal schools of the State. Apparently, no special
+provision has been made in that State for the operation of the law; no
+appropriation for the development of a program or the publication of
+a syllabus; and no resources for the employment of State supervisors,
+inspectors, or other administrators of physical education....
+
+“The New York law, approved May 15, 1916, and amended at the legislative
+session of 1918, provides that: ‘All male and female pupils, above the
+age of eight years, in all elementary and secondary schools of the
+State, shall receive, as a part of the prescribed courses of instruction
+therein, such physical training under the direction of the commissioner
+of education as the regents, after conference with the military training
+commission, may determine, during periods which shall average at least
+twenty minutes each day....’ The administration of this law in the State
+of New York is a function of the regents of the University of the State
+of New York, that is, of the State department of education. A bureau of
+physical training has been established as a subdivision of the State
+military training commission. The State inspector of physical training,
+the chief officer of this bureau, is required, in accordance with the
+law, to observe and inspect the work and methods described under the
+provisions of the education law relating to instruction in physical
+training. The State law in New York also provides that all public schools
+in the State employing special teachers of physical training, qualified
+and duly licensed under the regulations of the regents, may receive
+financial support from the State to the extent of half the salary of
+each teacher so employed, provided that half the salary does not exceed
+$600....” In the _State Plan and Syllabus for Physical Training_ that
+subject “is interpreted as covering: ‘(1) Individual health examination
+and personal health instruction (medical inspection); (2) instruction
+concerning the care of the body and concerning the important facts of
+hygiene (recitations in hygiene); and (3) physical exercise as a health
+habit, including gymnastics, elementary marching and organized supervised
+play, recreation, and athletics.’ For the direction and supervision of
+the State program there is a force of inspectors, consisting of a State
+inspector of physical training and nine assistant inspectors....
+
+“On May 26, 1917, an act providing for physical education became a
+law in the State of California. This law provides that the school
+authorities in the public schools of the State, elementary and secondary,
+shall prescribe suitable courses of physical education for all pupils,
+except such as may be excused from such training on account of physical
+disability. The California law makes it a duty of the superintendent of
+schools in every county and city, and of every board of education, board
+of school trustees, and high-school board, to enforce the courses of
+physical education prescribed by the proper authority, and to require
+that such physical education be given in the schools under their
+jurisdiction or control. In the elementary schools the time requirement
+in California shall ‘average twenty minutes in each school day,’ and in
+the secondary schools ‘at least two hours each week while that school
+is in session.’ This law requires that, if the number of pupils in a
+given school system is sufficient, there shall be employed a competent
+supervisor or such special teachers of physical education as may be
+necessary. The enactment further specifies that the State board of
+education shall require a course in physical training in all the normal
+schools of the State and provides that the State board of education
+shall prescribe a course in physical education for such schools and shall
+make the completion of such course a requirement for graduation. Under
+this law, it is the duty of the State board of education: ‘(1) To adopt
+such rules and regulations as it may deem necessary and proper to secure
+the establishment of courses in physical education in the elementary and
+secondary schools in accordance with the provisions of this act; (2)
+to appoint a State supervisor of physical education; (3) to compile,
+or cause to be compiled or printed, a manual in physical education for
+distribution to teachers in the public schools of the State.’ The sum of
+$10,000 was appropriated for the purpose of carrying out the provisions
+of the California law....”
+
+Attempts are now being made to secure federal aid to physical education
+in the various states, through laws passed by the Congress of the United
+States. A commission on the reorganization of secondary education,
+appointed by the National Education Association, has also recently
+approved a report on Physical Education in Secondary Schools, which is
+published by the Bureau of Education as 1917 _Bulletin_ No. 50.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+The student of the playground movement in America will need to be
+familiar with the following, in addition to the publications already
+mentioned: G. E. Johnson, “Education by Play and Games” (Ginn & Co.,
+1907); Joseph Lee, “Play in Education” (The Macmillan Co., 1915);
+Henry S. Curtis, “Education through Play” (The Macmillan Co., 1915),
+“The Practical Conduct of Play” (1915), “The Play Movement and its
+Significance” (1917), and other volumes; E. B. Mero, “American
+Playgrounds” (Baker & Taylor Co., 1908); A. and L. H. Leland, “Playground
+Technique and Playcraft” (Baker & Taylor Co., 1910). See also “The Play
+Movement in the United States,” by Clarence E. Rainwater (The University
+of Chicago Press, 1922).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[286] For a full account of this first year see the eighth annual
+report (May, 1892) of the Mass. Emergency and Hygiene Association, pp.
+13-17. See also _Reports of Proceedings_, American Association for the
+Advancement of Physical Education, =9= (1894), pp. 125-130, and _The
+Bostonian_ for June, 1896 (pp. 258-266, illustrated).
+
+[287] See Reports of South Park Commissioners for 1904, 1905, and 1906
+(illustrated.)
+
+[288] See United States Bureau of Education _Bulletin_, 1918, No. 40
+(Recent State Legislation for Physical Education). Part IV contains
+copies of the State laws of Illinois, New York, Rhode Island, New Jersey,
+Nevada, California, Delaware, and Maryland. Bulletin 1922, No. 1, brings
+the story up to July, 1921.
+
+[289] For example, the following: General Plan and Syllabus for Physical
+Training in the Elementary and Secondary Schools of the State of New
+York, as adopted by the Board of Regents of the University of the State
+of New York upon the report and recommendation of the Military Training
+Commission of the State of New York. Albany, 1917. A second edition
+(Book 4, Complete Syllabus) was published in 1921.—By the Department of
+Public Instruction, Trenton, New Jersey, September, 1917, Courses in
+Physical Training as follows: For Grades I to VI (Manual 1), Grades VII
+and VIII (Manual 2), and Grades IX to XII (High School Manual).—Manual in
+Physical Education for the Public Schools of the State of California—Part
+IV: Syllabus on Physical Training Activities with Methods of Management
+and Leadership. Sacramento, 1918.—A Course in Physical Training for the
+Graded Schools of Michigan. Bulletin No. 2 (Third Edition). Lansing,
+published by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1919.—Manual
+of Physical Education. Department of Education, State of Alabama,
+Montgomery, 1920.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.
+
+THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.
+
+
+The earliest attempt in America to prepare teachers of physical education
+was made by Dio Lewis in the years 1861-1868, at his Normal Institute
+for Physical Education in Boston (see pp. 256-259). Its first course
+opened at 20 Essex Street July 5, 1861, and at the commencement exercises
+held nine weeks later, on September 5, 7 men and 7 women were graduated.
+The second course, which extended from January 2 to March 13, 1862 (ten
+weeks), was completed by a class of 18, the third (July 5 to September
+15, 1862) by one of 12, and the fourth class, graduated March 13, 1863,
+numbered 22. Details of later courses are lacking. In a volume published
+in 1868 Lewis says that more than 250 persons had taken the diploma
+of the Normal Institute in the nine sessions which had been held, but
+his biographer states that “421 ladies and gentlemen, in almost equal
+numbers,” were graduated in the seven years following its establishment.
+
+The second normal school, that of the North American _Turnerbund_, was
+projected as far back as 1856, but not actually opened until November
+22, 1866. After two courses in New York City (1866-1867, 1869), one in
+Chicago (1871), and a third in New York (1872-1873), it became firmly
+established in Milwaukee under Brosius (1875-1888). Then followed two
+years in Indianapolis (1889-1891), a return to more ample quarters in
+Milwaukee, under Brosius and Wittich (1891-1907), and finally a permanent
+transfer to Indianapolis (in 1907). Its present name, Normal College of
+the American Gymnastic Union, was received in 1919. Four summer courses
+were given at Milwaukee, 1895-1898 inclusive. The history of the school
+is given at some length on pp. 297-300 and 307.
+
+We have already mentioned Dr. Sargent’s contribution to the training
+of teachers (p. 284). During his forty years at Hemenway Gymnasium
+(1879-1919) his influence in this direction was more widely felt than
+that of any other man in America. The beginning was modest enough,
+at Witneys Block, corner of Palmer and Brattle Streets in Cambridge
+(1881-1883), where a single pupil, Mrs. Mary E. W. Jones, completed the
+one-year course in 1882. A second year was now added, and 4 women were
+graduated in 1884. Meanwhile quarters had been secured and equipped at
+20 Church Street, and here in the years 1883-1904 a total of 261 women
+finished the prescribed work in theory and practice. About 70 others
+remained for a single year only. In 1902 the course became a three-year
+one, with attendance at a summer camp in New Hampshire added in 1912.
+When the new “Sargent Gymnasium,” on Everett Street, was occupied, in the
+school year 1904-1905, men as well as women were received as students,
+and in the next five years 130 more women and 6 men were graduated. In
+the year 1918-1919 the total enrollment had reached 406, with 22 names on
+the list of “officers of instruction,” not counting student assistants
+and special camp instructors and assistants.
+
+In connection with the Harvard University Summer School five-week courses
+in physical education, under the direction of Dr. Sargent, were first
+given in 1887, attended that year by 18 men and 37 women. The total
+registration in the years 1887-1898 was 982 (329 men and 653 women), or
+an average attendance of 82. For the next three years the course was
+lengthened to two summers, and the enrollment was 98 men and 204 women,
+or a total of 302 and an average of 101. Thereafter the graded course
+covered four successive summers of theory and practice. The figures
+reached in the period 1902-1919 were 971 men and 2211 women, or a total
+of 3182 and an average per season of 177. For the entire period of
+thirty-three years, from 1887 through 1919, the enrollment was 4466 (1398
+men and 3068 women), with an average attendance of 135.
+
+The Brooklyn-Anderson-New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics and the
+Chautauqua (summer) School of Physical Education stood in much the same
+relation, in the years 1886-1904, as the Sargent Normal School and
+the Harvard University summer courses. William Gilbert Anderson, the
+prime mover in each, was the son of Edward Anderson, a Congregational
+clergyman, and grandson of Rufus Anderson, assistant secretary of the
+American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions 1824-1832 and
+secretary 1832-1866. He was born at St. Joseph, Michigan, September 9,
+1860. From 1874 to 1880 his father was pastor in Quincy, Illinois, and
+early in this period the boy became “an ardent champion of advanced
+work in gymnastics, possessed of considerable skill as a performer on
+the horizontal bars, a tumbler and a battoule-board and springboard
+leaper.... Attainment as an acrobat had come, in part, from association
+with the circus men who wintered” in Quincy, and his enthusiasm was
+further stimulated by William Blaikie’s “How to Get Strong” (New York,
+1879) and Archibald Maclaren’s “Physical Education” (Oxford, 1869). In
+the year 1877-1878, while a student in the Roxbury Latin School, Boston,
+Anderson was a pupil of Robert J. Roberts in the Young Men’s Christian
+Association at 68 Eliot Street. Then came two years (1878-1880) as
+freshman and sophomore in the classical course at the University of
+Wisconsin, where military drill was the only required form of exercise,
+though there was a crude outdoor gymnasium which the catalogue described
+as “well-furnished,” and “open to students at fixed hours.” After
+teaching school for a year in Clayton, Illinois, he became superintendent
+of the Cleveland, Ohio, Young Men’s Christian Association gymnasium
+(1881-1882), and received the degree of doctor of medicine from the
+Cleveland Medical College in 1883. The next two years were spent in
+Columbus and Toledo, Ohio. He had now decided to follow physical training
+as a profession, and in the fall of 1885 accepted an appointment as
+director of the gymnasium at Adelphi Academy (now Adelphi College),
+Brooklyn, New York.
+
+Here, early the next year, he organized the “Brooklyn Normal School
+for Physical Education.” Its first announcement, which lists a faculty
+of ten, calls attention to the fact that “no school in the country
+pays more attention to the physical education of its scholars than the
+Adelphi Academy. The number of scholars enrolled is within a few of one
+thousand, the majority of whom take daily exercise (obligatory). Members
+of the Normal Class will have opportunity to observe and assist in the
+instruction of these classes.... The gymnasium of Adelphi Academy, corner
+of St. James Place and Lafayette Avenue, has been secured for the use
+of Normal classes.... The first course in reading and study will extend
+from February 1 to October 1, 1886. The course in practical training in
+the gymnasium will begin February 1 and end June 1, 1886. The second term
+will begin October 4, 1886, and end June, 1887.” A class of 10 students
+was graduated in 1887, and 87 altogether in the period 1886-1892. At
+the end of that time Dr. Anderson removed to New Haven, Connecticut,
+to become associate director of the Yale University gymnasium, and the
+school, rechristened the “Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics,” was
+opened in the new location in September of 1892. In the next eleven years
+its graduates numbered 140. Meanwhile Dr. Ernst Hermann Arnold[290] had
+been associated with Dr. Anderson in the management of the school, and in
+1903 the latter’s active connection with it ceased altogether.[291] The
+name had again been changed in January of 1901, this time to “New Haven
+Normal School of Gymnastics.”
+
+In 1886 Dr. Anderson went to Chautauqua, New York, to take charge
+of physical education in the summer school established there by the
+Chautauqua Institution seven years before, and gave some free instruction
+to a normal class of three pupils. The next season there was a charge
+for such tuition, and certificates were given to the few who finished
+the work; but the normal course was not formally established until the
+following summer (1888). An old skating rink at the corner of Palestine
+and Scott avenues served as headquarters until a new gymnasium, started
+in 1890 and completed in the winter of 1890-1891, was ready for use.
+Meanwhile a company had been organized to erect the building and conduct
+the normal course, and the summer school of physical education was
+managed by this company in the years 1890-1912. Dr. Anderson held the
+position of principal from 1890 to 1894, and dean 1895-1904. By the
+addition of an advanced year in 1891 the course was extended to cover two
+summers, and in 1903 a third term was offered for the first time. In 1902
+a second gymnasium, for classes in Swedish and corrective gymnastics,
+was available. Upon Dr. Anderson’s retirement Jacob Bolin, a member of
+the faculty since 1891, succeeded him as dean (1905-1909). In 1913 the
+school passed into the hands of the Chautauqua Institution. Dr. Jay
+W. Seaver[292] had been an instructor at the summer school since 1889
+and president of the company 1895-1912, and now became director of the
+courses in physical education. After his death Dr. Joseph E. Raycroft was
+acting director for two years (1916 and 1917), and in 1918 the position
+was given to Professor Charles Winfred Savage of Oberlin College, who had
+already served for two seasons as a member of the faculty.
+
+The history of the physical training departments of the International
+Young Men’s Christian Association College at Springfield, Massachusetts
+(since 1887) and the Young Men’s Christian Association College in Chicago
+(since 1890) has been given in a previous chapter (pp. 309-319). In
+the absence of other opportunities for the professional training of
+men, these schools have enrolled among their students some who were
+not looking forward to Association service, and on the other hand many
+of their graduates have withdrawn from Association positions to accept
+others in public schools, in secondary and state normal schools, in
+colleges and universities, in church or settlement or playground work, or
+with athletic clubs or Boy Scouts.
+
+We have already noted (p. 325) the beginning of the Boston Normal School
+of Gymnastics, in 1889, the teaching done there by Posse, Enebuske, and
+Collin, and that in September of 1909 this school became the department
+of hygiene and physical education of Wellesley College. Mrs. Hemenway, at
+her death in 1894, had endowed it for a period of fifteen years, and Miss
+Amy Morris Homans was its director from the start until her retirement
+from the Wellesley faculty in the summer of 1918. After occupying
+temporary quarters at Boyleston Place and on Park Street, in Boston,
+the school was housed in Paine Memorial Building, 9 Appleton Street,
+between Tremont and Berkeley, and then from September of 1897 until the
+transfer in 1909 in the building of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic
+Association at 97 Huntington Avenue, near Exeter Street. At Wellesley
+the new Mary Hemenway Hall, constructed with a view to the needs of
+the Normal School and also to provide for the physical training of all
+Wellesley College students, was ready for its use. Twelve women had
+graduated from the first class, in 1891, and 433 women and 9 men in the
+years 1891-1909 inclusive.
+
+Upon severing his connection with the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics
+Baron Posse at once opened a small gymnasium of his own in the Harcourt
+Building, 23 Irvington Street, on February 1, 1890. Afterwards more
+spacious quarters in the same building were occupied. From the normal
+classes, during the next six years (1890-1895), a total of 96 women
+and 6 men were graduated, 3 of them receiving the diploma from the
+medico-gymnastic course only. A still larger number had come under
+his instruction in the brief summer courses conducted in the Boston
+gymnasium, at the Martha’s Vineyard Summer Institute, and at Harvey,
+Illinois (see p. 326). Following Baron Posse’s death, on December 18,
+1895, Baroness Rose Posse became director of the school. In the fall
+of 1900 it was transferred to the Fensmere Building, 206 Massachusetts
+Avenue, and in June of 1911 incorporated under the name “Posse Normal
+School of Gymnastics,” with Baroness Posse as president. That same summer
+(1911) the building at the corner of Garrison and St. Botolph streets,
+originally constructed (1886) for the (Mary E.) Allen Gymnasium and
+later used by the Women’s Athletic Club of Boston, was secured. This was
+completely destroyed by fire in the spring of 1913. A plot of land at
+773-781 Beacon Street, near its intersection with Commonwealth Avenue,
+was now purchased, and the formal opening of the new building erected
+here took place on November 17 of that year. Baroness Posse retired from
+active connection with the school in May, 1915, and was succeeded as
+president by Mr. Hartvig Nissen (see p. 332).
+
+No attempt is made here to trace the growth of the numerous other
+privately owned gymnasia, most of them of later origin, which have
+offered training courses for teachers. Nor have the data been collected
+which would make possible a history of physical training at the various
+state normal schools. One recalls, however, in the case of the latter,
+the long service of Dr. and Mrs. C. E. Ehinger at West Chester, Pa.,
+Dr. H. B. Boice at Trenton, N. J., and Professor Wilbur P. Bowen at
+Michigan Normal College, Ypsilanti (since 1894). Much more significant,
+as pointing the way to the final solution of the problem of adequate
+professional preparation for leadership in physical education, are
+the beginning of teachers’ courses at our colleges and universities.
+But here again the facts are not at hand for a complete story. Such
+courses, counting toward a bachelor’s degree, have been offered at the
+University of California since 1898, the University of Nebraska since
+1899, Oberlin College since 1900, University of Missouri at about the
+same time, Teachers College of Columbia University since 1903, Wellesley
+College since 1909, and University of Wisconsin since the fall of 1911.
+Doubtless there are other institutions which should be added to this list
+for the period it covers, and within the last ten years the number has
+grown considerably. Summer courses, with university credit allowed, have
+been conducted at Columbia University since 1899. Carefully coördinated
+courses leading to advanced degrees will mark the next step in advance,
+and in this direction, also, there are some encouraging signs of progress.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.
+
+Catalogues, announcements, and lists of graduates published by the
+institutions or in connection with the summer courses of which mention
+has been made.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[290] Born in Erfurt, Germany, February 11, 1865, of German and Polish
+ancestry; educated in the _Realgymnasium_ at Halle until 1883; completed
+the ten-month course at the normal school of the North American
+_Turnerbund_, in Milwaukee, in April of 1888, and was teacher of
+gymnastics in _Turnvereine_ in Trenton, New Jersey (1888-1891), and New
+Haven, Connecticut (1891-1894); M.D., Yale University Medical School,
+1894, and the next year took courses in surgery and orthopedics in the
+universities at Halle and Leipsic; became associate director of the
+Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics in 1895, and its director in 1896.
+
+[291] Dr. Anderson published a volume on “Light Gymnastics” in 1890
+(New York, Effingham Maynard & Co), and another on “Methods of Teaching
+Gymnastics” in 1896 (Meadville, Pa., Flood & Vincent).
+
+[292] Born at Craftsbury, Vermont, March 9, 1855; prepared for college
+at Craftsbury Academy and Williston Seminary; A.B., Yale, 1880, and
+M.D., Yale Medical School, 1885; instructor in physical training at Yale
+University 1883-1892, and medical examiner in the department after 1885;
+died at Berkeley, California, May 5, 1915. Published “Anthropometry and
+Physical Examination” (New Haven, 1890. New edition in 1909).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  A
+
+  Amherst College, 245, 271-274
+
+  Amoros, Don Francisco, 81
+
+  Amsinck, Julius, 184, 188
+
+  Anderson, William Gilbert, 353-355
+
+  Andre, Christian Carl, 70
+
+  Arnold, Ernst Hermann, 354
+
+  Asceticism, doctrine of, 37;
+    effects, 39
+    influence on education, 41, 47
+    practices, 38
+
+  Athens, physical education at, 20
+
+
+  B
+
+  Balck, Viktor, 163, 224
+
+  Bardenfleth, Wilhelm, 194, 196
+
+  _Barrenstreit_ of 1861 and 1862, 123
+
+  Basedow, Johann Bernhard, 67
+
+  Beck, Carl, 227, 230-235, 242
+
+  Beecher, Catharine, 227, 261
+
+  Bergmann Österberg, Martina, 209
+
+  Betz, Carl, 302-305
+
+  Bolin, Jakob, 333, 355
+
+  Bornemann, Johann J. W., 92
+
+  Bowdoin College, 249, 274, 280
+
+  Branting, Lars Gabriel, 123, 152, 154, 155
+
+  Brosius, George, 297-300
+
+  Brown University, 247, 275
+
+  _Burschenschaften_ in German universities, 98-100, 111, 229
+
+
+  C
+
+  Caledonian games, 278
+
+  Camerarius, Joachim, 53
+
+  Cardano, Girolamo, 51
+
+  Clias, Phokion Heinrich, 81
+
+  Collin, Carl Oscar Louis, 334
+
+  Comenius, Johann Amos, 54
+
+  Coubertin, Pierre de, 202, 216-218
+
+
+  D
+
+  D’Alfonce, J. E., 265
+
+  Dartmouth College, 264, 266, 275
+
+  Demeny, Georges, 224
+
+  Diebow, Paul, 126
+
+  Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 123
+
+  Dürre, Eduard, 96, 97
+
+  Du Toit, Johann Jakob, 68
+
+
+  E
+
+  Eckler, Gebhard, 124
+
+  Eiselen, Ernst, 92-94, 101, 111, 120
+
+  Eitner, Gustav Ernst, 140, 142, 145
+
+  Elyot, Sir Thomas, 55
+
+  Enebuske, Claës J., 325, 332
+
+  English public schools and universities, 133, 141, 201, 216
+
+  Euler, Carl Philipp, 123-125
+
+
+  F
+
+  Feltre, Vittorino da, 49
+
+  Filelfo, Francesco, 51
+
+  Follen, Charles, 227-233, 235-238, 242, 247
+
+  Fuller, Francis, 64
+
+
+  G
+
+  Georgii, Carl August, 152, 154, 157, 209
+
+  Germans in time of Caesar and Tacitus, 34
+
+  Goldie, George, 275, 278
+
+  Gossler, Gustav von, 136, 137
+
+  “Greek gymnastics” at Dessau, 69
+    at Rome, 31
+
+  Griscom, John, 244
+
+  Gulick, Luther Halsey, 309, 312-319
+
+  GutsMuths, Johann Christoph Friedrich, 71-81, 110, 111, 149, 179, 183
+
+  Gymnasium, the Greek, 22
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hartelius, Truls Johan, 159
+
+  Hartwell, Edward Mussey, 284, 301, 325, 327-331
+
+  Hartwich, Emil, 135-137, 140
+
+  Harvard University, 235-237, 242, 268-270, 279-284, 353
+
+  Hasenheide _Turnplatz_, 88-95
+
+  Hemenway, Mrs. Mary, 161, 322, 324, 336, 356
+
+  Hermann, August, 133, 142, 145
+
+  Hitchcock, Edward, 272-274
+
+  Hoffmann, Friedrich, 65
+
+  Homans, Amy Morris, 322, 324, 356
+
+  Humanists of 15th century, 49
+
+
+  I
+
+  Isthmian games, 27
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 81, 83-101, 106-108, 111, 115, 238, 240
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kloss, Moritz, 103, 117, 260
+
+  Knight, training of the, 43
+
+  “Knightly exercises” at Dessau, 69
+
+  Knudsen, Knud Anton, 189-192, 195
+
+  Koch, Konrad, 132, 137, 142, 145
+
+  Küppers, Ignaz, 125
+
+
+  L
+
+  La Cour, Nils Georg, 182-184
+
+  Land-grant Act (1862), 270
+
+  Lewis, Dio, 251-263, 352
+
+  Lieber, Francis, 97 (footnote), 227, 238-242, 243
+
+  Ling, Hjalmar Fredrick, 154, 159-161
+    Per Henrik, 81, 146-155
+
+  Locke, John, 59
+
+  Lorinser, Dr. Karl Ignaz, 121
+
+  Lübeck, Wilhelm, 102, 121
+
+  Luther, Martin, 53
+
+
+  M
+
+  Maclaren, Archibald, 203-208
+
+  Mann, Horace, 251
+
+  Manual labor movement, 227
+    training advocated by Locke, 61
+      introduced at Dessau Philanthropinum, 70
+    and Rousseau, 63
+    and Schnepfenthal, 75
+
+  Massmann, Hans Ferdinand, 93-99, 114, 120-123
+
+  Mercurialis, Hieronymus, 52, 56
+
+  Miami University, 266-268
+
+  Military training in Land-grant colleges, 276
+    Roman, 29
+    in Swedish schools, 173, 175
+
+  Milton, John, 57
+
+  Montaigne, Michel de, 55
+
+  Mount Holyoke College, 264, 275
+
+  Mulcaster, Richard, 56
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nachtegall, Franz, 81, 149, 151, 178-183
+
+  Neal, John, 240, 248-250
+
+  Nemean games, 27
+
+  New York High School (1825), 244
+
+  Nissen, Hartvig, 322, 329, 331, 356
+
+  Northmen of viking age, 34, 36
+
+  Nyblæus, Gustav, 117, 152, 158
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oberlin College, 274, 357
+
+  Olympic games, ancient, 24 (see also 32 and 33)
+    modern, 216-224
+
+
+  P
+
+  Palæstra, exercises of the, 21
+
+  Partridge, Alden, 227, 264, 276
+
+  Pentathlon, 23
+
+  People’s high schools (Denmark), 184, 186
+
+  Philanthropinum at Dessau, 68, 70
+
+  Piccolomini, Enea, Silvio, 50
+
+  Posse, Nils, 322-326, 356
+
+  Princeton University, 266, 275
+
+  Pythian games, 27
+
+
+  R
+
+  Rabelais, François, 54
+
+  Ramsing, Peter Erhard Marius, 189
+
+  Raydt, Hermann, 141, 145
+
+  Rifle clubs (Denmark), 184
+
+  Roberts, Robert, J., 309-312, 353
+
+  Rothstein, Hugo, 120, 122-124, 157
+
+  Round Hill School, 233-235, 242
+
+  Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 61
+
+
+  S
+
+  Sadoleto, Jacopo, 51
+
+  Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf, 70
+
+  Sand, Karl Ludwig, 100, 230
+
+  Sargent, Dudley Allen, 279-284, 352
+
+  Schenckendorff, Emil von, 139-145
+
+  Schmidt, Dr. F. A., 142, 145, 177
+
+  Schnepfenthal Educational Institute, 70
+
+  Seaver, Jay Webber, 355
+
+  Silow, Carl, 162, 177, 334
+
+  Simon, Johann Friedrich, 68
+
+  Skarstrom, William, 334
+
+  Sparta, physical education at, 18
+
+  Spiess, Adolf, 109-119
+
+  Swedish medical gymnastics in America, 358
+    in England, 207
+
+
+  T
+
+  Thermæ (public baths), Roman, 32
+
+  Tissot, Clement Joseph, 66
+    Simon André, 65
+
+  Törngren, Lars Mauritz, 161, 202, 336
+
+  Tournaments and jousts, 45
+
+  _Turnen_, origin of the word, 89
+    its revival, 101 ff.
+    its spread in Germany, 96
+    suppressed in Prussia (1820), 100
+
+  _Turnerschaft, Deutsche_, 104-108
+
+  _Turnfeste_, German, 106
+    German-American, 293, 296, 307
+
+
+  U
+
+  University courses in physical education in Denmark, 191
+    in Germany, 126
+
+  University courses in physical education in United States, 285, 357
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vassar College, 275
+
+  Vegio, Maffeo, 50
+
+  Vergerio, Pietro Paulo, 50
+
+  Vieth, Gerhard Ulrich Anton, 81
+
+  Virginia, University of, 264
+
+  Vives, Juan Luis, 54
+
+  Völker, Karl, 98, 229, 240, 248
+
+
+  W
+
+  _Wartburgfest_ of 1817, 99
+
+  Wassmannsdorff, Karl, 119
+
+  Wegener, Johann Theodor, 184
+
+  Welch, Follansbee Goodrich, 271, 275
+
+  Weld, Theodore Dwight, 261
+
+  Wellesley College, 334, 356, 357
+
+  Wesleyan University, 274
+
+  Williams College, 246, 268, 274
+
+  Winship, George Barker, 258, 310
+
+  Wood, Williams, 309
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yale College, 245, 270, 280
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zückert, Joh. Friedrich, 65
+
+  Zwingli, Ulrich, 53
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78009 ***
diff --git a/78009-h/78009-h.htm b/78009-h/78009-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9bc88e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/78009-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,17480 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+<head>
+    <meta charset="UTF-8">
+    <title>
+      A guide to the history of physical education | Project Gutenberg
+    </title>
+    <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover">
+    <style>
+
+a {
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+body {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+}
+
+h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 {
+    text-align: center;
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+h2.nobreak, h3.nobreak {
+    page-break-before: avoid;
+}
+
+hr.chap {
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    clear: both;
+    width: 65%;
+    margin-left: 17.5%;
+    margin-right: 17.5%;
+}
+
+img.w100 {
+    width: 100%;
+}
+
+div.chapter {
+    page-break-before: always;
+}
+
+ul {
+    list-style-type: none;
+}
+
+li.indx {
+    margin-top: .5em;
+    padding-left: 2em;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+li.ifrst {
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    padding-left: 5em;
+}
+
+li.isub1 {
+    padding-left: 4em;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+li.isub2 {
+    padding-left: 6em;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+}
+
+p {
+    margin-top: 0.5em;
+    text-align: justify;
+    margin-bottom: 0.5em;
+    text-indent: 1em;
+}
+
+table {
+    margin: 1em auto 1em auto;
+    max-width: 40em;
+    border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+th {
+    padding: 0.25em;
+    font-weight: normal;
+}
+
+td {
+    padding-left: 2.25em;
+    padding-right: 0.25em;
+    vertical-align: top;
+    text-indent: -2em;
+    text-align: justify;
+}
+
+.tdc {
+    text-align: center;
+    padding: 0.75em 0.25em 0.25em 0.25em;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.in2 {
+    padding-left: 4.25em;
+}
+
+.tdpg {
+    vertical-align: bottom;
+    text-align: right;
+    white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+.tdr {
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+table.borders, table.borders th {
+    border: thin solid black;
+}
+
+table.borders td {
+    border-left: thin solid black;
+    border-right: thin solid black;
+}
+
+.bibliography {
+    font-size: 90%;
+}
+
+blockquote {
+    margin: 1.5em 10%;
+}
+
+.center {
+    text-align: center;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.dedication {
+    text-align: center;
+    text-indent: 0;
+    line-height: 1.8em;
+}
+
+.ditto {
+    margin-left: .8em;
+    margin-right: .8em;
+}
+
+figcaption p {
+    text-align: center;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    font-size: 90%;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.figcenter {
+    margin: auto;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figleft {
+    float: left;
+    clear: left;
+    margin-left: 0;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figright {
+    float: right;
+    clear: right;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.footnotes {
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    border: dashed 1px;
+}
+
+.footnote {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+    font-size: 0.9em;
+}
+
+.footnote .label {
+    position: absolute;
+    right: 84%;
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+.fnanchor {
+    vertical-align: super;
+    font-size: .8em;
+    text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+.larger {
+    font-size: 150%;
+}
+
+.nw {
+    white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+.pagenum {
+    position: absolute;
+    right: 4%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+    font-style: normal;
+}
+
+.right {
+    text-align: right;
+}
+
+.smaller {
+    font-size: 80%;
+}
+
+.smcap {
+    font-variant: small-caps;
+    font-style: normal;
+}
+
+.allsmcap {
+    font-variant: small-caps;
+    font-style: normal;
+    text-transform: lowercase;
+}
+
+.titlepage {
+    text-align: center;
+    margin-top: 3em;
+    text-indent: 0;
+}
+
+.x-ebookmaker img {
+    max-width: 100%;
+    width: auto;
+    height: auto;
+}
+
+.x-ebookmaker blockquote {
+    margin: 1.5em 5%;
+}
+
+/* Illustration classes */
+.illowp50 {width: 50%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp50 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp64 {width: 64%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp64 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp100 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp45 {width: 45%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp45 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp48 {width: 48%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp48 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp52 {width: 52%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp52 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp56 {width: 56%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp56 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp41 {width: 41%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp41 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp93 {width: 93%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp93 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp51 {width: 51%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp51 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp69 {width: 69%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp69 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp60 {width: 60%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp60 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp70 {width: 70%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp70 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp62 {width: 62%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp62 {width: 100%;}
+.illowp92 {width: 92%;}
+.x-ebookmaker .illowp92 {width: 100%;}
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78009 ***</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">[i]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="frontispiece" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p>EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL (1850-1922)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[ii]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p class="center"><b>THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION SERIES</b></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Edited by R. TAIT McKENZIE, B.A., M.D., M.P.E.</span><br>
+<span class="smaller">MAJOR, ROYAL ARMY MEDICAL CORPS<br>
+PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL THERAPY, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA<br>
+PHILADELPHIA</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">A GUIDE<br>
+<span class="smaller">TO THE</span><br>
+<span class="larger">HISTORY OF<br>
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br>
+FRED EUGENE LEONARD, A.M., M.D.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PROFESSOR OF HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN OBERLIN COLLEGE<br>
+OBERLIN, OHIO</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">ILLUSTRATED WITH 99 ENGRAVINGS</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter titlepage illowp64" id="imprimatur" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/imprimatur.jpg" alt="">
+</figure>
+
+<p class="titlepage">LEA &amp; FEBIGER<br>
+<span class="smaller">PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK<br>
+1923</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span><br>
+LEA &amp; FEBIGER<br>
+1923</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller">PRINTED IN U. S. A.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p>
+
+<p class="dedication">TO<br>
+THE MEMORY OF<br>
+<span class="larger">DR. EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL</span><br>
+WHO FIRST IN AMERICA BLAZED THE TRAIL<br>
+WHICH I HAVE TRIED TO FOLLOW</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Thirty years ago, when the writer of these lines was called to a
+professorship in physical education, there existed no comprehensive
+survey of the field he was entering. The reports of Dr. Hartwell
+contained excellent summaries which suggested our debt to the
+past and to foreign lands, and fuller treatment of certain earlier
+periods in the United States; but the English language offered
+little else of value. Suitable preparation of courses in the principles
+and methods of physical education required more ample knowledge
+of what others had done and were doing, and the task of finding
+out and gathering together the best of the European literature
+bearing on the subject was at once begun and has been continued
+ever since. A summer trip to Germany in 1896 whetted an appetite
+which later found satisfaction in an entire year (1900-1901)
+on the Continent, where the large special collections at the Stockholm
+Central Institute of Gymnastics and the Berlin <i>Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt</i>
+supplied for the first time an opportunity to become
+familiar with the older books and periodicals. The year also contributed
+to the linguistic knowledge and experience needed for the
+handling of such material. The direct contact with historic spots
+and significant aspects of physical education in Europe which it
+brought was afterwards renewed and broadened by five months
+(February to June, 1913) spent at important centers in Switzerland,
+Germany, the three Scandinavian countries, and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the collection of material had progressed at a rapid
+rate, and from time to time as circumstances permitted chapters
+of a book-to-be were prepared and published, in irregular order,
+and biographical sketches which might later be incorporated in
+such a work as the present one. Thus it happens that only five
+of the twenty-eight chapters in this volume are altogether new,
+though all have been carefully revised and many of them largely
+rewritten within the last year and a half. The selection of topics,
+order of arrangement, and manner of presentation have been determined
+experimentally in courses given to students in Oberlin College
+since the spring of 1894, and for thirteen years (1899, 1902, and
+1908-1919) at the Harvard University Summer School. The illustrations
+are chosen from nearly six hundred which have been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span>employed in the form of lantern slides in these courses. With few
+exceptions the references in the text and footnotes are based on
+first-hand examination of the originals.</p>
+
+<p>If we except Viktor Heikel’s <i>Gymnastikens Historia</i> (issued at
+Helsingfors in four parts, 1905-1909), comprehensive in plan but
+quite erratic in its treatment of the United States, no work undertaking
+to trace the history of physical education in Europe and
+America and to describe the chief present-day movements has
+appeared hitherto in any language. Euler’s standard <i>Geschichte des
+Turnunterrichts</i> and the lesser German manuals, while they are in
+general excellent guides so far as ancient and medieval Europe are
+concerned, and for the recent history in that particular country, have
+little or nothing to say of the rest of modern Europe, except as it has
+influenced Germany herself. This is less true of Euler’s monumental
+<i>Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens</i> and the more
+recent <i>Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens</i> of Dr. Rudolf Gasch,
+but in these, too, the space allotted to non-German subjects is
+altogether insufficient. Similarly Illeris and Trap’s brief <i>Grundtræk
+af Gymnastikkens Historie</i> covers chiefly Danish experience.
+For each country one must consult its own literature, and particularly
+the periodical publications, and he needs also to supplement
+his reading by personal observation and investigation on the ground
+in order to avoid distorted views and arrive at sound conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>If this attempt to set forth clearly the characteristics of the different
+stages and phases through which physical education has passed,
+to introduce the persons who have contributed to its advancement,
+and to guide the reader to the best that has been written on the
+subject, shall lead to deeper and more general appreciation of the
+place which physical education should win and hold in general
+education, and to the adoption of wiser measures where it is introduced,
+the labor expended upon the volume will be well rewarded.
+Much has been omitted which might have been included. If
+inaccuracies are discovered the author will be glad to have his
+attention called to them.</p>
+
+<p class="right">F. E. L.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oberlin, Ohio, 1923.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="EDITORS_PREFACE">EDITOR’S PREFACE.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The shore of physical education is strewn with the wrecks of
+systems and movements, many of them good in themselves, but
+left to drift when the personal support and enthusiasm of the
+founder was removed from the helm. It has only been when some
+great national crisis had to be faced and the minds of patriots and
+scholars were engaged in the effort to meet it, that systems have
+been evolved great enough to survive the death of their founder,
+the test of time and change in their national conditions. This is
+notably true of the gymnastics of Denmark, Sweden and Germany.
+Incomplete as systems of physical education without the addition
+of games, but logical and accurate in their application to the conditions
+they have had to meet, whenever similar conditions have
+arisen it is to them we have turned for inspiration and instruction,
+and nowhere was this better shown than in the great war of 1914,
+where crude masses of untrained and underdeveloped men had to
+be made quick and accurate in response to command and given
+that control of their bodies that is the true function of physical
+education in its highest sense.</p>
+
+<p>To the sincere student of physical education nothing has a more
+sobering effect than the study of those advances made by the great
+men who have given their lives to their cause. He finds that most
+of the theories that come to him as new and startling have been
+thought before and have been either rejected or put into practice
+as well or better than he is likely to do, and so if he is a philosopher,
+he can avoid the inevitable failure of schemes that have been discarded
+and adapt from material of proved worth the material that
+suits his special conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Such a study will save him from the outstanding characteristic of
+many exploiters of this subject, the unfounded claims for originality
+and novelty in their work. Small collections of free exercises are
+dignified as systems and published as such with apparent seriousness,
+slight variation of method is hailed as a great discovery, has its
+little day of notoriety and takes its place on the library shelves as
+a literary curiosity of interest only to the antiquarian, and the
+busy teacher has neither the time nor the inclination to separate
+the wheat from the chaff. Up to the present there have been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span>but incomplete and fragmentary reports available for our guidance,
+often in translation, and frequently garbled by personal bias,
+so that the need has become more and more urgent for a complete
+and scholarly review of the growth and distribution of systems that
+are associated with certain names and certain periods.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Leonard is peculiarly fitted for such a great task. An enthusiastic
+scholar, with an intimate knowledge of the languages in
+which the originals were written, he has devoted the leisure and
+the vacations of thirty years to collecting, reading and making
+available rare and inaccessible works on the subject, for students
+of education in general and of physical education in particular.
+Repeated visits to Europe and pilgrimages to the shrines of the
+pioneers have given him the proper perspective, and this volume
+presents his conclusions as delivered in his yearly lecture courses
+at Oberlin and Harvard.</p>
+
+<p>It comes appropriately early in a series of books designed to
+place physical education on an equality with other more strongly
+entrenched parts of a general educational system. The soul is
+indeed dead that does not react with a generous glow when reading
+the difficulties overcome and the work accomplished by the
+heroes of any field of endeavor, and what could be more inspiring
+at this time than to have set forth the conquests and defeats of
+those patriotic spirits whose lives have been given to upbuilding
+the health and fitness of the youth of the world, throughout the
+ages, as a guide and inspiration to us who have these same
+problems to meet at the present time.</p>
+
+<p class="right"><span class="smcap">R. Tait McKenzie</span>,<br>
+<span style="margin-right: 4.5em;">Editor.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">PART I. EUROPE.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER I.<br><span class="smcap">The Greeks.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Two Types of Education, Spartan and Athenian</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Physical Education at Sparta</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Physical Education at Athens</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The National Festivals</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER II.<br><span class="smcap">The Romans.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Roman Conception of Education</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Military Training and Discipline</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Introduction of Greek Gymnastics</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Exercises of the Public Baths</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Public Spectacles of the Amphitheater and the Circus</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER III.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    Teutonic Invaders of the Roman Empire</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER IV.<br><span class="smcap">Asceticism
+    in the Early Christian Church.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Causes</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Nature of the Period</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Effects</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER V.<br><span class="smcap">Monastery and Cathedral
+    Schools.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">41</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER VI.<br><span class="smcap">Chivalry.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">43</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER VII.<br><span class="smcap">The Universities of
+    the Middle Ages.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER VIII.<br><span class="smcap">The Period
+    of the Renaissance and the Reformation.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Changes in Education—The Humanists</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Vittorino da Feltre</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Physical Training Advocated by Writers on Education:</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="in2">In Italy—Cardano, Mercurialis, etc.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="in2">Luther, Zwingli, Camerarius, Comenius</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="in2">The Spanish Scholar Vives</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="in2">In France—Rabelais and Montaigne</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="in2">In England—Elyot, Mulcaster, Milton</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER IX.<br><span class="smcap">Locke
+    and Rousseau.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>John Locke</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Jean Jacques Rousseau</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Medical Writers of the Period</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER X.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    Beginnings of Modern Physical Education in Germany.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Basedow, and the Dessau “Philanthropinum”</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Salzmann, and the Schnepfenthal Educational Institute</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Life and Work of GutsMuths</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>His Writings</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Vieth’s “Encyclopedia of Bodily Exercises” (Footnote)</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XI.<br><span class="smcap">Friedrich
+    Ludwig Jahn, and Popular Gymnastics in Germany.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Jahn’s Early Life</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Outdoor Gymnasium (Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i>) near Berlin</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Spread of the Jahn Gymnastics in Germany, up to 1819</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Reaction of 1819—Jahn’s Later Life</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Development of Popular Gymnastic Societies since 1840—The <i>Deutsche Turnerschaft</i></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XII.<br><span class="smcap">Adolf
+    Spiess, the Father of German School Gymnastics.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Early Life, and School Days at Offenbach</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>University Student and Tutor</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Teacher in Switzerland, at Burgdorf and Basel</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>In Charge of School Gymnastics in the Grand Duchy of Hesse</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>His Contribution to Physical Education</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_117">117</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIII.<br><span class="smcap">Physical
+    Training in the Prussian Schools.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Ernst Eiselen in Berlin</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Massmann Endeavors to Revive the Jahn Plan</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Rothstein at the Berlin Central Institute</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Training of Teachers in More Recent Times</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Gymnastics in the Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The German Universities and Technical Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIV.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    Playground Movement in Germany.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Koch and Hermann in Brunswick</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Hartwich in Düsseldorf</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Von Gossler’s “Playground Order”</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Von Schenckendorff and Eitner at Görlitz</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Central Committee, 1891-1915</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XV.<br><span class="smcap">Per
+    Henrik Ling, Father of Physical Education in Sweden.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Early years in Sweden</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">146</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Student in Copenhagen</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Lund Period</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Stockholm Period—The “Central Institute”</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XVI.<br><span class="smcap">Ling’s
+    Successors at the Central Institute in Stockholm.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Branting, Georgii</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Nyblæus, Hartelius, Hjalmar Ling</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Törngren, Silow, Balck, Sellén</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Central Institute in 1900</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Proposed Reorganization (1912)</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XVII.<br><span class="smcap">Physical
+    Education in the Schools of Sweden.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Elementary Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Higher Schools for Boys</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Higher Schools for Girls—Private Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XVIII.<br><span class="smcap">Physical
+    Education in Denmark.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Under Nachtegall</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Under la Cour, Wegener, and Amsinck</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Rifle Clubs</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The People’s High Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Swedish System of School Gymnastics Introduced</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Under Ramsing and Knudsen</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Playground Movement</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_194">194</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIX.<br><span class="smcap">Great
+    Britain.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Sports and Organized Games</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Archibald Maclaren</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Swedish System of School Gymnastics Introduced</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Dunfermline College of Hygiene and Physical Training</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XX.<br><span class="smcap">International
+    Gatherings.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>European Gymnastic Federations</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Modern Olympic Games</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Congresses for the Promotion of Physical Education</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">PART II. UNITED STATES.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXI.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    First Introduction of the Jahn Gymnastics into America.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Early Life of Follen and Beck, in Germany and Switzerland</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>They Settle in Northampton and Cambridge, Massachusetts</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The First School Gymnasium in the United States, at Round Hill</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The First College Gymnasium in the United States, at Harvard University</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Boston Gymnasium, the First Public Gymnasium in the United States</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Lieber Succeeds Follen at the Boston Gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Later History of Beck, Follen, and Lieber</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Introduction of Gymnastics in Other Schools and Colleges</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXII.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    “New Gymnastics” of Dio Lewis.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Early Life of Lewis—Becomes Popular Lecturer</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Introduces His “New Gymnastics” in and about Boston</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Normal Institute for Physical Education</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Lewis’s Writings</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>School for Girls, at Lexington and Spy Pond</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Later Life</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXIII.<br><span class="smcap">Physical
+    Education in American Colleges and Universities.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>In the Period of 1830</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>In the Eighteen-fifties</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Harvard, Yale, and Amherst Build Gymnasia</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Amherst Establishes a Professorship of Hygiene and Physical Education</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Other Colleges in the Eighteen-sixties and -seventies</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Land-grant Act of 1862, and Military Training</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Beginning of Rowing, Baseball, Football, and Track Athletics</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Dr. Sargent at Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Progress since 1880</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_284">284</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXIV.<br><span class="smcap">German-American
+    Gymnastic Societies and the North American Turnerbund.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Early History, up to the Close of the Civil War</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">290</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Period 1865-1886</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>George Brosius, and the Milwaukee Normal School of Gymnastics</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Year 1886 a Turning Point</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Carl Betz, and German Gymnastics in American Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Recent History of the Turnerbund and Its Normal School</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXV.<br><span class="smcap">Physical
+    Training in the Young Men’s Christian Associations.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Robert J. Roberts and His Work</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Luther H. Gulick at the Springfield (Mass.) Training School</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Chicago and Lake Geneva Training School</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Recent History of Physical Training in the Associations</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXVI.<br><span class="smcap">Swedish
+    School Gymnastics in the United States.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Posse, and the Introduction of Swedish Gymnastics in the Boston Schools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">322</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Dr. Hartwell’s Contribution to Physical Education in America</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Work of Nissen, Enebuske, Bolin, and Others</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Swedish Gymnastics at the Woman’s College and the Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXVII.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    Playground Movement in America. Statewide Physical Education.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Sand Piles and Outdoor Gymnasia in Boston</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">337</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chicago Small Parks and Playgrounds</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Status of the Playground Movement in 1916</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Legislation Favoring Statewide Physical Education</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">CHAPTER XXVIII.<br><span class="smcap">The
+    Training of Teachers.</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Dio Lewis</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">352</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The North American Turnerbund</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Dr. Sargent, at the Private Gymnasium and the Harvard Summer School</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics, and the Chautauqua Summer School</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Young Men’s Christian Association Colleges</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, and the Posse Gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Teacher’s Courses in Colleges and Universities</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
+
+<h1>HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION.</h1>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_I">PART I<br>
+EUROPE.</h2>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE GREEKS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Man’s earliest endeavor to perfect the body, discipline the mind,
+and mold the character of the young by means of selected forms of
+physical activity and special regimen could doubtless be traced back
+to a prehistoric age. The study of ancient customs of China and
+India, Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, the Phœnicians and Carthaginians,
+the Persians, and the Hebrews might also yield some curious
+facts. But if one’s purpose is to follow the evolution of modern
+forms of physical education in Europe and America and to note
+the significant contributions and modifications introduced at
+various stages, it is sufficient to begin with Greece as it was in the
+century and a half whose middle point is the year of Salamis and
+Thermopylæ (480 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>). There we find “gymnastics” generally
+adopted as a necessary part of education, provision everywhere
+made for the exercise of youths and grown men in establishments
+supported and administered by the state, great national festivals
+at which the chief attractions were contests in physical prowess, and
+at a later day sculptors able to reproduce from the types presented
+to them in the gymnasia ideal human figures which have never
+been excelled in beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Several things must be borne in mind when one thinks of Greece
+in the period of the Persian Wars. It was not a nation in the
+modern sense of a political unit with a central government and circumscribed
+territory, but a group of independent states and cities
+in European Greece, on the islands of the Ægean Sea, along the
+west coast of Asia Minor, and wherever else the Greek language
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>was spoken by persons who felt the tie of a common descent, common
+religious beliefs, and common customs.</p>
+
+<p>These customs, furthermore, were not uniform. For example,
+education embraced two subjects of instruction and training, gymnastics
+and “music.” The former reached primarily the body and
+the will; the latter, which included literary studies as well as music
+in the narrower sense, affected the intellect and the emotions.
+Sparta, surrounded by an unfriendly and subject people, was little
+more than an organized camp, in which self-preservation required
+a form of training designed to mold every citizen into the best
+possible weapon of defense. Individual welfare was therefore
+strictly subordinated to that of the community. Education was
+viewed as a function of the state, and physical hardihood, skilful
+use of weapons, self-reliant courage, and iron discipline were developed
+by a type of education which was chiefly gymnastic and military.
+Literary training was neglected, and music, in the form of
+religious and patriotic hymns, war songs, and ballads recounting
+the deeds of heroes, was valued solely for its stimulating effects.
+At Athens, on the other hand, we find a much broader type of education,
+which came more and more to dominate the practice of
+her sister states and cities. Complete and harmonious development
+of the individual was the object sought, and the schools were
+private affairs, over which the state exercised nothing more than
+police supervision. Gymnastics was hardly less essential than at
+Sparta, but literary training occupied a prominent place, and music
+was esteemed for its refining influence on character and its contribution
+to social enjoyment.</p>
+
+<p>A third point to be noted is that whatever may be said of Greek
+education applies to free citizens only, and hence takes no account
+of slaves and the foreign-born, who made up possibly as much as
+three-fourths of the total population—at least in the case of the
+larger cities. And even within these limits it is usually boys alone
+for whom provision was made.</p>
+
+<p>Turning first to physical education at Sparta, the earlier type,
+we find that the state began its efforts to secure a sound body of
+citizens by carefully regulating the life of the women, and formed
+an exception to the statement just made in that it prescribed for
+girls a course of gymnastic exercise. There was need of vigorous
+mothers for the sturdy race which public welfare demanded. As a
+further precaution, the new-born infant was brought before a
+council of old men, whose decision whether or not he should be
+raised was based upon his physical condition and promise, and was
+final. The first six years were passed in the home, but at the age
+of seven the boy was taken away from his parents, to be placed
+in public quarters. Here he slept and ate in company with a large
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>number of other boys, and shared with them a common discipline
+at the hands of state officials who shaped every detail with reference
+to his future career as a citizen-warrior. He spent the night in a
+room open to the sky, without the luxury of bedclothes, on a pallet
+of hay or straw, exchanged when he was older for one of rushes
+which he had gathered himself along the river banks. He went
+summer and winter clad in a single scanty garment, unshod, bare-headed
+and with close-cropped hair. The food, of the plainest sort,
+was hardly sufficient to satisfy the cravings of hunger. The amount
+might be eked out by theft, however, but with the understanding
+that anyone so indiscreet or maladroit as to be detected in the act
+would receive prompt and severe punishment. Indeed, the rod
+and lash were freely applied, by public officers or by any offended
+citizen, upon the least provocation, and as a necessary part of the
+regular discipline, since it accustomed the future soldier to the
+endurance of pain. There were even what might be considered
+periodical tests of this capacity to endure, for at one of the annual
+festivals the flogging of youths was an essential feature, often carried
+to the drawing of blood, it is said. Like the Indian under torture,
+the victim was expected to give no signs of suffering.</p>
+
+<p>For the gymnastic instruction which occupied the greater part
+of their time the boys were arranged in squads or “packs” according
+to age, and these in turn were combined into companies. Each
+division had its young leader, chosen on the score of ability and
+longer experience, but all were subject to the direction of special
+state officers. The course of training included practice in wrestling,
+running, jumping, throwing the javelin and the discus, marching
+in time to music, together with other military exercises, swimming
+in the Eurotas, riding on horseback, hunting, and certain rough
+games. There was also practice in choral dances, for use on religious
+occasions, and in the war dance, representing the movements of
+attack and defense. This latter, the so-called Pyrrhic dance, was
+sometimes executed in armor, and by whole companies moving
+together in rhythm to the accompaniment of music. Occasional
+public exhibitions and contests acted as incentives to improvement
+and furnished opportunity to test it, satisfying at the same time
+the general fondness for such displays.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of his eighteenth year the youth left the common
+training quarters of the boys and entered upon a second stage of
+discipline. During the next two years his preparation took more
+and more the form of scouting in outlying districts of the state,
+and might involve actual warfare. His understanding had been
+matured meanwhile by constant intercourse with grown men in
+the affairs of daily public life.</p>
+
+<p>Not much is known of the training imposed upon the Spartan
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>girls; but it included both gymnastics and music, and among the
+exercises practised were running, jumping, throwing the spear and
+the discus, dancing, swimming, and even wrestling.</p>
+
+<p>In Athens, as at Sparta, weak, deformed or sickly infants were
+sometimes put out of the way (“exposed”), but in this case the
+decision rested with the father. Here, too, the first six years were
+spent at home, under the charge of the women of the household.
+The play of childhood took most often the form of active exercise
+and games, and in the list of amusements, under the thin disguise
+of strange names, we discover many varieties which have survived
+to the present day with undiminished popularity: The small box
+of metal or wood containing stones which rattled when it was
+shaken; hobby-horses, swinging and seesaw, walking on stilts,
+trundling hoops, kite-flying; spinning tops, whipping the humming
+top, and a game resembling our peg-top, but played with sharpened
+sticks; shooting or tossing smooth stones or nuts and the like, as
+in some of our modern games with marbles; tossing up and catching
+jackstones, in the shape of pebbles or small bones; making
+flat stones skip along the surface of the water, various exercises
+and games with balls, hide-and-seek, blindman’s buff, games like
+our drop-the-handkerchief, and others in which sides were chosen
+and one side then chased its opponents in the attempt to make them
+prisoners. Besides a share in the less violent of these sports, the
+little girls had, of course, their dolls, made of clay or wax and sometimes
+painted. They seldom left the women’s quarters, but
+acquired there whatever training was considered necessary for
+their later life.</p>
+
+<p>The school age for the boy began with his seventh year. Custom
+required that each son of a free citizen should be given instruction
+in gymnastics and music, but beyond keeping an eye on the morals
+of teachers and the conduct of their charges the state did not concern
+itself with education. It rested with the parent alone to decide
+how much schooling his boy should receive, and the schools were
+in all cases private institutions, supported by the fees of pupils.
+The status of the teacher was not an exalted one—the pay was
+small, and the position was often the last resort of the unsuccessful.
+We may be certain, therefore, that the results of education, even
+at Athens, too often fell far short of the exalted ideal cherished by
+many of her foremost citizens. The general features of the system
+are sufficiently clear, but many details of instruction, including
+the amount of time devoted to different branches, and the age at
+which they were begun, remain to be discovered. The literary
+training comprised reading and committing to memory selections
+from the poets, especially Homer and Hesiod, writing, and the
+elements of arithmetic. For musical training there was practice
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>not only in singing selections from the great lyric poets, but also
+in the use of stringed instruments—the seven-stringed lyre, or the
+later cithara—as an accompaniment to the voice. The flute, as
+an instrument for ordinary use, was held in less esteem.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure01" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure01.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Scene in a Palæstra.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Games and gymnastics, however, seem to have occupied the
+larger part of the boy’s time. The private school where these
+were practised was known as a <i>palæstra</i>, a name derived from the
+Greek word for wrestling. The exercises must have been given
+out of doors originally, and whatever structures were used for them
+in later times can hardly have contained more than an open court
+for wrestling, with one or more small rooms adjoining, where clothing
+might be laid aside or put on and where oil and sand were kept,
+and some provision for bathing in case there was no stream close
+at hand. No clothing of any sort was worn during the exercises.
+These seem to have included most of the forms practised in later
+life—running, the broad jump with and without weights in the
+hands, throwing the javelin and the discus for distance, and above
+all, wrestling, besides the rudiments of boxing, and a form of the
+<i>pancratium</i>, a struggle which combined certain features of both
+boxing and wrestling with others of its own.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Mention is also made
+of simple exercises to develop correct carriage and a graceful step in
+walking, and it is said that the art of swimming was early acquired,
+and that games, especially those in which the ball was used, were
+by no means forgotten. Dancing, at least in its more advanced
+forms, was not a regular subject of instruction at Athens, but was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>left to choral bands which received special training for their appearance
+before the public on festal occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Upon reaching the age of eighteen the youth, now known as an
+<i>ephebe</i>, passed under state control for a two-year period of discipline
+comparable to the enforced military service in modern continental
+Europe. He first took a solemn oath of allegiance, and was
+then sent to join the garrisons at the neighboring harbor of the
+Piræus, for training in the use of weapons and the performance
+of a soldier’s duties. At the end of the first year he received from
+the state a shield and spear, and might now be employed at other
+garrison ports or as a frontier patrol. Hunting afforded additional
+preparation for active warfare. Meanwhile the former gymnastic
+exercises were continued, but for these, instead of visiting the
+palæstra, he now joined the grown men in the city gymnasia. The
+ephebes were conspicuous figures in the numerous local festivals
+held at Athens, taking part in processions like that represented on
+the frieze of the Parthenon, and in various athletic events. Aside
+from this later gymnastic and military training there was no higher
+education in Greece until the rise of the sophists, or professional
+lecturers on rhetoric and philosophy, after the middle of the fifth
+century before Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek <i>gymnasium</i>, unlike the palæstra, was intended for
+ephebes and for grown men who had finished their schooling. It
+was a state institution maintained at public expense and administered
+by public magistrates and other functionaries. Structures of
+this sort began to be built, or, more properly, laid out, as early as
+the sixth or seventh century before Christ, and by the end of the
+fifth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> there was probably no important Greek town,
+at home or in the colonies, that did not possess at least one of them.
+Almost any open spot would serve the purpose at the start, but, as
+population increased and civilization advanced, buildings of special
+design became necessary, and these grew in size and splendor with
+the addition of new features from time to time. Exact information
+with regard to the different parts and their arrangement is almost
+wholly lacking for the period under review. Descriptions which
+have come down to us, and the remains discovered at Olympia,
+Delphi, and other places belong to later centuries. The same
+general plan seems to have been followed, however, but with considerable
+variation in details. Originally, we may suppose, as in
+the case of the palæstra, there was only an open space for wrestling,
+running, and the other exercises, and surrounding or adjoining this
+covered colonnades, into which various rooms opened. The essential
+features at a later stage seem to have included, besides this spacious
+court or course and its colonnades, a room where clothing
+might be taken off and left, others for the oil with which visitors
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>rubbed the body before exercising, and for the dust or fine sand
+with which the wrestlers were then sprinkled, and some sort of
+baths, either basins set on high supports, or running water issuing
+from outlets under which one might stand, as in a modern shower-bath.
+Before washing himself the gymnast removed the oil, sand,
+and dirt from his body with a scraper of metal, bone, or reed, hollowed
+out somewhat like a spoon and furnished with a handle, but
+concave along one edge. Some provision was usually made for
+playing at ball and for running under cover, in addition to the open
+spaces intended for wrestling, running, and throwing the discus and
+the javelin. The whole might be enclosed in spacious grounds, as
+was the case with the three ancient gymnasia outside the walls of
+Athens, and these were laid out like public parks, shaded with
+trees and planted with shrubs and flowering plants, watered by
+streams or fountains, and further adorned with statues of favorite
+gods, legendary heroes, and eminent citizens.</p>
+
+<p>The position of general superintendent of the gymnasium was
+one of great dignity. Other officials were charged with enforcing
+good order and decorous behavior, and there was a variety of
+trainers and servants who gave assistance in one way or another.
+Like the boys in the palæstra, those who were about to exercise
+stripped themselves entirely naked before commencing—a practice
+which must have stimulated each to make himself an object worth
+beholding, and gave to the sculptor unparalleled opportunities for
+study of the human body in action and repose. Among the favorite
+occupations were running, wrestling, the broad jump with stone
+or metal weights in the hands, throwing the heavy stone or metal
+discus for distance, and throwing the javelin by means of a leather
+thong wound about it near the center and ending in a loop for one
+or two fingers. The javelins commonly used in practice were blunt
+rods about a man’s height in length, and thrown for distance more
+often than at a mark. A combination of these five exercises, known
+as the <i>pentathlon</i>, or five-fold contest, furnished a popular form of
+gymnastic competition. Another exceedingly popular sport was
+boxing, with the knuckles protected by long, thin, leather thongs
+wrapped about the hand and wrist, and there was also the <i>pancratium</i>,
+a sort of rough-and-tumble fight reduced to orderly form.
+In this the hands were left bare, and the struggle was continued
+until one of the contestants acknowledged himself defeated.</p>
+
+<p>Besides answering the original purpose for which they were laid
+out, the gymnasia came to be more and more the centers of Greek
+social and intellectual life, a gathering place of citizens for conversation
+and amusement which combined some of the features of
+a modern clubhouse with those of a city park. Philosophers and
+rhetoricians found a general audience or met their special pupils
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>there, and thus it happened that each of the three great gymnasia
+at Athens became associated with a particular school of philosophy—the
+<i>Academy</i>, on the banks of the river Cephissus about a mile
+to the northwest of the city walls, with Plato, whose followers
+assembled in a small garden which he owned within the enclosure,
+and were therefore dubbed the “Academic sect;” the <i>Lyceum</i> with
+Aristotle, whose favorite walk was here, whence he and his disciples
+were known as “Peripatetics;” and the <i>Cynosarges</i> with the school
+of the Cynics, or followers of Antisthenes, who frequented that
+spot. It is these later and secondary uses of the gymnasium that
+alone give significance to such modern words as the German <i>gymnasium</i>
+and the French <i>lycée</i> (secondary schools), and to our own
+“academy” and “lyceum.”</p>
+
+<p>The most striking illustration of the important place accorded
+to physical training among the Greeks is found in their great national
+festivals. The very beginnings of recorded history show that in
+every town there were periodic religious festivals, where sacrifices
+to some hero or divinity were followed by feasting, dancing, choral
+songs to the accompaniment of the lyre or the flute, and exhibitions
+of bodily agility, strength, and skill in the form of competitive exercises.
+Gradually, in the case of certain localities, the importance
+and attractiveness of the festival increased and the circle from
+which visitors were drawn grew wider, until four of them, all in
+or near the Peloponnesus, finally developed into national occasions—first
+and foremost of the number, and as far back as the
+end of the eighth or very early in the seventh century before Christ,
+that held at Olympia, and in the first half of the sixth century
+before Christ three others, the Pythia, the Nemea, and the Isthmia.
+During three centuries in particular, from 600 to 300 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the
+service they rendered as common centers of interest, binding
+together the politically distinct members of the Greek race in the
+parent land and in the far-scattered colonies that dotted the
+borders of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, was of the greatest
+value.</p>
+
+<p>Olympia lies in a plain near the western limits of the Peloponnesus,
+about ten miles from the Ionian Sea. The sacred enclosure,
+some ten acres in extent, contained a grove in the center of which
+stood a great altar to Zeus, and near it his temple, wherein was a
+wonderful statue of the god in ivory and gold, the most famous
+work of Phidias and one of the greatest triumphs of Greek sculpture.
+Besides other temples, there were numerous altars, votive
+offerings, statues of gods, heroes, and victors in the games, and
+treasure houses erected by cities which had sent gifts to the shrine.
+Just outside the enclosure, to the east, were the stadium and the
+hippodrome. The stadium, to which most of the contests seem to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>have been transferred after the middle of the fifth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>,
+was at first merely a stretch of level ground overlooked from the
+north by spectators who stood or sat on the slope of the Hill of
+Cronus. Afterwards an artificial embankment was raised along the
+opposite side and straight across the ends of a parallelogram, completely
+enclosing it, so that 40,000 persons or more might find
+standing-room, but no permanent seats. Modern excavations have
+allowed exact measurements of the race course, from the starting
+to the finish line, and it is found to be just 192.27 m., or a trifle
+over 210 yards in length. No trace remains of the neighboring
+hippodrome, intended for chariot races, but it is supposed to have
+resembled the stadium in general plan, although much longer. A
+gymnasium, to the northwest of the enclosure, belongs to a much
+later date.</p>
+
+<p>The festival was held at intervals of four years, at the time of
+the second or third full moon after the summer solstice, coming
+therefore in the late summer. During the lunar month in which
+it occurred a truce of the god was observed throughout Greece.
+For an armed force to set foot on the soil of the district of Elis
+within that period, or for anyone to do violence to travellers on
+their way to or from Olympia, was considered sacrilege. Heralds
+were sent to announce the coming celebration through all the
+states of Greece and to carry the news to the Greek colonies which
+had been established on the islands of the Ægean Sea, in southwestern
+Italy and Sicily, and along the shores of the Black Sea and
+the coast of Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Gaul, and Spain. From the
+whole of this wide area deputations and private citizens made their
+way to the sacred spot. It was essentially a Greek gathering,
+though many foreigners were doubtless present in the throng, and
+except the priestess of Demeter, who occupied a conspicuous seat
+in the stadium, no women were allowed to view the exercises.</p>
+
+<p>In the games which followed the sacrifices on the altar of Zeus
+none but free-born Greek citizens, of pure Hellenic descent and
+untainted by civil or religious crime, were allowed to have a share.
+Each contestant had passed through a long period of preliminary
+training, the last thirty days of which were spent in the gymnasia
+at Elis, thirty miles away to the northwest, or in later years the one
+at Olympia itself. Originally a single day had sufficed for the
+festival, but from time to time, as the occasion grew in importance,
+new features were added until finally the program required five days
+for its completion. Interest centered chiefly on the competitive
+exercises, which consumed the greater part of the time. The list
+of these varied in the course of years, with the addition or dropping
+out of one item or another, but in general they included the foot
+race—a single course (210 yards), or down and back, or back and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>forth a number of times, or a race in armor; the pentathlon; wrestling;
+boxing and the pancratium; races between men on horseback;
+and the chariot race, commonly with four horses, less frequently
+with two. As far back as the seventh century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> separate contests
+for boys in running, the pentathlon, wrestling, and boxing were
+introduced.</p>
+
+<p>So much importance was attached to the games in the popular
+mind, and the fame of the winner spread so widely over the Hellenic
+world, that to wear the victor’s wreath on such an occasion became
+one of the highest honors a Greek could covet. At first the prizes
+offered possessed intrinsic value; but as victory became more and
+more a sufficient recompense in itself, they were restricted to the
+simple crown of sacred wild olive, placed upon the brow of the
+successful athlete. There were other rewards than this, however.
+In recognition of the honor done to them the citizens of the victor’s
+town sometimes received him with extraordinary demonstrations.
+It might be that, clad in purple, he entered the gates in a chariot
+drawn by white horses, and made his way through singing and
+cheering throngs to hang his wreath as an offering in the principal
+temple. We even hear of city walls torn down to make a passage,
+as though where such a citizen dwelt there was no need of other
+defense. The choral ode which greeted him might have been composed
+for the occasion by lyric poets like Pindar and Bacchylides.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+His statue would be set up in the home city, or placed within the
+sacred enclosure at Olympia. He was perhaps granted a seat of
+honor in the theater, and provided with board at the public table
+for the rest of his life. Solon, at Athens, is said to have offered
+five hundred drachmæ to an Olympian victor, and one hundred in
+the case of other national festivals.</p>
+
+<p>At Olympia the gymnastic competitions were the only ones.
+There were many among the visitors, however, who did not fail to
+take advantage of the great crowds to advance some private interest.
+Historians, philosophers and rhetoricians, poets, painters, and
+sculptors found listeners and patrons. The occasion was also one
+of commercial interchange, like the great fairs of the middle ages,
+or the religious gatherings at Mecca and Medina. To other proofs
+of the wide influence exerted by the games are to be added the
+facts that the length of the race course in the stadium at Olympia
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>was adopted as the standard unit for measuring distances, and that
+in the third century before Christ Greek historians began generally
+to employ as a unit of time the Olympiad, or four-year period
+including one celebration and extending to the next, designating
+each by the name of the victor in the foot-race at its particular
+festival. The first recorded Olympic festival was held in 776 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>,
+and they were not finally abolished till 394 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>—a period of 293
+Olympiads.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the Olympic festival in importance was the <i>Pythia</i>, in
+honor of Apollo, celebrated near the famous shrine of the god at
+Delphi, a few miles north of the Corinthian Gulf. It was quadrennial,
+like its greater rival, falling in the third year of each Olympiad.
+In the case of the two remaining national festivals the contests took
+place at intervals of only two years. The <i>Nemea</i>, in honor of Zeus,
+was held in Argolis, in a valley near Cleonæ where there was a grove
+containing a temple of the god. The <i>Isthmia</i> was celebrated on
+the isthmus of Corinth, in a grove of pines sacred to Poseidon.
+They fell in the second and fourth years of the Olympiad, one
+occurring in the summer and the other in the following spring.
+A general truce of the gods was observed during the progress of
+all three of these festivals. Unlike the Olympia, they added
+musical and literary competitions to the usual gymnastic contests
+and chariot races. The victor’s reward, at first substantial, was
+afterwards reduced to a wreath of sacred laurel at the Pythia, and
+to one of wild celery (“parsley”) at the Nemea and the Isthmia,
+replaced at the latter by one of pine in later times.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>General works in English which will be found of value are J. B. Bury’s “History
+of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great,” E. A. Gardner’s “Handbook of Greek
+Sculpture,” T. G. Tucker’s “Life in Ancient Athens,” and K. J. Freeman’s “Schools
+of Hellas,” all four published in London by Macmillan &amp; Co. Freeman’s chapter on
+Physical Education is the least satisfactory in his book, largely because of failure to
+distinguish between conditions at different periods, and taken alone would prove quite
+misleading.</p>
+
+<p>The following special works are indispensable, and contain ample references to the
+older literature: E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals” (London,
+Macmillan &amp; Co., 1910), and Julius Jüthner’s “Philostratos über Gymnastik”
+(Leipzig and Berlin, B. G. Teubner, 1909) and “Über antike Turngeräthe” (Vienna,
+Alfred Holder, 1896).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> For details regarding each of these exercises the reader is referred to Part II
+of E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals,” and Julius Jüthner’s
+“Über antike Turngeräthe.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> For English translations see Ernest Myers, “The Extant Odes of Pindar”
+(London, Macmillan &amp; Co.), or Sir John Sandys, “The Odes of Pindar,” in the Loeb
+Classical Library (New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons); and Sir Richard C. Jebb’s
+“Bacchylides” (Cambridge, England, The University Press). Pindar’s forty-four
+“Odes of Victory” include fourteen in honor of Olympian winners, twelve Pythian,
+eleven Nemean, and seven Isthmian. Of the thirteen odes of Bacchylides four are
+Olympian, two are Pythian, three Isthmian, three Nemean, and one relates to a
+Thessalian festival.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ROMANS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The year 400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> may be taken as marking roughly the close
+of the two or three centuries which witnessed the gradual development
+and culmination of physical training in Greece. Meanwhile
+a people differing widely from the cultured, reflective, beauty-loving
+Athenian in character and ideals had been establishing
+itself on the banks of the Tiber, and was already beginning to display
+a military prowess and a genius for organization that were to
+make Rome mistress of Italy within the next hundred and fifty
+years, extend its sway over the Mediterranean states in another
+century, and finally achieve world empire. The early Roman
+possessed some traits in common with the Spartan. He was first
+of all a man of affairs, intensely practical, and interested in things
+whose usefulness was apparent. A stranger to the Greek passion
+for beauty, he considered vague and worthless the notion of harmonious
+development as something desirable for its own sake.
+Education should fit a man for his work in the world. It was to
+make of him a good citizen and a capable soldier, ready to play his
+part in public life. Bodily exercise was desirable only as it gave
+robust health and prepared for military service. Music was an
+unprofitable art, and anything more than the rudiments of literary
+training was unnecessary. Until the time of the later emperors
+the state did not concern itself in any way with education, but left
+it altogether in the parents’ hands.</p>
+
+<p>So long as Roman education was free from foreign influence,
+<i>i.e.</i>, down to the middle of the third century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, it was given in
+the home and by the parents. Schools, if they existed at all, were
+few and relatively unimportant. In free intercourse with his
+father and mother the boy received moral and religious instruction
+and became acquainted with ancestral traditions, mastered the
+rudiments of reading, writing, and counting, and acquired experience
+in the care of the estate and the management of a household.
+Among his games, exercises with the ball were especially popular,
+but even his childish sports must have felt the influence of the
+military career that awaited him. As he approached the age when
+he must be enrolled among the citizens and assume a man’s obligations,
+both civil and military, companionship with his father on
+the streets and in the forum completed the necessary preparation
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>for public life. Now, too, he met with other young men for military
+exercises on the Field of Mars, which lay between the Tiber
+and the foot of the city hills. They practised running, jumping,
+throwing, and the use of weapons, and learned to swim in the
+neighboring stream.</p>
+
+<p>During the larger part of the period of conquest which terminated
+in universal empire, and until the Roman army was reorganized
+as a mercenary body of professional troops under Caius Marius,
+about a hundred years before the beginning of the Christian era,
+every citizen except those of the lowest class was liable to military
+service between the ages seventeen and sixty. The older men
+(forty-seven to sixty years) acted as home guards or did garrison
+duty only, except in times of emergency, but the younger legionary
+might be called out for from sixteen to twenty campaigns in the
+field, unless earlier disabled by honorable wounds. Army life,
+therefore, became an educational factor of the first rank. Under
+the earlier (Servian) plan of enrolment citizens above a certain
+minimum property rating were grouped in five classes according
+to wealth, beginning with the richest, and if chosen served
+without pay and also furnished their own equipment and
+rations. The first class was protected by helmet, cuirass,
+greaves, and shield, and fought with long lance and sword. The
+second and third were not so completely armed, but with the first
+constituted the heavy infantry, arranged in three parallel lines for
+battle. The fourth and fifth wore no defensive armor, but were
+supplied with lances and javelins, or other light weapons. Each
+“legion” contained twenty centuries of the first class, five each
+of the second, third and fourth, and seven of the fifth—a total of
+three thousand heavy and twelve hundred light infantry, to which
+three hundred horsemen were added. The latter, who rode without
+saddle or stirrups, played only a minor part in the wars of the
+Republic. Soldiers were called out in the spring, and disbanded
+at the close of the summer campaign.</p>
+
+<p>Various modifications had been introduced before the conquest of
+Italy was completed. The state assumed the cost of field expenses,
+and age rather than wealth became the basis of division into groups.
+The youngest troops now formed the light-armed centuries, and the
+older and more experienced men were distributed among the three
+successive lines which were to withstand the heavy shock of battle.
+The short, two-edged sword for thrusting had become the favorite
+weapon. The enemy was first attacked with a shower of light
+javelins, which might easily transfix a shield and render it useless,
+and then the sword was used for personal combat at close quarters.
+The soldier’s clothing consisted of nothing but a woolen tunic
+which did not reach his knees, hob-nailed sandals, and a cloak or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>hooded cape. His ration was usually wheat, served out once a
+month or oftener at the rate of about a bushel a month per man,
+ground in hand mills as needed and made into cakes or porridge.
+Barley might be substituted, and meat was an accessory, if issued
+at all. The average day’s march was fifteen miles, preferably
+accomplished in the morning hours. Whatever the climate or the
+condition of the roads, the legionary carried, besides his clothing,
+armor and weapons, a supply of wheat sufficient for two weeks or
+more, a pot for cooking, several long stakes for the palisade about
+the nightly camp, and perhaps intrenching tools or other implements—a
+total estimated by Colonel Dodge at something more
+than eighty-five pounds, or considerably over half his own weight.
+The camp site must then be fortified by means of a ditch, mound,
+and palisade extending entirely around it.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp45" id="figure02" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Roman soldier, on the march.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For such a strenuous life the recruit was prepared and the veteran
+kept fit by a training to the severity of which the name of the army
+(<i>exercitus</i>) bears witness. There was steady drill in marching forward
+and to the rear, or by either flank, in wheeling, changing from
+line to column and back again, and taking open or close orders.
+Practice marches of twenty miles or so were executed under full
+equipment and at the regular rate of four miles an hour, or with
+forced marching at five miles an hour. They were made to run,
+jump, climb, swim, hurl the javelin, and fight with swords against
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>posts set firmly in the ground, taking care through all the movements
+of attack and defense to keep the body covered with the
+shield. The operation of intrenching camp, and of attacking or
+defending it, was rehearsed. In peace times there might be employment
+on public works, such as roads, canals, bridges, fortifications,
+amphitheaters, or aqueducts.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the third century before Christ that the influence
+of Greek literature, philosophy, and art began to be felt in Rome,
+introduced through contact with Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily,
+by Greek slaves, and by Romans who had sojourned in Greece.
+But the new culture awakened such interest and spread with such
+rapidity that by the time Greece had become a Roman province,
+soon after the middle of the succeeding century, it had profoundly
+modified the scheme of Roman education, except on the side of
+physical training. The boy’s earliest instruction, received at home
+or in a private school, still included reading, writing, and reckoning.
+He was afterwards sent to a secondary school, where the chief subject
+of study was the writings of favorite Greek and Latin poets,
+and the practical end sought was accuracy and facility in the use
+of the two languages. To these a little music and applied geometry
+might be added. Young men who were looking forward to public
+life received further preparation in schools of rhetoric. These
+taught the art of effective speaking, as needed in the law courts,
+before a popular assembly, or in the senate. The home life of the
+boy had thus lost its earlier place as chief factor in education, and
+the old training for domestic, political, and religious duties had been
+replaced by one essentially grammatical and oratorical.</p>
+
+<p>Military service, meanwhile, had ceased to perform its part in
+national discipline, for during the last century of the Republic it
+was committed to mercenary troops, and these developed into a
+standing army under the Empire. While the Greek gymnastics
+was introduced to some extent among the Romans of the upper
+class, it never acquired a hold upon the popular mind or entered
+as an important factor into education in the fosterland. Its
+pedagogical aim had become obscured, and the great national
+games which once exhibited its most perfect product had fallen
+into ill repute. The Roman nature lacked that intense love of
+competition which was so characteristic of the Greek. The exercises
+of the palæstra and the gymnasium, an inexhaustible mine of
+subjects for the painters of red-figured Greek vases in the latter
+half of the fifth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, were nothing more than idle amusements
+to a people bent upon world conquest. They were disgusted
+at the nakedness of the performers, which had been the inspiration
+of sculptors like Myron, Phidias, Polycletus, Praxiteles, and
+Lysippus; and the sight of young athletes contending in generous
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>rivalry in such events as made up the pentathlon could have
+aroused little interest in a generation accustomed to the thrills of
+the circus and the amphitheater.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek national festivals, too, were in the last stages of
+decline. The better class of citizens no longer appeared as contestants,
+for the religious character of the celebrations had largely
+disappeared, boxing and the pancratium had become the favorite
+exercises, prizes more valuable than the wreath had been substituted,
+trickery and falsehood were less uncommon, and a class of
+professional athletes had been developed, whose members were
+usually of low birth and looked upon with little favor. They submitted
+themselves to an irksome and exacting routine which set
+them apart from the rest of mankind, left no time for other occupations,
+and made them virtual slaves of their trainers. Numerous
+attempts by Roman emperors to revive the glory of the ancient
+games, and to imitate them on Italian soil, met with no enduring
+success.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>A structure quite as typical of its time and habitat as the Greek
+gymnasium of the Periclean age was the public bath, or <i>therma</i>,
+found in Rome and in every important provincial town in the days
+of the Empire. Both made provision for exercise, and contained a
+system of baths; though in the thermæ the baths occupied a
+greater part of the space, and the rooms and courts for exercise
+were fewer and smaller. Both added seats and walks and places
+of meeting and conversation for visitors, were lavishly decorated
+with objects of art, and were frequented by rhetoricians, poets, and
+philosophers, as well as by the common populace. Although the
+various forms of Greek gymnastics were introduced and occasionally
+practised at the baths, that which seems to have been most popular,
+and which gave the name to one of the halls or courts (the <i>sphæristerium</i>)
+was play with various sorts of ball, filled with air, feathers,
+or hair. Other exercises were movements of the arms with dumb-bells
+in the hands, and fencing with wooden swords against a post,
+as practised by the soldiers. Besides the large public baths, such
+as those of Caracalla and Diocletian, almost every private house
+of any size possessed its own sphæristerium, where light exercises,
+and especially games with the ball, were engaged in as a preliminary
+to the bath. All such exercises were taken at the whim of
+the bather, and only as a means of recreation or to heighten the
+enjoyment of the bath and meal which followed it. The resemblance
+to the Greek gymnasium, though at first striking, is therefore
+much less real than apparent, and the effect of the institution
+on Roman life was to favor its decay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span></p>
+
+<p>Between the pan-Hellenic festivals celebrated in the stadium and
+hippodrome at Olympia in the time of Pericles, and those public
+spectacles which crowded the amphitheater and circus of the
+degenerate Roman world during the first centuries of the Christian
+era, a greater contrast can be drawn. The chariot races of the
+Circus Maximus and the gladiatorial combats, the contests of men
+with beasts, or those of beasts with one another in the Coliseum,
+reveal the changed type of civilization, and also mark the last
+stages of athletic professionalism. The charioteer and the gladiator
+were either prisoners of war, slaves, condemned criminals, or freedmen
+who adopted the calling from choice. They were trained in
+special schools, and unless the property of private citizens, were
+commonly let out by their owners to any person who desired their
+services.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>General works: Besides the standard dictionaries and handbooks of classical
+antiquities, the “Companion to Latin Studies” edited by J. E. Sandys (Cambridge,
+England, at the University Press. See especially the sections on Education and the
+Roman Army), and T. G. Tucker’s “Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul”
+(New York, The Macmillan Co., 1911).</p>
+
+<p>On Roman education: S. S. Laurie’s “Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education”
+(second edition. London and New York: Longmans, Green, &amp; Co., 1900.
+Pp. 301-411 are devoted to the Romans), and A. S. Wilkins’ “Roman Education”
+(Cambridge, England, at the University Press, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>On the Roman army: Col. T. A. Dodge’s “Hannibal: A History of the Art
+of War among the Carthaginians and Romans down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>”
+(Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., 1891), and his “Caesar: A
+History of the Art of War among the Romans down to the End of the Roman Empire”
+(Boston and New York, as above, 1892).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> For details of this period of decline consult chapter eight (Athletics under the
+Romans) in E. N. Gardiner’s “Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals.”</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE TEUTONIC INVADERS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Germans as we meet them in the pages of Caesar and Tacitus&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+are a race of sturdy, blue-eyed giants, who dwell in a land of forest
+and swamp. Their straggling villages consist of low, thatched, dirt-floored
+huts of rough timber, and in spite of the harsh climate they
+go about scantily clad in skin mantles or garments of coarse linen.
+Small fields of barley and perhaps other grains are tilled by the
+women, but flocks and herds form the chief support of the family,
+and these, with wild animals taken in the chase, supply the greater
+portion of their food. For drink there was a crude beer, made
+without hops. Next to warfare, hunting was the favorite occupation,
+and for this the surrounding forests yielded the aurochs or bison,
+the wild boar, elk, and bear, besides packs of predatory wolves and
+numerous lesser animals. Arms were a token of the freeman’s
+position and dignity, and were carried constantly. Only a few
+could equip themselves with breastplate and helmet, and iron for
+swords was scarce, but each man had a shield, and short, sharp
+spears for thrusting or throwing. Their cavalry rode without
+saddles. A public spectacle much in demand was a dance of
+naked youths in the midst of drawn swords and upturned spears.
+Swimming and horsemanship furnished other means of active
+exercise in time of peace.</p>
+
+<p>With such a people the training of the young could not fail to
+be a hardy one. Since there was no written language, and the
+only records were those handed down in ancient songs, formal
+instruction was unknown. While the girls busied themselves with
+domestic duties, the boys early learned the arts of the chase and
+the use of weapons. Hunting and warfare were their chief school-masters.
+At maturity the youth was publicly equipped with shield
+and spear in the periodical assembly, as a sign of admission to the
+rights of citizenship. It was the custom of young men to attach
+themselves to favorite chiefs, who vied with each other in the
+number and quality of such followers. These promised loyalty in
+peace and war, and received in turn horses, arms, and food.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp48" id="figure03" style="max-width: 20.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Northern warrior of about 300 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Among the Northmen of the viking age we find a somewhat more
+advanced type of civilization, but hunting, fighting, and vigorous
+sports in the open air are still the chief delight of men. Hawking
+was a favorite pastime, and the northern falcons were famous
+throughout Europe. Coats of chain mail, helmets, swords, and
+battle axes are added to the earlier shield and spear, at least in the
+case of chieftains, and we hear of bows and arrows, clubs, and slings.
+A variety of popular exercises were also practised, which survived
+throughout the Middle Ages. They included wrestling, foot races,
+broad and high jumping, putting the stone, hurling the spear,
+throwing with knives, racing on snowshoes or skees, and several
+games of ball.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult, if not impossible, to follow with certainty the
+particular changes wrought in portions of the Roman Empire
+which were occupied by the Teutonic invaders. In general, lines
+of communication were interrupted, the foundations of new and
+independent nationalities were laid, and city life became less
+dominant. There was also an admixture of sturdy barbarian stock
+with native populations, though the latter seem in most cases to
+have gradually absorbed the conquerors. Roman forces put an
+end to Vandal dominion in Africa in 533. Neither Vandals nor
+Suevi were numerous enough in Spain to exert a greater influence
+than that of bands of roving plunderers, and the Spanish kingdom of
+the Visigoths fell before the Mohammedan invasion of 711. In Italy,
+also, Gothic power was broken in 533, and the Lombard kingdom
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>which followed came to an end with Charlemagne’s conquest in
+774. West Goths and Burgundians in Gaul were overcome by the
+Franks, who seem themselves to have lost little by little their distinctive
+national traits and been merged in the earlier Gallo-Roman
+population. The Normans of the tenth century met a similar fate.
+In the case of England, where the Teutonic element gained the
+ascendant, one would like to trace the British fondness for fox
+hunting, shooting, horse racing, yachting, rowing, games like football
+and cricket, lawn tennis and golf, and the falconry and archery
+of an earlier period, to the surviving influence of Anglo-Saxon,
+Danish, and Norman ancestors; but actual demonstration of any
+such connection could hardly be expected.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Edward Gibbon, “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,”
+chapter nine (The State of Germany till the Invasion of the Barbarians, in the Time
+of the Emperor Decius).</p>
+
+<p>Francis B. Gummere, “Germanic Origins: A Study in Primitive Culture.” New
+York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Weinhold, “Altnordisches Leben.” Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung,
+1856.</p>
+
+<p>Paul B. Du Chaillu, “The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and
+Customs of the Ancestors of the English-speaking Nations, Illustrated from the
+Antiquities Discovered in Mounds, Cairns, and Bogs, as well as from the Ancient
+Sagas and Eddas.” New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1889.</p>
+
+<p>C. F. Kerry, “The Vikings in Western Christendom, A.D. 789 to A.D. 888.”
+London, T. Fisher Unwin, and New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1891.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Caesar, the <i>Gallic War</i>, especially book six, chapters 21-28; Tacitus, <i>Germania</i>,
+published in 98 A.D.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">ASCETICISM IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>No sooner had the Teutonic tribes overrun Romanized Europe
+than they began to yield, in turn, to the proselyting activities of
+the young and lusty Christian Church. And with it came the
+doctrine of <i>asceticism</i>, which left its mark on education for a
+thousand years and more, and tended to counteract, in a measure,
+the invigorating effect of the barbarian strain.</p>
+
+<p>The Hindu fakir, the Christian saint of the desert, and the Mohammedan
+dervish are different expressions of a belief which at some
+time or other has prevailed among a very large proportion of the
+human race. It has been one of the fundamental ideas of the
+oriental religions that evil inheres in matter, while mind or spirit
+is essentially divine and pure. According to this view, the flesh
+and the spirit wage perpetual warfare on each other; the body is
+not a useful servant, but an enemy, and to be resisted therefore
+at every point and struck down whenever its head is raised. The
+ideal life is one of solitude, contemplation, and strict abstinence
+from sensual indulgence in any form. Asceticism has thus been
+an important factor in the ancient religions of China, Tibet, Siam,
+India, and Persia, and very early in the Christian Era, or before its
+dawn, this principle had found its way into Syria and Egypt, and
+through the Alexandrian schools of philosophy into southern
+Europe. Brought into contact with Christianity, it helped to
+prepare the way for the movement now under consideration, and
+in like manner gave its impress to Mohammedanism at a later period.</p>
+
+<p>But in the case of the early Christians, living for the most part
+in cities and brought into close and daily contact with all the
+abominations of the decadent pagan society of the Empire, a violent
+reaction from the prevailing luxury and sensual self-indulgence
+was inevitable. Men of deep religious feeling desired to escape
+contamination from such worldliness, and it is not strange if in
+protest against its excesses they sometimes carried their stern self-restraint
+so far as to deny themselves the common comforts of life
+and decline to gratify those cravings of the body which are innocent
+and natural. The healthy appetites and impulses of the normal
+man are not to be eradicated without a struggle, however, and
+the constant discomfort which resulted from unsatisfied desires they
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>viewed as insubordination. This in turn led to belief in the innate
+depravity of human nature. To subdue the rebellious flesh they
+resorted to renewed and more severe privations, or punished it
+with self-inflicted tortures. Mortification of the body acquired the
+dignity of a religious exercise, while the idea of pleasure came to
+be closely associated with that of vice.</p>
+
+<p>A third cause of the outbreak of asceticism is found in the persecution
+to which many converts of the growing church were subjected.
+This soon kindled an intense religious enthusiasm which welcomed
+martyrdom and glorified the sufferings that attended it. The
+liberated soul, it was taught, entered at once into eternal blessedness.
+Pain and torment came thus to be considered meritorious
+of themselves, and the direct road to salvation; and after the persecutions
+ceased, the self-torture of the ascetic took their place as a
+means and measure of human excellence. When once the movement
+to the deserts was started, the desire to escape from the
+burdens imposed by corrupt government, from social disorders, and
+later from the wretchedness that followed the invasions of barbarian
+hordes from the North, helped to crowd the ranks of the
+hermits and swell the numbers gathered into monastic communities.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the latter half of the third century that the first Christian
+hermits fled to the deserts of Egypt, where natural caverns, or
+caves easily hewn out of the rock, supplied the only shelter necessary
+in such a climate, and a grove of date palms with a spring close
+by it solved the problem of sustenance without labor. But the
+movement did not gather much headway until the early part of
+the next century, when Anthony’s career had given dignity to the
+solitary life and made it widely popular. At the time of his death,
+in 365, the deserts on either side of the Nile from the Cataracts
+to the Delta were dotted with the retreats of hermits, and it is said
+that Pachomius, who was the first to gather his disciples into organized
+communities and formulate a monastic rule, had no fewer
+than 7000 monks under his authority. By the fifth century the
+numbers had increased to 100,000 in Egypt alone, and the practice
+had extended into Syria and Palestine, Armenia, Mesopotamia,
+parts of Asia Minor, and Italy, whence it soon reached the whole
+of Western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest extravagances are found among the Eastern “saints
+of the desert,” accounts of whose austerities were collected by
+wandering pilgrims and excited the admiration of all Christendom.
+Some dwelt in deserted dens of wild beasts, in tombs and dried-up
+wells, on the summit of narrow columns, or spent days in the midst
+of thorn bushes. Others never lay down during months and even
+years, or they slept naked in swamps, exposed to the stings of insects.
+Many abstained from food altogether for long periods, or restricted
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>themselves to quantities too small to relieve the pangs of hunger.
+Bodily cleanliness was frequently abjured, and a long list of strange
+penances was devised.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Severe self-torture was less common in the Western monasteries,
+especially after the earlier code had been supplanted by a new one
+drafted (529) by Benedict of Nursia, founder of the order that bears
+his name. This is distinguished by the absence of any severe
+austerities, and substitutes manual labor in place of contemplation
+and penance. But the conception of supreme excellence was much
+the same in the West and in the East. Asceticism became a part
+of the accepted teaching of the Church and the practice of a large
+proportion of her leaders and adherents. Of Simeon Stylites, the
+famous Syrian monk of the fifth century, we read that “from every
+quarter pilgrims of every degree thronged to do him homage. A
+crowd of prelates followed him to the grave. A brilliant star is
+said to have shown miraculously over his pillar; the general voice
+of mankind pronounced him to be the highest model of a Christian
+saint.”</p>
+
+<p>The physical effects of the ascetic life upon the individual must
+have been disastrous as a rule. Not only did it lead to broken
+health, such as embittered the lives of some of the greatest among
+the Church Fathers, but long-continued austerities and overwrought
+emotions produced a disordered nervous system, and supplied
+all the conditions for hallucination. Lecky has also called
+attention to certain moral qualities that suffered from the prevailing
+conception of excellence. “What may be called a strong
+animal nature,” he says, “a nature, that is, in which the passions
+are in vigorous, and at the same time healthy action, is that in
+which we should most naturally expect to find ... good humor,
+frankness, generosity, active courage, sanguine energy, buoyancy of
+temper. (These) are much more rarely found either in natures
+that are essentially feeble or effeminate, or in natures that have
+been artificially emasculated by penances, distorted from their
+original tendency, and habitually held under severe control.”</p>
+
+<p>Among the people at large the physical consequences of the prevailing
+doctrine were hardly less pernicious. It justified the
+personal and public uncleanliness and the neglect of simple sanitary
+precautions to which they were already prone enough, and
+thus became to some extent accountable for the unprecedented
+succession of plagues which decimated the population of Europe
+again and again throughout the Middle Ages. None of these widespread
+epidemics suggested sanitary improvement, but they were
+regarded as “visitations,” and attributed to the wrath of God, or
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>to the malice of Satan. It is not unlikely that such phenomena,
+even, as the dancing mania, the processions of Flagellants, trials of
+innocence, and the persecutions of Jews and witches depend in part
+upon the fact that communities and nations, no less than individuals,
+lacking real physical hardihood, were often crazed by nervous excitement,
+and impelled by an overstimulated emotional nature fell an
+easy prey to weird delusions and morbid fancies, of which a series
+of moral epidemics was the natural result.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>W. E. H. Lecky, “History of European Morals from Augustine to Charlemagne”
+(New York, D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1869), <b>2</b>, pp. 107 ff.</p>
+
+<p>I. Gregory Smith, “Christian Monasticism from the Fourth to the Ninth Centuries
+of the Christian Era.” London, A. D. Innes &amp; Co., 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Abbot Gasquet, “English Monastic Life.” London, Methuen &amp; Co., 1904.
+Contains illustrations, maps, and plans.</p>
+
+<p>Herbert B. Workman, “The Evolution of the Monastic Ideal from the Earliest
+Times Down to the Coming of the Friars.” London, Charles H. Kelly, 1913.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Lecky gives a striking series of examples in his History of European Morals,
+vol. <b>2</b>, pp. 114-119.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br>
+<span class="smaller">MONASTERY AND CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In the cities of Northern Italy the dying out of the old Roman
+schools, as a result of internal decay and the inroads of the Teutonic
+barbarians, was not followed by the complete extinction of the race
+of lay teachers, and here, and throughout southern Europe generally,
+education therefore never became exclusively ecclesiastical;
+but in transalpine Europe, from the sixth till the twelfth century,
+the Benedictine monasteries were the chief if not the only seats of
+learning, and education was almost wholly in the hands of monks
+of that order. There were schools attached to the cathedrals, also,
+but they drew their teachers from the monasteries and seldom rose
+to more than local importance until in the course of the twelfth
+century intellectual activity was gradually transferred to them and
+they became the germ out of which the universities of the Middle
+Ages developed. The reform legislation of Charles the Great
+fixed this intimate relation between the Church and education by
+requiring that every monastery and every cathedral throughout
+his broad empire should have its school. The origin of these institutions
+is to be found in the need of educated ecclesiastics, and the
+earliest scholars were candidates for admission to the Benedictine
+order, or for the priesthood; but about the beginning of the ninth
+century “exterior schools” began to be added, open to boys who
+were intended for secular callings.</p>
+
+<p>The course of study, intended to prepare the way for a proper
+understanding of the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the
+Church Fathers, was everywhere limited to the so-called seven
+liberal arts. These included the fundamental <i>trivium</i>—grammar,
+rhetoric, and dialectic or logic—and the less important <i>quadrivium</i>—music,
+arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. It was the world
+to come for which men were trained; theological doctrines and
+religious interests absorbed human thought, and the present world
+was deemed unworthy of attention. So long as the spirit of asceticism
+remained in the ascendant there could be no such thing as
+physical training in schools conducted by the Church. The soul
+was the one object of solicitude, and the body was regarded with
+contempt. Uncleanliness and physical neglect were not incompatible
+with intellectual eminence. The monastic discipline in all its
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>severity was an essential part of school life. Other forms of punishment
+were common, but the rod was the favorite instrument;
+it was used on the least occasion, and sometimes periodically, “as a
+kind of general atonement for sins past and possible.” Even the
+humane Alcuin, Master of Charles the Great’s Palace School at
+Aix (782-796), would have a separate master for every class “that
+the boys may not run about in idleness or occupy themselves in
+silly play.” Their lessons were to furnish them all the play and
+diversion needed.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>S. S. Laurie, “The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, with a Survey of
+Mediæval Education.” New York, D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1887.</p>
+
+<p>A. F. West, “Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools.” New York, Charles
+Scribner’s Sons, 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Any standard history of education, such as F. P. Graves, “A History of Education
+during the Middle Ages and the Transition to Modern Times” (New York, The
+Macmillan Co.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">CHIVALRY.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Chivalry, or the body of law and custom relating to knighthood,
+prevailed almost universally throughout western Europe between
+the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. Its usages were international,
+and in its ideal of war, religion and gallantry was summed up the
+whole duty of the gentleman of that age. The system can be
+traced in part to various customs of the ancient Germans, developed
+later under the influence of feudalism; but its final form was
+not received until the time of the Crusades (1096-1270), when the
+Church, in order to further her own designs, adopted and modified
+its practices. It was in large measure the inroads of Mohammedan
+warriors in Christian territory and their profanation of the Holy
+City which led to a substitution of military Christianity for the
+ascetic ideal cherished hitherto, and caused war with the infidels
+to be pronounced a religious duty and the battlefield a direct road
+to salvation. This union of chivalry with religion—the consecration
+of military prowess to the service of the Church—is typified in
+the three orders of soldier monks, the Hospitallers, the Templars,
+and the Teutonic Knights, which had their origin in the twelfth
+century. The hermit of early Catholic legends had thus been displaced
+as a popular hero by the king and the knight who figure
+in the romances of Arthur and of Charles the Great. The decline
+of chivalry as a military system began soon after the last crusade
+(1270), and in the fifteenth century became complete; for the introduction
+of gunpowder in warfare, with the increased importance
+attached to infantry and artillery, made the arms and armor of
+the knight of no avail and lessened the opportunities for personal
+distinction on the field. At the same time the growing centralization
+of power in the hands of the sovereign was rapidly destroying
+the independence of the nobility of lesser rank.</p>
+
+<p>The early training of a knight bore no resemblance to the ascetic
+type seen in the monastery and cathedral schools. Although the
+boy intended for such a career was sometimes brought up at home,
+it was the common custom to send him away, at the age of seven or
+soon after, to the court or castle of some nobleman, in whose household,
+among other young attendants of gentle birth, he might
+learn the principles, acquire the breeding, and become proficient in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>the practices of chivalry. As a <i>page</i> he was expected to render to
+his master and mistress personal service of all sorts, even the most
+humble and domestic, waiting on them at the table, carrying
+messages, following them to the chase or camp, and in visits to
+neighboring castles. Meanwhile, under the tuition of the ladies,
+he was mastering the rudiments of reading and writing, together
+with the rules of courteous behavior and the first principles of gallantry.
+He gained some familiarity with Latin and French, the universal
+languages, tried his hand at playing the harp and in games of chess
+and backgammon, picked up many facts of history, learned much
+of heraldry, and became acquainted with the songs and poetry of
+the troubadours. But the principal part of his training was carried
+on outdoors, where he was already imitating grown men in his
+play, learning the business of a <i>squire</i>, and seeking to prove himself
+worthy of advancement to that rank.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp52" id="figure04" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Knight Templar (Gasquet).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Promotion to this second grade did not come until after the age
+of fourteen, though it is probable that the change from page to
+squire was not a sudden one. The personal service to his lord
+became more responsible in its nature, and thus led to a more dignified
+position in the household; but vigorous sports and martial
+exercises, in which he had already made some progress as a page,
+now occupied his time increasingly. Instruction in dancing was
+a part of his discipline in polished manners. He was early taught
+how to train a falcon and handle him in hawking, and in the pursuit
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>of the stag and wild boar found occasion for the display of greater
+skill and daring. Running, jumping, wrestling, swimming, climbing
+ropes and poles and ladders, hurling stones, casting the spear,
+shooting with the bow and cross-bow, wielding the battle-axe, and
+fencing, at first with dull wooden swords, helped to harden his
+body and give mastery of its powers for future need. The most
+essential exercise, however, was horsemanship, including the adroit
+use of shield and lance, and the ability to endure the weight and
+overcome the hindrance of full armor. There was practice in
+leaping into the saddle without the help of stirrups, dismounting
+quickly, and reaching down to pick up objects from the ground.
+Tilting at the ring or quintain, or afterwards with a living opponent,
+developed a firm seat and the skill required to govern the galloping
+charger with the legs alone while one received and parried a thrust
+with the shield upon his left arm, and with the right guided the lance
+so as to lift his antagonist from the saddle, if possible, by striking
+him squarely in the throat or upon the center of his shield.</p>
+
+<p>The young squire also followed his master to the field, sharing
+with him all the dangers and privations of a military career. He
+helped him to adjust and fasten the numerous pieces that composed
+his armor, after taking care that these were in perfect condition,
+assisted him to mount, held extra horses, supplied fresh lances as
+they were needed, raised him if unseated, attended to his wounds,
+received and guarded whatever prisoners were taken, sought to
+release him if he were taken captive, or bore away his dead body to
+give it proper burial. After this long apprenticeship, in case he
+had proved his fitness for the dignity and possessed the means to
+support so costly a profession, the squire who had reached the age
+of twenty-one might hope to take the final step. By a blow upon
+the shoulder with the flat of a sword some knight or noble ended
+his tedious years of waiting and admitted him to the great brotherhood
+of chivalry.</p>
+
+<p>A public spectacle no less brilliant and fascinating than the pan-Hellenic
+games or the gladiatorial shows of the Roman world, and
+equally characteristic of their age, were the tournaments common
+all over Christendom in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+Originally the rough trials of strength and skill that were a natural
+occurrence whenever knights met at leisure, they were little by
+little modified and regulated until they became the chief pastime
+of nobles and gentlemen, a school of war in times of peace, where
+the young contestant not only displayed but developed his personal
+bravery, presence of mind, and ability to find at once the right
+means of attack and defense, the field in which he often won his
+first laurels or attracted the attention and interest of influential
+men. After the decline of chivalry as a military system tournaments
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>lost their value as an image of war, and became more and
+more a means of mere amusement and an occasion for display,
+though they did not pass entirely out of fashion until toward the
+close of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In tournaments proper groups of combatants on each side fought
+together with lance and sword in a miniature cavalry battle; while
+in the joust, which was far more frequent although it also formed a
+part of many tournaments, two horsemen only met each other,
+with lance and shield, sometimes continuing the combat on foot
+with swords after one of them had been unseated. The contestants,
+in both cases, appeared in full armor, and commonly, but not always,
+the swords were blunt and the lances tipped with flat or slightly
+toothed plates of metal; but injuries, nevertheless, were not infrequent,
+and heavy falls or suffocation from heat and dust, or serious
+wounds when the lance struck fair and did not split cost many a
+life.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Paul Lacroix, “Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the Period
+of the Renaissance.” London, Chapman and Hall, 1874.</p>
+
+<p>Léon Gautier, “La Chevalerie.” Paris, 1883.</p>
+
+<p>Alwin Schultz, “Das höfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger.” Leipzig, S.
+Herzel, 1879 and 1880 (second edition, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>Julius Bintz, “Die Leibesübungen des Mittelalters.” Gütersloh, C. Bertelsmann,
+1880.</p>
+
+<p>F. Warre-Cornish, “Chivalry.” London, Swan Sonnenschein, and New York,
+The Macmillan Co., 1901.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>A succession of influences operating in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries had widened the scope of human interests and produced
+a vague longing after knowledge which was not to be satisfied by
+the traditional teaching of the schools. Along with the demand
+for a different type and more advanced grade of instruction,
+there arose here and there famous lecturers, such as Abelard
+(1079-1142) at Paris, who gathered about themselves great
+numbers of disciples. Centers were thus created to which
+other teachers and their followers were attracted, and this in
+turn led to an informal association of masters and pupils, out
+of which the medieval university developed. The complete university
+came at length to include four departments—theology, law,
+medicine, and philosophy or the arts. Certain texts were thought
+to contain explicitly or implicitly the sum of ascertainable secular
+truth, just as the Bible and the writings of Church Fathers held
+all religious truth; and this was to be extracted by prescribed
+methods of reasoning, with no fresh resort to the facts of observation
+and experience. Instead of seeking new harvests, the typical
+schoolmen of that day were content with the continual threshing
+over of old straw.</p>
+
+<p>As regards treatment of the body, the influence of asceticism was
+still supreme. Provision for lawful amusements was rarely made
+in the university statutes, which appear frequently to regard harmless
+attempts at pleasure with more hostility than they display
+toward actual vice and crime. The sports of chivalry—hunting
+and hawking, jousts and tournaments—were not considered seemly
+for the student, even if he had the means to indulge in them.
+Dancing was seldom countenanced in any form. “Playing with
+a ball or bat” is sometimes found included in the list of “insolent”
+games, and other prohibitions make mention of “profane games,
+immodest runnings, and horrid shoutings.” The ideal student
+would appear to be the one who denied himself all recreation and
+amusement; but we may be sure that no such suppression of
+animal spirits was possible for the average full-blooded young
+man of that age. In the absence of any authorized outlet they
+found vent in drinking, gambling, and grosser forms of vice, in street
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>brawls and rough practical joking, and not infrequently in violent
+outbreaks of organized lawlessness.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>S. S. Laurie, “The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, with a Survey of
+Mediæval Education.” New York, D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1887.</p>
+
+<p>Gabriel Compayré, “Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Universities.”
+New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>Hastings Rashdall, “The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages.” Oxford,
+Clarendon Press, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>J. B. Mullinger, article “Universities” in the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 11th
+edition.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE PERIOD OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The universities of the Middle Ages had made their contribution
+to the intellectual advancement of Europe, but they could
+not break the bands of ecclesiastical tyranny that still fettered the
+human mind. It required the joint action of other and more
+potent forces to provide escape from a conception of the world and
+the flesh which associated them with the devil, and to weaken
+the authority of that theological dogma which centered the thought
+and imagination of men for centuries upon the rewards and punishments
+of a future state and meanwhile paralyzed or thwarted
+every effort to master the resources or investigate the phenomena
+of the material universe. Man’s rightful heritage upon this earth
+was not yet restored to him. In some way the feeling of personal
+dignity and independence must be aroused, the spirit of emulation
+provoked, and his powers of achievement challenged as they had
+never been before. Among the chief factors in this process of
+transition from the medieval to the modern world was the Revival
+of Learning, that appreciative study of the Greek and Latin classics
+and all the long-neglected records of ancient civilization which
+supplied the Western nations with a new ideal of life and culture.
+The recovered masterpieces of literature and art excited the passionate
+admiration of scholars; they revelled in the free existence of
+what seemed to them a Golden Age, rich in such treasures as they
+had begun already to covet for themselves.</p>
+
+<p>To the Italian “humanists” of the fifteenth century we owe
+what is still known as a classical education. The greatest school-master
+of them all was Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446), who undertook
+the training of the sons of Marquis Gian Francesco Gonzaga
+at Mantua in 1423. So earnest and successful was this teacher
+and so widely did his fame extend that other pupils were added
+from time to time, until most of the princely houses of Italy, together
+with some in foreign countries, were represented at the school, to
+which many in humbler station were also admitted. Latin, Greek,
+and classical archeology formed the basis and main body of instruction.
+The chief end was to enable pupils to read and understand
+the best works of the ancients and to express themselves with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>elegance in these foreign languages. It was, in fact, an attempt to
+train new citizens of Greece and Rome, and to reproduce for them
+the life of the past.</p>
+
+<p>The customs of chivalry had not ceased to shape the early training
+of an Italian gentleman, and it was therefore natural that
+Vittorino should incorporate in his school some of the characteristic
+features of knightly education. The staff of assistants included
+special teachers of dancing, riding, fencing, and swimming, and to
+these exercises were added wrestling, running and jumping, archery,
+ball games, hunting and fishing, and mock battles between two
+parties, or contests in which one side sought to storm the castle or
+surprise the camp of its opponents. The ample grounds about the
+villa which had been converted into a school building were well
+adapted for such sports, and all the pupils were required to share
+in them. Vittorino himself often joined them, it is said, and occasionally
+led them on excursions into the surrounding country,
+extending as far as Lago di Gardo, Venice, and the Alps. He insisted
+on moderation in food and drink, and did not allow weather or
+season to interfere too much with life in the open air.</p>
+
+<p>Vittorino had thus succeeded in combining physical with mental
+training and bringing them within the reach of every pupil; but
+outside of the schools for young noblemen, which continued to exist
+in various parts of Europe as late as the eighteenth century, he
+seems to have had few, if any, successors in this respect until
+Basedow opened the “Philanthropinum” at Dessau in 1774. During
+the more than three hundred years that intervene, however,
+much was written by educational reformers and others in commendation
+of bodily exercises and recognition of its right to a place in
+the curriculum; and some of these authors, theorists though they
+were, occupy an important position in the history of physical training,
+as links between the present and the past. Vittorino, indeed,
+had only applied in practice the pedagogical principles already
+outlined by another Italian humanist, <i>Pietro Paulo Vergerio</i> (1349-1428),
+in a brief treatise on education sent to the young Ubertino
+di Carrara, whose tutor he had been at the court in Padua. This
+letter, which was afterwards printed and passed through many
+editions, refers repeatedly to ancient Greeks and Romans, as authorities
+or by way of illustration, and devotes two of its chapters to
+the subject of physical exercise. <i>Maffeo Vegio</i> (1407-1458), who
+began life as a scholar and poet but later entered the service of the
+Church at Rome and finally joined the order of Augustinian monks,
+wrote one of the most notable pedagogical works of the fifteenth
+century, and in the chapters relating to physical training shows in
+a similar way the influence of his classical studies. To the same
+category belong <i>Enea Silvio Piccolomini</i> (1405-1464), better known
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>as Pope Pius II, who was at one time a secretary at the court of
+Emperor Frederick III, and in 1450 prepared a tractate on the
+subject of princely education; <i>Francesco Filelfo</i> (1398-1481), who
+wrote to the Duchess Regent of Milan, about 1475, suggesting a
+method of education suitable for her young son; and <i>Jacopo
+Sadoleto</i> (1477-1547), humanist and churchman, friend of Luther,
+Melanchthon, Erasmus, and Sturm, and author of a book (1530)
+on education which indicates a return to the old Athenian ideal
+and type.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure05" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Hieronymus Mercurialis: Title page of first edition of his <i>De arte gymnastica</i>.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Two other Italian writers are worthy of more extended notice.
+<i>Girolamo Cardano</i> (1501-1576) had studied at Pavia and Padua,
+and traveled in France, England, Scotland, the Netherlands, and
+Germany. He obtained his doctorate in medicine and practised
+that profession, devoting much of his time, however, to researches
+which bore fruit in a long series of scientific and philosophical
+works. In his interesting autobiography he tells of his own early
+practice in running and jumping, riding, fencing, and swimming,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>and elsewhere describes at length a great variety of ancient and
+modern feats of strength and skill. His work on the care of health
+(<i>De sanitate tuenda, libri iv</i>), of which several editions appeared,
+contains an independent, systematic, and scientific treatment of
+the hygiene of bodily exercise, discussing its value and effects in
+general, the physiological classification of exercises into violent or
+light, rapid or slow, continuous or interrupted, etc., and the nature
+and usefulness of numerous special forms, which belong not only
+to past ages but also to contemporary life and customs.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure06" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Hieronymus Mercurialis: Title page of second edition of his <i>De arte
+    gymnastica</i>.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Hieronymus Mercurialis</i> (1530-1606), a famous physician, and
+widely known throughout Europe on account of his medical writings,
+while he was still a young man, in the household of Cardinal
+Alexander Farnese at Rome, began his literary career with a treatise
+on the gymnastics of the ancients (<i>De arte gymnastica</i>)&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>—a book
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>which seems to have enjoyed a remarkable degree of popularity
+and is often cited by more recent writers. It was first published at
+Venice in 1569, but at least three more editions appeared in Venice
+and one in Paris during his lifetime, and others after his death,
+including one in Amsterdam as late as 1672. Out of his rich store
+of classical learning—the first edition contains a list of ninety-six
+Greek and Latin authors upon whom he has drawn—Mercurialis
+seeks to reproduce for his readers the ancient gymnasia and gymnastic
+exercises; but in the second half of the volume he leaves the
+descriptive and historical and turns to the hygienic and medical
+aspects of exercise, as viewed from the critical standpoint of the
+physician. Somewhat like Cardano, he first considers the value
+of exercise in conditions of health and disease and the general
+principles that govern its application, and then takes up the nature
+and effects of particular exercises in some detail. According to
+the title page the work was not intended for the use of physicians
+only, but for all who were interested in the study of archeology or
+in the preservation of health.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Germany <i>Martin Luther</i> (1483-1546) realized the recreative
+and moral value of bodily exercise, and recommends especially
+such knightly sports as fencing and wrestling. The Swiss reformer
+<i>Ulrich Zwingli</i> (1484-1531), writing on the subject of education
+in 1524, makes suggestions regarding diet and clothing, and refers
+to running, jumping, hurling stones, wrestling, and fencing as a
+means of acquiring strength and skill. He also considers wrestling
+and fencing a useful preparation for military service. <i>Joachim
+Camerarius</i> (1500-1574), who taught in Nuremberg, Tübingen, and
+the University of Leipsic, and was the friend and biographer of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>Melanchthon, published in 1544 a brief dialogue on bodily exercise
+(<i>Dialogus de gymnasiis</i>).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The author believes that boys should
+be encouraged to run, jump, wrestle, fence, and play ball outdoors,
+and one of the speakers, after mentioning the gymnastics
+of the ancients and the performances of the old Germans, describes
+to his companion a model school for the common people in which
+the teacher provides for indoor practice in hanging from a bar,
+climbing a rope, lifting weights, and matching strength with an
+opponent in various ways, and for a number of active games in
+the open air, some of them described in the text. Among the most
+illustrious names in the history of educational reform is that of
+<i>Johann Amos Comenius</i> (1592-1671), a Moravian pastor and teacher
+who suffered persecution and banishment in the course of the
+Thirty Years’ War. In his writings he allots eight hours of the day
+to sleep, eight to work, and eight to meals, the care of the health,
+exercise of the body, etc. He would have about every school
+building a playground, where the boys might run and jump and
+enjoy their games, since it is necessary to put the body in motion
+and allow the mind to rest. A half hour of recreation is to follow
+each hour of study. He would let pupils play to their hearts’
+content, but forbids wrestling, boxing, and swimming as either
+useless or dangerous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Juan Louis Vives</i> (1492-1540), a well-known Spanish scholar,
+born at Valencia, educated there and in the University of Paris,
+after 1514 a resident of Bruges and Louvain, but dividing his time
+between Flanders and England in the years 1522 and 1528 as lecturer
+at Oxford and tutor in the family of Henry VIII, published several
+works on education which contain frequent mention of bodily
+exercise. He regards it as necessary for the health of growing boys,
+and appreciates the recreative value of games.</p>
+
+<p>The typical figure of the French Renaissance is <i>François Rabelais</i>
+(1490-1553), monk, physician, and humorist, whose novels <i>Gargantua</i>
+(1535) and <i>Pantagruel</i> (1533) contain his revolutionary views
+on education. The young gentleman Gargantua is provided with
+an ideal tutor in the person of Ponocrates. After three hours of
+lectures in the morning they spend an hour or so in ball games out-of-doors,
+followed by dinner, an hour of music or quiet games, and
+three more of study in the afternoon. Now his physical training,
+the object of which is plainly to prepare for “the gentleman’s occupation,
+war,” begins in earnest. With the author’s habitual exuberance
+of detail Esquire Gymnast is made to teach his pupil horsemanship,
+how to handle the lance while in full armor, vault on
+horseback and leap from one horse to another, wield the battle-axe,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>handle pike, sword, dagger, and shield, and hunt the bear, deer, wild
+boar, and lesser game. He also practises wrestling, running, broad
+and high jumping, swimming, rowing and sailing a boat, climbing
+ropes, masts, trees and walls, throwing stones, hurling spears,
+shooting with bow and cross-bow and with firearms, hanging and
+travelling sideways on a pole fixed in two trees, and putting up
+leaden dumb-bells.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>The eminent French essayist <i>Michel de Montaigne</i> (1533-1592), in
+discussing at some length the education of children, has comparatively
+little to say of their physical training; but his few words on
+that subject have been frequently quoted, and will still bear repetition.
+They are found in Book I, Chapter 25, of the <i>Essays</i> (1580).
+Health and strength are necessary, he says, for “the soul will be
+oppressed if not assisted by the body.... I know very well how
+much mine groans under the disadvantage of a body so tender and
+delicate that eternally leans and presses upon her.... Our very
+exercises and recreations, running, wrestling, music, dancing,
+hunting, riding, and fencing will prove to be a good part of our
+study. I would have his outward behavior and mien, and the disposition
+of his limbs, formed at the same time with his mind. It
+is not a soul, it is not a body, that we are training up; it is a man,
+and we ought not to divide him into two parts; and as Plato says,
+we are not to fashion one without the other, but make them draw
+together like two horses harnessed to a coach. By which saying of
+his does he not seem to allow more time for, and to take more care
+of, exercises for the body, and to believe that the mind in a good
+proportion does her business at the same time too?... Inure
+him to heat and cold, to wind and sun, and to danger that he ought
+to despise. Wean him from all effeminacy in clothes and lodging,
+eating and drinking; accustom him to everything, that he may
+not be a Sir Paris, a carpet-knight, but a sinewy, hardy, and vigorous
+young man.”</p>
+
+<p>An English contemporary of Rabelais, and of Henry VIII, was
+<i>Sir Thomas Elyot</i> (1490?-1546), intimate with Sir Thomas More,
+deeply stirred by the spirit of the Renaissance, and held in high
+repute for his scholarship. “The Boke named the Governour,”
+published by him in 1531, relates to the education suitable for a
+gentleman’s son who is preparing to serve the commonwealth. It
+passed through a half-dozen editions within the next fifty years,
+and has been recently reprinted in London and New York. Book
+I, Chapters 16-22, 26 and 27, comprising more than an eighth of
+the entire work, are concerned with physical training, which is
+treated under the following heads: “Of sundry forms of exercise
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>necessary for a gentleman. Exercises whereof cometh both recreation
+and profit” (here he mentions the use of dumb-bells of lead or
+other metal, lifting or throwing the heavy stone or bar, wrestling,
+running, swimming, handling the sword and the battle axe, riding
+and vaulting.) “The ancient hunting of Greeks, Romans, and
+Persians. Dancing. Of other exercises which, moderately used, be
+to every estate of man expedient. That shooting in a long bow (the
+‘noble art of archery’) is principal of all other exercises.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Elyot’s
+fondness for the classics appears in his very numerous references
+to Greek and Roman examples or authorities.</p>
+
+<p>While Mercurialis was writing his <i>De Arte Gymnastica</i> and Montaigne
+his <i>Essays</i>, <i>Richard Mulcaster</i> (1530?-1611) was doing hard
+work for scant pay as Master of the Merchant Taylors’ School
+in London (1561-1586). Among other striking points of difference,
+he stands in pleasant contrast with his more successful contemporary
+Sturm, at Strasburg, in his attitude toward the bodies of the
+young. His <i>Positions</i>, which appeared in 1581 and was dedicated
+to Queen Elizabeth, deals with the principles to be observed in the
+training of children, “either for skill in their book or health in their
+body.” A third of the volume is given up to the physical side of
+education, and the nature of the contents cannot be better revealed
+in brief space than by a partial list of the chapter headings, slightly
+altered and condensed: Chapter 4, That exercise must be joined
+with the book, as the schooling of the body. 6, The importance of
+exercise and physical training (as an agent of health). 7, The order
+followed in the present treatment of the subject. 8, Definition and
+varieties of exercise (athletics, martial exercises, exercises for
+health, etc.). 9, Choice of exercises. 10-15, Of loud speaking,
+loud singing, loud and soft reading, much talking and silence,
+laughing and weeping, holding the breath. 16-27, Dancing,
+wrestling, fencing, top and scourge, walking, running, leaping,
+swimming, riding, hunting, shooting (archery), ball games. 28-34,
+Circumstances to be considered in exercise, nature and quality of
+exercise, the bodies which are to be exercised; place, time, quantity,
+and manner of exercise. 35, The training master (the same teacher
+is to serve for both mind and body). Of all books on gymnastics,
+he says in this last chapter, “I know not any comparable to Hieronymus
+Mercurialis, a very learned Italian physician now in our
+time, which hath taken great pains to sift out of all writers whatsoever
+concerneth the whole gymnastical and exercising argument,
+whose advice in this question I have myself much used, where he
+did fit my purpose.” Mulcaster seems never to have caught the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>ear of the age in which he lived, and it is only within the last few
+decades that he has been rescued from oblivion and rated at his
+real worth, as a man far in advance of his time. His book was
+reprinted in London in 1888.</p>
+
+<p>Standing at the very end of this period of the Renaissance and the
+Reformation is <i>John Milton</i> (1608-1674), whose <i>Tractate on Education</i>
+(1644), though not of great value in itself, is yet deserving of
+mention here because it associates a form of bodily exercise with
+mental and moral training. In his model school, intended to bring
+up gentlemen’s sons “to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously,
+all the offices both private and public, of peace and war,”
+he would have the young men, between the ages of twelve and
+twenty-one, live together in barracks, like the Spartan youth.
+“About an hour and a half ere they eat at noon should be allowed
+them for exercise, and due rest afterwards; but the time for this
+may be enlarged at pleasure.... The exercise which I commend
+first is exact use of their weapon, to guard and to strike safely
+with edge or point; this will keep them healthy, nimble, strong,
+and well in breath; is also the likeliest means to make them grow
+large and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage....
+They must be also practised in all the locks and gripes
+of wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to excel, as need may
+often be in fight to tug or grapple, and to close....” About two
+hours before supper they are to be called out for their military
+motions under sky or covert; “first on foot, then, as their age
+permits, on horseback, to all the art of cavalry; that, having in
+sport, but much exactness, and daily muster, served out the rudiments
+of their soldiership ... they may as it were out of a
+long war, come forth renowned and perfect commanders in the
+service of their country.”</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>R. H. Quick, “Essays on Educational Reformers.” New York, D. Appleton &amp;
+Co., 1890.</p>
+
+<p>F. P. Graves, “A History of Education during the Middle Ages and the Transition
+to Modern Times.” New York, The Macmillan Co., 1910.</p>
+
+<p>Foster Watson, “Notices of Some Early English Writers on Education, with
+Descriptions, Extracts, and Notes.” In annual Reports of the United States Commissioner
+of Education for 1900-01 (I: 861-884), 1902 (I: 481-508), 1903 (I: 319-350),
+and 1904 (I: 633-701).</p>
+
+<p>W. H. Woodward, “Studies in Education during the Age of the Renaissance
+(1400-1600).” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1906.</p>
+
+<p>W. H. Woodward, “Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educators: Essays
+and Versions.” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Wilhelm Krampe, “Die italienischen Humanisten und ihre Wirksamkeit für die
+Wiederbelebung gymnastischer Pädagogik. Ein Beitrag zur allgemeinen Geschichte
+der Jugenderziehung und der Leibesübungen.” Breslau, W. G. Korn, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>O. Richter, “Die Ansichten und Bestrebungen italienischer Humanisten auf dem
+Gebiete der Leibeserziehung. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Leibesübungen.”
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>In <i>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen</i> 14 (1895); 98-107, 139-149, 193-200, and 262-270.
+Berlin, R. Gaertners Verlagsbuchhandlung.</p>
+
+<p>Carl Rossow, “Italienische und deutsche Humanisten und ihre Stellung zu den
+Leibesübungen.” Leipzig, C. G. Naumann, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>S. S. Laurie, “John Amos Comenius, Bishop of the Moravians: His Life and
+Educational Works.” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>M. W. Keatinge, “The Great Didactic of John Amos Comenius now for the first
+time Englished, with Introductions, Biographical and Historical.” London, Adam
+and Charles Black, 1896.</p>
+
+<p>W. S. Monroe, “Comenius and the Beginnings of Educational Reform.” New
+York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1900.</p>
+
+<p>Foster Watson, “Vives: On Education. A Translation of the <i>De Tradendis
+Disciplinis</i> of Juan Luis Vives, together with an Introduction.” Cambridge
+(England), at the University Press, 1913.</p>
+
+<p>Foster Watson, “Vives and the Renascence Education of Women.” New York:
+Longmans, Green &amp; Co.; London, Edward Arnold, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur Tilley, “François Rabelais.” Philadelphia and London, J. B. Lippincott
+Co., 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Walter Besant, “Readings in Rabelais.” Edinburgh and London, William
+Blackwood and Sons, 1883.</p>
+
+<p>M. E. Lowndes, “Michel de Montaigne: A Biographical Study.” Cambridge
+(England), at the University Press, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Dowden, “Michel de Montaigne.” Philadelphia and London, J. B.
+Lippincott Co., 1905.</p>
+
+<p>L. E. Rector, “Montaigne: The Education of Children. Selected, Translated,
+and Annotated.” New York, D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1899.</p>
+
+<p>H. H. S. Croft, “The Boke named The Governour, Devised by Sir Thomas Elyot,
+Knight. Edited from the first edition of 1531.” In two volumes. London: Kegan,
+Paul &amp; Co., 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Thomas Elyot, “The Boke Named the Governour.” London, J. M. Dent &amp;
+Co.; New York, E. P. Dutton &amp; Co. (Foster Watson’s Introduction is dated 1907).
+Number 227 in <i>Everyman’s Library</i>.</p>
+
+<p>R. H. Quick, “Positions: By Richard Mulcaster, First Headmaster of Merchant
+Taylors’ School (A.D. 1561-1586); with an Appendix, containing Some Account of
+His Life and Writings.” London and New York: Longmans, Green, &amp; Co., 1888.</p>
+
+<p>Oscar Browning, “Milton’s Tractate on Education. A Facsimile Reprint from
+the Edition of 1673. Edited with an Introduction and Notes.” Cambridge (England),
+at the University Press, 1890. The <i>Tractate</i> is also published in Barnard’s
+<i>American Journal of Education</i> II (1856): 76-85.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> The first edition, dedicated to Cardinal Alexander Farnese, has the following
+title-page: “Artis Gymnasticæ apud Antiquos celeberrimæ, nostris temporibus
+ignoratæ, Libri Sex. In quibus exercitationum omnium vetustarum genera, loca,
+modi, facultates &amp; quicquid denique ad corporis humani exercitationes pertinet,
+diligenter explicatur. Opus non modo medicis, verum etiam omnibus antiquarum
+rerum cognoscendarum, &amp; valetudinis conservandæ studiosis admodum utile.
+Palæstræ descriptio ex Vetruvio sub litera B. Auctore Hieronymo Mercuriali
+Foroliviensi, Medico &amp; Philosopho. Venetiis, Apud Juntas. MDLXIX.” The
+second edition, like the third and the fourth, is illustrated, and dedicated to Emperor
+Maximilian II. The title-page is changed to read: “Hieronymi Mercurialis de
+arte gymnastica Libri Sex, in quibus exercitationum ... admodum utile
+(as in first edition). Secunda editione aucti, &amp; multis figuris ornati. Ad Maximilianum
+II. Imperatorem. Venetiis apud Juntas, MDLXXIII.” The Paris
+issue of this second edition substitutes the words “Parisiis, Apud Jacobum du Puys,
+via Joannis Lateranensis, sub signo Samaritanæ. 1577.” The third edition (“Tertia
+editione correctiores, &amp; auctiores facti”) was published “Venetiis, MDLXXXVII.
+Apud Juntas,” and the fourth edition (“Quarta editione correctiores, &amp; auctiores
+facti”), “Venetiis, apus Juntas. MDCI.”</p>
+
+<p>The title-page of the Amsterdam edition reads: “Hieronymi Mercurialis Foroliviensis
+de Arte Gymnastica Libri Sex: in quibus exercitationum omnium vetustarum
+genera, loca, modi, facultates, &amp; quidquid denique ad corporis humani exercitationes
+pertinet diligenter explicatur. Editio novissima, aucta, emendata, &amp; figuris authenticis
+Christophori Coriolani exornata. Amstelodami, Sumptibus Andreæ Frisii,”
+(1672).</p>
+
+<p>In this connection may be mentioned also “The Muscles and Their Story, from the
+Earliest Times; including the Whole Text of Mercurialis, and the Opinions of Other
+Writers Ancient and Modern, on Mental and Bodily Development. By John W. F.
+Blundell, M.D., Licentiate of the Royal College of Edinburgh, Author of ‘Medicina
+Mechanica,’ etc.” London, Chapman &amp; Hall, 1864.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> The table of contents, translated, is given in full at the foot of pp. 477-479 in
+the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1891-1892, vol. <b>1</b>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Translated by Karl Wassmannsdorff in <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i>, <b>17</b> (1872); 272,
+279.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Chapter 23. The entire passage is given in English at the foot of pp. 472-474
+in the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1891-1892, vol. <b>1</b>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Quotations from these chapters will be found in Barnard’s <i>Am. Jour. Educ.</i>,
+<b>16</b>, 490-496 (1866). In 1545 <i>Roger Ascham</i> (1515-1568), author of The Scholemaster,
+published his “Toxophilus, the schole of shootinge conteyned in two bookes.”</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br>
+<span class="smaller">LOCKE AND ROUSSEAU.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The best of the Renaissance writers on education had begun to
+break away from authority and tradition, and with reason as a
+guide were groping their way toward a training better suited to
+the nature and present needs of man than any the past could
+supply. That their ideas gained currency throughout all Europe
+and the way was thus prepared for practical reforms is very largely
+due to the powerful influence exerted by two philosophers, <i>John
+Locke</i> (1632-1704) and <i>Jean Jacques Rousseau</i> (1712-1778), the
+former of whom published “Some Thoughts on Education” in 1693,
+and the latter his “Émile, a Treatise on Education” in 1762.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp41" id="figure07" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure07.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—John Locke (1632-1704).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Locke was an Oxford graduate and lecturer, had studied medicine
+and been physician in the household of Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>of Shaftesbury, and his chief work, the “Essay Concerning Human
+Understanding,” had already appeared (1690). His views, therefore,
+commanded attention at once, and whatever relates to the
+physical side of education came with the added weight of special
+knowledge. The author begins by dwelling at some length upon
+the hygiene of childhood. “Keep the body in strength and vigor,”
+he says, “so that it may be able to obey and execute the orders of
+the mind.... A sound mind in a sound body, is a short but full
+description of a happy state in this world: he that has these two has
+little more to wish for; and he that wants either of them will be
+but little the better for anything else.... He whose mind directs
+not wisely will never take the right way; and he whose body is
+crazy and feeble will never be able to advance in it....</p>
+
+<p>“Most children’s constitutions are either spoiled, or at least
+harmed, by cockering and tenderness.” They should not be too
+warmly clad or covered, winter or summer, and to prevent colds the
+boy’s feet are to be washed every day in cold water, and his shoes
+made “so thin that they might leak and let in water whenever he
+comes near it.” For safety and for health’s sake he must learn
+to swim. He is to be “much in the open air, and very little, as
+may be, by the fire, even in winter.” Clothing should never be
+made tight, especially about the breast, and the diet ought to be
+very plain and simple, with only small beer for drink, and that after
+eating. Serving his meals at irregular intervals will train him to
+endure hunger, if necessary. As regards fruit, “our first parents
+ventured paradise for it, and it is no wonder our children cannot
+stand the temptation, though it cost them their health.” Some
+kinds are wholesome and may be taken freely before or between
+meals, but others are forbidden. Allow no sweetmeats—“one of
+the most inconvenient ways of expense that vanity hath yet found
+out; and so I leave them to the ladies.” Nothing is more to be
+indulged children than sleep, but insist upon early rising, and let
+the bed be hard and rather quilts than feathers. All may be
+summed up in these rules: “Plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep;
+plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic;
+not too warm and strait clothing; especially the head and feet kept
+cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet.”</p>
+
+<p>Further on, in the body of his work, Locke comes to what we
+should now call physical training proper. He recognizes that
+“besides what is to be had from study and books, there are other
+accomplishments necessary for a gentleman, to be got by exercise,
+and to which time is to be allowed, and for which masters must
+be had. Dancing being that which gives graceful motions all
+the life, and above all things, manliness and a becoming confidence
+to young children, I think it cannot be learned too early....
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>As for the jigging part, and the figures of dances, I count that little
+or nothing, farther than as it tends to perfect graceful carriage.
+Music ... wastes so much of a young man’s time to gain but
+a moderate skill in it ... that amongst all accomplishments
+I think I may give it the last place.... Fencing, and riding the
+great horse, are looked upon as so necessary parts of breeding that
+it would be thought a great omission to neglect them: the latter
+of the two, being for the most part to be learned only in great
+towns, is one of the best exercises for health which is to be had
+in those places of ease and luxury ... and ... is of
+use to a gentleman, both in peace and war.... As for fencing,
+it seems to me a good exercise for health, but dangerous to the life,
+the confidence of their skill being apt to engage in quarrels those
+that think they have learned to use their swords.... If ...
+a man be to prepare his son for duels, I had much rather mine should
+be a good wrestler than an ordinary fencer; which is the most a
+gentleman can attain to in it, unless he will be constantly in the
+fencing school, and every day exercising....</p>
+
+<p>“I would (also) have him learn a trade, a manual trade; nay,
+two or three, but one more particularly.... Manual arts, which
+are both got and exercised by labor, do many of them by that exercise
+not only increase our dexterity and skill, but contribute to our
+health too; especially such as employ us in the open air....”
+He “is not for painting;” but proposes “one, or rather both these,
+viz., gardening or husbandry in general, and working in wood, as
+a carpenter, joiner, or turner; these being fit and healthy recreations
+for a man of study or business.”</p>
+
+<p>The effects produced by Rousseau’s educational romance,
+“Émile,” upon the modern pedagogic world it would be difficult
+to exaggerate. The times were ripe for a revolt, and close upon the
+radical criticism of existing methods to which this theorist gave
+such convincing expression followed the actual reforms inaugurated
+by Basedow, Pestalozzi, and other innovators. It will be sufficient
+here to mention only a single phase of the education which
+this disciple of Locke would give to his imaginary hero. “The
+body,” says Rousseau&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> in Book I, “must needs be vigorous in order
+to obey the soul: a good servant ought to be robust.... The
+weaker the body, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the
+better it obeys.” Upon the subject of sleep, cold bathing, and the
+clothing suitable for young children his views are those of Locke.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure08" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In Book II we read: “If ... you would cultivate the intelligence
+of your pupil, cultivate the power which it is to govern.
+Give his body continual exercise; make him robust and sound in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>order to make him wise and reasonable; let him work, and move
+about, and run, and shout, and be continually in motion; let him
+be a man in vigor, and soon he will be such by force of reason....
+It is a very deplorable error to imagine that the exercise of the
+body is injurious to the operations of the mind; as if these two
+activities were not to proceed in concert, and the second were not
+always to direct the first!... These continual exercises, thus
+left wholly to the direction of Nature, not only do not brutalize
+the mind while fortifying the body, but on the contrary they form
+within us the only species of reason of which childhood is susceptible,
+and the most necessary at any and all periods of life. They teach
+us thoroughly to understand the use of our powers, the relations
+between our own bodies and surrounding bodies, and the use of the
+natural instruments which are within our reach and which are
+adapted to our organs.... In order to learn to think, we must
+... exercise our limbs, our senses, and our organs, which are
+the instruments of our intelligence; and in order to derive all the
+advantage possible from these instruments, it is necessary that the
+body which furnishes them should be robust and sound. Thus,
+so far is it from being true that the reason of man is formed independently
+of the body, it is the happy constitution of the body
+which renders the operations of the mind facile and sure....</p>
+
+<p>“... Let him learn to make jumps, now long, now high; to
+climb a tree, to leap a wall. Let him always find his equilibrium;
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>and let all his movements and gestures be regulated according to
+the laws of gravity, long before the science of statics intervenes to
+explain them to him.... When a child plays at shuttlecock he
+trains his eye and arm in accuracy; when he whips a top he increases
+his strength by using it, but without learning anything. I have
+sometimes asked why we do not offer children the same games of
+skill which men have, such as tennis, fives, billiards, bow and
+arrow, football, and musical instruments. I have been told, in
+reply, that some of these sports are beyond the strength of children,
+and that their limbs and organs are not sufficiently developed for
+the others. I find these reasons bad.... I do not mean that
+he shall knock the balls in our tennis courts, nor that his little
+hands shall be made to hold the racket of an expert; but that he
+shall play in a hall whose windows are protected; that at first
+he use only soft balls; that his first rackets shall be of wood, then of
+parchment, and finally of catgut stretched to accord with his
+progress.... To spring from one end of the hall to another, to
+estimate the bound of a ball still in the air, and to send it back with
+a strong and steady hand, such sports do not befit a man but they
+serve to train a youth....</p>
+
+<p>“... I insist absolutely that Émile shall learn a trade,”
+Rousseau continues, in Book III. This is not so much for the
+trade itself, as for overcoming the prejudices that despise it. “His
+apprenticeship is already more than half done, through the tasks
+with which we have occupied our time up to the present moment....
+He already knows how to handle the spade and the hoe; he
+can use the lathe, the hammer, the plane, and the file; the tools of
+all the trades are already familiar to him. All he has to do in
+addition is to acquire of some of these tools such a prompt and facile
+use as to make him equal in speed to good workmen using the same
+tools, and in this point he has a great advantage over all others;
+he has an agile body and flexible limbs, which can assume all sorts
+of attitudes without difficulty and prolong all sorts of movement
+without effort.... All things considered, the trade which I would
+rather have be to the taste of my pupil is that of cabinetmaker.
+It is cleanly, it is useful, and it may be practised at home; it keeps
+the body sufficiently exercised; it requires of the workman skill and
+ingenuity, and in the form of the products which utility determines,
+elegance and taste are not excluded....”</p>
+
+<p>As he approaches maturity (Book IV) Émile requires “a new
+occupation which interests him by its novelty, which keeps him
+in good humor, gives him pleasure, occupies his attention, and
+keeps him in training—an occupation of which he is passionately
+fond and in which he is wholly absorbed. Now the only one which
+seems to me to fulfil all these conditions is hunting.... Émile
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>has everything necessary for success in it: he is robust, dexterous,
+patient, indefatigable. Without fail he will contract a taste for
+this exercise; he will throw into it all the ardor of his age; for a time,
+at least, he will lose in it all the dangerous inclinations which spring
+from idleness. Hunting toughens the heart as well as the body....”</p>
+
+<p>Book V is concerned with the education of Sophie, Émile’s future
+wife. “... Plato, in his <i>Republic</i>, enjoins the same exercises
+on women as upon men, and in this I think he was right....
+Since the body is born, so to speak, before the soul, the first culture
+ought to be that of the body; and this order is common to both
+sexes. But the object of this culture is different; in one this object
+is the development of strength, while in the other it is the development
+of personal charms. Not that these qualities ought to be
+exclusive in each sex, but the order is simply reversed: women need
+sufficient strength to do with grace whatever they have to do; and
+men need sufficient cleverness to do with facility whatever they
+have to do. The extreme lack of vigor in women gives rise to the
+same quality in men. Women ought not to be robust like them,
+but for them, in order that the men who shall be born of them
+may be robust also. In this respect the convents, where the
+boarders have coarse fare, but many frolics, races, and sports in
+the open air and in gardens, are to be preferred to the home where
+a girl, delicately reared, always flattered or scolded, always seated
+under the eyes of her mother in a very close room, dares neither to
+rise, to walk, to speak, nor to breathe, and has not a moment’s
+liberty for playing, jumping, running, shouting, and indulging in
+the petulance natural to her age; always dangerous relaxation or
+badly conceived severity, but never anything according to reason.
+This is the way the young are ruined both in body and in heart....
+Delicacy is not languor, and one need not be sickly in order to
+please.”</p>
+
+<p>While Locke and Rousseau were urging the necessity of some
+sort of physical training in the scheme of education, and philologists
+and students of ancient art kept alive the knowledge of Greek gymnastics,
+a number of medical writers had been directing attention
+to the importance of bodily exercise in the restoration and preservation
+of health. In London, in 1705, <i>Francis Fuller</i> (1670-1706), a
+graduate of St. John’s College, Cambridge, published “Medicina
+Gymnastica: or a Treatise Concerning the Power of Exercise with
+Respect to the Animal Œconomy, and the Great Necessity of it in
+the Cure of Several Distempers.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> A German translation appeared
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>in 1750,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> after the book had already passed through seven or eight
+editions in England. <i>Friedrich Hoffmann</i> (1660-1742), a distinguished
+German physician referred to several times by GutsMuths
+in his “Gymnastics for the Young,” and the first professor of
+medicine at Halle University, published in Latin an essay “On
+Motion, the Best Medicine for the Body”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> in 1701; and eighteen
+years later several of his articles on the hygienic influence of exercise
+appeared at Halle under the title “The Incomparable Advantages
+of motion and of Bodily Exercises, and How They are to be
+Employed for the Preservation of Health.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> <i>Joh. Friedrich Zückert</i>
+(1737-1778), a Berlin physician quoted by Basedow, in discussing
+the hygiene of infancy and childhood (1764-1765),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> mentions various
+bodily exercises, such as wrestling, dancing, riding, vaulting, bowling,
+skating and swimming. Upon his appointment to the chair
+of medicine at Lausanne, in 1766, <i>Simon André Tissot</i> (1728-1797)
+delivered a Latin discourse on the health of the literary class (<i>De
+valetudine litteratorum</i>), in which he recommends games and gymnastics
+for the youth of both sexes. A French translation of the
+address was published in 1767,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> a German one in the following
+year,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+    besides later editions in both languages, several in English,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>and at least one in Swedish,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> “Italian, and six other languages.”
+A well-known French physician, <i>Clement Joseph Tissot</i> (1750-1826),
+published in Paris in 1780 his “Medical and Surgical Gymnastics:
+an Essay on the Use of Motion and of Different Exercises of the Body
+in the Cure of Disease.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Translations of the work were printed
+in Leipsic&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and Stockholm.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>R. M. Quick, “Some Thoughts concerning Education, by John Locke. With
+Introduction and Notes.” Cambridge (England), at the University Press, 1880.
+Revised edition, 1884.</p>
+
+<p>J. W. Adamson (Editor), “The Educational Writings of John Locke.” New York:
+Longmans, Green &amp; Co.; London, Edward Arnold, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>W. M. Payne, “Rousseau’s Émile: or, Treatise on Education. Abridged, Translated,
+and Annotated.” New York, D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Davidson, “Rousseau and Education according to Nature.” New York,
+Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Gabriel Compayré, “Jean Jacques Rousseau and Education from Nature.”
+Translated by R. J. Jago. New York, Thomas Y. Crowell &amp; Co., 1907.</p>
+
+<p>R. L. Archer (Editor), “Rousseau on Education.” New York: Longmans, Green
+&amp; Co.; London, Edward Arnold, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Wassmannsdorff, “Aerztlicher Einfluss auf die sogenannte Erneuerung der
+Leibesübungen in Deutschland; ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Turnkunst,” in <i>Neue
+Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i> <b>15</b> (1869): 111-133.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> These quotations are taken from Rousseau’s Émile, abridged, translated, and
+annotated by William H. Payne. New York, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> London: Printed by John Matthews, for Robert Knaplock, at the Angel and
+Crown in St. Paul’s Church Yard, 1705. A second edition, with additions, followed
+in the same year, a third (“printed for Robert Knaplock, at the Bishop’s-Head in
+St. Paul’s Church-Yard”) in 1707, a fourth in 1711, a fifth in 1718, a sixth in 1728,
+another in 1740, and the “ninth and last” in 1777.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Medicina gymnastica, oder von der Leibesübung, in Ansehung der animalischen
+Oeconomie, oder der zu Erhaltung der Gesundheit des menschlichen Lebens nöthigen
+Ordnung; und wie solche bey Curirung verschiedener Krankheiten unumgänglich
+nöthig sey, von Franz Fuller, aus der sechsten Englischen Herausgabe übersetzt.
+Lemgo, Johann Heinrich Meyer, 1750.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> “De motu, optima corporis medicina.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> “Vorstellung des unvergleichlichen Nutzens der Bewegung und Leibes-Uebungen
+und wie man sich derselben zur Erhaltung der Gesundheit zu bedienen habe.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> “Unterricht für rechtschaffene Eltern, zur diätetischen Pflege ihrer Säuglinge”
+(Berlin, A. Mylius, 1764. Second edition, 1771); and “Von der diätetischen Erziehung
+der entwöhnten und erwachsenen Kinder bis in ihr mannbares Alter” (Berlin,
+A. Mylius, 1765. Second edition 1771).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> “Avis aux gens de lettres et aux personnes sédentaires sur leur santé, trad. du
+latin” (Paris, Herissant Fils, 1767). It was later corrected by the author and published
+under the title “De la santé des gens de lettres” (Lausanne, F. Grasset &amp; Cie.;
+Lyon, Benoit Duplain; and Paris, P. F. Didot le jeune, 1768). Other editions bearing
+the same title appeared at Lausanne in 1769, 1770, 1772, and 1788; at Lyon in
+1769; and a “nouvelle édition, augmentée d’une notice sur l’auteur et de notes, par
+F.-G. Boisseau,” in Paris (J.-B. Baillière) in 1825 and 1826.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> “S. A. D. Tissot, der Arzneygelahrtheit Doctor und öffentlicher Lehrer zu
+Lausanne, der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu London, der Medicinisch-Physischen
+Akademie in Basel, und der Oekonomischen Gesellschaft in Bern
+Mitglied, von der Gesundheit der Gelehrten. Aus dem Französischen übersetzt
+von Joh. Rud. Füesslin.” Zurich, Füesslin und Compagnie, 1768. Later editions
+are said to have appeared in Zurich in 1769 and 1775. The German translation was
+also published in Leipzig (J. G. Müller) in 1768 and 1775.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> “An Essay on Diseases Incident to Literary and Sedentary Persons. With
+Proper Rules for Preventing Their Fatal Consequences, and Instructions for Their
+Cure. By S. A. Tissot, M.D., Professor of Physic at Berne.... The Second Edition,
+with very large Additions. With a Preface and Notes by J. Kirkpatrick, M.D.
+London: Printed for J. Nourse ... and E. and C. Dilly ... MDCCLXIX.” The
+English translation was also published in Dublin (“Printed for James Williams, at
+No. 5, Skinner Row. MDCCLXXII.”)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> “Råd till de Lärde och till dem som föra ett stillasittande lefnadssätt. Af
+Tissot. Öfversättning i sammandrag. Pendant till Underrättelse om Gymnastik.
+Upsala, hos Palmblad och C. 1821.” The dedication “till studerande corpsen”
+is signed “Gustav von Heidenstam.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> “Gymnastique médicinale et chirurgicale, ou essai sur l’utilité du mouvement,
+ou des differens exercices du corps, et du repos dans la cure des maladies; par M.
+Tissot, Docteur en Médecine, &amp; Chirurgien-Major du quatrième Regiment des
+Chevaux-Légers.” Paris: Bastien, Libraire, 1780.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> “Medicinische und chirurgische Gymnastik, oder Versuch über den Nutzen der
+Bewegung oder der verschiedenen Leibesübungen, und der Ruhe bey Heilung der
+Krankheiten. Aus dem französischen des Herrn Tissot, mit Anmerkungen des
+Herausgebers bereichert. Mit Churfürstl. Sächs. Privilegio. Leipzig, bey Friedrich
+Gotthold Jacobäer und Sohn, 1782.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “Medicinsk och Chirurgisk Gymnastik, eller Försök om nyttan af Rörelse och
+Stillhet vid Sjukdomars botande. Af Herr Tissot, M.D., Öfver Fältskär vid fjerde
+Regementet af Franska lätta Cavallerier. Stockholm, Tryckt hos Bokhandlaren
+Joh. Dahl. 1797.”</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure09" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure09.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Johann Bernhard Basedow</i> (1723-1790), the son of a Hamburg
+wigmaker, attended school in his native city and was for several
+years a student of theology in Leipsic, later accepted a position as
+private tutor, and for eight years, from 1753 till 1761, was professor
+of moral philosophy and belles-lettres in the school for young
+noblemen (Ritterakademie) at Soröe, in Denmark. This institution
+belonged to a type common in Continental countries during
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> It had been founded in
+1623 by Christian IV, who merely followed the custom of the age
+when along with teachers of the literary branches he appointed
+professional masters of riding, fencing, and dancing, a master of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>gymnastics, and a special teacher of various games of ball. Basedow,
+therefore, had before his eyes a system of education which
+actually made the attempt to combine physical with mental training,
+in the case of youth of a certain class. After leaving Soröe
+he taught for seven years in Altona, near Hamburg. Thoughts
+of reform in school life had already begun to fill his mind, and the
+appearance of Rousseau’s Émile (1762) just at this time no doubt
+influenced him profoundly. In 1768 he gave up teaching in order
+to devote himself wholly to the improvement of educational
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>For some years Basedow had been pondering plans for a model
+school which should embody his ideas and force them upon the
+attention of educators, and where among other innovations physical
+training should be given a place in the daily program. The support
+of the Duke of Anhalt, at whose invitation he removed to Dessau
+in 1771, enabled him to realize this project, and on December 27,
+1774, he opened there his private academy, named by him the
+Philanthropinum. A year and a half later the number of pupils
+was only fifteen, including Basedow’s daughter, and only three of
+these were above eight years of age. But in spite of the unwillingness
+of parents to subject their children to the new methods, and
+although the founder himself soon resigned his position at the head
+of the institution, the effects produced by the experiment were
+far-reaching and it was watched with the greatest interest. Basedow
+severed all connection with the school in the spring of 1778,
+but other men, with greater capacity for organization and administration
+than he possessed, continued the work in conformity with
+his views until 1793, when the Dessau Educational Institute, as
+it had been called after the first few years, finally closed its doors.</p>
+
+<p>According to the prospectus issued in December of 1774, five
+hours a day were to be allotted to studies, three hours to recreation
+in fencing, riding, dancing, music, etc., and two hours to manual
+labor. Basedow promises that if the numbers are sufficient and
+the ages suitable there will be drill in military positions and movements,
+and frequent marches on foot; he also hopes to have the
+school dwell under tents in the field for two months of the summer,
+and in this way to give opportunities for hunting and fishing, boating,
+bathing, climbing, and jumping, as well as for the study of
+geography and the natural sciences. The physical training of the
+pupils was first entrusted, as a part of his duties, to <i>Johann Friedrich
+Simon</i>, a teacher in the Philanthropinum from January 2, 1776, to
+October 20, 1777; and he was succeeded by <i>Johann Jakob Du
+Toit</i>, whose connection with the school lasted from Easter of 1778
+until the end came in 1793. The earliest exercises mentioned are
+weekly lessons in dancing, free instruction in fencing for the older
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>boys, and six lessons a week in the Duke’s private riding-school.
+The latter’s riding-master also gave free instruction in vaulting
+the (living) horse. Thus the “knightly exercises,” as these four
+were called, had all been introduced, and Basedow himself refers to
+this fact, evidently recalling the school at Soröe.</p>
+
+<p>But children of such tender age plainly required a different
+sort of bodily training, and accordingly it was not long before Simon
+began to give his pupils lessons in what he termed “Greek gymnastics,”
+apparently including under this head nothing more than
+orderly contests in running, wrestling, throwing, and jumping,
+such as formed the staple of discipline in the Greek palæstra. For
+the broad-jumping he used ditches, cut so that they were perhaps
+eight feet across in the middle, but tapered almost to a point at
+either end, the pupils starting with a width which they could easily
+clear and working gradually toward the center as their strength
+and skill increased. For the high-jump two vertical poles were
+fixed at a distance of two and a half feet from each other in the
+ground, reaching about five feet above its surface; into holes bored
+in these, at intervals of an inch, wooden pegs were set at any desired
+height, and a stick resting crosswise upon the pegs furnished a barrier
+which would not injure the person who happened to strike it with
+his foot. Another of Simon’s devices was a long round beam raised
+about four feet above the ground and fastened firmly between
+posts at its thicker end and again near the middle, but with the
+smaller half left unsupported. The pupils were taught to balance
+themselves upon this beam, first at the fixed end, while the teacher
+lent a hand from below, and then, as they accustomed themselves
+little by little to the feat, upon the swaying portion, and without
+assistance. A simpler exercise of the same character consisted in
+crossing ditches on a narrow plank. The list of games, all of which
+were under the oversight of a teacher, included shuttlecock, tennis
+or fives, skittles, and playing with a large ball filled with air. For
+the younger children there were also hoops and seesaw.</p>
+
+<p>Under Simon’s successor, Du Toit, other varieties of exercise
+were added from time to time—singing and reading aloud; swimming,
+skating, shooting with the bow and with firearms; marching
+in time and playing soldier; making excursions on foot into the
+surrounding country; walking up the rounds of a ladder set
+obliquely, without the help of the hands, or swinging from its under
+side and climbing hand-over-hand; carrying bags full of sand with
+the arms stretched out horizontally at the sides, while a teacher,
+walking among them, counted his steps aloud, and the pupils noted
+the number when their muscles began to pain them, and when they
+were finally overcome with fatigue, gauging thus the daily increase
+in strength and endurance. Gardening is mentioned, and in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>fall of 1777 working in wood was introduced—the use of the lathe
+and plane, and cabinetmaking. Thus, at the very beginning of
+modern physical training, and under these earliest teachers of the
+art, we find in embryo most of the varied forms which have been
+advocated at one time or another since that day, <i>i.e.</i>, simple games
+and athletic sports, gymnastics, military drill, manual labor and
+manual training, and school excursions. It will be observed,
+further, that these exercises had been incorporated into the plan
+of education as an essential factor, and that they were entrusted,
+not to a special master, but to one of the regular teachers in the
+school.</p>
+
+<p>Other institutions were soon started in imitation of the Dessau
+Philanthropinum. The first of these was opened in October of
+1775 at Marschlins, in Switzerland, but closed its doors in the
+following year. A second, at the castle Heidesheim, not far from
+Mannheim, lived only from the first of May, 1777, until some
+time in 1779. The task of organization in each instance was confided
+to Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, who had spent four weeks at Dessau
+and was recommended by Basedow himself. But one philanthropinistic
+school, the Schnepfenthal Educational Institute, long outlived
+its parent, and has survived even to the present day. Its
+founder, <i>Christian Gotthilf Salzmann</i> (1744-1811), had been called
+from a pastorate in Erfurt to become liturgist and teacher of
+religion in the Philanthropinum at Dessau, remaining there from
+the spring of 1781 until the end of February, 1784, and he himself
+attributed much of his later success to what he saw and learned in
+these three years. A growing desire to carry out independently
+his ideas of education, upon similar principles but with some
+important differences in organization and surroundings, finally
+induced Salzmann to give up his position in order to found a new
+school in the country, remote from the influences of city life. The
+site selected for the venture was Schnepfenthal, an estate in the
+vicinity of Gotha. Toward its purchase Duke Ernst II of Saxe-Gotha
+contributed four thousand thaler, and the cornerstone of
+the main building was laid June 18, 1784.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Director’s four children, there were during the first
+year nine pupils, all of them under twelve years of age, and for the
+instruction of this small number five assistants were employed.
+On July 18, 1785, <i>Christian Carl Andre</i> entered upon his duties as
+a teacher at the Institute, and to him Salzmann assigned the physical
+training of the pupils. About eleven o’clock they were called away
+from other tasks for the gymnastic lesson, commonly given in an
+open space under the oaks which shaded a neighboring hill. Here
+a jumping-ditch had been dug, and a balance-beam and pair of
+upright poles set up, like the ones at Dessau. The new exercises
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>mentioned at this period are throwing at a target, running through
+the long jumping rope, pole-vaulting, and running up and down
+hill. When the weather was unfavorable they practised indoors
+various movements and positions intended to teach the proper
+carriage of the body—the beginnings of our present “free exercises.”
+The knightly exercises had not yet been introduced. After the
+midday meal the children were allowed the time until two o’clock
+for relaxation and games, and again in the evening these alternated
+with “musical entertainments.” The whole of Sunday afternoons
+was set apart for amusements, excursions on foot, and games under
+Andre’s direction. Pupils who showed proficiency in the events
+of the morning were distinguished by a few oak leaves on the hat,
+and as a further reward they were sometimes permitted by the
+teacher to choose the exercises for the following day.</p>
+
+<p>In July of 1786 this portion of Andre’s work was turned over to
+<i>Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths</i> (1759-1839), who continued
+to discharge the duties of the position for nearly fifty years. During
+fifteen years of this time, <i>i.e.</i>, from October of 1787 till 1802,
+Christian Ludwig Lenz assisted him by giving instruction in swimming
+and vaulting. The preëminence of GutsMuths among
+pioneers of modern physical education does not rest upon priority
+in time—as we have seen, he was not the first, but the fourth
+teacher of gymnastics in a school open to all classes of society—but
+it is due rather to his long period of service, to the character and
+results of his teaching and the favorable impression which it made
+upon visitors, and to the series of volumes from his pen which formed
+what has been aptly called the first normal school of physical training
+for other teachers, and not in Germany alone, but elsewhere in
+Europe and even beyond its borders. For these reasons his career
+deserves somewhat extended notice.</p>
+
+<p>GutsMuths, son of a tanner in moderate circumstances, was born
+August 9, 1759, in the ancient Prussian town of Quedlinburg. The
+boy’s first library consisted of a great Bible illustrated with beautiful
+copper-plate engravings, an old geography with woodcuts of the
+different races of men, and, best beloved of all, the “Acerra philologica,”
+in German. This last book, containing hundreds of selections
+from the writings of well-known Greek and Latin authors, he
+read through a score of times, he said, and it may have given him
+his first introduction to the gymnastics of the ancients. He was
+also fond of working with tools, and skilful with his pencil and
+afterwards with brush and paints. In the spring of 1773, while
+he was in his third year at the <i>Gymnasium</i> or classical secondary
+school of Quedlinburg, his father died. Four years later, upon
+recommendation of the prorector of the <i>Gymnasium</i>, he became
+private tutor in the family of Dr. Friedrich Wilhelm Ritter, a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>respected physician in the town and medical adviser to the then
+abbess of Quedlinburg, Princess Anna Amelia, sister of Frederick
+the Great. GutsMuths now found his time fully occupied. Besides
+preparing his own school tasks, he must teach the two oldest of Dr.
+Ritter’s four sons and a merchant’s boy whom he had also accepted
+as a pupil, and to fit himself the better to discharge the new duties
+he studied carefully Basedow’s “Elementarwerk” (1774) and especially
+the “Methodenbuch” (1770).</p>
+
+<p>In 1779 GutsMuths entered the university of Halle, intending to
+take up the study of theology; but inclination led him to attend
+as well courses in mathematics, physics and modern languages
+(including English and Italian), and pedagogy, too, continued to
+interest him greatly. After three years in Halle he returned to
+Quedlinburg to resume his old position in the Ritter household,
+where there were now six children, five of them boys and the oldest
+barely nine years old. The next to the youngest, aged three, was
+Karl, the geographer-to-be. Only two years later, in June, 1784,
+Dr. Ritter succumbed to a severe attack of typhoid fever. His
+young widow found herself unable to continue the salary which
+GutsMuths had been receiving, but he was unwilling to desert the
+family in its time of need and was easily persuaded to remain for
+another year in spite of the changed circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>During this same year Salzmann was making preparations to
+open his new educational institution at Schnepfenthal, about
+seventy miles away to the south and west in a straight line. Already
+teachers had been selected, but outside of his own large family
+there were no pupils on the grounds. He decided to receive without
+charge, as the first of these, some promising lad not yet beyond
+his sixth year, and having learned of Dr. Ritter’s death from a
+published announcement, sent two friends to Quedlinburg to see
+whether there might not be among his sons a suitable candidate.
+As a result, Frau Ritter was asked to part with her favorite Karl.
+June 7, 1785, taking the boy and his brother Johannes, four years
+older, she set out for Schnepfenthal, accompanied by GutsMuths,
+and reached there at noon of the 9th. A stay of several days led
+to such favorable impressions on both sides that she accepted
+Salzmann’s offer to receive <i>both</i> children, and GutsMuths consented
+to remain as a permanent assistant. He made the return journey
+to Quedlinburg with the widow, arranged his affairs in the home
+city, and on the 30th of the same month was again in Schnepfenthal,
+ready to take up the new tasks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure10" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure10.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—J. C. F. GutsMuths (1759-1839) and Karl
+    Ritter (Anders monument in Quedlinburg).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure11" style="max-width: 23.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure11.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Portrait of GutsMuths, and Views of
+    Schnepfenthal and Vicinity (Deutsche Turn-Zeitung).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></p>
+
+<p>The life story of GutsMuths during the next half century, apart
+from his work as teacher and author, is soon told. In a letter to a
+university friend, written in June, 1791, he speaks of his garden,
+and of cabinetmaking and wood-turning; he has daily gymnastic
+exercises with the children in good weather, goes shooting in the
+fall, and in winter skates on the meadows and coasts down the
+neighboring hills; he is an industrious botanist, still takes up his
+brush occasionally, painting portraits especially, but also landscapes
+from Nature, and enjoys the use of a very good pianoforte by one
+of the best German makers; he mentions the many distinguished
+visitors (Goethe, Wieland, Kotzebue and others), but says that
+of more importance to him is the Gotha library of seventy thousand
+volumes from which he has permission to draw whatever books he
+desires, through a messenger who makes trips back and forth every
+day or two. The school itself has a good collection of books, and
+he has been made librarian. Together with an English pupil he
+has read much in that language.</p>
+
+<p>Twelve years after his arrival in Schnepfenthal, on August 15,
+1791, GutsMuths was married to Sophie Eckardt, a niece of Salzmann’s
+wife. They occupied a storehouse on the grounds, at first,
+but after fifteen months moved into a home of their own in the little
+village of Ibenhain, a half mile distant in the valley. There they
+gradually improved and beautified the dwelling and its surroundings,
+laid out a garden which became famous for its flowers and fruit,
+and by the purchase of adjoining pieces of ground from time to
+time came at length to be possessors of a considerable estate, the
+source of much pleasure and not a little profit. The family life seems
+to have been an ideal one. Eight sons and three daughters were
+born to the couple, and two of the children who married during his
+lifetime presented their parents with six grandchildren. “Father”
+Salzmann died in 1811, but his son Karl succeeded to the directorship
+and the new administration brought no change in GutsMuths’
+relations with the school. The completion of fifty years of teaching,
+celebrated June 1, 1835, found him still in full enjoyment of
+his powers and busy in his calling. He continued in active service
+up to the end of March, 1839, and died on the 21st of the following
+May, after a brief and painless illness.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier years, while pupils and teachers were few, GutsMuths
+gave instruction in various elementary subjects, but especially
+in geography and the French language. Gymnastics was
+added, as we have seen, in July, 1786. Later, when he had moved
+to Ibenhain, he confined himself to his favorite subjects—the gymnastic
+lesson from 11 to 12 daily (until the summer of 1835), and
+geography and technology between 2 and 4. After 1802 he was
+swimming teacher as well. Salzmann had expected not more than
+twelve pupils at the start, but in the fall of 1785 there were already
+thirteen, including four of his own children, and the numbers steadily
+increased during the next two decades, to forty-nine in 1790,
+fifty-two in 1800, and sixty-one in 1803. The war which broke
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>out in 1806 led to a marked falling off, followed by another rise,
+from twenty-two at the beginning of 1814 to thirty-six three years
+later, and forty-one in 1823.</p>
+
+<p>For full information regarding the sort of gymnastic exercises
+which GutsMuths practised with his pupils we turn, of course, to
+his books. With few exceptions they were taken outdoors, in
+a spot set apart for the purpose and provided with the necessary
+apparatus. Already at Dessau, and by his predecessor Andre at
+Schnepfenthal, a varied list of suitable forms had been elaborated:
+Marching in time, walking on the balance beam and crossing ditches
+on the edge of a plank, jumping over a stick placed on jump stands,
+pole vaulting, jumping across a ditch, vaulting, carrying weights
+with outstretched arms, throwing at a target, foot-races, running
+and jumping through a long rope swung by two persons, simple
+free exercises indoors, skating and coasting, and long walks. Most
+or all of these GutsMuths continued to employ, modifying them,
+however, and making numerous additions as experience suggested.
+During the summer of 1794, for example, or before it, he has the
+pupils going up and down a rope ladder, swinging on vertical ropes,
+climbing a mast, hanging and travelling on the under side of a horizontal
+beam, balancing rods on the fingers, going through various
+exercises while standing on one foot, jumping over a rope swung
+close to the ground, throwing a wooden discus, wrestling, pushing
+against each other, lifting a weight hung on a rod and moved toward
+or from the hands according to the strength of the individual, estimating
+distance with the eye, and reading aloud so as to be heard by
+a person stationed at varying distances. He kept an accurate
+record of each pupil’s performance in order to note his needs and
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile gardening and other forms of manual labor and training
+were not neglected by Salzmann. Terraces were laid out upon
+the sides of a hill near the school, and here each pupil had his own
+patch of flowers, vegetables, and fruit to cultivate, earning pocket
+money by selling produce to the Institute. During the first year
+a bookbinder in the neighboring village of Waltershausen had
+given instruction in his trade and in the manufacture of little boxes,
+pen cases, and baskets out of pasteboard; and after the spring of
+1796 one of the regular teachers, who had been employed in various
+mechanical pursuits and was unusually skilful with his hands,
+continued this instruction in pasteboard work and also taught the
+pupils to make wooden models of tools and machines used in the
+various handicrafts, in milling, etc. Now and then a whole day
+was passed in the open air by teachers and pupils, who enjoyed
+their lunch together at some attractive spot in the woods. Longer
+excursions on foot, when the smaller children were left at home
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>and a wagon was required to carry the baggage of the party are
+occasionally mentioned. Thus we read of a four days’ excursion
+in October, 1798, undertaken by a company numbering forty-five
+persons; and in another year the journeys of Salzmann with his
+pupils amounted altogether to more than a hundred miles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="figure12" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure12.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Title-page of “Gymnastik für die Jugend” (1793).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Joseph Röckl, a professor of pedagogy, passed nine days at the
+school in 1805, and in a published record of his observations commends
+the frugal diet there, the light and simple clothing, the
+unusually airy rooms for sleeping and study, the regard for personal
+cleanliness, the active outdoor life, regular walks, work in the
+garden, and especially the gymnastic exercises. He visited, with
+GutsMuths, the newly erected riding school, the grounds for jumping
+and vaulting, and the swimming pool; watched the pupils
+handling saw, plane, and chisel, or engaged in paste work; and
+learned of the occasional festivals and the yearly excursions. He
+doubts whether anywhere in all Germany there is an educational
+institution which devotes more care to the physical well-being of
+its scholars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp45" id="figure13" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure13.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—One of the plates in “Gymnastik für die Jugend” (1793).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Other visitors also came to Schnepfenthal, and went away to
+spread the news of what was undertaken and accomplished there.
+The lasting fame of GutsMuths, however, depends less upon the
+example furnished by his fifty years of teaching than upon his
+books, two of which, at least, the “Gymnastics for the Young”
+(1793), and its continuation, the “Games” (1796), not only constitute
+the first modern manuals on those subjects, but deserve to
+rank as classics. The former&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> was issued in two volumes, which
+contain altogether about seven hundred pages, nine copper-plate
+illustrations of various exercises, and a folding sheet with explanatory
+drawings of apparatus. The first volume is divided into five
+chapters: 1, We are weak because it does not occur to us that we
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>could be strong if we only would. 2, Consequences of the common
+method of education, and especially the neglect of bodily training.
+3, All the means hitherto employed against lack of hardihood are
+insufficient. 4, Gymnastics proposed and objections answered. 5,
+The effects and object of gymnastics. The second and larger
+volume is a practical handbook, arranged as follows: Chapter 6,
+Gymnastics defined, the open-air gymnasium described, the exercises
+classified. 7-15, Different sorts of jumping, running, throwing,
+wrestling, climbing, balancing, lifting, carrying, pulling, dancing,
+walking, military exercises, bathing and swimming. 16, Behavior
+in case of fire, keeping watch at night, fasting. 17, Loud reading
+and declaiming. 18, Exercises of the senses. 19, The exercises
+classified, according to the different parts of the body which each
+affects. 20, Method, use of time, general rules. 21, Manual
+labor and training. A second edition of the work, so much altered
+that it is virtually a new treatise, was published in 1804.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the volume “Games,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> of which two editions appeared in the
+first year and a third in 1802, an introduction of about fifty pages is
+followed by detailed descriptions of one hundred and five different
+games, arranged in natural groups and according to the faculties
+which they test or tend to develop, <i>e.g.</i>, attention, observation,
+memory, judgment. The other works of GutsMuths include a
+“Manual of the Art of Swimming” (1798, 2d ed., 1833),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> “Mechanical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>Avocations for Youths and Men” (1801, 2d ed., 1809),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> “Book
+of Gymnastics for the Sons of the Fatherland” (1817),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> and “Catechism
+of Gymnastics: a Manual for Teachers and Pupils” (1818).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+Some idea of the wide influence exerted by these books may be
+gained from the fact that the “Gymnastics for the Young” was
+pirated outright in Austria (the 2d ed., Vienna, 1805);&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> appeared
+in the form of translations more or less altered and condensed in
+Denmark (Copenhagen, 1799),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+    England (London, 1800),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> the
+United States (Philadelphia, 1802. This is a reprint of the London
+edition, and in both the work is wrongly attributed to <i>Salzmann</i>
+on the title page. See <a href="#Footnote_43">footnote on p. 89</a>),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> and Holland (The Hague,
+Amsterdam, and Breda, 1806);&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> was epitomized and issued under a
+different name in Bavaria (Stadtamhof, 1800),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> France (Paris,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>1803),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+    and Sweden (Lund, 1813);&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> was freely drawn upon by Clias
+in the “Elements of Gymnastics” which he published in German
+(1816), French (1819) and English (1823); and with these books of
+Clias served as the basis of Young’s Italian manual (Milan, 1825).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+Of the “Games,” six editions (revised) have been published since
+the author’s death, the last of them in 1914. In addition to his
+books on physical training GutsMuths wrote numerous ones
+devoted to <i>Geography</i>, and rendered an important service to
+educational science through the <i>Bibliothek der paedagogischen
+Litteratur</i>, which he edited and published in the years 1800-1820
+(53 volumes).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="figure14" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Title-page of the English translation of “Gymnastik für die Jugend”
+    (1800).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure15" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure15.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Footnote on p. 89 of the English translation of “Gymnastik für die
+    Jugend.”</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Chronologically the names of <i>Franz Nachtegall</i> (1777-1847),
+<i>Per Henrik Ling</i> (1776-1839) and <i>Friedrich Ludwig Jahn</i> (1778-1853)
+should follow those of the German pioneers who taught and
+wrote in Dessau and at Schnepfenthal. These men, however, are
+best studied in connection with the later results of their life work,
+<i>i.e.</i>, statewide physical education in Denmark, the Swedish system
+of school gymnastics, and the popular gymnastic societies
+(Turnvereine) of Germany, to each of which a separate chapter is
+devoted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span></p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<h5><i>General</i></h5>
+
+<p>Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens und der verwandten
+Gebiete. In Verbindung mit zahlreichen Fachgenossen herausgegeben von Dr.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>Carl Euler, Schulrat, Professor, Unterrichts-Dirigent der königlichen Turnlehrerbildungs-Anstalt
+in Berlin. Wien und Leipzig, A. Pichler’s Witwe &amp; Sohn, 1894-1896.
+Three volumes.</p>
+
+<p>Geschichte des Turnunterrichts. Bearbeitet von Professor Dr. Carl Euler, Unterrichts-Dirigent
+der Königl. Zentral-Turnanstalt in Berlin. Zweite Auflage. Gotha,
+E. F. Thienemanns Hofbuchhandlung, 1891. There is also a “dritte Auflage, neu
+bearbeitet von Carl Rossow, Turnlehrer am Königl. Wilhelms-Gymnasium in Berlin,”
+issued by the same publisher in 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Die Turnübungen in den Philanthropinen zu Dessau, Marschlins, Heidesheim und
+Schnepfenthal. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des neueren Turnwesens. Von Dr.
+Karl Wassmannsdorff. Sonderabdruck aus der <i>deutschen Turnzeitung</i>. Heidelberg,
+Karl Groos, 1870.</p>
+
+<p>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst (NJT). Published in Dresden (vols. 1-27)
+and Leipzig (vols. 28-40) 1855-1894. There were six numbers a year 1855-1881,
+and twelve numbers 1882-1894. In 1880 the name was changed to “Jahrbücher der
+deutschen Turnkunst.”</p>
+
+<p>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung (DTZ). Leipzig, since 1856. This is the official organ
+(weekly) of the Deutsche Turnerschaft.</p>
+
+<p>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen (MT). Berlin, 1882-1920.</p>
+
+<p>Körper und Geist (KG). Published under this title, 26 numbers a year, in Leipzig
+from April 1, 1902 (vol. XI), through December, 1920 (Vol. XXIX). It was started
+April 1, 1892, as the “Zeitschrift für Turnen und Jugendspiel” (24 numbers a year),
+and ten volumes were published under that title.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Wassmannsdorff, in NJT 1855: 28, 153, 247, and 323; 1887: 56; MT 1882:
+18, 49, and 76; and DTZ 1887: 700 and 715.</p>
+
+<p>Ferd. Brehmer, in DTZ 1911: 806.</p>
+
+<p>G. Meier, in NJT 1890: 257, 311, and 408.</p>
+
+<p>W. Moestue, in KG 13: 213, 327, and 359 (1904 and 1905).</p>
+
+<p>Jaro Pawel, in NJT 1891: 15.</p>
+
+<p>Otto Richter, in DTZ 1890: 470, 603, and 622.</p>
+
+<p>Richard Winter, in DTZ 1910: 189, 358, and 597.</p>
+
+<h5><i>GutsMuths</i></h5>
+
+<p>GutsMuths’ pädagogisches Verdienst um die Pädagogik, die Geographie und das
+Turnen. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doctorwürde der Hohen Philosophischen
+Facultät der Universität Leipzig vorgelegt von Adolf B. Netsch, aus
+Oberkunnersdorf bei Löbau in Sachsen. Hof. a. S., Rud. Lion, 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths. Erweiterter Separatabdruck aus der
+Festschrift zur Feier des 100jährigen Bestehens von Schnepfenthal. Von Dr. Karl
+Wassmannsdorff. Heidelberg, Karl Groos, 1884.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Wassmannsdorff, in DTZ 1865: 400, 409; 1884: 317, 354; NJT 1884: 233, 290,
+340, 392, 430, 476; 1888: 3, 49; 1890: 41; 1894: 15, 53, 101, and 145.</p>
+
+<p>H. Brendike, in DTZ 1886: 551.</p>
+
+<p>Carl Euler, in DTZ 1871: 133; NJT 1872: 2, 149; MT 1885: 217; 1886: 201; 1899:
+136.</p>
+
+<p>P. M. Kawerau, in DTZ 1859: 61.</p>
+
+<p>M. Kloss, in NJT 1858: 249.</p>
+
+<p>E. Witte, in KG 13: 33 (1904).</p>
+
+<p>Other articles in DTZ 1861: 241; MT 1902: 302; and KG 13: 124, 127, and 142
+(1904).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff has described in the <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i> (1870, pages
+35-40 and 41-42) two of the oldest German <i>Ritterschulen</i>, the first founded in 1575
+at Selz, in Alsace, and the second the <i>Collogium Illustre</i> at Tübingen, Württemberg,
+opened in 1594. The article is reprinted in Hirth’s “Das gesamte Turnwesen,”
+second edition, 1893, <b>1</b>: 290-303.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> “Gymnastik für die Jugend. Enthaltend eine praktische Anweisung zu Leibesübungen.
+Ein Beytrag zur nöthigsten Verbesserung der körperlichen Erziehung.
+Von GutsMuths, Erzieher zu Schnepfenthal.” Schnepfenthal: Verlag der Buchhandlung
+der Erziehungsanstalt, 1793. Bound in two volumes. The centenary
+of the book’s appearance was the occasion of complete and partial reprints as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“Gymnastik für die Jugend von GutsMuths. Unveränderte Ausgabe der ersten,
+in Jahre 1793 erschienenen Auflage, veranstaltet von Gustav Lukas ... Mit
+11 Tafeln.” Wien und Leipzig, A. Pichler’s Witwe &amp; Sohn, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>“GutsMuths, 1793, 1893. Die Kupfer und Einiges vom Texte des ersten Turnunterrichtsbuches
+der Welt, ‘Schnepfenthal 1793.’ Mit einer turngeschichtlichen
+Einleitung von Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff, einem Facsimile der Handschrift Jahn’s
+in Schnepfenthal, dem Idealturnplatze Basedow’s vom J. 1771 und einem Bilde des
+Herausgebers.” Leipzig, Eduard Strauch, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> “Gymnastik für die Jugend, enthaltend eine praktische Anweisung zu Leibesübungen.
+Ein Beytrag zur nöthigsten Verbesserung der körperlichen Erziehung.
+Von J. C. F. GutsMuths, Fürstlich N. W. Hofrath und Mitarbeiter an der Erziehungsanstalt
+zu Schnepfenthal. Zweite durchaus umgearbeitete und stark vermehrte
+Ausgabe mit 12 von dem Verf. gezeichneten Tafeln.” Schnepfenthal, Buchhandlung
+der Erziehungsanstalt, 1804.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> “Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes, für die Jugend, ihre
+Erzieher und alle Freunde unschuldiger Jugendfreuden. Gesammelt und praktisch
+bearbeitet von GutsMuths, Erzieher zu Schnepfenthal. Mit einem Titelkupfer und
+sechzehn kleinen Rissen.” Schnepfenthal, Verlag der Buchhandlung der Erziehungsanstalt,
+1796.</p>
+
+<p>A second edition of the “Spiele” appeared in 1796, and a third in 1802; a fourth,
+revised and with a new introduction by F. W. Klumpp, in 1845; and a fifth, sixth, and
+seventh, revised by O. Schettler, with Klumpp’s additions and 33 woodcuts, in 1878,
+1884, and 1885. An eighth edition, edited by Dr. J. C. Lion, was published at Hof
+(Rudolf Lion) in 1893, and a ninth at the same place in 1914, “neu bearbeitet von
+Georg Thiele.”</p>
+
+<p>Danish translations of the “Spiele” were published as follows; R. Nyerup,
+“Beskrivelse over nogle Lege,” in <i>Borgervennen</i> 1800 nos. 41-44, 1801 nos. 11 and 12,
+and 1802 no. 4; and Jo. Werfel, “Nyeste Samling af gymnastiske Lege, Selskabslege
+og Julelege, til Tidsfordriv og Fornöjelse. Efter Gutsmuths,” Copenhagen 1801
+(The same book was published again in Copenhagen in 1802 under the title: “Walter
+og hans Elever i deres Fritimer.”).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> “Kleines Lehrbuch der Schwimmkunst zum Selbstunterrichte; enthaltend eine
+vollständige praktische Anweisung zu allen Arten des Schwimmens nach den Grundsätzen
+der neuen Italienischen Schule des Bernardi und der älteren Deutschen, bearbeitet
+von J. C. F. GutsMuths, Mitarbeiter in der Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal.
+Weimar, im Verlage des Industrie-Comptoirs, 1798.” A Danish translation
+was published under the title:</p>
+
+<p>“J. C. Fr. GutsMuths: Lærebog i Svømmekonsten til Selvundervisning; indeholdende
+en fuldstaendig praktisk Anvisning til alle Arter af Svømmen. Overs. og
+udg. (translated and published) af L. Reistrup.” Copenhagen, 1800.</p>
+
+<p>“Kleines Lehrbuch der Schwimmkunst zum Selbstunterrichte; enthaltend eine
+vollständige practische Anweisung zu allen Arten des Schwimmens nach den Grundsätzen
+der neuen Italienischen Schule des Bernardi und der alten allgemeinen
+Schwimmschule bearbeitet von Hofrath J. C. F. GutsMuths, Mitarbeiter in der
+Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal. Zweite genau durchgesehene, verbesserte und
+vermehrte Auflage.” Weimar: Im Verlage des Landes-Industrie-Comptoirs. 1833.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> “Mechanische Nebenbeschäftigungen für Jünglinge und Männer, enthaltend
+eine praktische, auf Selbstbelehrung berechnete Anweisung zur Kunst des Drehens,
+Metallarbeitens und des Schleifens optischer Gläser. Als Anhang zu seiner Gymnastik
+von J. C. F. GutsMuths, Mitarbeiter in der Erziehungsanstalt zu Schnepfenthal.”
+Leipzig und Altenburg, bei J. C. Hinrichs, 1801. Second edition, unchanged,
+in 1809.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> “Turnbuch für die Söhne des Vaterlandes. Von Joh. Chr. Fried. GutsMuths.
+Mit vier Kupfertafeln.” Frankfurt am Mayn: Bei den Gebrüdern Wilmans, 1817.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> “Katechismus der Turnkunst (Kurzer Abriss der deutschen Gymnastik), ein
+Leitfaden für Lehrer und Schüler von J. C. F. GutsMuths.” Frankfurt a. M.:
+Bei den Gebrüdern Wilmans, 1818.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Wien: In Kommission bei Anton Doll, 1805. This is the second edition,
+reprinted with a few unimportant alterations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> “Kort Anviisning til Legemsøvelser. Et Udtog af Gutsmuths Gymnastik,
+Udgivet paa Dansk af V. K. Hjort.” Copenhagen: Paa Hofboghandler S. Poulsen’s
+Forlag. 1799.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> “Gymnastics for Youth: or a Practical Guide to Healthful and Amusing Exercises
+for the Use of Schools. An Essay toward the Necessary Improvement of Education,
+Chiefly as it relates to the Body; freely translated from the German of C. G. Salzmann.
+Master of the Academy at Schnepfenthal, and author of Elements of Morality,
+Illustrated with Copper Plates.” London: J. Johnson. 1800.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> The title page differs from that of the London edition only in the imprint:
+“Philadelphia: Printed by William Duane, No. 106 Market Street, 1802.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> “Volledig Leerstelsel van kunstmatige Ligchaams-oefeningen. Een Bijdrage
+tot de Opvoeding der Jeugd. Gevolgt naar het Hoogduitsch van J. C. F. GutsMuths,
+Hofraad, en Leeraar op de Kweekschool van den Heere Salzmann, te Schnepfenthal,
+door Jan van Geuns ... ’s Gravenhage, Amsterdam en Breda: Bij de Gebroeders
+van Cleef en W. van Bergen &amp; Comp.” In two volumes, published in 1806 and
+1813. A second edition, unchanged, appeared in 1818.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> “Entwurf zu einer Gymnastik, oder Anleitung zu Leibesübungen für die Jugend,
+grössten Theils nach Art der alten Römer und Griechen; aber alle nach den Bedürfsnissen
+und Umständen unsers Zeitalters gesammelt, und in ein regelmässiges Ganzegebracht,
+von Johann Nepomuck Fischer, Weltpriester. Stadtamhof, bey Joh.
+Mich Daisenberger. 1800.”</p>
+
+<p>Reprinted under the title: “Des Weltpriesters Joh. Nep. Fischer Auszug aus
+GutsMuths’ Gymnastik für die Jugend v. J. 1793, verfasst i. J. 1799. Neu herausgegeben
+von Karl Wassmannsdorff. Den Freunden der Geschichte des deutschen
+Turnwesens gewidmet.” Hof, Grau &amp; Co. (Rud. Lion). 1872.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> “La Gymnastique de la jeunesse, ou traité élémentaire des jeux d’exercice,
+considérés sous le rapport de leur utilité physique et morale; par M. A. Amar Durivier,
+et L. F. Jauffret. Ouvrage orné de 30 gravures. A Paris, chez A. G. Debray, Libraire,
+près le Louvre, place du Muséum, no. 9. An XI (1803).”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> “Gymnastik för Swenska Ungdomen, eller Kort Anvisning till Kroppsöfningar.
+Öfversättning (by H. F. Sjöbeck, docent at the University of Lund). Med ett
+Kopparstick. Lund, 1813. Tryckt uti Berlingska Boktryckeriet.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> “Ginnastica elementare o sia corso analitico e graduato degli esercizi atti a sviluppare
+ed a fortificare l’organizzazione dell’ uomo, estratto dalle opere dei celebri
+autori di ginnastica Professori Clias e Guts-Muths, compilato da E. Young, colonello
+... ed arricchito di 13 Tavole in rame.” Milano: Per Giovanni Silvestri.
+1825. “Elementar-Gymnastik oder zergliederte, stufenweise Anleitung zu jenen
+Leibes-Übungen, welche vorzüglich geeignet sind, den menschlichen Körper zu
+entwickeln, auszubilden und zu stärken. Nach den Werken der rühmlichst bekannten
+Gymnastiker und Professoren Clias und GutsMuths bearbeitet von E. Young,
+Oberst, Kommandant der K. K. Militär Erziehungs-Anstalt in Mailand....
+Mit 22 Kupfertafeln. Aus dem Italienischen übersetzt von K. K. Oberleutnant S.
+Poschacher. Mailand, aus der kaiserl. königl. Buchdruckerey. 1827.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> The “Encyclopædia of Bodily Exercises” (<i>Encyklopädie der Leibesübungen.</i>
+Three volumes, 1794, 1795, 1818) published by Gerhard Ulrich Anton Vieth (1763-1836)
+of the Dessau <i>Hauptschule</i> (not the Philanthropinum), and the important
+pioneer work of Don Francisco Amoros (1770-1848) in Madrid and Paris and of
+Phokion Heinrich Clias (1782-1854) in Switzerland, England, and France, are
+omitted here for lack of space, but have been discussed at length in an article which
+appeared in the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> for June, 1904 (IX: 89-110).
+The sketches of Amoros and Clias, without bibliography, are reprinted as chapters
+V and VI in the writer’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York,
+Association Press, 1915).</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">FRIEDRICH LUDWIG JAHN, AND POPULAR GYMNASTICS IN GERMANY.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, the father of popular gymnastics
+(<i>Volks-</i> or <i>Vereinsturnen</i>) in Germany, was born August 11, 1778,
+at Lanz, a Prussian hamlet lying midway between Hamburg and
+Berlin and only a few miles distant from the right bank of the Elbe.
+His father, the village pastor, was a large and vigorous man, faithful
+to all the varied duties of his office, and at the same time a thrifty
+manager of the parochial estate, fond of his garden, and with hop-fields
+and sheep of his own. The mother was a strong, brave
+woman of Puritan type, devoutly religious, severely plain in her
+manner of living, industrious and economical, and not unlike the
+peasant women of the parish in outward appearance. Their only
+other child was a daughter, born two years before.</p>
+
+<p>The first thirteen years of the boy’s life were spent at home,
+mostly outdoors and in the company of older persons. At the
+age of four he began to read with his mother in Luther’s translation
+of the Bible, a book with which he afterwards showed great
+familiarity. This was followed by Pufendorf’s record of the Great
+Elector’s deeds and by the historical writings of Frederick the
+Great. The latter monarch died when Jahn was eight years old,
+and was made a very real hero to him by the tales of veterans of
+the Seven Years’ War living in the neighborhood and of troopers
+attracted by the rich pasturage there. In addition to Latin his
+father taught him history, geography, and the German language,
+which soon became his favorite studies and continued to interest
+him deeply throughout his school and university days.</p>
+
+<p>Rich cultivated lands and broad meadows alternate with pine
+woods and patches of arid, sandy soil on the surface of the alluvial
+plain which reaches out in all directions from Lanz. Not allowed
+to mingle much with the peasant children, Jahn roamed these
+neighboring fields and forests, learned from grown-up acquaintances
+to ride and swim and shoot, helped his father in the garden, went
+with him across the Elbe to market the hops at Dannenberg, in
+the electorate of Hannover, and accompanied other hop-growers
+as far as Lübeck, Wismar, and Rostock, on the Baltic. His mother
+came from Neustadt, in the adjoining duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>and frequent trips with smugglers across the borders of
+this state, only ten miles away to the north, made him thoroughly
+at home on every road and foot path leading thither. It was this
+frontier life and his early visits to other states that made it easy for
+Jahn in later years to disregard sectional barriers and to view as
+citizens of a common country all who spoke the German language.
+The relation of lord and vassal was unknown in Lanz and most of
+the peasants owned the farms they tilled. Jahn breathed in the
+prevailing spirit of self-reliance and independence, and grew up
+sturdy and fearless, fond of his native language and customs, and
+proud of the history of Prussia, and of Brandenburg, his own province,
+in particular.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure16" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure16.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On October 8, 1791, he entered the higher classical school (<i>Gymnasium</i>)
+at Salzwedel, an old Prussian town about twenty-five miles
+to the southwest of Lanz. Notwithstanding the lack of system
+and completeness in his home training the boy’s marked natural
+ability, his gift of quick perception, and his retentive memory must
+have led to rapid progress; for three years later (September 27,
+1794), at the age of sixteen, he was received into the eighth class
+(<i>Unter-prima</i>) at the <i>Gymnasium zum grauen Kloster</i> in Berlin.
+On the 17th of the following April, after spending only six months
+at this second school, he left for home suddenly and without taking
+leave, so that for a time the authorities supposed some accident
+had befallen him. In contrast with the outdoor life and the comparative
+freedom from restraint of his earlier years, he had found
+the confinement and orderly discipline of the classroom doubly
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span>irksome; and his country plainness, not to say roughness, of speech
+and manners and want of familiarity with city ways, together with
+his independent spirit and the absence of intimate companionship
+with boys of his own age while he was living at home, had led to
+repeated misunderstandings with teachers and fellow-pupils alike.</p>
+
+<p>His university career was even more irregular and stormy, but
+now his native capacity for leadership and a certain rugged eloquence
+in public speaking began to reveal themselves. For five
+years, dating from April 27, 1796, he was a student in the University
+of Halle. In obedience to his father’s wish he undertook the
+study of theology; but it was not in his nature, nor had his imperfect
+preparation fitted him, to take one of the usual professional
+courses. Prussian and German history and the German language
+and literature, subjects generally neglected at that day but dear to
+his own heart from childhood, absorbed more and more of his time
+and thought. Thus, after three years we find him selling, for ten
+thalers, the manuscript of a small treatise on “The Promotion of
+Patriotism in Prussia,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> a glorification of that state and its rulers,
+and a plea for more attention to the study of Prussian history in
+the schools and universities as a means of developing love of country.
+The purchaser published the work a year later, with his own name
+on the title page. Meanwhile Jahn’s habits of study continued to
+be desultory. Although he attended lectures, and in the philological
+seminar of F. A. Wolf won that scholar’s commendation
+for his “language instinct,” few of the courses begun were completed
+in orderly fashion, and his work was interrupted by frequent
+excursions on foot to various parts of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Another disturbing factor was the war which he soon declared
+against the student clubs and associations of fellow-countrymen
+known as <i>Landsmannschaften</i>, the predecessors of the present
+<i>Corps</i>. The sectional character of these “circles” is evident from
+their names—Westphalians, Pomeranians, Silesians, Magdeburgers,
+Anhalters, etc.; and it seems to have been their spirit of narrow
+provincialism, coupled with the dissolute life and constant duelling
+of their members, which roused him to an almost fanatical opposition
+and was the occasion of incessant brawls. His increasing
+difficulties with the Landsmannschaften and the effort to unite
+against them all students outside their ranks brought him at length
+into conflict with the academic authorities, and he left Halle to
+continue the same passionate struggle for a time at Jena, where his
+eloquence gained him a considerable following among the students.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently it was a desire to study the Northern languages that
+carried him next into what was then Swedish Pomerania, where
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>he was received into the University of Greifswald May 31, 1802,
+enrolling himself under a false name. Here, too, in spite of poverty,
+he soon became a recognized leader. It was rumored that he
+belonged to the proscribed secret order of Unitists. However this
+may have been, before many months had passed certain wild
+student pranks and the violent outcome of a factional feud resulted
+in his appearance before the academic authorities, by whom he
+and a fellow student were given, on February 7, 1803, the <i>consilium
+abeundi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After the turmoil of his school and university life there now
+succeeded a period of quiet teaching and literary labors, during
+which the man gathered himself together, formed those settled
+convictions which were the mainspring of his future career, and
+gave evidence of his underlying strength and soundness of character.
+For two years he was a private tutor, in Neubrandenburg until the
+end of September, 1804, and then at the Torgelow glass-works,
+twenty-five miles westward. The first of these years witnessed a
+foreshadowing of the great work begun seven years later in Berlin.
+Every evening he gave his pupils, the sons of Baron Lefort, instruction
+in swimming, in a brook near the town, followed by practice
+in running, climbing, jumping, and wrestling on a neighboring
+height, and by a few lively games. Any other boys who happened
+to be present, although strangers to him and with no claim upon
+his services, were made welcome, and in this way the number was
+increased to twenty or thirty. New and equally vigorous outdoor
+exercises were substituted in the late fall and winter months.</p>
+
+<p>On October 1, 1805, Jahn took public leave of his Mecklenburg
+friends through the columns of the <i>Strelitz’scher Anzeiger</i>. His
+next move, made in the interest of literary plans and to favor his
+own advancement, was to Göttingen. Some months were spent
+in linguistic studies at the University, and in the summer of 1806
+he removed to Jena, where he completed a volume of “Contributions
+to High German Synonymy,” embodying material collected
+in all parts of Germany during the excursions of his university days.
+The book is the work of an ardent friend of the German language,
+and not of a scientific philologist; and it reveals the keen observer
+of the country and its inhabitants, as well as the student of popular
+dialects.</p>
+
+<p>Jahn had hoped to get a footing in the university at Göttingen,
+it seems; but in the fall of 1806, while he was sojourning in the
+Harz Mountains, his plans were suddenly changed and his thoughts
+turned from the classroom to the camp. Napoleon’s incursions
+and his insolent treatment, which were threatening the very existence
+of Prussia, had at last compelled Frederick-William III to
+take up arms against the French. Learning that war was inevitable,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>Jahn immediately gave up his visit and hastened toward the
+army which was gathering in Thuringia, intending to volunteer
+his services. Delayed by swollen streams, he reached Jena on the
+day of the battle (October 16, 1806), saw the last struggle and the
+crushing defeat, and joined the fleeing soldiery as a “volunteer
+fugitive.” Frederick-William’s ill-prepared and poorly officered
+troops had proved an easy prey for the French. One by one the
+great fortresses were surrendered and garrisoned by the enemy’s
+forces, the royal family was forced to flee from Berlin, and by the
+Treaty of Tilsit (July, 1807) Prussia lost half her territory and
+became virtually a mere province of France, overrun by the soldiers
+of the conqueror and entirely at his mercy.</p>
+
+<p>Jahn’s flight and later wanderings led him by wide detours to
+Halle and Magdeburg, down the Elbe, across to the Baltic and
+westward along the coast to Lübeck (November 5), thence into
+Silesia, apparently, and back again to Jena, where he remained
+until the Treaty of Tilsit. Afterwards, until the fall of 1809, he
+spent a portion of his time at home, but lived for the most part
+with a friend at Dammeretz, on the Elbe some distance below
+Lanz. Before the outbreak of the war he had been engaged on
+two works, a “Handbook for Germans,” and “German Nationality”
+(<i>Deutsches Volksthum</i>); but the manuscript of both seems to have
+been lost in the days following the battle of Jena. The former
+was not rewritten, but the latter, his chief literary work, was again
+ready in 1808 (the introduction is dated October 14, at Lanz) and
+appeared at Lübeck in the spring of 1810. Its central thought is
+the unity of Germany, and in its pages his controlling passion for
+the German language, customs, and history, his intense love for
+the fatherland, and his desire to see it bound together into one strong
+nation, able to throw off the foreign yoke, found full and forcible
+expression.</p>
+
+<p>Late in December of 1809 Jahn arrived in Berlin, where, as he
+says, love for the fatherland and his own inclination led him again
+to teaching. Disappointed in his original idea of finding a position
+in the new Berlin University, and failing to receive a promised
+head mastership at Königsberg when the results of his faulty school
+and university training became apparent, he at first received some
+private pupils, and the next Easter entered a training school for
+teachers (the <i>Königliche Seminar für gelehrte Schulen</i>). He also
+began to give instruction in history, German, and mathematics at
+the <i>Gymnasium zum grauen Kloster</i>, the school from which he had
+run away fifteen years before. This position he retained for a
+year and a half, until Christmas, 1811, and in the meantime he had
+been given some classes in Dr. Plamann’s flourishing Pestalozzian
+School for Boys.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span></p>
+
+<p>It was the custom at the Graue Kloster for teachers to spend
+some of the Wednesday and Saturday half-holiday afternoons outdoors
+with pupils of the lower classes. In the spring of 1810
+Jahn began to make this his practice, meeting the boys from time
+to time outside the Halle and Kottbus gates for games and simple
+exercises like running, jumping, and wrestling, or going farther
+south with them to the <i>Hasenheide</i>, a hilly and wooded stretch of
+unused land on the southern slope of the Spree valley, and to the
+adjoining <i>Rollberge</i> and the <i>Tempelhofer Berg</i>. Older scholars were
+welcomed whenever curiosity and inclination tempted them to join
+the band, and the numbers rapidly increased from week to week.
+They played at “Black Man,” or at “Robber and Traveler” (afterwards
+known as “Knight and Townsman”), using a fowler’s hut for
+the robbers’ den and the foot of an oak as the city or castle from
+which the travelers set forth. The first apparatus, furnished by
+Jahn, was a pair of light poles tipped with iron points so that they
+could be thrust into the sand, and a rope with a sandbag at either
+end, which was placed across the top as a barrier to be jumped over.
+Long, straight sticks were used like spears for hurling at any mark
+that might be chosen. The limb of an oak, their first horizontal
+bar, sufficed for hanging exercises and for attempts to draw themselves
+up by the arms. Preparatory jumping exercises, borrowed
+from GutsMuths, were occasionally practised. One afternoon Jahn
+went on foot with ten or twelve boys as far as the <i>Britzer Heide</i>,
+to the southeast, where they had a game together and then walked
+back. The report of this first <i>Turnfahrt</i> (gymnastic excursion)
+roused the desire for others of a similar sort.</p>
+
+<p>Jahn knew how to vary the exercises and make each one interesting,
+and the moments of rest were filled with jokes and banter
+or with stories drawn from history and from his own experiences.
+Winning thus the respect and love of all his young companions, he
+was able to overcome the spirit of dissension which at the start was
+ready to break out on slight provocation, and made harmony and
+discipline prevail. During the following winter a part of those
+who had been regular in attendance still held together, and were
+allowed a share in the indoor exercises of the pupils at Plamann’s
+school—fencing with light broadswords and shooting at a target
+with crossbows. This group formed a nucleus for the next year’s
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The spring of 1811 saw Jahn again at the Hasenheide with pupils
+from the Graue Kloster and Plamann’s school. But now he had
+a more definite plan in mind. Immediately after school hours on
+Wednesdays and Saturdays work was begun in an opening in the
+woods, opposite a few public houses. They first fenced in a rectangular
+area and built in the background a small hut or arbor
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>where clothing could be left, and then set up within the enclosure
+their simple apparatus. This comprised a horizontal mast or balance-beam,
+a rope hung from a yard which was fastened crosswise
+in the limbs of two trees, a group of horizontal bars made by tying
+three small fir trunks, at a height of seven feet, to three pines which
+stood at the points of a triangle, a roughly made inclined ladder,
+two climbing masts, one fifteen and the other twenty feet or more
+in height, and two sets of fixed standards for use in high jumping
+and pole-vaulting. They also made a jumping ditch, and laid out
+a figure-of-eight track, one circle of which served as a wrestling
+place. Games were to be played outside the enclosure.</p>
+
+<p>Early in June this first <i>Turnplatz</i>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> was opened. Each boy was
+assessed fourteen groschen (thirty-three cents) to meet the expense
+of keeping grounds and apparatus in condition; but Jahn evidently
+advanced much of the original cost himself, and he granted free
+admission to any boys of good character who were unable to pay
+the light charge. Meanwhile the attendance had increased to
+eighty or a hundred, and later in the summer it rose to two hundred.
+A friend of Jahn’s came with many of his pupils from the <i>Friedrich-Wilhelms-
+und Werder’schen Gymnasium</i>, and two other teachers
+brought boys from the Schindler’schen Orphan Asylum. Seeing
+the need of a special suit for the exercises, Jahn appeared one day
+clad in long trousers and a short jacket of gray unbleached linen, a
+costume so cheap and durable that its use soon became general on
+the Turnplatz, and an enemy of the turners was in the habit of
+referring to them later as “the unbleached rascals.” All distinctions
+of rank and class disappeared with the adoption of this uniform
+costume. Lunches consisted of bread and salt, or of bread
+and butter and eggs, and pure spring water was the usual drink.
+Tobacco and brandy, together with all sweetstuffs, were forbidden.</p>
+
+<p>Tuesday and Friday afternoons were added to the usual half-holidays
+during the months of July and August. Besides the
+games, wrestling, in which Jahn was himself uncommonly proficient,
+retained its popularity in spite of the new apparatus. There
+was no wooden horse as yet, but one day Friedrich Friesen, a
+fellow teacher with Jahn at Plamann’s school, showed them how to
+vault from the rear and the side to a seat on the thick end of the
+balance beam. The exercises were not yet orderly or organized,
+but every boy was an inventor and shared the result with others,
+learning from them in turn. It was hardly in Jahn’s nature to be
+systematic, and such a thing as a formal school of gymnastics was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>foreign to his purpose. The essential thing was the active, wholesome,
+common life in the open air, and especially the games, training
+the boys to work together in harmony, and he sought also
+to kindle in them a public spirit which might some day be of service
+to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>With the approach of winter all movable apparatus at the Hasenheide
+was stored away, and now Jahn and his oldest pupils began
+to read eagerly whatever they could find on the subject of physical
+training, studying with special care the books of GutsMuths and
+Vieth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure17" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure17.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Jahn’s Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i>, from a contemporary print (1818).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A year’s experience had shown that the first Turnplatz was too
+small, too near the public houses, too exposed to “weather, wind,
+and wit.” With the first spring sun of 1812 work was therefore
+begun on a new site farther to the east and south, the free use of
+which was granted by the authorities. It lay on a tableland at
+the head of the slope, close to the Rollberge, and was protected
+from the wind on three sides by dense thickets of pine, fir, and oak.
+Paths were made leading to this spot, the surface was levelled off,
+more trees were set out, another hut was erected, in the center of
+the grounds this time and with a meeting and resting place near
+it (the <i>Tie</i>), and the apparatus was brought away from the old
+Turnplatz. The equipment received numerous additions. Three
+vaulting bucks or horses without pommels, three, four, and five
+feet high respectively, were constructed out of tree-trunks. Nearby
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>stood the first crude models of our parallel bars—three pairs of
+thin beams about twelve feet long, those in each set placed parallel
+with each other and about two feet apart. They corresponded in
+height with the bucks, and the original aim in using them was
+merely to gain the strength of arm and hand necessary for lifting
+and supporting the body during vaulting exercises. New jumping
+ditches and running tracks, a larger balance beam, targets with
+movable iron-mounted heads, and more elaborate devices for hanging
+and climbing exercises were provided.</p>
+
+<p>Jahn had already begun to note down and arrange the various
+exercises, but everything was still in process of development.
+Although the other apparatus was not neglected, the parallel bars
+and the horizontal bar soon became the favorite pieces, and the
+boys vied with each other in inventing new performances on them.
+Three turners who had received private instruction in vaulting
+during the winter preceding met for further practice at special
+hours with little groups of skilled companions, and for this purpose
+Friesen arranged to have a live horse brought to the Turnplatz on
+certain days. Less interest was taken in jumping, and games did
+not hold such a prominent place as formerly. Once a month Jahn
+used to stay all night at the grounds, going through the exercises
+by moonlight with his pupils. It was also the custom for several
+of them to keep watch there regularly, as a precaution against
+thieving. The <i>Turnfahrten</i> were renewed, and gave a great
+impetus to excursions of all sorts. More than a hundred turners
+are said to have gone off on foot during the summer vacation, some
+of them on very considerable journeys.</p>
+
+<p>Before the season was over the attendance had reached five
+hundred, new arrivals streaming in from all classes of society.
+On Sundays adults were allowed to take part. In general, the
+popular attitude toward the movement was very favorable. Spectators
+of every rank and by the hundred gathered at the sides of
+the Turnplatz, and the evident physical benefit from the work, the
+harmony that existed and the strong national feeling cultivated
+there were at once appreciated. Jahn worked alone, for the most
+part, assisted, however, by the older and more experienced pupils,
+whom he was now able to employ as squad leaders (<i>Vorturner</i>).
+If something new was to be practised he selected a few of the most
+skilful and showed them the exercise himself, and they in turn
+spread it from group to group. In spite of the numbers, accidents
+were unknown during this and the preceding summers. Occasionally
+gentle measures were not sufficient to preserve discipline. It
+it said that Jahn knew how to use a rope-end, and that when two
+boys had quarreled he used to furnish each of them with a pliant
+root, with which they fought it out in the presence of their comrades,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>clad in their thin linen breeches, and striking with all their
+might lest they should appear cowardly.</p>
+
+<p>In the winter of 1812-13 some of the best turners, with Friesen
+at their head, organized a society for the critical study of gymnastics
+and to work out an artistic arrangement of the material which
+had accumulated. A hall was also rented, a wooden vaulting horse
+was purchased with a hundred thalers which some of them had
+collected, and practice in vaulting and fencing was continued.</p>
+
+<p>The momentous events of the next three years, which drew all
+Europe into the conflict with Napoleon and culminated in his final
+overthrow at Waterloo (June 18, 1815), put a temporary check
+upon the further development of Jahn’s work at the Hasenheide,
+at the same time that they emphasized its value. On March 17,
+1813, King Frederick-William III of Prussia declared war upon
+France and appealed to his people to join in the great War of
+Liberation. Jahn was among the first to respond. He entered
+Lützow’s famous Free Corps, and his example was quickly followed
+by most of the turners who were old enough to bear arms. Although
+he made occasional visits to the Turnplatz in 1813 and 1814, and
+remained in Berlin during the campaign of 1815 to watch over the
+work there, he had entrusted it, before joining the Corps, to lottery
+director Johann J. W. Bornemann, who had shown great interest
+in the movement. He had also persuaded one of his earliest and
+most capable pupils, Ernst Eiselen, the state of whose health
+incapacitated him for military service, to undertake the direction
+of the exercises, and this position Eiselen seems to have retained
+throughout the three seasons. At the suggestion of Minister von
+Schuckmann and with the approval of Chancellor Hardenberg,
+Jahn’s annual allowance was increased from 500 to 800 thalers,
+Eiselen was provided with a salary of 400 thalers, and for the
+support of the Turnplatz a yearly grant of 150 thalers was made,
+together with free timber for building purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Some important additions were made at the grounds meanwhile,
+and work went on as usual, though with diminished numbers. In
+August of 1814 General Blücher paid a visit to the spot, and after
+watching some of the exercises made a brief address. The Crown
+Prince, who also appeared there, was especially pleased with the
+wrestling. The wife of Prince William came with her children,
+and the sons of Prince Radziwill, the King’s brother-in-law, were
+on intimate terms with the turners. Jahn was married at Neubrandenburg
+on August 30, 1814, to Helene Kollhof, whom he had
+met while he was a private tutor in Mecklenburg, nearly ten years
+before. During the same summer Bornemann published a “Manual
+of the Gymnastics Revived by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn under
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>the name of <i>Turnkunst</i>,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> intended to prepare the way for Jahn’s
+own book which was not ready until two years later. A society of
+older turners, consisting originally of nine members, was organized
+in the fall of 1814, and met every Saturday with Massmann, one
+of their number, to practise songs, discuss regulations, revise the
+exercises by series, fix rules for the games, and choose leaders for
+the squads. The first anniversary of the Battle of Leipsic (October
+18 and 19) was celebrated at the Turnplatz with huge signal fires,
+songs by all the turners, and a great exhibition. The number of
+spectators on this occasion was estimated at ten thousand, including
+many persons of distinction and delegates from six neighboring
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>In the fall of 1815 and the following winter gymnastics was again
+made the subject of associated investigation, and now the results
+of so much study and experience were gradually brought together
+into book form. Eiselen undertook the technical portions, with
+the help of Massmann, Dürre, and others, while Jahn wrote the
+remainder, decided in doubtful cases, and revised the whole. March
+31, 1816, he signed the preface, and on April 29 the finished volume
+was published under the title <i>Die Deutsche Turnkunst</i> (“German
+Gymnastics”).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>No analysis of this book can convey any idea of the charm and
+vigor of its style, or of the lofty patriotism that pervades it. The
+preface (pages iii-xlviii) tells the story of the Hasenheide Turnplatz,
+the origin of the word Turnkunst, and how the present volume came
+to be written. The author believes that, though incomplete, it
+reveals the spirit of the workers, and will serve as a guide in similar
+undertakings elsewhere. Only preliminary and fundamental forms
+of exercises have been described; such others as fencing, swimming,
+dancing, and military exercises must be left for a larger work. The
+early history of gymnastics, especially in connection with popular
+festivals, deserves careful investigation, for contests of strength
+and skill are a necessary feature on these occasions. The German
+nomenclature of gymnastics is explained and defended. Certain
+Prussian authorities who have proved themselves promoters and
+patrons of Jahn’s efforts are mentioned; and finally a gymnastic
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>annual is promised, the first number to appear the following year
+at Eastertide. Part I, The Gymnastic Exercises (pp. 3-166), is
+arranged in eighteen sections, devoted respectively to walking,
+running, jumping, vaulting the horse, balancing, the horizontal
+bar, the parallel bars, climbing, throwing, pulling, pushing, lifting,
+carrying, holding the body outstretched horizontally, wrestling,
+jumping with the hoop, and with the rope, and miscellaneous
+exercises. In each case the necessary apparatus is described.
+Part II, Gymnastic Games (pp. 169-183): Gymnastics and games
+are links in the same chain, and a gymnasium without a playground
+is inconceivable; games prepare for social life, and in them one
+comes to know his mates thoroughly; the characteristics of a good
+game are given, and six selected games are described—black man,
+prisoner’s base, knight and townsman, the hunt, storming, and
+German ball. Part III (pp. 187-206) tells how to lay out and fit
+up an outdoor gymnasium, and gives specifications for the complete
+equipment of one which will accommodate four hundred
+persons working in squads. Dimensions of each piece of apparatus,
+and of its parts, are stated in detail, so that the cost in any given
+locality can be figured out. Part IV (pp. 209-244) discusses the
+management of the grounds and exercises, with sections on the art
+of gymnastics, the gymnasium, the teacher, the exercises, the exercise
+period, costume, meeting place (the <i>Tie</i>), and spectators; and
+gives the general and special rules to be observed by the turners.
+Part V (pp. 247-288) contains a classified bibliography of gymnastics,
+with about 170 titles; and explains the plan of an outdoor
+gymnasium shown on the first of two large folding plates. A
+portion of the first plate and all of the second illustrate various
+forms of apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>After the appearance of the book work was continued at the
+Hasenheide throughout the seasons of 1816-18 with little change,
+from early spring until the exercises of October 18, the anniversary
+of the Battle of Leipsic. Gymnastics must still hibernate during
+the winter, from lack of suitable accommodations indoors. On
+October 22, 1816, Jahn reported that the number of turners in
+Berlin had passed the thousand mark. The next year it increased
+to 1074, and life on the Turnplatz reached its culmination. Hans
+Ferdinand Massmann had returned to Berlin at Easter, after a year
+at Jena, and from July 15 until September 2 he took the place of
+Eiselen at the grounds, while the latter was absent at Kiel in the
+interest of his health. More trees were planted, seats were provided
+around the <i>Tie</i>, and other improvements and additions were made.
+The turners began the afternoon with whatever form of exercise
+each preferred for himself (<i>Kürturnen</i>); then followed a period of
+rest, after which all took part in the orderly exercises (<i>Turnschule</i>),
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>grouped in squads and divisions according to age. Each squad
+had its leader (<i>Vorturner</i>), who also kept a record of the attendance
+and proficiency of its members. Massmann had prepared a set of
+instructions for the guidance of these leaders, and there were written
+lists of exercises in tabular form (<i>Turntafeln</i>) to show the steps
+of progression in each group.</p>
+
+<p>Whole days were often given up to games, which were still popular,
+and almost every Saturday they were played all night long.
+Excursions, with older turners especially, and enlivened by Jahn’s
+talk and by many a song, were continued during this and the following
+summer. The nights were passed in haylofts or on the
+straw in some shed, and at sunrise they started on, first singing
+together a selection more or less devotional. For Jahn was an
+earnest Christian; his knapsack always contained a Bible, and he
+frequently read aloud from it to his companions, showing a preference
+for prophetic passages from the Old Testament. At the celebration
+of October 18 thousands were present. Jahn first gave a
+review of the year’s progress; following this all joined in a song,
+and then came competitive exercises, a torchlight procession to the
+Rollberge, more speechmaking and singing, and the lighting of
+huge bonfires. On the 31st of the same month the universities of
+Jena and Kiel each conferred on Jahn the honorary degree of
+Doctor of Philosophy, in recognition of his services to the fatherland
+in time of need, his stimulating influence on the young, his
+power as a public speaker, and his efforts in behalf of the German
+language.</p>
+
+<p>The number of turners dropped to 815 in the season of 1818, but
+there seems to have been no weakening in Jahn’s hold upon the love
+of his followers. We hear again of the close friendships formed
+among them, the manly qualities encouraged, the earnest effort
+to be purely German in speech, custom, and dress, and the underlying
+seriousness of their joyous life together. After the day’s
+exercise they used to return to the city in groups, each with some
+favorite leader as its center. Singing and conversation alternated
+until the Kottbus gate was reached; there they halted until all had
+come up, joined in a final song, and then scattered to their homes.</p>
+
+<p>The next spring (1819) the Turnplatz did not open at the usual
+time. The Prussian Ministry had in mind a union of gymnastics
+with the whole scheme of instruction in the schools. Summer and
+winter exercises alike were to be under its supervision. Additional
+grounds were to be opened, and one site had already been secured
+near Berlin. The plan was nearly ready, and Jahn was informed
+that for the present, until it should be perfected, the authorities
+desired that the Hasenheide Turnplatz should remain closed.</p>
+
+<p>The years 1814-18 had witnessed a rapid and remarkable spread
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>of the Jahn <i>Turnen</i> far beyond the narrow bounds of its first home,
+throughout the length and breadth of the Prussian provinces, and
+into other German states as well. Outdoor gymnasia had been
+opened, for example, at Königsberg, Elbing, Marienwerder, and at
+least four other cities in East and West Prussia; at a score of
+places in Silesia, beginning with Breslau and Liegnitz, and including
+Bunzlau, Frankenstein, Waldenburg, Strehlen, Hirschberg,
+Neisse, Leobschütz, Gleiwitz, Brieg, and Kreuzburg; at Friedland,
+Neubrandenburg, Neustrelitz, and Malchin in Mecklenburg; Potsdam,
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and Prenzlau in Brandenburg; the
+free cities of Hamburg and Lübeck; in central Germany at Leipsic,
+Halle, Jena, Erfurt, Gotha, Eisenach, Rudolstadt, Mühlhausen,
+Nordhausen, and Heiligenstadt; at Frankfort, Hanau, and Offenbach
+on the Main, and along the Rhine at Mainz, Bonn, Cologne,
+and Düsseldorf; at Darmstadt and Giessen in Hesse, Heidelberg in
+Baden, Stuttgart and Tübingen in Württemberg, and Erlangen and
+Hof in Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>In general the early history of these Turnplätze resembles that
+of the parent organization in Berlin. A majority of them were
+started in connection with higher schools for boys, but they often
+included in their membership teachers and university students, clerks
+and young mechanics,—all classes of society. Usually the prime
+mover was some teacher, impelled, like Jahn, by a motive which was
+patriotic rather than pedagogical; and afterwards local, provincial,
+or state authorities not infrequently added their support. Sometimes
+it was the public officials themselves who inaugurated the
+movement. The common incentive was the great tidal wave of
+love for the fatherland which swept over Germany at the time of
+the War of Liberation. Many a teacher who had fought in Lützow’s
+or some other volunteer corps and joined in the stirring songs of
+Karl Theodor Körner about the campfire or on the march went back
+to his classroom filled with a desire to see developed in his young
+charges a stronger patriotism, a simpler, more vigorous, and more
+manly type of life, less regard for distinctions of rank and wealth,
+a spirit of mutual helpfulness and a willingness to unite with others
+for the common welfare. Jahn’s <i>Turnen</i> had already shown its
+fitness for these ends.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases assistance was received directly from Berlin.
+Thus in September of 1814 Jahn sent Eduard Dürre,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> one of his
+Vorturners, to Friedland in Mecklenburg, where two teachers were
+trying to introduce the exercises in the Gelehrtenschule; and the
+same year Massmann started a Turnplatz at Schwerinsburg. At
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>the request of the <i>Oberpräsident</i> of the Rhine Province Jahn recommended
+in 1816 a teacher of gymnastics for Cologne, and a similar
+request from two Jena professors was met by persuading Massmann
+and Dürre to continue their studies in that university for a time.
+When the <i>Deutsche Turnkunst</i> appeared in 1816 it became at
+once the authority on all Turnplätze and the guide in opening new
+ones. A glance at the contents will show how admirably and completely
+it meets the requirements of such a manual. Minister von
+Schuckmann ordered fifty copies sent to the West Prussian authorities
+in Marienwerder, at their request, and two hundred more for
+distribution among other provincial officials. In Westphalia, for
+example, twenty-four higher classical schools for boys were thus
+supplied. Numerous visitors, too, came to Berlin for a longer or
+shorter time to be trained as teachers of gymnastics. Some did
+this at their own motion and expense, and others received state
+support. In 1816 there were, among others, three normal school
+students from Weissenfels, and teachers from Neumark, Neustadt
+a. d. Dosse, Wusterhausen, and Neurippen. Jahn made them all
+welcome, charged no fees, gave his time and personal interest freely
+in regular hours and out, and saw that each one obtained the best
+possible preparation.</p>
+
+<p>His own brief trips and longer excursions should also be mentioned
+in this connection. A short visit which he paid to Frankfort-on-the-Main
+in 1815 led a band of school boys there to fit up a private
+Turnplatz. In September of the next year he was very cordially
+received by a congress of seventy school inspectors, clergymen,
+and teachers at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and delivered an address
+on gymnastics which made a deep impression. A month’s excursion
+with eighteen older turners in July and August of 1817 took him
+through Mecklenburg and Pomerania to the Island of Rügen, in
+the Baltic. The party was hospitably greeted and entertained by
+the turners in Neustrelitz, Neubrandenburg, and Friedland, joining
+with them in exercises on the Turnplatz, or matching strength at
+tug-of-war and wrestling. They met other turners from Prenzlau,
+and at Puttbus, before a large audience, gave a sort of gymnastic
+exhibition with an accompaniment of national songs. Again the
+next summer he set out with thirteen school boys, intending to be
+absent four weeks. They journeyed southeast through Hirschberg
+and Waldenburg to Breslau, spent several days with turners in the
+Silesian capital, and on the way back visited Liegnitz, Züllichau,
+and Frankfort-on-the-Oder.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>Still another agency in the spread of Jahn <i>Turnen</i> is found in the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span><i>Burschenschaften</i>, or general student unions, organized in the
+German universities as one result of the War of Liberation.
+Students who had served in Lützow’s Free Corps, the most national
+of the volunteer regiments, took the lead in forming the first of these
+at Jena, where it was publicly announced on the 12th of June, 1815.
+The new association was intended to correct the abuses of the
+<i>Landsmannschaften</i> or sectional clubs, to promote the physical and
+moral vigor of its members, and to awaken love for the common
+German fatherland and a desire to see it free and united. Gymnastics
+was at once introduced and practised after the Berlin fashion.
+Jahn watched the inception and spread of the movement with the
+keenest interest, if he did not himself have a hand in sketching the
+plan of organization; and he sent to Jena two of his most trusted
+pupils, Dürre and Massmann, whose activity there was not confined
+to the Turnplatz. Other Burschenschaften were soon formed in
+the universities at Halle, Leipsic, Giessen, Heidelberg, Bonn, Erlangen,
+and elsewhere, and with them wandering students from Berlin,
+Breslau, and Jena carried the art of the Hasenheide <i>Turnvater</i>.
+Thus Karl Völker, one of the directors of the Jena Burschenschaft,
+after completing his studies there went to Tübingen in 1818 to accept
+an invitation from students in that university to help them organize
+a Burschenschaft and start a Turnplatz. The city offered a site,
+upon condition that the boys in its <i>Bürgerschule</i> and <i>Gymnasium</i>
+should be allowed a share in the exercises.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>The key to the history of the Hasenheide Turnplatz and the
+scores of others patterned after it in the years 1814-18 we have found
+in the spirit of the German War of Liberation. To this also are to
+be traced the repressive measures which suddenly checked the
+growth of the seemingly lusty organization before the completion
+of its first decade, and for more than twenty years banished it as a
+factor in the popular life. When the common people rose in arms
+against Napoleon it was with the hope that war would result, not
+only in freedom from the foreign yoke, but in closer union between
+the semi-independent German states, and the substitution of
+constitutional liberty for the absolutism of personal rule. They
+secured promises of ample concession to these cravings, but found,
+after peace was declared, that their rulers had no intention of
+meeting engagements made under duress. The Germanic Confederation
+of 1815 was a sorry substitute for the vigorous empire
+anticipated, and under the lead of Prince Metternich, Austrian
+Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Holy Alliance at once adopted a
+reactionary policy which was hostile to the free movement of ideas
+and sought to allay the agitation of the popular mind. The turners
+represented a political tendency, and therefore incurred suspicion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p>
+
+<p>Beginning January 17, 1817, Jahn had delivered in Berlin a series
+of twenty-one semi-weekly public lectures on his favorite subject,
+German Nationality. Among the great number of persons from
+all classes who heard him some were offended by his blunt speech,
+and various extreme, unguarded, and misunderstood statements
+gave a handle to opponents who accused him of revolutionary principles.
+He was eccentric and independent always, and with his followers
+on the Turnplatz took exception to much that was customary
+in dress, speech, and manners. Disquieting rumors were in circulation
+regarding his conduct on the Rügen and Breslau excursions,
+and it was suggested that the large gatherings at the anniversary
+celebrations of the Battle of Leipsic were dangerous to public order
+and afforded a chance for demagogues. In the summer of 1817
+Jahn was unfavorably criticized by two writers in the Berlin press,
+who attributed to his work in the Hasenheide injurious physical,
+mental, and moral effects; and the discussion did not cease when
+reports from the directors of three higher schools and a special
+investigation made by Medical Councilor Dr. von Könen, at the
+request of Minister von Schuckmann, had failed to sustain the
+objections raised, and on the contrary brought complete vindication.</p>
+
+<p>Under the auspices of the Burschenschaften hundreds of students
+from many German universities met in Eisenach October 18, 1817,
+to celebrate the anniversary of the Battle of Leipsic and the tercentenary
+of the Protestant Reformation. There were appropriate
+exercises in the town and in the Hall of the Minnesingers at the
+Wartburg Castle, and when evening came all gathered about a huge
+bonfire for more speeches and singing. Suddenly Massmann
+appeared with friends carrying bundles of waste-paper done up and
+labeled to represent books. After recalling Luther’s burning of
+the papal bull he read off from a prepared list the titles of certain
+reactionary writings hostile to German unity, constitutional government,
+and free institutions; and as each item was reached the
+corresponding bundle was pitchforked into the fire with suitable
+comments. Common opinion credited Jahn with being the real
+originator of this student prank. It naturally aroused the anger
+of the authors concerned, among whom Kotzebue and Kamptz
+deserve mention here since their names appear again in the next
+paragraph. Metternich saw in the performance the indication of
+a widespread conspiracy.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span></p>
+
+<p>A conference of monarchs at Aix-la-Chapelle in the fall of 1818
+did much to confirm Frederick-William III of Prussia in his suspicions
+of intrigue. Metternich also laid before Prince Wittgenstein, the
+Prussian Minister of State, a memorial in which he declared that
+the <i>Burschenschaften</i> were nurseries of revolution and the <i>Turnplätze</i>
+preparatory schools for university disorders; both must be suppressed,
+for no palliative measures would suffice. A more forcible
+argument was the assassination of the German dramatist Kotzebue
+by Karl Ludwig Sand at Mannheim, on the 23d of March, 1819.
+Kotzebue was a paid spy of Russia and a reactionary writer who had
+attacked with especial bitterness the student unions and the turners.
+Sand was a turner, and had visited Jahn and others in Berlin the
+year before; he was a member of the Jena <i>Burschenschaft</i>, and had
+been present at the Wartburgfest. Without any proof of the fact,
+it was assumed that he had carried out the decision of an organization.
+On the night of July 13-14 Jahn was arrested and taken to
+the fortress of Spandau, on suspicion of “secret and most treasonable
+associations.” Meanwhile Kamptz had been made Prussian
+Minister of Police and clothed with extraordinary powers, and a
+special commission had been charged with the prosecution of
+demagogues. A little later a conference of German ministers
+adopted the oppressive Carlsbad Decrees, which were ratified by
+the Frankfort Diet September 20. These provided for censorship
+of the press, police supervision of the universities, and a central
+commission of seven to search out “the origin and ramification of
+revolutionary conspiracies and demagogic associations.” The
+<i>Burschenschaft</i> was dissolved, and January 2, 1820, Frederick-William
+III decreed that <i>Turnen</i> should absolutely cease throughout
+Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Jahn was kept at Spandau for a few days, transferred to Küstrin
+July 17, brought back to Berlin for trial early in October, and by an
+official report of February 15, 1820, the chief charges against him
+were declared null and void. A cabinet order of May 31 released
+him from arrest, but stipulated that he should reside, until further
+notice, in the fortress of Kolberg, on the Baltic, and placed him under
+the oversight of the commanding officer there. The 1000 thalers
+which he had been receiving from the state—800 as teacher of
+gymnastics and 200 from the Ministry of War—was to be
+continued. After prolonged investigation the supreme court at
+Breslau, by its decision of January 13, 1824, absolved him
+from all suspicion of complicity in the murder of Kotzebue, but
+sentenced him to two years additional confinement in a fortress on
+account of “repeated irreverent and insolent utterances regarding
+existing conditions and regulations in the state.” From this decision
+Jahn appealed, and sent in his “self-defence” (<i>Selbstvertheidigung</i>,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>finished October 9, 1824) to the supreme court at Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
+by which body he was entirely acquitted March 15, 1825.</p>
+
+<p>But a cabinet order of May 3 forbade his living in Berlin or within
+a radius of ten miles from the capital, or in any city containing
+a university or higher school for boys; and wherever he settled he
+was to remain under police surveillance. The thousand-thaler
+pension remained unchanged. Jahn selected for his home the
+Thuringian town of Freyburg-on-the-Unstrut, about thirty miles
+west and south of Leipsic. The accession of Frederick-William IV
+to the throne of Prussia in 1840 was followed by the final removal
+of all police restrictions, and brought him also the long-expected
+decoration of the Iron Cross. By a cabinet order of June 6, 1842,
+gymnastics was “formally recognized as a necessary and indispensable
+part of male education and received into the circle of means for
+popular education.” <i>Turnen</i> began to revive with this, but though
+Jahn followed its development with interest and received hospitably
+the turners who visited his home, he took no active part in the
+movement. In 1844 he attended the centennial exercises of his first
+school, the <i>Gymnasium</i> at Salzwedel. Four years later he was
+present as a delegate in the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
+but returned to his home bitterly disappointed. He
+died at Freyburg, after a brief illness, October 15, 1852.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although Prussia’s example in suppressing public <i>Turnen</i> was
+followed by other German states, the procedure was by no means
+universal. Thus the reaction did not directly affect the Kingdom
+of Württemberg, the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg and Oldenburg,
+the Duchy of Brunswick, and the Free Cities of Hamburg and
+Lübeck; and it was not of long duration in the Kingdom of Bavaria.
+Between 1820 and 1840 the old organizations continued without
+interruption, therefore, in scattered cities, and new societies of
+older boys or young men who met regularly for exercise were formed
+in Hanover (1831), Frankfort-on-the-Main (1833), Plauen in Saxony
+(1834), and Pforzheim in Baden (1835). Even in Berlin Ernst
+Eiselen (1793-1846), Jahn’s faithful assistant, was allowed to open
+a private indoor and outdoor gymnasium in 1828. The venture
+prospered, and he added a gymnasium for girls in 1832, and four
+years later opened a branch institution in another part of the city.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>The latter was transferred to his helper Wilhelm Lübeck (1809-1879)
+in 1839. Both men trained many teachers of gymnastics,
+and wrote valuable manuals,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> bridging over in this way the gap
+between the older and the newer <i>Turnen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With the accession of Frederick-William IV to the Prussian throne
+in 1840 the hopes of his people were kindled afresh, and during the
+next decade all Germany was stirred by an agitation for reform
+which steadily gathered force until the outbreak of the French
+Revolution in 1848 brought it to a climax. One sign of this quickened
+national and political life was a general revival of the Jahn
+gymnastics. The incorporation of physical training in school
+programs led to the formation of separate societies (<i>Männerturnvereine</i>)
+for adults, in which the bond of union was at first merely
+an agreement to meet for exercise at certain fixed hours; but this
+was soon followed by the adoption of by-laws, the appointment of
+boards of directors, and the fixing of definite dues. Partly as a
+result of excursions and exhibitions new societies sprang up everywhere,
+until at the close of the decade they numbered nearly three
+hundred. The desire for union which early showed itself was met
+by holding district conventions (<i>Turntage</i>) and gatherings for
+gymnastic exercises (<i>Turnfeste</i>). So we find turners from Frankfort,
+Hanau, and Mainz coming together in Frankfort-on-the-Main
+September 5, 1841, for the first of several annual <i>Turnfeste</i>, and on
+the Feldberg in 1844 inaugurating the important series of <i>Feldbergfeste</i>;
+and in Saxony, where progress had been especially active
+and orderly, the first <i>Turntag</i> at Dresden, October 31, 1846, attended
+by delegates from fifty-four societies. Periodicals devoted to the
+interests of the turners also began to make their appearance—Karl
+Euler’s “Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst” (1843 and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>1844) and “Turn-Zeitung” (1846 and 1847),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>
+    “Der Turner” (1846-52),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
+the “Mainzer Turnzeitung” (1846),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> and Ravenstein’s “Nachrichtsblatt
+für Deutschlands Turnanstalten und Turngemeinden”
+(1846 and 1847).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> But a second period of reaction set in with the
+revolutionary movements of 1849, in which many of the turners,
+the Saxon and South German ones especially, took an active part.
+In carrying out their policy of repression the various governments
+again disbanded or put under careful supervision the gymnastic
+societies, and not only those directly concerned in disturbances,
+but others which had been well-disposed and preferred to keep
+<i>Turnen</i> free from partisan politics. Of the three hundred societies
+in existence in 1849 hardly a third survived the next ten years. A
+few, however, continued vigorous and active, and this number
+included some of the largest and best Turnvereine in Saxony and
+Württemberg. Here Theodor Georgii started his “Turnblatt für
+und aus Schwaben” (1850-1853),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> followed by the “Esslinger
+Turnzeitung” (1854-1856),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> and this in turn was succeeded by the
+“Deutsche Turnzeitung” (since 1856),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> the present organ of the
+German Turnerschaft. In Dresden Moritz Kloss began to publish
+the “Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst” (1855-1894).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Toward the close of the fifties signs of life began to multiply.
+The war of France and Sardinia with Austria (1859) and uncertainty
+as to future relations between France and the German states helped
+to rouse the slumbering societies and fill abandoned <i>Turnplätze</i>
+once more. A summons printed in the Deutsche Turnzeitung in
+March of 1860 and signed by Theodor Georgii and Karl Kallenberg
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>resulted in the first general German convention and <i>Turnfest</i>, held
+at Coburg June 16-19 of that year—the anniversary of the Battle
+of Waterloo. More than a thousand adult turners were present,
+representing one hundred and thirty-nine cities and villages. Formal
+organization into a national body was impossible as yet, but notwithstanding
+this a feeling of union was established and a great impulse
+was given to further growth. The next year the fiftieth anniversary
+of the opening of the Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i> was celebrated by a
+second convention and <i>Turnfest</i> at Berlin, August 10-12. The attendance
+rose to 2812 adult turners, 1659 of them from outside the
+capital. Two hundred and sixty-two places were represented. This
+time a standing “Committee of the German <i>Turnvereine</i>,” composed
+of 15 members, was appointed to look after matters of general interest.
+The committee, at its meeting in Gotha the following December,
+organized by electing Theodor Georgii chairman and Dr. Ferdinand
+Goetz business manager; it decided that <i>Turnvereine</i> as such must
+hold themselves unconditionally aloof from all political partisanship,
+took action which put a damper on those who wished to have military
+exercises introduced in all societies, and charged Georg Hirth with
+an investigation which led to the first “Statistical Annual of German
+Turnvereine” (Leipsic, 1863).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> According to this there were on
+July 1, 1862, in 1153 towns and cities, 1284 societies, not less than
+1050 of them organized since 1860. In 1863, the semi-centennial
+of the Battle of Leipsic, more than 20,000 turners gathered in that
+city for the third convention and <i>Turnfest</i>. Another statistical
+annual issued two years later&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> showed an increase of 650 societies
+and more than 33,000 members over the numbers recorded in the
+first volume (July 1, 1862 to November 1, 1864).</p>
+
+<p>Enthusiasm had reached such a pitch that a reaction was inevitable,
+and the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, by diverting attention
+and draining the resources of the people, interfered with further
+expansion and threatened to paralyze the existing <i>Turnvereine</i>.
+In the five years between November 1, 1864, and August 1, 1869,
+there had been a falling off of nearly 400 societies and 40,000
+members, according to the statistical annual of 1871.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> A Turnfest
+planned for July 22-24, 1866, in Nuremberg, had to be
+given up; but two years later 168 delegates assembled for the fourth
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>general convention in Weimar (July 20 and 21, 1868), and there
+formally organized the <i>Deutsche Turnerschaft</i>, a firm union of all
+German gymnastic societies, including the Austrian Germans. A
+constitution was adopted, the old committee was increased to 22
+members, and Georgii and Goetz were continued in their positions
+as chairman and business manager. During the Franco-Prussian
+War of 1870-71 15,000 turners followed the colors to the field
+and many gymnasia were converted into hospitals. But in
+spite of this temporary check the war brought what Jahn and his
+followers had looked forward to for sixty years and more—the
+unification of Germany. Experiences of march, battlefield, and
+camp had driven home to the minds of all the need and value of
+physical efficiency, as nothing else could do it; and after the formation
+of the new Empire popular <i>Turnen</i> began, at first slowly and
+then more rapidly, to flourish as never before, and this time with the
+full approval of the state.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the development that has taken place
+since the first statistical investigation was made, in 1862. The
+second column gives the number of German towns and cities in
+which there were popular gymnastic societies (<i>Turnvereine</i>), and the
+third column the total number of these societies irrespective of
+membership in the <i>Turnerschaft</i>. “Active” turners are those who
+actually take part in the gymnastic exercises.</p>
+
+<table class="borders">
+  <tr>
+    <th rowspan="2">Date.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Places.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Turnvereine.</th>
+    <th colspan="3">Belonging to Deutsche Turnerschaft (Since 1869.)</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <th>Societies.</th>
+    <th>Members.</th>
+    <th>Active Turners.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1862, July 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1153</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1279</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">134,507</td>
+    <td class="tdr">96,272</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="nw">1864, November 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1769</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1934</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">167,942</td>
+    <td class="tdr">105,676</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1869, August 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1415</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1546</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">128,491</td>
+    <td class="tdr">80,327</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1876, November 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1532</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1788</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1547</td>
+    <td class="tdr">156,590</td>
+    <td class="tdr">69,872</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1880, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1741</td>
+    <td class="tdr">2226</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1971</td>
+    <td class="tdr">170,315</td>
+    <td class="tdr">86,159</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1885, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">2413</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3208</td>
+    <td class="tdr">2878</td>
+    <td class="tdr">267,854</td>
+    <td class="tdr">144,134</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1890, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3340</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4434</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3992</td>
+    <td class="tdr">388,513</td>
+    <td class="tdr">195,375</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1895, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4536</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6061</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5312</td>
+    <td class="tdr">529,925</td>
+    <td class="tdr">270,528</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1900, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5509</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7238</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6483</td>
+    <td class="tdr">647,548</td>
+    <td class="tdr">310,374</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1905, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6063</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">7264&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdr">766,347&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdr">357,849&#x2060;<a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1910, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7621</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">9101</td>
+    <td class="tdr">946,115</td>
+    <td class="tdr">435,511</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1915, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9851</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">11,769</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1,072,274</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1920, January 1</td>
+    <td class="tdr">8518</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">10,010</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1,008,375</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span></p>
+
+<p>General German <i>Turnfeste</i> and conventions (<i>Turntage</i>) of the
+Deutsche Turnerschaft (since 1868) have been held as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="borders">
+  <tr>
+    <th rowspan="2">No.</th>
+    <th colspan="2">Turnfeste.</th>
+    <th colspan="2">Turntage.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <th>Place.</th>
+    <th>Date.</th>
+    <th>Place.</th>
+    <th>Date.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I</td>
+    <td>Coburg</td>
+    <td>1860, June 17-18</td>
+    <td>Coburg</td>
+    <td>1860, June</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II</td>
+    <td>Berlin</td>
+    <td>1861, August 10-12</td>
+    <td>Berlin</td>
+    <td>1861, August</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III</td>
+    <td>Leipsic</td>
+    <td>1863, August 2-5</td>
+    <td>Leipsic</td>
+    <td>1863, August</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IV</td>
+    <td>Bonn</td>
+    <td>1872, August 3-6</td>
+    <td>Weimar</td>
+    <td>1868, July 20-21</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">V</td>
+    <td>Frankfurt</td>
+    <td>1880, July 25-28</td>
+    <td>Bonn</td>
+    <td>1872, August 3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VI</td>
+    <td>Dresden</td>
+    <td>1885, July 19-21</td>
+    <td>Dresden</td>
+    <td>1875, July 25-26</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VII</td>
+    <td>Munich</td>
+    <td>1889, July 28-31</td>
+    <td>Berlin</td>
+    <td>1879, July 27-28</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VIII</td>
+    <td>Breslau</td>
+    <td>1894, July 22-24</td>
+    <td>Eisenach</td>
+    <td>1883, July 24-25</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IX</td>
+    <td>Hamburg</td>
+    <td>1898, July 23-27</td>
+    <td>Coburg</td>
+    <td>1887, July 19-20</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">X</td>
+    <td>Nuremberg</td>
+    <td>1903, July 18-22</td>
+    <td>Hannover</td>
+    <td>1891, July 21-22</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XI</td>
+    <td>Frankfurt</td>
+    <td>1908, July 18-22</td>
+    <td>Esslingen</td>
+    <td>1895, July 22-23</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XII</td>
+    <td>Leipsic</td>
+    <td>1913, July 12-15</td>
+    <td>Naumburg a. S.</td>
+    <td>1899, July 30-31</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIII</td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td>Berlin</td>
+    <td>1904, April 4-5</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIV</td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td>Worms</td>
+    <td>1907, July 28-29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XV</td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td>Dresden</td>
+    <td>1911, July 27-28</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XVI</td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td></td>
+    <td>Erfurt</td>
+    <td>1919, Oct. 15-16</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Bonn <i>Turnfest</i> fell in the period of decline, and one planned
+for Breslau in 1878 was given up because disturbed political conditions
+threatened its success; but beginning at Frankfort-on-the-Main
+two years later these great national gatherings have brought
+together not less than 10,000 turners, and at Hamburg and
+Nuremberg between 25,000 and 30,000 were present. Successive
+conventions have left the outward form of the German Turnerschaft
+almost unchanged, although various details have been
+modified. The Esslingen <i>Turntag</i> defined its object to be “the
+promotion of German gymnastics as a means to physical and moral
+vigor, and the fostering of patriotic sentiment and a spirit of racial
+unity among Germans.” In 1887 Georgii gave up his position as
+chairman of the committee and was succeeded by Alfred Maul,
+of Karlsruhe, who resigned in 1894. The next year Dr. Ferdinand
+Goetz was appointed to that office, and his place as business manager
+was given to Dr. Hugo Rühl, of Stettin. Dr. Goetz died October 13,
+1915. Dr. Theodor Toeplitz then became chairman, but died
+June 2, 1919, and the position passed to Dr. Oskar Berger, of
+Aschersleben.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure18" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure18.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—District Display at the 11th German <i>Turnfest</i>, Frankfurt, 1908.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure19" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure19.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—A Competitor on the Horizontal Bar at the 11th German <i>Turnfest</i>, Frankfurt,
+    1908.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure20" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure20.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Mass Exercises (17,000), at the 12th German <i>Turnfest</i>, Leipsic, 1913.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Turnvater Jahn is still held in loyal and grateful remembrance,
+as the apostle of German unity and the man who gave to the German
+people a love for gymnastics. The one hundredth anniversary of
+his birth (1878) and the fiftieth anniversary of his death (1902)
+were celebrated throughout the entire <i>Turnerschaft</i>. That body
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>has erected monuments in his honor at the Berlin <i>Turnplatz</i>, and in
+Lanz, Freyburg, and other places; has built a memorial gymnasium
+(<i>Turnhalle</i>) over his grave in Freyburg; and has brought together
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>there, in the “Jahn Museum,” numerous relics of the man and his
+work. In 1903 a separate building was provided for this collection.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Dr. Carl Euler’s “Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens” and
+“Geschichte des Turnunterrichts,” and files of the <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>,
+<i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i>, and <i>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen</i> (see <a href="#Page_82">page 82</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Das gesammte Turnwesen. Ein Lesebuch für deutsche Turner. 133 abgeschlossene
+Muster-Darstellungen von den vorzüglichsten älteren und neueren Turnschriftstellern.
+Herausgegeben von Georg Hirth. Mit den Bildnissen von GutsMuths,
+Vieth, Jahn, Eiselen, Harnisch, Passow, Spiess, Martens. Leipzig, Ernst Keil, 1865.</p>
+
+<p>Das Gesamte Turnwesen. Ein Lesebuch für deutsche Turner. In erster Auflage
+herausgegeben von Georg Hirth. Aufsätze turnerischen Inhaltes von älteren und
+neueren Schriftstellern. Zweite erweiterte Auflage in 4 Abteilungen. Besorgt von
+Dr. F. Rudolf Gasch. Hof, Rud. Lion, 1893. Three volumes. A “Geschichtliche
+Einleitung (Ergänzungsband)” was added in 1895.</p>
+
+<p>Moritz Zettler, “Bausteine zur Geschichte des deutschen Turnens.” In <i>Deutsche
+Turnzeitung</i> 1885-1900. A long series of articles, based on the study of original
+documents.</p>
+
+<p>Handbuch der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Im Auftrage des Ausschusses derselben
+herausgegeben von Dr. med. Ferdinand Goetz, Geschäftsführer des Ausschusses der
+Deutschen Turnerschaft. Leipzig-Lindenau, Verlag des Ausschusses der Deutschen
+Turnerschaft, 1879. The second to sixth editions of the Handbuch were published
+in Hof, by Rud. Lion, in 1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, and 1899; and the seventh, eighth,
+ninth and tenth in Leipzig, by Paul Eberhardt, in 1904, 1908, 1912 and 1920. The
+editor, since 1899, has been Dr. Hugo Rühl.</p>
+
+<p>Jahrbuch der Turnkunst: Jahrbuch der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Edited by
+Dr. Rudolf Gasch, and published in Leipzig-Zwickau by Emil Stock, annually since
+1907. The volumes are illustrated and range from eighty or a hundred up to nearly
+three hundred pages.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Über die Beförderung des Patriotismus im Preussischen Reiche. Allen Preussen
+gewidmet von O. C. C. Höpffner. Halle, 1800.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> In his own opposition to everything foreign Jahn had applied the name <i>Turnen</i>
+to his exercises, believing that it was a term of German origin, and from this root he
+built up many new compounds—<i>Turner</i> (gymnast), <i>Turnkunst</i> (the gymnastic art),
+<i>Turnplatz</i> (the grounds where the exercises were practised), <i>Turntag</i> (gathering of
+gymnasts), etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Lehrbuch der von Friedrich Ludwig Jahn unter dem Namen der Turnkunst
+wiedererweckten Gymnastik. Mit Kupfertafeln, darstellend die Geräthe, Gerüste
+und Uebungen auf dem Turnplatz in der Hasenheide bei Berlin. Zur allgemeinern
+Verbreitung jugendlicher Leibesübungen herausgegeben von (Johann Jakob Wilhelm)
+Bornemann. Berlin, W. Dieterici, 1814. See also his “Der Turnplatz in der Hasenheide,”
+published in 1812.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Die Deutsche Turnkunst zur Einrichtung der Turnplätze dargestellt von Friedrich
+Ludwig Jahn und Ernst Eiselen. Mit zwei Kupferplatten. Berlin, auf Kosten der
+Herausgeber, 1816. The volume, without the plates, has been issued in <i>Reclams
+Universal-Bibliothek</i> (Leipzig, Philipp Reclam jun.), with an introduction by Hugo
+Rühl dated 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Dr. Christian Eduard Leopold Dürre. Aufzeichnungen, Tagebücher und Briefe
+aus einem deutschen Turner- und Lehrerleben. Herausgegeben von Dr. Ernst
+Friedrich Dürre. Leipzig, Eduard Strauch, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Des Berliner Turners Franz Lieber’s “Die Fahrt nach Schlesien im Jahre 1818,
+um vom Tie vorzulesen beschrieben.” Eine Turn-Reliquie aus dem Jahre 1818
+(with introduction and notes by Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff). In <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i>
+1895: 637-642, 686-690.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> See Eduard Dürre’s “Rückblicke und Träume eines alten Turners,” in <i>Deutsche
+Turnzeitung</i> 1872: 103-107, 127-129, 136 and 137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Moritz Zedtler (Zettler), “Das Wartburgfest am 18. October 1817,” in <i>Deutsche
+Turnzeitung</i> 1877: 309-312, 331-333, 343-346, 351 and 352. See also his “Ein
+geckenhafter Gegner des Turnens,” in 1880: 9-11, 25-28, 41-45. Other articles
+published in the <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i> are Dr. Th. Bach’s “Aus Metternich’s nachgelassenen
+Schriften” (1881: 409-411, 422-424, 429 and 430), Karl Wassmannsdorff’s
+“Das burschenschaftliche Schauturnen bei Gelegenheit des Wartburgfestes
+am 18. Oct. 1817” (1882: 461), and Hans Brendicke’s “Die Wartburgfeier der
+Deutschen Burschenschaft und ihre ältere Literatur” (1887: 624 and 625).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s Leben. Nebst Mittheilungen aus seinem literarischen
+Nachlasse. Von Dr. Heinrich Pröhle. Berlin, Franz Duncker, 1855. A second
+edition, unchanged, was published in 1872.</p>
+
+<p>Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, Sein Leben und Wirken. Von Dr. Carl Euler, Professor,
+Unterrichts-Dirigent der K. Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt in Berlin. Stuttgart,
+Carl Krabbe, 1881.</p>
+
+<p>Friedrich Ludwig Jahns Werke. Neu herausgegeben, mit einer Einleitung und
+mit erklärenden Anmerkungen versehen von Dr. Carl Euler. Hof, G. A. Grau &amp; Cie.
+(Rud. Lion), 1884-1887. Three volumes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Turntafeln. Das ist: Sämmtliche Turn-Uebungen auf einzelnen Blättern
+zur Richtschnur bei der Turnschule und zur Erinnerung des Gelernten für alle
+Turner herausgegeben von Ernst Wilh. Bernh. Eiselen. Berlin, gedruckt und verlegt
+bei G. Reimer, 1837. The 46 printed pages contain numbered lists of exercises.</p>
+
+<p>Über Anlegung von Turnplätzen und Leitung von Turnübungen. Als Vorläufer
+einer neuen Auflage der <i>Deutschen Turnkunst</i> herausgegeben von E. W. B. Eiselen.
+Berlin, G. Reimer, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Abbildungen von Turn-Uebungen gezeichnet von H. Robolsky und A. Töppe.
+Durchgesehen, vervollständigt und geordnet herausgegeben von E. W. B. Eiselen.
+Berlin, G. Reimer, 1845. A fifth edition, prepared by Karl Wassmannsdorff, was
+published in 1889.</p>
+
+<p>Friedrich Ludwig Jahn’s Deutsche Turnkunst. Zum zweiten Male und sehr
+vermehrt herausgegeben. (Erste Hälfte des Werkes). Berlin, G. Reimer, 1847.
+The preface is signed “Die vereinten Herausgeber” (Eiselen, Massmann, Feddern,
+Ballot, Böttcher, and Wassmannsdorff).</p>
+
+<p>Lehr- und Handbuch der deutschen Turnkunst, von W. Lübeck, Turn- und Fechtlehrer
+am Königl. Kadetten-Hause zu Berlin und Vorsteher einer Turnanstalt.
+Frankfurt a. O., Gustav Harnecker und Comp., 1843. A second “ganz umgearbeitete,
+vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage” was published in 1860.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst. Herausgegeben von Karl Euler, Turn-
+und Fechtlehrer in Königsberg in Preussen, Mitglied der deutschen Gesellschaft
+zu Berlin. Erstes Heft. Danzig, S. Anhuth, 1843.</p>
+
+<p>Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst. Herausgegeben von Karl Euler, Turn-
+und Fechtlehrer in Köln a. Rh., Mitglied der deutschen Gesellschaft zu Berlin.
+Zweites Heft. Solingen, Albert Pfeiffer, 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Turn-Zeitung, von K. Euler und Dr. Lamey. Karlsruhe, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>Turn-Zeitung, von K. Euler und Prof. Schach. Karlsruhe, 1847.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Der Turner. Zeitschrift gegen geistige und leibliche Verkrüppelung. Dresden,
+H. M. Gottschalk, 1846-1852. Seven volumes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Mainzer Turn-Zeitung, herausgegeben von Eduard Müller. Mainz, 1846.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Nachrichtsblatt für Deutschlands Turnanstalten und Turngemeinden. Frankfurt
+a. M., 1846 and 1847. Two volumes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Turnblatt für und aus Schwaben. Von Theodor Georgii. Esslingen, four
+volumes, 1850-1853.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Turnzeitung. Zeitschrift für Turn- und Feuerlöschwesen. Von Theodor
+Georgii. Esslingen, C. Weichardt. Three volumes, 1854-1856.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Deutsche Turn-Zeitung. Leipzig, since 1856. The publishers have been
+Ernst Keil (1856-1874), Eduard Strauch (1875-1899), and Paul Eberhardt (since
+1900).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst (volumes 1-25). In 1880 the name was
+changed to “Jahrbücher der deutschen Turnkunst” (volumes 26-40). Published
+annually 1855-1881 in Dresden (volumes 1-27) and 1882-1894 in Leipzig (volumes
+28-40). There were six numbers a year 1855-1881, and twelve numbers 1882-1894.
+Beginning with volume 28 Woldemar Bier succeeded Kloss as editor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Statistisches Jahrbuch der Turnvereine Deutschlands. Im Auftrage des Ausschusses
+der Deutschen Turnvereine herausgegeben von Georg Hirth. Leipzig,
+Ernst Keil, 1863.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Zweites statistisches Jahrbuch der Turnvereine Deutschlands. Im Auftrage
+des Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnvereine herausgegeben von Georg Hirth. Leipzig,
+Ernst Keil, 1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Drittes statistisches Jahrbuch der Deutschen Turnerschaft. Im Auftrage des
+Ausschusses der Deutschen Turnerschaft herausgegeben von Dr. Ferd. Goetz und
+A. F. Böhme. Leipzig, Ernst Keil, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> District (<i>Kreis</i>) XV (German Austria), which on January 1, 1904, contained 525
+societies with 61,166 members and 25,316 active turners, withdrew from the Deutsche
+Turnerschaft on September 25, 1904, and formed an independent association under
+the name “Turnkreis Deutsch-Oesterreich.” It is therefore not included in the
+figures for 1905 and later.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">ADOLF SPIESS, THE FATHER OF GERMAN SCHOOL GYMNASTICS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>By the Prussian cabinet order of June 6, 1842, already referred to
+(<a href="#Page_101">page 101</a>), physical training was “formally recognized as a necessary
+and indispensable part of male education.” Minister Eichhorn,
+who was charged with putting this decree into effect, received
+that same summer a visitor from Switzerland who for eight years
+had been teaching gymnastics to boys and girls of all ages, as a
+regular branch of their school work, and who therefore seemed to
+have solved successfully, on a small scale, the problem of incorporating
+the subject into the school plan. He was asked by the Minister
+to submit in writing a statement of the measures which in his judgment
+would accomplish the same result in the Prussian state, and
+the reply to this request, dated at Burgdorf on the 18th of the
+following October, was contained in some “Thoughts on the method
+to be followed in making gymnastics an integral element in popular
+education.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> The steps therein advocated have since been taken,
+in part at least, by almost every German state, and the author,
+Adolf Spiess, now enjoys the undisputed title of “founder of school
+gymnastics in Germany and of gymnastics for girls in particular.”</p>
+
+<p>Spiess was a native of the Grand Duchy of Hesse and born February
+3, 1810, in Lauterbach, a small town on the northeastern slope
+of the Vogelsberg. His father, Johann Balthasar Spiess (1782-1841),
+himself the son of a Thuringian farmer and master smith,
+had first prepared himself for a position as teacher in the elementary
+schools, but after some years of professional experience at Frankfort-on-the-Main
+decided upon further study, and so completed a course
+in theology at the University of Giessen, and immediately after
+passing his examination, in 1807, became teacher and sub-rector at
+the Latin school in Lauterbach. Thither he soon brought as bride
+Luise Werner, of Saarbrücken, first met in Frankfurt, and Adolf
+was the oldest of their five children. In 1811 the father accepted a
+pastoral position in the Evangelical Lutheran church at Offenbach,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>across the Main from Frankfurt, and in addition to his clerical
+duties opened a private school which prepared for the upper classes
+of the <i>Gymnasium</i> (higher classical school) or for a mercantile career.
+Ten years before this he had observed the methods in use at Schnepfenthal,
+and made the acquaintance of GutsMuths and other
+teachers there, renewed by frequent later visits. It was therefore
+natural that one feature of the daily program should be gymnastics,
+as described and practised by GutsMuths—walking the balance
+beam, jumping, running, climbing, throwing, skating, swimming,
+etc., and games of all sorts. Every week throughout the year
+there were also excursions with teachers, and dancing lessons were
+given in the winter months.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure21" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure21.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Adolf Spiess (1810-1858).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Adolf entered this school at the age of six or less. A few years
+later, in 1819, Fritz Hessemer, just back from the University of
+Giessen, made the pupils acquainted with the new Jahn gymnastics,
+and parallel bars and a horizontal bar were now added to the equipment.
+In 1824 some of the boys organized a little society for the
+purpose of practising gymnastics regularly outside of school hours.
+They met in the private garden <i>Turnplatz</i> of Hofrath A. André,
+using Jahn’s “Deutsche Turnkunst” as a guide and inspiration, and
+soon afterwards entered into friendly relations with other turners
+in Hanau, a few miles to the east, with whom joint excursions on
+foot to the Taunus Range were made in 1826 and the following year.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring or summer of 1828 Spiess went to the University of
+Giessen to pursue the study of theology. He at once joined the
+<i>Burschenschaft</i>, which had been organized ten years previously and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>now concealed itself under the name <i>Waffenverbindung</i>, and his
+active habits at once took the form of assiduous practice in fencing,
+the favorite student exercise.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Before the end of the year he had
+become proficient in the art. There were also many excursions
+with friends to neighboring peaks and castles, and an acquaintance
+has borne witness to the skill he displayed in all forms of physical
+activity—riding, swimming, skating, dancing, and gymnastics.
+Music and drawing, too, for which he possessed both taste and
+talent, absorbed a portion of his leisure. With other students he
+left Giessen at Easter of 1829 and journeyed on foot across the
+Vogelsberg to Schnepfenthal, where as a schoolboy he had met
+GutsMuths nine years before, and then on to Halle, there to continue
+his theological studies in the university. An excursion through the
+Harz Mountains later in the same season was made the occasion
+of a visit to Jahn. In Halle there were opportunities for renewed
+practice on the horizontal bar, the parallel bars, and the horse,
+and fencing, too, was not neglected; but the greatest interest was
+excited by certain outdoor games. For these they used to gather
+twice a week, and often to the number of a hundred or more, in
+Passendorf, singing and playing together until nightfall. About
+Christmas time of the same year Spiess went up to Berlin for some
+months. This gave an opportunity to frequent Eiselen’s private
+gymnasium, and though that master himself was confined to his
+home by illness the young student saw and learned many new
+exercises from Philipp Feddern, his assistant.</p>
+
+<p>For a year or more following the spring of 1830 Spiess was again
+in Giessen, and active in the life of its Burschenschaft.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> He now
+began to give regular instruction in gymnastics, first to a dozen boys
+on a garden Turnplatz, and then, as interest grew, to nearly 150 in
+one of the city parks; and already he was modifying the traditional
+method by gathering the entire number into one band at the commencement
+of each period for various simple exercises performed in
+rhythm as they stood or marched, or for running and jumping under
+the leadership of a single teacher. But the Hessian authorities
+were on the lookout for agitation looking toward a united Germany,
+and had already given notice to the University that no student who
+was affiliated with forbidden organizations, like the <i>Burschenschaft</i>,
+would be admitted to the regular examinations. The July revolution
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>in France, however, exerted a stimulating influence. Early in
+1831 the local association allied itself with the general German
+<i>Burschenschaft</i>, and members were openly displaying signs of their
+sympathy with the radical element. Under such circumstances
+any revival of the old <i>Turnen</i> was certain to be viewed with apprehension.
+In the spring of 1831 the former prohibition was renewed,
+and there could be no more exercising by groups in public. After
+some months of private study at Sprendlingen, his father’s new
+parish, Spiess returned to Giessen and successfully passed his examinations
+in theology, April 2, 1832. He then became private tutor
+in the family of the Hessian Count Solms-Rödelheim, at Assenheim.</p>
+
+<p>Before taking this position, or on one of his visits home, he received
+a foretaste of what awaited him if he remained in his native state.
+A friendly magistrate informed his father one evening that if the
+young man was found in the house on the following morning he
+would be subject to arrest. Spiess therefore left at once, and
+reached Assenheim in safety. The next year (1833) a newspaper
+notice brought word to Sprendlingen that the city of Burgdorf,
+in Switzerland, was in search of someone who could take charge of
+physical training in its elementary school. The clergyman, recognizing
+that a sojourn in a neutral country was the only safe course
+for his son, in view of existing political conditions, at once wrote to
+propose Adolf for the place. Word came in August that he had
+been appointed teacher of gymnastics, singing, writing, and drawing.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>
+On October 5 he left home with his youngest brother,
+Hermann, and traveling by way of Basel reached Burgdorf on the
+21st, ready to begin work in the alien state which was to be his
+fosterland for fifteen busy and fruitful years (1833-1848).</p>
+
+<p>The city authorities had erected a new, attractive, and roomy
+building for the school, and now placed at its head Friedrich Froebel
+(1782-1852), already widely known for his book “The Education
+of Man” (1826), and Heinrich Langethal (1792-1879) and Wilhelm
+Middendorf (1793-1853), who had been associated with Froebel
+for fourteen years in his school in the Thuringian village of Keilhau
+and after the few years in Burgdorf were again to be his helpers
+when the first kindergarten was opened at Blankenburg, another
+Thuringian town. All three had been members of Lützow’s Free
+Corps during the War of Liberation, and through residence in
+Berlin had come under the influence of Jahn and his work on the
+Hasenheide Turnplatz. Spiess found these colleagues ready to
+coöperate with him at every step, and all worked together in perfect
+harmony to give the broadest possible training to the children under
+their care. The open-air gymnasium, originally laid out after the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>Jahn plan in 1824, and beautifully situated in a grove near the left
+bank of the Emme, overlooked to the east by wooded sandstone
+cliffs beyond the stream and on the west by an ancient castle, was
+now doubled in size and entirely refitted in accordance with the
+wishes of the new teacher. In the castle itself, where Pestalozzi
+had conducted his school for five years (1799-1804) and written
+“How Gertrude Teaches Her Children” (1801), a hall was equipped
+for winter use. In the spring of 1834 the boys of the school, including
+even the youngest, began to receive systematic instruction in
+gymnastics for two successive hours on three afternoons of each
+week, and before long the interest of the girls, also, was awakened
+and special classes were formed and suitable exercises devised to
+meet their needs. There were frequent excursions on foot into the
+surrounding country, and once a year, in the autumn, an exhibition
+or <i>Turnfest</i> was held. The new discipline, which reached pupils
+of both sexes and all ages, was regarded as an essential part of their
+school training.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure22" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure22.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—The original Spiess <i>Turnplatz</i> at Burgdorf, in the grove between the
+    Emme and the Castle.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It was not long before the attention of the cantonal school authorities
+was attracted to the Burgdorf experiment, and as a result Spiess
+received in 1835 the added appointment of teacher of gymnastics
+in the normal school (<i>Landschullehrer-Seminar</i>) at Münchenbuchsee,
+ten miles to the southwest, where in addition to eighty children in the
+model school he found about a hundred pupils. He also undertook
+a similar task at various other schools in the neighborhood, among
+them one for girls in Kirchberg, and for his own pleasure and
+further training joined a small gymnastic society of adults (<i>Männerturnverein</i>)
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>in Burgdorf, visited the Turners in Bern and Hofwyl,
+and attended the annual Swiss <i>Turnfeste</i> held in Bern (1839), Basel
+(1841), and Zurich (1842).</p>
+
+<p>Experience with all grades of pupils had proved to Spiess that the
+material and methods of Jahn’s “Deutsche Turnkunst” were not
+sufficient for his needs. Little by little he began therefore to
+develop and test new groups of exercises, and first of all what he
+called “Free Exercises,” or those which require either no apparatus
+at all, or only such as can be carried in the hands. They were
+intended to secure ready control and graceful carriage of the body
+under ordinary conditions, while the pupil was standing or walking
+on the usual supporting surface, and differed in this particular from
+the forms commonly practised on the old Turnplatz. The attempt
+to instruct large numbers of pupils at once in these free exercises
+led to the elaboration of another group, the class exercises in marching
+(<i>Ordnungsübungen</i>), by means of which the entire mass was
+made to move as one individual, and in this way discipline and order
+were improved, since each pupil learned to handle himself as part
+of the whole, and any desired arrangement of the units could be
+promptly secured. The next step was a review of all the gymnastic
+material in the effort to devise a more satisfactory classification
+than the one adopted in the books of GutsMuths, the “Deutsche
+Turnkunst,” and Eiselen’s “Turntafeln” (1837). The result of
+this study was the publication in 1840 of the first part (Free Exercises)
+of his “System of Gymnastics” (<i>Lehre der Turnkunst</i>),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>
+followed by a second (Hanging Exercises) in 1842, and a third
+(<i>Stemmübungen</i> or supporting exercises, including balancing and
+vaulting) in 1843.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1842 Spiess returned to Germany, drawn by the
+signs of approaching gymnastic revival in Prussia and the desire
+to discuss his own views with other men of like interests. He
+found Massmann,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> at Munich, too firmly wedded to the <i>Turnen</i>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>of student days to receive with any sympathy the proposed innovations;
+but Jahn, whose guest he was for two days in Freyburg, and
+Eiselen, whom he saw at a watering-place near Berlin, were more
+cordial in their attitude. The visit to Minister Eichhorn (August
+10), and the formal statement of his ideas regarding the essential
+features of a state system of physical training for the schools which
+followed it, have been mentioned already in the opening paragraph.
+Two years before Spiess had married a former pupil, Marie Buri,
+and the need of finding a larger and more remunerative field of usefulness
+no doubt had much to do with the journey to Berlin; but the
+summons of Massmann to the Prussian capital in 1843 put an end
+to all hopes in that direction.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure23" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure23.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—The Basel <i>Turnplatz</i>, from a plate in the <i>Turnbuch</i> of Spiess (1847).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Attempts to secure a footing in Darmstadt and in Basel met at
+first with no better success; but afterwards he received from the
+latter city a call to the position of teacher of gymnastics and history
+in two higher schools for boys—the <i>Gymnasium</i> and the <i>Realschule</i>—and
+at the orphan asylum, entering upon these duties in May of
+1844. The following March he was relieved of the work in history
+in order that he might have time for instruction in gymnastics at
+the public girls’ school (<i>Töchterschule</i>), and preparations were also
+made for progressive improvement in physical training at all the
+city schools. Free at last to devote all his thought to the one
+subject, he finished in 1846 the fourth and final part (Class Exercises
+in Marching, <i>Gemein-</i> or <i>Ordnungsübungen</i>) of his “System of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>Gymnastics,” and the next year was able to publish the first volume
+of a practical manual for teachers (<i>Turnbuch für Schulen</i>),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> containing
+graded series of exercises suitable for boys and girls between the
+ages of six and ten. The second volume, covering the ages from ten
+to sixteen, was completed in 1851, after he had left Basel and
+returned to his native land.</p>
+
+<p>In May of 1848 Spiess accepted an offer from Minister von Gagern
+of Hesse, and moved to Darmstadt, the capital of the Grand Duchy,
+to undertake the task of introducing gymnastics into the schools of
+that state, beginning with the higher schools and the common schools
+of such communities as were prepared to take the step at once. He
+was also to train the requisite teaching force, and afterwards to
+superintend their work. The salary of the new “<i>Oberstudien-Assessor</i>”
+was fixed at two thousand gulden. Lessons were immediately
+begun with classes in two secondary schools for boys (the
+<i>Gymnasium</i> and the <i>Realschule</i>) and in the higher school for girls
+(<i>Mädchen-</i> or <i>Töchterschule</i>), and in a large garden lying near the
+center of the city the hall of a former public house was converted
+into a gymnasium by setting up along one side rows of vertical poles
+and horizontal bars and ladders, and adding to these a giant stride,
+parallel bars, bucks, jump stands and jumping ropes, stilts, and poles
+for use in vaulting. A new gymnasium or <i>Turnhaus</i>, surrounded
+by a double Turnplatz and containing a hall one hundred by sixty
+feet which could be changed into two rooms by means of a movable
+partition, was opened for use June 14, 1852, with classes of boys and
+girls from various schools. It was the first building of the kind in
+Germany. Public exhibitions the next year and again in 1855
+acquainted parents, teachers, the grand ducal family, and the state
+and city authorities with the nature of his work, and increased their
+interest in it.</p>
+
+<p>A four weeks’ normal course was given in February of 1849 to
+about thirty teachers in elementary and higher schools, most of
+them from Darmstadt, but one from Dresden and ten from Mainz,
+Offenbach, Worms, and other Hessian towns. Instruction was
+chiefly by means of model classes, conducted by Spiess in their
+presence, and after observing these the teachers themselves were
+given an opportunity to practice the same exercises. No other
+formal courses were given in Hesse, but in response to an invitation
+he took charge of a similar one in Oldenburg, capital of the Grand
+Duchy of the same name, in the fall of 1851. He also visited many
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>places in Hesse in the interest of physical training, and teachers
+from all parts of the state came to Darmstadt from time to time
+during the next few years to become familiar with his method. To
+all these he gladly rendered whatever assistance they desired. A
+list of foreign visitors during the period 1852-1854 has been preserved,
+and on it are found the names of educators from Sweden&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>,
+Belgium (1), Switzerland (3), Austria (4), Prussia (6), Saxony (2),
+Württemberg (2), Baden (5), Oldenburg (4), Frankfort-on-the-Main
+(8), and others from the smaller German states. More than
+half of the number remained long enough to receive practical instruction
+under Spiess, and to this group belong Nyblæus, Kawerau and
+Kluge from the Central Institute (Royal Normal School of Gymnastics)
+in Berlin, and Moritz Kloss, Director of the Normal School
+of Gymnastics in Dresden. Another list covering the same period
+shows that the Spiess method had been, or was about to be, adopted
+in more than thirty-five schools in ten cities outside of Hesse,
+including Berlin, Neurippen, Breslau, Frankfort, Dresden, Oldenburg,
+Vienna, and Bern, besides Basel and Burgdorf.</p>
+
+<p>Failing health compelled Spiess to interrupt, in the summer of
+1855, his hitherto unceasing activity. Tuberculosis had developed
+in the lung wounded during his student days, and attempts to stop
+its progress by residence in the Taunus and for two years at Vevey,
+on Lake Geneva, proved unavailing. He returned to Darmstadt,
+visiting the <i>Turnhaus</i> there for the last time in the fall of 1857, and
+died the following year, on the 9th of May.</p>
+
+<p>The chief service which he rendered to physical training in
+Germany, and wherever German influence has been felt, was the
+attempt to make it a part of the school life. The <i>Turnplatz</i> was not
+to exist side by side with the school, as a counterpoise to the exclusively
+mental training of the latter, and in charge of some independent
+individual or society; but the school should concern itself with
+the whole life of the young, physical as well as mental, and gymnastics,
+recognized by the state as a means of education, should be
+thoroughly incorporated and treated on an equality with other
+branches of instruction and discipline, enjoying the same rights and
+conforming to the same pedagogic principles. It should therefore
+be made a required exercise, from which nothing except a physician’s
+certificate of defect or illness would excuse any pupil. In addition
+to the open-air gymnasium and the playground the community or
+the state would have to provide and equip closed halls, in or near
+the school building, so that instruction need not be interrupted by
+season or weather. Elementary classes require an hour each day
+for gymnastics and games. Less time might suffice for the older
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>children, but the lesson periods, in either case, should be included
+within the school hours, or stand in immediate proximity to them.
+Periodical examinations in gymnastics coming at the same time with
+general examinations, and annually recurring exhibitions or <i>Turnfeste</i>
+were to be held. Those who teach the subject must be educators
+by profession, and closely identified with the life of the
+school, receiving their training in this branch, as in all others, at
+the normal schools and the universities, or in part at institutions
+intended for that purpose exclusively—the normal schools of
+gymnastics. In elementary schools instruction would be in the
+hands of the grade- or class-teacher, and in higher schools there
+should be special teachers of gymnastics, just as in the case of
+mathematics, or languages, or science. The exercise-material
+must be arranged in progressive steps suitable for the different
+school grades, and a series of manuals prepared to fit the different
+conditions and needs in country and city schools, in common schools,
+higher schools for boys, and schools for girls.</p>
+
+<p>In preparation for the process of sorting out and distributing to
+each sex and age appropriate forms of exercise Spiess thought it
+necessary first of all to collect, analyze, and classify the whole mass
+of possible positions and movements of the body. This he endeavored
+to do in his “System of Gymnastics” (<i>Die Lehre der Turnkunst</i>),
+but without seeking at the same time to separate the useful
+from that which is unessential or undesirable. The book is not
+intended, therefore, as a practical guide for the teacher. That
+function was reserved for his second work, the <i>Turnbuch für
+Schulen</i>, which has been a mine of instruction and suggestion for
+authors of later manuals. Here he leads gradually from the simplest
+exercises to the most difficult combinations, pointing out what
+material is to be used for each sex and age, and explaining the
+method to be pursued during the lesson hour. He devised new
+forms of apparatus on which the whole class, or a considerable
+fraction of it, could work at once under the teacher’s eye and at his
+command. The “Free Exercises” and the “Class Exercises in
+Marching” (<i>Ordnungs-</i> or <i>Gemeinübungen</i>) which he elaborated
+were a fresh contribution to the stock of German gymnastics, and
+with his simpler exercises on apparatus supplied material for girls
+and younger boys. His musical gifts&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> rendered possible that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>rhythmical arrangement of the free exercises which has continued to
+be so conspicuous a feature in the teaching of his followers ever
+since, and enabled him also to combine artistically certain marching
+or dancing or other rhythmical movements into a fixed series which
+could be executed by pupils to the accompaniment of some familiar
+song, or other musical composition, as in the case of the Miller-<i>Reigen</i>
+and the whole group of <i>Lieder-</i> and <i>Tanz-Reigen</i>.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Euler’s “Encyklopädisches Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens” and “Geschichte
+des Turnunterrichts” (see <a href="#Page_82">p. 82</a>), and the following articles in the <i>Neue
+Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i> (NJT), <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i> (DTZ), and <i>Monatsschrift
+für das Turnwesen</i> (MT):</p>
+
+<p>Wassmannsdorff in NJT 1855: 330-334 and 1858: 81-90; and in DTZ 1859: 22-23
+and 1863: 137-140.</p>
+
+<p>Lion in DTZ 1858: 91-93, 98-99, and 102-103.</p>
+
+<p>Marx in NJT 1885: 57-66.</p>
+
+<p>Schmeel in DTZ 1910: 82-85, 97-101, 117-120, and 133-136.</p>
+
+<p>Schmuck in DTZ 1911: 453-457.</p>
+
+<p>Neuendorff in MT 1910: 122-128.</p>
+
+<p>The Spiess centenary in 1910 was the occasion of three important publications:
+(1) Adolf Spiess: Sein Leben und seine Wirksamkeit. Dargestellt nach Vorträgen,
+gehalten bei Anlass der Spiess-Feier im Basler Turnlehrerverein von J. Bollinger-Auer,
+Lehrer an der Höhern Töchterschule in Basel (Basel, Helbing &amp; Lichtenhahn,
+1910.) (2) Adolf Spiess. Ein Gedenkblatt zu seinem hundertjährigen Geburtstage.
+Von Prof. Dr. Karl Roller, Oberlehrer in Darmstadt (Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung,
+1910); and (3) Adolf Spiess, der Begründer des deutschen Schulturnens.
+Ein Lebensbild von H. Schmeel, Stadtschulinspektor in Worms (Giessen, Emil Roth,
+1910).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Gedanken über die Einordnung des Turnwesens in das Ganze der Volkserziehung,
+von Adolf Spiess. Basel, Schweighauser’sche Buchhandlung, 1842. Reprinted on
+pages 15-41 of “Kleine Schriften über Turnen von Adolf Spiess. Nebst Beiträgen
+zu seiner Lebensgeschichte. Gesammelt und herausgegeben von J. C. Lion.” Hof,
+G. A. Grau &amp; Cie. (Rud. Lion), 1872. Second edition, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> See Herman Haupt’s “Adolf Spiess, der Begründer des deutschen Schulturnens,
+als Giessener und Hallischer Burschenschafter 1828-1831,” on pp. 306-330 of “Quellen
+und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der Burschenschaft und der deutschen Einheitsbewegung,”
+Band II, Heft 3-4 (Heidelberg, Carl Winter’s Universitätsbuchhandlung,
+1911).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> To a sword-thrust in the lung received as second in a student duel at this period
+(November, 1830) his family traced the disease which in middle life brought his
+career to an untimely end.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Upon his reappointment, for a term of six years, on October 13, 1835, instruction
+in geography and history was substituted for the writing and drawing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Die Lehre der Turnkunst von Adolf Spiess. Basel, Schweighauser’sche Buchhandlung.
+Four volumes, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>I. Theil: Das Turnen in den Freiübungen für beide Geschlechter, 1840. II.
+Theil: Das Turnen in den Hangübungen für beide Geschlechter, 1842; second
+edition in 1871. III. Theil: Das Turnen in den Stemmübungen für beide Geschlechter.
+Mit einem Anhang der Liegeübungen, 1843; second edition in 1874. IV.
+Theil: Das Turnen in den Gemeinübungen, in einer Lehre von den Ordnungsverhältnissen
+bei den Gliederungen einer Mehrzahl für beide Geschlechter, 1846;
+second edition (Basel, Benno Schwabe) in 1885.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Hans Ferdinand Massmann (1797-1874), pupil and friend of Jahn in Berlin,
+member of the Jena <i>Burschenschaft</i> and present at the Wartburg episode in 1817,
+was summoned to Munich in 1827 to take charge of gymnastics, first in the royal
+<i>Kadettenkorps</i> and then in a public outdoor <i>Turnanstalt</i> which was to serve all the
+schools of the city. In 1841 he was called to Berlin to confer with Minister Eichhorn
+regarding the revival of physical training in Prussia. Two years later he was
+entrusted with the carrying out of the plan, but proved unequal to the task, and
+retired from the position in 1851.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Turnbuch für Schulen als Anleitung für den Turnunterricht durch die Lehrer
+der Schulen, von Adolf Spiess. Basel, Schweighauser’sche Buchhandlung. Two
+volumes, as follows: I. Theil: Die Uebungen für die Altersstufe vom sechsten bis
+zehnten Jahre bei Knaben und Mädchen, 1847; second, “vermehrte und verbesserte
+Auflage, besorgt von J. C. Lion,” in 1880. II. Theil: Die Uebungen für die
+Altersstufe vom zehnten bis sechszehnten Jahre bei Knaben und Mädchen 1851;
+second edition, as above (Basel, Benno Schwabe), in 1889.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Gustav Nyblæus, then teacher of gymnastics at the University of Lund, but
+afterwards Director of the Central Institute (Royal Normal School of Gymnastics)
+in Stockholm.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> The father of Spiess had begun to play the organ for church services at the age
+of nine, and in his school at Offenbach paid particular attention to instruction in singing.
+Adolf himself learned to play the violin and the pianoforte, and his strong
+boyish voice developed into a beautiful tenor. He was made an honorary member
+of the Swiss <i>Musikverein</i> in 1838, sang solo parts from the oratorios of Spohr and
+Neuhaus in the presence of the composers at a musical festival in Lucerne, and the
+tenor solos in Mendelssohn’s “St. Paul” at Zurich, and took the title role in Handel’s
+“Samson” at the national musical festival in Basel in the summer of 1840. It was
+at his suggestion that Max Schneckenburger wrote “Die Wacht am Rhein” that same
+year, and when it was read to a little company gathered in the Burgdorf “Stadthaus”
+Spiess was the first to sing it, to an accompaniment which he improvised on the
+pianoforte.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Spiess committed to Karl Wassmannsdorff, his friend and associate for two
+years in Basel, the preparation of his material on <i>Reigen</i> for publication. See “Reigen
+und Liederreigen für das Schulturnen aus dem Nachlasse von Adolf Spiess. Mit
+einer Einleitung, erklärenden Anmerkungen und einer Anzahl von Liedern herausgegeben
+von Dr. K. Wassmannsdorff.” Frankfurt a. M., J. D. Sauerländer’s Verlag,
+1869. A second “verbesserte und mit einem Anhange ‘Gang- und Hüpfarten für das
+Mädchenturnen’ vermehrte Auflage” was published in 1885.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The astonishing development of popular interest in gymnastics
+which has taken place in Germany and other European countries
+can be traced directly to Jahn’s work at the Hasenheide, near Berlin,
+in the years 1810-1818; and between 1833 and 1858, in Switzerland
+and Hesse, Spiess laid the foundation of German school gymnastics.
+But although the first definite step looking toward physical training
+in the Prussian schools was the cabinet order of 1842 (<a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>),
+it was not until after the accession of William I to the throne, in
+1861, that conditions became at all propitious. During the latter
+half of the reign of Frederick-William III, from 1819 to 1840, the
+one man who with his pupils and assistants kept alive the tradition
+of <i>Turnen</i> in Berlin, adding to and further systematizing its content,
+and won for it gradually increasing recognition, was Ernst
+Eiselen, among Jahn’s earliest followers and his most faithful
+fellow-worker. Under Frederick-William IV (1840-1861) there
+were at first encouraging signs of revival, but the unfortunate choice
+of Massmann to direct the carrying out of the new plans (1843-1850),
+followed by Rothstein’s untactful and somewhat bigoted
+attempt to substitute the gymnastics of Ling for that of Jahn in the
+Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics at Berlin (1851-1863), made
+the whole period a disappointing one of storm and stress, without
+much evidence of real progress. Each of these early phases deserves
+a few words of explanation.</p>
+
+<p>Ernst Wilhelm Bernhard Eiselen (1793-1846), after the closing
+of the Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i> in the spring of 1819, became a teacher
+in the Plamann school for boys. In April of 1825, using rented
+quarters, he began to give courses in foil- and sabre-fencing and
+vaulting to students in the University of Berlin, and two years later
+succeeded in obtaining permission to offer private instruction in
+gymnastics. May 1, 1828, he opened his own gymnasium, with
+indoor and outdoor equipment, at Dorotheenstrasse 31d (now 60).
+Courses for the training of teachers were added in 1831, and the
+next year corrective exercises for girls, for whose accommodation
+a special room was provided. By 1836 the number of his pupils
+had increased to such an extent that a second gymnasium was built
+in another part of the city (Blumenstrasse 3, now 63a), and placed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>under the management of Wilhelm Lübeck (1809-1879), who afterwards
+(1839) became its independent director. Arsenical poisoning
+in his youth had permanently impaired Eiselen’s health, and this
+fact and his retiring disposition may have led the Prussian authorities
+to prefer Massmann as their agent in 1843. Eiselen was put
+in charge of a great public <i>Turnplatz</i> in the suburb of Moabit in
+1846, but died a few months later at Misdroy, a sea-bathing resort
+on the Island of Wollin. Attention has already been called to his
+writings (<a href="#Page_102">p. 102</a>). Among his pupils and assistants who afterwards
+filled important teaching positions were Wilhelm Ballot, Moritz
+Böttcher, Philipp August Feddern, and Wilhelm Lübeck.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836 Dr. Karl Ignaz Lorinser (1796-1853), state medical
+counsellor at Oppeln, in Prussian Silesia, published a striking article
+on “Safeguarding Health in the Schools,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> in which he urged that
+too exclusive training of the mind in the higher schools was threatening
+national vigor. His paper and the widespread discussion which
+followed called the attention of the ministry of education anew
+to the need of reform, and led to various orders looking toward more
+or less systematic introduction of bodily exercises under the supervision
+of teachers. Participation, however, depended upon parental
+consent and the inclination of pupils. The cabinet order of June 6,
+1842, and the summons of Massmann to Berlin in the spring of 1843
+to organize a system of statewide physical training aroused expectations
+which were slow in being realized. Instead of the Spiess plan
+of separate facilities at each school and a graded scheme of exercises
+incorporated in the school program, Massmann clung tenaciously
+to the idea of great central exercising grounds (<i>Turnplätze</i>), preferably
+a single one even for the larger cities, and a gathering here of
+all ages and classes for free activity, especially on Wednesday and
+Saturday afternoons—a system of public playgrounds, rather than
+one of orderly physical training.</p>
+
+<p>But his endeavor to revive the Jahn gymnastics on a new <i>Turnplatz</i>
+laid out in the neighborhood of the old Hasenheide site met with
+little success, and the numbers in attendance dwindled rapidly.
+The times had changed, and there was no one to supply Jahn’s
+inspiring leadership. Teachers were needed, but Eiselen’s death
+had cut short a plan to have him give two courses a year, of six weeks
+each, in his private gymnasium. A “Central Training School for
+Teachers of Gymnastics” (<i>Zentral-Bildungsanstalt für Turnlehrer</i>),
+under Massmann’s direction, was therefore organized instead. It
+was to give annually two three-months’ courses, beginning April 1
+and August 1, to a maximum of thirty pupils in each. The opening
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>took place May 1, 1848, in the Eiselen gymnasium; but the courses
+were discontinued before the end of the following year. The
+attendance had been disappointingly small, and those who came
+manifested little interest in their work. Massmann, already a
+discredited leader with whose projects the school authorities themselves
+had shown little sympathy, was retired in 1850. The
+government attitude toward the Jahn <i>Turnen</i> was still one of
+suspicion and antagonism, and meanwhile attention had been drawn
+to the claims of a new system of gymnastics, built up on foreign soil.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp51" id="figure24" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure24.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Hugo Rothstein (1810-1865).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Hugo Rothstein (1810-1865), second lieutenant in the Prussian
+artillery and teacher in the artillery school at Berlin, paid a visit
+to Sweden in 1843, and upon his return published in <i>Der Staat</i>
+(September, 1844) an article on “Gymnastics in Sweden and Ling’s
+System of Gymnastics.” It attracted favorable notice in military
+circles, and Minister of War von Boyen commissioned him to revisit
+the country in order to become better acquainted with the subject.
+Accordingly in June of 1845, now first lieutenant and accompanied
+by another officer, he went to Stockholm for a full course at the
+Central Institute of Gymnastics (<i>Kongl. Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet</i>),
+adding three months in Copenhagen to observe the fencing
+and other instruction at the Danish Royal Institute of Military
+Gymnastics (<i>Det Kongelige Militære Gymnastiske Institut</i>). During
+his second sojourn in the Swedish capital he saw much of Director
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>Branting and Head Teacher Georgii, and was also a frequent guest
+at the palace of King Oscar I. In the autumn of 1846 both officers
+were back in Berlin. The following year Massmann published a
+translation of Ling’s writings on gymnastics,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> and Rothstein had
+begun work at once on a series of volumes on the Ling system which
+appeared at intervals between 1847 and 1859.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>A direct result of the reports by Rothstein and Techow (the
+infantry lieutenant who had been his companion) was the founding
+in Berlin of a “Central Institute for Gymnastic Instruction in the
+Army” (<i>Zentralinstitut für gymnastischen Unterricht in der Armee</i>),
+with the two officers as teachers. Lübeck’s gymnasium on Blumenstrasse
+was used for the practical exercises, and the first course there
+was begun October 1, 1847; but the rioting which broke out in Berlin
+the next spring, following the February revolution in Paris, brought
+it to a sudden close. Two years later, however, the foundations of
+a new building were laid in Scharnhorststrasse, and now it was
+decided to train both military and civilian teachers in a single school,
+rechristened “Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics” (<i>Königliche
+Zentral-Turnanstalt</i>) and opened to pupils October 1, 1851.
+Rothstein was made director of instruction (<i>Unterrichtsdirigent</i>).
+In his own teaching he employed the Ling apparatus and exercises,
+making light of Jahn’s <i>Turnen</i>, and for anatomical and physiological
+reasons rejecting the parallel bars unconditionally. This action
+gave rise to repeated protests from <i>Turnvereine</i> in Berlin and other
+German cities, who regarded it as a part of the government’s
+reactionary policy, and led to a violent controversy (the <i>Barrenstreit</i>)
+in the years 1861 and 1862. Dr. Carl Philipp Euler (1828-1901),
+who became civilian teacher in 1860, had proposed that the
+banished apparatus be restored. Petitions, memorials, and opinions
+for and against its use multiplied, and the discussion was widened
+to include the whole subject of the comparative merits of the
+Ling-Rothstein gymnastics and the Jahn <i>Turnen</i>. Emil Du Bois-Reymond
+(1818-1896), professor of physiology in the University
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>of Berlin, entered the lists as a powerful champion on the side of
+the Turners.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> On the last day of 1862 appeared an opinion from
+the highest medical authority in Prussia, the Royal Scientific
+Deputation for Medical Affairs, to the effect that exercises on the
+parallel bars “are justifiable and not to be rejected.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> It was
+therefore ordered that both parallel bars and horizontal bar should
+be used with civilian pupils. Rothstein withdrew from the school
+in 1863, left Berlin for Erfurt, his birthplace and early home, and
+died there March 23, 1865.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure25" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure25.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818-1896).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The later history of the Central Institute may be briefly outlined
+here. A second civilian teacher, Gebhard Eckler (1832-1907),
+was added in October of 1864. In 1877 the military and civilian
+sections, which had existed side by side, were permanently separated,
+the former retaining the old site on Scharnhorststrasse and hereafter
+called the Royal Military Institute of Gymnastics (<i>Königliche
+Militär-Turnanstalt</i>),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> and the latter, under the name “Royal
+Training School for Teachers of Gymnastics” (<i>Königliche Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt</i>),
+opening its doors in temporary quarters on
+October 8, but after two years occupying its own new home at 229
+Friedrichstrasse (October 15, 1879). As early as 1866 Euler had
+begun to conduct private classes for women who desired to become
+teachers of gymnastics, and in 1880 regular state courses were added
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>to meet their special needs. The first of these began April 19 and
+closed July 6. Euler became “director of instruction” (<i>Unterrichtsdirigent</i>)
+in 1877, and Dr. Ignaz Küppers (1840-) was
+added as second director in 1891. Following Euler’s death, September
+15, 1901, Eckler was given the same title (1902), but retired
+in 1905, followed by Küppers in October of the next year. A new
+office, that of director of the school, was now created, and its first
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>incumbent (May, 1905) was Dr. Paul Diebow (1861-1920). In
+the autumn of 1911, after a further change of name (to <i>Landesturnanstalt</i>,
+April 1, 1908), the institution was moved to its present
+home in Spandau, eight miles northwest of Berlin, where it enjoys
+ample facilities for indoor and outdoor training of all sorts. The
+full course for men, at the outbreak of the Great War, covered
+seven months (April-November), and that for women six months
+(January-June).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure26" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure26.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Carl Philipp Euler (1828-1901).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To meet the great demand for teachers, examinations for persons
+trained in city or private courses outside the Central Institute had
+been given under its auspices after 1866. Beginning in 1889,
+arrangements for similar state examinations for both men and
+women have been made in Bonn, Breslau, Halle, and Königsberg,
+and in the case of women at Bielefeld, Cassel, Danzig, Hannover,
+Kiel, Magdeburg, Stettin, and a few other cities. The next noteworthy
+step was the introduction of teachers’ training courses in
+the Prussian universities, in each of which (Berlin, Bonn, Breslau,
+Göttingen, Greifswald, Halle, Kiel, Königsberg, Marburg, and
+Münster) a student could in 1914 take work in the theory and practice
+of physical education, in preparation for a teacher’s certificate
+in that subject, and could take the examination itself at the university
+where he was studying.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> In general such courses are
+governed by regulations contained in the Prussian ministerial
+order of July 9, 1892, originally intended for the University of Halle,
+and a supplemental order of February 20, 1909, which relates to
+training in outdoor exercises. The former provides for courses
+under the immediate oversight of the University <i>Kurator</i>, to begin
+in the middle of October and continue until the close of the winter
+semester—something less than five months. They are open to
+candidates who have already qualified as teachers in the schools,
+and to university students who have completed four semesters of
+work. There is no charge for tuition. Each course embraces
+both theoretical instruction and practical exercises, and occupies
+about eighteen hours a week. As a rule one-third of the time is
+devoted to lectures on the history of physical education, methods,
+the forms and construction of apparatus (<i>Gerätkunde</i>), the structure
+and functions of the human body, hygiene as related to exercise,
+and first aid in accidents; and the remaining two-thirds to the
+attainment of personal dexterity in the field of school gymnastics,
+and the actual teaching of others, and direction of games, etc.
+Four hundred and ninety-eight students attended these winter
+courses in the Prussian universities in the year 1910-1911.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span></p>
+
+<p>The later order, directed to the <i>Kuratoren</i> of Prussian universities,
+requires that as soon as possible the above courses be supplemented
+by summer ones, lasting about four weeks and devoted solely to the
+subject of games and athletic sports (<i>Volks- und Jugendspiele und
+volkstümliche Übungen</i>). It was recommended that they cover
+from fifty to sixty hours altogether, including from four to six
+lectures on the value of games and athletic sports, about eight on
+theory and method, eight hours devoted to practice in teaching or
+directing, and the rest to practical exercises. The courses may be
+compressed within four weeks, or made to occupy two or three hours
+each on two afternoons a week and spread over an entire summer
+semester, thus interfering less with the student’s other work. In
+many cases admission has been granted to students in the departments
+of medicine, theology, and law, as well as to those enrolled
+in the department of philosophy and preparing directly for the
+examination for a state certificate as teacher of physical education.
+Hereafter the full certificate is to be granted only to those who
+have completed both winter and summer courses.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure27" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure27.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—The Prussian <i>Landesturnanstalt</i> at Spandau.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure28" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure28.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Gymnasium of the <i>Realschule</i> at Gross-Lichterfelde, near Berlin.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In spite of all this progress, there was at the beginning of 1913
+no professorship of physical education in any German university,
+although the establishment of such a chair had been proposed at
+the University of Giessen.</p>
+
+<p>The Prussian cabinet order of June 6, 1842, had “formally
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>recognized bodily exercises as a necessary and indispensable part
+of male education.” A ministerial circular of February 4, 1844,
+sent out to the provincial school authorities, directed that in towns
+and cities indoor and outdoor space should be provided for gymnastics
+at all higher schools (<i>Gymnasien, höhere Stadtschulen</i>) and
+training-colleges for teachers (<i>Schullehrer-Seminaren</i>), in order that
+the exercises might be practised uninterruptedly throughout the
+year. Instruction was to be in the hands of some regular member
+of the teaching staff who gave only part of his time to this branch,
+rather than one who taught no other subject. The exercises were
+to come as a rule on the half-holiday afternoons of Wednesday
+and Saturday, or under certain conditions they might be given daily
+during the hour following the afternoon session. It was left to his
+parent or guardian to decide whether or not any pupil should
+participate. Certificates of graduation from the schools were to
+note whether and with what success use had been made of the
+instruction in gymnastics. A later order (November 27, 1866)
+extended this last provision to cover semester reports as well.</p>
+
+<p>An order of September 10, 1860, reveals the intention of the
+ministry to introduce gymnastics into <i>all</i> schools for boys and
+young men, from the elementary or folkschool to the university.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+Special short courses at training colleges for teachers, to reach those
+already in service, are recommended as a means of filling the
+immediate need of competent instruction, which will later be cared
+for by the regular graduates. The indifference of many members
+of the teaching body in higher schools is rebuked, together with the
+excessive number of excuses from attendance, but attention is also
+called to praiseworthy progress made at other institutions where the
+new movement receives earnest and sympathetic support. University
+authorities are advised to furnish their students with facilities
+for continuing habits of bodily activity, and reminded of the
+advantage to the state if those who are to be leaders in church and
+school affairs are given an opportunity here to become familiar with
+a branch of education which they may later be called upon to oversee
+or inspect.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1862 an official “Manual for Instruction in Gymnastics
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>in the Prussian Elementary Schools” was published, replaced by a
+“New Manual” in the summer of 1868. This latter was again
+revised in 1895.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> By ministerial order of June 4, 1862, such instruction
+is declared to be an integral part of the course for males in
+schools of this grade (<i>Volksschule</i>), and attendance at the exercises
+is made compulsory. Suitable grounds and the equipment called
+for by the Manual must be provided. Teachers are prepared in
+training colleges (<i>Seminare</i>), where special attention is given to
+actual handling of classes in model schools, choosing and arranging
+suitable material for the different grades from the official manual,
+and in the senior class to instruction in methods, the installation
+of apparatus, the recent history of physical education, the hygiene
+of exercise, and first aid.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus mentioned in the official manual of 1895 includes
+wooden and iron wands, long jumping rope, jump stands and jumping
+board, balance beam, climbing ropes and poles, ladders, adjustable
+horizontal bar, and parallel bars. It recommends enough
+fixed apparatus so that four pupils can exercise at a time. In its
+one hundred and fifty pages are described a variety of marching and
+free exercises, and exercises with the different forms of apparatus
+just mentioned, and in conclusion sixteen selected running games
+and seven ball games. Beyond outlining the general plan of each
+lesson, calling attention to the need of orderly progression throughout
+the year, and indicating which of the exercises are intended for the
+upper grades, the manual offers no direct assistance to the teacher
+in laying out his course, <i>i.e.</i>, it contains no tables showing sample
+lessons and no series of exercises arranged in order of increasing
+difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>A third hour of exercise a week was added to the curriculum in
+higher schools in 1892, and in elementary schools by order of June 13,
+1910, which was intended especially to encourage the use of games
+and other activities in the open air. This same order made compulsory
+for all schools the ten-minute periods of exercise for the
+promotion of good carriage, deep breathing, and quickened blood-flow
+recommended in 1907 for days on which there was no regular
+lesson in gymnastics. The “Guide for Use with Boys in Elementary
+Schools without Indoor Gymnasia,” published in 1909,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> lays down
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>principles which are binding for boys’ schools of every sort. In it
+the class exercises in marching introduced by Spiess are omitted.
+Free exercises and exercises on apparatus are selected with the
+specific needs of the pupil in mind, and show the influence of Swedish
+teaching and practice. They are supplemented by running exercises,
+games, dry-land-swimming, and other forms of activity, and attention
+is called to the value of <i>Spielstunden</i> or play-afternoons. A
+recent development in higher schools is the organization and rapid
+spread of voluntary gymnastic, running, tramping, and athletic
+clubs of all sorts, conducted under the oversight of teachers.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the ministerial order of May 31, 1894, that instruction
+in gymnastics became a required subject in higher schools for
+<i>girls</i>. Two lessons a week were to be given, and by women teachers.
+An order of March 30, 1905, extended the requirement to elementary
+(<i>Volks</i>-) and intermediate (<i>Mittel</i>-) schools in cities and large towns,
+and recommended that teachers encourage also the playing of games
+after school hours. The manual of 1895 was to form the basis of
+instruction. A further step was taken on July 11, 1911, when the
+time allotted to gymnastics was increased to three hours a week for
+the upper grades, and all elementary schools not covered by former
+orders were urged to add the subject to their curriculum. An
+official “Manual for the Physical Training of Girls in Prussian
+Schools” was published in 1913.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>To an American the German universities and technical schools
+seem singularly backward in the matter of physical education. At
+none of them is there a full professorship devoted to the subject,
+and at least a third have not even an instructor in gymnastics
+(<i>Turnlehrer</i>) on the teaching staff. There are two student associations
+which may be considered the survivors of the <i>Burschenschaften</i>
+of Jahn’s day, so far as the practice of gymnastics is concerned.
+One of them, the <i>Akademischer Turnbund</i>, or “A. T. B.” (<i>Verband
+nichtfarbentragender akademischer Turnvereine und -Verbindungen
+auf deutschen Hochschulen</i>), organized June 27, 1883, on the Schweizerhöhe
+near Jena, included 39 societies and about 1900 student
+members in 1919, and belongs to the German <i>Turnerschaft</i>. Its
+first competitive meet (<i>Turnbundfest</i>) was held at Arnstadt, August
+5 and 6, 1893, and the 6th at Coblenz July 28-31, 1912.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> The other,
+the <i>Verband farbentragender Turnerschaften</i>, or “V. C.” (<i>Vertreter-Convent</i>),
+to which 55 societies with about 1800 student members
+belonged in 1919, was given its present name and form at a convention
+held in Berlin, June 11 and 12, 1885. Only a small proportion of
+its societies have affiliated themselves with the German <i>Turnerschaft</i>.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>The first general competitive meet (<i>Turnfest</i>) was held at
+Sangerhausen May 26-29, 1882, and the sixteenth in Gotha May 13-16,
+1913.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> In 1911 an <i>Akademischer Bund für Leibesübungen</i> was
+formed, including the two associations mentioned, the <i>Akademischer
+Ruderbund</i>, the <i>Kartelverband akademischer Rudervereine</i>, the
+<i>Akademischer Sportbund</i>, and other similar organizations. This
+union held a “German Academic Olympia” in Breslau, August 1-3,
+1911, and another at Leipzig, October 17-19, 1913. There had
+already been gatherings of this sort at Leipzig, July 11, 1909, and
+Berlin, July 2 and 3, 1910.</p>
+
+<p>There have been two attempts at a statistical survey of school
+gymnastics covering all of the German states, the first by J. C. Lion
+in 1873, and the second by Carl Rossow in 1908.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> A general
+convention of German teachers of gymnastics was held in Berlin,
+August 9-11, 1861, in connection with the second general German
+<i>Turnfest</i>. Others have been held at intervals ever since, and at the
+twelfth (Hof a. Saale, July 17 and 18, 1893), a <i>Deutscher Turnlehrerverein</i>
+(German Society of Teachers of Gymnastics) was formally
+organized. The eighteenth convention met in Breslau May 29
+and 30, 1914.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Euler’s “Geschichte des Turnunterrichts” and “Encyklopädisches Handbuch des
+gesamten Turnwesens” (see <a href="#Page_81">pp. 81 and 82</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Handbuch des gesamten Turnwesens und der verwandten Leibesübungen. In
+Verbindung mit zahlreichen Fachmännern herausgegeben von Studienrat Prof. Dr.
+Rudolf Gasch, Dresden. Mit 44 Tafeln (teils in Farbendruck), mit 394 Einzelabbildungen
+und 566 Abbildungen im Texte. Wien und Leipzig, A. Pichlers Witwe &amp;
+Sohn, 1920.</p>
+
+<p>Verordnungen und amtliche Bekanntmachungen das Turnwesen in Preussen
+betreffend. Gesammelt von Schulrat Prof. Dr. C. Euler und Prof. Gebh. Eckler.
+(First edition 1869, second edition 1884) Dritte neubearbeitete Auflage herausgegeben
+von Prof. Gebh. Eckler. Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Verordnungen und amtliche Bekanntmachungen das Turnwesen in Preussen
+betreffend. Mit einem Anhang: Die wichtigsten Turnverordnungen anderer
+Bundesstaaten im Auszuge. Unter Benutzung der Sammlung von Euler und Eckler
+neu gesammelt und herausgegeben von Dr. E. Neuendorff und H. Schröer. Berlin,
+Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>, <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i>, and <i>Monatsschrift
+für das Turnwesen</i> (see <a href="#Page_82">p. 82</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Jahrbuch der Turnkunst</i> (see <a href="#Page_108">p. 108</a>).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> “Zum Schutz der Gesundheit in den Schulen.” In <i>Medizinische Zeitung des
+Vereins für Heilkunde in Preussen</i>, 1836, No. 1. Reprinted by T. C. F. Enslin,
+Berlin, in 1861. Quoted at some length in Euler-Rossow 1907, pp. 115-117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> P. H. Ling’s Schriften über Leibesübungen. Aus dem Schwedischen übersetzt
+von H. F. Massmann, Dr. Professor &amp;c. Magdeburg, Heinrichshofen’sche Buchhandlung,
+1847.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> Die Gymnastik, nach dem Systeme des Schwedischen Gymnasiarchen P. H. Ling,
+dargestellt von Hg. Rothstein. Berlin, E. H. Schroeder. In five parts as follows:
+I. Allgemeine Einleitung (with life of Ling). Das Wesen der Gymnastik, Grundlegung
+und Gliederung ihres Systems, u. s. w. 1848 and 1849. II. Die Pädagogische
+Gymnastik, 1847; second edition in 1857. III. Die Heilgymnastik, 1847. IV.
+Die Wehrgymnastik, 1851. V. Die Aesthetische Gymnastik, 1854-1859.</p>
+
+<p>With Dr. A. C. Neumann, Rothstein also published four volumes of an “Athenaeum
+für rationelle Gymnastik.” Berlin, E. H. Schroeder, 1854-1857. (Rothstein’s
+name appears alone on the title page of volumes III and IV.)</p>
+
+<p>Other books by Rothstein were “Die gymnastischen Freiübungen nach dem
+System P. H. Lings” (Berlin, E. H. Schroeder, 1853; fifth edition in 1861), and “Die
+gymnastischen Rüstübungen nach P. H. Lings System” (Berlin, E. H. Schroeder,
+1855; second edition in 1861).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> “Ueber das Barrenturnen und über die sogenannte rationelle Gymnastik”
+(Berlin, Georg Reimer, 1862), and “Herr Rothstein und der Barren” (Berlin, Georg
+Reimer, 1863).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> The report is reprinted in Georg Hirth’s “Das Gesamte Turnwesen,” second
+edition, <b>3</b>, pp. 492-506 (Hof, Rud. Lion, 1893).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> It was moved to Zossen, about twenty-five miles south of Berlin, in 1919.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Similar provision was also made in at least three other German universities,
+Heidelberg, Jena, and Leipzig. Students at the last named took their examination
+in Dresden, after a final eight weeks at the state <i>Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt</i> there.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> As generally in Europe, there are two distinct kinds of schools in Germany, the
+elementary or common schools, and the secondary or higher schools. The former
+(<i>Volksschule</i>) does not lead up to the latter, but is designed to furnish that kind and
+degree of education which the State requires of every citizen irrespective of class or
+calling. Its course of eight years covers the period of “school age” (six to fourteen).
+The higher school (<i>Gymnasium</i>, <i>Realgymnasium</i>, <i>Realschule</i>) gives a broader training
+intended to prepare for later study at the university and the professional and higher
+technical schools, or to meet the conditions for admission to any but the lowest grades
+of government employ. In order to enter one must be at least nine years old, having
+obtained his earlier education in special preparatory classes or in the ordinary <i>Volksschule</i>,
+and the average age of those who complete the full nine years’ course is between
+eighteen and twenty.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Leitfaden für den Turn-Unterricht in den Preussischen Volksschulen. Mit
+29 in den Text gedruckten Figuren in Holzschnitt. Berlin, Wilhelm Hertz, 1862.</p>
+
+<p>Neuer Leitfaden für den Turn-Unterricht in den Preussischen Volksschulen.
+Zweite erweiterte Auflage des “Leitfadens für den Turn-Unterricht” 1862. Mit
+53 in den Text gedruckten Figuren in Holzschnitt. Berlin, Wilhelm Hertz, 1868.</p>
+
+<p>Leitfaden für den Turnunterricht in den Preussischen Volksschulen, 1895. Berlin,
+Wilhelm Hertz, 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Anleitung für das Knabenturnen in Volksschulen ohne Turnhalle. Berlin, J. G.
+Cotta’sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Leitfaden für das Mädchenturnen in den preussischen Schulen, 1913. Berlin,
+J. G. Cotta’sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, 1913.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> See the Handbuch für den Akademischen Turnbund. Im Auftrage des Bundes
+herausgegeben von Dr. rer. pol. Kurt Blaum (A. H. Burgund-Strassburg). 1908.
+Strassburg i. E., Selbstverlag des A. T. B., Universitätsplatz 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> See Der Turnerschafter. Handbuch des deutschen V.-C.-Studenten. Zehnte
+Auflage. Bearbeitet von Herbert Meyer. Leipzig-Reudnitz, August Hoffman,
+1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> Statistik des Schulturnens in Deutschland. Im Auftrage des Ausschusses der
+Deutschen Turnerschaft herausgegeben von J. C. Lion. Leipzig, E. Keil, 1873.</p>
+
+<p>Zweite Statistik des Schulturnens in Deutschland. Mit Unterstützung der
+Ministerien der deutschen Bundesstaaten, der Deutschen Turnerschaft und des
+Zentralausschusses zur Förderung der Volks- und Jugendspiele unter Mitarbeit
+vieler Schulmänner im Auftrage und unter Mitwirkung des Deutschen Turnlehrer-Vereins
+herausgegeben von Carl Rossow. Gotha, E. F. Thienemann, 1908. The
+contents of this second survey are summarized in <i>Jahrbuch der Turnkunst</i> 1907
+(Leipzig, Emil Stock, 1907), pp. 145-157.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> See Euler-Rossow, Geschichte des Turnunterrichts (Gotha, E. F. Thienemann,
+1907), pp. 415-423.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN GERMANY.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp69" id="figure29" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure29.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Konrad Koch (1846-1911).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The beginnings of the playground movement in Germany
+can be traced back to a time when the Franco-Prussian war was
+a very recent memory, and its pioneers were men moved by the
+same spirit and motives which led Jahn to the Hasenheide sixty
+years before. In the summer of 1872 Konrad Koch&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> (1846-1911),
+a teacher in the Gymnasium (higher classical school) Martino-Katharineum
+in Brunswick, with his colleague, Hermann Corvinus,
+having in mind their own participation as schoolboys in the
+outdoor exercises of a Jahn club, began to take pupils on free
+Wednesday afternoons to St. Leonhardplatz, on the outskirts
+of the city, to practise a variety of running and ball games.
+Three years of experience with German games such as <i>Barlaufen</i>
+(prisoners’ base), <i>Kaiserball</i>, etc., revealed to them the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>need of something more highly organized, and of a sport which
+might be practised in the winter months. The teacher of gymnastics
+(<i>Turnlehrer</i>) at the <i>Gymnasium</i> was August Hermann
+(1835-1906), whose wife’s sister conducted a flourishing private
+boarding school for girls in Brunswick and in its interest spent
+several months a year in England. Hermann’s own house was
+a <i>pension</i> which usually contained a number of English boys,
+and Koch’s father-in-law, Dr. med. Friedrich Reck, had observed
+with interest in his travels abroad the widespread popularity of
+active games in Great Britain.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> At Dr. Reck’s suggestion Hermann
+therefore procured from England a football, and one day in October,
+1874, threw it among the boys on the playground. The history
+of the Rugby game in Germany dates from this moment. American
+baseball was introduced in 1875, and English cricket in 1876, as
+summer games, and the steady increase in the number of players
+demonstrated the wisdom of the changed program.</p>
+
+<p>Saturday afternoon had now been added to Wednesday’s. In
+the summer of 1878 the games were made an integral factor of
+the school life. Certain classes were freed from other work on
+two afternoons a week (Thursday and Friday) in order that the
+pupils might engage regularly, the two teachers whose time had
+hitherto been given voluntarily to the task were now relieved
+from a part of their school duties and formally delegated to this
+one, Mk. 200 a year was appropriated toward the cost of equipment,
+and in the spring of 1879 participation in the games was
+made obligatory for pupils in the lower and middle classes. The
+rule was extended to cover the upper classes also in 1882. The
+Gymnasium Martino-Katharineum thus became the first school
+in Germany to give to active games a place in the curriculum.
+In 1885 the Realgymnasium and the new Wilhelm-Gymnasium
+took the same step. Other higher schools in the Duchy followed,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>and the movement reached the intermediate <i>Bürgerschulen</i> of
+the city in 1905, and the lower ones in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Skating competed with football for winter popularity, but
+cricket was still the favorite summer game. Koch, who later
+became the recognized psychologist and philosopher of the entire
+games movement in Germany, was impressed from the start with
+its fundamental educational value. Like Thomas Arnold, he
+attached great value to the influence of games on the emotions
+and the will, and was not satisfied with the too exclusively intellectual
+training of the schools. His “Die Erziehung zum Mute
+durch Turnen, Spiel und Sport,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> a book devoted to the psychical
+aspects of bodily exercise, deservedly ranks as a classic, and stands
+almost alone in its field.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure30" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure30.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—August Hermann (1835-1906).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The German <i>Turnlehrer</i> held their eighth general convention
+at Brunswick July 27-30, 1876.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> August Hermann opened the
+morning session on the 28th with an address in which he urged
+the necessity of arousing an interest in competitive exercises and
+games if bodily exercise was ever to become a truly national custom
+in Germany, calling attention particularly to English experience,
+and in conclusion referring to what had already been accomplished
+in Brunswick with English football and cricket. Dr. Reck described
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>at length how he had himself seen all England at play, and not
+merely those of one class or age or sex. He also spoke of the value of
+such habits as a means of training the will and developing initiative.
+Others who took part in the debate (Kloss of Dresden and Jäger
+of Stuttgart) had been witnesses of the athletic sports of English
+residents in German cities. On Saturday, the 29th, pupils from
+the intermediate classes of the <i>Gymnasium</i> gave the visitors an
+impressive exhibition of their skill and interest in football and cricket
+on St. Leonhardplatz, under the direction of Hermann and Koch.</p>
+
+<p>Five years later (November, 1881) the movement in favor of
+games and other outdoor sports, which had been slowly gaining
+headway among German teachers of gymnastics and educators
+in general, received a sudden impetus and gained a powerful champion,
+when Emil Hartwich (1843-1886), judge in the Prussian
+district court at Düsseldorf, issued his pamphlet “Woran wir
+leiden. Freie Betrachtungen und practische Vorschläge über
+unsere moderne Geistes- und Körperpflege in Volk und Schule.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+Hartwich was the son of a leading pioneer in German railroad
+construction, and educated at the Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtische
+Gymnasium at Cologne (1856-1862) and the universities of Heidelberg
+and Berlin (1862-1865). After completing the required year
+of military service in a regiment of dragoons at Berlin he began to
+practise his profession of public magistrate, and became judge in the
+Düsseldorf court in 1873. By enthusiastic application in his leisure
+moments he had acquired skill in gymnastics, music, and painting.
+Deeply impressed with the importance of the problems which
+modern education is called upon to solve, and convinced that the
+physical point of view, though fundamental, was too much neglected,
+he determined to undertake the task of agitation for reform.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p>The pamphlet of 1881 was the first result of the decision. A
+second edition, enlarged, was published the following year, and
+later a third made its appearance. “Next to untarnished honor,
+health is the greatest good on earth.” This is the motto with
+which he begins. While in England, the home of open-air sports,
+many an old man has a youthful look, the German schoolboy
+too often shows a pale, precocious face. What has become of
+the games which freshen body and soul alike, and the school excursions
+and long walks? Our modern pedagogy, he complains,
+has forgotten the great outdoors. With thirty hours or more a
+week given to mental training in stuffy classrooms, and only a pitiful
+two hours to gymnastics as the sole counterpoise, the harmonious
+balance between body and mind cannot fail to be disturbed. A
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>sound body and good spirits must be recognized as of equal value
+with a well-trained mind. Give the morning to the mind, he says,
+and the afternoon to body and spirit, to what brings enjoyment and
+strengthens the will to withstand the trials of everyday life. This
+quality of courage and good spirits is vastly more important than
+the training of the intellect now so excessively emphasized.</p>
+
+<p>To coördinate and direct all efforts for improvement and reform
+Hartwich proposed the organization of a <i>Zentralverein für Körperpflege
+in Volk und Schule</i>—a permanent national body which should
+hold itself aloof from all political, sectarian, and other factional
+discussions, should unite all classes of society for the common end,
+and should allow complete independence in the sections which it
+was to comprise and entire freedom of organization in the different
+cities. The separate sections established in town and country were
+to be bound together by the common purpose to promote care of the
+body and its active exercise. The following divisions were suggested:
+(1) For gymnastics, (2) for skating, (3) for school interests,
+(4) for bathing, swimming, and rowing, (5) for games and festivals
+suited to both old and young, (6) a section to serve as a propaganda
+working through the public press, and (7) a medical section.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of “Woran wir leiden,” which was widely
+read and quoted throughout Germany, led at once to a lively
+discussion of the claims of the body and the value of open-air
+exercise, and to a great accession of popular interest in these
+subjects. Men of letters, government officials, and others in high
+position rallied to the support of Hartwich, and Gustav von Gossler,
+Prussian minister of public worship and instruction, invited him to
+an interview (November 4, 1882). Meanwhile the <i>Zentralverein</i>
+became a reality—it was formed in Düsseldorf, March 6, 1882—and
+in this and the following year local societies (<i>Vereine für Körperpflege</i>)
+were organized in Witten, Bonn, Barmen, and Hagen, in each
+case with an address from Hartwich as part of the program at the
+initial gathering.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Playgrounds were secured and equipped in
+Düsseldorf,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Bonn, Witten, Berlin (Park bei Treptow) and other
+cities; much continued to be written on school conditions in general
+and on brain forcing in particular; and a number of handbooks of
+games made their appearance. Bremen and Chemnitz opened
+playgrounds in 1884, and public games were introduced in Dresden,
+Salzburg, Darmstadt, and Frankfort-on-the-Main. At the sixth
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>national <i>Turnfest</i> of the German <i>Turnerschaft</i>, in Dresden, July 19-21,
+1885, there was an exhibition of games by schoolboys and girls.</p>
+
+<p>To keep members of the <i>Zentralverein</i> in touch with the movement
+and furnish newspapers with reports and items of information
+Hartwich had started a periodical, <i>Körper und Geist</i>, to be issued
+at irregular intervals. Only five numbers were actually published,
+the first in the spring of 1883 and the last in April of 1886. In his
+address at the organization of the society he had referred to the
+educational value which the English attribute to their games, and
+to the obligatory school games in Brunswick. He wrote to Koch
+at Brunswick, requesting a few lines from him on the subject of
+English games for German playgrounds, having in mind already as
+part of the program for his <i>Volks-</i> and <i>Kinderfeste</i> competitions in
+running, swimming, throwing the spear and the discus, wrestling,
+football, cricket, etc. Koch replied under date of November 1,
+1883, with a recital of his own experience.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vereine für Körperpflege</i> were largely confined to Rhenish
+Prussia and Westphalia, a fact explained by the support which
+newspapers in these provinces, and notably the <i>Kölnische Zeitung</i>,
+gave to the movement. The membership, in both size and
+character, and the sums contributed fell short of what had been
+expected, and proved that a considerable portion of the public
+remained to be won over. Some teachers of gymnastics were
+hearty and loyal in their coöperation, but not a few <i>Turnvereine</i>
+and leaders in the national <i>Turnerschaft</i> adopted an attitude of
+apathy, or of positive opposition. “Into the open” was the cry
+of Hartwich, and he seemed to them to ignore, or not to appreciate,
+the solid achievements of the followers of Jahn and Spiess. There
+were many, too, who protested against the importation of English
+games and athletic sports in seeming disparagement of German
+<i>Turnen</i> and native games. The early and tragic death of Hartwich—he
+was shot in a duel and died December 1, 1886—brought with
+it the collapse of the <i>Zentralverein</i>, for no other leader possessed of
+equal skill and courage came forward to take his place.</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere in Germany, however, new adherents were at work,
+and the movement which had begun in Brunswick and been greatly
+extended by the Düsseldorf judge was soon to become national in
+its scope. One state, and that the leading one, had already given
+its official sanction. Gustav von Gossler (1838-1902), Prussian
+minister of public worship and instruction in the years 1881-1891,
+himself trained in gymnastics as a schoolboy in Potsdam and
+Königsberg, an expert fencer in his university days, a good oarsman
+and a strong swimmer and skater, had been an interested listener at
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>the sessions of the ninth national convention of German teachers of
+gymnastics, held in Berlin, June 7-9, 1881, while he was still under-secretary.
+There the first morning was taken up by two papers
+which urged the necessity of systematic use of games and school
+excursions on foot as a supplement to formal gymnastics, and by
+a discussion which led to the adoption of recommendations to
+that effect.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In the following November Hartwich’s pamphlet
+appeared, and a year later von Gossler, as we have seen, invited
+him to an interview; but before this took place the minister had
+already issued (October 27, 1882) his momentous “Order relating
+to the provision of playgrounds for the promotion of gymnastics in
+the open air and to stimulate participation in active games.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>He begins by saying that when gymnastics was first made an
+integral part of the instruction in higher and lower schools, effort
+was naturally directed toward securing room indoors where the
+exercises might be carried on without regard to season and weather.
+But the playground is not less valuable, and he sums up impressively
+the beneficial influence it may exert on the entire life of the pupil,
+concluding with these words: “The school must foster play as an
+expression of youthful life salutary for body and mind, for heart
+and soul alike, along with the increase in physical strength and skill
+and the ethical effects which attend it, and this must be done not
+merely now and then, but as a matter of course and in a systematic
+way.” Attempts in this direction have been few and scattered
+hitherto. He then refers to the books of GutsMuths and Jahn and
+to some recent works, mentions a number of suitable games, calls
+attention to certain articles which contain useful hints, and among
+them one of Koch’s on the history and organization of the Brunswick
+school games, and suggests at some length practical ways of
+carrying out the purpose of the order. School excursions, swimming,
+and skating are also recommended. Other ministerial orders and
+announcements which followed within the next few years touch
+upon every phase of gymnastics and games, and for girls as well as
+for boys and young men.</p>
+
+<p>While the von Gossler <i>Spielerlass</i> of 1882 met with general
+approval and exerted a stimulating influence felt beyond the
+bounds of his own state, the immediate and visible results were
+disappointing. One experiment which it inspired was, however,
+momentous in its consequences. The scene was Görlitz, in Prussian
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>Silesia, and the prime mover, soon to become a national figure, was
+Emil von Schenckendorff (1837-1915), formerly member of the
+city council and now member of the Prussian chamber of deputies.
+He had spent ten years in the army (1855-1865) and nine in the
+telegraph service (1867-1876), resigning from each on account of
+impaired health, and having made his home in Görlitz occupied
+himself altogether, for the balance of his life, with public affairs in
+city, state, and nation.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp51" id="figure31" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure31.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Emil Theodor Gustav von Schenckendorff (1837-1915).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In Sweden, in 1872, August Abrahamson (1817-1898) had
+opened a sloyd school for boys on his estate at Nääs, about eighteen
+miles from Gothenburg, under the direction of his nephew, Otto
+Salomon (1849-1907), and in the autumn of 1874 a training school
+for teachers of that branch of education was added. Adolph
+Clauson-Kaas (1826-1906) had made societies for home industry
+popular in Denmark. Von Schenckendorff was familiar with both
+movements, and in his desire to provide some counteragent to the
+one-sided mental exertion of the schools organized in 1881 the
+Görlitz Manual Training Society (Verein für Handfertigkeit) and
+opened a workshop for boys. He was also, that same year, one of
+the founders of the German Central Committee for Manual Training
+and Home Industry (in 1886 the name was changed to <i>Deutscher
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>Verein für Knabenhandarbeit</i>). As early as 1882 he was in communication
+with Hartwich at Düsseldorf, approving his efforts and
+asking advice with regard to the introduction of games among the
+young people of Görlitz. In 1883 he persuaded the Görlitz Manual
+Training Society to add this new form of activity to its program.
+With the hearty coöperation of his friend Gustav Ernst Eitner
+(1835-1905), director of the city <i>Gymnasium</i>, a beginning was made
+with boys from the lower classes of that school, who met for the
+purpose on Wednesday afternoons. Soon the pupils of the intermediate
+classes became interested, and in the spring of the following
+year the older boys, who viewed the innovation with indifference
+at the start, were gradually drawn into the ranks of players. <i>Oberturnlehrer</i>
+Friedrich Wilhelm Jordan (1842-1896) and several younger
+teachers in the <i>Gymnasium</i> assumed the direct oversight of the
+games. The next step was to make provision for the elementary
+schools, and thus the movement spread from year to year, and
+methods of organization and administration were perfected, until
+not only the school children, but older boys and young men and
+even adults had been reached by the efforts of the society. Annual
+<i>Spielfeste</i> helped to make the playing of games more and more
+a matter of habit among the entire populace.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<p>An opportunity to bring the results of all this experience to
+the attention of German teachers generally was afforded by the
+fortieth national convention of philologists, held in Görlitz, October
+1-5, 1889. Eitner realized that in spite of widespread desire for
+a revival of games in the schools few teachers were familiar with
+them, or knew how to set about introducing them among the
+children, and these in turn had forgotten how to play. He thought
+it would be of service to show the Görlitz plan in actual operation,
+and so arranged for an exhibition of games as a part of the program
+for the second afternoon. The applause which greeted the spectacle
+was gratifying. One of the visitors deplored the fact that in his
+home there was no one capable of introducing and directing a similar
+plan, and he therefore proposed that there should be started in
+Görlitz a teachers’ course in games for such persons as were interested
+in the subject, in order to diffuse a knowledge of it more widely.
+Von Schenckendorff took up the idea with enthusiasm, readily
+secured the approval and support of Minister von Gossler, and
+it was arranged that Eitner should undertake the direction of
+such a course with the assistance of <i>Oberturnlehrer</i> Jordan.</p>
+
+<p>After careful preparation on the part of these two men the
+first course was given during the week of June 9-14, 1890, and
+a second September 1-6. In the following year there were two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span>more, June 22-27 and August 31-September 5. The total attendance
+for the four weeks, not counting about 30 who remained for a
+few days only, was 120 teachers, of whom 82 were from various
+parts of Prussia (Silesia 48, Posen 11, Pomerania 2, East Prussia 4,
+Brandenburg 3, Hannover 4, the province of Saxony 2, Westphalia 1,
+Hesse-Nassau 3, and the Rhine province 4), 2 from Baden, 1 each
+from Saxony, Oldenburg, Lauenburg, Thuringia, and Anhalt, 30
+from Austria (13 of these from Vienna), and 1 from Russia. There
+was no tuition fee. Each morning of the week Eitner lectured for
+an hour on the theory of games in general and discussed individual
+ones in some detail, with demonstrations of the apparatus used, until
+about 60 had been covered, including 34 ball games. Then followed
+two hours of practice under Jordan, and in the afternoons between
+four and six o’clock there was a demonstration of the methods
+employed in the different city schools. A much wider audience
+was reached by Eitner’s manual of games,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> six editions of which
+were called for in the year of publication (1890), a seventh in 1891,
+and an eighth in 1893.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile other measures looking toward nationwide agitation
+and instruction were being taken. As a preliminary step it was
+desirable to ascertain the exact present status of the games movement
+in Germany, and for the collection and tabulation of such
+statistical information von Schenckendorff was able to secure the
+services of a man who had already made an important contribution
+in the realm of physical education. Hermann Raydt (1851-1914),
+born in the Prussian province of Hannover, educated in the Lingen
+<i>Gymnasium</i> of which his father was rector and in the Universities
+of Berlin, Heidelberg, and Göttingen, was from 1878 till 1892
+teacher (<i>Oberlehrer</i>) in the <i>Gelehrtenschule</i> at Ratzeburg, a town
+twelve miles southeast of Lübeck. In 1886, as the first appointee
+under the terms of the Bismarck-Schönhausen foundation for the
+advancement of teaching, he travelled in England and Scotland,
+studying especially the methods of education and manner of life in
+the English public schools. The results of his observations were
+embodied in an interesting and stimulating volume&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> published
+three years later, in which he proposes an adaptation of the English
+playground to German school conditions. The book appeared at
+an opportune moment and met with a favorable reception everywhere.
+The Prussian ministry of instruction warmly recommended
+it to the attention of all higher schools and teachers’ colleges. It also
+brought Raydt into communication with von Schenckendorff, who
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>persuaded him to undertake the task already mentioned. The
+Görlitz Society for the Promotion of Manual Training and School
+Games bore the expense of the investigation, and in April of 1890
+circulars were sent out to all German cities with a population of
+8000 or more asking what had already been done in the way of games
+and playgrounds, and whether the authorities were inclined to
+welcome their introduction. Two hundred and seventy-three replies
+were received. Raydt studied these carefully and made them the
+basis of another volume&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> which appeared early in the following year.</p>
+
+<p>The time for organized endeavor on a large scale had evidently
+arrived. Von Schenckendorff therefore invited a number of
+prominent men—leaders in the German <i>Turnerschaft</i>, pioneers in
+the games movement, and persons of influence—to meet in Berlin
+on May 21, 1891, and then and there the “Central Committee for
+the Promotion of Games in Germany” (<i>Der Zentral-Ausschuss zur
+Förderung der Volks- und Jugendspiele in Deutschland</i>) was
+formed. The thirteen in actual attendance included Director Bier
+of the Dresden <i>Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt</i>, <i>Unterrichtsdirigent</i> Euler
+of the Berlin <i>Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt</i>, Goetz and F. A. Schmidt
+of the Committee of the <i>Deutsche Turnerschaft</i>, Koch and Hermann
+from Brunswick, Raydt from Ratzeburg, von Schenckendorff, and
+teachers or public officials from Hamburg, Hannover, Magdeburg,
+Rendsburg, and Stralsund. After an opening address by von
+Schenckendorff, and a general exchange of views it was agreed that
+the committee type of organization, with great freedom of action,
+was preferable to an association bound by a constitution and a fixed
+program. Three sub-committees of seven members each were
+decided upon, and the chairmen of these together with the officers
+of the Central Committee were to constitute a board of directors.
+Von Schenckendorff was the unanimous choice for chairman of the
+Central Committee, Schmidt of Bonn was elected vice-chairman,
+Raydt corresponding secretary or business manager, Koch treasurer,
+Eitner of Görlitz chairman of the sub-committee on games for boys,
+Hermann of Brunswick chairman of the sub-committee on games for
+girls, and Schmidt of Bonn chairman of the sub-committee on games
+for older persons (<i>Volksspiele</i>). The Central Committee itself, in
+its original form, was composed of thirty-five men, whose names are
+attached to the formal summons to the German people (“<i>Aufruf
+zur Förderung der Jugend- und Volksspiele in Deutschland</i>”)
+prepared at the Berlin meeting.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
+
+<p>A good idea of the methods adopted by the Central Committee,
+and the results of its work during the twenty years 1891-1911,
+can be gained from a review of that period which von Schenckendorff,
+still chairman, prepared and published in 1912.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> The Committee
+has endeavored from the start to supplement and support
+the work of individuals or local organizations and to prepare the way
+for the actual introduction of games into any community. Its
+membership is limited to one hundred, selected from men and
+women in all parts of the empire who have had experience and met
+with success in the field of physical education. Besides games in
+the narrower sense, it aims to foster all forms of active exercise in
+the open air, such as excursions on foot, swimming, rowing, skating,
+skeeing, bob-sledding, etc. There were the following sub-committees
+in 1912: (1) Technical, (2) on public exhibitions of games
+(<i>Jugend- und Volksfeste</i>), (3) on the German universities, (4) on
+continuation and professional schools, (5) on promotion of national
+defense (<i>Wehrkraft</i>) through education, (6) on country children and
+youth, (7) on excursions (<i>Wandern</i>) and winter exercises in the open
+air, and (8) on measures for increasing the physical fitness of girls
+and women. The activities of the Central Committee may be classified
+in three main groups, as follows: information, constructive work
+proper, and indirect measures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Information.</i> To bring its work to the attention of the public
+at large the Committee has made use of the organs which mould
+and give expression to public opinion, <i>i.e.</i>, about three hundred
+newspapers and other periodicals—political, social, pedagogical,
+and medical, as well as those published in the interest of physical
+education and athletic sports. It possesses also two organs of
+its own, the semi-monthly <i>Körper und Geist</i>, started in 1892 (April 1)
+under the title <i>Zeitschrift für Turnen und Jugendspiel</i>,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>
+    and a year-book&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a>
+averaging more than three hundred pages. In addition to
+these a long list of pamphlets and small volumes have been issued.
+The first of a series of national congresses in the interest of games
+was held in Berlin, February 3 and 4, 1894, and others have followed,
+in different parts of the empire, at intervals of one or two years.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>Persons whose official position gave them an influence which might
+be of great value in furthering the objects of the Committee were
+approached directly. In this way permanent relations have been
+established with about five thousand town and city authorities,
+district magistrates and school inspectors, provincial school commissioners,
+heads of institutions for the training of teachers, and
+members of state ministries of instruction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Constructive Work Proper.</i> Here belongs first of all the arranging
+of courses for men and women teachers who wish to prepare themselves
+as playground leaders. By the end of 1904, <i>i.e.</i>, in fifteen
+years if we include the Görlitz courses of 1890 and 1891, a total of
+175 courses for men had been held in 54 different places, with 5805
+participants, and 74 for women in 20 places, with 2814 participants.
+For the entire period 1890-1911 the totals were 409 courses to
+14,269 men, and 206 courses to 6287 women.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> In general the
+Görlitz pattern, as already described, was followed. There were
+no fees for instruction, and the persons in charge of the work gave
+their services in every case. Since 1905 the Prussian school authorities
+have also offered playground courses (about 60,000 teachers
+had been trained in them up to the time when von Schenckendorff
+wrote his review), and others have been given at the various state
+normal schools of gymnastics. Next in importance to the demand
+for competent leaders was that for authoritative descriptions of the
+most important games, with the rules which govern them. The
+technical committee met this need by issuing and frequently revising
+a series of pocket-size booklets, in board covers, which sell for
+about five cents each and have become the standard guides on
+nearly all the German playgrounds. By 1912 there were twelve
+of these little volumes, covering sixteen games. The Central
+Committee has also published ten booklets (“Kleine Schriften”)
+containing information and suggestions on such subjects as how
+to set about introducing games into a community, the management
+of competitive and other exercises for public exhibitions, active
+games for girls, games at the German universities, winter sports,
+excursions on foot, <i>Geländespiele</i>, games for use in the army, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indirect Measures.</i> For a number of years the Committee
+worked energetically to bring about the inauguration of periodical
+German <i>Nationalfeste</i>, which should serve as an inspiration and
+pattern for smaller public exhibitions (<i>Jugend- und Volksfeste</i>) all
+over the country, and at the same time stimulate national spirit.
+Growing opposition on the part of the German <i>Turnerschaft</i>, which
+saw in such occasions a menace to the success of its own quadrennial
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span><i>Turnfeste</i>, together with other difficulties, finally led to the abandonment
+of the plan. The Committee now seeks to work from the
+bottom up, by encouraging regular exhibitions with competitive
+sports in separate localities. The conviction that national efficiency
+(<i>Volkskraft</i>) and national defense (<i>Wehrkraft</i>) are merely different
+expressions of the same thing, and that whatever promotes or
+disturbs the one affects the other similarly, has led to careful study
+of the latter question. A volume of some size (“Wehrkraft durch
+Erziehung”), published in 1904, in place of the usual year-book,
+sets forth educational measures which foster <i>Wehrkraft</i> by increasing
+<i>Volkskraft</i>, and a special “Committee of Defense” (Ausschuss zur
+Förderung der Wehrkraft durch Erziehung) has met repeatedly
+to discuss the subject, with representatives of the Prussian war
+ministry and the head of the general staff present on one occasion
+(March 12, 1911). Games were incorporated in the course of military
+gymnastics by imperial order of May, 1910, and the Committee’s
+special manual (“Militärisches Spielbuch”) is now in use
+everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>Looking back over twenty years of effort along these varied
+lines of activity, von Schenckendorff is forced to admit that much
+remains to be accomplished. In the schools, while play-afternoons
+with voluntary attendance have spread widely, the obligatory play-afternoon
+on a par with required instruction in gymnastics has been
+introduced only here and there. Brunswick, Württemberg, Baden,
+and Saxony are farthest advanced in this respect. The continuation
+schools have taken only the first step looking toward physical
+development. At the universities there is increased interest in
+gymnastics and athletic sports, but facilities for their practise are
+still inadequate. The state has not met its responsibility in the
+matter of building gymnasia, fitting up playgrounds, and providing
+the means for swimming, rowing, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Von Schenckendorff, the foremost figure in the German playground
+movement, died March 1, 1915, and was succeeded as chairman
+of the Central Committee by Dr. F. A. Schmidt of Bonn, the
+former vice-chairman. Of the other members of the original board
+of directors Raydt died December 6, 1914, Koch April 13, 1911,
+Eitner September 4, 1905, and Hermann February 20, 1906. The
+board in 1915 was constituted as follows: Chairman, Schmidt;
+corresponding secretary, Kohlrausch of Hannover (since Raydt’s
+death); treasurer, Dominicus of Berlin-Schöneberg (following Koch);
+and Hagen of Schmalkalden, Sickinger of Mannheim, and Neuendorff
+of Mühlheim-on-the-Ruhr.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> Born in Brunswick, attended for eight years the Gymnasium Martino-Katharineum,
+where his father was one of the teachers, studied classical and German
+philology at the universities of Göttingen, Berlin, and Leipzig, 1864-1867, and for the
+rest of his life taught Greek, Latin, middle high German, and history at the Gymnasium
+Martino-Katharineum, becoming <i>Oberlehrer</i> in 1874 and Professor in 1886.
+Consult <i>Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele</i> 1912, pp. 238-245; <i>Monatsschrift für
+das Turnwesen</i>, <b>1</b>, 97-104; <b>30</b>, 241-245. For Hermann consult <i>Monatsschrift für das
+Turnwesen</i>, <b>6</b>, 321-329; <b>25</b>, 130-137; <i>Körper und Geist</i>, <b>14</b>, 421-427.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> When Thomas Arnold’s fourteen years as head master at Rugby Public School
+were ended by his death in June of 1842, cricket was the recognized summer sport
+at the English public schools and at Oxford and Cambridge universities; rowing was
+firmly established as a fall and spring exercise at Eton College, and the Oxford-Cambridge
+boat race was an annual affair; football was regularly played at Rugby
+and others of the public schools; and continuous records of the “big-side runs” of
+the Rugby School Hare and Hounds—forerunners of the later track and field athletics—were
+already five years old. By the time Thomas Hughes published his “Tom
+Brown’s School Days,” fifteen years later (April, 1857), all of the public schools had
+adopted football as the chief winter game, and the first steps looking toward organized
+track and field athletics as a recognized branch of public school and university sports
+had been taken. The annual track meets between Oxford and Cambridge date from
+1864. The first of the annual Cambridge-Oxford contests in Rugby football was
+held in 1872, and two years later a similar series in the Association game began.
+(“Association football” dates from the publication of rules by the London Football
+Association, December 1, 1863. The Rugby Football Union was organized in
+London, January 26, 1871).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Consult the <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i>, 1876, pp. 305-310 and 313-319; and <i>Neue
+Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>, 1876, pp. 94-95, 145-150, 163-186, 241-247.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Düsseldorf, L. Voss &amp; Co. Second edition, enlarged, 1882.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Consult <i>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen</i>, 1887, pp. 29 and 30, and <i>Neue Jahrbücher
+für die Turnkunst</i>, 1887, pp. 14-24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Hartwich’s addresses were collected and published by M. Eichelsheim, city
+<i>Turnlehrer</i> in Düsseldorf, in 1883 under the title “Reden über die vernachlässigte
+leibliche Ausbildung unserer Jugend von Emil Hartwich” (Düsseldorf, L. Schwann).
+A second edition, enlarged, was published in 1884.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Opened June 21, 1882. See <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>, 1882, pp. 248-249,
+and <i>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen</i>, 1882, p. 206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> The letter is published in <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>, 1888, pp. 242-252.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> For reports of the convention consult <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>, 1881,
+pp. 97-105, 208-212, 273-276; and <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i>, 1881, pp. 190, 257-260,
+281-284, 301-304, 325-330.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Printed in full in <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i>, 1882, pp. 409-412; <i>Monatsschrift
+für das Turnwesen</i>, 1882, pp. 321-325; Neuendorff and Schröer, “Verordnungen
+und amtliche Bekanntmachungen das Turnwesen in Preussen betreffend” (Berlin,
+Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1912), pp. 56-61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Consult <i>Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele</i>, 1915, pp. 1-26; <i>Körper und Geist</i>
+<b>16</b>, 33-41, and <b>24</b>, 4-16; and <i>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen</i>, 1912, pp. 201-208,
+and 1915, pp. 129-137, 193-200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Consult Eitner’s own account in <i>Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele</i>, 1892,
+pp. 59-61 and 79-82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> “Die Jugendspiele. Ein Leitfaden bei der Einführung und Übung von Turn-
+und Jugendspielen, verfasst von Dr. Eitner, Gymnasialdirektor in Görlitz.” Kreuznach
+und Leipzig, R. Voigtländer, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> “Ein gesunder Geist in einem gesunden Kröper. Englische Schulbilder in
+deutschem Rahmen nach einer Studienreise aus der Bismarck-Schönhausen Stiftung
+geschildert von H. Raydt, Subrektor in Ratzeburg.” Hannover, Carl Meyer, 1889.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> “Die deutschen Städte und das Jugendspiel. Nach den amtlichen Berichten
+der Städte bearbeitet von Konrektor H. Raydt in Ratzeburg.” Hannover-Linden,
+Karl Manz, 1891.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> This summons, and von Schenckendorff’s account of the formation and plan of
+organization of the Central Committee, are contained in the first year-book of the
+Committee (“Über Jugend- und Volksspiele,” Hannover-Linden, 1892), pp. 103-111.
+The minutes of the Berlin meeting were printed in <i>Körper und Geist</i>, <b>16</b>, 41-47
+(May 21, 1907).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> <i>Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele</i>, 1912, pp. 1-11. Printed also in <i>Monatsschrift
+für das Turnwesen</i>, 1912, pp. 201-208.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Ten volumes appeared under the latter title, and volume <b>11</b>, beginning April 1,
+1902, bears the new name.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> <i>Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele.</i> The first number is that for 1892. Both
+organs are published by B. G. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> (2) Munich, July 10-13, 1896; (3) Bonn, July 2 and 3, 1898; (4) Königsberg,
+June 25 and 26, 1899; (5) Nuremberg, July 7 and 8, 1901; (6) Dresden, July 5-7,
+1903; (7) Frankfurt, September 15-18, 1905; (8) Strasburg, July 6 and 7, 1907;
+(9) Kiel, July 19-21, 1908; (10) Gleiwitz, July 2-5, 1909; (11) Barmen, July 1-4, 1910;
+(12) Dresden, July 1 and 2, 1911; (13) Heidelberg, June 28-July 1, 1912; (14) Stettin,
+June 28-30, 1913; (15) Altona, June 19-22, 1914.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> These are the official figures. Dr. F. A. Schmidt, in a review of “Zwanzig Jahre
+Spielkurse” on pp. 143-152 of the 1911 <i>Jahrbuch für Volks- und Jugendspiele</i>, gives
+the totals as 14,301 men and 6233 women.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PER HENRIK LING, FATHER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN SWEDEN.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>For more than a century gymnastics in Sweden has been undergoing
+development along three more or less distinct lines, educational,
+military, and medical, <i>i.e.</i>, as an integral factor in school
+life, as an agent in the training of men for the army and navy, and
+as a therapeutic measure. The Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics
+at Stockholm, where teachers of these various branches
+receive their preparation, was opened in 1814, and its originator and
+first director (1814-1839) was Per Henrik Ling. He was born
+November 15, 1776, in Småland, one of the southern provinces,
+where his ancestors had lived for seven generations or more. Up
+to the time of his grandfather, Mathias Månsson (1687-1748),
+they had belonged to the peasant class; but this man, taking the
+name Ling, prepared himself for the ministry and married a clergyman’s
+daughter. His son, Lars Peter Ling (1723-1780), who followed
+the same calling, was settled in the country parish of Ljunga,
+in Kronoberg county, and died there when Per Henrik, the youngest
+of six children, was only four years of age. A year and a half later
+the mother, a great granddaughter of the famous Swedish author
+Olof Rudbeck and herself a woman of superior intelligence, married
+the new pastor, but died in 1789.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure32" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure32.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span></p>
+
+<p>These early bereavements, acting on the serious, sensitive, and
+affectionate nature of the boy, and in spite of his stepfather’s
+watchful care, gave a touch of sadness to the whole period of his
+childhood, to which he rarely referred in later years, and then only
+in the fewest possible words. The romantic scenery about his home
+must have heightened this effect, besides producing others of its
+own. The church and parsonage stood near the border of a lake
+encircled by forests, and all around stretched desolate heath, a
+strange jumble of hills and broken rocks, swamps and reedy lakes,
+and forests of pine and deciduous trees with here and there a cleared
+space in their midst. In 1784 he left these scenes to attend the
+<i>läroverk</i> (higher classical school) in Vexiö, capital of the same
+district, where the botanist Linnæus had studied sixty years before.
+Here he gave evidence of rich mental gifts, a strong will, and a
+fondness for independent and original thinking and acting; but in
+November of 1792, taking part in certain boyish pranks, he broke
+a pane of glass in the rector’s house one Sunday morning, and left
+the school rather than accept the harsh terms imposed as the
+condition of his reinstatement. In February of the next year,
+however, upon furnishing proof of repentance, continued progress
+in his studies, and good conduct meanwhile, he received from the
+rector a certificate admitting to the university in Lund.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p>The young Ling was registered as a student in the Småland
+<i>nation</i> at Lund—the “nations” are provincial clubs at the Swedish
+universities, and each student is expected to enroll himself in one of
+them, according to his birthplace—on April 19, 1793, and remained
+there during the spring and fall semesters. In September of 1796
+he wrote to Lund from Stockholm requesting a university certificate,
+and on the 22nd of the following November applied for a clerkship
+in one of the city offices at the capital, where an older brother, Carl,
+was already installed in a similar position. Two days later he
+received the appointment. April 9, 1797, in a letter to his stepfather,
+he refers to “these years” in Stockholm, and tells of private
+lessons in French and German which he is giving to bookkeepers
+outside of office hours. Although he registered with the Småland
+nation at Upsala December 21, 1797, and took out his certificate
+there on June 5, 1799, he seems never to have attended that university
+through an entire semester, and there is no record of the
+theological examination which he is reported to have passed on the
+former date.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that not much is definitely known, then, regarding
+his life in the years 1794-1799. It was plainly a time of poverty
+and struggle, and it is not strange that even the members of his
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>own family and his nearest friends learned little or nothing of its
+secrets from his lips. By the time he left Stockholm for Copenhagen,
+in the summer of 1799, he was able to speak French, German,
+and English,—the first of the three with especial ease—and this fact
+alone may explain the legend of extensive wanderings on the
+Continent and in England. He possessed, however, a quick mind
+and undoubted talent for language, and was a diligent and enthusiastic
+student of any subject that aroused his interest. Moreover,
+it was not necessary to leave Sweden in order to find natives of those
+countries with whom he might converse, and it now seems probable
+that he resided at first near Stockholm as private tutor and later in
+that city itself as clerk during most or all of the period in question.
+Although there is nothing impossible in the frequently repeated
+story of travel and military service in foreign parts, but very little
+direct evidence has been urged in its support.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<p>In July of 1799 Ling arrived at Copenhagen, and remained in the
+Danish capital for more than five years, until September or October
+of 1804. According to his own statement he entered the university
+there March 27, 1801. Although he was voluntarily enrolled on the
+side of the Danes when Nelson and his English fleet, by the battle
+fought in Copenhagen harbor April 2, 1801, broke up the Northern
+Alliance, the company to which he belonged was not brought into
+action on that occasion. Linguistic studies continued to engross
+his mind at first. He worked diligently in the Royal Library, took
+every opportunity to extend his knowledge by conversation with
+foreigners, and acquired complete mastery of the Danish language,
+both written and spoken. Afterwards his attention became transferred
+from language to literature. Schelling, the distinguished
+Jena professor and the favorite philosopher of the Romantic school
+of writers in Germany, was then at the height of his fame. Among
+his enthusiastic auditors had been a young Norwegian, Henrik
+Steffens, who appeared in Copenhagen in 1802, full of the new doctrines,
+and began to lecture there on philosophy and on Goethe.
+Through him Oehlenschläger, soon to be hailed as Denmark’s foremost
+poet, caught the spirit of the Romantic movement and began
+to breathe new life into the old Norse mythology, rousing in the
+breasts of his countrymen a feeling of Scandinavian nationality.
+These men introduced Ling to the treasure-house of the Eddas and
+the Northern sagas, whose gods and heroes were thenceforth never
+absent from his thought. After composing short poems in French,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>German, and Danish, and translating into Swedish the “Balders
+Död” (Balder’s Death) of Johannes Evald, the chief lyric poet of
+Denmark, he wrote himself, in Danish, a three-act comedy, <i>Den
+Misundelige</i> (The Envious Man), which was published in Copenhagen
+in 1804. Here also he conceived the plan of his later dramatic
+works, designed to set forth momentous epochs in Swedish history.
+“Eylif the Goth,” printed in Stockholm in 1814, was written at this
+period, and reveals his desire to revive in the rising generation the
+old Norse vigor.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it was the opportunity afforded for practice in a foreign
+language that first attracted Ling to the fencing school in Copenhagen
+conducted by two French <i>émigrés</i>, Beuernier and the Chevalier
+de Montrichard. For three years he continued to frequent the
+place, and made such progress that Montrichard gave him a paper
+which certified to his great skill with the foil and his ability to give
+instruction in the art. There is a story that Ling had suffered from
+gout in the arm, as one result of the privations to which he was
+constantly subjected, and finding the case much relieved by his
+fencing, was thus led to study the effects of exercise in general.
+At any rate, he visited the private gymnasium which Nachtegall
+had started in Copenhagen in the fall of 1799 (see <a href="#Page_179">page 179</a>).
+GutsMuths’s “Gymnastics for the Young” appeared in 1793 and
+Hjort’s translation into Danish six years later, and two volumes of
+Vieth’s “Encyclopedia of Bodily Exercises” were published at this
+time; but how much Ling was indebted to these German sources
+for inspiration and suggestion is purely a matter of conjecture.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the fall of 1804 he returned to Sweden, to act as substitute for
+the aged fencing-master at the University of Lund. The latter
+died shortly after his arrival, and Ling, who had applied for the
+position December 8, was appointed his successor, at a small salary.
+Writing to a Copenhagen friend December 28th he says that the
+fencing-master at a Swedish university must be able to give instruction
+in vaulting the horse, and he wishes therefore to have a good
+vaulting buck sent him. A riding-school, also, is about to be
+opened, and his assistance is wanted there. Though he has almost
+entirely lost his skill in that art he is confident that practice will
+to some extent restore it. At that time gymnastics proper was
+unknown in Sweden, but Ling soon arranged apparatus for general
+exercise, and some years later, when a new university building had
+been completed, he was allowed to use an older one for this purpose
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>and as a fencing hall.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> In 1806 he began to apply himself to the
+study of anatomy and physiology. A year later he had worked out
+a system of bayonet fencing and was practising it with his pupils.
+He seems to have won the respect and esteem of teachers and
+students alike. The new exercises became very popular, and it
+was not long before interest in his fencing method, a simplification
+of the French, and in his gymnastics as well, spread beyond the
+bounds of Lund. Invitations to introduce the double art were
+received from Gothenburg, Malmö, and Christianstad, and in the
+first and second of these cities, at least, he gave instruction repeatedly
+during the course of the long summer vacations. Thus Gothenburg
+papers of July 9 and 10, 1807, announce his presence there for six
+weeks to give instruction “in all parts of the art of fencing and in
+gymnastics;” another of July 25, 1809, informs the public that he
+will remain three months to teach fencing, gymnastics, and swimming;
+and again July 5, 1811, he gives notice that until the middle
+of August he will receive pupils in sabre and foil fencing and gymnastics.
+On the occasion of this last visit arrangements were also
+made to have him give instruction in “the art of swimming and
+other gymnastic exercises” to certain poor children of the city.</p>
+
+<p>Ling remained eight years in Lund. In 1809 he married Sofia
+Maria Rosenqvist, and a daughter, Jetta, was born April 8th of
+the following year. “Agne,” a tragedy in five acts, his most successful
+dramatic work, was printed there in 1812, and a year after his
+death was presented on the stage in Stockholm at the opening of the
+new theater. The condition of Sweden just at this time was a desperate
+one. Gustavus IV had allowed intense hatred of Napoleon
+to draw him into the great coalition of 1805 (the third, formed by
+England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden), and as a consequence
+French troops had occupied Swedish Pomerania and in 1807 had
+taken Stralsund and Rügen, the last of the Swedish possessions
+south of the Baltic. By opening his ports to English vessels the
+King next incurred the enmity of Russia, whose troops invaded and
+conquered the whole of Finland in 1808, and so deprived the Swedes
+of territory which had been theirs for centuries. Gustavus was
+meanwhile deserted by his English allies, his armies were driven
+back from Norway, and the Danes invaded the southern provinces.
+In 1809 he was dethroned, and succeeded by his uncle, Charles XIII.
+One of Ling’s poems, “Gylfe” (1810, 1812, 1816), deals with this loss
+of Finland, which the Swedes bitterly deplored, and shows how
+intense was his patriotism and his hatred of Russia. We have here
+the reason for his desire to see his countrymen strong in body and
+soul, and hence prepared to meet the enemy. This was the inspiring
+motive of his poems and his gymnastics alike, though in the latter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>he saw a means of restoring health, as well as developing the race
+and defending the fatherland. One who visited him in Lund in
+1812 refers to his enthusiasm and to the system introduced into his
+methods of instruction. During these eight years he had been
+thinking out the principles upon which his later work was based,
+seeking first of all to understand the human body and discover its
+needs, and then to select and apply his exercises intelligently, with
+these needs in view. Nachtegall, in Copenhagen, had already begun
+to train teachers of gymnastics for the army and the schools of
+Denmark, and now Ling conceived the idea of opening in Stockholm
+a central training school from which all Sweden should be supplied
+with teachers of the new art.</p>
+
+<p>With this plan in mind he went up to the capital early in 1813,
+applying first for the position of fencing-master in the Royal Military
+Academy at Karlberg, just outside the city to the northwest, and
+then, on January 29th, handing in to the recently appointed Committee
+on Education a written proposal of the new institution.
+He refers to what he has already accomplished in Lund, Malmö,
+and Gothenburg, explains his purpose in seeking to make Stockholm
+a center of influence for the physical training of the young, and asks
+government approval and support for the project. To the secretary
+of the Committee, Jakob Adlerbeth, he brought a letter of introduction
+(dated January 15, 1813) from Esaias Tegnér, at that time
+a teacher in the University at Lund, who had roused the Swedes in
+1808 by his “War Song for the Militia of Scania,” three years later
+won for himself national fame and the great prize of the Swedish
+Academy by his patriotic poem “Svea,” and was soon to receive
+worldwide recognition as the author of “Frithiofs Saga” (1825).
+Ling was already favorably known for his own literary labors, and
+appears to have been fortunate in his Stockholm quest from the
+start. He was given the Karlberg position, at a salary of 250 rix-dollars
+and lodging; the Committee received his proposal February
+1st, and the same day reported the matter to the King with its strong
+recommendation; and a royal letter of May 5th formally approved
+the plan. Ling was to receive a salary of 500 rix-dollars as director
+of the school, an annual allowance of 100 more to cover the
+rent of a room for his exercises, and a single grant of 400 rix-dollars
+for the purchase of equipment. The salary was doubled in
+1830, and before his death was raised again to 2000 rix-dollars.
+The school was opened in 1814, and at the Committee’s suggestion
+the King gave it some time later the name it still bears—The Royal
+Central Institute of Gymnastics (<i>Kongl. Gymnastiska Central-Institutet</i>).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the northern suburb Norrmalm, at what is now the corner of
+Hamn-Gatan and Beridarebans-Gatan and on the site ever since
+occupied, Ling equipped the necessary rooms—a gymnasium, a
+fencing hall, and others—in some old buildings which had once
+belonged to a cannon-foundry. Soon considerable improvements
+were possible, for in a letter dated December 13, 1815, the King
+informed the Committee that a further grant of 9800 rix-dollars
+had been made, in order to provide for the better housing of the
+Institute and its director. The next fall means were furnished
+for an assistant, and others were added from time to time until in
+1830 the personnel included, besides the director, a head teacher
+and two ordinary teachers. Lars Gabriel Branting, who had
+already been his assistant for a year at Karlberg, became second
+teacher at the Institute in 1818, and head teacher in 1830; Carl
+August Georgii was made extra teacher in 1829 and regular teacher
+six years later; and Gustav Nyblæus joined the staff as assistant
+teacher in 1838.</p>
+
+<p>Ling believed that gymnastics had a rightful place in education,
+medicine, and national defence, and almost from the start instruction
+was accordingly given in the three corresponding branches,
+educational, medical, and military gymnastics. He continued to
+teach fencing to the cadets at Karlberg until 1825, and on the 4th
+of December, 1821, was also appointed instructor in gymnastics
+and fencing at the Artillery School in Marieberg, about equally
+distant to the southwest, in the latter capacity receiving a salary of
+300 rix-dollars. In 1810 the Swedish Diet had elected Bernadotte,
+one of Napoleon’s marshals, to succeed the childless King Charles
+XIII. He assumed the title Crown Prince at once, and from 1818
+to 1844 reigned as Charles XIV. Quick to see the importance of
+Ling’s work for the army, he had officers detailed to complete the
+course at the Institute and afterwards employed to teach gymnastics
+and bayonet fencing to the rank and file. Soldiers from cavalry
+and artillery regiments in the city were also sent to the school to
+receive practical instruction in the same arts, and Branting and Ling
+were allowed to introduce them among the troops assembled in the
+various training camps. The later order giving these exercises a
+place in all Swedish regiments did not meet with a cordial reception
+at the start; but afterwards, when it was learned that French and
+Prussian soldiers were being drilled in bayonet fencing, investigation
+and comparison led to the choice of Ling’s method in preference to
+either of the others, and thus won for it a somewhat tardy recognition.
+In 1836 he published a manual of gymnastics (<i>Reglemente
+för Gymnastik</i>) and another of bayonet fencing (<i>Reglemente för
+Bajonettfäktning</i>) for use in the army, and in 1838 a small handbook
+covering both subjects (<i>Soldat-Undervisning i Gymnastik och
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>Bajonettfäktning</i>). In view of the general absence of well-equipped
+gymnasia and teachers thoroughly trained in the system he found
+it necessary to limit the exercises to simple forms, and to such as
+require little or no apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>Medical gymnastics he had begun to develop after the first year
+in Stockholm. The new ideas not unnaturally aroused much bitter
+opposition on the part of conservative physicians, but he went his
+way nevertheless, and was content to let the future determine the
+value of his method of treatment. His school gymnastics comprised
+only a few strong movements, in which the pupil himself
+and his fellows constituted the most important apparatus. Swedish
+educational gymnastics in its present form is a comparatively recent
+growth, and its introduction in the elementary schools of the state
+and in schools for girls was not brought about until long after Ling’s
+death. The first law requiring physical training in the secondary
+schools for boys was published in 1820.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of his regular duties as director and teacher, Ling’s
+literary activity was unceasing. For some years he belonged to the
+Gothic Society, organized by Tegnér in 1811, and the moral support
+of its distinguished members was of no slight assistance in the long
+struggle to win recognition for his work at the Institute and to see
+it firmly established in spite of small beginnings and scant resources.
+In 1816 he delivered public lectures on the Northern Myths. Three
+years later appeared his “Symbolism of the Eddas, for the Unlearned,”
+a prose work; and his “Asarne” (the Aesir, or Northern
+gods), including the entire mythology and ancient legendary history
+of the Scandinavian race, first published in 1816, was reissued in
+revised and more complete form in 1833, winning for him the great
+prize of the Swedish Academy. This august body of eighteen
+scholars, created by Gustavus III in 1786 after the pattern of the
+French Academy, paid him the further tribute of election to a seat
+in its midst, and he was accordingly made a member by the King in
+1835. He was also given the title Professor, and decorated with the
+Order of the North Star. A long series of dramatic and other
+poetical works was added to those already mentioned, so that his
+collected writings&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> fill three large volumes, of whose more than 2500
+pages only about 350 have to do with gymnastics.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure33" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure33.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Ling’s grave at Annelund, near Stockholm.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Ling’s first wife died in 1817, and he had previously lost two sons,
+leaving him only the daughter Jetta. About two years later he
+married Charlotta Catharina Nettelbladt (1798-1889). Of their
+seven children only five survived him, and three of these became
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>teachers of gymnastics—Hjalmar (1820-1886) and Hildur (1825-1884)
+at the Institute, and Wendla (1834-1911) both there and at
+two normal schools for women. After some years of impaired health,
+his own death occurred in 1839, on the 3d of May. He was buried
+at Annelund, a few miles north of the city, where he owned some
+property, and the grave, on a high bank overlooking Brunnsviken,
+a bay of Lake Mälaren, is now marked by a memorial stone erected
+by friends in 1848. Branting and Georgii were the men he considered
+best fitted to carry on his work. The task of arranging
+his literary remains he laid upon the latter of the two in company
+with Dr. P. J. Liedbeck (1802-1876), who had been one of his
+pupils and afterwards taught anatomy at the Institute and had
+married his daughter Jetta in 1833. The year after his death they
+accordingly published, in the incomplete and often fragmentary
+form in which he had left it, his “General Principles of Gymnastics,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>
+a treatise begun as far back as 1831. After an opening section
+devoted to the laws of the human organism, the book takes up, in
+order, the principles of educational, military, medical, and aesthetic
+gymnastics, and closes with a few pages of miscellaneous suggestions
+and comment. It is a small volume of less than 250 pages, and like
+the rest of Ling’s writings possesses little of present interest to any
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>but the student of history. As one of his successors at the Institute
+has said, his greatest service to gymnastics was the attempt to give
+it a scientific basis, and it must therefore change and develop with
+every advance in the sciences upon which it rests.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>All the earlier sketches of Ling’s life must now be viewed in the light of recent
+critical studies by Carl August Westerblad, of Upsala, and particularly his “Pehr
+Henrik Ling: en lefnadsteckning och några synpunkter” (Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt
+&amp; Söner, 1904). His later discussion of “The Ling Gymnastics in the Days of Its
+Founder” (1913) has just been mentioned in a footnote. To other articles referred
+to in footnotes should be added one by Jetta Ling Liedbeck in <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>
+<b>3</b>, 870-891 (1893), originally published in <i>Aftonbladet</i> (Stockholm) in 1852.</p>
+
+<p>Massmann’s translation of Ling’s writings, and Rothstein’s version of the Ling
+gymnastics, were spoken of on p. 123.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> E. Wrangel in <i>Lunds Universitets Årsskrift</i>, <b>9</b> (1913), Nr. 6; and Richard J.
+Cyriax in <i>Svenska Gymnastiken i In- och Utlandet</i>, <b>9</b>, 92-94 (1913).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Westerblad 1904, p. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Ibid., p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> The story appears, along with other statements unsupported or flatly contradicted
+by later investigations, in Atterbom’s address before the Swedish Academy
+May 29, 1840 (Proceedings <b>20</b>, 82-202), von Beskow’s memoir of 1859 (pp. vi and vii),
+and Georgii’s “Biographical Sketch” of 1854 (p. 2). On the contrary see Törngren
+in <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>, <b>4</b>, 415 (1896), Westerblad 1904 pp. 7-12, and Norlander in
+<i>Lunds Universitets Årsskrift</i>, <b>9</b> (1913).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> The chief authority for this Copenhagen period is E. C. Werlauff’s “Bidrag til
+P. H. Lings Biographie,” in <i>Frey: Tidskrift för Vetenskap och Kunst</i> (Upsala), 1848,
+pp. 92-105. Werlauff (1781-1871), later well known as historian and teacher in the
+University, was employed in the Royal Library at the time of Ling’s sojourn in
+Denmark and became his close friend. See also Westerblad 1904, pp. 13-21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> See Carl Norlander, “Per Henrik Lings första Gymnastik- och Fäktsal med
+dithörande redskap” (Lund, Ph. Lindstedts Univ. Bokhandel, 1908).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Kungl. Gymnastiska Centralinstitutets Historia 1813-1913. Med Anledning
+av Institutets Hundraårsdag utgiven af dess Lärarekollegium. Stockholm, P. A.
+Norstedt &amp; Söner, 1913.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Samlade Arbeten af P. H. Ling. Utgifne under ledning af Bernhard von Beskow.
+Stockholm, Adolf Bonnier, 1859-1866. Pp. 433-786 of vol. <b>3</b> were also published
+separately, under the title “P. H. Lings Gymnastiska Skrifter. Aftryck ur Lings
+Samlade Arbeten” (Stockholm, Adolf Bonnier, 1866).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Gymnastikens allmänna Grunder af Ling, dels af Författaren, dels enligt dess
+yttersta vilja, efter dess död, redigerade och på trycket utgifna. Upsala, Leffler &amp;
+Sebell, 1840. On Ling’s writings see Kåre Teilnann, “Lings Gymnastik og dens
+udvikling,” in <i>Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift</i> 1912 (Copenhagen, H. Hagerup, 1913),
+pp. 65-134; C. A. Westerblad, “Den Lingska Gymnastiken i dess upphofsmans
+dagar” (Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner, 1913); and also Dr. E. M. Hartwell in
+the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> <b>1</b> (1896), 1-13 (Reprinted in Report of the
+United States Commissioner of Education for the year 1898-99, <b>1</b>, pp. 539-546).</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">LING’S SUCCESSORS AT THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE IN STOCKHOLM.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp60" id="figure34" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure34.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Lars Gabriel Branting (1799-1881).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Immediately after Ling’s death, and in accordance with his
+wishes, <i>Branting</i> was appointed Director in his stead, and retained
+the position for twenty-three years (1839-1862). Born July 16,
+1799, he had grown up a weak and sickly boy, and in the very first
+year of the Institute had been sent to Ling for treatment by means
+of medical gymnastics. Improvement was rapid, and the master
+was so impressed with the evident talent of his young patient that
+he offered to train him as a teacher of the art. Thenceforth the
+relation between the two resembled that of father and son. For
+several years Branting was a student at the Karolinska Mediko-Kirurgiska
+Institut (the largest medical college in Sweden) and
+attended clinics in the Serafimer-Lazarett (hospital), receiving
+instruction in chemistry under Berzelius, and showing such a
+fondness for anatomy and physiology that A. A. Retzius bore
+witness to his skill in the former subject. He learned to speak
+German, French, and English fluently, and travelled repeatedly in
+Germany and Austria. For more than twenty years he had been a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>member of the teaching staff at the Institute, under Ling, assisting
+the latter with his fencing at Karlberg and Marieberg, successfully
+introducing gymnastics among the girls at the large Hillska School,
+just outside the city, where he became teacher of gymnastics and
+music in 1831, and applying himself with marked enthusiasm to
+medical gymnastics. Ling gave him the first place among all his
+pupils, and turned over to him gradually a large share of the responsibility
+for both theoretical and practical instruction.</p>
+
+<p>As director, Branting devoted himself chiefly to the development
+of medical gymnastics in accordance with the theories of his predecessor,
+and brought that branch to a high degree of perfection. He
+insisted that the beneficial effects are due not alone to changes
+produced in the muscular system, but mainly to the influence exerted
+upon the nerves and bloodvessels—a novel view at that time. He
+also elaborated a rich store of gymnastic material, and worked out a
+terminology which with a few changes is still generally employed
+in Sweden. It was at this period, too, that the work of the Institute
+began to awaken interest in other countries. As we have seen
+(<a href="#Page_122">pp. 122 and 123</a>), two Prussian army officers, Lieutenants Rothstein
+and Techow, were sent to Stockholm to take the regular course of
+instruction in 1845-1846, and Rothstein afterwards wrote extensively
+on the Ling gymnastics and in 1851 became the first director of the
+Berlin “Central-Institute,” founded on the pattern of the Swedish
+school but without its department of medical gymnastics. Many
+other foreigners came for visits of varying duration, and physicians,
+especially, were attracted by the new system, among them Drs.
+Eulenburg and Neumann of Prussia, Melichor of Vienna, and
+Mathias Roth of London. Branting was made a knight of the
+orders of the North Star and the Red Eagle (Prussian) in 1847 and
+of St. Olaf and Dannebrog (Danish) in 1855, and in 1873 Commander
+of the Order of Vasa. After retiring from the position of Director
+in 1862 he was still actively engaged in the practice of his profession
+until his death, March 27, 1881.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> During his term of office the staff
+of instruction was enlarged, provision having been made for one
+additional teacher in 1841, and for two more, a man and a woman,
+in 1848. Some of these teachers deserve particular mention.
+<i>Carl August Georgii</i> (1808-1881), trained at the Karlberg Military
+Academy and made lieutenant in the army in 1836, had entered
+upon his service at the Institute ten years before Ling’s death, was
+chosen by the latter to edit and publish, with Dr. Liedbeck, his
+“General Principles of Gymnastics,” and in 1859 married the oldest
+daughter of Liedbeck and Jetta Ling. He became head teacher in
+1839, giving instruction in anatomy and in the three branches of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>practical gymnastics. In 1846 he went to Paris to introduce the
+Swedish system, and the next year published in French a treatise
+on the Ling method of kinesitherapy and physical education. Two
+years later, in 1849, he withdrew from his Stockholm position and
+removed to London, where for twenty-eight years he presided over
+a private institution, giving lessons in fencing and conducting
+school gymnastics in addition to his medical work. His published
+writings in England include “Kinesipathy” (1850), a biographical
+sketch of Ling (1854), a lecture on “Rational Gymnastics” (1873),
+and “Kinetic Jottings” (1881). The last four years of his life were
+spent in Stockholm.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The first woman to be regularly appointed as
+teacher at the Institute was <i>Gustafra Lindskog</i> (1790-1851), in 1848,
+and at her death she was succeeded by Ling’s daughter Hildur
+(1825-1884). Besides assisting in medical gymnastics they both
+devoted a portion of their time to the physical training of school
+girls. Two other teachers, Hjalmar Ling and T. J. Hartelius, who
+began their activity during this period, will be referred to again at
+some length farther on.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp60" id="figure35" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure35.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Gustaf Nyblæus (1816-1902).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Branting’s successor was Col. <i>Gustav Nyblæus</i> (1816-1902), who
+filled the position of director for twenty-five years, from 1862 until
+1887. He was trained as an officer in the army, and had been added
+to the staff of instruction at the Institute during the last year of
+Ling’s life. The school, which had hitherto been under the control
+of the Stockholm educational authorities, was now given its own
+board of directors, appointed by the King; the length of the course
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>was increased from one year to two years of six months each (October
+1 to April 1), and a regular course for women was opened; and the
+royal statutes of January 8, 1864, reorganized it into three sections,
+the pedagogical or educational, the military, and the medical, each
+with a head teacher and a second teacher. Provision was also made
+for extra teachers, both men and women, and a sum of over 167,000
+rix-dollars was granted in 1863 for remodelling and adding to the
+buildings. Nyblæus himself became the head teacher in the section
+of military gymnastics, and the corresponding positions in the other
+sections were given to Ling’s son Hjalmar, in school gymnastics,
+and to Hartelius in medical gymnastics. Nyblæus visited at various
+times other European countries to study the systems of physical
+training employed in their schools&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> and armies, and published
+several manuals of fencing for use at the Institute and in the Swedish
+army, and others of gymnastics and military exercises to meet the
+needs of teachers in elementary schools.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Truls Johan Hartelius</i> (1818-1896) had taken the course at the
+Institute in the year 1851-1852, and began to give instruction there
+immediately after his graduation. He afterwards completed a
+course in medicine, became a regularly qualified physician, and held
+the position of head teacher in medical gymnastics from 1864 until
+1887. Finding no text-books suitable for his classes, he prepared
+small manuals of anatomy, physiology and histology, and hygiene,
+and wrote a larger work on medical gymnastics which was translated
+into German, French, and English. When the corps of teachers
+decided to start a semi-annual periodical devoted to gymnastics in
+all its phases and therefore began the publication of the <i>Tidskrift
+i Gymnastik</i>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> in 1874, Hartelius undertook the editorship, and for
+fifteen years served in this capacity, contributing many articles on
+his own and related subjects and important biographical sketches
+of fellow workers along similar lines.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p>To <i>Hjalmar Fredrik Ling</i> (1820-1886) Swedish educational
+gymnastics is largely indebted for its present form, and the school
+gymnasium for the nature and arrangement of the equipment now
+in common use. He also made it possible to introduce physical
+training generally in the elementary schools and in schools for girls.
+The only surviving son of Per Henrik Ling, he was born in Stockholm,
+April 14, 1820, received an education equivalent to that given
+in the Swedish secondary schools, completed the course at the
+Institute (1842), and was installed as teacher there in 1843, devoting
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span>himself to educational and medical gymnastics under Branting’s
+direction, and studying anatomy with Dr. Liedbeck. In 1854 at
+Georgii’s suggestion he went to Paris to spend the better part of a
+year in study there, paying particular attention to anatomy, both
+human and comparative, but attending also Claude Bernard’s
+lectures on experimental physiology and the clinics at the Hôtel
+Dieu, and meanwhile acquiring a thorough knowledge of the French
+language and literature. During this same period he also paid two
+long visits to Berlin, to assist in introducing the Swedish method
+of medical gymnastics at the institutions of Drs. Eulenburg and
+Neumann, and took advantage of the opportunity to familiarize
+himself with the German language. From Paris he returned to
+Stockholm, became head teacher under Branting in 1858, and upon
+the reorganization of the course in 1864 was placed at the head of the
+section of school gymnastics. This position he continued to fill for
+eighteen years, until his retirement on a pension in September of
+1882. For some years he was also in charge of the physical training
+in one of the city’s higher schools for boys (the Nya Elementarskola).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure36" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure36.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Hjalmar Fredrik Ling (1820-1886).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Following closely the ideas of his father, and with the sole thought
+of completing the latter’s work, he devised new forms of apparatus
+adapted to the needs of the school and so arranged them that large
+numbers could exercise at the same time, in this way greatly increasing
+the number of useful exercises and bringing them all within the
+reach of every pupil. Then collecting a mass of gymnastic material
+he selected the most suitable exercises and arranged them in groups
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>according to the effects produced upon the individual, providing
+further an orderly progression in each group, and combining these
+into a complete lesson-scheme—the original “day’s order.” It was
+now possible to assign to different ages and degrees of ability, and
+to the two sexes, the appropriate material from the graded series of
+exercises, so that the benefits of gymnastics could be extended to
+girls and younger boys.</p>
+
+<p>Hjalmar Ling published two pamphlets&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> intended primarily as
+guides for his students at the Central Institute, and in 1866 a work
+on kinesiology (<i>Rörelselära</i>) or the science of bodily movements.
+He also assisted Hartelius with the <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i> and for
+ten years (1874-1883) was one of its associate editors and a frequent
+contributor. Although not a clear writer, he was a deep thinker
+and an industrious compiler, familiar with the whole range of
+gymnastic literature,—German, French, and English—as a glance
+at the pamphlets just mentioned will show. He left behind a
+carefully arranged collection of nearly two thousand pen-drawings
+of positions and movements used in gymnastics, made by himself.
+These are preserved in the library of the school, and about a quarter
+of the entire number appear in a book&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> since published with the help
+of a gift from Mrs. Mary Hemenway, the founder of the Boston
+Normal School of Gymnastics. The younger Ling died March 9,
+1886, and was buried near his father at Annelund.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> He sought
+first of all to analyze the conditions of school life and the needs of
+the growing child, and then to devise forms of exercise, to select,
+invent, and arrange apparatus, and to elaborate a lesson plan which
+should meet these conditions and needs efficiently and with the
+greatest economy of time and effort. Opinions may differ as to the
+merits of particular details in the system he helped to perfect, but
+his method of approach to the problem deserves ungrudging commendation.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure37" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure37.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Lars Mauritz Törngren (1839-1912).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The head teachership in school gymnastics left vacant in 1882
+was filled by the promotion of Captain <i>Lars Mauritz Törngren</i>
+(1839-1912), at that time second teacher in the same section and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>an officer in the navy; and he was further advanced to the position
+of director upon the retirement of Nyblæus in 1887. A third year
+(medical gymnastics only) was now added to the course, the school
+year was lengthened, and other minor changes were made. In 1894
+a grant of 80,000 kronor made possible improved facilities for
+instruction and practice. Among Professor Törngren’s earlier
+writings had been a book on school games (<i>Fria Lekar</i>, Stockholm,
+1879; 2d ed., 1880), the fruit of a visit to England in 1877, and an
+official manual of gymnastics for the Swedish navy (1878; 2d ed.,
+1879). <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i> for 1890 (<b>3</b>: 145-195) contains
+further observations on physical education in English public schools,
+based on a second visit in 1889. In the spring of 1893 he came to the
+United States, and was present at the department Congress of
+Physical Education and the eighth annual meeting of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education held in
+Chicago in July of that year. He was on the editorial staff of the
+<i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i> from its beginning in 1874, assuming more
+direct responsibility after Hartelius withdrew in 1888, and revised
+and reissued the pamphlets (<i>Tabeller</i> and <i>Tillägg</i>) prepared by
+Hjalmar Ling. His last and most important book was a manual
+of gymnastics&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> for use in institutions which train teachers for the
+elementary schools. Major <i>Carl Silow</i> (1846-), second teacher
+in the section of school gymnastics 1883-1906, was very active and
+successful in the work of his department and made further improvements
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>in the construction and arrangement of apparatus. The
+official handbook of gymnastics for the Swedish army and navy
+published in 1902&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> is largely his work. For careful arrangement
+of material, detailed treatment of the different exercises, and clearness
+and beauty of the illustrations it is probably the most satisfactory
+manual of gymnastics yet issued anywhere.</p>
+
+<p>Törngren was succeeded as director by Col. <i>Viktor Gustav Balck</i>
+(1844-) in 1907, and two years later retired from his position
+as head teacher in the section of school gymnastics. Balck, who in
+turn gave place to Major <i>Nils Fredrik Sellén</i> in 1909, had been
+head teacher of military gymnastics since 1887, following Nyblæus.
+He has been an ardent advocate of outdoor and other sports for
+young and old, organizing societies for their promotion, editing a
+series of a dozen volumes devoted to the various forms,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> and founding
+in 1881 the <i>Tidning för Idrott</i> (Sporting Times). He has also done
+much to promote the formation and spread of popular gymnastic
+societies, and to make Swedish gymnastics known in other countries.
+With this object in view he accompanied squads of fellow countrymen
+to <i>Turnfeste</i> at Brussels in 1877 and 1880, and in Paris in 1889
+and 1900. Exhibitions were also given in London, Copenhagen,
+and Berlin, in connection with these trips. Together with Major
+Silow and other teachers he was a member of the committee which
+prepared the new handbook of gymnastics for the Swedish army and
+navy.</p>
+
+<h4>THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE IN 1900</h4>
+
+<p>The influence of the system of school gymnastics perfected by
+Hjalmar Ling and his associates and successors in the Central
+Institute at Stockholm began to be felt abroad, in Europe and
+America, in the years just preceding and following the appointment
+of Törngren as director. For this reason, as well as its age and
+intrinsic merits, a description of the institution as it was in the fall
+of 1900, based on first-hand studies&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> deserves a place here.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure38" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure38.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—The Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Leaving behind him the cluster of rocky islands which once held
+all there was of Stockholm, and passing north on the mainland
+through one of the linden-bordered promenades of the “King’s
+Garden,” the visitor soon reaches Hamn-Gatan, its farther limit.
+If he turn to the left along this busy thoroughfare his eye will be
+caught by a steep hill just ahead, and at its summit a slight bend
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>of the street to the right reveals on the south side a low and very
+plain two-story building constructed, like most of its neighbors, of
+large bricks coated with plaster over the entire free surface, and
+painted a weather-worn buff. From the crest of this hill the ground
+is seen to fall away rapidly on the other side, so that the building
+gains an additional story at its corner on Beridarebans-Gatan.
+The north front stretches for about two hundred feet along Hamn-Gatan.
+Beridarebans-Gatan crosses this street obliquely, the two
+forming an acute angle in which the property of the Institute lies.
+This explains its unsymmetrical arrangement; for half way down the
+Beridarebans-Gatan side, which measures about 240 feet, a building
+forty feet wide has been carried in at right angles to that street.
+Near the center of the Hamn-Gatan front is a large archway, and
+over this in raised gilt letters are the words “<i>Kongl. Gymnastika
+Central-Institutet</i>.” It leads into a triangular paved court (A)
+surrounded by plain structures of plastered brick, and a second
+archway, bisecting the opposite side of this court, communicates
+with a gravelled yard (B) at the rear. The director and some of the
+other teachers make their homes in the three-story sections C and
+D, which also contain servants’ quarters and on the ground floor a
+few dressing-rooms. The lower story of E is devoted to medical
+gymnastics for free patients, and overhead are the library (remarkably
+rich in the older literature of physical training) and a reading
+room, two lecture rooms, and others for student use and for the
+storage of anatomical collections and the like. A hallway starting
+from the east angle of the court opens into the men’s dressing room
+(F), with shower baths adjoining. G and H, two stories in height,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>contain on the ground floor large halls equipped for school gymnastics
+and fencing, and above these two other halls intended for patients
+who pay for treatment by medical gymnastics, and employed also
+for school gymnastics and as classrooms. There is a small one-story
+building (I) for practical exercises in anatomy, and opposite
+this in the yard is a low shed (J) about 80 by 30 feet, with
+corrugated iron roof and smooth concrete floor, supplied with a
+variety of gymnastic apparatus. It is open except on the street side.
+In the narrow rooms marked KK the schoolboys who receive their
+physical training at the Institute store their slippers and hang up
+coats and caps.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure39" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure39.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—The Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics. (Diagram showing
+    arrangement of rooms).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The general control is vested in a Board appointed by the King
+and composed of a president and three other members, of whom
+one must belong to the army or navy, one must be a teacher (<i>skolman</i>),
+and one a physician. The corps of instruction includes a
+head teacher and a second teacher in each of the three departments,
+the hygienic or educational, the military, and the medical; two
+women teachers, one of them in hygienic and the other in medical
+gymnastics; and extra teachers, both men and women, as these
+are required—a total of fifteen persons in 1900-1901. The royal
+statutes provide that all who give instruction at the school must be
+graduates from its courses. From among the head teachers the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>King selects one to act as director of the Institute, in immediate
+charge of the buildings and their contents and of the work that goes
+on in the halls and classrooms. This appointment is for five years,
+and is renewable.</p>
+
+<p>The school year, divided into a fall and a spring semester, begins
+on the 15th of September and closes on the 25th of May, with an
+intermission of two weeks at Christmas time. For male pupils
+three courses are offered. The “Instructor’s Course,” extending
+through a single school year, gives the one who completes it the right
+to teach gymnastics in the elementary schools (<i>folkskolor</i>) or in one
+of the lower (five-year) secondary schools (<i>lägre allmänna läroverk</i>).
+In the “Gymnastic Teacher’s Course” a second year is added,
+and the graduate is eligible to a position as teacher of gymnastics
+in any public educational institution, civil or military, in the country.
+The course in medical gymnastics, leading to the title “Gymnastic
+Director,” requires still another year of study and practice, although
+for students of medicine the prescribed work may be shortened.
+No person, unless he is himself a physician, is allowed to give treatment
+by means of medical gymnastics in Sweden except in cases
+where a duly authorized physician has prescribed it in writing.
+Young women can complete both the gymnastic teacher’s course and
+that in medical gymnastics in two years, on account of the smaller
+range of practical exercises to be covered.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure40" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure40.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Students (men) at the Stockholm Central Institute in 1900-1901.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The men in attendance are for the most part young army and navy
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>officers who have received orders to take the course. The balance
+consists of non-commissioned officers in the army and of young men
+in civil life. All must have passed such an examination as would entitle
+them to admission into one of the national universities; they
+must also possess a sound constitution and some aptitude for gymnastic
+exercises, and for all but physicians the age limit is thirty years.
+Young women must present certificates which would allow them to
+enter the national Higher Normal School for Women. There are
+no charges for tuition in any of the courses, and foreigners are
+admitted to them within certain limits. The total number of men
+present at any one time is commonly about sixty, and the women,
+formerly not half so numerous, are now rapidly approaching the
+same figure. During the autumn of 1900 there were in the student
+body two men from Greece and one each from Norway, Denmark,
+Finland, and the United States, while Russia, Holland, and England
+were represented among the women.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure41" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure41.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Class of Women Students at the Stockholm Central Institute.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure42" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure42.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Class of Schoolboys at the Stockholm Central Institute.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Work begins on Monday morning and continues through Saturday
+afternoon, as in other Swedish schools, for Sunday is the only holiday.
+The theoretical courses come at nine and at one o’clock, and the
+practical courses at seven, eleven, and two. At ten o’clock three
+hundred boys from the New Elementary School (it is a higher school,
+in spite of the name) visit the Institute to receive their gymnastic
+lesson in three of the large halls, affording material for practice in
+teaching, and further opportunity is given at three, when two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>hundred more arrive from the Jakobs Secondary School. The
+hours from eight to nine and twelve to one are free, and there are no
+exercises after four o’clock. The theoretical courses of the first-year
+men include: (1) Lectures and recitations on the anatomy of
+the bones, ligaments, and muscles (three times a week through the
+year); (2) the physiology of the circulation and of the organs of
+nutrition, including respiration (twice a week during the second
+semester); (3) the theory of school gymnastics, covering the discussion
+of the various positions and movements, the commands employed
+and the common faults observed, the arrangement of exercises
+in a lesson, and progression in each lesson and from day to day
+(twice a week through the year); (4) military gymnastics (twice a
+week during the first semester), and (5) the theory of fencing (twice
+a week through the year). There is one hour of practical instruction
+each day in school gymnastics, another in fencing with foils, and a
+third in fencing with saber and bayonet, together with daily practice
+in teaching under the supervision of the director and members of
+his staff. The five hundred boys who come to the Institute meet
+in the various halls according to school grade, and the hundred or
+so in each room are subdivided into a half-dozen squads, which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>exercise separately under the direction of first-year students during
+part of the lesson and are watched and corrected by them when the
+whole roomful is receiving commands from a single leader.</p>
+
+<p>The theoretical courses of the second year include (1) the study
+of anatomy three hours a week in the lecture room, and in addition
+two exercises a week in the dissecting room during a large part of the
+year; (2) two lectures a week on the physiology of the blood, the
+circulation, respiration, digestion, and excretion; (3) lectures on
+kinesiology or the theory of bodily movements (twice a week);
+(4) the theory of school gymnastics (twice a week); and (5) instruction
+and practice in the forms of treatment employed in medical
+gymnastics, followed by special study of the class of cases likely to
+be met with in the schools. The practical work, besides that just
+mentioned, again covers the branches of school gymnastics, fencing
+with foils, fencing with saber and bayonet, and actual teaching, the
+students in the two years meeting in each case at the same hour and
+in the same rooms. In the hour devoted to school or hygienic
+gymnastics, however, the division of the class into two sections for
+exercises in hanging and climbing and in jumping and vaulting
+allows some difference to be made in the work of the two years; and
+in the fencing, where the men are grouped in squads, the work of
+each corresponds with the stage of progress reached by its members,
+and the second-year students also meet twice a week by themselves,
+in the presence of their instructors, for practise in free fencing.
+Each man is now required to take his turn at directing one of the
+classes of a hundred or more schoolboys for a week at a time, making
+out his own “day’s order” for the opening exercises, in which the
+entire class work as a unit, then supervising the exercises of the different
+squads, and handling the whole number again during the
+marching and running. One of the instructors at the Institute is
+always present, but the student assumes all the responsibility of
+leadership for the time being. The second-year man is also called
+upon to give individual instruction in foil fencing twice a week to
+men of the lower class, as assistant to the regular instructor, and a
+somewhat similar plan is followed in the courses in saber and bayonet
+fencing. Though swimming is not included in the curriculum, no
+one can receive a certificate as graduate from the “Gymnastic
+Teacher’s Course” without furnishing evidence that he possesses a
+satisfactory degree of skill in that art.</p>
+
+<p>Third-year pupils attend lectures six times a week in anatomy,
+the physiology of the muscles and the nervous system, and
+pathology, are further instructed in the theory and practice of medical
+gymnastics, and assist in giving treatment to patients who visit
+the Institute. Women in both courses receive separate instruction
+throughout, for there is no such thing as coeducation at the school.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>Their theoretical work includes anatomy, physiology, the theory
+of bodily movements and of pedagogical gymnastics, medical
+gymnastics, and pathology; and there is practise in pedagogical
+and medical gymnastics, and opportunity to teach gymnastics daily,
+under supervision, at one or the other of two private schools.</p>
+
+<h4>PROPOSED REORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL INSTITUTE (1912).</h4>
+
+<p>On April 8, 1910, the King of Sweden appointed a special committee
+to consider plans for the reorganization of the Royal Central
+Institute of Gymnastics, and the provision of a new site and buildings.
+Their report,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> dated March 7, 1912, recommends numerous
+radical and far-reaching changes in the venerable institution, and
+would substitute civilian for military teachers of gymnastics in the
+great majority of Swedish secondary schools. As was to be expected,
+it has called out much discussion on either side. Whatever the outcome
+may be, the document remains a memorable study of every
+public aspect of physical education, and the committee has rendered
+a service of the very highest value, not only to the Swedes, but to all
+who are confronted by the problem of training teachers for the
+physical education of the people.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i> <b>1</b>, 931-941 (1881).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>, <b>1</b>, 989-999 (1881).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> See <a href="#Page_117">page 117</a> for his visit to Adolf Spiess at the Darmstadt <i>Turnanstalt</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>, <b>5</b>, 680-687 (1904).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> Tidskrift i Gymnastik. Utgiven af Svenska Gymnastikläraresällskapet. Stockholm,
+P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner. Two numbers a year through 1904, and four numbers
+a year since 1905. Organ of the Swedish Association of Teachers of Gymnastics.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>, <b>4</b>, 449-455 (1896).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Tabeller för Gymnastiska Central-Institutets Lärokurs (och för “friskrotar”
+af vuxne). The first (1866), second (——), third (1869), and fourth (1876) editions
+are by Hjalmar Ling. A fifth (1888) and sixth (1897) were edited by L. M. Törngren.</p>
+
+<p>Tillägg vid användningen af de Tabeller hvilka varit begagnade för Gymnastiska
+Centralinstitutets pedagogiska lärokurs. The first (1869), second (1871), and third
+(1880) editions are by Hjalmar Ling. The fourth (1894) was edited by L. M.
+Törngren.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> En Samling Gymnastiska Ställningar och Rörelseformer, utgifven af Kungl.
+Gymnastiska Centralinstitutet i Stockholm. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner,
+1893. An English edition bears the title-page: “A Collection of Gymnastic Positions.
+Issued by the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, Stockholm. Stockholm:
+Royal Print, P. A. Norstedt &amp; Sons, 1893.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>, <b>3</b>, 365-367; <b>6</b>, 891-903, 950-952. <i>Gymnastik Selskabs
+Aarsskrift</i> (Copenhagen) 1912, pp. 93-134.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> Lärobok i Gymnastik för Folksskollärare- och Folksskollärarinneseminarier.
+Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner, 1905. A German translation (“Lehrbuch der
+schwedischen Gymnastik”) by G. A. Schairer was published in 1908 (Esslingen a.
+N., Wilh. Langguth).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Handbok i Gymnastik för Arméen och Flottan, utgifven på nådigste befallning.
+Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner, 1902. Two volumes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Illustreradt Bibliotek för Idrott. Stockholm, C. E. Fritze.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> During three months, from September 17 to December 15, 1900, the writer was
+a student at the Central Institute, in almost daily attendance at some of its classes
+and a frequent visitor at others. A more detailed description was published in the
+<i>American Physical Education Review</i> (<b>5</b>, 301-311) for December, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> Underdånigt Utlåtande och Förslag angående Omorganisation af Gymnastiska
+Centralinstitutet äfvensom rörande anskaffande af nya lokaler för detsamma. Stockholm,
+Ivar Hæggström, 1912.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> A brief summary of the report is contained in the <i>American Physical Education
+Review</i> (<b>19</b>, 192-199) for March, 1914.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS OF SWEDEN.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In Sweden, as in Germany,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> there are two types of public schools,
+the elementary, common, or <i>folkskola</i> (people’s school), and the
+secondary, or <i>allmänna läroverk</i>, corresponding in general to the
+German <i>Gymnasium</i> and <i>Realschule</i> and the French <i>lycée</i>. An
+American college student at the end of his sophomore year has received
+an education roughly equivalent to that of the graduate from a
+Swedish <i>allmänna läroverk</i>. In the matter of equipment, organization,
+and method there is such uniformity throughout Sweden that
+if allowance is made for less favorable conditions in smaller cities
+and in country regions a fairly accurate, and more definite conception
+of physical training in the schools will be obtained by
+confining attention to Stockholm, the capital and largest city.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> It
+will be convenient to consider, in order, the <i>folkskola</i>, the <i>allmänna
+läroverk</i>, the higher schools for girls, and private schools.</p>
+
+<p>Of the more than 35,000 children of school age in Stockholm over
+three-fourths attend the thirty <i>folkskolor</i>. These are grouped in
+eight school systems, corresponding to the parishes or districts into
+which the city is divided, and at the head of every such system is
+placed a “first teacher.” The different grades in a single building
+are cut up into parallel sections, so that the average number of
+children under one teacher does not exceed 35. The great
+Kungsholms <i>folkskola</i>, intended to accommodate 3,500-4,000
+children, and one of the largest school buildings in the world, is in
+many ways typical of them all, in spite of its greater size. It consists
+of two L-shaped portions, each four stories high with a basement,
+their long arms forming the opposite ends of a rectangular
+gravelled yard and separating this from the street, and their short
+arms turned toward each other on one side of the yard. At the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span>center of this third side is an archway, flanked by one-story structures
+which contain offices and the janitor’s quarters. Next to
+these the loftier gymnastic halls complete the front by joining on to
+the ells. The area of the yard is not far from one and a half acres.
+The classrooms, ninety-four in number, occupy the entire street
+side of the building, and open into long corridors which look out
+upon the central yard and lead down into it. On every floor drinking
+fountains and stationary washbowls supplied with hot and cold
+water are distributed at frequent intervals along these passage-ways.
+Besides the recitation rooms there are eight larger halls for
+pasteboard, wood, and metal sloyd and the sewing classes; three
+rooms for the use of cooking schools; two gymnasia; two bathing
+outfits, which include dressing-rooms, a hot-air chamber, shower
+baths, and a pool seven by fourteen feet; steam disinfection apparatus,
+laundry and drying rooms; dining rooms, and counters where
+milk and bread are sold to the children; the living apartments of the
+First Teacher, and a room for the use of other teachers; offices,
+and janitor’s quarters. The old wing is heated by steam and the
+newer one by hot air. The total cost, exclusive of the site, was over
+$200,000.</p>
+
+<p>In the classrooms of this building the single desks are arranged one
+behind the other so as to leave aisles between adjacent rows and next
+to the wall at the sides and rear. Space is thus afforded for simple
+marching exercises and for others which either require no apparatus
+or may be practised with the help of desks and seats. The two halls
+set apart for gymnastics measure about 55 by 25 feet, and
+have a height considerable greater than that of the other
+rooms. Their side walls are lined with stallbars, and the floor
+space is divided crosswise into three nearly equal parts by two pairs
+of Swedish horizontal bars, when these are set up; but the bars and
+central post of each pair can be dropped below the floor and concealed
+from view by trapdoors when not in use, and then the entire
+area from wall to wall is left free. The remaining equipment
+includes Swedish ladders, climbing poles, ropes and rope-ladders
+hanging from the ceiling, long benches for use at the stallbars, and
+bucks for vaulting exercises. Each of the other school districts
+has also its special room or rooms for gymnastic instruction.</p>
+
+<p>The three lower classes of the various <i>folkskolor</i> have marching
+and other exercises without apparatus daily, in the schoolroom,
+the work alternating with other instruction and directed by the
+same teacher. In the case of higher classes special periods, three
+a week as a rule, are set apart for the gymnastic lesson, and this is
+given sometimes in the schoolroom, utilizing the desks and seats as
+apparatus, but at least once a week in the gymnasium, where its
+duration is commonly about half an hour. Little or no change of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>costume is attempted, beyond the laying off of coats by the boys.
+The school report for 1898 relates that “since many of the children
+wear wooden shoes, unsuitable for the gymnastic lesson, four hundred
+pairs of special shoes were bought and distributed among the
+districts for use in the gymnasia.”</p>
+
+<p>As regards teachers in the <i>folkskolor</i>, the women outnumber the
+men five to one. All must have completed a four-years’ course at
+one of the twelve Swedish training colleges for this grade of instructors,
+and of that course gymnastics everywhere forms a part, directed
+by a graduate of the Central Institute at Stockholm and occupying
+three hours a week throughout the entire four years. There is
+always a model school attached, which affords the future teacher
+an opportunity to test his skill and to acquire experience in this as
+well as other branches of instruction. In Stockholm teachers
+receive additional counsel and direction from a special instructor
+in gymnastics, who divides his time among all the <i>folkskolor</i> in the
+different districts; but the general guide followed is C. H. Liedbeck’s
+Manual of Gymnastics.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> Besides the formal exercises this book
+contains a large number of games. These are introduced occasionally
+as part of the gymnastic lesson, and are also encouraged in the
+schoolyards during recess. Of the twenty-eight tables of exercises
+contained in the manual only six call for no apparatus of any sort,
+six can be given with nothing more than desks and seats, and the
+balance require a hall supplied with stallbars, Swedish horizontal
+bars, poles, ropes, ladders, benches, mats, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Instruction in military tactics and target shooting is given to the
+older boys in the spring and early fall, under the general direction
+of an army officer who is assigned to this service in all the elementary
+schools of the city. There is drill by squads in exercises for the
+recruit, together with occasional company drill, a few longer marches
+in battalion, and training as subalterns for the most advanced.
+During the summer months pupils may also receive instruction in
+swimming, at a large swimming school in Lake Mälaren, near one
+of the city bridges. Over 3000 boys and 2500 girls availed themselves
+of this privilege in 1899, and a total of 6000 in 1900. The
+number of these who could swim increased in the former year from
+602 at the beginning of the season to 1510 at its close.</p>
+
+<p>There are seven <i>higher schools</i> for boys at Stockholm. At two of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>these the gymnasium is a separate building of brick, located at one
+side of a gravelled yard at least an acre and a half in extent. Each
+cost about $17,000 and consists of a lofty main hall, eighty by forty
+or forty-five feet, with a wing containing dressing-rooms, the
+teacher’s office, and a few shower baths. At a third school the
+gymnasium occupies a spacious two-story wing which projects from
+the rear of the main building; in two other cases a hall in the main
+building is fitted up for gymnastics, and pupils in the remaining two
+schools go for their exercises to the halls of the Central Institute.
+The following list of apparatus noticed in the gymnasium of the
+Realläroverk (a non-classical higher school for boys) is fairly
+representative: Sixty sections of stallbars, seven Swedish horizontal
+bars, two vertical Swedish ladders and two horizontal ones,
+eight rope ladders, twenty-four climbing ropes and eight poles,
+two double inclined ropes, a few sections of stallbars continued to
+the ceiling as ladders, storming boards and short benches for use with
+stallbars, bar saddles, two Swedish horses, two vaulting boxes, two
+bucks, jump stands with cord and pins, some thin mats about four
+feet by three, and a number of cheap fencing foils. The horizontal
+bars are arranged to drop beneath the floor. The inclined ropes are
+attached to the ceiling at either end, and to a hook beneath the
+floor, when in use, by means of a tackle block at the center. Near
+the ends they are crossed by vertical ropes, used by the pupils in
+reaching or leaving the inclined ropes. All of these ropes can be
+hoisted out of the way readily, and a small trap door conceals the
+hook.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure43" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure43.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Rear View of a Higher School for Boys (<i>Norra Latinläroverket</i>) in Stockholm.
+    (The gymnasium occupies the lower half of the projection in the foreground).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The royal statutes require that in every public secondary school
+in Sweden there shall be at least three hours a week of pedagogical
+gymnastics, arranged in daily half-hour periods when possible. In
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>Stockholm the division into half-hour lessons is the most common one.
+Less frequently there are three periods of an hour each, and in a few
+cases a class meets twice for a half-hour and twice for an hour, or
+fifty minutes four times a week, or forty minutes six times, or in
+four one-hour periods. In a majority of cases the time chosen for
+exercise lies between ten and one o’clock, though the hours from
+two to four in the afternoon are used not infrequently. Military
+exercises take the place of gymnastics for boys of the sixth to ninth
+years in the early part of every fall semester, occupying three hours
+daily for twenty days as a rule, and during this period their usual
+school duties are cut down by a corresponding amount. Each of the
+seven schools has its special teacher of gymnastics, and no one is
+eligible to such a position until he has completed a two-years’
+professional course at the Central Institute of Gymnastics. In the
+fall of 1900 these teachers and their assistants were all officers in the
+army, and five of the nine were on the staff of instruction at the
+Institute. One had the rank of major, and the rest were captains
+and lieutenants.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally a “weak section” is formed of boys selected from the
+whole or part of the school, but in general the division into classes
+is based upon school grade, the boys of the sixth to ninth years
+exercising together as a rule, and the rest variously subdivided
+according to their numbers. The size of some of these classes is
+noteworthy. They rarely contain fewer than 60 or 70, while
+100-125 is not an unusual number, and 150-200 are sometimes
+seen together under a single teacher. To facilitate the handling
+of so many it is usual to separate them into squads of from
+12 to 20, on the basis of physical fitness, and to place at
+the head of each squad one of the best pupils, who sees that his
+portion of the lines is correctly formed at the beginning of the hour,
+reports upon attendance, and directs the work of his division when
+the teacher is not giving commands for the whole class. Before
+exercising it is the practice to remove coats, collars, cuffs, and
+suspenders, and the dickey, or detachable shirt-front, if a boy has
+arrived at the dignity of wearing that common article of clothing.
+Shoes are exchanged for rubber-soled canvas slippers, of the sort so
+often seen in American gymnasia.</p>
+
+<p>The ease and quickness with which apparatus is made ready or
+put out of the way by pupils must strike every observer. It is this
+which allows such frequent changes during a single lesson, and
+the great variety of forms given to the “day’s order.” As a rule the
+teaching which one sees is remarkably well done. Perfect discipline
+and prompt and accurate execution of commands are secured, and
+yet there is no oppressive military strictness, nor anything but the
+pleasantest relation between teacher and pupils. Opportunities for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>relaxed attention and brief outbreaks of high spirits are frequent,
+the boys take hold with a vigor which proves their interest, and
+many squad leaders, even the youngest, show uncommon earnestness
+and ability to direct. In a few cases it will be found that the
+control over a class is less perfect and listless, slovenly work is
+tolerated. Where pupils are sent to the Central Institute for their
+instruction, and receive it largely from students at that school,
+the frequent change of leaders and the great variety of personality
+among them produce a natural mingling of good and bad teaching.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the fencing instruction given to boys of the four higher
+grades was observed it formed a portion of the gymnastic lesson,
+and included brief practice in the fundamental positions and movements
+by the whole class, and an exchange of thrusts and parries
+between two opposing lines. The military exercises of the same
+boys in the fall semester cover target practice with the rifle, besides
+squad and company drill and the manual of arms. The school
+yard serves not only for these evolutions and for games, but part or
+all of the gymnastic lesson is often given outdoors when the
+weather is favorable.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure44" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure44.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—The Gymnasium of a Mixed School in Trelleborg, Sweden.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In all Sweden there are only two <i>higher schools for girls</i> under
+state control. These are the Royal Higher Normal School for
+Women (<i>Kungl. högre lärarinneseminarium</i>), in Stockholm, and the
+model school associated with it. One of the halls in the school
+building used by the two in common is fitted up as a gymnasium,
+and except in the lowest classes at the model school a half-hour of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>gymnastic instruction is given daily throughout the entire course
+of study at both institutions. In the case of <i>private schools</i>, the
+great majority of which are for girls only, or admit boys to none
+but the lowest classes, there is no law prescribing the amount of
+physical training to be given, and the practice varies accordingly.
+Thus in 1899 there were 46 such schools, with a total of 5157 pupils,
+and out of this number 2909, in 33 schools, were reported as receiving
+instructions in gymnastics. The oldest institution of them all,
+with 240 pupils, has (1900) nothing but a small room some 40
+by 25 feet and 9 feet high, supplied with a Swedish horizontal
+bar, six climbing ropes, three long benches with balance beams
+on the under side, a vaulting box, jump stands, and a rubber
+ball. Most of the lower classes exercise here for half an hour every
+other day, and the higher ones twice a week, under a special teacher.
+Another school for girls provides for nearly the same number of
+pupils a room 60 by 20 feet and of good height, situated on the
+ground floor, and for its size as well equipped with apparatus as any
+of the <i>allmänna läroverk</i>. Its gymnastic instruction is in the hands
+of Major Silow, of the Central Institute, assisted by students in
+the course for women at that school. His capacity as an organizer
+and his rare talent as a teacher render the quality of work done by
+these girls quite as good as the best to be seen in the boys’ schools
+of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Dr. F. A. Schmidt of Bonn and Captain C. J. J. Lefebure of Brussels, who visited
+Stockholm in 1899, have recorded their observations and impressions in the following:</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Schmidt—“Die Gymnastik an den schwedischen Volksschulen nebst einem
+Anhang: Die Militärischen Übungen an den höheren Schulen in Stockholm.”
+Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1900 (Reprinted from the <i>Monatsschrift für das Turnwesen</i> for
+1900). Second edition 1909. Third edition, revised and enlarged, under the title
+“Die schwedische Schulgymnastik,” in 1912 (Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung).</p>
+
+<p>Captain Lefebure—“L’Éducation Physique en Suède.” Brussels, H. Lamertin;
+Paris, A. Maloine, 1903. Second edition 1908 (Paris, Felix Alcan).</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish Department of Church Affairs and Education (<i>Kungl. Ecklesiastik-Departmentet</i>)
+publishes statistical reports covering the work of the common schools
+(<i>Berättelse om folkskolorna</i>) and the higher schools for boys (<i>Berättelse om Statens
+Allmänna läroverk för gossar</i>). The board of directors of the common schools and the
+rectors of the various higher schools for boys in Stockholm also prepare elaborate
+annual reports which contain information regarding the physical training of pupils.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_81">footnote page 128</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> A description based primarily on extensive personal observation, supplemented
+by interviews and the study of official documents, has so many advantages over a
+compilation made at a distance that this chapter has been left substantially in the
+form given to it soon after the period of residence in Stockholm referred to on page
+163. It therefore applies to conditions as they existed in 1900. A second, briefer
+visit in the spring of 1913 revealed minor changes, but the general impression given by
+the article as it first appeared in the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> (<b>6</b>, 1-13)
+for March, 1901, and in condensed form in <i>Mind and Body</i> (<b>11</b>, 105-111) for July,
+1904, remains essentially correct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Gymnastiska Dagöfningar för Folkskolan. Stockholm, P. A. Norstedt &amp; Söner,
+1881. Second edition in 1891. A German translation by J. A. Selter and J. H.
+Jarisch, under the title “Das schwedische Schulturnen,” was published in 1907
+(Marburg, N. G. Elwert).</p>
+
+<p>This book has now been superseded by Törngren’s manual of 1905 (see <a href="#Footnote_129">footnote on
+p. 162</a>). Special attention should also be called to Elin Falk’s three-volume “Dagövningar
+i Gymnastik för Stockholms Folkskolor” (Stockholm, P. Palmquist, 1915
+and 1916).</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN DENMARK.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure45" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure45.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Denmark was the first European state to introduce physical
+training into its schools as an essential part of the course, and to
+prepare teachers of that subject by offering systematic instruction
+in theory and method of gymnastics. The leader in this movement,
+and its director for more than forty years, was Franz Nachtegall
+(1777-1847), the son of a Copenhagen tailor. His early education
+was received in a private school, and he had begun the study of
+theology in the university; but the death of his father prevented him
+from taking the final examination for his degree and threw upon him
+the support of an invalid mother. For a time he gave private
+lessons in Latin, history, and geography, but the small pay necessitated
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>such long hours that his health began to suffer. From boyhood
+he had been interested in forms of physical activity, and as a university
+student gained considerable proficiency in fencing and vaulting.
+Inclination, therefore, and the reading of GutsMuths’s “<i>Gymnastik
+für die Jugend</i>”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> started him upon what was to become a life-work.
+He began to teach gymnastics, first to some students at his own
+home, and then, early in 1798, to a club of university students and
+tradesmen which he organized and directed. This brought him, a
+year later, an invitation to give lessons in the private school which
+Court Chaplain Christiani had opened in May of 1795, in accordance
+with the philanthropinistic ideals of Basedow and his followers.
+A rival institution, the Schouboe school which Nachtegall had
+himself attended as a boy, soon secured a share of his time for the
+same purpose. Other schools in the city, public as well as private,
+followed the example of these two, so that by 1805 at least nine were
+furnishing instruction in gymnastics to their pupils.</p>
+
+<p>On November 5, 1799, having definitely decided to give himself
+wholly to the new calling, Nachtegall opened a private outdoor
+gymnasium in the yard of number 45 Østergade, the first institution
+in modern times devoted exclusively to physical training. The
+5 pupils with whom he began had increased to 25 by the end of the
+year, and in the winter of 1803-04 the number reached 150, both
+children and adults, under six teachers whom he had himself trained.
+When in 1804 the King appointed him professor of gymnastics in the
+university he had already given, for two years, lectures on the history
+and method of physical training, with the help of a former pupil,
+to an audience made up of students there and in a college for teachers,
+with an admixture of military men. Meanwhile the training of
+military and naval cadets and the instruction in gymnastics given
+in schools for non-commissioned officers had also been entrusted to
+him, and when the King established a Training School for Teachers
+of Gymnastics in the Army (<i>det militære gymnastiske Institut</i>), by
+decree of August 25, 1804, Nachtegall became its first director.
+From this as a center the new teaching was to be spread throughout
+the entire army and navy, including the Norwegian regiments.
+Four years later civilians were also admitted to the courses, the
+institution now attempting to do for the schools and the people at
+large what it had already accomplished for the army, and to prepare
+instructors for teachers’ colleges and the elementary schools especially.
+The usual length of the course was fifteen to eighteen months,
+though the first pupil was graduated in August of 1809. By 1814
+the civilian training school, caught in the stress of hard times,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>had ceased to exist. Meanwhile a total of only 31 students had
+completed its course, but 10 of these went out to occupy positions
+at <i>Seminarier</i> (teachers’ colleges), and so became in turn the instructors
+of other teachers-to-be.</p>
+
+<p>The disastrous results of collisions between Denmark and Great
+Britain during the Napoleonic wars (1801-1814) and the economic
+distress which followed the loss of Norway (1814) made the period
+1809-1825 an unfavorable one for educational reforms, and yet the
+efforts of the Danish government to introduce gymnastics into the
+curriculum of the schools did not stop altogether with provision for
+the training of teachers. An ordinance of November 7, 1809,
+stated in general that grammar or secondary schools (“<i>de lærde
+Skoler</i>”) should furnish instruction in gymnastics “when and where
+it was possible” to do so. In the school code of 1814 gymnastics
+was made an integral part of the course for boys in all elementary
+schools (<i>Folkeskoler</i>)—nearly three decades before any other
+European country took such action. Wherever the teacher possessed
+the requisite ability he was to give his pupils a daily lesson
+in gymnastics, outside of school hours proper, and for this purpose
+every school must have the necessary apparatus and an outdoor
+space of 800-1200 <i>Alen</i> (3200-4800 square feet). At the <i>Seminarier</i>
+gymnastics became a required subject under the regulations of 1818,
+and in 1821 Nachtegall was appointed <i>Gymnastikdirektør</i> (Director
+of Gymnastics), with oversight of both civil and military gymnastics
+throughout the state. But with here and there a notable
+exception, the result of so much favorable legislation left much to
+be desired. Teachers were most of them without training, hard
+times interfered with the purchase of grounds and apparatus, and
+appreciation of the importance of school gymnastics as a pedagogical
+measure was by no means general.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the middle twenties and lasting till the death
+of King Frederick VI (December 3, 1839) there was some improvement.
+In Copenhagen itself gymnastics was now introduced in
+many public and private schools, and some of the village schools in
+Copenhagen county took similar action, assisted by the government
+(1826), which desired to see all the schools in a single county
+reached before further statewide measures were attempted. Within
+a few years this had been accomplished. November 25, 1826, a
+circular was sent out to the school authorities all over Denmark
+urging them to do what they could to favor instruction in gymnastics.
+In the summer of the next year a considerable number of
+teachers from Copenhagen county came to the city for a course in
+gymnastics. They felt the need of some opportunity for practice
+with children along with the instruction they themselves received.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>At Nachtegall’s suggestion the King therefore ordered (August 21,
+1827) that 40 to 50 children from one of the public schools should be
+received at <i>det militære gymnastiske Institut</i>, for instruction in
+gymnastics, and that this public school should establish such
+relations with the Institute that both together would constitute a
+teachers’ college which might serve as a normal school of gymnastics
+(<i>Normalskole for Gymnastikken</i>), where not only the military and
+civil pupils at the Institute but also teachers in public and private
+schools could have an opportunity to conduct classes under supervision.
+The Normal School, under this new arrangement, was
+opened on January 28, 1828 (at the same time a new building, at
+Solvgaden barracks, was ready for use), and during that year more
+than 200 teachers were in attendance, 160 boys from the garrison
+school coming to the Institute to serve as a model school. In
+summer their place was taken by pupils from charity schools.</p>
+
+<p>June 25, 1828, the King approved the <i>manual of gymnastics</i>&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a>
+for use in the middle and common schools (<i>Folkeskolerne</i>) on which
+Nachtegall and four other members of a commission appointed for
+the purpose had been at work for a year. This was the first book
+of the sort to be authorized by any European government. Copies
+were sent (4000 of them) at the King’s expense to all Danish schools
+and school authorities. On the same day, June 25, was issued an
+order which required the immediate introduction of instruction in
+gymnastics in all schools throughout the state. A city inspector
+of gymnastics was appointed in Copenhagen, where every child
+received three lessons a week and the teachers were most of them
+non-commissioned officers. It was estimated that by the end of
+1830 2000 elementary schools (<i>Almueskoler</i>) were already complying
+with the order, and that by the time of the King’s death
+2500 out of the (approximately) 2600 public schools in Denmark
+were making at least some provision for systematic bodily exercise.</p>
+
+<p>The secondary schools were at first slow to take adequate measures,
+but a special order of September 20, 1831, directed that this
+be done just as soon as circumstances permitted. An administrative
+order of February 14, 1832, made the introduction of instruction
+in gymnastics a necessary condition of permission to open any private
+school for boys. September 14, 1833, Nachtegall’s manual and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>regulations for secondary schools&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> received the King’s approval,
+and it was published the following year. In 1836 he was sent on a
+tour of inspection among the <i>Seminarier</i>, to see what was being done
+in them and to give any needful counsel and suggestions. He
+found the interest in gymnastics general, but lack of sufficient
+apparatus in some places and in others faulty methods, and therefore
+arranged to have the teachers of gymnastics at three of the
+<i>Seminarier</i> take a summer course at the Normal School in 1837.
+In obedience to an order of March 7, 1838, he made a second tour,
+primarily to inspect the Latin schools, but took advantage of the
+opportunity to visit the <i>Seminarier</i> again.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto it had been boys and young men alone who were
+reached by gymnastics in the schools, but an order of March
+28, 1838, given in response to Nachtegall’s proposal, established
+an experimental school for girls. Thirty pupils, ranging in age
+from six to fifteen years, were selected from among the girls at the
+garrison school, and beginning in the spring of the same year these
+received three lessons a week from five teachers (three sergeants and
+two women) at the Military Gymnastic Institute, under the general
+direction of Nachtegall and a physician. The success of this
+experiment suggested a normal school of gymnastics for women
+(<i>Normalskole for Kvindegymnastik</i>). An order of February 20,
+1839, approved the plan, and prescribed that women teachers, and
+others who wished it, should receive an opportunity at the Institute
+to become acquainted with methods of teaching and that the exercises
+practised there and the mode of progression adopted should
+serve as a model for the schools for girls which introduced gymnastics.
+These latter were also put under Nachtegall’s supervision.
+The number of pupils at the Normal School now increased. In the
+summer of 1839 lessons in the new subject were begun with girls
+in the royal navy schools (<i>Søetatens Skoler</i>), and many other Copenhagen
+schools took a similar step.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Frederick VI, December 3, 1839, Nachtegall’s
+own efforts (he was now sixty-two years old) began to slacken.
+In 1840 and 1843 he made new tours of inspection among the
+<i>Seminarier</i>. In 1842 he turned over to la Cour the headship of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span><i>det militære gymnastiske Institut</i>, but continued to discharge the
+duties of <i>Gymnastikdirektør</i> until his death, which occurred May 12,
+1847. He was not the inventor of a system of his own, but borrowed
+his types of exercise from Dessau and Schnepfenthal, and used the
+manuals of GutsMuths as a guide. He was a good teacher and
+organizer, tactfully winning the goodwill and support of leading
+men, skilful in accommodating himself to actual conditions, and
+indefatigable in his efforts to advance the work to which he had
+committed himself with so much devotion. Denmark owes it to
+him that during the first third of the nineteenth century she held
+the leading place among European nations in the realm of physical
+education.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<p>Captain Niels Georg la Cour (1797-1876), who succeeded Nachtegall
+as Director of Gymnastics in Denmark (1847-1870), met with
+little success in his endeavor to improve conditions. As head of the
+Military Institute he published a new manual for the army, upon
+which was based his later manual for the elementary schools.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> But
+interest was now at low ebb. Beginning in 1859 it came to be the
+practice to supply the need of teachers of gymnastics in the <i>Seminarier</i>
+by “loaning” them non-commissioned officers for a term of
+three years. (This continued to be the rule until 1901!) In the
+schools of Copenhagen, also, and in garrison towns, such instruction
+was in the hands of military men. But in the army the broad
+educational aims of gymnastics had been subordinated to mere
+attainment of skill, so that the soldier too often regarded it with
+dread as a means of discipline and punishment. These officers,
+too, held themselves aloof from the general school life and from the
+other teachers. When la Cour, who possessed more energy than
+tact and lacked Nachtegall’s conciliatory manner, called attention
+to neglect or defective equipment revealed by his tours of inspection,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>and when official circulars directed the school authorities to exercise
+a keener and more vigorous oversight, the result in many cases was
+to arouse a feeling of irritation and indignation.</p>
+
+<p>Upon la Cour’s retirement from the position of <i>Gymnastikdirektør</i>
+in 1870 this office was abolished, and a new one was created—that
+of inspector of gymnastics (<i>Gymnastikinspektør</i>) for civil schools
+only. But there was no actual separation from military control,
+for until 1904 it was the army which supplied candidates for the
+place. The first man to fill it (1870-1886) was Col. Johann Theodor
+Wegener (1810-1886). He chose for his assistant Captain (later
+Lieut.-Col.) Julius Amsinck (1833-1902), director of the Military
+Institute&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> 1867-1885, who later became his successor (1886-1899).
+Amsinck published in 1883 a manual for school use, based on that
+of la Cour.</p>
+
+<p>After the war of 1864 with Prussia and Austria, in which the
+Danes lost Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, there was a period
+of great depression, soon followed, however, by a variety of measures
+looking toward national regeneration. In two institutions which
+date from this time, the rifle clubs (<i>Skytteforeninger</i>) and the people’s
+or folk high schools (<i>Folkehøjskolerne</i>), gymnastics was among the
+means employed, as it had been in Germany by Jahn and his
+followers a half-century before. For some years before the outbreak
+of the war the attitude of Germany in the Schleswig-Holstein dispute
+had been growing more and more threatening, and in January,
+1861, an artillery captain, Valdemar Mønster, proposed in the
+columns of the Danish paper <i>Fædrelandet</i> the organization of
+voluntary clubs on the plan of the English National Rifle Association,
+in order that young men subject to military service might have
+opportunity to become familiar with the use of weapons and fit
+themselves to defend the country’s right by force of arms. The
+suggestion met with general approval, and a few months later a
+Central Committee, with Captain Mønster as its secretary, was
+formed to guide and assist the rifle clubs which were being started
+all over Denmark.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> By the close of 1863 there were over a hundred
+of them in existence.</p>
+
+<p>At first the <i>Skytteforeninger</i> confined their attention to rifle
+shooting and military drill, but after the war had given great
+headway to the whole movement gymnastics began to be introduced
+as a related activity, and gradually won for itself a more
+and more prominent place. A firmer organization had now been
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>effected, for the smaller clubs, whose number had increased to
+several hundred, united into county rifle clubs (<i>Amts-Skytteforeninger</i>).
+Denmark is divided for administrative purposes into eighteen
+counties or <i>Amter</i>, and in 1871 the original Central Committee
+was succeeded by a Board of Directors (<i>Overbestyrelse</i>) chosen by
+representatives of the various units. According to information
+gathered by the new <i>Overbestyrelse</i>, eleven clubs practised gymnastics
+in 1872, and nine of these had 2100 members actively
+engaged, of whom 763 belonged in Svendborg county alone, where
+the efficient leadership and persevering efforts of Captain Edvard
+Nielsen had contributed largely toward such a favorable showing
+and had made that club a model for others.</p>
+
+<p>The exercises were necessarily limited at the start to what could
+be done in the open air and with little or no apparatus, or use was
+made of barns or rooms for public gatherings. In 1871, at Ryslinge
+(island of Fünen), the first special <i>Øvelseshus</i> (house for exercise,
+gymnasium) was erected. Other places were quick to follow the
+example, so that by 1897 there were nearly 300 such buildings,
+provided by the club members themselves, and in them 10,000
+young countrymen were practising gymnastics. Trained instructors
+could be borrowed from the army in garrison towns and the
+regions adjacent to them, or school teachers were employed or men
+who had returned from military service. Many clubs, in order to
+secure better qualified squad leaders, organized brief teachers’
+courses (<i>Instruktionsmøder</i>) in charge of army instructors. When
+various people’s high schools, notably those at Askov and Vallekilde,
+opened their doors for such leaders’ courses (<i>Delingsførerkursus</i>)
+in gymnastics they became an important source of supply. The
+first course of this kind at Vallekilde was given in 1878. A handbook
+of gymnastics (“Vejledning i Gymnastik”) prepared for the
+rifle clubs by <i>Hærens Gymnastikskole</i> in 1882, at the instance of the
+<i>Overbestyrelse</i>, does not appear to have been widely used, but
+Captain Amsinck’s manual of 1883 was made the basis of instruction.</p>
+
+<p>At the general <i>Skyttefest</i> (gathering of rifle clubs for competitive
+shooting) in 1869 at Horsens the Svendborg county club, the university
+club from Copenhagen, and others gave exhibitions of
+gymnastics which must have contributed toward its spread, and this
+was still more true of the general <i>Gymnastikfest</i> at Svendborg in
+1878 and the general <i>Skytte- og Gymnastikfest</i> at Nyborg in 1881,
+both of them arranged by the Svendborg county rifle club. At
+the former there were nearly 1100 participants, who came from
+16 towns and 110 country parishes. Six hundred were from
+Svendborg county alone. County and lesser <i>Skyttefester</i> exerted
+a similar influence. Advantage was taken of the interest thus
+aroused to seek state aid for the purchase of apparatus. Captain
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>Edvard Nielsen proposed such a measure at the meeting of delegates
+in 1879, and a motion requesting the <i>Overbestyrelse</i> to take suitable
+steps led to an initial annual grant of 2000 Kr. from the government,
+increased to 5000 Kr. in 1882 and to 6000 Kr. the following
+year. Attempts to obtain similar grants to assist in the erection
+of <i>Øvelseshuse</i> and the giving of courses of instruction for squad
+leaders (<i>Delingsførere</i>) met with no success at this time.</p>
+
+<p>The people’s or folk high schools (<i>Folkehøjskoler</i>),&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> like the rifle
+clubs, date from before the Schleswig-Holstein war of 1864; but
+their great popularity and rapid spread began with the period of
+reform which succeeded it. They are not public institutions,
+though nearly all now receive a certain amount of government aid,
+but are privately owned in most cases, or belong to a self-perpetuating
+corporation, and depend for their success upon the personality
+of the director and his associates. The total number opened in the
+years 1844-1911 was 143, and 80 of these were in existence at the
+close of the period. The great majority of the students are young
+countrymen eighteen to twenty-five years of age, who after completing
+the required course at free rural elementary schools have been
+engaged in practical agriculture and household duties, either at
+home or on some model farm. The attendance in the years 1864-1884
+averaged about 3000 annually, but doubled in the following
+decade, and in the school year 1898-1899 reached a total of 3491
+young men and 2646 young women. In 1906 the numbers at the
+different high schools ranged from 10 to 400; 53 per cent of the
+pupils were males, and it was estimated that a third of the young
+people among the rural population passed through these schools,
+although attendance is altogether voluntary. A few are coeducational,
+but the usual plan is to offer a winter course of five to six
+months (November-May) to young men, and a summer one of three
+months or more to young women. An hour a day is allotted to
+gymnastics as a rule.</p>
+
+<p>The people’s high schools and the rifle clubs have stood in close
+relation with each other, some of the former organizing clubs of
+their own, or supplying leaders for neighboring clubs, and others,
+like the ones at Askov and Vallekilde, arranging for teachers’
+courses in gymnastics and rifle-shooting under professional instructors
+from the army. The aims of the two institutions are similar
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>in many ways. Although the people’s high schools all give instruction
+in handwork and household economics for women and many
+offer courses in agriculture, horticulture, masonry, carpentry, etc.,
+their chief purpose is cultural—to mold character and ideals, inspire
+patriotism, train the students to think for themselves, reveal the
+dignity and possibilities of country life, and lay the foundation for
+later work in local agricultural schools and schools of household
+economics. The lecture method prevails in the classroom. Courses
+in history and literature may be considered the backbone of the
+curriculum, with frequent discussion periods and much singing of
+folk and patriotic songs and hymns. Students room in the school
+dormitories, and are thus brought into close and sympathetic
+association with each other and with their teachers,—the foundation
+of that spirit of coöperation which is so characteristic of rural life
+in Denmark today.</p>
+
+<p>The revival of general interest in physical education in Denmark
+had its origin thus among young adults, and not in the schools.
+At first it was the GutsMuths gymnastics as developed by Nachtegall
+which they practised in the rifle clubs and the people’s high
+schools, with the gradual addition of exercises borrowed from the
+Jahn <i>Turnen</i>; but beginning in 1884 the Ling or Swedish system was
+introduced, and made rapid headway until by the close of the
+century it had been generally adopted in the people’s high schools,
+had outstripped its Danish-German rival in the rifle clubs, and
+formed the basis of a new official manual for the schools.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was not to be expected that the friends of the GutsMuths-Nachtegall
+gymnastics would watch the encroachments of the
+foreign system without a vigorous protest. The struggle began
+as early as 1885, with army officers almost without exception
+opposed to the innovation, and a few years later was at its height.
+The attention of school authorities was drawn to the subject by
+conflicting claims put forward in the press and by what the followers
+of Ling were already accomplishing in Denmark, and some of them
+recognized that with the help of the new exercises school gymnastics
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>might perhaps be resuscitated, especially in the country, where
+conditions were quite unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The most important result of all this agitation was the appointment
+(April 5, 1887) of a commission of three by the ministry of
+church and school affairs (<i>Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvæsenet</i>),
+to recommend improvements in gymnastics as taught in
+the schools and to present plans for the founding and organizing
+of an institution in which men and women should be trained as
+teachers of gymnastics. Its members were Lieutenant-Colonel
+Amsinck, the new state inspector of gymnastics, chairman, communal
+physician (<i>Kommunelæge</i>) Axel Hertel, and Professor K.
+Kroman. They spent several weeks in Stockholm, at the <i>Centralinstitut</i>
+and in the schools, and then went to Berlin for a similar
+purpose. Upon their return they submitted a report (April, 1888)
+containing a number of definite suggestions for the better organization
+of physical education, the training of teachers, and the grouping
+of exercises in a lesson plan. They also proposed the appointment
+of a second and larger commission which should prepare a new
+manual of school gymnastics along the lines indicated. This
+body was accordingly named November 30, 1889. It included
+the former members, with the addition of <i>Kommunelæge</i> Chr.
+Fenger, regimental surgeon (<i>Korpslæge</i>) Johan Kier, Cand. polyt.
+N. H. Rasmussen, and the head of <i>Hærens Gymnastikskole</i>, Captain
+L. V. Schleppegrell. The result of their labors was the “Handbook
+of Gymnastics” (<i>Haandbog i Gymnastik</i>) published in 1899&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> and at
+once authorized by the government for use in all schools under its
+control. The new manual follows the general principles of the Ling
+gymnastics and adopts practically all of the Swedish exercises, but
+uses also many of the forms already current in Denmark, and
+introduces exercises on the horizontal and parallel bars, flying rings,
+and trapeze along with others which require the apparatus commonly
+found in gymnasia in Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>The commission of 1887 had proposed that the government
+should start an institution for the training of men and women as
+teachers of gymnastics (<i>Gymnastik Læreranstalt</i>), with a two-years
+course of study and practice. But in view of the unsettled
+condition of the whole question the authorities were unwilling to
+take such action. Professor Hans Olrik, director of the State
+Teachers’ Course (<i>Statens etaarige Lærerkursus</i>, later known as the
+<i>Lærerhøjskole</i>) then suggested, in 1897, that instruction in gymnastics
+be included as a separate division in that course. The
+government gave its approval to the plan, the <i>Rigsdag</i> voted the
+necessary funds, 13,500 Kr., and on March 30, 1898, an official
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>announcement of the organization and character of the new course
+(<i>det etaarige Gymnastikkursus</i>) was published. It was opened
+September 1 of that year in N. H. Rasmussen’s <i>Gymnastikhus</i> on
+Vodroffs Vej, under the direction of Cand. theol. K. A. Knudsen.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>
+The next year (1899) Amsinck retired from his position as
+state inspector of gymnastics. His successor, Lieutenant-Colonel
+Ramsing (1837-1904), already over sixty years old when he was
+appointed to the office, died August 18, 1904, and now, for the first
+time in the history of the inspectorship, it was given (September 2)
+to a non-military man, K. A. Knudsen, the director of the one-year
+teachers’ course.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure46" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure46.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—Knud Anton Knudsen (1864-).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The training school for civilian teachers of gymnastics (<i>det civile
+gymnastiske Lærerinstitut</i>) founded in 1808, and the normal school
+of gymnastics (<i>Normalskole for Gymnastikken</i>) opened twenty years
+later were both short-lived and both had been appendages of <i>det
+militære gymnastiske Institut</i>; since 1859 the teachers of gymnastics
+in the <i>Seminarier</i> had been non-commissioned officers in the army,
+assigned to this duty for three-year periods only; and though the
+non-military schools were given a state inspector of their own in
+1870, this position had always been held by an army officer. But
+with <i>det etaarige Gymnastikkursus</i> of 1898-1899, the <i>Haandbog</i>
+of 1899, and the appointment of Knudsen to the state inspectorship
+in 1904 gymnastics in the Danish schools entered upon an independent
+career. This fact was made plain by a new school law
+(1899) which prescribed, among other things, that no one should be
+regularly employed as teacher in the public schools unless he had
+received professional training in a <i>Seminarium</i>. The <i>nur-Turnlehrer</i>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>was thus to give place to the <i>auch-Turnlehrer</i>, an integral
+part of the teaching staff, and payment for instruction in gymnastics
+was to be at the same rate as for any other subject in the
+curriculum. It was therefore chiefly <i>Seminarium</i>-trained teachers,
+both men and women, who attended the one-year course, and from
+1901 onward examinations based on the <i>Haandbog</i> of 1899 were
+given to all candidates for graduation at the sixteen <i>Seminarier</i>.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the higher (secondary) schools also gymnastics was to be
+taken out of the hands of special or professional teachers and
+entrusted to instructors who give a part of their time to other
+subjects. University graduates already occupying positions in
+such schools and university students who looked forward to teaching
+as a profession were therefore found among the pupils in the
+one-year course, and in 1905 the government decided to permit
+the work of that course to be spread over three or four years in
+the case of students who wished to complete it at the same time they
+were carrying on their studies in the university. April 1, 1911,
+the one-year course ceased to be a part of <i>Statens Lærerhøjskole</i>,
+and September 1, 1911, under a new name and as an independent
+institution (<i>Statens Gymnastik Institut</i>), it moved into a building
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>of its own.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>
+    Two years before this (November 1, 1909) the authorities
+of the University at Copenhagen had added to the faculty of
+that institution, on a six-year appointment, a <i>Docent</i> in anatomy,
+physiology, and theory of gymnastics (Johannes Lindhard, a
+physician), under whose direction students who desired to add
+instruction in gymnastics to other teaching after graduation were
+allowed to take one of their minor courses in preparation for the final
+examination (<i>Skoleembedseksamen</i>) leading to a degree, and so qualifying
+them to become candidates for positions in higher schools.
+The instruction in practical gymnastics and games was to be given
+at <i>Statens Gymnastik-Institut</i>, or under the oversight of its director,
+and was to be at least equal to that given in the one-year course.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure47" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure47.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Interior of the Danish Central Institute of Gymnastics, at Copenhagen.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The demand for teachers trained in the <i>Haandbog</i> of 1899 could
+not be met by graduates from these more extended and thorough
+courses of preparation, however. For men and women already
+employed in the schools who could not afford to leave their regular
+duties the state therefore arranged short vacation courses of four
+weeks each. Thirty-four attended the first one of these, given in
+Copenhagen in 1899. The next year it was decided to move them
+out into the country, to <i>Seminarier</i> and <i>Folkehøjskoler</i>, and the
+numbers rose at once to 200. Between 1900 and 1911 the work thus
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span>offered was completed by 1027 men and 1680 women—an average
+attendance of 225. In 1913 it reached 349. Still briefer courses,
+of a single week’s duration (<i>Instruktionskursus</i>), brought a measure
+of preparation to older teachers who were unable to leave their
+homes, and these were often attended by the same persons for
+several years in succession. Two thousand five hundred and
+twenty-six men and 519 women were enrolled in them in the years
+1901-1911. The total number of teachers trained in the newer
+gymnastics, in the state one-year course, the university, the sixteen
+<i>Seminarier</i>, and the longer and shorter vacation courses reaches
+therefore well into the thousands, and to these should be added the
+other thousands who have attended the month-long leaders’ courses
+(<i>Delingsførerkursus</i>) arranged by the rifle clubs or their <i>Overbestyrelse</i>
+since 1889.</p>
+
+<p>The Danes have not been the only ones to profit by the agencies
+just enumerated. Up to 1911 the one-year course had been taken
+by 15 foreigners (4 men and 11 women), from Norway, Finland,
+Poland, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, England, and America;
+and 49 foreigners (25 men and 24 women) had completed vacation
+courses. At the invitation of Yorkshire school authorities <i>Gymnastikinspektør</i>
+Knudsen conducted a special vacation course for
+English teachers at Scarborough in 1905, and two graduates of the
+one-year course, H. G. Junker and H. P. Langkilde, were afterwards
+employed to train teachers in the schools of West Riding, Yorkshire.
+Langkilde was engaged by the British ministry of war in 1906 to
+introduce the Ling gymnastics in the army gymnasium at Aldershot.
+Two other graduates of the one-year course, Braae-Hansen (in
+1908, as director) and Frøken P. Brandt (in 1909), were installed
+as instructors in state-supported training schools for men and
+women teachers of gymnastics, organized at the Southwestern
+Polytechnic Institute in London. In 1908 Junker began to give
+one-month courses for English teachers at Silkeborg, in Denmark,
+which have been largely attended by both men and women (more
+than 80 in each of the years 1910 and 1911), and in 1910 he opened
+in the same place a one-year course for Englishmen. Danish
+women have also served as teachers of gymnastics at various English
+teachers’ colleges and in the schools of that country.</p>
+
+<p>The school code of 1814 had made practice in gymnastics obligatory,
+in the case of boys, at all elementary schools (<i>Folkeskoler</i>),
+whether town or country. A law of 1904 extended its provisions
+to include girls, as well; and within six years of that date more than
+95 per cent of the girls in town and city elementary schools and
+nearly 50 per cent of those in the country were receiving such
+instruction. Lack of suitable rooms was the greatest difficulty
+which confronted the country schools. To meet this condition the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span><i>Rigsdag</i> voted that beginning with April 1, 1907, the state should
+bear one-half of the expense (up to 15,000 Kr.) incurred by any
+community in building a gymnasium (<i>Gymnastikhus</i>) for its schools.
+Two years later the grant was increased, so as to include town
+schools, and made to cover the cost of providing playgrounds also.
+It became necessary to withhold state aid after April 1, 1911, on
+account of financial stringency, but up to that time nearly 300
+gymnasia had been erected in the country regions, at an average
+cost of about 5000 Kr. By the following year (1912) 488 country
+schools had gymnasia of their own, and 559 others were using rented
+gymnasia, usually those which belonged to rifle clubs. The other
+two-thirds of the 3500 or more country schools were obliged to
+content themselves with exercise out of doors on the playgrounds,
+which are gradually being equipped with such gymnastic apparatus
+as stall bars, Swedish horizontal bars, bucks, vaulting boxes, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with merely providing facilities for physical education,
+the <i>Rigsdag</i> also appropriated funds sufficient for the appointment
+of 17 <i>Gymnastikkonsulenter</i> (14 men and 3 women, most of
+them trained in the one-year course) or assistants to the state
+inspector of gymnastics, who are able to visit nearly 900 schools a
+year, arousing interest in teachers, pupils, and parents, demonstrating
+the proper handling of a class, meeting the teachers for
+conference and suggestions, and in general working for a better
+understanding of the object and means of physical education and
+greater uniformity in methods. A step which has done much to
+improve the standing of gymnastics in higher schools was the decision
+to grade pupils on their work in this subject, in connection with two
+of their public examinations (the <i>Mellemskoleeksamen</i>, since 1907,
+and <i>Realeksamen</i>, since 1908, but not yet in the final or <i>Studentereksamen</i>),
+and to give to such a grade (<i>Aarskarakter</i>) equal value with
+those secured in any other branch of study or practice.</p>
+
+<p>Starting thus among young adults in the people’s high schools
+and rifle clubs, the newer gymnastics has made its way into the
+elementary schools and the <i>Seminarier</i> and thence into the higher
+schools and the university. In contrast with what one sees in
+Sweden, the instruction is almost wholly in the hands of civilians,
+regular members of the teaching staff who give only a portion of
+their time to this branch; the average number of pupils in a class
+is only about 30, instead of the 150 or even 200 sometimes led by a
+single teacher across the Sound; and the rooms provided for exercise
+are smaller and more numerous—so frequently two for a single
+school that this may be considered the rule. On the other hand the
+Danish teacher receives at most a ten-months’ course of special
+training, in contrast with the two years usually spent at the Stockholm
+<i>Centralinstitut</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is now more than a hundred years since Denmark made gymnastics
+an essential part of the curriculum of its public schools,
+antedating Prussia in the step by over a quarter of a century; but
+her German neighbor, on the other hand, takes precedence in the
+matter of systematic efforts to foster games among school children.
+Minister von Gossler’s playground order was issued in 1882, fourteen
+years before its Danish counterpart, and the German “Central
+Committee for the Promotion of Games,” formed in Berlin in 1891,
+was six years old before a corresponding body was organized in
+Copenhagen. The beginnings of the movement, in each country,
+reveal the influence of English customs, and the ball games of the
+English schoolboy were among the first forms introduced. In
+certain of the higher schools of Denmark, particularly in boarding
+schools located in the country, open-air games were already firmly
+established when in 1891 the Copenhagen Playground Association
+(<i>Legepladsforening</i>) first undertook to bring them within the reach
+of children in public elementary schools (<i>Folkeskoler</i>), by opening
+playgrounds in various sections of the city and organizing the play-life
+there. This attempt suddenly took on national proportions
+when Wilhelm Bardenfleth, Minister of Church and School Affairs,
+on August 31, 1896, sent out his “Circular to all school authorities
+regarding the introduction and regular use of games for children in
+the public schools.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p>
+
+<p>Games which require agility and strength, the Minister said,
+deserve a place side by side with formal gymnastics, not only
+as healthful forms of recreation, but because they train the players
+to make decisions promptly and carry them out energetically, rouse
+a feeling of responsibility, require subordination and coöperation,
+and play a large part in the development of personality. Hitherto
+this valuable educational agency, which supplements, but should
+not replace, gymnastics, has been left too much to the initiative of
+the young themselves and the results have been largely a matter of
+chance. School authorities should make it their business to provide
+playgrounds of sufficient size and conveniently located. Teachers
+must interest themselves in the matter, joining the pupils in their
+sports, preserving order, and supplying the necessary supervision
+and direction, and a place ought to be found in the curriculum for
+such activities, in addition to voluntary practice outside of school
+hours. The Minister announces his readiness to render assistance
+in furthering the movement, by including the subject of organized
+play in the annual vacation courses for teachers. Attention is
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>called to a list of books containing directions for a variety of games.
+The Commission of 1889, appointed to work out a new manual of
+gymnastics, was also preparing a brief guide to the use of appropriate
+games,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> and this, it was hoped, could be sent out to all public and
+private schools.</p>
+
+<p>On December 1, 1896, three months after the appearance of the
+Bardenfleth circular, the Copenhagen Playground Association
+proposed to the ministry an annual grant from state funds to be
+used in making it effective, and offered to form a committee which
+should undertake to manage the practical details of the project.
+The suggestion was approved, the <i>Rigsdag</i> voted an appropriation
+of 5000 Kr. a year for three years, and the expenditure of the fund
+was entrusted to a group of men and women from all parts of the
+country who met in Copenhagen April 11, 1897, at the invitation
+of the Playground Association, and constituted themselves a
+National Committee for Promoting Group Games among School
+Children.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> The original membership included Fru Rigmor Bendix,
+Copenhagen, chairman; school principal Emil Slomann, Frederiksberg,
+vice-chairman; wholesale merchant Carl H. Melchior, Copenhagen,
+treasurer; Dr. med. H. Forchhammer, Copenhagen, secretary;
+district physician Axel Hertel, Copenhagen, and school director
+Joakim Larsen, Frederiksberg, additional members of the executive
+committee; and fifteen other persons residing in various parts of
+Denmark, among them Professor Poul la Cour of the Askov people’s
+high school, and Cand. theol. K. A. Knudsen, then living in
+Frederiksberg.</p>
+
+<p>The regulations adopted at the time of organization have governed
+the operations of the Committee ever since. They define its object
+as the furtherance of group games in the open air. Among the
+means employed are lectures and the distribution of pamphlets
+explaining its work, guidance in the use of games, the training of
+teachers, grants of money to help in procuring apparatus and hiring
+teachers, and assistance in securing and equipping playgrounds.
+As a rule it is expected that in each case the community concerned,
+or private individuals, will provide an amount equal to that furnished
+by the Committee from the funds placed at its disposal. The
+Committee also reserves the right to supervise activities toward
+which it contributes, and to require annual reports regarding
+them; but local organizations are independent in matters of detail.
+It does not solicit contributions outside of the state grant, although
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>it has a small income from other sources. Effort has been largely
+centered, from the start, on two lines of work, the preparation of
+teachers to act as play leaders in the schools, and the furnishing of
+expert advice and direct assistance in particular cases where these
+are requested.</p>
+
+<p>Minister Bardenfleth, in his circular of 1896, had offered to
+include instruction and practice in group games in the annual
+vacation courses for teachers conducted by the state. Special
+courses of this sort, under the direction of the secretary of the
+National Committee, were therefore provided for men in the
+summers of 1897-1900, and for women in 1898 and 1899, and the
+subject of games was added to the vacation course in gymnastics
+for women in 1897 and 1898. Since the fall of 1898 group games
+have been taken up as a regular part of the state’s one-year course in
+gymnastics. In the spring of 1897 and again in 1898 the Committee
+offered short courses of its own for women teachers, especially
+those in the Copenhagen schools. With its help group games were
+made a part of various teachers’ courses organized primarily for
+other purposes, and later it arranged a long series of special courses,
+beginning and repetition, term-time and vacation, for men, for
+women, and for both sexes.</p>
+
+<p>The usual length of these special courses has been three weeks.
+Men have devoted four or five hours daily to the work, or a total
+of eighty to ninety hours, and most of it has been practical, with
+chief emphasis on the more complicated games, such as <i>Langbold</i>
+(a Danish-Norwegian ball game), cricket, football, and hockey.
+The aim has been to give a complete understanding of the theory
+of each game, and enough practice in it to make the teacher a capable
+guide for his pupils. Not much time has been allotted to the
+simpler games. In the early courses for women instruction was more
+elementary, and limited at first to a total of eighteen to twenty-four
+hours, since most of the participants were quite unused to strenuous
+bodily exercise. <i>Langbold</i> was the favorite game, but later football
+was found to be excellent for young girls up to the age of puberty,
+and hockey after that period. The amount of time given to daily
+practice was also increased, until it reached three or four hours, and
+the total advanced from between thirty and thirty-five hours to
+between fifty and sixty. Hockey steadily gained in popularity,
+but children’s games received relatively more attention than was the
+case in courses for men. Fr. Knudsen, secretary of the National
+Committee, has published a handbook of games, a guide to hockey,
+and with Ahrent Otterstrøm a football manual.</p>
+
+<p>The demands upon the National Committee in its other field
+of effort, the giving of expert advice and direct assistance in particular
+cases, have been numerous and constant from the start. In
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>1897 help was given to 43 schools or communities; 64 others were
+added to the list the following year, and 120 in the period 1890-1901,
+and since that time the additions have averaged about 25 a
+year, so that by the end of 1913 a total of 532 had received aid. The
+needs of public elementary schools (<i>Folkeskoler</i>) have naturally
+been the first to receive attention, but a few <i>Realskoler</i> and <i>Højskoler</i>
+in the provinces are included in the number. Experience demonstrated
+the importance of competent oversight, and since April 1,
+1901, assistance has been granted in new cases only when a professionally
+trained teacher of gymnastics is employed, or a graduate
+of one of the state or Committee courses in group games. Tours of
+inspection are made by the secretary of the National Committee,
+who visited 387 schools or communities in the years 1900-1913.
+Other trips were made to give advice or help in the laying out of
+playgrounds. Commonly the Committee first suggests the games
+which seem most appropriate in the locality concerned, and then
+sends on the necessary apparatus (for <i>ball</i> games, exclusively),
+except such as can be bought on the spot without much expense.
+A sum of money to be used in procuring or improving playgrounds
+is sometimes added; but the original idea of providing compensation
+for teachers has not been carried out.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>The chief sources of information have already been given in the footnotes. Others
+will be found in the chapter as originally published in 1918 (see <a href="#Page_178">page 178</a>).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> This chapter is condensed from one of two “Studies in the History of Physical
+Education” published for the author by the Society of Directors of Physical Education
+in Colleges, in 1918.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> See <a href="#Page_77">page 77</a>. An abridged translation of this book, by V. K. Hjort, curate at
+Holmens Kirke, was published in Copenhagen in 1799 (see <a href="#Page_79">page 79</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> “Lærebog i Gymnastik for Almue- og Borger-Skolerne i Danmark. Kjøbenhavn
+1828. Trykt hos Andreas Seidelin, Hof- og Universitets-Bogtrykker.” A German
+translation was published: “Lehrbuch der Gymnastik für Volks- und Bürgerschulen.
+Aus dem Dänischen übersetzt von C. Kopp, Gymnastiklehrer am
+Königl. Schullehrer-Seminar in Tondern, Dannebrogsmann. Mit vier Steindrücken.
+Tondern 1831. Gedruckt in der Königl. privilegirten Buchdruckerey
+der Wittwe Forchhammer.” Tondern was then a Danish town, but the German
+language was used in the <i>Seminarium</i>. State aid was given toward the publication
+of the book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> “Lærebog i Gymnastik til Brug for de lærde Skoler i Danmark. Ved F. Nachtegall,
+Direkteur for og Professor i Gymnastikken; Ridder af Dbr. og Dbm. Kjøbenhavn.
+Trykt i det Poppske Bogtrykkeri. 1834.” Bound with the above: “Regulativ
+for den gymnastiske Underviisning ved de lærde Skoler i Danmark.” Of this
+book also a German translation appeared: “Lehrbuch der Gymnastik zum Gebrauch
+für die gelehrten Schulen in Dänemark. Von F. Nachtegall, Directeur und Professor
+der Gymnastik, Ritter von Dannebrog und Dannebrogsmann. Aus dem Dänischen
+übersetzt von C. Kopp, Gymnastiklehrer am Königl. Schullehrer-Seminar in
+Tondern, Dannebrogsmann. Tondern 1837. Gedruckt in der Königl. privilegirten
+Buchdruckerei der Wittwe Forchhammer.” Bound with the above: “Regulativ
+für den gymnastischen Unterricht bei den gelehrten Schulen in Dänemark.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Sources for Nachtegall and his time:</p>
+
+<p>1. Joakim Larsen, “Gymnastikundervisningen i Danmark paa Nachtegalls Tid
+(Foredrag ved Gymnastiklærermødet i Stockholm 1895; her meddelt i en noget
+udvidet Skikkelse).” In <i>Vor Ungdom</i> (periodical, Copenhagen), 1895, pp. 465-512.</p>
+
+<p>2. Joakim Larsen, article “Nachtegall” in C. F. Bricka’s “Dansk Biografisk
+Lexikon,” <b>12</b> (Copenhagen, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>3. Joakim Larsen, “Gymnastikundervisningens Indførelse i vore Folkeskoler for
+100 Aar siden.” In Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift 1913-1914 (Copenhagen, 1914),
+pp. 5-28.</p>
+
+<p>4. K. A. Knudsen, article “Gymnastik” in “Salmonsens store illustrerede
+Konversationsleksikon,”
+<b>8</b> (Copenhagen, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>5. K. A. Knudsen, “Gymnastikken i Danmark i hundrede Aar 1814-1914.”
+Foredrag ved de baltiske Lege i Malmö 1914. Copenhagen, 1914.</p>
+
+<p>6. Jens Bergmann, “Hærens Gymnastikskole og Skolegymnastikken.” In
+Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift 1904.</p>
+
+<p>7. Illeris og Trap, “Grundtræk af Gymnastikkens Historie” (Copenhagen, 1909),
+pp. 72-79.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> “Lærebog i Gymnastik for Borger- og Almueskoler.” Copenhagen, 1856
+(1855?). Second edition 1860. There was also a “Tillæg til Lærebog i Gymnastik
+for Borger- og Almueskolerne.” Copenhagen, 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Now known as the “Army School of Gymnastics” (<i>Hærens Gymnastikskole</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> For the history of the Rifle Clubs consult Lieut.-Col. Peter Ramsing’s “Gymnastiken
+i de danske Skytteforeninger,” published in the “Beretning om det skandinaviske
+Gymnastiklærerselskabs femte almindelige Møde i København den 12-14.
+August 1899” (Copenhagen, 1902), pp. 48-73; and Kristen A. Lange’s “Den Lingske
+Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909” (Copenhagen, 1909), pp. 60-87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Sources: “Le Danemark. État actuel de sa civilisation et de son organisation
+sociale. Ouvrage publié à l’occasion de l’exposition universelle de Paris 1900 par J.
+Carlsen, H. Olrik, C.-N. Starcke” (Copenhagen, 1900), pp. 180-190; Harold W.
+Foght, “The Educational System of Rural Denmark” (U. S. Bureau of Education
+Bulletin 1913, No. 53. Washington, 1914); L. L. Friend, “The Folk High School
+of Denmark” (U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin 1914, No. 5. Washington, 1914);
+and Kristen A. Lange’s “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909” (Copenhagen,
+1909), pp. 14 and following.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> For the history of the Ling gymnastics in Denmark consult: Ramsing 1899
+(as above, under rifle clubs); Knudsen 1914 (as above, under Nachtegall), pp. 12-30;
+Kristen A. Lange’s “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909” (Copenhagen,
+1909); Kåre Teilmann’s “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark,” in <i>Gymnastisk
+Selskabs Aarsskrift 1913-1914</i> (Copenhagen, 1914), pp. 94-142; “Haandbog i Gymnastik”
+(Copenhagen, 1899); Prof. K. Kroman, “Den nye danske Skolegymnastik,”
+in “Beretning om det skandinaviske Gymnastiklærerselskabs femte almindelige
+Møde i København den 12.-14. August 1899” (Copenhagen, 1902), pp. 20-30 (see
+also pp. 31-40); “Die Leibespflege in Dänemark: Bericht über eine einjährige Studienreise
+von Turnlehrer Otto Plaumann (Beilage zu dem Jahresbericht des Reform-Realgymnasium
+zu Kiel.” Kiel, 1910. 48 pages); “Leibesübungen in Dänemark:
+Bericht über eine einjährige Studien-Reise von J. B. Masüger, Turnlehrer an der
+Kantonsschule in Chur” (Chur, 1912. 104 pages).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Copenhagen, J. Frimodt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Born at Orte, Island of Fünen, August 21, 1864, and graduated from the Latin
+school in Odense in 1883. He had completed his theological studies in Copenhagen
+in 1889, and the two-years course at the Stockholm <i>Centralinstitut</i> in 1891, taught in
+the Ryslinge (Fünen) people’s high school 1891-1895 (and during this time was active
+in spreading the Ling gymnastics in the Svendborg and Odense county rifle clubs),
+and besides practising medical gymnastics had been connected with Frøken Natalie
+Zahle’s school and the Rasmussen gymnasium in Copenhagen 1895-1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Inspector Knudsen has written the following, all of them published in Copenhagen,
+“i Hovedkommission hos J. Frimodt”:</p>
+
+<p>1. “Grundsætninger for Gymnastikundervisning.” 1897. Fourth edition, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>2. “Øvelselære. Forklaring af typiske gymnastiske Øvelser.” 1900. Fourth
+revised edition 1911. A German translation (<i>Turnerische Übungslehre</i>) by Ana
+Iversen, was published by B. G. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin, in 1915.</p>
+
+<p>3. “Timesedler til Brug ved Gymnastikundervisning for mandlige Elever.” 1900.
+Fourth edition, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>4. “Timesedler til Brug ved Gymnastikundervisning for kvindelige Elever.”
+1900. Fifth edition, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>5. With Sigrid Nutzhorn, “Legemsøvelser for Pigeskolen, ordnede efter Skoleaar.”
+Udgivet med Understøttelse fra Ministeriet for Kirke- og Undervisningsvæsenet.
+1913.</p>
+
+<p>6. “Lærebog i Gymnastik for Seminarierne.” 1916. An English translation (“A
+Text-book of Gymnastics”) by Ruth Herbert and H. G. Junker was published in
+1920 (London, William Heinemann; Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> For the later history of physical education in the Danish schools consult Knudsen
+in “Salmonsens store illustrerede Konversationsleksikon,” <b>19</b> (Copenhagen, 1911),
+pp. 631-634; his “Gymnastikken i Danmark i hundrede Aar 1814-1914” (Copenhagen,
+1914), and “Beretning om Statens Kursus i Gymnastik og om Gymnastikkens
+Tilstand i de danske Skoler i 1911” (Copenhagen, 1912); Docent J. Lindhard, “Akademiske
+Gymnastiklærere,” in <i>Gymnastisk Selskabs Aarsskrift</i> 1912, pp. 169-177;
+and Kristen A. Lange, “Den Lingske Gymnastik i Danmark 1884-1909” (Copenhagen,
+1909).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> Temporary quarters, on rented land in a corner of the University Ball Club’s
+grounds (<i>Akademisk Boldklubs Bane</i>), out Tagensvej near the corner of Jagtvej.
+On April 1, 1921, the <i>Rigsdag</i> voted the sum of 500,000 Kr. for new buildings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> “Circulære til samtlige Skoledirektioner om Indførelse af ordnede Lege for
+Folkeskolens Børn.” The circular is given in full in the appendix to the first report
+(Første Beretning, 1897-1899) of <i>Udvalget for danske Skolebørns Fælleslege</i> (Copenhagen,
+1899).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> “Lege, Boldspil og anden Idræt. Kort Vejledning til Brug for Skoler udarbejdet
+af Gymnastikkommission.” Copenhagen, 1897. The same material, somewhat
+modified, is contained on pp. 275-404 of the “Haandbog i Gymnastik” of 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> <i>Udvalget for danske Skolebørns Fælleslege.</i> The Committee, whose headquarters
+are in Copenhagen, at Holsteinsgade 11², has issued six reports, covering respectively
+the years 1897-1899, 1899-1902, 1902-1905, 1905-1908, 1908-1911, and 1911-1914.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.<br>
+<span class="smaller">GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>While the <i>Turnverein</i>, or popular gymnastic society, was spreading
+over Germany, and systems of school gymnastics were being
+developed in that country and in Sweden, a variety of sports and
+organized games had become an established feature of life in the
+English public schools and universities.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> As might be expected,
+these different types or phases of physical training have later begun
+to react upon each other, and each has been copied in more or less
+modified form in other countries. Most European states now have
+societies modelled after the German <i>Turnverein</i>, and the gymnastics
+of Spiess won friends among educational authorities far beyond
+the bounds of Switzerland and Hesse. We have found the playground
+movement making headway in Germany and Denmark,
+but shall also see the Swedish system of school gymnastics gain a
+foothold in England, as it had already done in Denmark.</p>
+
+<p>In the first chapter of his “Athletics and Football” (The Badminton
+Library of Sports and Pastimes) Montague Shearman has
+reviewed the history of athletic sports in England. He attempts
+to show “that competitions in running, jumping, and hurling of
+heavy weights are not only indigenous to the land, but have been
+one of the chief characteristics of both town and country life in
+England as far back as chronicles will reach; and that athletic sports,
+though they have had their days of waxing and waning, have always
+been a feature of life in ‘Merrie England.’” Young Londoners in
+the reign of Henry II (1154-1189) practised “leaping, wrestling,
+casting of the stone, and playing with the ball,” together with other
+exercises, in open spaces set apart for their use near the city. We
+have seen (<a href="#Page_55">p. 55</a>) that Sir Thomas Elyot, in <i>The Boke</i> published
+in 1531, refers to lifting or throwing the heavy stone or bar, wrestling,
+running, swimming, handling the sword and the battle-axe, riding,
+vaulting, and shooting in a long bow. Some idea of the universal
+prevalence of vigorous forms of recreation in the early part of the
+seventeenth century we gain from a passage in Robert Burton’s
+<i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>. Writing of exercise as a cure (Partition 2,
+section 2, member 4), he first considers hunting and fishing, and then
+goes on to say that “many other sports and recreations there be,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>much in use, as ringing, bowling, shooting (archery), which Ascham
+recommends in a just volume (<i>Toxophilus</i>, 1545) ...; keelpins,
+tronks, quoits, pitching bars, hurling, wrestling, leaping, running,
+fencing, mustering, swimming, wasters (fencing with wooden
+swords), foils, football, balloon, quintain, etc., and many such,
+which are the common recreations of the country folks; riding of
+great horses, running at rings, tilts and tournaments, horse-races,
+wild-goose chases, which are the disports of greater men....”
+The ordinary occasions for the pastimes of the common people were
+Sundays and church festivals, and the numerous country fairs.
+Joseph Strutt’s volume on “The Sports and Pastimes of the People
+of England,” published in 1801, gives an entertaining description of
+town and country recreations practised “from the earliest period to
+the present time,” and it also reflects the general interest in such
+matters at the opening of the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure48" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure48.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Eton College: The Wall Game (From “Football, the American Intercollegiate
+    Game,” by Parke H. Davis).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When we come to the particular forms of active sport or pastime
+which have been popular in Great Britain at one time or another
+we are amazed at their number and variety. Activities once
+practised as a necessary part of daily life survive in the sports of
+hunting, shooting, falconry or hawking, fishing with rod and line,
+and archery, and the same is true of walking, mountaineering,
+rowing and sailing, swimming, skating, and the like. The primeval
+joy of combat has been furnished by wrestling, boxing, fencing with
+foil and sabre, single-stick and quarter-staff. Man has matched
+himself against man in foot-races, broad and high jumping, weight-throwing
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>and putting the stone or shot, the hammer-throwing and
+caber-tossing of the Scottish highlands, and the pole-vaulting which
+probably had its origin in contests between messengers whose calling
+required them to cross ditches and hedges with the help of jumping-poles.
+The game of bowls has been traced back to the thirteenth
+century or farther, and curling has been popular in Scotland for
+three centuries or more. Skittles, quoits, and hockey or shinny
+(shinty) have been played time out of mind. Golf was a formidable
+rival of archery in Scotland as far back as the middle of the fifteenth
+century; but English interest in the sport is comparatively recent.
+Polo was not introduced from the East until about fifty years ago.
+Tennis and fives, racquets and squash racquets have long had their
+devotees, and lawn tennis is now added to the list. Cricket, while
+it existed in England as long ago as 1600, did not become widely popular
+until towards the middle of the next century; but football “is
+undoubtedly the oldest of all English national sports. For at least
+six centuries the people have loved the rush and struggle of the rude
+and manly game” (Shearman).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure49" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure49.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Football at Rugby School (From H. H. Hardy’s “Rugby.”)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Certain ones of these sports are common to several or many
+countries, and no nation has a monopoly of games; but Great
+Britain has been preëminently the home of such pastimes, and
+nowhere else have they won such an enthusiastic following among all
+classes of society or affected so large a part of the population. In
+variety of sports cultivated, elaborate attention to details, and the
+perfection of play attained in games like cricket and football she was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>long without a rival. Price Collier, in the chapter on sports in his
+“England and the English from an American Point of View” (New
+York, 1909), quotes some figures which “an accepted authority upon
+all matters of sport in England has compiled as to the investment
+and expenditures upon sport by the forty odd millions of inhabitants
+of Great Britain. His estimates, when they have been
+criticized, have been criticized mainly because they were too low.”
+From these figures Collier concludes “that some $233,066,250 are
+invested permanently, and $223,887,725 spent annually for sport.”
+He goes on to say: “Travel by train or motor anywhere in England
+and you see games being played—particularly if it be a Saturday—from
+one end of the country to the other. The open spaces of
+England seem to be given over to men and some women batting,
+kicking, or hitting a ball. The attendance at games on a Saturday
+is very large.... Even at the beginning of the football season the
+gate receipts show an attendance of more than 200,000 people.
+When the big and final games take place, I have calculated that out
+of the male adult population of England and Wales on a great football
+Saturday one in every twenty-seven is in attendance at a game
+of some sort, and this leans to the error of being too few rather than
+too many.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure50" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure50.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—Oxford University: The “Eights” on the Thames.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Foreigners visiting England, and particularly men interested in
+education and brought into contact with the athletic life of the great
+public schools and Oxford and Cambridge Universities, could not
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>fail to be impressed by such facts as we have mentioned, and to
+report them in the books which were the outcome of their travels.
+The influence of English practices on Koch, Hermann, and Hartwich,
+pioneers of the playground movement in Germany, and
+Raydt’s journey of 1886 and the volume embodying the result of his
+observations (1889) have been already cited (<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">Chapter XIV</a>). Professor
+Törngren, from the Central Institute of Gymnastics in
+Stockholm, visited England in 1877 and published a volume on
+school games shortly after (<a href="#Page_162">p. 162</a>). The results of a later visit
+(1889) are reported in the <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i> for 1890 (3:
+145-195). English customs, also, seem to have been partly responsible
+for starting the playground movement in Denmark (<a href="#Page_194">p. 194</a>).
+Paschal Grousset, the French journalist, recorded his impressions in
+“La vie de collège en Angleterre” (Paris, J. Hetzel, 1880), writing
+under the <i>nom de plume</i> “André Laurie.” Pierre de Coubertin,
+who began his visits to England in 1884, has done the same in
+his “L’éducation en Angleterre: collèges et universités” (Paris,
+Hachette, 1888). Chapters II-IV in the volume on Physical
+Education of the Young by Professor Angelo Mosso, the Turin
+physiologist (German translation, 1894; French translation, 1895)
+reveal his indebtedness to English experiences. In the United
+States we have had Caspar Whitney’s “A Sporting Pilgrimage”
+(New York, Harper &amp; Brothers, 1894), and John Corbin’s “School
+Boy Life in England” (New York, Harper &amp; Brothers, 1898) and
+“An American at Oxford” (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co.,
+1902).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure51" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure51.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Oxford University: The “Eights” Passing the College Barges.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span></p>
+
+<p>To an outsider, attempting to review the earlier history of physical
+education in England, it seems that apart from her outdoor sports,
+in the form they have assumed at the public schools and universities,
+her greatest contribution has been made through the teaching and
+writings of Archibald Maclaren, for many years proprietor of a
+gymnasium at Oxford. He was born in 1819 or 1820&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> at Alloa, a
+seaport on the north bank of the Forth, in Scotland. His daughter
+writes that she believes his father was the minister of a neighboring
+kirk, and the boy was brought up a Presbyterian. At the age of
+sixteen or a little older he went to Paris, and for some years was a
+student of fencing and gymnastics there. He also studied medicine;
+but was most interested in physical training, and determined to
+reform gymnastics, make a real science of it, and put it on a plane
+where it belonged as a part of education. He therefore settled in
+Oxford, and opened a fencing school in Oriel Lane, afterwards
+converting it into a gymnasium. In 1858 he erected a building of
+his own, the University Gymnasium, on Alfred Street at the corner
+of Bear Lane.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure52" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure52.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Archibald Maclaren (C. 1820-1884). Copied from a portrait made about
+    six years before his death.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>An interesting sidelight on Maclaren’s qualities of mind and heart
+is afforded by certain events which belong to this period. William
+Morris and Edward Burne-Jones, poet- and painter-to-be, entered
+Exeter College, at Oxford, in January of 1853, and both young
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>men soon began to frequent the fencing rooms on Oriel Lane. J. W.
+Mackail&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> recalls how “between them and Maclaren himself, a man
+in the prime of life, cultivated and full of enthusiasm, a mutual
+intimacy and liking sprang up, and grew into a warm friendship.
+Three or four times in the term they would go and dine with him in
+Summertown....” And Lady Burne-Jones&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> speaks of Maclaren
+as a “man of the highest character and with warmth and tenderness
+underlying reserve of manner. His home at Summertown, then a
+small village separated by a stretch of country road from Oxford,
+was a sanctuary seldom opened to the outer world.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> She calls
+him one of the truest friends her husband ever had, and one whose
+eyes discerned his pupil’s genius from the first.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure53" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure53.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Maclaren’s Oxford Gymnasium (From frontispiece to his “A System
+    of Physical Education,” 1869).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>About 1860 Maclaren was asked to work out a system of physical
+education for the British army. The result was “A Military
+System of Gymnastic Exercises for the Use of Instructors” (London,
+H. M. Stationery Office, 1862), “approved by the General Commanding
+in Chief and to be adopted at all stations where the means
+of carrying it out may be provided,” according to a general order
+issued in February, 1862. Already, in 1861, a gymnasium built on
+the plan of the Oxford one had been erected at Aldershot, and
+Maclaren himself has described&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> the next step in carrying out the
+plan of the military authorities. “Two detachments of non-commissioned
+officers, under the command of the officer (Major
+Hammersley) selected by the authorities to direct its introduction
+(<i>i.e.</i>, the Maclaren system) and conduct its future extension—an
+officer specially selected for his high qualifications for the difficult
+work of introducing into the Army a new and hitherto entirely
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>untried institution—were sent to Oxford to be qualified as instructors,
+and thence removed to Aldershot to form a normal school for
+the preparation of other teachers, and form the center of the military
+gymnastic system.</p>
+
+<p>“The first detachment of non-commissioned officers, twelve in
+number, sent to me to qualify as Instructors for the Army were
+selected from all branches of the service. They ranged between
+nineteen and twenty-nine years of age, between five feet five inches
+and six feet in height, between nine stone two pounds and twelve
+stone six pounds in weight, and had seen from two to twelve years’
+service. I confess I felt greatly discomfited at the appearance of
+this detachment, so different in every physical attribute; I perceived
+the difficulty, the very great difficulty, of working them in
+the same squad at the same exercises; and the unfitness of some of
+them for a duty so special as the instruction of beginners in a new
+system of bodily exercise.... But I also saw that the detachment
+presented perhaps as fair a sample of the army as it was
+possible to obtain in the same number of men, and that if I closely
+observed the results of the system upon these men, the weak and
+the strong, the short and the tall, the robust and the delicate, I
+should be furnished with a fair idea of what would be the results
+of the system upon the Army at large. I therefore received the
+detachment just as it stood, and following my method of periodic
+measurements, I carefully ascertained and registered the developments
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>of each at the commencement of his course of instruction,
+and at certain intervals throughout its progress.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+<p>To this period belong Maclaren’s article on “National Systems
+of Bodily Exercise,” published in <i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i> for
+February, 1863 (VII: 277-286), and another on “Military Gymnasia”
+which appeared in Volume VIII of the <i>Journal of the Royal
+United Service Institution</i> (Oxford, 1864). He also compiled “A
+System of Fencing, for the Use of Instructors in the Army” (London,
+H. M. Stationery Office, 1864). A general order of July 31, 1864,
+states that this system, “having been approved by the Field Marshal
+Commanding in Chief, is to be adopted in the Military Gymnasia,
+and at other stations where the means of carrying it out may be
+provided.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
+    The next volume, “Training in Theory and Practice,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>
+reveals Maclaren at his best. He centers his remarks about a single
+exercise, rowing, and “in a great measure the mode in which that
+exercise is practised at our Universities and Public Schools.” This
+selection is made because he believes rowing to be “the exercise
+most susceptible of being influenced by a judicious system of bodily
+preparation, being at once an art of considerable intricacy, demanding
+long and assiduous practice, and an exercise of considerable
+difficulty, involving the possession—although not in an equal degree—of
+both muscular and respiratory power, to promote which is the
+object of all training.” Exercise (pp. 2-59), diet (60-119), and
+sleep, air, bathing, clothing (120-158) are discussed in turn in a
+clear, sane, and masterly fashion, with frequent sharp and skilful
+thrusts at time-honored customs and beliefs. Fourteen appendices
+contain diagrams and tables relating to boats, diet, training systems,
+etc. It remains today one of the most valuable books of its class.
+A second edition, in 1874,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> is enlarged by the addition of a practical
+course of training for the several kinds of boat-races practised at the
+university (pp. 119-160), a review of J. E. Morgan’s “University
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>Oars” (161-192), reprinted from <i>Nature</i>,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
+    and an appendix on the
+subject of the sliding seat.</p>
+
+<p>Outside of England, at least, Maclaren is best known through his
+latest volume, “A System of Physical Education, Theoretical and
+Practical,” published in 1869.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> The book is arranged in three
+parts: (1) Growth and Development (pp. 3-101), (2) Practical
+System of Gymnastic Exercises (105-472), and (3) Appendices A-K
+(475-518). While the second part, which makes up nearly three-quarters
+of the volume, is not without interest as a manual of
+gymnastics embodying the author’s ideas and the results of his
+long and varied experience,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> it is the first hundred pages and certain
+of the appendices which have raised it to the rank of a classic in its
+field. After pointing out that “exercise alone of all the agents of
+growth and development can be regarded in an <i>educational</i> light—alone
+is capable of being permanently systematized and administered
+as a means of progressive bodily culture,” he proceeds to discuss its
+nature and effects in terms of the physiological science of his day,
+much of it now outgrown. Health, rather than strength, should
+be the aim, he says. “Scholarships Junior and Senior, Examinations,
+open Fellowships, speculations, promotions, excitements,
+stimulations, long hours of work, late hours of rest, jaded frames,
+weary brains, jarring nerves—all intensified and intensifying—seek
+in modern times for the antidote to be found alone in physical
+action.” School-games, sports and pastimes he finds, “from their
+very nature, are inadequate to produce the uniform and harmonious
+development of the entire frame, because the employment which
+they give is essentially partial.... Recreative exercise in
+sufficient amount is usually in itself sufficient to maintain health
+and strength after growth and development are completed, but it
+does not meet the many wants of the rapidly-changing and plastic
+frames of youths spending a large portion of their time in the constrained
+positions of study.”</p>
+
+<p>He dwells at length upon conditions in the army, the attempt
+which he had made to meet them with his military system, and the
+results secured (pp. 64-94). “Now if all this arrangement and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>method were considered necessary in the organization of the bodily
+exercise of full-grown men—men of mature frame and hardy habit,
+and at the period of life when all the physical energies are at their
+highest point of power, at least as much precaution and forethought
+and method, it would be expected, would be adopted on its administration
+with boys and lads at school, whose frames are all incomplete
+and impressionable in the highest degree; capable of being affected
+for good or evil by every surrounding agency. But what are the
+facts? Except the two Military Colleges of Woolwich and Sandhurst,
+and Radley College, not one of our large educational establishments
+is provided with a regularly organized Gymnasium with
+properly qualified teachers.... In our day if gymnastics mean
+anything,—that is, anything worth the serious thought of parent,
+teacher, or pupil,—they mean a gradual, progressive system of
+physical exercise, so conceived, so arranged, and so administered,
+that it will naturally and uniformly call forth and cultivate the
+latent powers and capacities of the body, even as the mental faculties
+are developed and strengthened by mental culture and mental
+exercise.”</p>
+
+<p>In the appendix Maclaren illustrates certain forms of growth and
+development, regular and irregular, at different ages (A. Figs. 1-14);
+gives tables showing the state of growth and development between
+the ages of ten and eighteen years (B), and of men on arriving at the
+University (C); one which shows the influence of systematized
+exercise, extending over periods of several years, on boys of different
+conditions of growth and development, and on men of different
+degrees of physical power (D); and others containing measurements
+of non-commissioned officers before and after their course
+of training under him (E), and corresponding figures for youths
+at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich (F), and for two pupils
+of his own (G); explains his system of measurements (H), goes into
+some detail regarding the construction and requirements of gymnasia
+(I), and closes with tables of best performances at certain
+athletic meetings (K). It is this practical demonstration of what
+regular exercise will accomplish, as well as his impressive setting
+forth of the need for it, that has caused his book to be so often
+quoted and makes it one of permanent value.</p>
+
+<p>The first trace of the Ling system of medical gymnastics in
+England we find in 1838, when Lieutenant Govert Indebetou (the
+name is also written <i>In de Betou</i>), after completing the course at
+the Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, moved over to
+England and began the practice of that art in London. His work
+was continued for a time by an English physician, John W. F.
+Blundell. Another Swede, Lieutenant C. Ehrenhoff, settled in
+London for the same purpose in the early forties. Much more
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>significant was the arrival of Carl August Georgii from Stockholm,
+where he had been a teacher at the Central Institute since 1829 and
+head teacher after 1840. He opened a private institute in London
+in 1850, and continued in active practice and teaching there until
+1877. One of his pupils was the English physician M. J. Chapman,
+and another was Dr. Mathias Roth.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> All of these men published
+pamphlets or more elaborate treatises on the subject. Of the
+Swedish system of school gymnastics, originated by P. H. Ling, but
+given its present form by his son Hjalmar in the years 1864-1882,
+we hear first in 1878. Dr. Roth had interested Mrs. Alice Westlake,
+a member of the London School Board, in this form of physical
+education, and in that year she persuaded the Board to engage Miss
+Concordia Löfving, a graduate of the Central Institute in Stockholm
+in 1870, to give a course in the theory and practice of Swedish
+gymnastics to women teachers under the Board, leading to a special
+certificate.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp62" id="figure54" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure54.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Martina Bergman Österberg (1849-1915).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1881, at the end of the summer term, Miss Löfving withdrew
+from the service of the Board, and Miss Martina Bergman (later
+Mme. Bergman Österberg)&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> was appointed superintendent of
+physical exercise in girls’ and infants’ schools. Within the next six
+years, under her direction, the system was introduced into 300
+schools, and 1000 teachers were trained. September 23, 1885,
+Miss Bergman opened a Training College for (women) Teachers
+of Physical Education at Reremonde, Broadhurst Gardens, Hampstead,
+N. W. (a borough of London), removing it ten years later to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>Kingsfield, Dartford Heath, Kent, and in her thirty years at the
+head of this school she built it up into an institution of more than
+national influence and importance. In 1893 she was present at the
+eighth annual convention of the American Association for the
+Advancement of Physical Education and the Congress of Physical
+Education in Chicago, and in 1900 she attended the International
+Congress of Physical Education in Paris and gave a demonstration
+there with her pupils.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Captain J. D. Haasum, graduated at the
+Stockholm Central Institute in 1872 and teacher there since 1873,
+spent six months in London in 1884 and gave the first training course
+in Swedish gymnastics to a number of men teachers under the
+School Board, with the help of a gymnasium fitted up at the Crampton
+Street schools, Walworth. This work was continued by Allan
+Broman (Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics 1883), who at a
+later period (October, 1911) opened in London a “Central Institute
+for Swedish Gymnastics, for Men Students of Physical Training.”</p>
+
+<p>How the Swedish system was introduced into the British Navy
+and substituted, in large part, for the Maclaren gymnastics in the
+Army, may be told in a few words. Commander N. C. Palmer
+of the Navy spent some weeks in Stockholm in the autumn of 1902,
+in order to study the organization and management of instruction
+in gymnastics there, and upon his return set in motion plans for the
+training of instructors from among officers and non-commissioned
+officers. In the summer of 1903 Allan Broman was put in charge
+of the first course at Portsmouth, given to sixty officers in the
+British Navy. That same year a <i>Handbook of Physical Training</i>,
+published by authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty,
+was issued.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> Part I (pp. 4-73) is evidently based upon the Swedish
+Army and Navy Manual of 1902 (see <a href="#Page_163">p. 163</a>), in both text and
+illustrations. A new Handbook, much enlarged and altogether
+Swedish, was published in 1910, the work of Lieutenant Lockhart
+Leith, who during a winter in Stockholm had taken part in the
+exercises at the Central Institute of Gymnastics. In 1906 the Army
+authorities decided to introduce the same system, but instead of
+going to Sweden they applied to the Danish government for a man
+capable of teaching it at the Aldershot training school for instructors.
+H. P. Langkilde (<a href="#Page_192">p. 192</a>) was selected for the task. He began a
+course with the sixteen teachers at the school in August, and the next
+month a regular four-months’ course with non-commissioned officers.
+By the first of the next year (1907) the transition to the new system
+was complete. A <i>Manual of Physical Training</i>, worked out by
+Major Moore in collaboration with Langkilde on the basis of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span>Danish <i>Haandbog</i> of 1899, the Army and Navy Manual (Danish)
+of 1905, and the books of Knudsen was published in 1908.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a></p>
+
+<p>March 31, 1902, King Edward VII appointed a commission of
+nine “to enquire into the opportunities for physical training now
+available in the State-aided schools and other educational institutions
+of Scotland; and to suggest means by which such training may
+be made to conduce to the welfare of the pupils; and further, how
+such opportunities may be increased by continuation classes and
+otherwise, so as to develop, in their practical application to the
+requirements of life, the faculties of those who have left the day
+schools, and thus to contribute towards the sources of national
+strength.” This commission reported under date of March 14,
+1903,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> and perusal of the second volume shows the Swedish system
+still in use in elementary schools for girls under the London School
+Board, and in two Merchant Company’s higher schools for girls in
+Edinburgh, the Edinburgh Ladies’ College and George Watson’s
+Ladies’ College. Having regard to the findings of this Royal Commission
+an “Interdepartmental (<i>i.e.</i>, English and Scotch) Committee
+on the Model Course of Physical Exercises,” under date of
+March 10, 1904, presented to both Houses of Parliament a report
+directed to “the Right Honorable the Lord President of the (English)
+Board of Education and the Right Honorable the Vice-President of
+the Committee of the Privy Council on Education in Scotland.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>
+On pp. 10-49 is the proposed Syllabus of Physical Exercises, based
+in general on the Swedish system. In consequence of this report
+the English Board of Education published its first official “Syllabus
+of Physical Exercises for Use in Public Elementary Schools” in
+1904.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> The next year it was reprinted, with slight alterations;
+but the third edition,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> four years later, contains “further amendments
+and extensive revisions, which are based upon experience....
+Speaking generally the new Syllabus, like its predecessor, is based
+on the Swedish system of educational gymnastics which has been
+adopted in several European countries, and is now the basis of
+physical training in the Army and Navy in this country” (p. vi).</p>
+
+<p>The part played by Denmark in this transplantation of an alien
+system to British soil has been already indicated (<a href="#Page_192">p. 192</a>). Even in
+the endowed Public Schools, the very strongholds of athletic sports,
+we find it introduced as a general requirement, to supplement the
+effects of outdoor recreation. Lieutenant F. H. Grenfell, who had
+taken work at the Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>brought it to Eton College in 1907, and Captain E. C. Brierly, of
+the Army, undertook a similar task at Rugby in September of 1911.
+Harrow and Winchester, at least, among the other public schools,
+also possess gymnasia in addition to their extensive playgrounds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure55" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure55.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Eton College: The Gymnasium (1913).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure56" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure56.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Rugby School: The Gymnasium (From H. H. Hardy’s “Rugby”).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure57" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure57.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Dunfermline College of Hygiene and Physical Education: The New
+    College and Clinics Building.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To this fragmentary review of certain phases of physical education
+in Great Britain a paragraph on the Dunfermline College of Hygiene
+and Physical Training should be added. The Carnegie Dunfermline
+Trust was formed in August of 1903, and in the hands of its
+Trustees Andrew Carnegie placed a princely fund to be used for the
+benefit of the town of his birth. A gymnasium was opened October
+21, 1904, and the New Baths March 31, 1905. Physical training
+was introduced into the schools soon after the Trustees came into
+office, and medical inspection of school children was begun in 1906.
+October 4, 1905, a College of Hygiene and Physical Training (for
+women) was opened, offering a two-year course and housed at first
+in the Gymnasium and Swimming Pool, on Pilmur Street. Three
+years later a men’s department was added, and the two departments
+were united in 1911. By the next fall 75 students had
+received diplomas for the full course. Meanwhile, in July of 1909,
+the Trustees learned that the College had been recognized by the
+Scotch Education Department as a Central Institution for the
+purpose of the Education (Scotland) Act of 1908, <i>i.e.</i>, for the training
+of teachers for the schools of that country; and by an arrangement
+approved in 1912 the services of certain teachers on the college staff
+are available for the work of inspecting the teaching of physical
+exercises in schools throughout Scotland. Venturefair Park, seven
+acres in extent, was leased for the games of the College students and
+opened July 27, 1909, and in September of 1914 a new building, the
+foundation stone of which had been laid by Mr. Carnegie two years
+before, was occupied by the College and the School Clinics. Early
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>in 1911 the original gift to the Trust had been increased by one half,
+raising the fund to $3,750,000.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>The Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes (London: Longmans, Green &amp;
+Co.; Boston: Little, Brown &amp; Co., 28 volumes, 1885-1896) is unique in its field.
+Robert Scott Fittis, in “Sports and Pastimes of Scotland” (Paisley and London,
+Alexander Gardner, 1891), offers some material of historical interest. Other
+sources have been mentioned or suggested in the text.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_90">footnote, page 133</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> He died February 20, 1884, at the age of sixty-four.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> Described in the <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i> for January, 1860 (V: 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> In “The Life of William Morris” (London and New York: Longmans, Green &amp;
+Co., 1899).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> In “Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1904).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> “Mrs. Maclaren was the daughter of D. A. Talboys, the Oxford printer, and under
+her father had been trained as a first-rate classical scholar” (Charles L. Graves, in
+“Life and Letters of Alexander Macmillan,” London, Macmillan &amp; Co., 1910).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> The first step in the artistic life of Burne-Jones, she says, “was a series of pen-and-ink
+designs made at the suggestion of his friend Mr. Maclaren. These drawings
+were intended for illustrations to a volume of Ballads upon the Fairy Mythology of
+Europe, which Maclaren had written with the intention of publishing immediately....
+The scheme included a frontispiece, title-page, illustrations and ornamental
+letters. They were begun early in 1854 and carried on for about two years and a half,
+and in the series may be traced his development from the time that he first went into
+the Wytham woods to draw leaves and branches until the day when he discovered
+that the human form was the alphabet of the language which he was henceforth to
+use.” The frontispiece, title-page, and a tail-piece on page 279 are all that appear
+in “The Fairy Family: a Series of Ballads and Metrical Tales Illustrating the
+Fairy Mythology of Europe,” which Maclaren published anonymously in 1857
+(London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, and Roberts). A second edition,
+published in 1873, bears Maclaren’s name on the title-page and is dedicated “To my
+daughter Mabel” (London, Macmillan &amp; Co.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> In his “System of Physical Education,” 1869, pp. 72, 73 and 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Maclaren’s “system of measurements to determine the rate of growth and development”
+is given in Appendix H of the volume just quoted. Appendix E contains a
+“table of measurements of first detachment of non-commissioned officers selected
+to be qualified as military gymnastic instructors,” showing increases for the seven and
+a half months between September 11 and April 30; and a similar table of measurements
+of the second detachment, with increases for the period extending from October
+27, 1862, to July 12, 1863.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> In September of 1864 Mrs. Maclaren opened at Summertown a private school
+intended to prepare boys for the (endowed) public schools. The venture proved a
+very successful one from the start, and was continued by her son-in-law. Alexander
+Macmillan, one of the founders of the publishing house which bears that name, had
+made the acquaintance of the Maclarens in the summer of 1864, and by his efforts
+did much to enlist the interest of influential patrons, in addition to sending his own
+son George and two nephews. See pp. 225-227 in the “Life and Letters of Alexander
+Macmillan,” by Charles L. Graves (London, Macmillan &amp; Co., 1910).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> London, Macmillan &amp; Co., 1866.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> London, Macmillan &amp; Co.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Vol. <b>7</b>, 397-399, 418-421, and 458-460 (March 27, April 3 and 17, 1873).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> Oxford, Clarendon Press. A second edition, unchanged, was issued the year after
+the author’s death (Oxford, 1885), and a third, reëdited and enlarged by his son,
+Wallace Maclaren, appeared ten years later (Oxford, 1895).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> “The system which I advocate is the result of my professional life—developed
+and matured by every means which I could bring to bear upon it by physiological
+theory or practical test. The period of its preparation extends over nearly a quarter
+of a century, for during that period I have been, as it were, standing in the midst of a
+living stream of men and boys flowing in from every school, public and private, in the
+kingdom; youths possessing every degree of physical power—presenting every phase
+of physical weakness. On these, <i>by</i> these, every exercise in the system has been
+tested; its nature, its character defined and its results ascertained, its place in the
+progressive courses slowly and carefully determined” (pp. 89 and 90).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Born in Kassa (Kaschau), Hungary, in 1818; studied in Vienna and Pavia, and
+won his medical degree at the latter university in 1839; took part in the Hungarian
+War of Independence (1849), and afterwards made his way to England as a political
+refugee. See <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i> <b>2</b>, 225-235 and <b>9</b>, 293-297.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Born in Skåne, south Sweden, October 7, 1849; graduated from the Central
+Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm in 1881; died July 29, 1915.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> See <i>Tidskrift i Gymnastik</i>, <b>6</b>, 687-694 (1908).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> London, H. M. Stationery Office.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> London, H. M. Stationery Office.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), presented to
+both Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty. Edinburgh, H. M.
+Stationery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> London, H. M. Stationery Office.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> The Syllabus of Physical Exercises for Schools. 1909. London, as above.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.<br>
+<span class="smaller">INTERNATIONAL GATHERINGS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The types or systems of physical training found in Europe can
+all be reduced to three elemental forms, illustrated by the <i>Turnverein</i>
+or popular gymnastic society of Germany, the athletic sports and
+active games of the English public schools and universities, and the
+school gymnastics of Germany and Sweden. Corresponding to
+each of these, in a way, there have been international gatherings
+of three sorts in recent years, <i>i.e.</i>, conventions and competitive
+meets of the European gymnastic federations, “games” and
+congresses held under the auspices of the International Olympic
+Committee, and a series of congresses organized with a view to better
+understanding of the principles and methods of physical education.</p>
+
+<p>In 1881 Nicolas Jan Cupérus of Antwerp, president of the <i>Fédération
+belge de Gymnastique (Belgische Turnbund)</i>, proposed an
+association of the various national organizations of popular
+gymnastic societies in Europe. Preliminary conventions were
+held at Liège on July 23d of that year and again on August 14-16,
+1896, and arrangements were completed in Brussels, July 3-5, 1897.
+A permanent committee (<i>Bureau</i>) was appointed, with Cupérus
+as president. The articles of agreement provided for an exchange
+of publications and official documents, established rules governing
+invitations to national meets and conditions of participation in them,
+recognized only such national organizations as held themselves
+aloof from political and religious controversies, and stated the
+attitude of the union towards professionalism and in regard to the
+sort of prizes which should be awarded in competitions. The
+following federations subscribed to these articles: the Belgian,
+Czech, French, British (the National Physical Recreation Society,
+Amateur Gymnastic and Fencing Association, Irish Amateur
+Gymnastic Association, Scottish Amateur Gymnastic Association,
+and later the Welsh Amateur Gymnastic Association), Italian,
+Luxemburg (Grand Duchy), Hungarian, Netherlandish, Norwegian,
+and Swedish. The Danish federation was added later, but the
+German <i>Turnerschaft</i> and the Swiss <i>Eidgenössischer Turnverein</i>,
+together with smaller organizations in Austria, the Balkan States,
+Russia, Finland, and Portugal have never become affiliated. Seven
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>statistical “Annuals”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> have been published under the editorship of
+Cupérus. Since 1897 conventions have been held at Antwerp
+(August 14, 1903), Berne (July 14, 1906), Prague (July 1, 1907),
+Paris (November 21, 1908), and Luxemburg (July 21, 1909); and
+there have been international meets for competition at Antwerp
+(1903), Bordeaux (1905), Prague (1907), Luxemburg (1909), Turin
+(1911), and Paris (1913).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure58" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure58.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Pierre de Coubertin (1863-).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The story of the modern Olympic Games, and the events which
+led up to them may best be told in the words of Dr. Albert Shaw&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>
+and Professor William Milligan Sloane.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> Its central figure in the
+early years is Baron Pierre de Coubertin, scion of an old French
+family, born January 1, 1863, and educated in the schools of Paris.
+“It was in 1884, when only twenty-one years of age,” says Dr. Shaw,
+“that M. de Coubertin began his visits to England, with the prime
+object of acquainting himself intimately with the life of the great
+public schools,—Rugby, Eton, Harrow, and the others of that type.
+He had become strongly convinced that there was an element in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>English education that was sadly lacking in the French schools.
+Obviously and conspicuously, the English training in athletics, and
+the English devotion to outdoor sports and exercises, were almost
+totally unknown in the French lyceums and collegiate institutes.
+But Coubertin clearly perceived that something even more serious
+was concerned than the mere question of physical culture. He
+understood that in the rowing, football, and cricket of the English
+schools, and all their other games, contests, and field-day exercises,
+there was involved an element of moral discipline and strength that
+supplied in some sense a key to the secret of England’s power. Not
+merely a manliness expressed in muscular force and physical bearing
+was developed in the English arena of school sports or neighborhood
+contests and pastimes, but also a fine spirit of fair play, a hatred of
+meanness, lying, and all forms of deceit, and that fundamental kind
+of honor and integrity of character that causes Englishmen to be
+trusted and respected, even if not greatly beloved, by all races, in
+all lands. Furthermore, this love of hardy games and contests
+seemed to Coubertin the best sort of protection to the young men of
+our times from the temptation to unworthy indulgences that tend
+to undermine personal vigor and thereby to diminish the vitality
+of the nation.</p>
+
+<p>“The drift in France among young men of education was towards
+softness and overrefinement, and the vices that are somewhat
+dangerously akin to certain phases of aesthetic development. The
+ideals of youth in England seemed, as compared with those of France,
+to make for the clear eye, the steady hand, the firm will,—in short,
+for self-control and the conservation of energy. It was, therefore,
+with no mere boyish fondness for the excitement of athletic contest,
+considered as a thing desirable in itself, that M. de Coubertin devoted
+himself to the development or the revival of a high type of manhood
+among French students.... He was ready at length in 1888,
+at the age of twenty-five, to publish his book <i>L’Éducation en Angleterre</i>
+(see <a href="#Page_202">p. 202</a>), an account of school life in England, which, while
+valuable on any account, was of particular use in the advancement
+of the cause to which all his efforts were really devoted. The book
+attracted very favorable attention in France, and its success gave the
+young author and reformer prestige enough for the public launching
+of his practical movement, this taking the form of a ‘committee for
+the propagation of sports and physical exercises in education,’ with
+that eminent statesman, scholar, and educational authority, Jules
+Simon, as president of the committee.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1889, in connection with the Paris Exposition, he organized a
+congress on physical education, and that autumn visited the United
+States, under commission from the National Department of Public
+Instruction, to study the organization, work, and life of American
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>colleges. “Meanwhile,” continues Shaw, “all this work for the
+encouragement of the athletic spirit in the French institutions had
+begun to tell strongly; and in the season of 1891-1892 it was possible
+under M. de Coubertin’s leadership to organize what is now the
+well-known <i>Union des Sociétés des Sports Athlétiques</i>. This central
+body is a confederation of about two hundred French athletic clubs
+and societies, half of which are in the universities and colleges. With
+a view to keeping the French student’s interest from flagging, M. de
+Coubertin endeavored to make some plans for English and American
+competitions. Thus, in 1892, international football matches were
+begun between French and English teams, Lord Dufferin himself
+presiding over the first one held at Paris. M. de Coubertin also
+succeeded in securing the recognition of the French Union by the
+Henley Regatta Committee, and the admission of French rowing
+crews to the university contests on the Thames. Again, in that
+same season, he secured the visit to Paris of a team of American
+university athletes, as the result of the efforts of an American committee
+which he had organized and in which his friend Professor
+Sloane, then of Princeton University, was especially active....</p>
+
+<p>“To crown the work of the year, M. de Coubertin, at the end of
+November (1892), gave a lecture in the amphitheater of the Sorbonne,
+in which he disclosed his plan for the reëstablishment of the
+Olympic games. The enlistment of American interest in this
+ambitious project for a modern quadrennial tournament of games
+and sports that should be open to amateurs—particularly those of
+the student class—from all nations, was much facilitated by M. de
+Coubertin’s second visit to the United States, which occurred in
+1893.... Before leaving this country in the autumn of 1893
+he had aroused a very general interest, especially in the college
+world, in his plan for the Olympic games. A little later, in the early
+weeks of 1894, he was actively at work in England holding conferences
+and forming his committee for the promotion of the idea
+of the quadrennial athletic tournament. In June of that year the
+subject was taken up by a great conference or congress, held at the
+Sorbonne in Paris (June 16-24), a dozen or more nations being
+represented. King George of the Hellenes sent his best wishes;
+and the eight-day conference, with its accompanying fêtes and
+sports in the Bois du Boulogne, was fairly successful, resulting in
+the formation of an international committee to carry the Olympic
+plan into effect.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure59" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure59.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—The Stadium at Athens (1906).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>So far Dr. Shaw. Professor Sloane quotes from a preliminary
+circular of January 15, 1894, the final sentence of which reads as
+follows: “The reëstablishment of the Olympic Games on a basis
+and under conditions conformable to the needs of modern life would
+bring together every four years representatives of all nations, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>it is permissible to suppose that these peaceful and courteous
+contests would supply the best of internationalisms.” “To this
+circular,” he says, “came a very irregular and scattering response.
+The German federations took no notice whatever, the gymnastic
+element in France was hostile, the British were lukewarm, the
+Belgians frankly and actively embattled. They had always held
+and still were of the opinion that gymnastics and sports were two
+inimical things and would always combat the latter as opposed to
+the former. Italy, Spain, Greece and above all Sweden sent regular
+delegates. Somehow or another seventy-nine persons representing
+something or another appeared at the congress. The many sessions
+were well attended, the accompanying festivities were dignified and
+inspiring. No one present can ever forget the great assemblage at
+the Sorbonne, the inspiring address of Courvel, the superb poem of
+Sicard, the wonderful execution of the hymn to Apollo, recently
+discovered at Delphi, nor the enthusiasm of the closing banquet.
+These were but a few of the notable events of the week. The climax
+of the proceedings was a unanimous vote for the reëstablishment of
+the Olympiads with the opening of the new century; but second
+thoughts were even more enthusiastic than first and it was finally
+determined to hold the first one at Athens in 1896.</p>
+
+<p>“Greek royalty was already enrolled among the patrons of the
+scheme, Greek patriotism might be relied upon for material and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>effective support. Such at least was the opinion of M. Bikelas, the
+Greek member, the greatest modern Greek man of letters, exerting
+by the charm of his manner, the weight of his character and the gifts
+of his liberal hand, such an influence on the evolution of modern
+Greece as no other single man has been able to deploy. The event
+showed the correctness of his judgment and the weight of his
+personal influence. The president of the International Committee
+was received in Athens with enthusiasm, a wealthy Greek merchant
+of Alexandria, M. Averoff, caused the ancient Stadium to be restored
+and newly lined with Pentelic marble at his personal cost. A
+princely gift of a million drachmæ, other lavish personal contributions,
+and what amounted to a subsidy from the Greek Government
+completed the necessary fund. A very considerable legacy to the
+state from the brothers Zappas, designated for the furtherance of
+physical culture, was through the untiring persistency of M. de
+Coubertin, aided by two devoted Greek friends, M. Antonopoulo
+and Alexander Mercati, appropriated by government consent for
+Olympic purposes. The enterprise was therefore brilliantly
+launched.</p>
+
+<p>“The succession of Olympic Games is well known: after Athens
+in 1896, Paris in 1900, St. Louis in 1904, London in 1908, Stockholm
+in 1912, Berlin (designated for 1916 and actually prepared but
+lapsed owing to war) and Antwerp in 1920. Each has been more
+amazing than its predecessor: in the number of nations represented,
+in the number and quality of competitors, in the greater perfection
+of preparation for each sport, in the number of sports clustered
+around the Olympic week of field and track events, in the social
+arrangements for better acquaintance among competitors and the
+ever-growing throng of visitors, and above all in the passionate
+interest of all peoples in all lands.... While track and field
+sports are the nucleus of the sport-plexus, they are not the whole of
+it. Nor is sport in the narrow sense the whole of it. All kinds of
+outdoor exercises and games have attached themselves to the
+Olympic week of track and field athletics—central and focal in
+modern as in ancient Olympiads—to such an extent that no national
+Olympic council can provide for all in the arrangements for the
+Olympiad to be held. Instead of an Olympic week we already have
+Olympic months and a very powerful movement was started some
+years ago to include winter sports of every kind, and expand into an
+Olympic year. It has become absolutely necessary, if there are to
+be Olympiads, that contraction should be substituted for expansion
+in the number of admitted sports or games represented by federations,
+national or international.</p>
+
+<p>“Furthermore, the Olympic idea comprehends something, yes
+much, quite aside from contests of foremost experts in sport and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>play. For the Antwerp Olympiad arrangements included lectures,
+preliminary in the not too distant future to contests in belles lettres
+and the fine arts. Such competition is already in evidence as
+actually existent though still inchoate. In particular, however,
+and poignantly the Olympic idea as represented by its carriers
+proposes ‘all sports for all’ in the literal sense of the words. The
+Committee hopes that the day is not far distant when through its
+moral influence, orient as well as occident may be nationally organized
+for competition and that the benefits of ‘play for country’ as
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>well as for self may by such organizations be alluringly offered to
+youths and adults of both sexes in every walk of life. To this end
+its plans are already laid, and already great portions of the globe
+hitherto inert athletically are girding themselves for Olympic organization.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>The field therefore of the Olympic idea is not merely sportive
+and social, it is educational and sociological as well. The
+intercourse of athletes and their friends makes for reciprocal goodwill
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>and international peace; but in its largest aspect the idea makes for
+the general uplift and personal purity of untold millions....”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure60" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure60.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—The Stockholm Stadium (1912).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure61" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure61.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Stockholm, 1912: The Swedish Gymnasts
+    Marching into the Stadium.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure62" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure62.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Stockholm, 1912: Swedish Women on the
+    Long Horizontal Bar (<i>Bom</i>).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure63" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure63.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Stockholm, 1912: The Danish Gymnasts.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure64" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure64.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—Stockholm, 1912: The Finnish Gymnasts.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure65" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure65.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Stockholm, 1912: Finnish Women on the Ladders.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The first international congress for the promotion of physical
+education was held at Paris, June 8-15, 1889, in connection with the
+Universal Exposition. Its organizer and general secretary was
+Pierre de Coubertin, and the presiding officer was Jules Simon.
+At the same time came the fifteenth annual fête (<i>Turnfest</i>) of the
+<i>Union des Sociétés de gymnastique de France</i>, attended also by
+representatives from gymnastic societies in Belgium, Holland, the
+Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, the three Scandinavian countries,
+Bohemia, and Switzerland. The Scandinavians did not take part
+in competition, but the delegations from each of the three countries
+went through their exercises separately in front of the tribune. In
+addition the group of Stockholm gymnasts, under the direction of
+Captain Viktor Balck of the Central Institute, appeared before the
+international congress on the 14th, at the Nouveau Cirque, rue St.
+Honore, in another exhibition of the Swedish system. A second
+<i>Congrès international de l’Éducation physique</i> met in Paris August 30-September
+6, 1900, during the progress of the <i>Exposition universelle</i>
+of that year, with M. Georges Demeny (1850-1917) as general
+secretary.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp51" id="figure66" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure66.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Georges Demeny (1850-1917).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Demeny, at first won over to the Swedish system by what he saw
+and heard at Paris in 1889 and during a mission to Sweden with
+Dr. Fernand Lagrange (1845-1909) in the autumn of 1890, afterwards
+withdrew from association with men like Dr. Philippe Tissié
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>who advocated the Ling gymnastics for French schools, and sought
+to build up an eclectic (“French”) system of his own. Both parties
+were represented at the <i>Congrès Olympique international de Sport
+et d’Éducation physique</i> in Brussels June 9-14, 1905, and the <i>Deuxième
+Congrès international de l’Éducation physique de la jeunesse</i> at
+Liège, August 28-September 1 of that year,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> and there were preliminary
+skirmishes at the latter; but the first real battle was fought
+a few weeks later, at the <i>Congrès international d’Expansion économique
+mondiale</i>, in Mons (September 24-27). Five years later each
+group organized its own congress, the friends of the Swedish system
+a <i>Congrès international de Gymnastique pédagogique, militaire,
+médicale et esthétique</i>, which met in Brussels, August 4-6, 1910,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a>
+and Demeny and his followers a (third) <i>Congrès international d’Éducation
+physique</i> in the same city a week later (August 10-13).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> A
+Danish committee representing friends of the Ling system organized
+another international congress, which held its sessions in Odense,
+Denmark, July 7-10, 1911.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> The last congress to be called together
+before the outbreak of the Great War met in Paris under the
+auspices of the <i>Faculté de Médecine</i>, March 17-20, 1913.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> Annuaires des Fédérations Européennes de Gymnastique, 1898 (14 pages), 1899
+(16), 1900 (21), 1901 (47), 1902 (32 pages of text and 17 plates containing portraits),
+1906 (49), and 1913 (? Not seen, but reviewed in <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i> 1913, pages
+138 and 141).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> In “The Evolution of France under the Third Republic,” by Baron Pierre de
+Coubertin. Translated from the French by Isabel F. Hapgood. Authorized edition
+with special Preface and Additions and Introduction by Dr. Albert Shaw, Editor of
+<i>The Review of Reviews</i>. New York and Boston, Thomas Y. Crowell &amp; Co., 1897.
+See Introduction, pages iii-xxiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> First American member of the International Olympic Committee. Quoted from
+his chapter (pages 71-83) in “Report of the American Olympic Committee, Seventh
+Olympic Games, Antwerp, Belgium, 1920.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> See his “Procès-verbaux sommaires,” Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> See the <i>Règlement et rapports préliminaires</i> and the <i>Compte rendu</i> of the second
+congress (Nivelles, Lanneau &amp; Despret).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> See the <i>Rapport-général</i>, Brussels, 1910.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> There is a report by the delegates from the United States in the Bureau of
+Education Report for 1910 (I: 598-601).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> See “Procès-verbal du Congrès international de l’Éducation physique à Odense
+(Danmark)” (Copenhagen, J. H. Schultz, 1911).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> “Congrès international de l’Éducation physique (programme and announcement),
+Paris, Faculté de Médecine, 17-20 Mars 1913.”</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_II">PART II.<br>
+UNITED STATES.</h2>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF THE JAHN GYMNASTICS INTO AMERICA.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The different systems or sorts of physical training which were
+brought forward for trial and the agencies which promoted its
+spread in the United States during the nineteenth century fall into
+three groups, centered about 1830, 1860, and the decade from 1880
+to 1890. The first group includes Captain Alden Partridge and his
+military academies;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> the introduction of the Jahn gymnastics and
+the opening of school, college, and city or public outdoor gymnasia
+under the direction of the German refugees Beck, Follen, and
+Lieber; the attempt to provide manual labor as a system of exercise
+in educational institutions;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> and the use of “calisthenics” for girls
+and women, by Catharine Beecher in her schools in Hartford and
+Cincinnati.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> Space limits have prevented the discussion of any but
+the second member of this group in the present volume.</p>
+
+<p>The first school, college, and public gymnasia in the United
+States—all of them outdoor ones of the early Jahn type—were
+opened in the years 1825 and 1826 in Massachusetts, at Northampton,
+Cambridge, and Boston. All three were laid out and
+directed by university trained Germans, who had been active
+participants in the Jahn gymnastics in their student days and had
+left their native land for the United States in order to escape arrest
+or constant persecution under the reactionary policy adopted by
+the Holy Alliance.</p>
+
+<p>One of these men was Charles Theodore Christian Follen (German,
+<i>Karl Follenius</i> or <i>Follen</i>), born September 4, 1796, in Romrod, a
+market-town north of the Vogelsberg. His father was counsellor
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>at law and judge at Giessen, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, and he
+received his own early training at the classical secondary school and
+the university in that city. When the German War of Liberation
+broke out, in 1813, like most of the Giessen students he joined the
+army, with his brothers August (later called Adolf Ludwig) and
+Paul, but was taken sick with typhus fever within a few weeks, and
+though he returned to his regiment afterwards he was never under
+fire. When peace was concluded (1814) he resumed the study of
+jurisprudence at Giessen, and in March of 1818 received his diploma
+from the university as doctor of the civil and ecclesiastical law.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure67" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure67.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Charles Follen (1796-1840).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Like many another German student, Follen had come back from
+the war filled with ideas of moral and social reform. In place of the
+provincial clubs (<i>Landsmannschaften</i>), with their carousing and the
+duel as their only arbiter of quarrels, he desired to see the entire
+student body united in one Christian brotherhood, with no distinctions
+of class or rank, ruled by the will of the majority determined
+in open assembly after free discussion, and settling all disputes
+according to the principles of right and justice. The purity of his
+own life and the moral greatness of his character, the eloquence
+with which he urged his views, and his confident enthusiasm soon
+won a following of like-minded friends, in whose eyes he took on
+the dignity of a very prophet. The first motion toward union was
+taken in the late summer of 1816. A few days after the following
+Christmas, at a general gathering of students, a formal “code of
+honor” (<i>Ehrenspiegel</i>), Follen’s work in great part, was proposed.
+A majority of those present evinced their hostility to the project
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>by withdrawing at once; but about sixty who remained organized
+themselves into an association, under Follen’s leadership. Looked
+upon with suspicion by the authorities on account of their liberal
+tendencies, hated and proscribed by a majority of the students,
+who nicknamed them “Blacks” (<i>Schwarzen</i>) from the dark clothing
+they affected and their somber demeanor, the reformers became
+only more extreme and uncompromising in their attitude. Reaching
+far beyond the bounds of the university, their plans already
+contemplated a great Christian republic formed of freed and united
+Germany. Tyranny was to be met with resistance, and Follen
+now taught that armed insurrection, and even perjury and assassination,
+were justified when other measures failed in the struggle for
+popular freedom. Some of the Blacks drew back at this, but others,
+known as “Unconditionals” in contrast with the “Moderates,”
+were undismayed at the radical doctrines of their revered leader.</p>
+
+<p>Development of the physical powers formed an essential part of
+the program of the Giessen “Blacks,” just as in the case of the
+<i>Burschenschaften</i> at other universities. In the summer of 1816
+a gymnastic society was formed, enrolling boys in the secondary
+school, young merchants and others, as well as university students.
+Here again the leadership fell to Follen, who is described as an
+excellent gymnast, a skilful hand with the broadsword, and a powerful
+swimmer. The “Deutsche Turnkunst” of 1816 was the guide
+in Giessen, as elsewhere, and Jahn’s rules formed the basis of order
+during the exercises. National anniversaries were celebrated, a
+<i>Turnfest</i> was held at the end of July, 1818, excursions were organized,
+and trips were taken with companions from Darmstadt, Heidelberg,
+and other places. Upon leaving Giessen students transferred their
+membership to <i>Turnvereine</i> in the new home, or sought to form such
+societies where they did not already exist. The efforts of Karl
+Völker at Tübingen have already been mentioned (<a href="#Page_98">p. 98</a>) in describing
+Jahn’s life and work.</p>
+
+<p>Upon completing his courses in jurisprudence Follen remained
+at the University as <i>Privat-docent</i>, studying at the same time the
+practice of law in his father’s court. Early in the fall of 1818 he
+undertook the cause of several hundred communities in the province
+of Upper Hesse which desired to remonstrate against a government
+measure directed against the last remnant of their political independence,
+and drew up a petition to the Grand Duke in their behalf.
+It was printed and widely circulated, and aroused public opinion
+to such a pitch that the obnoxious measure was repealed; but it
+also brought upon its author such unrelenting hatred on the part
+of the influential men whose selfish plans were thereby thwarted
+that any thought of a further career in his home city became impossible.
+He therefore accepted an invitation from Professor Fries to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>lecture on the Pandects as <i>Privat-docent</i> in the University of Jena,
+and left Giessen in October of 1818.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
+
+<p>An attempt to force upon the Jena Burschenschaft his radical
+views regarding moral and political reform excited the opposition of
+all but a small minority. Friends, even, were alienated by his
+stern, intolerant attitude, and by the charge of weakness or cowardice
+with which he met dissent from the extremities to which he pushed
+his principles; so that the number of “Unconditionals” at Jena was
+never more than a small handful. One of these, however, was Karl
+Sand, whose murder of Kotzebue on March 23, 1819, was the
+logical outcome of Follen’s teaching, acting upon a mind unbalanced
+by fanatical zeal in the cause of popular liberty. To the authorities
+all student associations became objects of suspicion, and under
+the reactionary measures that followed the Giessen “Blacks”
+and the <i>Burschenschaften</i> at Jena and other universities suffered
+alike. Follen was forbidden to lecture any longer at Jena, and he
+therefore returned to his home in Giessen.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> Here, however, he
+found himself a proscribed man. Learning that the government
+intended to send him to prison, he left Giessen for Strasburg in the
+winter of 1819-20, visited for a time in Paris, where he made the
+acquaintance of Lafayette and, through him, of other distinguished
+men, and in the summer of 1821 settled in Basel, as public lecturer
+on jurisprudence and metaphysics in the recently organized
+University.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure68" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure68.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Charles Beck (1798-1866). (From a Portrait in the Library of Harvard
+    University).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Among the German refugees whose friendship Follen enjoyed
+during his three years at Basel were the distinguished theologian
+De Wette, and his stepson Charles (German, <i>Karl</i>) Beck. Beck
+was born in Heidelberg August 19, 1798. His father, a merchant,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span>died when the boy was still young, and his mother afterwards became
+the wife of Wilhelm De Wette, professor in the university of Heidelberg.
+In 1810 the family removed to Berlin, whither De Wette had
+been called to fill the chair of theology in the new Prussian university.
+There, as a student in the Werder’sche <i>Gymnasium</i>, Beck
+soon came under Jahn’s influence, began to frequent the Hasenheide
+Turnplatz, and owing to his natural robustness of body, and the
+enthusiasm with which he applied himself to the exercises, developed
+more than usual proficiency in all the arts of the <i>Turner</i>. After
+the assassination of Kotzebue in 1819, De Wette, who had long been
+a friend of the Sand family, wrote a letter to the mother, in which he
+endeavored to console her with the thought that her son’s act,
+though wicked, arose from a mistaken notion of duty. The Prussian
+authorities, upon learning of this letter, accused the eminent teacher
+of seeking to excuse the crime, and in token of their displeasure
+deprived him of his chair and even banished him from the kingdom.
+After several years in retirement he accepted, in 1822, the professorship
+of theology in the University of Basel, and passed the
+remainder of his life in that city. Beck, meanwhile, had become an
+accomplished classical scholar at the University of Berlin. He
+afterwards studied theology, was ordained to the Lutheran ministry
+at Heidelberg, July 7, 1822, and the next year obtained his doctor’s
+degree in theology from the University of Tübingen. He had been
+active in the movement for a true Christian <i>Burschenschaft</i>, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>finding that his republican sentiments stood in the way of a successful
+career in Germany, he, too, removed to Switzerland and joined
+the rest of the family at Basel, where he found an opportunity to
+teach the Latin language and literature.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the allied sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia
+had requested repeatedly that Follen be surrendered to them for
+trial on the ground of complicity in revolutionary movements, and
+acting on the advice of friends he left the city for a few months,
+seeking concealment in Baden at first, and in the spring of 1824
+revisiting Paris. Here he again saw much of Lafayette, who
+introduced him to the American Minister (James Brown) and
+sought his company on an approaching visit to the United States.
+Although longer residence in Basel appeared unsafe, he returned to
+his duties in the university; but on October 27, 1824 he again left
+the city, and three days later, travelling by mail-coach and provided
+with a false passport, he reached Paris. Here he found Beck, who
+had already left Switzerland a few days in advance, convinced that
+even this asylum was no longer free from danger for Germans known
+to cherish liberal opinions. The two men went at once to Havre,
+engaged passage on the vessel “Cadmus,” and sailed for the United
+States on the 5th of November.</p>
+
+<p>They reached New York December 19. Three days later Follen
+wrote to General Lafayette, who was then revisiting this country
+at the invitation of Congress and receiving everywhere a welcome
+which gave to his movements the character of a triumphal procession.
+Acting at once on his suggestion that they go first of all to
+Philadelphia, they reached that city on January 12, and were soon
+busily engaged in the study of English. Letters from Lafayette
+secured them a kind reception and introduction to agreeable and
+influential men, among others to Duponceau, a prominent lawyer of
+French descent, who had been his friend for more than half a century.
+George Ticknor, professor of the French and Spanish languages and
+literature and of belles-lettres at Harvard University 1819-1835,
+was then visiting in Washington. Lafayette sought to interest him
+in the two German refugees, and on his return through Philadelphia,
+early in February, Ticknor accordingly hunted them up, and found
+in Follen’s possession a letter from Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, a
+friend of the Follen family and one of the son’s favorite teachers in
+Giessen, and afterwards professor in the University of Göttingen,
+where Ticknor, a student there in the years 1815-1817, had made his
+acquaintance.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p>
+
+<p>Ticknor’s letter to George Bancroft, to whom De Wette had
+already directed a letter recommending his stepson, secured for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>Beck an immediate appointment as instructor in Latin and gymnastics
+at the Round Hill School, Northampton, Massachusetts,
+and by the middle of the month (February, 1825) he had left
+Philadelphia to take up his new duties. Except for a visit to Beck
+at Northampton the next summer, Follen continued to reside in or
+near Philadelphia, applying himself with diligence and success to his
+English studies, and preparing a course of lectures on the civil law,
+which he hoped to deliver in the following fall and winter. He had
+also enrolled himself with Duponceau as a law student and was
+reading Blackstone. But in November, owing to the efforts of
+Professor Ticknor, Duponceau, and others, Harvard University
+offered him the position of Instructor in German, at a salary of
+$500—the first time that subject had been included in its curriculum.
+Expecting to add to his income by lectures on the Roman law, to be
+delivered in Boston, he at once accepted the offer, visiting Beck
+once more on the way, and before Christmas was settled in
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important and successful educational innovations
+of its time was the Round Hill School, opened on the first of October,
+1823, by Joseph Green Cogswell (1786-1871) and George Bancroft
+(1800-1891). A descriptive circular issued a year after Beck’s
+appointment—it is dated March 25, 1826&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a>—reveals the serious
+purpose with which they undertook the introduction of gymnastics
+and other forms of physical training. “It may be
+impossible,” they say, “to engraft on any modern nation a
+system of education corresponding to that which prevailed in
+ancient Greece. But something must be done. Food, sleep,
+and exercise must be regulated, purity protected, life guaranteed
+against casualties, and temperance and exercise be set, even in the
+dawn of existence, to keep watch over health. Games and healthful
+sports, promoting hilarity and securing a just degree of exercise, are
+to be encouraged. Various means of motion are to be devised and
+applied; and where these are regularly used everything is done to
+assist nature in strengthening the youthful constitution. If in
+addition to regularity in the use of exercise, the kinds of it are so
+arranged that the several powers of the body may successively be
+brought into action and gradually led to greater exertions, it will
+not be long before the physical being assumes a new appearance, and
+in addition to the acquisition of a control of the body, beneficial
+results will be visible in general industry, deportment, and morals.
+The attempt, therefore, to provide the various means for gymnastic
+exercises merits to be encouraged; and whether the methods are by
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>turns strange or common, complicated or simple, the best that are
+known should be employed. We are deeply impressed with the
+necessity of uniting physical with moral education; and are particularly
+favored in executing our plans of connecting them by the
+assistance of a pupil and friend of Jahn, the greatest modern advocate
+of gymnastics. We have proceeded slowly in our attempts, for the
+undertaking was a new one; but now we see ourselves near the
+accomplishment of our views. The whole subject of the union of
+moral and physical education is a great deal simpler than it may at
+first appear. And here, too, we may say, that we were the first in
+the new continent to connect gymnastics with a purely literary
+establishment.”</p>
+
+<p>Of the nature of this “first gymnasium on this side of the
+Atlantic,” and the work done in it, not much direct evidence has
+come down to us. One former pupil (Thomas G. Appleton)&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> writes:
+“‘Pitching the bar’ was generally done near the schoolhouse; but
+the regular exercise of gymnastics was upon a plateau just below the
+hill, where gymnastic appliances, then freshly introduced from
+Germany, were in abundance.” Dr. George C. Shattuck, another
+“Round Hiller,” is quoted by Dr. E. M. Hartwell&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> as follows:
+“Dr. Beck, the teacher of Latin, afterward the professor of Latin
+in Harvard University, was the teacher of gymnastics. A large
+piece of ground was devoted to the purpose and furnished with all
+the apparatus used in the German gymnasia. The whole school
+was divided into classes, and each class had an hour three times a
+week for instruction by Dr. Beck.” A newspaper article copied
+in the <i>American Journal of Education</i> for July, 1826, states that
+classes begin at 5:30, others at 6:15, and breakfast comes at 7; from
+7:30 till 9 the only exercises are in declamation and dancing, 9 till
+12 other classes, 12 until 1 rest, dinner at 1, 2 until 5 more
+classes, 5 until 7 “exercise and amusement. At this time the
+classes in gymnastics have their instruction, when the weather
+permits.” The evening meal follows, and devotional exercises are
+held at 8, after which the smaller boys go to bed, and the rest study
+for an hour longer.</p>
+
+<p>Indirect proof that the Round Hill “gymnasium” was only a
+miniature Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i> is abundantly furnished by the
+“Treatise on Gymnasticks, taken chiefly from the German of F. L.
+Jahn,” a translation of the “<i>Deutsche Turnkunst</i>” of 1816, which
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>Beck completed and turned over to the publisher in January, 1828.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a>
+In the preface he tells us that “The same causes which occasioned
+the publication of the original, in Germany, about twelve years ago,
+render a translation desirable in this country.... The school of
+Messrs. Cogswell and Bancroft, in Northampton, Mass., was the
+first institution in this country that introduced gymnastick exercises
+as a part of the regular instruction, in the spring of 1825. Since
+that time, the interest for this branch of education has been rapidly
+increasing, and frequent inquiries have been made respecting a
+subject much esteemed for its expected salutary effects, but little
+known as to its particulars.... Wishes were expressed to me,
+by several of the most zealous and able friends and advocates of
+physical education, to translate a work which would be suitable ...
+or compile one.... I did not doubt to which of the two ways
+proposed to give the preference. I fixed upon the treatise of
+Jahn, for reasons contained in the preceding lines.” Jahn’s preface
+and Part V (containing the bibliography) are omitted altogether
+by the translator; Parts III and IV have been transposed,
+a chapter on dumb-bell exercises is introduced in Part I,
+and there are a few other omissions and additions suggested by
+recent experience. Plates VII and VIII are reproductions of the
+two in the original, but the sixty-three figures in the remaining
+six plates are new.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Beck at work in the first school gymnasium established
+in the United States, we have now to return to Charles Follen,
+waiting in Cambridge, in late December of 1825, to begin his duties
+as first teacher of the German language in Harvard University.
+Within a year he also was introducing the Jahn gymnastics in his
+new field, and had opened the first college gymnasium this country
+had seen, at Harvard University, and the first public gymnasium,
+in Boston. He had visited Beck at Northampton in July of 1825
+and again early in December, and on March 5 of the next year,
+only a little more than two months after his arrival in Cambridge,
+used these words in a letter to his friend: “I expect our University
+will particularly apply to you on the subject of gymnastics. I have
+commenced gymnastic exercises with the students. The College
+furnishes the implements, and will give us a place. At present I
+use one of the dining-halls. All show much zeal. In Boston a
+gymnasium is soon to be established.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span></p>
+
+<p>The third instalment of “Reminiscences of Harvard, 1822-26,”
+by Rev. Cazneau Palfrey, printed in <i>The Harvard Register</i> of October,
+1880, contains this passage: “The first movement in the direction
+of gymnastics made in college was made in my senior year....
+The medical professors of the College published an appeal to the
+students, strongly recommending to them the practice of gymnastic
+exercises; and a meeting of all the classes was held in the College
+chapel (such a meeting as I do not remember hearing of on any other
+occasion), at which a response was made to this appeal, and resolutions
+passed expressing our readiness to follow the suggestions
+made in it. One of the unoccupied commons halls (on the first floor
+of University Hall) was fitted up with various gymnastic appliances;
+and other fixtures were erected on the Delta, the enclosure now
+occupied by Memorial Hall. But Dr. Follen did not confine his
+operations to these two localities. One day he was to be seen
+issuing from the College yard at a dogtrot, with all college (the
+total number of undergraduates at that period was not more than
+two hundred) at his heels in single file, and arms akimbo, making
+a train a mile long, bound for the top of Prospect Hill. Great was
+the amazement and amusement of all passersby. I was one of the
+bobs of that living kite; but, as I dropped prematurely, I cannot
+speak confidently of the end....”</p>
+
+<p>Anyone familiar with the appearance of a German <i>Turnplatz</i>
+of the Jahn type will readily understand the allusions made by
+Thomas Wentworth Higginson in his chapter on “The Gymnasium,
+and Gymnastics in Harvard College,” in the second volume of “The
+Harvard Book” (Cambridge, 1875). “One of my most impressive
+early reminiscences,” he says, “is of a certain moment when I looked
+out timidly from my father’s gateway, on what is now Kirkland
+Street, in Cambridge, and saw the forms of young men climbing,
+swinging, and twirling aloft in the open playground opposite. It
+was the triangular field then called the ‘Delta,’ where the great
+Memorial Hall now stands. The apparatus on which these youths
+were exercising was, to my childish eyes, as inexplicable as if it had
+been a pillory or a gallows, which indeed it somewhat resembled.
+It consisted of high uprights and crossbars, with ladders and
+swinging ropes, and complications of wood and cordage, whose
+details are vanished from my memory. Beneath some parts of the
+apparatus there were pits sunk in the earth, and so well constructed
+that they remained long after the woodwork had been removed.
+This early recollection must date as far back as 1830.”</p>
+
+<p>In the “Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the University
+in Cambridge,” October, 1825, appears the name “Charles Follen,
+J.U.D., Instructor in German, and Lecturer on the Civil Law.”
+The next catalogue (September, 1826) retains the name and title
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span>unchanged, but in that “for the Academical year 1827-1828” (published
+in 1827) he is called “Instructor in German, and Superintendent
+of the Gymnasium;” and in both these catalogues the following
+paragraph occurs: “The regular Gymnastick exercises, when
+the Superintendent of the Gymnasium is present, are on Wednesday
+and Friday, from 12 to 1 o’clock; or when the length of the day
+admits, after evening Commons. On Monday, the Monitors and
+Vice Monitors meet separately with the Superintendent, to prepare
+for the general exercises.” The catalogues for 1828-1829 (published
+in 1828) and 1829-1830 (published in 1829) make no mention of
+“Gymnastick exercises,” and give Follen the title “Instructor in
+the German Language, in Ethics, and in Civil and Ecclesiastical
+History.” From 1826 through 1829 this further paragraph is
+included: “Military exercises are allowed on Tuesday and Thursday,
+from 12 to 1 o’clock, or after evening Commons; with music
+not oftener than every other time, and liberty of a parade on the
+afternoons of Exhibition days.”</p>
+
+<p>In a letter to Beck dated March 5, 1826, Follen had written:
+“In Boston a gymnasium is soon to be established.” The gentlemen
+interested in the project offered him a liberal salary if he would
+“superintend the erection of the proper apparatus and become the
+principal instructor,” and authorized him to engage a suitable assistant.
+September 26 he again wrote to Beck: “The day after
+tomorrow my rope-dancing begins in Boston. The gallows stand,
+in significant majesty, on the spot. There is no lack of gallows-birds,
+large and small, genteel and vulgar....” A petition had
+been presented to the Board of Aldermen of Boston on March 13,
+asking for the use of a certain piece of land “for the purpose of
+establishing a school of gymnastic instruction and exercise.” April
+17 the city authorities granted this request. Following a call which
+appeared in the Boston <i>Daily Advertiser</i> of June 12, a meeting of
+citizens was held June 15, at the Exchange Coffee House, to take
+steps to carry out the plan for a public gymnasium. The official
+report is published in the <i>American Journal of Education</i> for July,
+1826, (Vol. I, p. 243). The meeting unanimously resolved “that
+it is expedient to attempt the establishment of a Gymnastic School
+in the city of Boston,” and appointed William Sullivan, Dr. John C.
+Warren, Prof. George Ticknor, Dr. John G. Coffin, and John S.
+Foster, with others to be selected by them, a committee to carry
+the resolution into effect, by securing and applying contributions
+from the citizens of Boston. Others mentioned as especially
+interested in the project are Judge Prescott, Josiah Quincy, Daniel
+Webster, Peter O. Thacher, John A. Lowell, Thomas Motley, and
+John B. Davis. Two hundred and fifty shares, at twenty dollars
+each, were offered by the committee, and according to Dr. Warren
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span>the contributions were “very liberal,” permitting the opening of the
+establishment “on a large scale.”</p>
+
+<p>The open-air gymnasium or <i>Turnplatz</i> was ready for the public
+on September 28, not on the site originally selected, but in Washington
+Gardens, at the corner of West and Tremont Streets, opposite
+the Common. A notice in the <i>American Journal of Education</i> for
+October mentions “the large number of pupils of various ages, and
+the high gratification it seems to afford;” and the November number
+of the same Journal uses these words, in the course of a more
+extended reference: “A month’s opportunity of observing its
+progress and participating in its exercises enables us now to say that
+thus far it gives the utmost satisfaction to those who have made the
+experiment of taking a course of lessons. The physical effects of
+the gymnastic exercise, on pupils of very different ages—from ten
+to fifty—are surprising. Many have doubled their vigor....
+Pupils belong to great diversity of situations in life—physicians,
+lawyers, and clergymen are intermixed with young men from the
+counter and the counting house, and with boys from the public
+schools.” Follen was assisted by George F. Turner, a Harvard
+student. Mrs. Follen, then Miss Eliza Lee Cabot, first met her
+future husband in the autumn of 1826. She says: “He accompanied
+us and some other ladies to his gymnasium, to see his class of
+boys go through their exercises. He took us, when we first entered
+the place, to look at a very amusing caricature of his school, particularly
+of his elder pupils and himself, in the act of performing some of
+their most difficult exercises.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p>
+
+<p>In June of the following year (1827) Follen resigned his position
+at the Boston Gymnasium. To a committee of pupils there, who
+sent him a letter&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> expressing their appreciation of his services and
+their regret at losing him, he replied under date of July 3, referring
+to “the patriotic views to which the Boston Gymnasium owes its
+existence, and the efficient zeal with which these exercises have been
+carried on.” Meanwhile an attempt had been made to secure the
+services of no less a person than Friedrich Ludwig Jahn himself. Dr.
+Warren tells us&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> that he “addressed a letter to the distinguished
+philosopher and gymnasiarch, Professor Jahn, through my friend,
+William Amory, Esq., who was at that time residing in Germany.
+Mr. Jahn was so situated that we could not, without obtaining more
+means than were at our disposition, lead him to abandon his own
+country and establish himself for life in ours. The idea of obtaining
+his aid was therefore relinquished; and I afterwards addressed Dr.
+Lieber....”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp69" id="figure69" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure69.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Francis Lieber (1800-1872). (From Harley’s “Francis Lieber”).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This latter gentleman, who succeeded Follen at the Boston
+gymnasium late in June or early in July of 1827, was Francis
+(German, <i>Franz</i>) Lieber, born in Berlin on March 18, 1800. In
+1811 he became acquainted with Jahn, at the Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i>.
+Although too young to join his older brothers in the first
+campaign of the War of Liberation, upon Napoleon’s return from
+Elba he entered (May 26, 1815) a volunteer regiment, the Pomeranian
+Rifles or Kolberg Regiment, took part in the battle of Ligny,
+was severely wounded at Namur, and later suffered from a prolonged
+siege of typhus fever in the hospitals at Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne.
+After his return home he attended for a time the <i>Gymnasium zum
+grauen Kloster</i>, and now became one of the most ardent and tireless
+of Jahn’s turners, accompanying him on the month-long excursions
+to the Island of Rügen in 1817 and to Breslau the following year.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>
+In July of 1819, a few days after Jahn’s arrest, Lieber was also
+seized as an enemy of the state. After four months in prison he was
+allowed to go free, but forbidden to study in any Prussian university.
+The universities of Heidelberg and Tübingen also refused him
+admission, but he met with better success at Jena, where he received
+his doctor’s degree (Ph.D.) in 1820, studying afterwards for brief
+periods in Halle and Dresden (1821). In December of that year
+Lieber joined at Marseilles a band of Philhellenes, who sailed from
+that port to give their services in the cause of freedom to a foreign
+race, since the reaction at home left no opportunity there for patriotic
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>endeavor; but disgusted with the cowardice, incapacity, and lying
+met at every step in Greece, he returned in a small vessel to
+Ancona, on the eastern coast of Italy, reached Rome about the
+first of June, and spent the next year as private tutor in the family
+of Barthold Georg Niebuhr, the celebrated German historian, at
+that time Prussian ambassador at the Papal Court.</p>
+
+<p>The Prussian King, and later Kamptz, the Minister of Police,
+had assured Lieber that no further persecution need be feared in his
+own country, and for some months after his return to Berlin, which
+he reached August 10, 1823, it seemed as though all was well. But
+in time it appeared that every movement was watched by the police.
+Foreseeing the fate that awaited him if he remained longer in
+Germany, he now took steps looking toward a career in some foreign
+land. Lessons in English were begun in February of 1826, and
+among other things he secured from Major-General von Pfuel, in
+charge of a swimming school in Berlin, a testimonial as to his skill
+in that art and his ability to conduct a similar institution with
+success. When all was ready he left Berlin, May 17, 1826, and ten
+days later reached London, travelling by way of Hamburg and
+Gravesend.</p>
+
+<p>Although he passed a year in the English metropolis, supporting
+himself by private instruction in German and Italian at six shillings
+a lesson, Lieber’s thoughts were soon turned from this uncertain
+means of livelihood to the possibility of a career in the United
+States. As early as August his diary contains this entry: “Mrs.
+Austin, the authoress, introduced me to Mr. Bentham, and to Mr.
+Neal” (<a href="#Page_248">p. 248</a>). The <i>American Journal of Education</i> for November
+of that year (Vol. I, pp. 699-701) quotes as follows from “a recent
+letter of our literary countryman Mr. Neal, who has taken a very
+active part in aiding the interests of Prof. Voelker’s establishment in
+London, and to whose attention we have been repeatedly indebted
+for intelligence on gymnastics”: ‘You know my zeal about
+gymnastics. I have been heartily engaged for above a year in the
+study and practice of them in every variety; and under a hope that
+I may be of use to my countrymen. I have found three men who
+I am told are qualified, almost beyond example, for teachers. I
+enclose you the proposals and the certificate of one, who was a chief
+personage with professor Jahn himself.’</p>
+
+<p>The certificate of Professor Jahn: “Francis Lieber, Doctor in
+Philosophy, has during several successive years, both in summer and
+winter, gone through the whole course of gymnastic exercises in the
+gymnasium over which I, the undersigned, presided; he has also
+accompanied me in several pedestrian excursions, among others in
+1817 to the Island of Rügen, and in 1818 to the Riesen mountains,
+on which travels we visited many Prussian gymnasiums. Having
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span>found him of good moral behavior, ingenious and clever, and being
+a good leader and teacher of gymnastics, I thought it right as early
+as the year 1817 to propose him to the government of the Rhenish
+Provinces at Aix la Chapelle for the situation of a teacher of gymnastic
+exercises. Beloved by the young scholars, esteemed and
+respected by those of the same or a more advanced age than himself,
+he was elected a member of the committee which was intended to
+represent the society of ‘Turners’ and to promote the art generally,
+with a view as well to the art itself as to morals and science. At
+the time when Dr. Lieber was daily with me he zealously adhered
+to those eternal maxims of truth, duty, and liberty which form the
+only basis of the progress of human kind. The journeys which he
+has performed through Germany, Switzerland, to France, Italy,
+and Greece, have no doubt still farther formed his understanding
+and enlarged his mind; but on this point I cannot judge from my own
+knowledge, having since lost sight of him although he lives in my
+recollection. At the request of Dr. Lieber I have given this testimonial,
+stamped according to law, written with my own hand, with
+my seal affixed and certified by the municipality of my present
+abode. Freiburg on the Unstrut, in the Prussian Duchy of Saxony.
+August 1, 1826. (Signed) Frederick Lewis Jahn, Doctor in
+Philosophy.”</p>
+
+<p>“In addition to the above,” the Editor of the <i>Journal</i> concludes,
+“Dr. Lieber has a very satisfactory certificate from Major General
+Pfuel, who invented the new method of teaching to swim and
+established the Prussian Military Swimming Schools. It may be
+proper to add that Dr. Lieber is known and approved by Dr. Follen,
+Professor (!) of civil law in Harvard University and Superintendent
+of the gymnasium in Boston.”</p>
+
+<p>April 13, 1827, in response to an invitation just received, Lieber
+wrote accepting a position as Follen’s successor at the Boston
+Gymnasium, and agreeing to establish a swimming school in that
+city. June 20 of the same year he landed in New York City, and
+proceeded at once to the scene of his new duties. The <i>Boston
+Medical Intelligencer</i> of July 3 (Vol. V, p. 118) announces his arrival
+“to take charge of the gymnasium in Washington Garden and to
+open a swimming school;” and an advertisement in the same journal,
+dated July 14, gives notice that “Dr. Lieber’s Swimming School,
+situate on the north side of the Mill Dam, will be opened for the
+reception of pupils on Wednesday next, 18th inst....” The
+swimming school seems to have proved a successful venture from the
+start, and was still in existence at least as late as the season of 1832.
+The popularity of the gymnasium, on the other hand, soon waned.
+From a sketch of the life of William Bentley Fowle contained in
+Barnard’s <i>American Journal of Education</i> for 1861 (Vol. X, p. 607)
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span>we learn that “about four hundred gentlemen attended at the
+opening term. Mr. Fowle was chosen treasurer, and was in fact
+the chief executive officer. When Dr. Follen resigned Dr. Lieber
+was invited over from London; but no talent could keep the gymnasium
+alive after the novelty had ceased, and some of the gymnasts
+had been caricatured in the print shops. The institution lingered
+about two years, when, only about four gymnasts remaining, Mr.
+Fowle closed its accounts.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p>
+
+<p>Beck left the Round Hill School in 1830, to take part in establishing
+another boys’ school, in Phillipstown, on the Hudson River
+opposite West Point. Two years later he was elected “University
+Professor of Latin, and Permanent Tutor,” in Harvard University,
+and for eighteen years discharged the duties of that position in a
+manner which won the respect and affectionate regard of pupils and
+colleagues. Upon resigning his chair, and until his death, which
+occurred suddenly on March 19, 1866, he was occupied with literary
+pursuits and classical studies, and also held various offices of public
+trust, representing Cambridge for two years in the State Legislature.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a>
+Bancroft, too, had withdrawn from the school at Northampton in
+1830.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> For some years longer, in the face of financial losses and in
+spite of failing health, Cogswell struggled to maintain its efficiency.
+In the spring of 1834 he finally gave up the attempt, and after two
+years at the head of a boys’ school near Raleigh, North Carolina,
+turned his back forever on a profession in which he had been in many
+ways singularly successful.</p>
+
+<p>Follen, as we have seen, resigned his position at the Boston
+gymnasium early in the summer of 1827; the title “Superintendent
+of the Gymnasium” at Harvard is given him only in the catalogue
+for 1827-1828, which also contains the last reference to “gymnastick
+exercises.” August 21, 1828, the Corporation of Harvard College
+appointed him “Instructor in Ethics and in Civil and Ecclesiastical
+History” in the Theological School, in addition to his work in the
+College. Two years later he received a five-year appointment as
+Professor of the German Language and Literature, three friends
+having guaranteed a portion of his salary for that period. The
+professorship was not renewed in 1835, and his connection with the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span>University came to an end. In the summer of 1833 he became
+interested in the Anti-slavery Society which had been formed the
+year previous in Boston, and soon joined it, assisting later in the
+formation of a similar society in Cambridge, and at one time serving
+as a manager of the Massachusetts Society. As early as the winter
+of 1826-1827 he formed the acquaintance of Dr. William Ellery
+Channing, and decided to prepare himself for the ministry with
+the assistance of that distinguished Unitarian clergyman. On
+January 13, 1840, three days after completing a well-attended
+course of six lectures on German literature under the auspices of the
+Merchants’ Library Association of New York, he left that city for
+Boston on the steamboat “Lexington.” About fifty miles out, on
+the Sound, the vessel caught fire, and Follen, together with all but
+four of the crew and passengers, met his death. Charles Sumner,
+who had been his pupil, wrote to a friend “Dr. Follen is gone; able,
+virtuous, learned, good, with a heart throbbing to all that is honest
+and humane;” and Dr. Channing “said of him that he was, on the
+whole, the best man he had ever known.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p>The career of Francis Lieber in the United States was more notable
+than those of either of his compatriots. A testimonial from Niebuhr,
+and his own force of intellect and character, secured him at once a
+very cordial reception on this side of the Atlantic, and upon the
+recommendation of the same distinguished patron a half-dozen
+leading periodicals in Germany appointed him American correspondent.
+At the close of his first season at the swimming school
+he turned with great energy to literary labors, and soon made up his
+mind to edit an encyclopedia, modelled after the seventh edition of
+the Brockhaus <i>Conversations-Lexicon</i> and in part a translation of that
+famous German work, but adapted to English readers and supplied
+with numerous additional articles by distinguished American
+contributors. The first volume of the new “Encyclopædia Americana”
+appeared in 1829, and the thirteenth and last in 1833. It
+proved a successful venture financially and brought him also the
+acquaintance of prominent men in all parts of the country. In
+September of 1833 he moved his family from Boston to Philadelphia,
+and by October 19 had finished the draft of a constitution for Girard
+College. June 5, 1835, he was unanimously elected Professor of
+History and Political Economy in South Carolina College, at
+Columbia. May 18, 1857, he was elected Professor of History and
+Political Science in Columbia College, New York City, but later, in
+July of 1865, was transferred by the trustees to the chair of Constitutional
+History and Public Law in the Law School. Here he
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span>continued
+    in active service until his sudden death, October 2, 1872.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p>
+
+<p>The outdoor gymnasia at Northampton, Cambridge, and Boston,
+although for the historian they possess the greatest interest, were
+not the only ones established during the period (1825-1830) under
+consideration. Each had its imitators, and there were other attempts
+of a similar nature which seem to have been more or less independent,
+or inspired by direct contact with European models. The following
+information deserves a place as a contribution to this study of
+beginnings, and it is offered in the hope of arousing a curiosity
+which will result in additions to our present knowledge of the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>No school of the period attracted more attention or enjoyed
+greater prosperity than did the New York High School, a private
+institution for boys, which the son of its founder&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> calls, at the time
+of its organization, “the first and the only pay school in this country
+established on the professed principle of cheap and efficient instruction
+based on ... the adoption and employment of the
+monitorial system, by which one teacher can communicate his
+knowledge to a large number of pupils.” It was located in New
+York City, on Crosby Street, above Grand, and opened March 1,
+1825, with about 250 boys; but the numbers rapidly increased to
+more than 600, and there were still about 400 at the time of its discontinuance,
+near the close of 1831. The founder was John Griscom
+(1774-1852), who during a year of foreign travel had examined many
+famous European schools, and refers in the published account of his
+observations&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> to the gymnastic exercises which he saw in Paris, at the
+school of Amoros&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> (August 27, 1818), and in Switzerland at the schools
+of Fellenberg, in Hofwyl (October 2 and 3, 1818), and Pestalozzi,
+in Yverdon (October 8 and 9, 1818). In writing of the visit to
+Amoros he remarks: “A systematic course of instruction, with
+proper exercises, on the right use of their limbs, I have long thought
+would be very advantageous to boys;” and his opening address
+at the New York High School&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> contains the following: “I shall
+refrain from dwelling longer on the literary pursuits of this seminary;
+but I cannot dismiss my subject without adverting to one branch
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span>of instruction which it is equally the wish, I believe, of the trustees
+and principals to establish as a constituent part of our general plan,
+from a conviction of its advantages to the bodily vigor and of course
+to the intellectual strength and activity of our pupils. I allude to
+<i>gymnastics</i>.” The second annual report of the Trustees&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> informs the
+public that “Gymnastic exercises have been introduced, under the
+superintendence of an experienced and careful teacher, and they
+have been attended with evident advantage to the spirits and health
+of the pupils.”</p>
+
+<p>Other schools which introduced gymnastic exercises, or planned to
+do so, during the period under review, were the New Haven Gymnasium,
+conducted by two sons of President Timothy Dwight of
+Yale; the Berkshire High School, at Pittsfield, Mass.; the Mount
+Pleasant Classical Institution, at Amherst, Mass.; the Livingston
+County High School, near Geneseo, New York; the Buffalo High
+School; Gideon F. Thayer’s private school for boys, in Harvard
+Place, Boston; the Noyes School, at Andover, New Hampshire;
+Walnut Grove School, at Troy, New York; a High School in Utica,
+New York; the Brookline (Mass.) Gymnasium; Mount Hope
+Literary and Scientific Institution, near Baltimore, Maryland; and
+the Classical and Scientific Seminary at Ballston, New York.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p>
+
+<p>After Harvard, Yale College seems to have been the first to introduce
+gymnastics among its students. A letter received from the
+University Library states “that the idea was taken from the gymnasium
+recently established at Harvard; that Tutor William M.
+Holland was sent to Cambridge in the summer of 1826 to procure
+the apparatus, and that he superintended the exercises, which
+was begun with the opening of the fall term of 1826.” At a meeting
+of the Corporation held September 12, 1826, it was “Voted that a
+sum not exceeding three hundred dollars, to be expended under the
+direction of the faculty, be appropriated to the clearing and preparation
+of grounds for a Gymnasium and to the erection of apparatus
+for Gymnastic exercises, with a view to the promotion of the health
+and improvement of the Students.”</p>
+
+<p>A book entitled “Student Life at Amherst College,” compiled by
+George R. Cutting and published at Amherst in 1871, contains the
+following account of a similar movement at that institution: “In
+the summer of 1826 the students of the college petitioned the
+Faculty for a holiday in which to clear up the college grove. The
+petition was granted, and a second day was given for further completion
+of the work. Thus logs, stumps, and rubbish were removed,
+and the students had a fine grove at their command for outdoor
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>exercise. Several months afterward a Gymnastic Society was
+formed, whose chief object was the erection and support of gymnastic
+apparatus in this grove. The first president of the society
+was Joseph Howard, M.D., of ’27. The Faculty concurred in the
+plans of the society, and as a result of their efforts a variety of useful
+apparatus was placed here, which was eminently serviceable to the
+students and contributed not a little to their health and happiness.
+By the enthusiasm and public spirit of the society a bathing house
+(10 × 12 feet) was also erected, in the southwest corner of the
+grove. Here shower-baths were provided for the members. This
+was afterwards burned down. In 1827-1828 the society contemplated
+the erection of bowling alleys, but the Faculty would not
+suffer the innovation.... Addresses were occasionally pronounced
+before the society, in the chapel, upon ‘physical culture.’
+The society did not really cease to exist until 1859-1860, when the
+present (Barrett) gymnasium was erected. Its apparatus, ever and
+anon increased and repaired by the liberality of the students, was
+not removed from the grove until after that time.” Dr. E. M.
+Hartwell, in his “Physical Training in American Colleges and
+Universities” (Washington, 1886), tells us that “One who entered
+Amherst as a student in 1829 describes a gymnasium which consisted
+of ‘a few horses and parallel bars, with one or two swings in
+the grove, but even these belonged to a society of students who
+guarded their property with jealous care.’”</p>
+
+<p>May 9, 1827, the Trustees of Williams College voted “That a sum
+not exceeding one hundred dollars be appropriated to the procuring
+and erection of apparatus necessary to the practice of the gymnastic
+exercises, if the Faculty should think proper to introduce the same at
+this College.” At a meeting of the Faculty held June 15 “The
+President and Tutor (Mark) Hopkins,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> a committee who had been
+appointed for this purpose at a former meeting, reported a plan of a
+gymnasium, and recommended a site for its location. The same
+committee were authorized to prepare the ground according to the
+plan reported.” The Trustees, again, on September 5, of the same
+year, voted “to appropriate a sum not exceeding $50, in addition to
+the $100 granted at the last meeting, to be expended on the Gymnasium.”
+The <i>Boston Medical Intelligencer</i> for September 25,
+1827 (Vol. V, p. 311) contains this note: “A traveller observes,
+‘On a portion of the College grounds, in Williamstown, I perceived
+one day a large number of students at work, headed by their venerable
+President, and on examination found that they were preparing
+a Gymnasium. Here is a fine spot for exercise, and we may hope
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span>that our students will no longer, as in former years, leave college with
+emaciated frames and pallid countenances, through want of proper
+exercise.’”</p>
+
+<p>The following extracts are taken from a long letter&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> to the editor
+of the <i>Boston Medical Intelligencer</i> by a correspondent who signs
+himself “G. F.” and writes under date of September, 1827. “Having
+lately been in Providence, Rhode Island, I have had the best
+opportunity of informing myself with respect to the success of the
+Gymnastic Exercises in Brown University, and knowing the interest
+you take in this subject I submit to your disposal some remarks on
+it. On the 11th of June last, near the commencement of the present
+term, the exercises opened under the most auspicious and flattering
+circumstances. Nearly all the students, with the exception of the
+senior class, to the number of about seventy, presented themselves
+on the exercise ground. The exercises were countenanced, and
+consequently enlivened, by the presence of the president, professors,
+and tutors of the university.... The officers, as I stated, appeared
+with the students, and under the direction of the teacher of
+gymnastics performed the exercises.... The students have
+taken a great interest in the exercises throughout the term, though
+not so much at the latter part of it as at first....” Late in July
+of 1827 Charles Follen spent a day in Providence on his way to
+Newport, and refers to the visit as follows in a letter to Beck: “I
+was for the most part with Dr. Wayland,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> and my ex-assistant
+Haskins, and held in the evening a strict Gymnastic review. I
+spoke much with Dr. Wayland on education. He stated many fine
+views and seemed to be respected and beloved by the teachers.
+He exercises with all.” The University catalogue of 1827-1828
+announces that “a very complete Gymnasium, with every variety
+of apparatus for exercise, has lately been erected on the college
+grounds;” and the Treasurer’s Reports contain these items:</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="nw">1827—</td>
+    <td class="nw">June 28,</td>
+    <td>Cash paid for digging, etc., for gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">$ 26.06</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw">July 27,</td>
+    <td>Materials and labor for gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">231.81</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw"><span class="ditto">”</span> 31,</td>
+    <td>Lumber for gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">24.14</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw">Aug. 17,</td>
+    <td>Dynamometer for gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">27.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw"><span class="ditto">”</span> 27,</td>
+    <td>Lumber, etc.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">3.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw"><span class="ditto">”</span> 27,</td>
+    <td>George F. Haskins, on account of services as teacher in gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">15.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw">Sept. 4,</td>
+    <td>George F. Haskins services in full</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">135.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="nw">1828—</td>
+    <td class="nw">Jan. 5,</td>
+    <td>Spar for gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">10.00</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="nw">Feb. 4,</td>
+    <td>Work on gymnasium</td>
+    <td class="tdpg">10.22</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>President Jasper Adams, D.D., of Charleston College, Charleston,
+S. C., is thus quoted in the <i>Quarterly Review and Journal of the
+American Education Society</i> for May, 1830 (Vol. II, p. 244): “A
+system of bodily exercise was adopted three or four years ago, and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span>suitable apparatus was constructed; but it was not found useful,
+and the apparatus has been destroyed.”</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of Lieber’s year in England reference has already been
+made (<a href="#Page_240">p. 240</a>) to an American, John Neal,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> who was at that time
+residing in London. Neal had spent his early life in New England,
+in 1815 established himself in business in Baltimore, studied law in
+that city and was admitted to the bar in 1819, and meanwhile, in
+order to support himself, had been writing articles for the <i>Portico</i>
+and had followed these with a two-volume novel and a book of poems.
+A whole series of novels was produced within the next few years, and
+some of these were reprinted in London. Late in 1823 he left
+America to try his fortune as a pioneer of American letters in the
+British metropolis, and during his residence in London, from
+January of 1824 until April of 1827, became a frequent contributor
+to the most important magazines and reviews, residing much of the
+time at the house of Jeremy Bentham, by invitation of that distinguished
+jurist and philosopher. While still in Baltimore he had
+been moved by signs of mental overwork to take lessons in boxing,
+fencing, and riding; in London these were continued, and when
+Carl Voelker&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> (German, <i>Karl Völker</i>), like Beck, Follen, and Lieber,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>a German refugee, opened there his gymnasia patterned after the
+Jahn <i>Turnplatz</i> Neal became one of his most enthusiastic pupils
+and supporters. Returning to America in the summer of 1827 he
+opened a law office in Portland, Maine, where the remainder of his
+life was passed. The following words from his autobiography
+(pp. 333-335) evidently refer to the first year (1827-1828) of this
+residence:</p>
+
+<p>“The late Governor Enoch Lincoln was my mother’s nextdoor
+neighbor. Having understood that I was familiar with gymnastics,
+which he wanted to have introduced here, he proposed a lecture.
+A lecture! I had never been guilty of such a thing, in all my life;
+but as soon as my mind was made up about staying here I determined
+to establish a gymnasium, take charge of it myself, and
+refusing all compensation see what could be done for the people in
+that way. Our first gathering was in the upper story of the old
+town-hall, which I asked of the authorities; and succeeded in
+obtaining for certain purposes, though vehemently opposed by such
+young men as the late Colonel John D. Kinsman, then exceedingly
+popular with the militia power.... From the old town-hall we
+went to Silver Street, where we succeeded in obtaining a large hay
+magazine. There we set up our ladders, and ropes, and masts,
+parallel bars, wooden horses, etc., with such success that before a
+month had gone over I had under my charge at least fifteen or
+twenty full classes. Among these were many capital gymnasts.
+After this, when the spring opened, we took the old fort on the top
+of Munjoy Hill, and established another gymnasium there, with
+ditches and leaping-poles; and then, having got into other and better
+business, with my law and literature, and fencing and sparring
+classes, at my office, I threw up these gymnasia; being, to say the
+truth, heartily sick of them after I found how little the members
+were inclined to do for themselves; not one of the whole being
+disposed to let me off, although I had trained forty or fifty for class-leaders,
+and they understood that I had my own living to get in
+other ways. Meanwhile I had established a gymnasium at Brunswick,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>
+which has continued to this day (he is writing late in December,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>1868), with two or three long interruptions, and another at
+Saco; and all this without asking or receiving a penny for my time
+and trouble; nay, more, at considerable expense to myself....”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. John Collins Warren, who had helped to start the gymnasia
+at Harvard University and in Boston, bore reluctant testimony to
+the brevity of the period now under review in a lecture “On the
+Importance of Physical Education,” delivered at Boston in August of
+1830 before the convention which organized the American Institute
+of Instruction. After urging the importance of suitable bodily
+exercise, for young women as well as young men, he adds: “The
+establishment of gymnasia through the country promised at one
+time the opening of a new era in physical education. The exercises
+were pursued with ardor, so long as their novelty lasted; but owing
+to not understanding their importance, or some defect in the
+institutions which adopted them, they have gradually been neglected
+and forgotten, at least in our vicinity. The benefits which resulted
+from these institutions, within my personal knowledge and experience,
+far transcended the most sanguine expectations.” And he
+still believes that “the diversions of the gymnasium should constitute
+a regular part of the duties of all our colleges and seminaries of
+learning.”</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>In addition to the references given in the text and footnotes consult Dr. E. M.
+Hartwell, Report of the Director of Physical Training, December, 1891 (Boston,
+School Document No. 22—1891), pp. 12-23; and B. A. Hinsdale, “Notes on the History
+of Foreign Influence upon Education in the United States,” Chapter XIII in
+the Report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1897-1898 (Vol. I, pp.
+591-629).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> See <i>Mind and Body</i> for November, 1906 (<b>13</b>, 257).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> See <i>Mind and Body</i> for May-July, 1906 (<b>13</b>, 65, 97, 129).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> See <i>Mind and Body</i> for December, 1906 (<b>13</b>, 289).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> For the Giessen period consult:</p>
+
+<p>Robert Wesselhöft, “Deutsche Jugend in weiland Burschenschaften und Turngemeinden.”
+Magdeburg, W. Heinrichshofen, 1828.</p>
+
+<p>Friedrich Münch, “Erinnerungen aus Deutschlands trübster Zeit.” St. Louis,
+Conrad Witter, 1873.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand Marx, “Die Giessener sogenannten <i>Schwarzen</i> als Verbreiter des
+Turnwesens,” in <i>Neue Jahrbücher der Turnkunst</i> <b>27</b> (1881): 23-30, 66-73, and 106-113.</p>
+
+<p>Moritz Zettler, in <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i> 1882, pp. 9, 25, 45.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Wassmannsdorff, in <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i> 1882, pp. 269, 295, 319, 333, 345,
+and 355.</p>
+
+<p>Kuno Francke, “Karl Follen and the German Liberal Movement,” in Papers of
+the American Historical Association, <b>5</b>, parts 1-2 (January and April 1891).</p>
+
+<p>Herman Haupt, “Karl Follen und die Giessener Schwarzen.” Giessen, Alfred
+Töpelmann, 1907.</p>
+
+<p>Herman Haupt, “Zur Geschichte des Giessener Ehrenspiegels.” Pp. 202-214 in
+“Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte der Burschenschaft und der deutschen
+Einheitsbewegung,” Band II, Heft 1-2. Heidelberg, Carl Winter’s Universitätsbuchhandlung,
+1911.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> For the Sand episode, and Follen’s relation to it, consult J. Sauerbrey in <i>Neue
+Jahrbücher der Turnkunst</i> <b>35</b> (1889): 98, 149, 196, 253, 301, 341, and 405; and
+Hermann and Münch in <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i> 1880, pp. 185 and 403.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> See “Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor” (Boston, 1876), Vol. <b>1</b>,
+p. 351.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> Same Account of the School for the Liberal Education of Boys, established on
+Round Hill, Northampton, Massachusetts, by Joseph G. Cogswell and George
+Bancroft. 19 pages.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> “Some Souvenirs of Round Hill School.” In <i>Old and New</i> (Boston) <b>6</b>, 27-41
+(July, 1872).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> In his “Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities.” Circulars
+of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1885. Washington, 1886. See
+<a href="#Page_22">page 22</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> A Treatise on Gymnasticks, taken chiefly from the German of F. L. Jahn. Northampton,
+Mass., Simeon Butler, 1828.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> Pages 104 and 105 in “The Life of Charles Follen,” by (his wife) E. L. Follen,
+Boston, Thomas H. Webb &amp; Co., 1844. This “Life” also forms Vol. I of “The
+Works of Charles Follen, with a Memoir of His Life.” In five volumes, Boston,
+Hilliard, Gray &amp; Co., 1842.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Page 107 in her “Life of Charles Follen.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> July 2. Quoted in part in the <i>Boston Medical Intelligencer</i>, <b>5</b>, p. 133, (July 10,
+1827).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> The Life of John Collins Warren, M.D. (Boston, Ticknor and Fields, 1860).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> A manuscript account of the latter trip, written by Lieber, was found among
+Massmann’s papers, and published in the <i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i> for 1895 (pp. 637-642
+and 686-690), with introduction and notes by Dr. Karl Wassmannsdorff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Lieber’s own ideas regarding the nature and means of physical training are
+preserved for us in two articles contributed by him to the <i>American Journal of
+Education</i> of August, 1827 (<b>2</b>, pp. 487-491), and the <i>American Quarterly Review</i> of
+March, 1828 (<b>3</b>, pp. 126-150).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> The main facts regarding Beck’s life are given in “The Christian Citizen. A
+Discourse Occasioned by the Death of Charles Beck.” Delivered March 25, 1866,
+before the First Parish in Cambridge, by William Newell. Cambridge, Sever and
+Francis, 1866. See also pp. 124-126 in Andrew P. Peabody’s “Harvard Reminiscences”
+(Boston, Ticknor &amp; Co., 1888).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> The first volume of his “History of the United States” was published four years
+later.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> See also pp. 116-123 in Andrew P. Peabody’s “Harvard Reminiscences” (Boston,
+Ticknor and Co., 1888).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Sources: Thomas S. Perry, “The Life and Letters of Francis Lieber” (Boston,
+James R. Osgood &amp; Co., 1882); and Lewis R. Harley, “Francis Lieber: His Life
+and Political Philosophy” (New York, The Columbia University Press, 1899). See
+also Eduard Dürre’s “Erinnerungen” in <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i> 1872, pp. 286 and 293;
+and Karl Ulrich in <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i> 1874, pp. 227 and 228.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> “Memoir of John Griscom, LL.D.,” by his son, John H. Griscom, M.D. (New
+York, Robert Carter &amp; Bros., 1859). An article based on this volume was published
+in Barnard’s <i>American Journal of Education</i> for June, 1860 (<b>8</b>, pp. 325-347).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> “A Year in Europe, Comprising a Journal of Observations in England, Scotland,
+Ireland, France, Switzerland, the North of Italy, and Holland, in 1818 and 1819.”
+Two volumes. New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, 1823.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> The word is spelled <i>Amonton</i> in Griscom’s book!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> See the <i>American Journal of Education</i> for January, 1826 (<b>1</b>, pp. 50-52).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> See the <i>American Journal of Education</i> for January, 1827 (<b>2</b>, pp. 58-60).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> See an article in <i>Mind and Body</i> <b>12</b>, 313-319, based on an examination of volumes
+<b>1-3</b> of the American <i>Journal of Education</i> (1826-1828).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Dr. Hartwell (Report to the Boston School Committee, December, 1891, page
+20) says that Tutor Hopkins “had been sent on a mission to Round Hill to investigate
+the construction and working of its gymnasium.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> It was published in the <i>Intelligencer</i> for September 18, 1827 (<b>5</b>,
+    pp. 291-294).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Francis Wayland, appointed President of Brown University in February, 1827.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> Born in Portland, Maine, in 1793; died there in 1876. The chief source of
+information concerning Neal is his “Wandering Recollections of a Somewhat Busy
+Life. An Autobiography” (Boston, Roberts Brothers, 1869). His letters from
+England are quoted in the <i>American Journal of Education</i>, <b>1</b> (1826), pp. 375 and 699-700;
+and <b>2</b> (1827), pp. 55 and 56. Consult also <i>The</i> (New York) <i>Continental Monthly</i>
+for September, 1862 (<b>2</b>, pp. 275-281), and <i>The New American Cyclopædia</i>, <b>12</b>, pp. 150
+and 151 (New York, 1861).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> Voelker, born about 1796, was according to his own story a pupil of Jahn’s and
+had served among the volunteers in the War of Liberation. As a student at the
+University of Jena he assisted in organizing the first <i>Burschenschaft</i>, became one of its
+directors, and exercised on the Jena <i>Turnplatz</i>. In September of 1818 he went to
+Tübingen, at the request of a delegation of students from its university, to help
+them start a <i>Burschenschaft</i> and open a <i>Turnplatz</i> (see <a href="#Page_98">p. 98</a>). In the course of the
+investigation that followed the murder of Kotzebue by Sand the government of
+Württemberg was asked to surrender Voelker for arrest as a suspected accomplice.
+This was refused, but so much pressure was at length brought to bear that in order
+to save the ministry further embarrassment he crossed into Switzerland. Some
+years later he arrived in London, bearing letters of recommendation to Jeremy
+Bentham and Henry Brougham (later Lord Chancellor). Apparently in the spring
+or early summer of 1825, after three months’ study of the English language, he opened
+with Bentham’s help a garden <i>Turnplatz</i> at No. 1 Union Place, New Road, near
+Regent’s Park, at the same time receiving pupils in German. Later in the same
+season he rented Mr. Fontaine’s riding-school on Worship Street, Finsbury Square,
+using this also as a gymnasium. He afterwards returned to Switzerland, and lived
+there until his death at Kappel, in St. Gall, October 2, 1884. The fullest account of
+Voelker’s life is that by Eduard Dürre (“Rückblicke und Träume eines alten Turners”)
+in the <i>Deutsche Turn-Zeitung</i> for 1872 (<b>17</b>, pp. 103-107, 127-129, 136 and 137).
+See also <i>Neue Jahrbücher für die Turnkunst</i> for 1881, p. 72, and 1885, p. 43. On the
+London gymnasium consult the <i>American Journal of Education</i>, <b>1</b> (1826), pp. 375,
+430-432, 502-506, 625 and 626; and <b>2</b> (1827), pp. 55 and 56. Volume <b>1</b> of “The
+Every-Day Book” by William Hone (London, 1826) contains under date of September
+25 (1825) some additional particulars, and a drawing made for this article “by Mr.
+George Cruikshank, after his personal observation of Mr. Voelker’s gymnasium in
+the New-road.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> In the pines back of the present site of Sargent Gymnasium. A report of the
+Visiting Committee to the Board of Trustees and Overseers of Bowdoin College,
+dated September 2, 1828, contains the following: “The committee would introduce
+to the favorable notice of the Trustees and Overseers the Gymnasium which has
+been recently established. We have had some opportunity of witnessing its exercises
+and are convinced that its effects are highly salutary.... These exercises are
+voluntary, few however decline them. Those who have associated as Gymnics have
+presented a request that a shed may be erected for their accommodation. But
+highly as we approve of the association we think that this request cannot now be
+acceded to. Other and more pressing wants of the college demand all its funds.”
+This outdoor gymnasium was in existence until the early sixties, when the college
+fitted up for similar uses a building formerly occupied as a college common.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> For references to private gymnasia opened in New York and Philadelphia at
+this period see <i>Mind and Body</i>, <b>12</b>, 350 and 351 (February, 1906).</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE “NEW GYMNASTICS” OF DIO LEWIS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In the third and fourth decades of the nineteenth century four
+different systems of physical training had been brought forward for
+trial in the United States—the drill and discipline of the military
+academy, the Jahn gymnastics, manual labor on the farm or in the
+shop, and “calisthenics” for girls and women. The claims of each
+were pressed by enthusiastic advocates, and there was no lack of
+imitators of the educational institutions in which each had first
+become incorporated; but for various reasons not one of the four
+was generally adopted or won for itself more than temporary foothold.
+From 1835 until 1860, though educators were increasingly
+alive to the importance of physical training,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> no one appeared with
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>anything that seemed more likely to meet the conditions and
+needs of the time. Then came Dio Lewis, with his “new gymnastics
+for men, women, and children,” something definite and
+practical. His contagious enthusiasm created a wave of popular
+interest that spread to all parts of the country, and the “Normal
+Institute of Physical Education” which he opened in Boston in the
+summer of 1861 was the first attempt in America to prepare teachers
+of a subject whose right to a place in the school curriculum had long
+been conceded.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure70" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure70.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Dio Lewis (1823-1886).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Dioclesian, or, as he called himself in after life, Dio Lewis, came of
+vigorous Welsh stock and was born March 3, 1823, on a farm in
+Cayuga County, New York, within a few miles of Auburn. Loran
+L. Lewis, born two years later, who served two terms in the Senate
+of his native state, and from 1882 until 1896 was Justice of the New
+York Supreme Court, has written as follows regarding the early life
+of his elder brother:</p>
+
+<p>“At the age of twelve Dio was as large and mature as ordinary
+boys of fifteen. His mind was remarkably active; so were his
+movements. He could do anything he desired to do with more
+rapidity than any person I ever knew. When accustomed to
+committing to memory he could read a page in a book once, close
+the book, and repeat it all. He had an investigating, inquisitive
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>mind. He liked miscellaneous reading, but did not relish digging
+into study. He learned a great many facts, but did not read many
+books thoroughly. He was enthusiastic in everything in which he
+engaged. He developed as a child a talent for declaiming, even
+before he could read much, and as a youth he engaged in debates
+and talked on temperance.... He was cheerful and full of fun....
+At the age of twelve Dio left school and went into a cotton
+factory in Clarksville, near Auburn, where he remained perhaps six
+months, working some sixteen hours a day and receiving from $1.25
+to $2.50 a week in orders on stores in Auburn. After this he worked
+in Wadsworth’s hoe, axe, and scythe factory for about two years,
+attending school at intervals....</p>
+
+<p>“At about the age of fifteen he began teaching school in our
+district. He surprised the patrons with novel ways of teaching
+and managing the school. Heretofore the masters had moved
+around the room with ferule in hand, always ready to deal a blow as
+occasion might offer. The young teacher discarded the whip and
+went to singing, and for a change he would march with the children
+into a piece of woods near the schoolhouse, and sometimes, after
+the children got tired, he would allow them to play hide-and-seek.
+Dio continued teaching near home for a year or two, and when
+eighteen years of age he went to what was then Lower Sandusky,
+now Fremont, Ohio, and organized a select school. Here he began
+the study of Latin and Greek, and the classes which he soon formed
+in them, as well as in algebra and geometry, kept him hard at work
+with his own studies in order to keep well ahead of his pupils. The
+school was patronized by most of the leading citizens, and gave so
+great satisfaction that in a few months some of them volunteered to
+erect a handsome school building. They obtained an act of incorporation,
+naming it, in compliment to Mr. Lewis, ‘The Dioclesian
+Institute,’ and the new quarters were occupied just before the close
+of the school year.”</p>
+
+<p>A severe and prolonged attack of ague compelled the young
+teacher to give up his work in Fremont at the end of a year, and he
+did not return to it. Having made up his mind to study medicine,
+he now entered the office of the physician at the Auburn State
+Prison, Dr. Lansing Briggs, with whom he remained for three
+years, with the exception of one winter devoted to teaching. In
+1845 he went to Boston and spent some time in the Medical Department
+of Harvard University, but seems to have been prevented from
+completing the course by lack of means, and therefore came back
+to Port Byron, not far from his home, to enter at once upon the
+practice of his profession. By his partner, Dr. Lewis McCarthy,
+he was won over to the new system of homeopathy, and a little
+later, after establishing himself in Buffalo in 1848, began to edit a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span>monthly publication called <i>The Homœopathist</i>. The honorary
+degree of Doctor of Medicine was conferred upon him in 1851 by
+the Homœopathic Hospital College of Cleveland, Ohio, then only
+two years old.</p>
+
+<p>A year after his removal to Buffalo Dr. Lewis married Miss Helen
+Cecelia Clarke, daughter of a physician whose country residence
+was in the neighborhood of Port Byron. Three of her sisters had
+died of consumption, and in the fall of 1851 she herself began to
+exhibit unmistakable symptoms of the same disease. Her husband,
+who was already urging in his medical journal the importance of
+<i>preventive</i> measures, at once undertook the treatment of her case by
+hygienic means. These appeared to be successful for a time; but in
+the fall of 1852 her cough reappeared, and Dr. Lewis thereupon
+determined to give up his practice and go South with her for the
+winter. Early in January they reached Fredericksburg, Virginia.
+It was not in the man’s nature to remain idle, and he was soon
+talking on health subjects to pupils in the schools. To identify
+himself with a cause which had excited his interest ever since boyhood
+he now joined “The Sons of Temperance,” but with a protest,
+his biographer&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> tells us, “against the exclusion of women from
+membership. He urged upon the leaders that in failing to enlist
+woman in the work they were leaving out the element most essential
+and indispensable to success.... Meeting only indifference
+to his appeal for the admission of women to the organized temperance
+work, he wrote a paper on ‘The Influence of Christian
+Women in the Cause of Temperance,’ and read it in a hall in the
+old town of Fredericksburg, Virginia, the same year (1853). This
+was his first appearance on the public platform. Directly afterward
+he gave lectures on this subject and on health topics in Fredericksburg,
+Richmond, Petersburg, Norfolk, and Portsmouth, Virginia.”
+The two succeeding winters were also spent with his wife in the
+South, where among other places he lectured in Paris, Lexington,
+and Georgetown, Kentucky. The same occupation was continued
+in New York State in the intervening summers. At the end of this
+time, after renewed and more careful attention to the matter of dress
+and exercise, Mrs. Lewis found herself fully restored to health.</p>
+
+<p>The next five years, until the summer of 1860, were devoted almost
+entirely to platform work in “the Middle and Northern United
+States and Canada.... It was his custom to speak on six evenings
+in the week on the laws of health, laying special stress on his
+favorite axiom, adapted to suit himself, ‘An ounce of prevention
+is worth a ton of cure.’ On Sunday evenings he presented in the
+churches, or, by preference, in a large hall, when such could be
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span>obtained, his favorite subject, ‘The Duty of Christian Women in
+the Temperance Work.’” In 1856 he made a short visit to Paris,
+chiefly to secure material suitable for demonstration in his popular
+lectures on physiology, although he also improved the opportunity
+to attend clinics at some of the city hospitals. Referring to this
+period he speaks of himself as “burdened with what I felt to be my
+life-work, that of urging upon the people their right to ‘a sound
+mind in a sound body,’ and the introduction of a new system of
+physical training into the schools of the country ...;” and how his
+thoughts were turned to gymnastics is told in these words: “During
+the eight years of lecturing, the spare hours were devoted to the
+invention of a new system of gymnastics. The old, or German
+gymnastics, the one so common throughout our country,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> was
+obviously not adapted to the classes most needing artificial training.
+Athletic young men, who alone succeeded in the feats of that
+gymnasium, were already provided for. Boat clubs, ball clubs,
+and other sports&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> furnished them in considerable part with the
+means of muscular training. But old men, fat men, feeble men,
+young boys, and females of all ages—the classes most needing
+physical training,—were not drawn to the old-fashioned gymnasium.
+The few attempts that had been made to introduce these classes to
+that institution had uniformly and signally failed. The system
+itself was wrong.”</p>
+
+<p>After experimenting for some years with the new exercises he had
+devised Dr. Lewis determined to concentrate his efforts on the
+attempt to introduce them to the public, and in June of 1860
+established his home in the vicinity of Boston for this purpose.
+“I thought,” he says, “that Boston would prove more hospitable
+to an educational innovation than any other city in the country;”
+and he was not disappointed. Evening classes in gymnastics were
+soon organized in West Newton, Newtonville, Newton, Newton
+Upper Falls, and Watertown. The English and classical school of
+Mr. N. T. Allen, in West Newton, was the first to introduce the
+new system, according to Dr. Lewis, and it was soon followed by the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span>Normal School at Framingham, and in Boston by the institutions
+of Mr. Gannett in Pemberton Square and Madame de Maltchyce in
+Pinckney Street, the Concord Hall school, and many others in and
+near the city. A public gymnasium, also, for men, women, and
+children was opened at 20 Essex Street, in Boston. Among others,
+a class of clergymen and their wives met there regularly for an hour
+on Mondays—‘blue Monday’—to exercise with the proprietor and,
+as one of them expressed it, to “inhale hygiene in his presence, and
+in the atmosphere of his room.”</p>
+
+<p>In August of 1860 the ‘new system’ was all at once brought to the
+notice of leading educators gathered from the length and breadth
+of the United States. Dr. Lewis himself related the circumstances
+to a Boston audience, several years afterward,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> as follows: “I may
+remark that the hour of my coming was most fortunate for my cause.
+Just then the American Institute of Instruction held its great
+Convention—the largest ever held in this country—in this city.
+I was so fortunate as to be invited to appear before that most august
+of all educational bodies, to explain and illustrate the new system of
+gymnastics. They told me ‘You may have half an hour on the
+second morning; we have the business so arranged that we cannot
+give you more.’ But when the half-hour had expired they said,
+‘Go on;’ and I went on until two hours had passed, and then they
+voted that the next morning they would meet at half past eight
+(having announced important business for nine o’clock), to hear
+more about the new gymnastics. The next morning was foggy
+and dark, but the hall (Tremont Temple) was full, and they passed
+over their important business and gave me nearly two hours more,
+and at noon another hour. With such an opening as this, it is not
+remarkable that the interest spread over the entire country.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of Dr. Lewis’s objects in coming to Boston had been the
+establishment of a training school for teachers of the “New System,”
+and in the spring of 1861 the <i>Normal Institute for Physical Education</i>
+was incorporated. President Cornelius C. Felton, of Harvard
+College, readily consented to serve as its president, and continued
+to take an active interest in the enterprise until his death, a year
+later. Upon the list of twenty-eight Directors appear the names of
+Governor John A. Andrew, Hon. George S. Boutwell, Dr. H. I.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>Bowditch, Rev. James Freeman Clarke, Rev. E. E. Hale, N. T.
+Allen, Prof. A. Crosby, and others of recognized standing. The
+members of the first faculty were Thomas H. Hoskins, M.D.,
+Professor of Anatomy; Josiah Curtis, M.D., Professor of Physiology
+(the instruction in this subject, as well as in anatomy, was later
+given by Dr. Hoskins); Walter Channing, M.D., Professor of
+Hygiene; and Dio Lewis, M.D., Professor of Gymnastics. The
+next year a department of Elocution was created, and Professor T.
+F. Leonard was called to the new chair. The first course opened
+July 5, 1861, and continued ten weeks. Other similar courses were
+to be given twice each year thereafter, beginning regularly on the
+second of January and the fifth of July.</p>
+
+<p>This Institute was not, as Dr. Lewis supposed, “the first ever
+established to educate guides in Physical Culture,” since normal
+schools of gymnastics had already been opened in Europe, <i>e.g.</i>,
+at Stockholm (1814), Dresden (1850), and Berlin (1851); but it was
+the first attempt of the sort to be made in the United States, and as
+such merits more than passing notice. A report of the first course
+and announcement of the second, published in pamphlet form at
+Boston in 1861, yields the following: “Readers of our educational
+journals are, to some extent, familiar with Dr. Lewis’s system of
+Gymnastics, since in connection with his appearance before the
+American Institute of Instruction last year these journals, as also
+large numbers of the daily press, gave somewhat full accounts of
+the principal features of that system.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> It is a novel system, novel
+alike in its philosophy and in its practical details. Dispensing with
+the whole cumbrous apparatus of the ordinary gymnasium, its
+implements are all light, easily managed, and designed less to
+impart mere strength of muscle than to give flexibleness, agility, and
+grace of movement. The exercises are accompanied by music, and
+all of them so arranged that both sexes participate in each....</p>
+
+<p>“The second course of the Institute will open on the second day of
+January, 1862, and continue ten weeks. Many peculiar and marked
+advantages will be enjoyed by the pupils of the winter term. D. B.
+Hagar, Esq., Ex-President of the American Institute of Instruction,
+Hon. Geo. Bradburn, Rev. Warren Burton, Rev. T. W. Higginson,
+and several other well known gentlemen, will deliver lectures before
+the class of the Institute....” In addition to the regular instruction
+in anatomy, physiology, hygiene, and gymnastics, the class will
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span>be taught “the principles of the ‘Swedish Movement-Cure,’&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> a
+department of the institution devoted to the treatment of curvature
+of the spine, paralysis, and other chronic maladies, affording rare
+opportunities to study in detail the application of Ling’s methods
+in treating such forms of chronic disease.... Each pupil, on
+being received into the Institute, will be critically examined with
+reference to strength, form, and health; and any deficiency thus
+disclosed will be at once placed under the most thorough treatment....
+Each will be drilled by Dr. Lewis in person, with such care
+that he or she cannot fail to become a competent teacher of gymnastics.
+And each will have two drills a day.... All will be
+made familiar with at least two hundred different exercises ...
+and will be allowed, every one in turn, to lead a small class....”</p>
+
+<p>At this point a bit of contemporary testimony from a well-informed,
+but more impartial, source may be introduced. During
+the years 1858-1862 Mr. Thomas Wentworth Higginson contributed
+to the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> a series of vigorous and stimulating
+articles, full of good sense and literary charm, which were
+afterward collected and published in book form under the title
+“Outdoor Papers” (Boston, 1863; New York, 1894). One of them,
+on “Gymnastics,” which appeared in March of 1861, contains this
+reference to the ‘New System:’ “It would be unpardonable, in
+this connection, not to speak a good word for the favorite hobby of
+the day,—Dr. Lewis, and his system of gymnastics, or, more properly,
+of calisthenics. Dr. Winship&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> had done all that was needed in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span>apostleship of severe exercises, and there was wanting some man
+with a milder hobby, perfectly safe for a lady to drive. The Fates
+provided that man, also, in Dr. Lewis,—so hale and hearty, so profoundly
+confident in the omnipotence of his own methods and the
+uselessness of all others, with such a ready invention, and such an
+inundation of animal spirits that he could flood any company, no
+matter how starched or listless, with an unbounded appetite for
+ball-games and bean-games. How long it will last in the hands of
+others than the projector remains to be seen, especially as some of
+his feats are more exhausting than average gymnastics; but, in the
+mean time, it is just what is wanted for multitudes of persons who
+find or fancy the real gymnasium to be unsuited to them. It will
+especially render service to female pupils, so far as they practise it;
+for the accustomed gymnastic exercises seem never yet to have been
+rendered attractive to them, on any large scale, and with any
+permanency.”</p>
+
+<p>In a volume published in 1868 Dr. Lewis says that more than two
+hundred and fifty persons had taken the diploma of the Normal
+Institute in the nine sessions which had been held. His biographer,
+on the other hand, makes this statement: “During the next seven
+years (after its establishment) four hundred and twenty-one ladies
+and gentlemen, in about equal numbers, were graduated from it.
+These were able to answer the demand for instructors in the ‘new
+gymnastics’ which soon came from the schools and from private
+classes in the larger cities of New England, and later from the
+remoter parts of the country, until at length the system was taught
+in every State of the Union.”</p>
+
+<p>Dio Lewis was a voluminous writer, but only two of his books
+require particular mention here—“The New Gymnastics for Men,
+Women, and Children,” first issued in 1862; and the tenth edition,
+practically a new work although it bears the same title, which
+appeared in 1868. Both were published in Boston, by Ticknor and
+Fields. The leading article, “The New Gymnastics,” in the
+<i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for August of 1862 (Vol. X, pp. 129-148) is from
+his pen, and another of sixty-five pages was published in two instalments
+in Barnard’s <i>American Journal of Education</i> for June and
+December of the same year (Vol. XI, pp. 531-562; Vol. XII, pp.
+665-700). Of the 275 profusely illustrated pages in the book of
+1862 only a little more than a third are filled with material of the
+author’s own devising. Pp. 102-115 (“Free Gymnastics”) contain
+exercises selected from Schreber’s “Aerztliche Zimmer-Gymnastik;”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span>on pp. 117-164 “The Dumb Bell Instructor for Parlor Gymnasts,”
+by Maurice Kloss,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> is given in condensed form and free translation;
+and pp. 165-255 are occupied with a similar translation of Schreber’s
+“The Pangymnastikon; or All Gymnastic Exercises brought within
+the Compass of a Single Piece of Apparatus.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> The first portion of
+the book begins with ten pages of introductory discussion relating
+to the need of special gymnastic training for children, the inadequacy
+of military drills and other forms of exercise commonly employed,
+the use of music with gymnastics, the gymnasium, and the gymnastic
+dress. Then follow (pp. 18-101) Lewis’s own exercises, grouped as
+follows: Bag exercises (30), exercises with rings (54), exercises
+with wands (68), dumb-bell exercises (34), club exercises (22), pin
+running (a game with clubs), games with birds’ nests (played with
+bean-bags), the arm pull, the gymnastic crown, and the shoulder
+pusher.</p>
+
+<p>In the tenth edition of “The New Gymnastics” (1868) the
+translations from German authors are omitted. In the words of the
+preface, “their places have been supplied by original exercises, now
+for the first time published. At the same time changes have been
+made in that portion of the book which was devoted to an illustration
+of the author’s system of Gymnastics. In the constant practice of
+the system for the past five years, among thousands of pupils, a
+multitude of new exercises have been added, and the entire method
+has been improved in many respects. This edition is an attempt
+to reflect upon the pages of a book the changes which have taken
+place in actual practice.” A few of the introductory pages are
+worth quoting here, since they contain Dr. Lewis’s own statement
+of the advantages of his system, his claims to originality, and the
+order in which the exercises were developed.</p>
+
+<p>“The advantages of the New System of physical culture are, in
+part the following: (1) The varied movements of the New System
+give opportunity for the full play of every muscle in the body,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span>resulting in an all-sided development. (2) The exercises are
+constantly changed from one set of muscles to another, thus obviating
+weariness and undue disturbance of the circulation. (3) The
+centrifugal impulse of the predominating series secures a completeness
+and <i>grace</i> attained by no other means, while the centripetal
+character of the old or German method has long been the opprobrium
+of physical culture, with the philosophical. (4) In the New
+System the exercises are subordinated to personal or individual
+wants, while in the old the person is entirely subordinated to the
+performance of difficult feats. (5) The physiological purpose of all
+muscle training is to perfect the intermarriage between nerve and
+muscle. The skill exacted by the accurate lines, changing attitudes,
+and difficult combinations of the new methods compels the most
+complete interaction between soul and body. (6) The New School
+employs apparatus which cannot strain and stiffen the muscles, not
+even in the extremely old and young or feeble, while the old school
+sanctions weights which must produce the slow, inelastic muscles of
+the cart-horse. (7) The New Gymnasium invites to its free and
+social life persons of both sexes and all ages, while every attempt
+that has been made to introduce the old, or the very young, or
+women, to the Old Gymnasium has failed. (8) In the New Gymnasium
+persons of both sexes unite in all the exercises with great
+social enjoyment, thus adding indefinitely to the attractions of the
+place, while the attractions of the Old Gymnasium are about equal
+to those of a ballroom from which ladies are excluded. (9) In the
+New Gymnasium everything is set to music. Marches, free movements,
+dumb-bells, wands, rings, mutual-help exercises. No
+apathy can resist the delightful stimulus. The one hundred persons
+on the floor join in the evolutions inspired by one common impulse.
+Under the old system each individual works by himself, deprived of
+the sympathy and energy evoked by music and the associated
+movement.”</p>
+
+<p>For three years, 1864-1867, Dr. Lewis conducted at Lexington,
+Massachusetts, a school for girls, in which Theodore Dwight Weld,
+once the confident advocate of manual labor as a system of exercise,
+was a leading teacher, and Catharine Beecher was for a time one of
+the lecturers.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> In September of 1867 the school building was burned,
+and although temporary quarters were at once secured in a summer
+hotel at Spy Pond the project was abandoned at the close of another
+year. The number of pupils rose to 140 in the third year, drawn
+from all over the country, and nearly 300 were enrolled during
+the whole period. In the words of Dr. Lewis, “The character
+of the announcement, with what the public knew of my interest in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>physical education, drew together a company of bright girls, with
+delicate constitutions, such girls as could not bear the exclusively
+mental pressure of the ordinary school.... The girls went to
+bed at half-past eight every evening. They rose early in the
+morning and went out to walk, which walk was repeated during the
+day. They ate only twice a day, and of very plain, nourishing food.
+They took off their corsets. They exercised twice a day, half an
+hour, in gymnastics, and danced an hour about three times a week.
+This was the general course, and upon this regimen they rapidly
+improved. The gymnastic exercises proved invaluable, but the
+nine hours in bed, I believe, played a still more important part.”
+The Eastman biography states that “On entering the school pupils
+were measured about the chest, under the arms, about the waist,
+and around the arm and forearm. The average gain for eight
+months was in chest measure, two and a half inches; waist measure,
+five inches; size of arm, one and a half inches; of forearm, about
+one inch. The work was so hard that with all this remarkable
+development the weight of the pupils was often lessened.”</p>
+
+<p>The closing of his school for girls, in 1868, may be said to mark the
+end of Dio Lewis’s greatest activity in the interest of physical
+training. He had never relinquished altogether the lecture field,
+and now found more leisure for the work, speaking in Massachusetts
+and New Hampshire on his favorite topics, physical education and
+temperance. The winter of 1873-1874 was given up to an extensive
+course of lyceum lectures in the West, under the auspices of a lecture
+bureau, and again, as in the fifties, he devoted Sundays to the cause
+of Temperance, “always keeping in mind what he had for twenty
+years desired to see inaugurated, a practical movement on the part
+of women to close the saloons.” The balance of the year 1874 was
+filled with temperance work exclusively, and out of the “Women’s
+Crusades” which he inspired and helped to organize at this time was
+developed the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, formed at
+Cleveland in November. In 1875 he was obliged to heed the signs
+of approaching physical collapse, and went to California for three
+years of outdoor life.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> The year 1884 saw him located on a farm at
+Smithtown, Long Island, in search of rest and trying meanwhile
+to “concentrate his attention on chickens,” but in July able to
+deliver a course of lectures and teach gymnastics at the Martha’s
+Vineyard Summer Institute. His death occurred at Yonkers,
+May 21, 1886.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. James C. Boykin pays the following just tribute to Dio Lewis:
+“It may be true that ‘he was unconventional, sympathetic, plausible,
+oracular, and self-sufficient,’ and ‘not a scientist in any proper sense,’
+as one writer has said.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> But, notwithstanding all this, he rendered
+a real service. Even if he had nothing in his favor but the undoubted
+fact that he gave gymnastics in America a greater impulse
+than any man before him had done, that would be sufficient to earn
+for him the gratitude of all interested in physical training. But he
+did more. He first awakened the American public to the appreciation
+of the fact that the mere development of huge muscles is not
+the true idea of physical training. His contribution to the list of
+exercises and to gymnastic material was by no means insignificant,
+though, to be sure, his claims were out of all proportion to their
+value; but, more than all else, he lifted the gymnasium above the
+low plane it had occupied in the public mind as the resort of prize-fighters
+and bullies, and carried gymnastics into the schoolroom to
+an extent never before approached in this country, and into the
+home to an extent that no one else had ever attempted.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> His
+so-called ‘system’ was not of a sort to survive for many years the
+loss of the founder’s energetic leadership, and yet he prepared the
+soil for the broader and more substantial type of work of a later day.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>This chapter was first published in the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> for
+June and September, 1906 (<b>11</b>, 83-95 and 187-198). It is given here in condensed
+form, with a few footnotes added. The chief sources of information have been
+already mentioned.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Horace Mann (1796-1859), secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education
+1837-1848, in the annual reports of the Board and in the ten volumes of the <i>Common
+School Journal</i> which he edited (1839-1848) had much to say of school sanitation and
+the importance of instruction in personal hygiene. In pp. 56-160 of the sixth report
+(1843) he attempted to vindicate the title of a study of physiology and hygiene to
+“the first rank in our schools, after the elementary branches.” Perusal of successive
+reports of the annual meetings of the American Institute of Instruction from the first
+(1830) to the thirtieth (1859), and of the <i>Massachusetts Teacher</i> from 1850 to 1860
+(Vol. <b>3-12</b>) and Barnard’s <i>American Journal of Education</i> 1855-60 (Vol. <b>1-8</b>) reveals
+a cumulative interest in the problem of physical education as the end of that period
+approached. A. A. Livermore’s article in the <i>North American Review</i> for 1855
+(<b>81</b>:51-69), Dr. D. W. Cheever’s in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for 1859 (<b>3</b>, 529-543), and
+Thomas Wentworth Higginson’s series which began in the latter magazine in March
+of 1858 (afterwards collected and published under the title “Outdoor Papers”) point
+in the same direction, as do also the twenty-first and twenty-second reports of the
+Massachusetts Board of Education (1858 and 1859), that of the Boston School
+Committee for 1859 (pp. 52 ff.), and a report to the New York State Teachers’
+Association in the same year. “Tom Brown’s School Days,” first published in
+April of 1857, presented an attractive picture of vigorous boy-life; and the fourth
+chapter (Physical Education) of Herbert Spencer’s “Education” (New York, 1860),
+which had already appeared in the <i>British Quarterly Review</i> of April 1, 1859, was
+certain to attract attention. The following were the recent manuals available:</p>
+
+<p>Paul Preston’s Book of Gymnastics (Boston, Munroe &amp; Francis, 1842). A new
+edition, revised, was published in 1861 (New York, Charles S. Francis).</p>
+
+<p>Walker’s Manly Exercises, revised by “Craven” (Philadelphia, John W. Moore,
+1856).</p>
+
+<p>P. A. Fitzgerald, “The Exhibition Speaker” (New York: Sheldon, Lamport &amp;
+Blakeman, 1856). Pp. 223-268 are devoted to “Gymnastics and Calisthenics.”</p>
+
+<p>N. W. Taylor Root’s “School Amusements” (New York, A. S. Barnes &amp; Co.,
+1857). Pp. 95-143 have to do with gymnastics.</p>
+
+<p>R. T. Trall, “The Illustrated Family Gymnasium” (New York, Fowler &amp; Wells,
+1857).</p>
+
+<p>George Forrest (John George Wood!), “A Handbook of Gymnastics” (London
+and New York, G. Routledge &amp; Co., 1858).</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps we should add that literary and pictorial curiosity, Henry de Laspée’s
+“Calisthenics, or the Elements of Bodily Culture on Pestalozzian Principles”
+(London, Darton &amp; Co., 1856). A second edition was published in 1865 (London,
+Charles Griffin &amp; Co.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> “The Biography of Dio Lewis,” prepared at the desire and with the coöperation
+of Mrs. Lewis by Mary F. Eastman. New York, Fowler &amp; Wells Co., 1891.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> The oldest gymnastic society (<i>Turnverein</i>) of the German type in the United
+States was the Cincinnati <i>Turngemeinde</i>, organized November 21, 1848. By October
+of 1853 there were at least seventy in existence, and by September of 1856 ninety-six
+societies, with a membership of about five thousand, had united into a national
+body and at least twenty more were known to have been formed. At the outbreak
+of the Civil War there were a total of one hundred and fifty-seven societies, in
+twenty-seven states of the Union. See <a href="#Page_290">pp. 290 and 291</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> The beginning of rowing clubs in the United States goes back to 1833 and the few
+years following, and in the decade 1850-1860 interest in the sport spread all over the
+country. Baseball, starting in the forties and fifties, did not become a truly national
+pastime until the period immediately succeeding the Civil War. The “Caledonian
+games” of Scotch immigrants, forerunners of our track and field athletics, had been
+shown in Boston in 1853 and Hoboken in 1857, but did not become widely popular
+till the later sixties and seventies. Football existed only in its primitive form.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> At the fourth commencement exercises of his Normal Institute for Physical
+Education, March 18, 1863.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> See also the “Lectures Delivered before the American Institute of Instruction,
+at Boston, Mass., August 21, 1860, including the Journal of Proceedings, and a
+List of Officers” (published under the direction of the Board of Censors. Boston,
+Ticknor &amp; Fields, 1861). The references to Dio Lewis occur on pp. 19-21, 23-25,
+45 and 46, and 77 of the Journal of Proceedings. Another report of these sessions is
+printed in the <i>Massachusetts Teacher</i>, <b>13</b>, 378-393 (October, 1860).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> Lewis had himself published articles on “Physical Culture” in the <i>Massachusetts
+Teacher</i> for October and November of 1860 (<b>13</b>, 375-377 and 401-406), and in the
+latter month issued the first number of a monthly periodical, <i>Lewis’ New Gymnastics
+for Ladies, Gentlemen and Children, and Boston Journal of Physical Culture.</i> Vol. <b>2</b>
+(1862, January-November, with one extra number) bore the title <i>Lewis’s Gymnastic
+Monthly and Journal of Physical Culture</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> It has already been noted (<a href="#Page_157">p. 157</a>) that under Branting’s directorship of the
+Central Institute in Stockholm (1839-1862) foreign physicians began to be attracted
+by the new system of treatment, and among them Mathias Roth of London. Roth
+afterwards published “The Prevention and Cure of Many Chronic Diseases by
+Movements” (London, 1851), a translation of “The Gymnastic Free Exercises of
+P. H. Ling, Arranged by H. Rothstein” (London, New York, and Boston, 1853),
+and “Handbook of the Movement Cure” (London, 1856). The first American
+physicians to write at length on the subject were the Taylor brothers of New York,
+George H. Taylor “An Exposition of the Swedish Movement Cure” (New York,
+Fowler &amp; Wells) in 1860, and Charles F. Taylor his “Theory and Practice of the Movement
+Cure” (Philadelphia, Lindsay &amp; Blakiston) a year later. Bayard Taylor spent
+the late winter and spring of 1857 in Stockholm, visiting the Central Institute regularly
+as a “patient,” and described his experiences in letters to the <i>New York Tribune</i>
+and in his volume “Northern Travel” (London and New York, 1857. Consult
+pp. 202-206).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> George Barker Winship, born at Roxbury, Mass., January 3, 1834, and died at
+the same place (of heart disease) September 12, 1876. He was educated at Harvard
+University (A.B. 1854, M.D. 1857), and in June of 1859 gave his first lecture on
+physical training, with an exhibition of heavy lifting, in Music Hall, Boston, repeating
+these afterwards in many places throughout the northern states and Canada.
+In the sixties and early seventies he conducted a private gymnasium on Washington
+Street, Boston, next door to the Boston Theater. See his “Autobiographical Sketches
+of a Strength-Seeker,” in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for January, 1862 (<b>9</b>, 102-115), an
+article on “Physical Culture” in the <i>Massachusetts Teacher</i> for April, 1860 (<b>13</b>, 126-132),
+and an item in the latter magazine for April, 1861 (<b>14</b>, 159). Among the literary
+announcements of Ticknor &amp; Fields in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for August, 1862, a book
+on “Health and Strength” by Dr. Winship is mentioned as “in press,” but it seems
+never to have been published.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> <i>Aerztliche Zimmer-Gymnastik</i>, oder Darstellung und Beschreibung der unmittelbaren,
+keiner Geräthschaft und Unterstützung bedürfenden, daher stets und überall
+ausführbaren heilgymnastischen Bewegungen für jedes Alter und Geschlecht und für
+die verschiedenen speciellen Gebrauchszwecke, entworfen von Dr. med. Daniel
+Gottlob Moritz Schreber, pract. Arzte und Vorsteher der orthopädischen und
+heilgymnastischen Anstalt zu Leipzig; 45 xylographische Abbildungen enthaltend,
+Leipzig, Friedrich Fleischer, 1855. The third German edition of this work was
+translated by Henry Skelton and published by Williams &amp; Norgate, London &amp;
+Edinburgh, in 1856, with the title “Illustrated Medical Indoor Gymnastics, or a
+system of medico-hygienic exercises requiring no mechanical or other aid, and
+adapted to both sexes and all ages, and for special cases.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> <i>Das Hantel-Büchlein für Zimmerturner</i>, von Dr. Moritz Kloss, mit 20 in den
+Text gedruckten Abbildungen. Leipzig, J. J. Weber, 1858. Lewis’s translation is
+made from the second edition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> <i>Das Pangymnastikon</i>, oder Das ganze Turnsystem an einem einzigen Geräthe
+ohne Raumerforderniss als einfachstes Mittel zur Entwickelung höchster und allseitiger
+Muskelkraft, Körperdurchbildung und Lebenstüchtigkeit. Für Schulanstalten,
+Haus-Turner und Turnvereine, von Dr. med. D. G. M. Schreber, Director
+der orthopäd und heilgymnast. Anstalt zu Leipzig. Mit 108 Holzschnitten im
+Texte und 107 auf Tafeln. II. Theil der “Aerztlichen Zimmer-Gymnastik.” Leipzig,
+Friedrich Fleischer, 1862.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> See the “Catalogue and Circular of Dr. Dio Lewis’s Family School for Young
+Ladies, Lexington, Mass., 1867” (Cambridge: Welch, Bigelow &amp; Co., 1867).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Described in his “Gypsies” (Boston, Eastern Book Co., 1881).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Lewis’s published works include, in addition to those already mentioned, “Weak
+Lungs, and How to Make Them Strong” (1863), “Talks about People’s Stomachs”
+(1870), “Our Girls” (1871), and “Five-Minute Chats with Young Women” (1874),
+“Talks about Health” (1871), “Chastity” (1872), and “In a Nutshell” (1883).
+In 1864 Amherst College conferred on him the honorary degree of Master of Arts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Dr. E. M. Hartwell, in his first report as Director of Physical Training in the
+Boston Schools (School Document No. 22, 1891), pp. 35 and 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Report of the Commissioner of Education—1891-1892 (Washington, 1894), <b>1</b>,
+pp. 517 and 518.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Each of the four systems or sorts of physical training brought
+forward for trial during the decade whose middle point was 1830
+had been adopted by one or more institutions of college rank. Under
+Follen’s guidance Harvard students were introduced to the Jahn
+gymnastics in the spring of 1826 (<a href="#Page_235">pp. 235-237</a>), and other outdoor
+gymnasia of the Hasenheide type were prepared soon afterwards at
+Yale, Amherst, Williams, Brown (<a href="#Page_245">pp. 245-247</a>), and Bowdoin
+(<a href="#Page_249">p. 249</a>). In “A Memorial of the Class of 1827, Dartmouth
+College,” written by Jonathan Fox Worcester (Second edition,
+Hanover, N. H., 1867), there is also mention of “the interest
+awakened, during the latter part of our career, in the subject of
+physical education; the gymnastic apparatus set up behind the
+‘College’ in 1826, by the students themselves ...; the cricket
+clubs which covered the green the next spring, adding this excellent
+game to our previous list of modes of exercise....” Manual
+labor, combined with study, played a large part in many sections
+of the country, and particularly in new colleges founded while that
+movement was at its height. Norwich University made military
+exercises and long marches on foot a regular part of the course,
+under Captain Partridge, its first president (1835-1843); and
+Mount Holyoke College, chartered as Mount Holyoke Female
+Seminary, opened in 1837 with both domestic work and “calisthenics”
+included in its plan. The latter was more properly
+dancing steps, accompanied by singing.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the fifties there were many signs of a reviving interest in
+gymnastics as a means of exercise, culminating at the end of the
+decade in the erection of brick or stone gymnasia at Harvard, Yale,
+and Amherst colleges, at a cost of approximately $10,000 each.
+In the “Catalogue of the University of Virginia—Session of 1851-1852”
+(Richmond, 1852), following the list of “Faculty, Instructors
+and Officers” and the name of the “University Hotelkeeper,”
+is the note: “Gymnastics are taught under the authority of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>Faculty, by Mr. J. E. D’Alfonce.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> The Board of Visitors reported
+in 1852 that they “have read with pleasure that J. E. D’Alfonce
+proposes to give instruction in that subject (gymnastics), and
+hereby renew the permission formally given for a site on the University
+grounds for a gymnasium, and are disposed to offer proper
+facilities....” John S. Patton, in Chapter XXII of his “Jefferson,
+Cabell and the University of Virginia” (New York and Washington,
+The Neale Publishing Co., 1906), says that “the gymnasium
+authorized by the Visitors was erected on the site of the present
+Academic Building, and on the banks of the little stream nearby
+was built a house for Russian baths. Both enterprises were directed
+by D’Alfonce, but fell into disuse during the Civil War, when the
+buildings were destroyed. As a teacher the Frenchman is said to
+have been unusually successful....”</p>
+
+<p>The note regarding D’Alfonce appears again in the same place in
+the catalogues issued by the University in 1853 and 1854, and in
+those from 1855 to 1860 inclusive his name is listed under “Faculty,
+Instructors and Officers.” Professor William M. Thornton contributes
+the following picture: “A pretty sight might have been
+seen from the foot of the Lawn. As the visitor reached the apex
+of the triangle his eye would have rested on a great, circular framed
+building in the midst of the field below. Near it would have been
+seen a company of two or three hundred students, all in an easy
+uniform of blue blouse and grey trousers, drawn up in rank and file.
+At their head stood a lively Frenchman, an ex-soldier, issuing the
+word of command. And under his orders this regiment of college
+boys would go through a series of complex exercises, marching and
+countermarching, ... all out in the open air.... Or, entering
+the building at an earlier hour, he would have found these same boys
+turning upon bars, swinging upon ropes, brandishing broadswords
+or foils, dumb-bells and clubs. And then, as the sun descended and
+before the great bell of the Rotunda rang out its evening summons,
+he would have heard the Frenchman, in his splendid baritone, raise
+the chant of the Marseillaise, or some other martial strain, and all
+the boys would join in, and the great chorus of manly voices would
+rise ... upon the ... air. The soldierly Frenchman was
+D’Alfonce....”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span></p>
+
+<p>Frederick Chase, writing on “the beginnings of athletics at
+Dartmouth,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> says that “gymnastics were introduced in a small way
+by the erection, in 1852, by the enthusiasts, in the ravine east of the
+observatory, of a frame popularly called the gallows, by some the
+‘Freshman’s Gallows....’ The apparatus consisted of nothing
+but two suspended ropes with rings, and a horizontal bar (it is referred
+to elsewhere as ‘two posts and a rude horizontal rail’).... It
+was a feature of that spot until superseded by Mr. Bissell’s Gymnasium
+building, with its wealth of apparatus, in 1867.”</p>
+
+<p>Allan Marquand, in “The Princeton Book,”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> recites that “in
+the year 1856-1857 Robert Tarleton and Hugh L. Cole, of the class
+of 1859, resolved that Princeton should have a gymnasium. When
+a sufficient sum of money had been raised, a single-boarded structure
+was erected, and painted with the inevitable <i>red</i>, that it might resist
+the storms of heaven as its founders had resisted the objections of an
+unpropitious Faculty. All winter long, in this stoveless shanty,
+with the winds sweeping through from one end to the other, might
+have been seen a few enthusiastic gymnasts, at work on parallel
+bars, springboard, trapeze, and ladder, or swinging upon the rings
+and shaking the rafters in their efforts to touch the beam....
+In the year 1864 the building was sadly in need of repair. Through
+an effort made by the class of 1866 sufficient money was raised to
+supply it with a stove and a new set of apparatus. Thus renovated,
+it answered the purpose of a gymnasium, until one night, during the
+summer vacation of 1865, a report was circulated that a tramp sick
+with the yellow fever was sleeping there. The next day the building
+was reduced to ashes by the frightened people of the town.”</p>
+
+<p>The Board of Trustees of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, at a
+meeting held July 2, 1857, adopted the following resolution, presented
+by William M. Corry, one of their number: “Resolved,
+that the Committee on Finance be instructed to report an appropriation
+of two hundred dollars for the construction of a plain and
+substantial gymnastic apparatus for the use of the students of the
+University.” J. C. Christin, M.D., a Cincinnati German who was
+Professor of the German and French Languages and Literatures at
+Miami University from 1856 to 1860, was made manager of the
+project, and thus outlined its history in a report to the Board of
+Trustees under date of July 4, 1859: “When in the fall of 1857
+the gymnastic apparatus purchased by your committee was offered
+to the use of the students, a number of them organized themselves
+at once into a society called the Miami Gymnastic Association,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>engaged Mr. F. H. Roemler (a German) of Cincinnati as teacher at a
+salary of $40 a month, and rented a building (a little west of the
+campus) for their gymnasium at a cost of $60 a year.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> During that
+entire first year the classes practised regularly three times a week,
+and with what success you have seen at our festival, where the
+young gymnasts of M. U. carried off the first honors of the day over
+their competitors, delegates from several of the old Turners’ societies.
+But to bring about this happy result we were obliged to complete
+our gymnasium by purchasing about $300 worth more of apparatus.
+This the Association did, encouraged as they were by a generous
+donation of $150 from the citizens of Oxford and other friends, and
+believing that they could pay their debt soon by the aid of friends
+and the proceeds of some exhibitions. At the beginning of the fall
+session of 1858 the society was reorganized, and Mr. Roemler again
+engaged as teacher at a salary of $480; but as the number of members
+during these two sessions was on an average only about 75 (out of
+220 students) they were, for want of funds, obliged to rescind the
+contract with their teacher at the end of March last, whereupon Mr.
+Roemler went to Dayton.... After his departure the number
+of students at the exercises of the gymnasium, which under their
+faithful teacher’s direction had always been from 60 to 80, dwindled
+down in a few weeks to about a dozen, and today the gymnasium is
+closed altogether, for want of interest in the students and citizens
+to continue their exercises without a teacher.”</p>
+
+<p>The annual catalogue of Miami University issued in May of 1859,
+apparently oblivious of the sudden collapse of the plan, announces
+that “An extensive Gymnastic Apparatus has been erected in the
+College Campus, and an expert Teacher instructs the students in
+all the branches of Gymnastics under the direction of Professor
+Christin, M.D.” The “festival” to which the latter refers took
+place June 29, 1858,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> on the day before Commencement. Apparatus
+had been set up on the campus between the Main Building and the
+South Dormitory, and “thousands of spectators of both sexes came.”
+A report published in the <i>Cincinnati Daily Gazette</i> of July 2, 1858,
+states that about twenty-five representatives of the Hamilton
+<i>Turnverein</i> and other delegates from the Cincinnati <i>Turngemeinde</i>
+and Young Men’s Gymnastic Association were present. The
+program opened at 2 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> with a song by the Hamilton Turners.
+William M. Corry then addressed the audience on the subject of
+physical education, and the gymnastic exercises followed, continuing
+until late in the afternoon. The eight young men to whom the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>judges awarded prizes, four of them members of the Miami Gymnastic
+Association, “were each crowned with a wreath of evergreen
+in the presence of the multitude.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Williams College catalogue for 1851-1852, published in the
+former year, it is stated that “A well furnished Gymnasium, with
+which are connected facilities for bathing, is now provided.” The
+same sentence is repeated in catalogues for 1852-1853 and 1853-1854,
+but modified in those for 1854-1855 and the three years following
+to read: “For their physical training a well furnished Gymnasium,
+with which are connected facilities for bathing, is owned and
+controlled by the students.” The catalogue for 1858-1859, issued in
+1858, announces that “a new stone Gymnasium, to be owned and
+controlled by the students, is about to be erected, with which will
+be connected facilities for bathing;” and in the next year we are
+told that “a convenient Gymnasium, owned and controlled by the
+students, has just been erected.”</p>
+
+<p>President James Walker of Harvard University, in his annual
+report dated December 31, 1858, after remarking that “the need of
+greater facilities for exercise suited to our climate, and for the
+physical education of students, has long been felt, and is felt more
+and more,” announced that “a friend of the College, whose name is
+not divulged, has given $8000 to be expended in the erection and
+equipment of a Gymnasium, for the use of ‘all undergraduates and
+officers of the College, and such other persons as the College Faculty
+may permit’....” The next December he reported that “a
+suitable building has been erected during the past year, with all the
+necessary apparatus, accommodations, and means of instruction.
+Almost all the students, both undergraduates and members of the
+professional schools (there were then 431 undergraduates, and the
+total enrollment was 839), have begun to avail themselves of the
+advantages thus supplied, each one paying a small fee (two dollars
+a term) in order to defray the current expenses of the establishment.”
+The Treasurer’s Statement dated December 1, 1859, noted
+that “the want of a Gymnasium has been supplied by the presentation
+of $8000, through Rev. Dr. Huntington, by a gentleman
+who declines to be known except as a ‘Graduate’ of the College.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a>
+The building has been erected and furnished, at a cost of $9488.05.”
+Further details are supplied by <i>The Harvard Magazine</i> for October,
+1859 (VI: 38): “The spot selected for the building was the little
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>Delta at the junction of Cambridge Street and Broadway. The
+ground was broken March 23, 1859. The building is in the Italian
+style, and was erected under the direction of Mr. E. C. Cabot,
+architect, Boston.... The Gymnasium was opened for use on
+Wednesday, September 14. Meanwhile, most fortunately, the
+services of Professor (!) A. Molineaux Hewlett had been secured.
+He came with an experience in gymnastic training of fourteen years,
+the last five of which had been devoted most acceptably to the
+citizens of Worcester....”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure71" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure71.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—The Harvard Gymnasium of 1859.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In “The Harvard Book” (Cambridge, 1875) Thomas Wentworth
+Higginson describes the gymnasium as “of brick, octagonal in form,
+74 feet in diameter and 40 feet high. It includes as great a variety
+of apparatus as is compatible with the size of the building; there are
+also two bowling alleys, and there are dressing-rooms, but no bath-rooms....
+The first teacher of gymnastics in Harvard College
+was Abram Molineaux Hewlett. He was a professional teacher of
+boxing, and had established a gymnasium of his own in Worcester,
+Mass., where he was highly esteemed. He was a mulatto, of very
+fine physique, and of reputable and estimable character. He was,
+moreover, a fair gymnast and a remarkably good teacher of boxing.
+In the first years of his term of service there was a good deal of
+activity in the Gymnasium, and regular class-exercises went on.
+After a few years the interest fell off in some degree, or concentrated
+itself chiefly on the rowing-weights. Mr. Hewlett died December 6,
+1871, and ... Mr. Frederic William Lister was appointed in
+1872.” Hewlett’s name does not appear in the list of “Officers of
+Instruction and Government” in the Harvard catalogues, but from
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span>1867 to 1871 he is mentioned with the title “Instructor and Curator”
+in a brief statement regarding the “College Gymnasium.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure72" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure72.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—The Yale Gymnasium of 1860.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure73" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure73.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—The Yale Gymnasium of 1860.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At Yale College a gymnasium was erected in 1859, on Library
+Street near the corner of High, behind the college grounds proper,
+and “dedicated on Monday evening, January 30th” of the following
+year.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> It was a plain brick structure 100 by 50 feet, with a main hall
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>25 feet high to the crossbeams, and large gable windows. Across
+the front (south) end of the hall stretched a gallery 25 feet deep, in
+which were dressing closets and a room or rooms for an instructor
+or janitor. A basement story, about 10 feet high, contained bath-rooms
+and bowling alleys. The total cost was something over
+$11,000, of which $10,000 was appropriated by the Corporation and
+George Merriam of Springfield, Mass., contributed $500 of the
+balance. Yale catalogues from 1860 on through the decade state
+that for the privileges of the gymnasium, “including instruction,
+the sum of $4 a year will be charged to each academical student.”
+Catalogues of 1867 and later years add that “those who use the
+bathing-rooms connected with the Gymnasium pay a small fee for
+tickets.” Lyman B. Bunnell, B.A., is listed as Instructor in Gymnastics
+in 1860 and 1861, and Follansbee G. Welch&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> during the years
+1867-72.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure74" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure74.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—The Amherst (Barrett) Gymnasium of 1860.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The fourth president of Amherst College, Rev. William Augustus
+Stearns,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> in his inaugural address (November 22, 1854) and his
+annual reports to the trustees urged impressively, again and again,
+the adoption of measures designed to protect the health of students.
+“Physical education is not the leading business of college life,” he
+said in 1854, “though were I able ... to plan an educational
+system anew, I would seriously consider the expediency of introducing
+regular drills in gymnastic and calisthenic exercises.” And in
+1859 he states his belief that “if a moderate amount of physical
+exercise could be secured to every student daily, I have a deep
+conviction ... that not only would lives and health be preserved,
+but animation and cheerfulness, and a higher order of efficient study
+and intellectual life would be secured.” At their meeting in August
+of 1859 the trustees took steps to carry out at once the president’s
+wishes. Work on the new building was begun in the fall of that
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>year, and the next summer “Barrett Gymnasium” was completed.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a>
+The name commemorates a liberal donor, Dr. Benjamin Barrett, of
+Northampton, who had been a near neighbor of the Round Hill
+School throughout its entire life history. August 6, 1860, following
+still the lead of the president, the trustees voted to establish a
+department of hygiene and physical education, the head of which
+should be a thoroughly educated physician, and the equal of any
+other member of the college faculty. “It is distinctly understood
+that <i>the health of the students</i> shall at all times be an object of his
+special watch, care, and counsel.” John Worthington Hooker
+(1833-1863), a graduate of Yale College and Medical School (1854
+and 1857), was appointed to the position at once; but failing health
+led to his resignation within a year, and by the action of the trustees
+on August 8, 1861, Dr. Edward Hitchcock&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> was called from Williston
+Seminary to take the place thus left vacant. His connection with
+the department continued without interruption for only a few months
+less than fifty years, until his death on February 16, 1911.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure75" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure75.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Edward Hitchcock (1828-1911). (From a photograph taken in 1867.)</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>His own attitude toward physical training, and a foreshadowing
+of what he was soon to undertake, will be found in the course of nine
+pages of “Remarks upon Muscular Development” in an “Elementary
+Anatomy and Physiology, for Colleges, Academies, and other
+Schools,” which Dr. Hitchcock had just published (New York, 1860)
+in conjunction with his father. An article which he prepared in
+1878 for the Tenth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of
+Health sums up as follows the essential features of the “Amherst
+plan” as it had been worked out under his direction: “This
+department was not created, nor has it been developed, for the
+purpose of extraordinary attention to the muscular system. Its
+sole object has been to keep the bodily health up to the normal
+standard, so that the mind may accomplish the most work, and to
+preserve the bodily powers in full activity for both the daily duties
+of college and the promised labor of a long life.... At the same
+time, it has been equally desired, that the so-called exercises of this
+department should be mentally as well as physically enjoyed by the
+students, and not be made a tedious, mechanical, or heavy drill....
+An essential feature of it is, that each student with his class by itself,
+at a stated hour on four days of the week, appears at the gymnasium,
+and performs his part in systematic and methodical exercises timed
+to music. Each class has its own organization of officers and
+men.... The exercises are commonly known as those of light
+gymnastics, which consist of various bodily movements accompanied
+and guided by music; the larger part of them with a wooden
+dumb-bell in each hand....&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> Especially during the colder season
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span>of the year, running is practised by the class on the floor of the
+gymnasium. A few marching movements are also undertaken by
+the classes. This amount of exercise is required of every student
+who is sound of limb.” In the fall of 1861 Dr. Hitchcock began to
+note in the case of each freshman the age, weight, height, girths of
+chest, arm, and forearm, and strength of upper arms (pull-up),
+repeating the examination afterwards at the end of each year of the
+course. Other measurements were added from time to time, and
+about twenty years later the list was considerably extended. The
+tabulated results appear in the Anthropometric Manual published
+in 1887, and in the revised editions of 1889, 1893, and 1900.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure76" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure76.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Vassar College: “The Calisthenic Hall” of 1866.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As a matter of record the following data regarding other college
+gymnasia erected or equipped during the sixties and seventies
+deserve a place here. At <i>Bowdoin College</i> in 1860 or soon afterwards
+a gymnasium was fitted up in what had been a dining hall. Before
+the middle of the next decade it was removed to unfinished Memorial
+Hall, and in 1882 to the lower floor of Winthrop Hall. William
+Colyer Dole was “Director of the Gymnasium” 1863-1869, and
+Dudley Allen Sargent 1869-1875. Men students in <i>Oberlin College</i>
+organized a Gymnasium Association in 1860 and erected a one-story
+wooden structure about 75 by 25 feet, opened March 30, 1861.
+Samuel Putnam, member of the Worcester, Mass., Gymnastic
+Club and highly recommended by Rev. Thomas Wentworth Higginson,
+was secured as instructor of the classes which were at once
+organized, but left within a month to join the Massachusetts troops
+at Washington. Another wooden building of similar size, and
+again the result of student effort, was opened in October of 1873,
+the earlier one having been removed in 1867. At <i>Wesleyan University</i>
+a one-story wooden structure with one room 70 by 40 feet
+was built and equipped in 1863-1864 at a cost of $5000. A large room
+in Goodrich Hall, erected at <i>Williams College</i> in 1864, was fitted up
+with gymnastic apparatus, and there was a bowling-alley on the
+lowest floor. A wooden gymnasium built in 1881 was blown down
+in 1883. Charles Russell Treat served as Professor of Physiology,
+Vocal and Physical Culture 1866-1869, Henry Wilson Smith (A.B.,
+’69) as Instructor in Physical Training 1870-1874, and Luther Dana
+Woodbridge (A.B., ’72) in the same position 1874-1876.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span>A gymnasium hall 80 by 30 feet and 19 feet high was ready for
+use at <i>Mt. Holyoke Seminary</i> in the summer of 1865. After 1862
+the Dio Lewis gymnastics had replaced the earlier “calisthenics”
+there. <i>Vassar’s</i> gymnasium (80 by 30 feet) and riding school was
+occupied at the opening of the second college year, in the fall of
+1866. Here, too, the Dio Lewis exercises were employed. In
+March of 1867 a two-story gymnasium of brick with stone trimmings
+was opened at <i>Dartmouth College</i>, to which George H. Bissell gave
+nearly $24,000 for the purpose. The architect was Joseph R.
+Richards of Boston. F. G. Welch was Instructor in Gymnastics
+1867-1868, Charles Franklin Emerson (A.B., ’68) 1868-1871, Devinel
+French Thompson (B.S., ’69) 1871-1872, Solon Rodney Towne (A.B.,
+’72) 1872-1875, and Thomas Wilson Dorr Worthen (A.B., ’72) 1875-1893.
+“In the spring of 1869 and during the greater part of the year
+1869-1870 the students (of <i>Brown University</i>) had the use of a private
+gymnasium on Canal Street, the college bearing half the expense”
+(Bronson 1914, p. 377). <i>Princeton’s</i> gymnasium, the gift of Robert
+Bonner and Henry G. Marquand, was a two-story structure of gray
+stone, planned by George B. Post of New York, and with the ground
+on which it stood cost $38,000. The main hall was 80 by 50 feet.
+George Goldie&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> was Superintendent of the Gymnasium 1869 (it was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span>opened January 13, 1870)-1885. The annual report of the Board
+of Regents for the year ending September 30, 1870, records that at
+the <i>University of Wisconsin</i> “a building for drill and gymnastic
+exercises has just been completed at a cost of about $4000....
+The main building is 100 by 30 feet,” with a wing containing an
+armory. Before 1870 <i>Washington University</i> (St. Louis) had provided
+for its students a one-story gymnasium with a main hall 70
+by 50 feet, at a cost of $7000. Other institutions known to have
+made similar provision were Pennsylvania College, at Gettysburg
+(1870, wood, $3000), Beloit (1874, wood, $5000), University of
+California (1878, wood, $12,000), and Vanderbilt University (1879,
+brick, $22,000).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a></p>
+
+<p>The three decades which witnessed the gradual revival of interest
+in gymnastics in the colleges were not without other signs of a growing
+desire for some sort of physical activity suited to the conditions
+and needs of the undergraduate world. The Civil War brought
+inevitably to the front the idea of a trained citizen soldiery which
+had animated Captain Partridge’s endeavors forty years before,
+and the beginnings of athletic sports in the colleges go back to the
+period immediately preceding and following the death-grapple
+between North and South.</p>
+
+<p>The momentous Land-Grant Act of 1862, introduced by Justin S.
+Morrill of Vermont, passed by both houses of Congress in June
+and signed by President Lincoln July 2, allotted to each state a
+quantity of public land equal to 30,000 acres for each senator or
+representative in Congress, the proceeds from the sale of these lands
+to be used for “the endowment, support, and maintenance of at
+least one college, where the leading object shall be, without excluding
+other scientific and classical studies and <i>including military
+tactics</i>, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture
+and the mechanic arts in such manner as the legislatures of the
+states may respectively prescribe in order to promote the liberal
+and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits
+and professions in life.” The clause relating to military
+instruction “was not in the original bill, but was introduced ...
+because the advantage of the South over the North at the beginning
+of the war was attributed to the numerous military schools there,
+and it was thought that at least one college in each state should
+teach military subjects.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> In accordance with this Act nineteen
+states, among them Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, and New
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span>Hampshire, have organized independent colleges of agriculture and
+the mechanic arts; in twenty-one others the college of agriculture
+is a part of the state university, as in California, Illinois, Maine,
+Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, and Wisconsin; and in a few
+cases all or a part of the income goes to a privately endowed institution,
+like Cornell University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
+Purdue University, and Rutgers College. Army officers are detailed
+to serve as instructors in military science and tactics, and in 1915-1916
+the number of young men who received such instruction under
+the Act of 1862 was 33,445.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p>
+
+<p>Rowing was the first sport to gain a foothold in American colleges.
+The earliest organizations were the boat clubs formed at Yale in
+1843 and at Harvard in 1844. Crews from the two colleges met for
+a race on Lake Winnipiseogee, August 3, 1852. The next year the
+Yale Navy was organized, University of Pennsylvania students
+formed a university barge club in 1854, 1856 marks the beginnings
+of rowing at Dartmouth, Brown’s first crew was the one of 1857,
+and on May 26, 1858, Harvard, Yale, Brown, and Trinity organized
+the College Union Regatta, the first races occurring July 26, 1859,
+and the second July 24, 1860, both at Worcester, Massachusetts.
+The outbreak of the Civil War interrupted the series of regattas,
+and after its close the crews of Harvard and Yale were the only
+ones to renew the annual contests. But the Harvard-Oxford race
+over the Putney-Mortlake course August 27, 1869, attracted the
+attention of other colleges to the sport, and interest in rowing
+culminated in the years 1870-1876. Amherst, Princeton, Cornell,
+and the Massachusetts Agricultural College formed boat clubs in 1870,
+and Trinity became active again. In the spring of 1871 representatives
+of Amherst, Bowdoin, Brown, and Harvard organized
+the Rowing Association of American Colleges, and in July of this
+and the five succeeding years this body held regattas, on the Connecticut
+River at Springfield for three years, and afterwards at
+Saratoga Lake. Thirteen colleges sent crews to the great regatta
+of 1875. The list of those who competed at one or more of the
+races during this period includes Amherst, Bowdoin, Brown, Columbia,
+Cornell, Dartmouth, Hamilton, Harvard, Massachusetts
+Agricultural College, Princeton, Trinity, Union, Wesleyan, Williams,
+and Yale. Rutgers and the College of the City of New York had
+also sought admission to the Association, and at the University of
+Pennsylvania a boat club was organized in 1872.</p>
+
+<p>College baseball had its beginning in the years 1858-1860, with
+the appearance of teams at Amherst, Princeton, Williams, and Yale.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span>The first intercollegiate game seems to have been that between
+Amherst and Williams representatives at Pittsfield, Massachusetts,
+July 1, 1859. During the course of the Civil War the game was
+introduced at Harvard and Brown, and Bowdoin had a nine as early
+as 1864. In the years immediately following the war interest in
+the game became general and intense over the entire United States,
+and clubs were formed everywhere, in the colleges and outside of
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Intramural football, in a primitive form, was all that existed in
+American colleges up to 1869. Traces of it are found at Yale,
+Princeton, Harvard, Dartmouth, Rutgers, Brown, and Amherst.
+The first intercollegiate football game in this country was played
+by Princeton and Rutgers teams at New Brunswick, New Jersey,
+November 6, 1869, and by 1876 the present form of game was
+definitely established.</p>
+
+<p>The general practice of track and field athletics can be traced
+back to three influences—the example of students at Oxford and
+Cambridge Universities, the “Caledonian Games” of Scotch
+immigrants organized into clubs for the purpose of keeping up
+interest in their native language and customs, and the contests
+arranged as appendages of the rowing events at Saratoga in 1874,
+1875, and 1876. A letter from George Rives, a graduate of Columbia
+University who was present at the annual meets of the two
+English universities in 1868, led to the formation of an athletic
+association at Columbia, and to its first meet, in June of 1869. The
+first of the Caledonian Clubs was organized in Boston March 19,
+1853, and its earliest games were held later in the same year. The
+New York Caledonian Club dates from 1856, and its first meet was
+on St. George’s Cricket Grounds, Hoboken, in October of 1857.
+Similar clubs were formed in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington,
+Montreal, and other cities. The annual games of these organizations
+were especially popular in the ten or fifteen years following
+the Civil War, and they may be considered the precursors of our
+modern amateur athletic clubs. George Goldie, long a member
+of the New York Caledonian Club, at one time director of its gymnasium,
+and twice a winner of the championship medal at national
+Caledonian meets, was director of the Princeton gymnasium from
+1869 to 1885, and under the inspiration of his presence the Princeton
+Athletic Club was organized in the spring of 1873. The club had
+its first field day on June 21 of that year. Yale students held a
+field meet May 4, 1872. In the fall of 1873 the University of
+Pennsylvania Athletic Association was formed, and the Harvard
+Athletic Association a year later. Among the colleges which
+competed in five events at Saratoga in 1874 were Columbia, Cornell,
+Harvard, Princeton, Wesleyan, Williams, and Yale. Amherst,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>University of Pennsylvania, and Union were added in 1875, and
+Dartmouth in 1876. Although an intercollegiate athletic association
+was organized in this last year (1876), the present widespread
+interest in track and field athletics was not reached until the following
+decade. Nineteen colleges were represented at the Mott Haven
+(New York) games in 1886. The New York State Intercollegiate
+Athletic Association, made up of seven colleges, was already in
+existence (1885), and delegates from seven other colleges formed
+the New England Intercollegiate Athletic Association on November
+23, 1886.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp92" id="figure77" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure77.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Dudley Allen Sargent (1849-).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Twenty years after the octagonal gymnasium on Cambridge Street
+and Broadway was opened to students in Harvard University a
+structure ten times as costly, the gift of Augustus Hemenway,
+Harvard 1875, to his <i>alma mater</i>, was nearing completion at the
+corner of Cambridge Street and Holmes Place, facing the College
+Yard. The selection and arrangement of apparatus and the details
+of system and method were left to the newly appointed director,
+Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, a man whose stimulating and molding
+influence upon physical training in American colleges in the next few
+decades was to be more potent and more widely felt than any other
+that can be named. His interest in gymnastics reached back to
+boyhood days, and during ten years of experience as a teacher in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span>that field he had evolved certain unique plans of equipment and
+administration which were now to be carried out under most
+favorable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>He was descended from New England ancestry, the son of a ship
+carpenter and sparmaker in Belfast, Maine, on the west side of
+Penobscot Bay, and was born there on September 28, 1849. The
+harbor and the bay furnished abundant opportunity for youthful
+activity and enterprise, and the early death of his father made it
+necessary to give much of the time outside of school hours and in
+the long vacations to varied forms of manual labor on land and sea,
+under the direction of an uncle. Meanwhile he had joined with
+other high school boys in putting up a horizontal bar and some
+other apparatus on the school grounds and starting a gymnastic
+club. Reports of exhibitions given at Bowdoin College, in Brunswick,
+sixty miles away to the southwest, added to their zeal, and
+constant practice brought such a degree of skill that they ventured
+to give similar public exhibitions of their own, first in the town-hall
+at home, and later in some of the neighboring towns.</p>
+
+<p>An invitation to become director of the gymnasium at Bowdoin
+College, in the fall of 1869, opened the way to further study for the
+young expert and started him on a career which was followed
+thenceforth without interruption. Two years later he was ready to
+enter the college as a freshman, retaining still the position to which
+he had been originally appointed, and now the authorities required
+all students to attend regular class exercises in the gymnasium for a
+half-hour daily during most of the fall and winter terms, <i>i.e.</i>, when
+they were not occupied with military drill. During his sophomore
+year Sargent spent three months at Yale College, introducing there
+the same plan of work, and he continued to divide his time between
+the two institutions until his graduation from Bowdoin (A.B.) in
+1875. The fall of that year found him instructor in gymnastics
+in Yale College and a student in the Yale Medical School, and from
+the latter he obtained the degree of M.D. in January of 1878.</p>
+
+<p>The next move was to New York City, where for a year he conducted
+a private gymnasium on the site afterwards occupied by the
+Madison Square Theatre Company. “I elaborated my old system
+of measurements,” he says, referring to this period, “and had the
+first patterns of my long-contemplated developing appliances
+constructed. These consist of what are familiarly known as chest-weights,
+chest-expanders and developers, quarter-circles, leg-machines,
+finger-machines, etc., to the number of forty different
+pieces....&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> The attempt was made to ascertain the strength and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span>physical condition of the individual by dynamometers, and other
+testing and measuring appliances, and then to adapt the apparatus
+by means of pulleys, levers, adjustable weights, etc., to the strength
+or weakness of the person as determined by the physical examination.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp52" id="figure78" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure78.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—Frontispiece to Captain Chiosso’s “The Gymnastic Polymachinon” (1855).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Hemenway Gymnasium was nearing completion,
+and the attention of the Harvard authorities, in search of a man
+able to insure the best use of such splendid facilities for physical
+training, was turned to Dr. Sargent by alumni living in New York,
+and especially by William Blaikie (1843-1904), whose “How to
+Get Strong and How to Stay So” had just been published (New
+York, Harper &amp; Brothers, 1879). In the chapter on “What a
+Gymnasium Might Be and Do” he sets forth Harvard’s opportunity
+in language that now sounds prophetic, and here and elsewhere in
+the book makes repeated mention of Dr. Sargent’s work at Bowdoin
+and Yale and of the new apparatus which he was then introducing.
+On September 22, 1879, the Corporation appointed him assistant
+professor of physical training and director of the Hemenway Gymnasium.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a>
+His first task was to determine the equipment and to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span>superintend its construction and installation, and the building,
+therefore, was not ready for use until the following January. In
+the <i>Harvard Register</i> a month later he explains that the older gymnasia
+were “filled with crude appliances that have been handed
+down in stereotyped forms for several centuries (!). To use this
+apparatus with benefit, it is necessary for one to have more strength
+at the outset than the average man possesses.... When it is
+considered that only one man out of five can raise his own weight
+with ease, the need of introductory apparatus to prepare one for the
+beneficial use of the heavy appliances becomes quite apparent. It
+was the realization of this need that led to the invention of the
+numerous contrivances that have been introduced into the Hemenway
+Gymnasium; the desire to strengthen certain muscles, in order
+to accomplish particular feats on the higher apparatus, was the
+original motive.... The results which followed were so satisfactory
+that the same appliances were afterwards used as a means
+of attaining a harmonious development. For this last-named
+purpose each machine has its own use. Each is designed to bring
+into action one or more sets of muscles, and all can be adjusted to the
+capacity of a child or of an athlete....”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure79" style="max-width: 25.0em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure79.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Harvard University: Hemenway Gymnasium (1885).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>According to the university catalogue published in 1880, “The
+attendance is voluntary, and the system adopted is one designed to
+meet the special wants of each individual. Realizing the great
+diversity in age, size, and strength, as well as in health, of the students
+who attend the University, the Director makes no attempt to
+group them into classes which pursue the same course of exercises.
+Upon entering the University, each student is entitled to an examination
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span>by the Director, in which his physical proportions are measured,
+his strength tested, his heart and lungs examined, and information
+is solicited concerning his general health and inherited tendencies.
+From the data thus procured, a special order of appropriate exercises
+is made out for each student, with specifications of the movements
+and apparatus which he may best use. After working on this prescription
+for three to six months, the student is entitled to another
+examination, by which the results of his work are ascertained, and
+the Director (is) enabled to make a further prescription for his
+individual case.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure80" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure80.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Harvard University: Hemenway Gymnasium (1885).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A “Handbook of Developing Exercises” was printed in 1882, and
+a revised and enlarged edition, with illustrations, in 1889. The
+skeleton Anthropometric Chart (percentile) described in <i>Scribner’s
+Magazine</i> for July, 1887 (II: 3-17), had been issued the year before,
+and in 1893 table charts were ready, “designed to show the distribution
+of any American community as to physical power and proportions,”
+and ranging “from ten to twenty-six years of age for
+either sex, there being one for each age, except that the ages from
+twenty-two to twenty-six for men, and from eighteen to twenty-six
+for women are combined.” In this same year the life-size statues
+of typical American students, man and woman, were exhibited at the
+World’s Fair in Chicago.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1881 Dr. Sargent had begun to train teachers, in the
+“Sanatory Gymnasium” opened in Cambridge that year, primarily
+to meet the needs of young women studying in the “Harvard
+Annex,” now known as Radcliffe College. In 1883 accommodations
+were secured at 20 Church Street, and here during the next two
+decades more than two hundred and fifty women completed the
+prescribed two years’ normal course of theory and practice. The
+commodious new building on Everett Street was ready for use in the
+school year 1904-1905, and the course, now extended to cover three
+years, was thrown open to men also. Summer courses in physical
+training, lasting five weeks and given in Hemenway Gymnasium
+under the auspices of Harvard University, have been offered since
+1887. The annual attendance in the first twenty-five years averaged
+over one hundred students, of whom nearly one third were men.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p>
+
+<p>The continuous and rapid development of physical education in
+American colleges and universities which has taken place in recent
+years may be dated from the opening of the new Hemenway Gymnasium
+at Harvard University, with Dr. Sargent’s novel equipment
+and methods, in January of 1880, and the publication of Dr. Hartwell’s
+report by the Bureau of Education in 1886. First came an
+era of gymnasium building. In the brief interval between the two
+events just named the list of institutions includes Smith College
+(1880, $4000), Lehigh University (1882, $40,000), Cornell University
+(1882-83, $40,000), Tufts College (1882-83, $10,000),
+University of Wooster (1882-83, $4200), Johns Hopkins University
+(1883, $10,000), Amherst College (1883-84, $65,000), Bryn Mawr
+College (1884, $18,000), Dickinson College (1884, $8000), Lafayette
+College (1884, $15,000), and University of Minnesota (1884, $34,000).
+Twenty-five years later 114 institutions reported gymnasia, and in
+1920 the number had increased to 209.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span></p>
+
+<p>Next came the organization of departments of physical education.
+By 1909 at least 111 institutions were giving regular instruction in
+gymnastics, and in 1920 such departments existed in 199 colleges and
+universities. In 187 of them the head of the department had a seat
+in the faculty, and in 157 the rank of a full professor. It must be
+recalled in this connection that postgraduate courses like those
+offered in theology, medicine, law, and general education have not
+hitherto been available for men and women looking forward to a
+career in physical education, so that not many candidates have been
+able to measure up to the standards of general and special preparation
+which have determined appointment to other college professorships.
+A course in medicine, which has seemed to many the natural
+portal of entry to the new profession, cannot be viewed as anything
+but a makeshift solution of the problem, and until this need is met
+in some more adequate way it must be difficult for the department
+of physical education to win and hold a status equal to that of others
+long established. A national Society of (men) Directors of Physical
+Education in Colleges was organized in New York City December
+31, 1897, and has held annual meetings during the Christmas holidays
+ever since. A corresponding Association of Directors of
+Physical Education for Women has been in existence since 1910,
+but until 1915 it included only the New England colleges.</p>
+
+<p>It early became the practice to prescribe courses in physical education
+for students as a part of their required work. This was the
+case at 95 institutions in 1909, and at 180 in 1920. Freshmen
+were included in the requirement at 157 colleges in the latter year,
+sophomores at 137, juniors at 44, and seniors at 29. The next step
+was the giving of positive credit toward graduation for courses in
+physical education. By 1909, 60 colleges were doing this, and in
+1920 there were 139. More recently the department has begun to
+take over the control and administration of intercollegiate athletics,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>
+to develop recreational activities for the entire undergraduate body
+of students on a large scale, and to offer both theoretical and practical
+courses of instruction and training open to students who intend
+themselves to teach the subject later on. These courses are sometimes
+grouped into a major, like those offered in other departments
+of the college or university, and may be considered the first step
+toward regularly organized professional courses for graduate students.
+The relation of a department of physical education to
+instruction in hygiene, the care of student health, and the sanitation
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span>of the college community varies in different institutions. In some
+a part or all of the latter functions are entrusted to a separate
+“students’ health service.”&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps present-day tendencies can be best indicated by printing
+here in full the report of a special committee appointed in 1919 by
+the Society of Directors of Physical Education in Colleges to formulate
+the aims and scope of physical education. It was published
+in the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> for June, 1920, and
+adopted by the Society without change at the annual meeting in
+Chicago, December 30, 1920, as expressing its attitude in general
+on the various questions involved. After an introductory paragraph
+the report proceeds as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Definition.</span> The term physical education is sometimes
+regarded as identical with the hygiene of childhood and youth.
+Others would limit it to more or less systematic exercise of the
+neuromuscular apparatus in order to promote and conserve the
+perfect functioning of the entire human mechanism, to make it what
+Huxley called ‘the ready servant of the will,’ and to develop correct
+motor habits. A usage more in conformity with the present conception
+of man’s nature as a unit is that which sees in measures
+insuring bodily health and the right kind and amount of motor
+activity an avenue of approach through which the whole individual
+may be influenced for good, in mind and character as well as in body;
+it employs the word physical to denote the means, and not the end.
+Probably no one would contend that education in general is identical
+with hygiene in its broader meaning, which takes account of mental
+and moral soundness, and there seems no better warrant for making
+physical education synonymous with hygiene in the narrower sense.
+Obviously something more than health is in the mind of one who
+adopts the newer definition proposed above, and improved coördination
+is not the only goal in sight.</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Aims.</span> 1. If we conceive the perfecting of the individual in
+his social relations to be of greater importance than more purely
+personal values we may well begin our list of aims with certain
+qualities developed by appropriate group activities, particularly
+games and athletic sports, practised under favorable conditions.
+It is through these agencies that the child and youth most readily
+and naturally acquire habits of obedience, subordination, self-sacrifice,
+coöperation and friendliness, loyalty, capacity for leadership,
+ability to lose without sulking and win without boasting, a spirit
+of fair play, and all that is implied in the word sportsmanship.</p>
+
+<p>“2. Other qualities of marked, though indirect, significance to
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span>the community are self-confidence and self-control, mental and moral
+poise, good spirits, alertness, resourcefulness, decision and perseverance,
+courage, aggressiveness, initiative. These traits, developed
+by the farm life and varied home activities of an earlier age,
+must now be insured through other means than those which the
+average family can itself supply.</p>
+
+<p>“3. Underlying such aims must be the purpose to promote the
+normal growth and organic development of the individual, conserve
+his health and provide a fair degree of strength and endurance,
+and to secure an erect and self-respecting carriage of the body and
+the neuromuscular control required for prompt and accurate
+response and graceful and effective movements. Emergencies
+should be anticipated by training in exercises of which swimming
+may be taken as a type, and by others which accustom one to bear
+physical punishment coolly and to defend himself successfully.</p>
+
+<p>“4. But the teacher’s vision should not be bounded by the limits
+of the school or college or university period. To engender in youth
+an intelligent and healthful interest that shall lead to lifelong practice
+of forms of active exercise which favor not only a continued high
+level of physical efficiency but also mental sanity and stimulating
+social contact is certainly not the least service he may seek to
+render.</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Scope.</span> 1. The scope or range of physical education is suggested
+by what has already been said. Physical examinations intended to
+reveal the condition and needs of the individual and to allow the
+application of various tests constitute a necessary introduction and
+accompaniment. The educational procedure itself involves <i>two
+related lines</i> of work: (1) an orderly and progressive program of
+<i>activities</i> designed specifically to develop the qualities listed above,
+including regular and frequent exercise of the fundamental muscle
+groups, and suitable employment of corrective exercises in cases
+of faulty posture and other remediable defects reached through such
+agencies; and (2) <i>instruction</i> in personal hygiene and public sanitation,
+and inculcation of health habits, together with advice and
+suggestions to students confronted by individual health problems.
+Special courses in school hygiene and in the theory of physical
+education should be added in normal schools, colleges, and universities,
+in order that students preparing for the teaching profession
+may be adequately trained under the most favorable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>“2. <i>Vocational training</i> and industrial occupations supply a
+certain amount of motor activity for a large part of the population,
+it is true, but in forms which are in general too one-sided and too
+much limited to the accessory mechanisms of the hand and fingers to
+be of serious hygienic value, and too often they are practised under
+insanitary conditions. The isolated exercises of <i>formal gymnastics</i>,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span>if wisely chosen, are serviceable for corrective purposes, and may be
+utilized for bringing into play the fundamental muscle groups, and
+securing erect posture and a good degree of neuromuscular control.
+They permit a maximum economy of time and space and offer the
+advantages of skilled supervision, and they may be made to yield
+a foundation of strength and skill without which interest and
+success in games are likely to be lacking. Carefully selected and
+arranged exercises in <i>hanging and climbing</i> and in <i>jumping and
+vaulting</i> are especially valuable as supplying elementary training in
+self-confidence, alertness, decision, and courage, in addition to their
+hygienic and corrective uses and the advanced training in coördination
+which they furnish. <i>Combat exercises</i> make their unique
+contribution in the form of capacity for self-defense and ability to
+take punishment coolly. Folk, esthetic, and athletic <i>dancing</i> have
+an obvious place with relation to fundamental muscle groups and
+graceful control of the body as a whole. <i>Group games</i>, which are
+lacking in corrective value and compare unfavorably with formal
+exercises as a school of good posture and general coördination, may
+give excellent results in the way of improved health, and their
+special field is the development of sturdy character and right ethical
+standards.</p>
+
+<p>“3. The <i>relative importance</i> to be assigned to the different aims
+and means of physical education mentioned varies, of course, with
+the age, sex, environment, and other conditions of life and work.
+The teaching of hygiene and the health habits emphasized must be
+related to the grade of intelligence and the special needs and interests
+of the individual at each stage, from early childhood to full maturity.
+The activities of the <i>kindergarten</i> and the <i>lower school grades</i> should
+be directed chiefly toward promotion of normal growth and organic
+development, by exercise of the fundamental muscle groups, and
+particularly through the agency of simple games, which also furnish
+a valuable social training at this period. In the <i>upper grades</i> and
+the <i>high school</i> training in coördination, with suitable attention to
+posture, should become a prominent feature. Too often, nowadays,
+the <i>college or university</i> department of physical education is
+called upon to adopt measures which would be quite unnecessary
+with an adequate system in the elementary and secondary schools,
+and to remedy conditions of malgrowth and maldevelopment which
+ought never to have been allowed to develop. After the high school
+period conservation of health and the higher social values would
+normally become the dominant objectives. Outside the limits of
+school life, <i>i.e.</i>, in dealing with <i>industrial or professional groups</i>,
+conditions of occupation and environment must determine the aim
+and content of whatever plan is adopted.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span></p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Relations.</span> 1. Closely associated with the purposes of physical
+education are <i>other procedures</i> which any complete health program
+in a school, college, university, or system of schools will include.
+These are measures intended to secure (1) prompt <i>detection of illness</i>
+and physical defects, through preliminary and periodic medical
+inspection and physical examinations, and (2) <i>adequate treatment</i>,
+by means of hospital, dispensary, or private service; and (3) to
+provide <i>sanitary safeguards</i>, such as attention to food and water
+supplies, sewage disposal, light and ventilation, rooming conditions,
+and the early recognition and isolation of cases of communicable
+disease. Such measures call for the employment of a practising
+physician and health officer, whose services might also be utilized
+in the examinations given by the department of physical education
+and in the instruction in personal hygiene and public sanitation.
+For all other purposes mentioned in this report the oversight of a
+specially trained educator is required.</p>
+
+<p>“2. The influence of a well-organized department of physical
+education ought to be felt in every phase of school work, through
+<i>coöperation</i> in attempts to promote mental hygiene and to follow
+hygienic principles in the choice of methods of instruction and management.
+Teachers in other departments may be stimulated and
+helped to maintain themselves in a condition which renders their
+own work more effective.”</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>The portions of this chapter which have to do with the life and work of Dr. Edward
+Hitchcock and Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent have already appeared in print, as Chapters
+XIII and XIV in the writer’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York,
+The Association Press, 1915). Other references are given in the text and footnotes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Mrs. J. H. McCurdy, “The History of Physical Training at Mount Holyoke
+College,” in the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> for March, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> See “Instructions in Gymnastics, containing a full description of more than eight
+hundred exercises, and illustrated by five hundred engravings. By J. E. D’Alfonce,
+late Professor in the Military School in St. Petersburgh, and in Paris.” New York,
+George F. Nesbitt &amp; Co., 1951. The author speaks in the preface of “seven years’
+practice with pupils of all ages,” and of “the debt which I owe to America for the
+freedom I enjoy, and for the hospitality and friendship I have received from her
+citizens....”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> Page 60 of “The University of Virginia: Glimpses of Its Past and Present,”
+by John S. Patton and Sallie J. Doswell (Lynchburg, Va., 1900). See also a letter
+(“Due Tribute”) published in <i>The Outlook</i> for May 18, 1907 (<b>85</b>, p. 122).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> In Bartlett and Gifford’s “Dartmouth Athletics” (Concord, N. H., 1893).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> The Princeton Book. A Series of Sketches Pertaining to the History, Organization
+and Present Condition of the College of New Jersey. By Officers and Graduates
+of the College. Boston: Houghton, Osgood &amp; Co., 1879. See <a href="#Page_268">p. 268</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> It was opened for use December 8, 1857, according to an item in the <i>Deutsche
+Turn-Zeitung</i> for 1858, p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> This is the date given in <i>Jahrbücher der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Turnerei</i> (New
+York), <b>3</b>, 55 (December, 1893). See also a reference in <b>2</b>, 267 (July, 1893).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> For references in the University catalogue and the records of the Board of Trustees,
+and for a copy of the report in the <i>Cincinnati Daily Gazette</i> I am indebted to the
+kindness of Professor J. E. Bradford, of the department of history at Miami. The
+first hint of any such episode as the above was gained from the <i>Jahrbücher</i> mentioned
+in the footnote preceding this one.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> The donor was Henry Bromfield Rogers, Harvard 1822.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> The <i>Yale Literary Magazine</i> of March, 1860 (<b>25</b>, 230).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> Follansbee Goodrich Welch was born at Concord, N. H., June 8, 1843, and
+graduated from Dio Lewis’s Normal Institute for Physical Education. In addition
+to his duties at Yale he served as “Instructor in Physical Culture” at Dartmouth
+College from the spring of 1867 through the year 1867-68, and instructor in gymnastics
+at Wesleyan University 1868-69, besides conducting for a number of years an eight
+weeks summer “Normal Institute for the Training of Teachers in Dio Lewis’s New
+Gymnastics,” at the Glenwood Ladies’ Seminary, West Brattleboro, Vermont.
+In 1869 he published “Moral, Intellectual, and Physical Culture; or the Philosophy
+of True Living” (New York, Wood &amp; Holbrook), Part I of which deals with “The
+Gymnasium,” and Part II with “the Dio Lewis System of Gymnastics.” The New
+York Homeopathic Medical College conferred on him the degree of M.D. in 1870,
+and he afterwards practised medicine in New York City.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> See “Four Years at Yale,” by a Graduate of ’69 (Lyman H. Bagg) (New Haven,
+Charles C. Chatfield &amp; Co., 1871), pp. 31 and 402-405; and Dudley A. Sargent in
+“Yale College: A Sketch of Its History....” (New York, Henry Holt &amp; Co.,
+1879), <b>2</b>, pp. 458 and 459.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> He had been a student in Harvard College at the time when Follen introduced
+the Jahn gymnastics there, and was in Andover Theological Seminary while the
+“Mechanical Association” was still flourishing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> It was 72 by 50 feet and two stories high, with walls of Pelham gneiss or granite.
+The first floor contained an office, dressing rooms, and bowling alleys, and above this
+was the main hall for gymnastic exercises. The architect was Charles E. Parkes of
+Boston, and the total cost of the building and fixtures amounted to $15,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> He was born May 23, 1828, at Amherst, Massachusetts, where his father had
+been appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in the college three years
+before and was afterwards to become its third president (1845-1854). Upon completing
+his preparatory studies at Amherst Academy, and at Williston Seminary, in
+Easthampton, eleven miles to the southwest, he entered Amherst College and graduated
+with the class of 1849. Then from 1850 to 1861, with the exception of a single
+year (1852-53), he was teacher of elocution and natural science at Williston Seminary,
+and early in this period obtained the degree of doctor of medicine from the Harvard
+Medical School (1853).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> See the “Manual of Gymnastic Exercises, Arranged on Hygienic Principles and
+Adapted to Music. Compiled by E. H. Barlow, Captain of the Class of ’66, Barrett
+Gymnasium, Amherst College” (Amherst, 1863). A second edition was published
+in 1866, and a third in 1875. It will be recalled that in 1864 Amherst College conferred
+on Dio Lewis the honorary degree of Master of Arts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> The gift of a new gymnasium to Amherst College in 1884, by C. M. Pratt of the
+class of ’79, brought new and much-needed facilities, to which important additions
+have been made during more recent years; but the unique contribution of the College,
+and of Dr. Hitchcock, himself, to the advancement of physical training in America
+was made in the two decades which succeeded the trustee meeting of August, 1859.
+Dr. Hitchcock was chairman of the meeting in Brooklyn at which the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education was organized (November
+27, 1885). He was also its first president, a member of the committee on statistics
+and measurements, and a frequent contributor to the early programs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, 1841, March 16; removed to New York City at
+the age of thirteen, and in 1861 became a professional gymnast; as a member of the
+New York Caledonian Club was a leading figure in its annual games, and at national
+Caledonian meets he twice won the championship medal. He died at Princeton
+February 23, 1920.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> See Dr. E. M. Hartwell, “Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities”
+(Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No. 5, 1885. Washington,
+1886), pp. 39, 60-67. It is possible that Cornell University and Hamilton, Union,
+and Wabash Colleges should be added to the list.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> See “The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman,” by Fabian Franklin (New York: Dodd,
+Mead &amp; Co., 1910), pp. 70-73.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> See Bulletin 1918, No. 13 of the United States Bureau of Education (Benjamin
+F. Andrews, “The Land-Grant of 1862 and the Land-Grant Colleges”), and an
+article by Herman Balson in <i>The Outlook</i> for May 4, 1901 (pp. 81-85).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> See “Rowing and Track Athletics: Rowing by Samuel Crowther, Track
+Athletics by Arthur Ruhl” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1905); and “Football,
+the American Intercollegiate Game,” by Parke H. Davis (New York, Charles Scribner’s
+Sons, 1911).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> The idea of the pulley weight is an old one. See an illustrated article in the
+<i>Deutsche Turnzeitung</i>, 1902, pp. 289-292, and Captain Chiosso’s “The Gymnastic
+Polymachinon” (London, Walton &amp; Maberly; Paris and New York, H. Ballière,
+1855).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> The appointment as assistant professor was for the usual term of five years.
+After that period, and until his retirement in September of 1919, his title was simply
+“Director of the Hemenway Gymnasium.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> See Dr. Hartwell’s Report on “Physical Training in American Colleges and
+Universities” (Washington, 1886), pp. 41-59.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> At the meeting in Brooklyn which resulted in the organization of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, in 1885, Dr. Sargent was
+elected one of three vice-presidents. In 1890 he was chosen president, and held the
+same office again in the years 1892-94 and 1899-1901. He was also an active member
+of the Society of Directors of Physical Education in Colleges from the time of its
+organization in 1897, serving as president in 1899. Outside of these professional
+associations he has been busy with voice and pen in the interest of wholesome and
+nationwide physical training, and against excesses in athletics, the abuse of military
+drill in the public schools, and other unwise measures. A list of his more important
+papers and addresses would include no less than forty titles (see pp. 9-22 in the
+“Fiftieth Anniversary” volume prepared in 1919 and presented to Dr. Sargent at a
+dinner given in his honor at Hotel Vendome, Boston, on the evening of December
+27th of that year). Twelve papers and essays were collected into a volume under
+the title “Physical Education” and published in 1906 (Boston, etc., Ginn &amp; Co.),
+and two years earlier another volume, “Health, Strength and Power,” had appeared
+(New York and Boston, H. M. Caldwell Co. Reissued in 1914 by the Dodge Publishing
+Co., New York).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> See the reports of a standing committee of the Society of Directors of Physical
+Education in Colleges, based on questionnaires sent out in 1909, 1915, and 1920, and
+published in the <i>American Physical Education Review</i> for February, 1912, March,
+1916 and November, 1921. These reports supply the other figures quoted in succeeding
+paragraphs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> An important step looking toward effective faculty control of intercollegiate
+athletics was taken when the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United
+States was formed in 1906. Four years later the name was changed to “National
+Collegiate Athletic Association.” Annual conventions have been held during the
+Christmas holidays since 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> An “American Students Health Association” was organized in Chicago March 4,
+1920, and held its first annual meeting in that city on December 31st of the same
+year.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">GERMAN-AMERICAN GYMNASTIC SOCIETIES AND THE NORTH AMERICAN TURNERBUND.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The first introduction of the Jahn gymnastics into the United
+States, in the years 1825-1828, we owe to Follen, Beck, Lieber, and
+Völker, men who had been associated with the German <i>Turnvater</i>
+or had come under his influence during their university days in
+Europe and who fled from their native land to America or England
+in consequence of the reactionary measures adopted by the Holy
+Alliance after the murder of Kotzebue by Karl Sand in 1819.
+Although Prussia’s example in suppressing public <i>Turnen</i> was followed
+by other German states, the procedure was by no means
+universal, so that between 1820 and 1840 not only did the old
+organizations continue without interruption in certain cities, but a
+number of new societies of older boys or young men, who met
+regularly for exercise, were formed here and there. One sign of the
+quickened political life which followed the accession of Frederick-William
+IV to the Prussian throne in 1840 was a general revival of
+the Jahn gymnastics, we have seen (<a href="#Page_102">p. 102</a>). New societies sprang
+up everywhere, until at the close of the decade they numbered nearly
+three hundred. The desire for union which early showed itself was
+met by holding district conventions (<i>Turntage</i>) and gatherings for
+gymnastic exercises (<i>Turnfeste</i>). Agitation for reform in state and
+nation found many bold and able adherents among these later
+disciples of Jahn, and Saxon and South German turners, especially,
+took an active part in the revolutionary movements of 1848 and
+1849. The prompt suppression of all such popular outbreaks and
+the new reactionary policy pursued by the various governments
+led to an exodus of thousands of disappointed patriots to the United
+States, and these brought with them, together with other institutions
+and customs of the fatherland, the German <i>Turnen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Cincinnati <i>Turngemeinde</i>, the oldest German-American
+gymnastic society in this country, was organized November 21,
+1848, at the temporary home and with the coöperation of Friedrich
+Hecker, now an exile, but the popular hero of a republican uprising
+in South Germany earlier in the same year. He had been one of
+the foremost leaders of the advanced revolutionary party. A week
+later another group of men, most of them turners before their migration
+and former followers of Hecker and Struve, met in Hoboken
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span>and organized the New York <i>Turngemeinde</i>. Other societies followed
+in rapid succession, so that within three years there were
+25 or more in existence, with an aggregate membership of nearly
+2000. These were scattered all the way from <i>New England</i> (Boston),
+<i>New York</i> (New York, Brooklyn, Poughkeepsie, Utica, and Rochester),
+<i>New Jersey</i> (Newark), <i>Pennsylvania</i> (Philadelphia, Reading,
+Pittsburgh, and Allegheny), and <i>Maryland</i> (Baltimore), to <i>Ohio</i>
+(Cincinnati, Columbus, and Cleveland), <i>Kentucky</i> (Louisville), <i>Indiana</i>
+(Indianapolis), <i>Illinois</i> (Peoria), and <i>Missouri</i> (St. Louis) in
+the west, and as far as New Orleans in the southwest. Four
+societies, in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Cincinnati,
+contained about half of the total membership.</p>
+
+<p>The first steps looking toward union through the formation of a
+national <i>Turnerbund</i> were taken in New York as early as July of
+1850, and at Philadelphia on the 5th of the following October
+delegates from Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, and
+Baltimore effected a provisional organization, under the name of
+the “United <i>Turnvereine</i> of North America.” The next August
+(1851) the Philadelphia <i>Turngemeinde</i> invited all the societies in the
+country to join in a general <i>Turnfest</i> (the first) in that city on September
+29 and 30. Between six and seven hundred turners
+responded, and at a second convention held on October 1 and 2
+delegates from nine societies completed the details of permanent
+organization. The name was now changed to the “<i>Socialistic
+Turnerbund</i>.” New York was made the headquarters of the
+Executive Committee (<i>Vorort</i>), the members of which were to be
+chosen by the New York <i>Socialistischer Turnverein</i>. The first
+number of the monthly <i>Turnzeitung</i>, the official organ of the <i>Bund</i>,
+was issued November 15, 1851, and reported that 11 societies, with
+1072 members, had already joined.</p>
+
+<p>By October of 1853, when Philadelphia became the seat of the
+Executive Committee, the number of societies had increased to
+about 60, and 10 others, recently organized, were expected to
+announce their accession shortly. Seven years later there were
+altogether above 150 societies, and the total membership had
+risen to between 9000 and 10,000. A list of all those in existence
+at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 reveals the following
+distribution: Massachusetts (4 societies), Connecticut (5), Rhode
+Island (1), New York (12), New Jersey (13), Pennsylvania (7),
+Delaware (1), Maryland (1), District of Columbia (2), Virginia (1),
+West Virginia (1), Ohio (11), Indiana (8), Michigan (3), Illinois (29),
+Wisconsin (13), Minnesota (7), Iowa (11), Missouri (6), Kansas
+(5), Kentucky (4), Tennessee (2), South Carolina (1), Alabama (2),
+Louisiana (2), Texas (1), and California (4)—a total of 157 societies
+in 27 states of the Union.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span></p>
+
+<p>These early societies, most of whose members had been profoundly
+stirred by the popular uprising in Germany, did not confine
+their activity to the practise of gymnastic exercises. On the other
+hand, leavened by men of education, character, and superior ability,
+they were centers of agitation for a great variety of reforms. American
+socialism, for example, found here its first home. The
+“Statutes” adopted by the Convention in Philadelphia October 5,
+1850, announce that the organization aims to secure the most
+complete independence of the individual, along with his physical
+development, and declare the promotion of socialism and the
+efforts of the Social-democratic Party a matter of supreme importance.
+The <i>Turnerbund</i> sought to assist each member to a clear
+understanding of proposed political, social, and religious reforms,
+to the end that in a spirit of radical progress he might lend them
+effective aid, either individually or through the agency of the
+<i>Bund</i>. The shadow of approaching Civil War helped to give to
+love of freedom immediate objects of thought and endeavor. The
+Buffalo Convention of 1855 (September 24-27) put itself on record
+as opposed to slavery, and especially to its extension into free
+territories; to the so-called American Party or Know-nothings, and
+to any other body of similar spirit; and to all temperance legislation,
+which was deemed undemocratic in principle and unjust and unpractical
+in operation.</p>
+
+<p>In view of this multiplicity of interests it is not strange that the
+history of physical training in the early societies was a checkered
+one. For a time the official <i>Turnzeitung</i> contained excellent articles
+on gymnastics by Magnus Gross and Eduard Müller. The first
+Executive Committee of the <i>Turnerbund</i> distributed drawings of
+pyramids, and employed Louis Winter, an expert turner from
+Leipzig, to visit the smaller societies as itinerant teacher and to
+assist them in fitting up outdoor gymnasia. Among the members
+of the larger societies were usually to be found men able to direct
+the exercises of adults and older boys. At the Cincinnati Convention
+of 1852 the Committee was asked to arrange for the preparation
+of a suitable manual of gymnastics. The task was committed
+to Eduard Müller (1803-1886), who completed it before the end of
+the year.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> Müller was born in Mainz, and becoming acquainted
+with the Jahn <i>Turnen</i> while a student of drawing and painting at
+the Munich Academy organized a <i>Turnverein</i> in his native city, and
+later became its leader, city teacher of gymnastics, and editor and
+publisher of the <i>Mainzer Turnzeitung</i> (<a href="#Page_103">p. 103</a>). When the disturbances
+of 1848 drove him to America he continued his activity
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span>in the New York <i>Turnverein</i>, and until 1858 was teacher of gymnastics
+in its school. His manual of nearly 350 pages was illustrated
+with numerous lithographed plates. It did not prove as satisfactory
+a guide as had been hoped, partly on account of the clumsy terminology
+adopted, and not half of the thousand copies printed were sold
+at the published price (seventy-five cents).</p>
+
+<p>A few years later a period of decline set in. Membership fell off,
+for the older turners began to discontinue their gymnastic practice
+and the young German-Americans, trained in this country, did not
+always sympathize with the ideals of their parents. <i>Turnen</i> in
+Germany was suffering from the reactionary measures which followed
+the events of 1848-1849, so that good gymnasts were less
+numerous among recent immigrants, and this continued to be the
+case until the marked revival of interest in the sixties. The Executive
+Committee was absorbed in politics and aside from offering
+prizes to the victors in <i>Turnfest</i> competitions did little or nothing
+to make physical training other than a subordinate phase of society
+life. The same retrogression was manifest in the pages of the
+<i>Turnzeitung</i> and the proceedings of the national Conventions.
+Only the larger societies employed professional teachers of gymnastics,
+and nothing was done to recruit their ranks or to provide
+well trained assistants. An attempt was made to remedy the latter
+condition in 1858 by establishing <i>Vorturner</i> schools in various cities,
+but it met with slight success. By this time, as a result of dissensions,
+the <i>Bund</i> was divided into two mutually suspicious and
+unfriendly groups of societies, an Eastern and a Western, each with
+its own Executive Committee. One noteworthy feature of the
+report of the Western Committee, presented at a Convention in
+Indianapolis (September 4-8, 1858), was the statement that fifteen
+gymnastic societies had been organized by native Americans (in
+Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Louisville, and New Orleans, for example)
+after the German model and were in flourishing condition, and that
+these had held their first <i>Turnfest</i>, with competition for prizes, in
+Oxford, Ohio (June 29, 1858. See <a href="#Page_267">p. 267</a>).</p>
+
+<p>A list of national <i>Turnfeste</i> held by the societies of the <i>Turnerbund</i>
+between 1851 and 1860 is added here, as a matter of record:</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td>1851, September 29 and 30</td>
+    <td>Philadelphia.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td>1852, September 11-14</td>
+    <td>Baltimore (Eastern societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+    <td>1852, September 26-28</td>
+    <td>Cincinnati (Western societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+    <td>1853, May 30 and 31</td>
+    <td>Louisville (Western societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+    <td>1853, September 3-7</td>
+    <td>New York (Eastern societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+    <td>1854, September 2-7</td>
+    <td>Philadelphia.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+    <td>1855, September 15-18</td>
+    <td>Cincinnati.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VIII.</td>
+    <td>1856, August 26-29</td>
+    <td>Pittsburgh.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IX.</td>
+    <td>1857, August 29-September 2</td>
+    <td>New York (Eastern societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">X.</td>
+    <td>1857, August 29-September 2</td>
+    <td>Milwaukee (Western societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XI.</td>
+    <td>1858, August 30-September 2</td>
+    <td>Belleville, Illinois.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XII.</td>
+    <td>1859, August 20-23</td>
+    <td>Williamsburg, N. Y. (Eastern societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIII.</td>
+    <td>1859, August 27-30</td>
+    <td>Baltimore (Western societies).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIV.</td>
+    <td>1860, June 30-July 5</td>
+    <td>St Louis.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span></p>
+
+<p>As early as 1851, at the Philadelphia Convention, the <i>Turnerbund</i>
+had announced itself in favor of the Free-soil party platform. The
+delegates to the Pittsburgh Convention in September of 1856
+announced their adhesion to the platform of the new Republican
+party and to its candidates, Fremont and Dayton. In October of
+1860 the Executive Committee, now located in Baltimore, sent out
+letters calling upon societies everywhere to support the Republican
+platform and vote for Lincoln in the coming election. This advice
+was generally followed, even in the slave states. The next spring,
+during the riot of April 19 and 20, a mob sacked the hall of the
+Baltimore society when their demand that the national flag floating
+above it be replaced by the state one was refused, and on the 22nd
+the office of the <i>Turnzeitung</i> met a like fate. The editor and most
+of the members of the <i>Turnverein</i> were forced to flee from the city.
+The <i>Turnerbund</i> was therefore left without headquarters or official
+organ, and since no attempt at recovery could prove effective in the
+face of the approaching struggle, which engrossed all attention,
+each society was left to shift for itself throughout the years of Civil
+War as best it could.</p>
+
+<p>President Lincoln’s call for volunteers, issued just before these
+events in Baltimore, met with an immediate response among the
+German-Americans, whose actions at this time demonstrate beyond
+question the sincerity of their enthusiasm for freedom and human
+rights. Exact figures are not available, but it seems tolerably
+certain that out of the total membership of nine or ten thousand at
+the outbreak of the war between five and six thousand turners joined
+the Union army, and to this number should be added about two
+thousand more who had formerly belonged to societies and now
+fought side by side with their old comrades. In the St. Louis
+<i>Turnverein</i> three full companies, well drilled and completely
+equipped, were ready to take the field at once. The Seventeenth
+Missouri Regiment was made up chiefly of members of societies in
+the Southwest and was therefore known as the Western <i>Turnregiment</i>.
+The Twentieth New York State Volunteer Regiment,
+twelve hundred strong, contained three companies of New York
+turners, two from Williamsburg, one from Newark, and others from
+societies along the Hudson and in the interior of the state, with some
+men from Boston and Philadelphia. More than half the membership
+of the Cincinnati <i>Turngemeinde</i> enlisted at the first call, and
+these and other turners from neighboring cities composed a large
+part of the Ninth Ohio Volunteer Infantry. On the evening that
+the Philadelphia <i>Turngemeinde</i> decided to raise a battalion of
+volunteers 86 men out of a membership of about 260 signed their
+names to the roll, and within eight days four companies were formed.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span>These were attached to the Twenty-ninth New York or Astor
+Regiment. The Chicago <i>Turngemeinde</i> met in extra session the day
+following Lincoln’s summons to hear the excuses of such members
+as were unable to enlist, and had a company of 105 men ready
+to march by the night of April 17. A second company was organized
+immediately afterwards. Turners from the Milwaukee and
+other Wisconsin societies were incorporated in the Fifth Wisconsin
+Regiment as Company C, known as the “Turner Rifles.” Many
+societies were so reduced in numbers by enlistment that they found
+it necessary to disband, and effort was everywhere centered on the
+support of those who were hastening to the field, or had already gone.
+The roll of turner dead is a long and honorable one.</p>
+
+<p>During the years of the Civil War the <i>Turnerbund</i> retained only a
+nominal existence. The old Executive Committee remained in
+office, but few societies kept up their connection with this central
+body and it received no financial support. Immigration from
+Germany, where <i>Turnen</i> was now making rapid strides forward,
+had given an impetus to gymnastics in the larger societies meanwhile,
+and <i>Turnvereine</i> in and near New York City had effected
+a district organization, with monthly conventions and <i>Turnfeste</i>.
+At their suggestion the New York <i>Turnverein</i> undertook to manage
+a general <i>Turnfest</i>, in which societies all over the country were
+invited to share, and after which the matter of reorganizing the
+<i>Bund</i> was to be discussed. On September 14, 1864, accordingly,
+delegates from twenty-two societies outside the New York district
+met with their hosts in a sort of improvised national convention,
+which reaffirmed the former platform and appointed a provisional
+central committee. In less than five months six other district
+organizations, after the New York plan, had reported their existence.
+The next spring at Washington (1865, April 3-5) fifty-eight societies
+were represented by delegates in regular convention, and on the
+first day the details of reorganization were completed under the
+name <i>Nordamerikanischer Turnerbund</i> (North American Gymnastic
+Union).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> The headquarters of the Executive Committee were
+established in New York, and its members were to be chosen by the
+New York district (<i>Turnbezirk</i>). Physical training was declared to
+be the first object of the societies. All active members were to take
+part in the gymnastic exercises up to their thirtieth year, after a
+uniform system based on the Jahn-Eiselen model and the “free
+exercises” of Spiess, and suitable classes for boys and girls were also
+to be provided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span></p>
+
+<p>The following table reveals the progress made in the next two
+decades:</p>
+
+<table class="borders">
+  <tr>
+    <th rowspan="2">Year.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Societies.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Membership.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Active members.</th>
+    <th colspan="2">In classes for</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Teachers employed.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <th>Boys.</th>
+    <th>Girls.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1866</td>
+    <td class="tdr">96</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6,320</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,240</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,317</td>
+    <td class="tdr">120</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1868</td>
+    <td class="tdr">148</td>
+    <td class="tdr">10,200</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1872</td>
+    <td class="tdr">187</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9,920</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4,500</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4,770</td>
+    <td class="tdr">394</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1877</td>
+    <td class="tdr">167</td>
+    <td class="tdr">11,653</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,906</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6,318</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1,069</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1878</td>
+    <td class="tdr">162</td>
+    <td class="tdr">11,313</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,799</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7,307</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1,795</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1879</td>
+    <td class="tdr">178</td>
+    <td class="tdr">12,376</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,044</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6,972</td>
+    <td class="tdr">2,083</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1880</td>
+    <td class="tdr">186</td>
+    <td class="tdr">13,387</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4,199</td>
+    <td class="tdr">8,337</td>
+    <td class="tdr">2,388</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1881</td>
+    <td class="tdr">188</td>
+    <td class="tdr">14,885</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5,586</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9,286</td>
+    <td class="tdr">2,701</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1882</td>
+    <td class="tdr">183</td>
+    <td class="tdr">16,349</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7,357</td>
+    <td class="tdr">10,141</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,040</td>
+    <td class="tdr">97</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1883</td>
+    <td class="tdr">187</td>
+    <td class="tdr">17,537</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7,372</td>
+    <td class="tdr">10,312</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,186</td>
+    <td class="tdr">111</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1884</td>
+    <td class="tdr">199</td>
+    <td class="tdr">19,713</td>
+    <td class="tdr">8,439</td>
+    <td class="tdr">11,392</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,572</td>
+    <td class="tdr">106</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1885</td>
+    <td class="tdr">213</td>
+    <td class="tdr">21,809</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5,117</td>
+    <td class="tdr">12,228</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4,005</td>
+    <td class="tdr">98</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1886</td>
+    <td class="tdr">231</td>
+    <td class="tdr">23,823</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5,562</td>
+    <td class="tdr">13,161</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,888</td>
+    <td class="tdr">95</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>During the same period national <i>Turnfeste</i> were held as follows:</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XV.</td>
+    <td>1865, September 2-6</td>
+    <td>Cincinnati.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XVI.</td>
+    <td>1867, June 10-13</td>
+    <td>Baltimore.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XVII.</td>
+    <td>1869, August 7-11</td>
+    <td>Chicago.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td>
+    <td>1871, August 5-10</td>
+    <td>Williamsburg (now Brooklyn, E. D.).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XIX.</td>
+    <td>1873, June 26-29</td>
+    <td>Cincinnati.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XX.</td>
+    <td>1875,</td>
+    <td>New York.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXI.</td>
+    <td>1877, July 18-23</td>
+    <td>Milwaukee.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXII.</td>
+    <td>1879, August 2-6</td>
+    <td>Philadelphia.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXIII.</td>
+    <td>1881, June 4-7</td>
+    <td>St. Louis.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXIV.</td>
+    <td>1885, June 20-24</td>
+    <td>Newark, N. J.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A paragraph added to the by-laws of the <i>Turnerbund</i> at the Convention
+held in Pittsburgh September 1-5, 1856, provided that a
+school for the complete preparation of teachers in the theory and
+practice of physical training should be established in the city where
+the Executive Committee was located. This was almost five years
+before Dio Lewis opened his Normal Institute for Physical Education
+in Boston. The next September the Executive Committee, whose
+headquarters at that time were in Cincinnati, reported to the Detroit
+Convention that lack of means had prevented the carrying out of the
+provision. At the Rochester Convention in 1860 (July 30 to August
+2) the Committee reaffirmed the necessity of establishing a central
+normal school, at the same time that it acknowledged the want of
+success which had hitherto attended its efforts. Soon after the
+reorganization of the <i>Turnerbund</i> in 1865 the new Executive Committee,
+in New York City, took up the matter again, and worked out
+a plan to be laid before the next national convention. Resolutions
+adopted by a conference of teachers of gymnastics which followed
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span>the Cincinnati <i>Turnfest</i> of 1865 also recommended that the step be
+taken. Both actions were reported to the St. Louis Convention
+of 1866 (April 1-4), and it was decided to open such an institution
+at once, with a one-year course which should include lectures on the
+history and aims of German <i>Turnen</i>, anatomy and aesthetics in
+their relation to gymnastics, and first aid, together with gymnastic
+nomenclature, the theory of the different systems, and practical
+instruction with special regard to the training of boys and girls.
+Only persons whose qualifications as teachers were attested by some
+<i>Turnverein</i> were to be admitted, and certificates of attendance
+and proficiency were to be awarded to pupils who were successful
+in examinations given at the close of the course. The direction of
+instruction was entrusted to three persons to be appointed by the
+Executive Committee.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with this decision the normal school was opened
+in <i>New York City</i>, November 22, 1866, ten years after the original
+proposal, with an attendance of nineteen men from different
+parts of the country. The practical instruction was given by
+Wilhelm Heeseler, formerly a pupil at Hermann Otto Kluge’s gymnasium
+in Berlin, and the lecturers were Dr. H. Balser, Dr. Julius
+Hofmann, Eduard Müller, and Heinrich Metzner. Nine men
+remained for the final examinations, on February 13, 1867, and five
+of these received diplomas. The second course was opened in New
+York January 3, 1869, and at its close on July 2 of the same year
+diplomas of the first grade were granted to five pupils and those of
+the second grade to three. At the Pittsburgh Convention of 1870
+(May 29 to June 1) it was voted to move the normal school from
+New York to <i>Chicago</i>. The third course (six months, beginning
+in January, 1871), conducted in that city under the direction of
+August Lang, John Gloy, and George Brosius, fell short of expectations,
+although there were ten participants, of whom four obtained
+diplomas as teachers and two as <i>Vorturner</i>. The great fire of
+October 8-10, 1871, made another change necessary, and the fourth
+course was therefore held in <i>New York City</i> again, from October 27,
+1872, to the end of May, 1873. Seven diplomas of the first grade
+and four of the second were granted, and three pupils received
+certificates as <i>Vorturner</i>. The Rochester Convention of 1874 (May
+24-27) transferred the school to <i>Milwaukee</i>, and there in the years
+1875-1888 ten courses were completed.</p>
+
+<p>The technical director of the Normal School during all these years
+in Milwaukee was George Brosius, who becomes therefore the most
+important single figure in the earlier history of <i>Turnvereine</i> of the
+German type in America. His father was born in Hesse-Darmstadt
+in 1815 and his mother near Leipsic in 1818, but both came to this
+country with their parents in the early thirties, and settled in
+Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Here they met and married, and here
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span>the boy was born, September 9, 1839. In 1842 the family moved
+to Milwaukee, which was thenceforward to be his home except for a
+few brief intervals. He was educated first in the public schools and
+afterwards in the Engelmann School, now known as the German-English
+Academy. Eduard Schulz, a political fugitive from Berlin,
+was conducting a private gymnasium in the city, and this the boy
+attended. When the <i>Turnverein</i> “Milwaukee” opened its classes
+for children in 1854 he joined one of them, becoming a junior
+member (<i>Zögling</i>) of the society soon after and entering into full
+membership in 1858. Already he had developed such great ability
+as a gymnast that he was able to win the first prize for juniors at the
+<i>Turnfest</i> of the Western societies held in Milwaukee in 1857. In
+that year he was also admitted to the militia company commanded
+by his father. After the latter’s death (1859) he moved to St.
+Louis, and was following there the trade of painter and decorator at
+the outbreak of the Civil War. Although married only a few months
+before, he immediately returned to Milwaukee, enlisted as a volunteer
+for the three-year term, and was made sergeant in Company E of
+the Ninth Wisconsin Regiment, later receiving a commission as
+second lieutenant in the Thirty-fifth Regiment of Wisconsin Volunteers.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="figure81" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure81.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—George Brosius (1839-1920).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The career of Brosius as a teacher of gymnastics, which was to
+continue without interruption for fifty fruitful years, began in the
+autumn of 1864, when he undertook the direction of the various
+classes of <i>Turnverein</i> “Milwaukee.” The regular exercise soon
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span>restored his former degree of strength and skill, and a long list of
+successful appearances in local, district, and national <i>Turnfeste</i>
+gave evidence of his own merit as a practical gymnast and of his gift
+for developing a corresponding proficiency in his pupils. In 1866
+the Engelmann School, one of the first to introduce physical training
+into its curriculum, secured a part of his time as teacher, and during
+the same period he was also conducting the exercises at the
+Milwaukee Gymnasium, frequented chiefly by native Americans.
+Then followed a year in Chicago (1870-1871), in the service of the
+“Aurora” and Scandinavian societies. When the third course of
+the <i>Turnerbund’s</i> Normal School was opened there, in January of
+1871, he became one of the three teachers who directed it. But the
+great fire of October sent him back to Milwaukee, to open a private
+gymnasium and take up again his work at the Engelmann School,
+and in 1873 to resume his former position at <i>Turnverein</i>
+“Milwaukee.”</p>
+
+<p>The next period of his life, and the most fruitful one, opens in
+1875, with the transfer of the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i>
+to <i>Turnverein</i> “Milwaukee.” Brosius became its technical director,
+as we have seen, and in the ten courses held between 1875 and 1888
+more than a hundred teachers of gymnastics were graduated from
+the institution, to become leaders in <i>Turnvereine</i> all over the country,
+and many of them to undertake the direction of physical training in
+important city school systems or in other positions of large influence.
+From 1875 to 1883 Brosius himself served as superintendent of
+physical training in the public schools of Milwaukee, and after 1878
+as instructor in the National German-American Teachers College
+(<i>Lehrerseminar</i>), which had been established there.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> The rules in
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span>force at the time the ninth course was given in Milwaukee (1885-1886)
+required that it should last not less than ten months, and should
+include systematic instruction in the following subjects: Practical
+gymnastics, gymnastic nomenclature, the value and uses of the
+different pieces of apparatus, the preparation of series of graded
+lessons in gymnastics; the history and literature of physical training,
+including systems and methods, with special attention to modern
+times; the history of civilization, in connection with the preceding
+course; the essentials of anatomy and physiology; hygiene, medical
+gymnastics, and first aid; the principles of education, and practical
+hints derived from them; the German and English languages and
+literature; simple popular and <i>Turner</i> songs; foil, sabre, and bayonet
+fencing; swimming. There was also to be frequent observation of
+classes in gymnastics, for adults and for school children, and practice
+in conducting them. It was deemed desirable that every graduate
+should be able to use the English language in his teaching.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure82" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure82.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Gymnasium of the Milwaukee <i>Bundesturnhalle</i>.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some idea of the organization and activities of the <i>Turnerbund</i>
+as it was in January of 1886 may be gathered from the annual statistical
+summary published by the Executive Committee in that year.
+This shows 231 societies, grouped in 30 districts (<i>Turnbezirke</i>).
+The total membership reported was 23,823, of which number 18,164
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>were citizens of the United States, 5562 were on the list of active
+turners, and 3201 actually took part in the gymnastic exercises.
+Ninety-five professional teachers of gymnastics were employed.
+There were 1028 members in the junior societies (<i>Zöglingsvereine</i>),
+and 587 had passed from these into the regular <i>Turnvereine</i> during
+the preceding year; 13,161 boys and 3888 girls were enrolled in the
+classes for children; 436 members took part in fencing, and 399 in
+rifle-shooting; 1722 belonged to singing sections. The society
+libraries contained 44,139 volumes; 224 lectures had been delivered
+and 283 debates conducted, and during a single month 109 meetings
+for intellectual improvement were held. The attendance at day
+schools supported by the societies was 1921, at night schools 428,
+and at Sunday schools 1482. One hundred and forty-four societies
+occupied buildings of their own, and the total value of society property
+was $2,556,018, of which amount $1,662,583 was free from debt.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1886 may be regarded as a turning point in the history
+of the German-American gymnastic societies, and there is some
+reason for calling the period which precedes this date the German
+one, and that which follows the American. The immigrants not
+unnaturally gravitated toward cities or sections where communities
+of fellow-countrymen were already established. They continued to
+use the mother-tongue among themselves, and the consequent
+imperfect command of English, together with certain continental
+customs which they retained, serve to explain the fact that few
+Americans outside of their own ranks appreciated the aims of the
+<i>Turnvereine</i> or knew how much they were doing to provide physical
+training for children and adults. For example, Dr. E. M. Hartwell,
+for two years a resident of Cincinnati, and director of the gymnasium
+at Johns Hopkins University at the time he was asked to prepare
+for the Bureau of Education a report on physical training in American
+colleges and universities, had travelled widely in states east of the
+Mississippi before completing his manuscript in the spring of 1885,
+and yet did not learn of the existence of <i>Turnvereine</i> in the United
+States until his visit to Germany that summer. Two pages of the
+appendix to the report, added after his return, are devoted to the
+North American <i>Turnerbund</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At its national convention in Boston in the summer of 1886 the
+<i>Turnerbund</i> authorized its executive committee to appoint delegates
+to the second annual meeting of the American Association for the
+Advancement of Physical Education, and before this body, in
+Brooklyn on the 26th of November following, three papers were
+accordingly read by representatives thus named, and an exhibition
+of German gymnastics was given by classes from New York and
+Brooklyn societies. This was the beginning of a systematic campaign
+undertaken to acquaint American educators and the public
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span>in general with the claims and merits of the German system. Representation
+by delegates at the annual meetings of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education was
+continued, and at Philadelphia in 1892 a paper by William A.
+Stecher made an especially favorable impression; a special committee
+of well-known men (Doctors Hitchcock, Sargent, and Hartwell)
+was invited to attend the national <i>Turnfest</i> in Milwaukee in 1893
+as guests of the <i>Turnerbund</i>, and other similar committees were
+appointed at several succeeding <i>Turnfeste</i>; there were demonstrations
+and exhibits at the World’s Fair in Chicago (1893), together with
+the distribution of great quantities of printed matter; a monthly
+periodical, <i>Mind and Body</i>, started in March, 1894, has been issued
+regularly ever since;&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> a summer school was held at Milwaukee under
+the auspices of the <i>Turnerbund</i> in 1895 and the three years following;
+and a “Text-book of German-American Gymnastics” was published
+in 1896.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p>
+
+<p>For years the <i>Turnvereine</i> had provided classes for children of
+school age, directed by their own teachers of gymnastics and held
+in their own gymnasia. These enrolled 13,161 boys and 3888 girls
+in January of 1886, and ten years later the numbers had risen to
+18,582 boys and 10,274 girls. But within the same decade of
+expansion (1886-1896) falls the introduction of physical training into
+the public school systems of many cities under the supervision of
+graduates from the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i>. Among the
+very first to take such a step was Kansas City, Missouri, in 1885,
+and the career of Carl Betz, the man who proposed the action and
+himself directed the work during the next thirteen years, may be
+taken as typical of this phase of the second period in the history of
+German-American gymnastics.</p>
+
+<p>His father and mother, both natives of Bavaria, came to America
+in 1843 and 1844, and were married at Baltimore in the latter year.
+Their second home was Belleville, Illinois, where the boy was born
+June 1, 1854. Two years afterwards they moved again, to St.
+Paul, and in this young capital the father’s social and political
+activity made him member of the common council and of the school-board,
+United States assessor, one of Minnesota’s Presidential
+electors, and a speaker (in German) in the Greeley campaign of
+1872. Carl was educated in the public schools, and took one year
+of the high school course, but then discontinued his studies to enter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span>a bank as office boy. Four years later he had advanced to the
+position of general bookkeeper and assistant teller. In April of
+1875 he was employed as teacher of gymnastics by the St. Paul
+<i>Turnverein</i>, and the next autumn decided to fit himself further for
+the work by attending the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i>, which
+had just been transferred to Milwaukee. The four-months’ course
+there was completed early in 1876, and for most of the decade
+following he was actively engaged in the practice of his new profession
+in various western societies—at South Bend, Indiana
+(1876-1877), Louisville, Kentucky (1877-1882), Terre Haute,
+Indiana (1882-1883), St. Paul again (1883-1884), and finally in the
+<i>Socialer Turnverein</i> of Kansas City, Missouri, beginning in January
+of 1885.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure83" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure83.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Carl Betz (1854-1898).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At a meeting of the Kansas City Teachers’ Institute on May 2,
+1885, Mr. Betz was present with a class of a dozen girls and led them
+in a series of exercises with wands and Indian clubs which excited
+much interest. In the discussion that followed, the need of some
+sort of physical education in the schools was generally recognized.
+He assured the teachers that he could work out a plan which might
+be successfully introduced, and a motion was carried requesting him
+to do so. The result was a little pamphlet of eighteen pages,
+published by the <i>Socialer Turnverein</i>. The next October the School
+Board accepted his proposal to conduct gymnastic exercises in the
+public schools for three months without pay. Before the end of
+that period, however, on December 5, 1885, they appointed him
+director of physical training, and thus he was launched upon the
+career which ended only with his death, on April 28, 1898. During
+the last two years of his life he was also supervisor of music in the
+city schools. The executive committee of the <i>Turnerbund</i> made
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span>him a member of the committee which represented the German-American
+gymnastic societies at the second meeting of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (November
+26, 1886, in Brooklyn), but the paper which he presented there,
+on the introduction of gymnastics into the public schools, does not
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span>appear in the published <i>Proceedings</i> of that year. Another, read
+at the sixth annual meeting (April 4, 1891, in Boston) describes the
+system and methods employed in Kansas City, and will be found,
+much abridged, in the corresponding volume of <i>Proceedings</i>. Mr.
+Betz was also director of the first summer school conducted under
+the auspices of the national <i>Turnerbund</i>, at its Normal School in
+Milwaukee (July 1 to August 10, 1895).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure84" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure84.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—Gymnasium of the Washburn School, Cincinnati. (From a
+    photograph loaned by Dr. Robert Nohr).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure85" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure85.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—Gymnasium of the Westwood School, Cincinnati. (From a photograph
+    loaned by Dr. Robert Nohr).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A letter written in 1887 explains his plan of instruction as follows:
+“On every Saturday the director of physical training drills the
+principals of the different ward schools. These in turn drill their
+assistants, the regular teachers, on every Monday. The assistants
+take up the new drill for the week on every Tuesday. The drill is
+obligatory, and is taken as any of the other studies. At ten o’clock
+all principals strike a gong, and at this signal all teachers take up
+the drill at once (daily). Thus at the same time all school children
+throughout the city have the same exercise. Each teacher is
+furnished with a manual of instruction, which clearly marks the
+work to be accomplished. The scholars, of course, do not leave the
+schoolroom.... As yet we have only free gymnastics, but as
+soon as possible dumb-bells, wands, poles, rings, and clubs will
+follow. Then gymnastic games and popular gymnastics will be
+taken up, and lastly heavy gymnastics on apparatus.” The little
+manual of instruction to which he refers was afterwards expanded
+into a <i>System of Physical Culture in a Series of Four Books, i.e.,
+Free Gymnastics</i> (Kansas City, 1887), <i>Gymnastic Tactics</i> (1887),
+<i>Light Gymnastics</i> (1887), and <i>Popular Gymnastics: Athletics and
+Sports of the Playground</i> (1893). Later editions of these books,
+all more or less revised, were published in Chicago (A. Flanagan
+Co.). Additional volumes were planned, and even announced as
+“in preparation,” but never completed. The ones named were
+adopted as guides in the schools of numerous other cities, and also
+served as models for similar works prepared by fellow-graduates
+of the Normal School who occupied corresponding positions elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Among the considerable number of cities which soon followed the
+example of Kansas City in introducing systematic instruction in
+gymnastics into the public schools under the direction of graduates
+from the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i> were Chicago, in 1886,
+under Henry Suder (class of ’75); Davenport, Iowa, 1887, under
+William Reuter (’78); Cleveland, Ohio, 1887, under Karl Zapp
+(’75); St. Louis, 1890, under George Wittich (’82); Sandusky, Ohio,
+1890, under Hans Ballin (’90); Columbus, Ohio, 1892, under Anton
+Leibold (’77); Cincinnati, Ohio, 1892, under Carl Ziegler (’86);
+Milwaukee, 1892, under Hans Rasmussen (’88); and Dayton, Ohio,
+1892, under Robert Nohr (’90). Schoolroom manuals like those
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span>of Betz were published by Ballin, Leibold, and Rasmussen.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> Karl
+Kroh (’79) was head of the department of physical training in the
+Cook County, Illinois, Normal School 1891-1899, and in the University
+of Chicago School of Education 1901-1907. William A. Stecher
+(’81), after three years as supervisor of physical training in the public
+schools of Indianapolis (1904-1906), was appointed director of physical
+education in the Philadelphia schools in January of 1907; and in
+the same year George Wittich (’82), who had been successor to Brosius
+at the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i>, became supervisor of
+physical training in the Milwaukee schools. Reports from societies
+to the National Executive Committee under date of January 1,
+1920, show that in 51 cities 171 men and 91 women graduated from
+the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i> (now known as the Normal
+College of the American Gymnastic Union) were employed as
+teachers in the public schools.</p>
+
+<p>The varying fortunes of the <i>Turnerbund</i> since 1886 are suggested
+by the following table, compiled from statistical reports which reveal
+conditions in the constituent societies on January 1 of the year
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<table class="borders">
+  <tr>
+    <th rowspan="2">Year.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Societies.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Membership.</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Active members.</th>
+    <th colspan="2">In classes for</th>
+    <th rowspan="2">Teachers employed.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <th>Boys.</th>
+    <th>Girls.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1887</td>
+    <td class="tdr">237</td>
+    <td class="tdr">26,722</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5704</td>
+    <td class="tdr">14,123</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4,765</td>
+    <td class="tdr">104</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1890</td>
+    <td class="tdr">277</td>
+    <td class="tdr">35,912</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7337</td>
+    <td class="tdr">17,145</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7,735</td>
+    <td class="tdr">148</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1893</td>
+    <td class="tdr">316</td>
+    <td class="tdr">41,877</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7604</td>
+    <td class="tdr">17,389</td>
+    <td class="tdr">8,702</td>
+    <td class="tdr">172</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1895</td>
+    <td class="tdr">314</td>
+    <td class="tdr">39,870</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7647</td>
+    <td class="tdr">18,879</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9,992</td>
+    <td class="tdr">180</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1900</td>
+    <td class="tdr">258</td>
+    <td class="tdr">33,964</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5675</td>
+    <td class="tdr">17,252</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9,756</td>
+    <td class="tdr">166</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1905</td>
+    <td class="tdr">244</td>
+    <td class="tdr">37,090</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5843</td>
+    <td class="tdr">18,033</td>
+    <td class="tdr">10,823</td>
+    <td class="tdr">167</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1910</td>
+    <td class="tdr">234</td>
+    <td class="tdr">39,207</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5134</td>
+    <td class="tdr">12,870</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7,897</td>
+    <td class="tdr">146</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1915</td>
+    <td class="tdr">218</td>
+    <td class="tdr">37,941</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4989</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9,264</td>
+    <td class="tdr">7,958</td>
+    <td class="tdr">165</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1920</td>
+    <td class="tdr">186</td>
+    <td class="tdr">33,853</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4135</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6,782</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6,958</td>
+    <td class="tdr">125</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On January 1, 1920, there were also 2760 juniors (boys fourteen to
+eighteen years of age), 1904 older men, and 6565 women enrolled in
+classes; 123 in fencing, 971 in singing, and 283 in dramatic sections;
+and 6404 in the Women’s Auxiliary, organized at the time of the
+Twenty-seventh National Convention of the <i>Turnerbund</i>, held in
+Louisville, Kentucky, June 22-24, 1919, and intended to “unify
+as much as possible the efforts of the women’s societies connected
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span>with the gymnastic societies, and to increase their efficiency.” One
+hundred and forty-two societies owned their gymnasia, and the total
+value of the property of all societies was $6,842,224, of which amount
+$4,995,718 was free from debt.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure86" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure86.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Kansas City Turners at the Thirty-first <i>Bundesturnfest</i>, Denver, 1913
+    (From a photograph loaned by Dr. Robert Nohr).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To the list of national <i>Turnfeste</i> given on <a href="#Page_296">p. 296</a> the following have
+been added:</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXV.</td>
+    <td>1889, June 22-25</td>
+    <td>Cincinnati.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXVI.</td>
+    <td>1893, July 21-25</td>
+    <td>Milwaukee.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXVII.</td>
+    <td>1897, May 6-10</td>
+    <td>St. Louis.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td>1900, June 18-23</td>
+    <td>Philadelphia.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXIX.</td>
+    <td>1905, June 21-25</td>
+    <td>Indianapolis.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXX.</td>
+    <td>1909, June 23-27</td>
+    <td>Cincinnati.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXXI.</td>
+    <td>1913, June 25-29</td>
+    <td>Denver.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">XXXII.</td>
+    <td>1921, June 29-July 3</td>
+    <td>Chicago.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We have seen (<a href="#Page_299">p. 299</a>) that in the years 1889-1891, while Brosius
+was in New York City and the new gymnasium of the <i>Turnerbund</i>
+was being built in Milwaukee, its Normal School occupied temporary
+quarters in Indianapolis, with the <i>Socialer Turnverein</i> and under the
+direction of William Fleck (class of ’81). Two courses were given
+here, and 32 men and 1 woman were graduated. The last three
+courses under Brosius (1895-1899) covered two years each. Upon
+his retirement George Wittich (class of ’82) was called from St.
+Louis to serve as technical director, the scope of the school was
+broadened, and in the years 1902-1907 five more courses, each of
+one year’s duration, were held in the Milwaukee <i>Bundesturnhalle</i>,
+graduating a total of 36 men and 23 women. At the close of that
+period the building was sold, and on September 23, 1907, the newly
+christened “Normal College of the North American Gymnastic
+Union,” incorporated under the laws of Indiana and authorized to
+confer academic titles and degrees, was opened in the German
+House of the Indianapolis <i>Socialer Turnverein</i>. The name was
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span>changed to “Normal College of the American Gymnastic Union”
+in June of 1919. Karl Kroh (class of ’79) was the technical head
+for two years (1907-1909), and since that time the position has been
+held by Emil Rath (’98).</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Jahrbücher der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Turnerei. Dem gesammten Turnwesen
+mit besonderer Berüchsichtigung der Geschichte des Nordamerikanischen Turnerbundes
+gewidmet. Herausgegeben und redigirt von Heinrich Metzner. Three
+volumes of six numbers each, published in New York from November, 1890, through
+October, 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Jahresberichte des Vororts des Nordamerikanischen Turnerbundes. In 1920 the
+English language was substituted for the German in these and the title now reads
+“Annual Report of the National Executive Committee, American Gymnastic Union.”
+Each report covers a period extending from April 1 to April 1.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Amerikanische Turnzeitung</i> (weekly), the official organ of the <i>Turnerbund</i> since
+January 1, 1885.</p>
+
+<p>Proceedings of national conventions, reports of national <i>Turnfeste</i>, catalogues of
+the Normal College, and numerous other occasional publications issued by the
+National Executive Committee.</p>
+
+<p>The “Brosius 1864-1914” illustrated souvenir.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted to Mrs. Carl Betz for material relating to her husband’s life and
+work. Most of what is said of Brosius and Betz has already appeared in print, as
+Chapters XV and XVI in the author’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training”
+(New York, 1915).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> “<i>Das Turnen. Ein Leitfaden für die Mitglieder des Sozialistischen Turnerbundes
+und alle Freunde der Leibesübung. Im Auftrage des Vororts dargestellt von Eduard
+Müller, Turnlehrer. Mit erläuternden Zeichnungen.</i>” New York, Buchdruckerei
+von John Weber, 58 Chatham St., 1853.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> The name was changed to <i>American Gymnastic Union</i> June 24, 1919.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> The “Central <i>Turnverein</i>” of New York City drew him away for two years (1889-1891)
+with its $800,000 building and its membership of 3000, to take charge of classes
+which soon enrolled 160 actives, 100 older men, 150 women, and from 1400 to 1500
+children. Meanwhile the Normal School of the <i>Turnerbund</i> had been moved to
+Indianapolis, but a building of its own was now ready in Milwaukee, connected with
+the new home of the Teachers College and the German-American Academy (the
+model school of the College), and in these commodious quarters Brosius took up again
+the task of training teachers. Seven courses were held and 59 more men were
+graduated under him between 1891 and 1899. In the latter year he retired permanently
+from the Normal School, but took up his earlier position in <i>Turnverein</i>
+“Milwaukee,” to continue there his active teaching until in June of 1914 he had
+rounded out a full half-century of professional achievement. He died in Milwaukee
+March 17, 1920.</p>
+
+<p>No account of his career would be complete without mention of the famous “Frankfort
+Squad” of 1880. The fifth general German <i>Turnfest</i> was to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Main
+on July 25-28 of that year, and <i>Turnverein</i> “Milwaukee” decided to
+send a team of seven members, under their teacher Brosius, to take part in the
+exercises and compete for prizes. To the amazement of everyone, at home and
+abroad, they succeeded in winning second, third, fifth, sixth, thirteenth and twenty-first
+place in the competitions. Herman Koehler, whose mother was the oldest sister
+of Brosius, carried off the second prize. He afterwards completed the course at the
+Normal School (1882) under his uncle, and since 1885 has been Master of the Sword
+and director of physical training at the West Point Military Academy, with the
+present rank of Colonel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> The editors have been Hans Ballin (March, 1894—June, 1896), Franz Pfister
+(August, 1896—December, 1906), and William A. Stecher (since January, 1907).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> A Text-book of the German-American System of Gymnastics, Specially Adapted
+to the Use of Teachers and Pupils in Public and Private Schools and Gymnasiums.
+Edited by W. A. Stecher, Secretary of the Committee on Physical Training of the
+North American Gymnastic Union. Boston, Lee and Shepard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> Gymnastics in the School Room: A Manual for the Use of Teachers. By
+Hans Ballin. Erie, Pa., Herald Printing and Publishing Co., 1891.</p>
+
+<p>Manual of Physical Culture for Public Schools, by Anton Leibold. Columbus,
+Ohio, Journal-Gazette Press, 1892.</p>
+
+<p>Physical Culture for Public Schools: A Manual for the Use of Teachers. By Hans
+Rasmussen. Chicago, Geo. Sherwood &amp; Co., 1893.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.<br>
+<span class="smaller">PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1869, eighteen years after the introduction of the Young Men’s
+Christian Association into America, the first Association buildings
+to contain gymnasia were dedicated, in San Francisco and New York,
+and in the latter city William Wood took up his duties as the first
+director of an Association gymnasium. By the close of another
+eighteen years, when the number of gymnasia reported had increased
+to 168, and the paid directors to 50, it had become apparent that
+steps must be taken to provide adequately trained leaders for this
+phase of work in individual Associations and some sort of general
+oversight for the whole country. Accordingly in 1887 a department
+of physical training was added to the Young Men’s Christian Association
+Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts, a summer
+school for gymnasium directors was opened at that institution, and
+the International Committee established a department for supervision
+of the physical work with a special secretary at its head.
+Luther H. Gulick, a young student who had just finished his first
+year in the medical department of New York University, was chosen
+to fill the office thus created, and was also made one of two instructors
+in the new department at the Springfield Training School.
+The other, Robert Jeffries Roberts, was a veteran of twelve years’
+experience as director of the gymnasium at the Boston Young Men’s
+Christian Association, and at that period the most influential and
+widely known teacher of gymnastics engaged in Association work.</p>
+
+<p>His colleagues in the earlier days had been drawn in many cases
+from the ranks of professional gymnasts, trained in difficult and
+showy feats of strength and skill. William Wood, an Englishman
+born in December, 1819, had conducted a private gymnasium in
+New York for thirty years before he was called upon to superintend
+the equipment and exercises in the new Twenty-third Street building
+(1869-1889).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> At the Brooklyn Association in the eighties was
+James Douglas Andrews, born in Kilmarnock, Scotland, July 25,
+1839, who became proficient in gymnastics and athletics under the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span>tuition of the Huguenins in London, and for nearly a score of years
+had been in charge of private and other gymnasia in Glasgow,
+Belfast, Ottawa, Toronto, and at various points on the Pacific coast.
+John C. Doldt, of the Providence Association, was the first manager
+and instructor at the Tremont Gymnasium, on the corner of Eliot
+and Tremont Streets in Boston (opened in 1859), and afterwards
+travelled about the country as a professional athlete. Roberts
+himself had come under the influence of Doldt and of Dr. George
+Barker Winship, a graduate of Harvard College and Medical
+School, who went about lecturing on physical culture and giving
+exhibitions of heavy lifting in the sixties, and whose interesting
+“Autobiographical Sketches of a Strength-Seeker,” published in the
+<i>Atlantic Monthly</i> in 1862, have already been mentioned (<a href="#Page_258">p. 258</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp60" id="figure87" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure87.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—Robert Jeffries Roberts (1849-1920).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It was such models as these that Roberts sought to copy during
+his own years of apprenticeship. Born in England June 29, 1849,
+he was brought to America in early infancy, and thereafter resided
+in Boston with the exception of three years in Springfield and Utica
+(1887-1890). He nearly completed the course of study at the
+Phillips Street Grammar School, at fifteen entered the service of the
+Western Union Telegraph Company, first as messenger boy and
+afterwards as delivery clerk, and finally gave up this position to
+earn his living by the wood-turner’s trade. Primarily to escape from
+the evil influences of the streets, he joined the Tremont Gymnasium
+in 1864, and a few years later was both exercising and giving instruction
+at the Union Gymnasium, 300 Washington Street, and also
+visiting Dr. Winship’s gymnasium across the way, next door to the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span>Boston Theater. When the Young Men’s Christian Association
+bought out the Tremont Gymnasium, in 1872, he continued his
+membership there, and now made it his practice to go two nights a
+week each, in regular rotation, to the Union, Association, and
+Winship gymnasia. In 1875, having determined to devote himself
+to the new calling, he asked to be made superintendent of the
+Association gymnasium, and on the first of July began to discharge
+the duties of that position.</p>
+
+<p>A list of his best performances at about this time will serve to show
+the aims and results of the strenuous course of discipline to which
+Roberts had subjected himself hitherto. Although only five feet
+five inches high, he weighed 145 pounds and had a 43-inch chest,
+32-inch waist, 23-inch thigh, 14½-inch calf, and 15-inch upper arm.
+With a yoke on his shoulders he lifted 2200 pounds, could rise from
+a lying to a sitting posture while holding a 100-pound weight back
+of his neck, push up a 120-pound dumb-bell with each hand, pull
+himself up to the chin 3 times with either hand and 35 times with
+both, had covered more than 12 feet in one broad jump and 35 feet
+in three, cleared 4 feet 6 inches in a standing high jump from
+either side, 5 feet 4 inches in a leap with running start, and
+9 feet with the pole, put the 16-pound shot 35 feet right and left,
+threw the 16-pound hammer 70 feet, walked a mile in less than eight
+minutes and 6 miles an hour, ran 100 yards in eleven seconds
+and 5 miles in thirty minutes, had learned to box and wrestle, and
+was a good swimmer and oarsman.</p>
+
+<p>But this is not the type of work which Roberts advocated in 1887,
+when he was called from Boston to Springfield, or for which he is
+remembered in Association circles today. After a few years of
+experience, he says, it began to dawn upon him that health did not
+necessarily improve as strength increased, and that the Winship
+plan of heavy lifting was not calculated to yield “the greatest good
+to the greatest number, physically speaking,” any more than the
+Dio Lewis exercises, which he considered too light and easy. “I
+noticed when I taught slow, heavy, fancy, and more advanced work
+in acrobatics, gymnastics, athletics, etc.,” he writes,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> “that I would
+have a very large membership at the first of the year, but that they
+would soon drop out because they could not do the work, and ...
+the weak members would not renew the next season.... I give
+most of my attention to those who need it most, the beginners and
+those who cannot for various reasons do the more advanced work.
+By ... pushing simple work I can get more men to go into it,
+and find it easier to find leaders to teach it, and also can run more
+classes in a day.... In competitive work and the harder kind
+of safe exercises ... the men leave the classes and become
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span>spectators, but when I teach easier work the crowd do the work and
+the few look on.” He was also led to emphasize trunk exercises
+rather than those of the legs and arms, in order to influence respiration
+and circulation favorably and keep the abdominal organs in a
+condition of healthy activity; and special attention was given to
+those muscles which expand the chest, draw back the head and
+shoulders, and hold the body erect.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Roberts “platform,” as it came to be known,
+all exercises should be “safe, short, easy, beneficial, and pleasing.”
+They must be safe for the man who does them, <i>i.e.</i>, well within the
+limits of his capacity at the time. When apparatus is employed
+such work must be selected that the members of the squad or class
+follow each other rapidly, without tedious waits. No exercise must
+represent more than a slight advance over others which have
+preceded it. Each “must serve some definite and useful end,”
+instead of being chosen at random and with nothing in mind beyond
+the mere desire to keep the class busy. It must give pleasure if it
+is to exert its full effect and not degenerate into a sort of monotonous
+and mechanical “grind.” These principles found illustration in the
+<i>Roberts Dumb-bell Drill</i>, the <i>Home Dumb-bell Drill</i>, and the little
+volume of <i>Classified Gymnasium Exercises, with Notes</i>,&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> which were
+very generally used in Association gymnasia thirty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>While he was still in Boston Roberts had been conducting a
+sort of training school, and during the years 1885-1887 25 or 30
+men went out from his gymnasium to become instructors. At
+Springfield the summer session of 1887 (six weeks) was attended by
+24 men, or 48 per cent of the whole number then engaged in
+Association work; that of 1888 (July 17 to August 21) by 50
+men; and the third, in 1889 (June 30 to July 31), by 57 men. At
+the regular sessions of the Training School there were 5 juniors
+and 1 senior in the Gymnasium Department in the year 1887-1888,
+and 6 juniors and 2 seniors in 1888-1889. After two years in
+Springfield Roberts resigned to take charge of a new Association
+gymnasium in Utica, New York, but the next year (1890) accepted
+an invitation to return to his old position in Boston, where he
+continued his activities as teacher almost to the day of his death,
+December 22, 1920. Together with several assistants he conducted
+four-weeks summer courses there in July of 1893 and 1894,
+himself giving instruction in the system of floor work which he had
+made so widely popular.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp52" id="figure88" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure88.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Luther Halsey Gulick (1865-1918).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Luther Halsey Gulick, associated with Roberts at the Springfield
+Training School in 1887-1889, was superintendent of its physical
+department for twelve years (1889-1900), and for sixteen years
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span>special secretary charged with supervision of the physical work
+in the Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America, under
+the International Committee—the first man to be appointed to
+such a position. He was the third son and fifth child of Dr. Luther
+Halsey Gulick, a missionary located for a time in the Hawaiian
+Islands, and was born in Honolulu December 4, 1865.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> The first
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span>fifteen years of the boy’s life were far from monotonous. In 1870
+the father was called to New England, to act as a temporary district
+secretary of the American Board, and here his family soon joined
+him. Late in 1871, upon the Board’s decision to undertake missionary
+work in Roman Catholic countries, they sailed for Spain,
+to make their home in Barcelona for two years and a half. August
+of 1873 found them settled in Florence, but the closing of the mission
+in Italy the next year was followed by Dr. Gulick’s return to the
+United States, and in 1875 he accepted a call to become the agent of
+the American Bible Society in China and Japan, with headquarters
+in Yokohama. Meanwhile the family had remained in Europe
+for six months after his own departure for America, and now Mrs.
+Gulick and four of the children were left behind in California, and
+did not follow him to Japan until 1877. Three years later Luther
+Halsey, Jr., again crossed the Pacific, to make his home for a time
+with an older sister whose husband had just been appointed to a
+professorship in Oberlin College.</p>
+
+<p>Two uncles had graduated from Williams College, and his two
+older brothers, Sidney Lewis and Edward Leeds, completed the
+course at Dartmouth in 1883, but his own desire for a college education
+was not to be gratified. Although he was enrolled in the preparatory
+department of Oberlin College during a part, at least, of
+the school years 1880-1882 and 1883-1884, severe headaches which
+now made their appearance rendered continuous application to study
+impossible and finally compelled a change of plan. He had entered
+the middle preparatory class in the fall of 1885, but was taking some
+work in the college department and rooming with a sophomore,
+Thomas D. Wood, now Dr. Wood of Teachers College, Columbia
+University. What happened just at this time may be told in his
+own words.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> “The advent of one of Dr. Sargent’s graduates, Miss
+Delphine Hanna, now Dr. Hanna, had brought to our minds in a
+more vivid way then ever before, that there was really such a thing
+as scientific teaching of gymnastics, genuine body building. We
+had both of us been very much interested in the gymnastics and
+athletics of the college, had identified ourselves thoroughly with
+all the work that was going on in these lines, and had read as far as
+we were able what had been written on the subject at that time.
+Blaikie’s <i>How to Get Strong</i>, particularly the chapter entitled ‘What
+a Gymnasium Might Be and Do,’ filled us with enthusiasm. One
+Sunday afternoon we took a long walk out into the woods, and
+sitting beside a rail fence (I can picture the situation even now),
+we looked forward to the future of physical training. We spoke of
+the relation of good bodies to good morals, we thought of the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span>relation of bodily training to mental training.... The glimpse
+which we secured that day of the future has remained ... a
+prophecy of the work which each of us was to do....”</p>
+
+<p>His own course thus determined upon, Gulick at once left Oberlin
+for Cambridge, Mass., to spend the winter in Dr. Sargent’s Normal
+School of Physical Training. On April first following (1886) he
+began his professional career, as superintendent of the gymnasium
+with the Young Men’s Christian Association of Jackson, Michigan;
+but withdrew from this position the next fall in order to take up the
+study of medicine at the University of New York, from which his
+father had graduated thirty-six years before. For six weeks in
+July and August of 1887, together with Robert J. Roberts, he conducted
+the first summer school for directors of Association gymnasia,
+at the Springfield, Massachusetts, Training School, and these two
+men constituted the special teaching staff of the department of
+physical training which was added to the school at this time and
+opened its first regular session on Armory Hill early in September of
+the same year. The next month the International Committee
+secured a part of his time for the task of supervising the physical
+side of Association work in the country at large. Meanwhile his
+medical studies in New York were continued, and completed in
+1889. He also served in 1887-1888 as medical examiner at the
+Twenty-third Street Association, where William Wood was still
+superintendent of the gymnasium, and during a part of the New
+York period was in charge of the physical training at a girls’ school
+in Harlem.</p>
+
+<p>For thirteen years, until the close of the school year 1899-1900,
+Dr. Gulick retained his position at the International Young Men’s
+Christian Association Training School in Springfield, after 1888 as
+superintendent of the physical department and during most of the
+time as instructor in the history and philosophy of physical training.
+The service under the International Committee was continuous from
+October of 1887 until his appointment as director of physical training
+in the public schools of Greater New York, in 1903. The problem
+that confronted him was twofold—first to find and train new men
+for the physical directorship and to unite and guide and stimulate
+those already in the field; and second to develop a type and methods
+of work suited to Association conditions. In 1887 there were only
+50 “superintendents” and 3 assistants employed in the 168
+gymnasia reported by American Associations. By 1900 the number
+had increased to 244 physical directors and 22 assistants, in 491
+gymnasia, and nearly 80,000 men and 20,000 boys were being
+reached by physical agencies. The regular course at the Springfield
+Training School covered two years until 1895, when it was
+extended to three, and meanwhile, in 1890, a second and independent
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span>institution of similar sort had been incorporated in Chicago. For
+five years, from 1887 through 1891, summer courses, lasting from
+four to six weeks, were given at the Training School, and attended,
+respectively, by 25, 50, 57, 33, and 23 men. A western section, at
+Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, in July of 1890, had an attendance of
+16. These were succeeded by summer “conferences,” more
+informal and intended for directors already in the work, which met
+for a week or ten days each year from 1892 through 1895. In 1896
+and thereafter the conferences were held under the auspices of the
+International Committee. Additional educative means were the
+correspondence courses for physical directors, first offered by the
+Training School in the fall of 1891 and continued for four years, and
+the monthly Athletic League Letter, beginning in November of
+1898. The Physical Directors’ Society of the Young Men’s Christian
+Associations of North America was organized during a conference
+held at Lakewood, on Chautauqua Lake, New York, June
+16-18, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of physical training to Association work as a whole,
+and the type and methods suited to Association conditions, Dr.
+Gulick considered in a paper on “Our New Gymnastics,” read at the
+Twenty-eighth International Convention (Philadelphia, May 11,
+1889), and one on “The Distinctive Features of the Physical Work
+in the Association” at the Twenty-ninth Convention (Kansas City,
+May 9, 1891). He urged that man is a unit, that the Associations
+“are working for <i>young men</i>, not simply for their bodies, minds and
+souls, but for the salvation, development and training of the whole
+man complete as God made him,” and that physical education
+therefore forms a vital part of the Association program. The
+objects of exercise and the sorts needed in Association gymnasia
+were discussed at the first and second summer conferences of
+physical directors (1892 and 1893) and in the columns of <i>Physical
+Education</i> for May, 1892, and January and October, 1893. He
+furnished the chapter on the Physical Department for a “Hand-Book
+of the History, Organization and Methods of Work of Young
+Men’s Christian Associations,” issued by the International Committee
+in 1892 (pp. 297-339), and presented the claims of “The
+Physical Directorship of the Young Men’s Christian Association
+as a Life Work” in a pamphlet published by that body in 1890.</p>
+
+<p>A desire to render anthropometric methods uniform and useful
+resulted in a “Manual for Physical Measurements in connection
+with Association Gymnasium Records,” which was ready in 1892.
+An anthropometric chart was also compiled and published. He
+read a paper on “The Value of Percentile Grades” before the
+American Statistical Association February 10, 1893, and for Volumes
+II and III of <i>Physical Education</i> (November, 1893, to January 1895),
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span>prepared a series of articles on “Physical Measurements and How
+They Are Studied.” In connection with the summer conferences
+various “hygienic drills” and lists of exercises on apparatus suitable
+for Association use were elaborated. James Naismith, an instructor
+at the Training School, invented basket ball in the autumn of 1891
+to meet the need of a good indoor game, and it was described in the
+<i>Triangle</i>, the school paper, for January 15, 1892. To promote all-around
+development a <i>Pentathlon</i>, comprising the hundred-yard dash,
+throwing the twelve-pound hammer, the running high jump, the
+pole vault, and the mile run, was recommended, with a scheme for
+uniform scoring. Some years of agitation and discussion led in
+1895 to the formation of the Athletic League of Young Men’s
+Christian Associations of North America, designed primarily “to
+band together those who feel that athletics are often large elements
+in the formation of character, and to arrange for them lines of coöperation;”
+and “to foster a better spirit of manliness in connection
+with these activities that will banish from them the discourtesy and
+dishonesty by which they have been too often disgraced.” The
+first official handbook of the League was issued in 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Gymnastic therapeutics formed the subject of a course of lectures
+given at the Thousand Islands Conference in 1900, and a series of
+articles published in Volumes I and II of <i>Physical Training</i> (November,
+1901, to April, 1903); and material prepared originally for
+classes at the Training School and for the Athletic League Letter
+appeared later under the title “Physical Education by Muscular
+Exercise” as Part II of the seventh volume (“Mechanotherapy”)
+in <i>A System of Physiologic Therapeutics</i>, edited by Dr. S. S. Cohen
+(Philadelphia, 1904). The duty and opportunity of the Association
+in its relation to boys was emphasized at the Mobile, Alabama,
+Convention in 1897, in Volumes VII and VIII of the <i>Association
+Outlook</i> (1897-1899), and before the Physical Directors’ Conference
+at Dayton, Ohio, in June of 1899. Other studies led to papers on
+“Some Psychical Aspects of Muscular Exercise” (Appleton’s
+<i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, October, 1898) and “Psychological,
+Pedagogical, and Religious Aspects of Group Games” (<i>Pedagogical
+Seminary</i>, March, 1899). How indefatigable was Dr. Gulick’s pen
+may be gathered from the bare enumeration of the periodicals which
+he employed successively as a regular means of expression: The
+Physical Department of the <i>Young Men’s Era</i> (1890, to September 1),
+the <i>Triangle</i> (February, 1891, to January 15, 1892), <i>Physical Education</i>
+(March, 1892, to July, 1896), <i>International Training School
+Notes and Association Outlook</i> (January to July, 1897), the <i>Association
+Outlook and Training School Notes</i> (October, 1898, to July, 1900,
+two volumes), and <i>Physical Training</i> (November, 1901, to June,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span>1903, two volumes). He was also editor of the <i>American Physical
+Education Review</i> from June of 1901 through 1903.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1890 the Springfield Training School, hitherto a
+department of Rev. David Allen Reed’s “School for Christian
+Workers,” was separately incorporated under the name “Young
+Men’s Christian Association Training School,” changed early the
+next year to “International Young Men’s Christian Association
+Training School,” and in the spring of 1891 thirty acres of land
+bordering on Massasoit Lake, on the outskirts of Springfield, were
+secured as a site for future buildings. A gymnasium, the first
+structure erected on the new grounds, was completed in the summer
+of 1894 and formally opened October 26, a dormitory and recitation
+hall was added in 1896, Woods Hall, a social center, in 1904, Pratt
+Field in 1910, the west gymnasium in 1911, and a library and a
+natatorium in 1913. Dr. James Huff McCurdy, who was to become
+Gulick’s successor as director of the physical course, joined the
+staff in the fall of 1895, and at that time the course of study and
+practice was extended to cover three years. In 1905 the Massachusetts
+Legislature authorized the school to confer the degrees
+bachelor and master of physical education (B.P.E. and M.P.E.),
+and in April, 1912, its name was changed to “International Young
+Men’s Christian Association College.” Three years later the
+trustees voted to make the course for physical directors a four-year
+one, beginning in September of 1916.</p>
+
+<p>At a secretaries’ conference held in Montreal in June of 1884 the
+plan of a permanent summer camp and “institute” was proposed,
+and in August, while a number of Association men were together
+at Camp Collie, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, a committee settled upon
+that lake as the site of such a camp, adopting the name “Western
+Secretarial Institute.” Land was purchased in the spring of 1886
+and on the 6th of October the institute was incorporated under the
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span>laws of Wisconsin. July 1-29, 1890, a summer school for physical
+directors was held on the camp grounds, under the auspices of the
+Springfield, Massachusetts, Training School and the direction of
+Dr. Luther H. Gulick. Meanwhile, on June 28 of the same year,
+the “Young Men’s Christian Association Training School” (Chicago)
+had been incorporated, with the object of training young men for the
+duties of general secretary, physical director, and other Association
+officers. It opened its first two-year course September 10th, in
+rooms of the Central Young Men’s Christian Association, 148
+Madison Street, with Dr. E. L. Hayford “principal of the physical
+department,” and in 1891 and following summers conducted at
+Lake Geneva courses similar to those given there in July of 1890.
+In May of 1896 the Chicago school and the Lake Geneva Institute
+were consolidated under the title “Secretarial Institute and Training
+School of Young Men’s Christian Associations,” changed to “Institute
+and Training School of Young Men’s Christian Associations”
+in 1903, and ten years later to “Young Men’s Christian Association
+College.” The summer school at Lake Geneva was made an integral
+part of the Training School, <i>i.e.</i>, a required summer term, in 1901,
+and the course for physical directors became a three-year one in the
+fall of 1908. The purchase of a block of land lying between Fifty-third
+and Fifty-fourth Streets and Drexel and Ingleside Avenues,
+as a site for an independent College home, was announced early in
+1912, and the new building erected there (5315 Drexel Avenue)
+was formally dedicated November 30, 1915. George W. Ehler was
+principal of the physical department 1892-1897, John W. Shaw 1897-1900,
+and Dr. Winfield S. Hall 1900-1903. Dr. Henry F. Kallenberg,
+who had been assistant principal since 1896, then became
+director of the department of physical training, and retained the
+position until the fall of 1917, when he was succeeded by Martin I.
+Foss.</p>
+
+<p>January 1, 1898, the International Committee added to the part-time
+services of Dr. Gulick as secretary for the Physical Department
+the whole time of George T. Hepbron, whose chief task was to promote
+the Athletic League. Hepbron resigned in 1905, and the next
+year Dr. George J. Fisher was called to the position from the physical
+directorship of the Brooklyn, New York, Association. He was
+already serving as president of the Physical Directors’ Society of the
+Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America and editor
+of its official organ, <i>Physical Training</i>, which had resumed publication
+under the new auspices in November of 1905 (Volume III.
+Volumes I and II had been published by Dr. Gulick at Springfield
+between November, 1901, and June, 1903). A second secretary,
+Dr. John Brown, Jr., was added to the department in June of 1910,
+and a third, William H. Ball, in November of the same year. Dr.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span>Fisher resigned November 1, 1919, to become Deputy Scout Executive
+of the Boy Scouts of America, and Dr. Brown then became
+senior secretary. The years since 1900 have seen the influence of
+the Associations reaching beyond the bounds of their own membership
+into the community at large. Work for boys, as well as young
+men, has been organized, and leadership has been furnished to a
+great variety of social agencies providing physical training and
+working for health betterment—to playgrounds, Sunday-school
+athletic leagues, swimming campaigns, summer camps, etc., etc.
+A handbook of “Physical Work: Management and Methods”
+was compiled by a special committee of the Physical Directors’
+Society and published in 1913 (New York, Association Press).
+This served as the basis of discussion at an eight-day conference
+held early in the following year, out of which grew a new volume,
+“Physical Education in the Young Men’s Christian Associations of
+North America,” issued in 1914 (New York, Association Press),
+and revised and republished under the same title in 1920 (New York,
+Association Press). Chapter ten in the latest revision describes
+briefly the very great service rendered by the physical department
+of the Young Men’s Christian Associations in organizing recreative
+work during the Great War, in army camps and naval stations at
+home and among the allied troops in Europe.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> The Physical
+Directors’ Society has held annual conferences since 1903 (except
+in 1917 and 1920), and has continued the publication of <i>Physical
+Training</i> (monthly, except July and August) since November of
+1905.</p>
+
+<p>The number of Associations reporting attention to physical
+training, through gymnasia or other means, the number of members
+participating, and the number of physical directors and assistants
+employed, as reported in the <i>Year-Books</i>, have been as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="borders">
+  <tr>
+    <th></th>
+    <th>Associations.</th>
+    <th>Gymnasia.</th>
+    <th>Other means.</th>
+    <th>Participating.</th>
+    <th>Directors.</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1885</td>
+    <td class="tdr">131</td>
+    <td class="tdr">101</td>
+    <td class="tdr">54</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">35</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1890</td>
+    <td class="tdr">466</td>
+    <td class="tdr">407</td>
+    <td class="tdr">262</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">151</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1895</td>
+    <td class="tdr">559</td>
+    <td class="tdr">495</td>
+    <td class="tdr">355</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">227</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1900</td>
+    <td class="tdr">556</td>
+    <td class="tdr">507</td>
+    <td class="tdr">357</td>
+    <td class="tdr">80,433</td>
+    <td class="tdr">294</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1905</td>
+    <td class="tdr">673</td>
+    <td class="tdr">571</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">133,627</td>
+    <td class="tdr">342</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1910</td>
+    <td class="tdr">724</td>
+    <td class="tdr">658</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">271,506</td>
+    <td class="tdr">495</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1915</td>
+    <td class="tdr">1112</td>
+    <td class="tdr">728</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">447,351</td>
+    <td class="tdr">650</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1920</td>
+    <td class="tdr">899</td>
+    <td class="tdr">838</td>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="tdr">488,478</td>
+    <td class="tdr">663</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The number of swimming pools increased from 151 in 1905 to 293
+in 1910 and 610 in 1920; and the number of athletic fields from 143
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span>in 1905 to 205 in 1920. The <i>Year-Book</i> covering the period from
+May 1, 1919, to April 30, 1920 reports 151,209 men and 157,772
+boys enrolled in regular classes at the Association gymnasia, 2927
+men and 6469 boys in leaders’ clubs, 916 leaders in community service,
+and 107,580 persons aided by this community service. Nine
+summer schools for physical directors were held in 1920, attended as
+follows: Springfield, Mass. (86 men); Silver Bay, N. Y. (101);
+Blue Ridge, N. C. (45); Lake Geneva, Wis. (100); Hollister, Mo.
+(14); Estes Park, Colo. (20); Asilomar, Calif. (34); Seabeck, Wash.
+(16); and Lake Couchiching, Ontario (43).</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Catalogues of the Springfield and Chicago colleges and the Springfield periodicals
+mentioned on page 317, official Handbooks of the Athletic League of the Young
+Men’s Christian Associations of North America, <i>Physical Training</i>, and the Year-books
+and other publications of the International Committee. The biographical
+sketches of Roberts and Gulick have already appeared in print, as Chapters XVII
+and XVIII in the author’s “Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York,
+1915).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> See his “Manual of Physical Exercises: Comprising Gymnastics, Calisthenics,
+Rowing, Sailing, Skating, Swimming, Fencing, Sparring, Cricket, Baseball. Together
+with Rules for Training and Sanitary Suggestions.” New York, Harper &amp; Brothers,
+1867. Second edition, enlarged, in 1870.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Quoted by Dr. Gulick in the <i>Association Seminar</i> for May, 1908, in the course of
+an authoritative and exhaustive paper on Roberts and his work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> Compiled by A. K. Jones. Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1889. Other editions later.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> See “The Body Builder, Robert J. Roberts,” by B. Deane Brink. New York
+and London, Association Press, 1916.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Some knowledge of Dr. Gulick’s ancestry is required if one seeks to explain the
+work he accomplished with such limited preparation of a formal sort. Peter Johnson
+Gulick (1797-1877), the third of seven sons of a New Jersey farmer, and a descendant
+of Hendrick Gulick, who came to this country from the Netherlands in 1653, was
+graduated from Princeton College in 1825, studied afterwards in Princeton Theological
+Seminary, married Fanny Hinckley Thomas, of English ancestry, and in
+November of 1827 sailed with her from Boston under appointment as a missionary of
+the American Board. The following March, only eight years after the opening of
+the mission to the Hawaiian Islands, they reached Honolulu by way of Cape Horn,
+and in this field he remained in active service for forty-six years. Of his eight children
+one died during student days in America, and all the rest became missionaries.
+Luther Halsey, the oldest son (1828-1891), came to the United States and entered an
+academy in Auburn, New York, in the fall of 1841, and after further study with a
+physician in Amboy, New Jersey, went to New York City for three years in medicine,
+first in the College of Physicians and Surgeons and then in the medical department of
+the University of New York, from which he was graduated in the spring of 1850.
+The next year he was ordained as a missionary, married Louisa Lewis, daughter of a
+New York merchant, and started back on the long journey around Cape Horn. For
+eight years (1852-1860) he was stationed at Ponape and Ebon Islands, in Micronesia.
+At the end of that time, broken in health, he returned to Honolulu. Several years of
+public speaking on missionary topics in the United States followed, and then from
+January of 1864 till February of 1870 he was secretary of the Board of the Hawaiian
+Evangelical Association, the agent of the American Board on the Hawaiian Islands
+and in Micronesia. See “Luther Halsey Gulick, Missionary in Hawaii, Micronesia,
+Japan, and China,” by Frances Gulick Jewett (Boston and Chicago, Congregational
+Sunday School and Publishing Society, 1895).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> <i>Physical Education</i> <b>1</b>, 25 (April, 1892).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> In 1900, not yet thirty-five years old, Dr. Gulick resigned his position at the
+Springfield Training School in order to become principal of the Pratt Institute High
+School, in Brooklyn. Three years later he was appointed director of physical training
+in the public schools of greater New York, but retained this office only until 1908, and
+then accepted the directorship of the department of child hygiene under the Russell
+Sage Foundation. In 1913 he became president of the “Camp Fire Girls.” A study
+of his labors since 1900, in these new fields, in organizations like the American Physical
+Education Association and the Playground Association of America, and as an advocate
+of the Efficient Life by spoken and written words which reached an ever-growing
+audience would carry us beyond the immediate object of this sketch, which is to
+suggest the place he has filled in the evolution of ideals, means, and methods of
+physical training in the Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America. He
+died at Camp Gulick, on Sebago Lake, Maine, August 13, 1918. The following
+books suggest his later interests: “The Efficient Life” (1907); “Mind and Work”
+(1908), “Medical Inspection of Schools” (with Leonard P. Ayres, 1909), “The
+Healthful Art of Dancing” (1910), “The Dynamics of Manhood” (1917), and “A
+Philosophy of Play” (1920).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> See the “Army and Navy Athletic Handbook,” New York, Association Press,
+1919.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.<br>
+<span class="smaller">SWEDISH SCHOOL GYMNASTICS IN THE UNITED STATES.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The system of medical gymnastics which we owe to the labors of
+Per Henrik Ling and his successors at the Royal Normal School of
+Gymnastics (the “Central Institute of Gymnastics”) in Stockholm
+was brought to the attention of Americans as long ago as the early
+fifties (see <a href="#Page_258">p. 258</a>). By the end of that decade writers on physical
+education had begun to refer to it under the name of “the Swedish
+movement cure,” and authors of manuals intended for school use
+were borrowing some of their exercises from this source. But to
+meet the needs of growing boys and girls Ling had also devised a
+system of school gymnastics. This had been further elaborated
+by his son Hjalmar (1820-1886), and teachers trained in the Central
+Institute, or by its graduates, were everywhere using it in Sweden,
+in common schools and high schools alike. Of the aims, content,
+and methods of this branch of the “Ling gymnastics” little or
+nothing was known in this country until near the close of the
+eighties in the last century. Hartvig Nissen, a native of Norway
+and the head of a “Swedish Health Institute” in Washington, D.C.,
+began to use it with teachers and pupils in the Franklin school in
+that city in 1883, and with students at Johns Hopkins University,
+in Baltimore, early in 1887. A Swedish gymnasium with its equipment
+was also shown at the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial
+Exposition held in New Orleans 1884-1885, in connection with
+the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, and Commissioner Eaton had
+placed Mr. Nissen in charge of this and other gymnastic apparatus.
+Other isolated instances might be cited, but it was not until 1889,
+however, that the claims of Swedish educational gymnastics were
+brought forward in the United States so prominently and stated
+with such clearness and cogency as to attract general attention.
+Boston was the center from which the movement radiated, and its
+initiation was due to the public spirit and liberality of Mrs. Mary
+Hemenway (1820-1894) and the executive ability of her assistant,
+Miss Amy Morris Homans, coupled with the thorough professional
+training and forceful personality of Baron Nils Posse (1862-1895),
+the agent who first made their plans effective and afterwards
+conducted an independent and vigorous campaign of enlightenment
+until his untimely death.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span></p>
+
+<p>Baron Posse was born in Stockholm, Sweden, where his father,
+Baron Knut Henrik Posse, a major in the army, was at one time
+head of the Royal Army Staff College (<i>Kungl. Krigshögskolan</i>, at
+Marieberg). Both parents ranked among the Swedish nobility.
+The boy, an only son, was graduated from a private high school at
+the age of eighteen, and afterwards completed the fifteen-month
+course at the Royal Military School (<i>Kungl. Krigsskolan</i>, at Karlberg),
+and the two years of study and practice then offered at the
+Central Institute of Gymnastics, including medical as well as
+educational and military gymnastics. Meanwhile for five years
+he had been enrolled in the Swedish army, half of that time as a
+private and later as second lieutenant, first in the Life Grenadier
+Regiment and then in the Royal Svea Artillery. Outside of this
+formal training his fondness for physical activity led him to join the
+Stockholm Gymnastic and Fencing Club, the Gymnastic Association,
+the Rowing Club, and two skating clubs, and in fancy skating
+he won his title as amateur champion over some of the most accomplished
+masters of that art in all Sweden.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure89" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure89.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Nils Posse (1862-1895).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It was on his twenty-third birthday (May 15, 1885), that Baron
+Posse graduated from the Central Institute of Gymnastics. Three
+months later he was on his way to America, and in October, after a
+visit to Nissen, then vice-consul of Norway and Sweden in Washington,
+he took up his residence in Boston with the hope of interesting
+physicians there in medical gymnastics and building up for himself,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span>with their coöperation, a practice in that method of treatment.
+The first attempts were not encouraging, and progress was slow, yet
+after three years of such efforts opportunity at length knocked at
+his door—an opportunity not of his own choosing, but it found him
+ready. In the interval he had been married to Miss Rose Moore
+Smith of Newburyport. Besides writing a sixteen-page pamphlet
+on Medical Gymnastics (Boston, 1887), he had also completed an
+abridged translation into Swedish of an article on Massage by Dr.
+Douglas Graham (Lund, 1889), and was at work on an English
+translation of the Swedish physician Björnström’s work on “Hypnotism:
+Its History and Present Development” (in the <i>Humboldt
+Library of Science</i>, New York, 1889). These labors help to explain
+that rare command of the language of his adopted country for which
+he was afterward conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Mary Hemenway, whose only son had given the new gymnasium
+to Harvard College in 1879, was herself widely known as
+one of the wealthiest women in Boston and as a wise and generous
+dispenser of her riches for the promotion of worthy objects, at home
+and elsewhere. The introduction of systematic training in sewing
+and of the kitchen garden and school kitchen into the city schools
+were among the results of her efforts. Together with Miss Homans,
+who has been called “one of her right hands” in the execution of
+such projects, she had been impressed with the need of some efficient
+system of physical training for school children. A friend suggested
+Swedish gymnastics, and spoke of the graduate of the Stockholm
+Central Institute of Gymnastics who was at that time living in
+Boston. Baron Posse was accordingly consulted, and in October
+of 1888 Mrs. Hemenway employed him to demonstrate the system
+in a course of lessons given to twenty-five or more women teachers
+gathered from the public schools. A small room on Boylston Place
+was leased for the purpose, and larger quarters, in Park Street, were
+afterwards secured.</p>
+
+<p>On the twenty-fifth of the following June the Boston School
+Committee accepted her offer to furnish free training for one year,
+beginning in September, to “one hundred public-school teachers,
+who may be permitted to use the system in their school work, thus
+enabling your Honorable Board, and educators in general, to decide
+upon its merits by actual results produced upon the school children
+within the environment of the schoolroom.” At the same meeting
+the Board of Supervisors was authorized “to report in print upon
+the subject of physical training in the schools.” September 24 the
+committee accepted Mrs. Hemenway’s further offer to provide “a
+teacher of the Ling system of gymnastics for service in the Normal
+School for one year, free of expense to the city.” October 8 the
+Board of Supervisors reported, recommending “that the Ling system
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span>of gymnastics be the authorized system of physical training in the
+public schools,” and at the same meeting a letter was read in which
+Mrs. Hemenway expressed her willingness “to provide instruction,
+free of expense to the City of Boston, for those masters and submasters
+who may desire to make a thorough study of the Ling
+system for the benefit of the Boston public schools.” The report
+was laid on the table, but the offer was accepted two weeks later.
+Baron Posse continued to give instruction to all these various classes
+up to January of 1890. Several small normal classes were also
+organized in 1889, which mark the beginning of the Boston Normal
+School of Gymnastics, established and afterwards endowed by Mrs.
+Hemenway, and with Baron Posse as its first director. In his annual
+report dated March 31, 1890, Superintendent Seaver writes that
+these demonstrations of Swedish educational gymnastics had already
+been attended by “30 masters, 24 submasters, and 166 other
+teachers. These have imparted their knowledge to yet other
+teachers, so that there are now 360 teachers prepared to use the
+‘Ling system’ in their classes. In addition to these may be counted
+97 recent graduates of the Normal School, who have all received
+instruction in this system.”</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Hemenway and Miss Homans were also responsible for the
+calling together and successful conduct of that notable “Conference
+in the interest of Physical Training” which was held in Boston on
+November 29 and 30, 1889.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> From one to two thousand persons
+attended each of the four sessions, which were presided over by
+William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, and
+addressed by many well-known educators and by representatives of
+a variety of systems. At the beginning of the second session Baron
+Posse set forth “The Chief Characteristics of the Swedish System
+of Gymnastics” in a masterly paper, followed by a demonstration
+of that system by a class of women under his leadership. One
+result of this wisely planned and persevering agitation of the subject
+was the action of the Boston School Committee taken June 24, 1890,
+in line with the report and recommendation of its committee on
+physical training presented two weeks before, which ordered “that
+the Ling or Swedish system of educational gymnastics be introduced
+into all the public schools of this city.” In November of that year
+Dr. Edward Mussey Hartwell of Baltimore was elected Director of
+Physical Training, to hold office from January 1, 1891.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Baron Posse had been succeeded at the Boston Normal
+School of Gymnastics by Claës J. Enebuske in the middle of January,
+1890; but on the first of the following month he opened a gymnasium
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span>and training school of his own in the Harcourt building, on Irvington
+Street. The six years of life that remained were crowded with
+incessant teaching and writing. During this period, it is said,
+“gymnastics according to his methods were officially introduced
+into the public schools of fifty-two cities and towns, and into as many
+more private institutions and academies. Clinics for medical
+gymnastic treatment were established by him in most of the larger
+Boston hospitals, and instruction was given to the nurses of many
+hospitals in adjacent towns.” Summer courses for teachers and
+others were conducted at the Martha’s Vineyard Summer Institute
+(1890, 1891, 1892), in his Boston gymnasium (1892, 1894, 1895),
+and at Harvey, Illinois, while he was in charge of the elaborate
+exhibit sent to the Chicago World’s Fair by various Swedish gymnastic
+societies and athletic clubs.</p>
+
+<p>A book more complete than anything published in the Swedish
+language, at the time it appeared, was his volume on “The Swedish
+System of Educational Gymnastics” (Boston, Lee and Shepard;
+New York, Charles T. Dillingham, 1890), republished the next year
+with additions. In a third edition (1894), considerably enlarged, the
+title was changed to “The Special Kinesiology of Educational
+Gymnastics” (Boston, Lee and Shepard). His small “Handbook
+of School Gymnastics of the Swedish System” (Boston, Lee and
+Shepard) was ready in 1892. Among his more important papers
+were “How Gymnastics Are Taught in Sweden” (The <i>Academy</i>,
+Boston, V: 485-493, December, 1890), a series on “The Scientific
+Aspects of Swedish Gymnastics” (<i>The Doctor</i>, New York, October,
+1890, to August, 1892, Volumes IV-VI), “The Necessity of
+Physical Education and the Means of Introducing it into American
+Schools” (<i>Popular Educator</i>, Boston, IX: 122 and 123, December,
+1891), “Modifications of the Swedish System of Gymnastics to Meet
+American Conditions” (<i>Physical Education</i>, Springfield, Mass.,
+I: 169-174, November, 1892), and “Swedish Gymnastics <i>vs.</i> German”
+(<i>Posse Gymnasium Journal</i>, Boston, July, 1893). Four of
+these are included in his “Columbian Collection of Essays on
+Swedish Gymnastics” (Boston, 1893). The first number of the
+<i>Posse Gymnasium Journal</i> (monthly) was issued in December of
+1892, and for four years thereafter nearly every number contained
+at least one contribution from his pen. Baron Posse’s death
+occurred on December 18, 1895, but as late as 1905 the <i>Journal</i>
+was still publishing material selected or prepared from his literary
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The Boston “Conference in the Interest of Physical Training,”
+held in November of 1889, is a landmark that grows in significance
+as the years give perspective. Leading educators attended its
+sessions, and the published report of papers and discussions reached
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span>a larger audience. German and Swedish gymnastics, the systems
+employed at Amherst College and Harvard University, the claims
+of military drill, physical training for purposes of emotional expression,
+and for mental and moral quickening—these were all set forth
+by able champions. But the first place on the program, after the
+opening remarks by Commissioner Harris, was assigned to a judge
+and not an advocate, to a trained biologist and thorough scholar,
+able to speak with authority regarding the effects of exercise upon
+body and mind, familiar with the history of this phase of education
+at home and abroad, and made acquainted with the various systems
+by travel and personal observation. It was peculiarly fitting that
+Dr. Edward Mussey Hartwell should be chosen to discuss “The
+Nature of Physical Training, and the Best Means of Securing Its
+Ends,” on that occasion, and his appointment as director of physical
+training in the Boston schools a year later came as a further testimonial
+to proved ability. There was need in those years of just
+such a keen and fearless critic, impatient of assumption and half-knowledge,
+conscious of adequate mastery of his theme, and gifted
+with a pungent vigor of expression that compelled attention.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Hartwell came from a long line of New England ancestry.
+Shattuck Hartwell, his father, a graduate of Harvard College and
+Law School, was just closing the fourth year of service as tutor in
+Latin at Harvard when the boy was born (May 29, 1850, at Exeter,
+New Hampshire). The mother was a daughter of Dr. Reuben
+Dimond Mussey, who after holding for almost a quarter-century
+a professorship in the medical department of Dartmouth College,
+his <i>alma mater</i>, had moved to Cincinnati twelve years before to
+become professor of surgery in the Medical College of Ohio. In
+the fall of 1850 Shattuck Hartwell took up his residence in the same
+city, but after less than seven years in the practice of law returned
+to Littleton, Mass., his birthplace, thirty miles northwest of Boston.
+This was henceforward the family home. With the exception of a
+few years, he was employed in the Boston Custom House from the
+fall of 1865 until his death in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Edward, the oldest of eight children, graduated from the Public
+Latin School in Boston at the age of nineteen. It is worth noting
+that as one of Captain Hobart Moore’s orderly sergeants in the
+school battalion he gained experimental knowledge of military drill
+at this period. Then followed four years at Amherst College (A.B.
+1873, A.M. 1876, LL.D. 1898), and the fact that he was chosen
+captain of his class in the gymnasium in the junior year, rowed on
+class and other crews, and was at one time commodore of the navy,
+suggests not only physical fitness and gifts of leadership, but also
+the influence of Dr. Edward Hitchcock and the department of
+hygiene and physical education. In 1871 he won the gold medal for
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span>excellence in human physiology. College days were succeeded by
+four years of teaching, first as vice-principal of the high school in
+Orange, New Jersey (1873-1874), and then as “usher” in the Public
+Latin School in Boston (1874-1877), where he had once been a
+student. At the latter Hobart Moore was still instructor in military
+drill, and in obedience to the wish of the head master Hartwell
+introduced the Amherst plan of class exercises in light gymnastics
+among the smaller boys.</p>
+
+<p>Greatly interested in natural science, he had already attended the
+summer school at Penikese Island, and this inclination now led him
+to abandon teaching for a time. An uncle, Dr. William Heberden
+Mussey, was professor of surgery in the Miami Medical College in
+Cincinnati, and prominent in scientific and educational circles in
+the city. Thither he came, therefore, to take up the study of
+medicine (1877-1878), but interrupted the course for three years in
+biology at Johns Hopkins University (1878-1881), leading to the
+degree of Ph.D., and did not receive his M.D. in Cincinnati until
+1882. In Baltimore, where he was fellow in biology for two years
+in succession (1879-1881), he made animal physiology, under Professor
+H. Newell Martin, his principal study, and the subordinate
+ones animal histology and morphology under Dr. William K. Brooks.
+Membership in and papers before the Scientific Association, the
+History and Political Science Association, and the Metaphysical
+Club attest the breadth of his view at this time, and reveal a
+fondness for historical as well as biological research.</p>
+
+<p>After a summer’s work in Baltimore in 1881, and before entering
+upon the second and final year in Cincinnati, Dr. Hartwell went
+home to Littleton for a brief vacation, and in Cambridge looked over
+the new Hemenway gymnasium and made the acquaintance of Dr.
+Sargent. Interested in what he saw and heard, he spoke of the
+visit to Herbert B. Adams, another Amherst man, then associate
+in history at Johns Hopkins University. The students at the
+university were agitating the subject of a gymnasium. It was
+therefore natural that his advice should be sought, and the next fall
+(1882) he was offered the position of instructor in physical culture.
+The death of Dr. Mussey in Cincinnati, on the first of August, had
+left him without definite plans for the future, and a leaning toward
+hygiene moved him to accept the call to Baltimore. In June
+of 1883 the trustees authorized the construction of a $10,000
+gymnasium, which was ready for use before the Christmas holidays.
+It was supplied with the Sargent developing appliances, and he at
+once introduced the Sargent plan of physical examinations and
+prescribed individual work, in place of class exercises, and also
+gave lectures to undergraduates on health topics. After two years
+of service he became Associate in Physical Training and Director
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span>of the Gymnasium, and remained at Johns Hopkins in that capacity
+until the end of 1890.</p>
+
+<p>An address which Dr. Hartwell delivered to the students of the
+university and others on the occasion of the formal opening of the
+new gymnasium, December 7, 1883, contained a review of the
+history of physical training in ancient and modern Europe and in
+America. Soon afterwards Commissioner John Eaton, of the
+United States Bureau of Education, asked him to prepare a special
+report for that department. The result was a visit to college and
+other gymnasia from Maine to Tennessee, in the summer of 1884,
+and the manuscript for a volume of 150 pages on “Physical Training
+in American Colleges and Universities,” with illustrations and plans,
+which was handed in on the fourth of March following. Immediately
+upon completing it he sailed for Europe, to look up matters
+relating to hygiene as well as gymnastics. After a brief visit to
+England he spent most of the time in Frankfort and Berlin, with a
+side trip to Dresden for the Sixth General Gymnastic Festival of the
+German <i>Turnerschaft</i>, and some attendance upon clinics in Vienna.
+A 25-page appendix on “Physical Training in Germany” was
+now added to the former report, and 2 pages on the North
+American <i>Turnerbund</i>, whose existence he had discovered while
+abroad, and the whole was issued as No. 5—1885 of Circulars of
+Information of the Bureau of Education (Washington, 1886).</p>
+
+<p>It seems to have been this visit of Dr. Hartwell’s to Germany
+which led, directly or indirectly, to the presence of representative
+German-Americans at the second annual meeting of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, in Brooklyn
+November 26, 1886, where for the first time the work of the North
+American <i>Turnerbund</i> was brought prominently before native
+American teachers, by descriptive and historical papers and by
+illustrative classes of men and children. Dr. Hartwell himself was
+elected treasurer of the Association at this meeting, and read a
+paper on “The Physiology of Exercise,” not printed in the <i>Proceedings</i>
+but later amplified and rewritten and published in the <i>Boston
+Medical and Surgical Journal</i> for March 31 and April 7, 1887 (Vol.
+116, pp. 297-302 and 321-324). As far back as September of 1884
+Commissioner Eaton had introduced him to Hartvig Nissen, at the
+latter’s Health Institute in Washington. Early in 1887 Mr. Nissen
+was invited to give a course of lessons in “Swedish free movements”
+and German apparatus exercises to Johns Hopkins students, and this
+instruction was continued in 1887-1888, from November to the middle
+of April. From the following May until the end of August, 1889,
+Dr. Hartwell was in Europe on leave of absence, interested especially
+in the hygienic and medical application of exercise and with the
+thought of developing a practice in this specialty upon his return.
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span>The winter was spent in Stockholm, with almost daily visits to the
+Zander Institute and the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics.
+He went also to St. Petersburg, revisited Vienna, and received six
+weeks of instruction in Bonn. December 20, 1889, he read a paper
+on “Mechano-Therapy in Sweden and Germany” before the Clinical
+Society of Maryland, and repeated it in March before the Johns
+Hopkins Hospital Medical Society. In this connection attention
+may be called to the 45 pages on General Exercise which he
+prepared for Vol. I of Dr. H. A. Hare’s “System of Practical Therapeutics”
+(Philadelphia, 1891), and to his translation, from the
+Swedish, of Dr. Emil Kleen’s “Handbook of Massage” (Philadelphia,
+1892).</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile he had been consulted in the preparation of plans for
+the Boston Conference of 1889, and an examination of the printed
+proceedings will show how conspicuous a part he played at the
+various sessions. The summer of 1890 was devoted to a third visit
+to Europe, this time to gather material relating to school gymnastics
+and playgrounds. The trip took him to England, France, Switzerland,
+parts of Austria and Germany, and again to Stockholm. June
+24 the Boston School Committee had voted to introduce the Ling
+or Swedish system of educational gymnastics into all the public
+schools, and on November 25 they elected him director of physical
+training. Still hoping to become eventually the head of an institution
+for mechano-therapy, he consented to inaugurate the work of
+the new department, and his resignation was therefore presented to
+the Johns Hopkins trustees, to take effect December 31.</p>
+
+<p>A part of the story of the next seven years is contained in his
+series of five “Reports of the Director of Physical Training” to the
+School Committee of Boston, dated December 31, 1891 (75 pages.
+School Document No. 22—1891), June, 1894 (151 pages. School
+Document No. 8—1894), 1895 (82 pages. In School Document
+No. 4—1895), March 15, 1896 (pages 159-192 in School Document
+No. 4—1896), and March 15, 1897 (pages 135-143 of School Document
+No. 5—1897). On September 1, 1897, he resigned his position
+in the Boston schools to become secretary of the newly created
+Department of Municipal Statistics in that city. One must also
+examine the contents of the published <i>Proceedings</i> of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, from the
+sixth meeting (1891) onward, and of their successor, the <i>American
+Physical Education Review</i>, to appreciate fully the yeoman’s service
+he rendered to physical training in the country at large, during these
+years and also after his direct connection with the work had ceased.
+In 1891-1892 he was president of the Association, and again from
+1895 to 1899, and he was author of the plan of reorganization on the
+basis of local and district societies which was adopted in 1895. Chapter
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span>XII (Physical Training) in the Report of the Commissioner of
+Education for 1897-1898 (Washington, 1899), and Chapter XVII
+(On Physical Training) in that for 1903 (Washington, 1905), give
+final expression to the results of his years of study and observation.
+His long series of reports and papers which began in 1885 constitute
+the most scholarly contribution hitherto made to the literature of
+physical training in English, and no other man in America has done
+so much to win for physical training a position of dignity and
+recognized worth. Dr. Hartwell died in Boston February 19, 1922.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp56" id="figure90" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure90.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Hartvig Nissen (1855-).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Other pioneers of Swedish school gymnastics who deserve further
+mention, or should be included here, are Hartvig Nissen, Claës J.
+Enebuske, Jakob Bolin, Louis Collin, and William Skarstrom.
+Nissen, born in Kongshavn, near Christiania, July 13, 1855, was
+educated in the large private higher school (<i>Latin- og Realskole</i>)
+opened in the Norwegian capital by his father, Ole Hartvig Nissen,
+studied gymnastics and massage with private teachers here and
+later in Dresden (1878-1879, in the <i>Allgemeiner Turnverein</i>) and
+Stockholm (summer of 1890), for three years taught gymnastics in
+towns near Christiania, and in March of 1883 established a “Health
+Institute” in Washington, D.C., as we have seen. 1891-1897 he
+worked with Dr. Hartwell in the Boston public schools as assistant
+director of physical training, and 1897-1900 himself served as
+director. In 1891 he became instructor in Swedish gymnastics and
+massage in the Harvard University Summer School, and five years
+later in the Sargent Normal School of Physical Education. 1900-1912
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span>he was director of physical training in the Brookline public
+schools, and then resigned to remove to Portland, Oregon. But
+he soon returned to Boston, and in May of 1915 acquired a controlling
+interest in the Posse Normal School of Gymnastics, of which he
+became president.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure91" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure91.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Claës Julius Enebuske (1855-).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Enebuske was born in Ystad, southern Sweden, May 6, 1855,
+graduated as a student of pharmacy in Stockholm (1877), and took
+his doctor’s degree (Ph.D.) at the University of Lund in 1886.
+After a year of special work in school and medical gymnastics, under
+Colonel Norlander, fencing-master and teacher of gymnastics at
+the university, he came to New York City in 1887. Dr. William
+G. Anderson, then in charge of physical training in Adelphi Academy,
+Brooklyn, had begun to train teachers there (February 1, 1886), and
+at Chautauqua, New York (summer school, in 1886), and he secured
+Enebuske’s services at the latter in the summers of 1889 and 1890,
+and in his normal school in Brooklyn during the intervening year.
+We have said that Enebuske succeeded Posse at the Boston Normal
+School of Gymnastics early in 1890. Here his chief work was done,
+in the eight years that followed, and meanwhile (1896) he graduated
+from the medical department of Harvard University. In 1898 he
+left the Normal School, and in 1902 removed to Paris, receiving
+the degree <i>Docteur en Médecine</i> from the <i>Faculté de Médecine de
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span>Paris</i> four years later. He was a scholarly gentleman and a thorough
+teacher.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp51" id="figure92" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure92.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Jakob Bolin (1863-1914).</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Bolin, born in Stockholm November 5, 1863, and educated in the
+higher schools of Visby and Stockholm and at the Stockholm
+University, spent two years in the United States (1885-1887) and
+then returned to Sweden for a year to study medical gymnastics in
+Liedbeck’s Institute (Stockholm). From 1888 until he accepted the
+professorship of physical education in the University of Utah (Salt
+Lake City) in 1910 he practised medical gymnastics and massage in
+New York City, but in the meantime followed Enebuske as teacher
+of Swedish gymnastics at the Anderson Normal School of Physical
+Education (transferred from Brooklyn to New Haven, Conn., in
+1892 and since 1901 known as the New Haven Normal School of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span>Gymnastics), until 1907, and at Chautauqua Summer School of
+Physical Education 1891-1909. He died in Salt Lake City May 15,
+1914.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p>
+
+<p>Carl Oscar Louis Collin, born February 1, 1866, at Sölvesborg, a
+seaport near Kristianstad in southern Sweden, graduated from the
+higher classical school in Kristianstad in 1884 and as a student there
+was for four years class leader under Major Carl Silow, who afterwards
+became second teacher in the section of school gymnastics
+at the Stockholm Central Institute of Gymnastics. From September
+of 1884 until October of 1888 Collin was a student in the University
+of Lund, taking courses in gymnastics under Colonel Carl
+Norlander at that time, and in November of 1888 joined Enebuske
+in New York City. He taught gymnastics at Chautauqua with
+the latter in the summers of 1889 and 1890, and went with him to
+Boston in the fall of 1890 to become instructor in practical gymnastics
+and afterwards in anatomy also at the Boston Normal
+School of Gymnastics. From April till August of 1892 he studied
+under Major Silow in Stockholm, in 1898 graduated from the medical
+department of Harvard University, spent six weeks of the summer
+in the medical gymnastic clinic of Dr. Anders Wide in Lysekil,
+Sweden, succeeded Enebuske that fall as chief instructor in the
+theory and practice of gymnastics at the Normal School, and continued
+in that position for three years after it became the department
+of hygiene and physical education of Wellesley College, in September
+of 1909. He taught in the Battle Creek Normal School in 1912-1913,
+and in the latter year became an instructor in the Chicago
+Normal School of Physical Education.</p>
+
+<p>William Skarstrom was born in Stockholm June 15, 1869, and
+educated in the Nya Elementarskola (higher school for boys), whose
+pupils received their physical education in the halls of the Central
+Institute of Gymnastics. For two years following the fall of 1891
+he was in New York City, a member of the Twenty-third Street
+Young Men’s Christian Association and volunteer instructor of classes
+in its gymnasium, and during one winter taking a correspondence
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span>course with the Springfield Training School. He entered the
+Boston Normal School of Gymnastics as a student in the fall of
+1893 and completed the course there in 1895, acting as Bolin’s
+substitute at Chautauqua in the summer of 1894, and in 1901
+received the degree of doctor of medicine from Harvard University.
+From the fall of 1899 through the spring of 1903 he gave instruction
+in gymnastics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
+also at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. 1903-1912 he was
+instructor in the Columbia University gymnasium, giving courses
+in Teachers College also and in the Summer School. In 1912 he
+was appointed associate professor and later (1918) professor in the
+department of hygiene and physical education at Wellesley College.
+He has written “Gymnastic Kinesiology: A Manual of the
+Mechanism of Gymnastic Movements” (Springfield, Mass., The
+F. A. Bassette Co., 1909), and “Gymnastic Teaching” (Springfield,
+Mass., the American Physical Education Association, 1914).</p>
+
+<p>Alice Tripp Hall, a graduate of Wellesley College (1881) and the
+Woman’s Medical College in Philadelphia (1886), visited the
+Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm in the spring of 1889,
+and that fall when she took up her duties as professor of physiology,
+hygiene, and physical training in the Woman’s College of Baltimore
+(now Goucher College) classes in the new gymnasium, Bennett
+Hall, were put in charge of a graduate of the Central Institute,
+Mathilda Kristina Wallin (class of ’85). Miss Wallin was followed
+two years later by Gulli Öberg (’85) and Maria Palmquist (’91),
+under whom a demonstration of Swedish gymnastics was given
+April 7, 1892, before visitors on their way to the seventh annual
+convention of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Physical Education, in Philadelphia. Thereafter the instructors
+employed in the gymnasium were regularly graduates of the Stockholm
+Central Institute, or of the Physical Training College at
+Dartford Heath, England, which was directed by Madame Bergman
+Österberg, herself a graduate of the Central Institute in 1881.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar manner Dr. Kate Campbell Hurd, also a graduate of
+the Woman’s Medical College in Philadelphia, and under appointment
+as the first medical director at the Bryn Mawr School for Girls,
+in Baltimore, spent the winter of 1889-1890 at the Central Institute
+in Stockholm and the spring with Madame Bergman Österberg in
+London (Her Physical Training College was removed to Dartford
+Heath, Kent, in 1895), and engaged as her first assistant in the
+gymnasium Fanny Schnelle (Stockholm Central Institute, class of
+1891), whom she had met in Sweden. After Miss Schnelle came one
+of Madame Bergman Österberg’s graduates, to be succeeded in turn
+by young women trained at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics,
+Miss Senda Berenson, a graduate of the latter school,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span>introduced the Swedish system at Smith College, in Northampton,
+Mass., where she was director of physical training in the years
+1892-1911.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection attention may be called again to Mrs. Hemenway’s
+gift which made possible the publication of a portion of
+Hjalmar Ling’s collection of pen-drawings illustrating positions and
+movements used in gymnastics (see <a href="#Page_161">p. 161</a>). One half of the edition
+was presented to the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics.
+Director Törngren of the Stockholm Central Institute also accepted
+her invitation to come to Boston as her guest, reached that city
+May 14, 1893, and spent some time at the Normal School, in June
+watched the classes in gymnastics at many of the Boston schools,
+and the next month read a paper on “The Royal Central Institute
+of Gymnastics in Stockholm” at the eighth annual meeting of the
+American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education,
+in Chicago (see <i>Proceedings</i> VIII: 50-52). The clearest and most
+intelligent exposition of the system under discussion which has yet
+been written by an American is “A Review of Swedish Gymnastics,”
+by Theodore Hough, first prepared as a lecture in 1899 while its
+author was assistant professor of biology in the Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology and instructor in physiology and personal
+hygiene at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics. It was
+published in pamphlet form (Boston, George H. Ellis, 1891, forty
+pages), and later reprinted in the Report of the United States
+Commissioner of Education for 1898-1899 (Vol. I, pp. 1209-1226,
+Washington, 1900).</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>The first part of this chapter, including the biographical sketches of Posse and
+Hartwell, has already appeared in print as Chapters XIX and XX in the author’s
+“Pioneers of Modern Physical Training” (New York, 1915). It is based on personal
+correspondence and conversations with the persons concerned, supplemented by
+information gleaned from catalogues, reports, and other authentic sources.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> See “A Full Report of the Papers and Discussions of the (Physical Training)
+Conference held in Boston in November, 1889. Reported and edited by Isabel C.
+Barrows” (Boston, 1890).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> The numbers of the <i>Posse Gymnasium Journal</i> for February and May, 1920,
+contain portions of an autobiography by Nissen, covering his early years in Norway.
+He also published in 1891 an “ABC of the Swedish System of Educational Gymnastics”
+(Philadelphia, F. A. Davis).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> His chief literary work was the “Progressive Gymnastic Day’s Orders, according
+to the Principles of the Ling System,” first published in Boston in 1890 and reissued
+in 1892 (New York, etc., Silver, Burdett &amp; Co). Other publications include: “The
+Place of Physical Training in a Rational Education” (in <i>Boston Conference Report</i>,
+1889, pp. 35-41), “The Gymnastic Progression of the Ling System” (<i>Proceedings</i> of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, <b>5</b> (1890), pp.
+21-35), “The Pedagogical Aspect of Swedish Gymnastics,” read before the American
+Institute of Instruction at its annual meeting in Bethlehem, N. H., July 8, 1891,
+(<i>Popular Educator</i>, Boston, <b>9</b>, 52 and 53, October, 1891), “Some Measurable Results
+of Swedish Pedagogical Gymnastics” (<i>Proceedings</i> of the American Association for
+the Advancement of Physical Education, <b>7</b> (1892), pp. 207-235), “An Anthropometric
+Study of the Effects of Gymnastic Training on American Women” (Quarterly
+Publications of the American Statistical Association, December, 1893, <b>3</b>, pp. 600-610),
+“A Diagram of Working Capacity and Resistance as manifest in Gymnastic Exercises”
+(<i>Proceedings</i> of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical
+Education, <b>9</b> (1895), pp. 11-17), and “Pedagogical Gymnastics” (<i>American Physical
+Education Review</i>, <b>2</b>, 81-88, June, 1897).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> His publications were: Three articles on “Den svenska gymnastiken och dess
+representanter i Amerika” (<i>Valkyrian</i>, New York, January, February, and March,
+1891, <b>2</b>, pp. 28-30, 91-94, 138-143), “Mental Growth through Physical Education”
+(18-page pamphlet, 1893), “The Physical Processes Involved in the Nutrition
+of Muscle” (<i>Proceedings</i> of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical
+Education, <b>10</b>, 1895, pp. 83-89), President’s address at the annual meeting of the
+Physical Education Society of New York and Vicinity, December 4, 1896 (<i>American
+Physical Education Review</i>, <b>2</b>, 1-11, March, 1897), another President’s address (<i>American
+Physical Education Review</i>, <b>3</b>, 25-29, March, 1898), “On Group Contests”
+(<i>American Physical Education Review</i>, <b>3</b>, 288-294 and <b>4</b>, 66-72, December, 1898, and
+March, 1899), “What is Gymnastics” and “Why Do We Teach Gymnastics” (28-
+and 57-page pamphlets, New York, by the author, 1902 and 1903), and a posthumous
+volume, “Gymnastic Problems” (New York, Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1917).</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT IN AMERICA. STATEWIDE PHYSICAL EDUCATION.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The playground movement, which we have already traced in
+Germany (<a href="#Page_132">pp. 132-145</a>) and Denmark (<a href="#Page_194">pp. 194-197</a>), was slow in
+gathering headway in the United States. Minister von Gossler’s
+playground order was issued in Prussia October 27, 1882, and the
+German “Central Committee for the Promotion of Games” was
+organized in Berlin May 21, 1891. The Danish minister Bardenfleth
+sent out his games circular August 31, 1896, and a group of
+men and women met in Copenhagen April 11, 1897, to form a
+“National Committee for Promoting Group Games among School
+Children.” In this country certain Boston children had access to
+a sand pile, under supervision, as far back as the summer of 1885,
+and a public outdoor gymnasium was opened in that city August 27,
+1889; but not more than 10 cities are known to have established
+playgrounds before 1900, and 26 others in the years 1900-1905,
+<i>i.e.</i>, up to the founding of the Playground Association of America,
+at Washington, D.C., in April of 1906. In the four years following
+(1906-1909) 83 cities were added to the list, and by the end of
+1916 a total of 480 had been reached, according to a report in
+<i>The Playground</i> for March, 1917.</p>
+
+<p>The first step in the Boston experiment is recorded as follows by
+Mrs. Kate Gannett Wells, chairman of the executive committee
+of the Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association, in the
+second annual report of that body (May, 1886. The Association
+was organized in 1884): “Last summer (1885), at the suggestion
+of Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, and in accordance with the plan in Berlin,
+which has proved so useful to children, a large heap of sand was
+placed in the yard attached to the Parmenter-street Chapel....
+An average of fifteen children connected with the chapel came there
+three days in the week, through July and August, and under the
+guidance of Mrs. Gamble, dug in the sand with their little wooden
+shovels and made countless sand-pies, which were remade the next
+day with undismayed alacrity. They sang their songs and marched
+in their small processions, and when weary, were gathered in the
+motherly arms of the matron.... The same plan was tried at
+the West End Nursery, but as the children there were hardly two
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span>years old they cared little for it. Your committee hope, however,
+that the success of the experiment in Parmenter Street may have
+sufficiently demonstrated the usefulness of the sand-garden to secure
+its adoption elsewhere....”</p>
+
+<p>The third annual report (May, 1887) announces that three sand-gardens
+“are now permanently established during the summer
+seasons in the playyards of Parmenter-street Chapel, of Warrenton-street
+Chapel, and of the Children’s Mission. They are maintained
+in the interest of hygiene and amusement.... An awning has
+been placed over the sand at the Children’s Mission; and there, with
+wooden shovel, broken bricks, and much sand, the long days are
+passed out of doors....” In 1887 “the number of these gardens
+increased from three to ten. No rent was paid for them. The
+sand was given ..., and the School Committee granted the
+use of the Wait School yard.... The matrons in charge of each
+garden were generally women who lived in the neighborhood, and
+who watched, in their play, the children, to whom shovels and pails
+were given, with which they made castles and pies. At the end of
+the season the sand was stored in barrels for future use.... This
+spring (1888) the Association petitioned the School Committee for
+the use of schoolyards which would be suitable as playgrounds for
+little children kept in town through the summer....” As a
+result, during this fourth season (1888) “seven school yards situated
+in the neighborhoods where children swarm, were open for three
+hours on four fair days of each week. A kindly matron was ready
+to welcome the children, and offered them sandheaps and shovels,
+balls, tops, skipping-ropes, reins, bean-bags, building-blocks, flags
+to march under, and transparent slates to draw upon. Besides
+these seven yards which were dignified by the name of ‘Playgrounds,’
+there were three ‘Sand-Gardens,’ where only sand and shovels were
+furnished....” A year later “there were eleven playgrounds
+instead of seven; there were 1000 instead of 400 children; there was
+double the number of tops, twice the amount of sand....”</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth annual report of the Boston Board of Park
+Commissioners, for the thirteen months ending January 31, 1892,
+the open-air gymnasia at Charlesbank are described in detail. The
+site is a strip of land containing about ten acres, and lies along the
+Boston shore of the Charles River between the Craigie and West
+Boston bridges. It measures about 2200 feet in length by 200 in
+width. A sea-wall and the filling behind it were completed in 1886,
+and the plan of the grounds was drawn up by Frederick Law
+Olmsted, the landscape architect. It included a level promenade,
+25 feet wide, overlooking the salt waters of the Back Bay, and
+behind this, on the side toward the city, stretches of lawn
+planted with trees to resemble a natural grove, but with a space
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span>500 by 150 feet at the north end fitted up as a gymnasium for men
+and boys, and another at the south end, 370 by 150 feet in extent,
+enclosed with a screen of shrubbery and prepared especially as an
+exercise-ground for women and girls. At either end there was to be
+a landing for boats, offered for hire, and near this and the entrance
+a house with waterclosets, toolrooms, and offices of administration.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure93" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure93.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—View of Charlesbank, Boston, looking north.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure94" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure94.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Charlesbank: Men’s Gymnasium.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The men’s gymnasium, surrounded by an iron fence, was reached
+only from the upper story of one of the houses just mentioned,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span>connected with the grounds inside by a bridge on which turnstiles
+were placed, for registering attendance. The equipment, designed
+by Dr. Sargent of Harvard University, consisted of two sheds with
+twelve sets of chest-weights in each, including six high and six low
+pulleys, “two giant-strides, eight sets of horizontal bars, eight sets
+of parallel bars, six jumping-boxes, seven boxes for quoit-pitching
+and shot-throwing, two sets of jumping standards and ropes, two
+sets of sandbags and attachments, four vaulting poles, three shots,
+two heavy weights, twenty-four quoits, twenty pairs of dumb-bells,
+ten sets of hurdles, and two large frames, each 160 feet long, to which
+are attached the following apparatus: four balance-swings, eight
+breast-bars, four single swings, two double swings, five swinging-ropes,
+one rope ladder, one iron Jacob’s ladder, one perpendicular
+ladder, one inclined ladder, four pairs of flying rings, four single
+trapezes, one climbing-pole, two inclined poles, two perpendicular
+poles. Around the outside of the ground there is a running and
+bicycle track 15 feet wide and ⅕ mile long.” The men’s grounds
+were opened to the public on August 27, 1889, in charge of
+Superintendent John Graham, and the next season extended from
+April 1 to about the middle of December, an average of 447 men and
+boys a day entering for use of the apparatus during this period.
+In May of 1891 thirteen electric arc-lamps were added, and thereafter
+the gymnasium was kept open until 9.30 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> The total number
+of visitors this year was 169,219, and on the three days showing
+the largest attendance the turnstiles registered 1649 (May 3), 1480
+(July 30), and 1572 (July 31) admissions.</p>
+
+<p>Entrance to the women’s gymnasium and the children’s playground
+was likewise through the upper story of the women’s lavatory
+building. The apparatus included “two balance-swings and frames,
+two seesaws (with side-rails and guards), two seesaws (plain), two
+single swings, two pole ladders, two perpendicular ladders, four
+hanging ropes (fastened at the bottom), one long inclined rope and
+attachments, four long and four short inclined poles, four perpendicular
+ladders combined, five serpentine ladders united (with guard-rails),
+two perpendicular climbing-poles, twelve swinging-ropes, one
+horizontal rope-ladder, two sets horizontal bars and stanchions
+(with heights adjustable), one set of movable parallel bars, one set
+of high parallel bars, one set of vaulting-bars, eleven travelling rings
+and attachments, two single trapezes (with height made adjustable
+by pulley and chain attachments), two sets of flying-rings (with
+height made adjustable as above), twelve pairs of chest-weights to
+run in wooden boxes, one set of jumping standards and ropes, two
+giant-strides (ropes, handles, and fixtures), twenty-four ring quoits
+and pins, twelve jumping-ropes, twelve hoops, twenty-five long and
+ninety-eight short wands, ninety-eight pairs dumb-bells, ninety-eight
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span>pairs Indian clubs.” In the rear of the building were sand
+courts for the younger children. “The problem of the proper
+supervision, management, and care of this gymnasium was satisfactorily
+settled by our acceptance of the proposition of the
+Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association, which is
+under the management of well-known ladies, to take the entire
+charge and oversight of it without expense to the city, beyond
+the furnishing of supplies, cleaning the rooms, and taking care of
+the grounds and apparatus.” Miss Elizabeth C. McMartin, a
+pupil in Dr. Sargent’s Normal School, was appointed superintendent,
+and the matron had had six years of experience as assistant in
+a kindergarten. The informal opening occurred at noon on June 1,
+1891. From this time until November 1 the average daily attendance
+was 945, and the largest was 2477 (July 6), 2368 (July 9), and
+2389 (July 11).&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure95" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure95.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—Charlesbank: Women’s Gymnasium.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At Wood Island Park, in East Boston, another outdoor gymnasium
+and playground, nine acres in extent, was opened September
+6, 1895. Men were admitted on four days of the week, and women
+on two. Beginning in 1896, and with the effective coöperation of
+Mayor Josiah Quincy (1895-1899), there was a rapid expansion of
+public facilities for recreation of all sorts in and about Boston,
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span>including playgrounds, indoor gymnasia, beach baths, floating bath-houses,
+swimming pools and all-the-year baths, and provision for
+skating and coasting in winter. This whole series of progressive
+steps is outlined in Joseph Lee’s “Constructive and Preventive
+Philanthropy” (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1902), along with
+corresponding steps in other cities, and details will be found in
+reports of the Boston Park Commissioners, the Boston Department
+of Baths, and for the North End Playground the instructive annual
+reports of the Massachusetts Civic League (after 1900). The first
+municipal indoor gymnasium was the East Boston (Paris Street)
+building, a one-story, truss-roofed structure 137 by 98 feet, with a
+main hall 100 by 80 feet. Originally a skating rink, it was purchased
+by Esther P. (Mrs. Daniel) Ahl and turned over to the East Boston
+Athletic Association for use as a combined gymnasium and bath,
+and in 1897 given to the city and opened to the general public.
+The South Boston (D-Street) gymnasium, the first to be built by
+the city, was opened in the winter of 1899-1900.</p>
+
+<p>Next to Boston, Chicago occupies a prominent place in the early
+history of the playground movement. As Mrs. Charles Zueblin
+points out in <i>The Playground</i> for July of 1907 (pp. 3-5 and 11-13),
+it has passed through three distinct phases of growth in that city,
+represented by the independent, schoolyard, and municipal playgrounds.
+The independent experiments, now almost forgotten,
+deserve mention, to quote Mrs. Zueblin, “because their experiences
+and lessons and accomplishment were of proved value later on. In
+1893 Hull House opened a large playground in an empty lot, the
+land belonging to Mr. William Kent; it was equipped with swings,
+seesaws, giant stride and sandbins, and was maintained under their
+management for five years.... Play was totally disorganized
+both on the part of the children and of the supervisors, and everything
+from games to management had to be learned.... This
+playground later passed under the number of municipal playgrounds.
+In 1896, under the auspices of the University Settlement of the
+Northwestern University, and through the great generosity of Mr.
+Livingston Fargo, a large and splendidly equipped playground was
+opened accommodating from three thousand to four thousand
+children. Besides a fine equipment for play, there was a large
+shelter with plenty of benches and retiring rooms. A police officer
+and a matron had charge of the grounds, which were maintained for
+two years, until the playground had to be abandoned, owing to the
+extension of the tracks of the Northwestern Railway Company.
+For six years, beginning in 1896, the University of Chicago Settlement,
+under the leadership of Miss Mary McDowell, maintained
+a very successful playground, where there was provision also for
+mothers with little babies.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span></p>
+
+<p>“The first school playground in Chicago,” according to Mrs.
+Zueblin, “was maintained in the Washington School’s yard in 1897
+by the West End District of the Associated Charities. In the
+spring of 1898 an appropriation of $1000 was obtained from the City
+Council ($750 additional being later subscribed by individuals) for
+‘temporary small parks,’ the administration of which was turned
+over to the Vacation School Committee of Women’s Clubs.” Miss
+Sadie American, chairman of that committee, writing of “The Movement
+for Small Playgrounds” in the <i>American Journal of Sociology</i> for
+September of 1898 (pp. 159-170) says that “the use of six schoolyards,
+basements, and one room to be used on hot and rainy days
+was asked of the board of education, and, being granted, the yards
+were equipped with swings, seesaws, sandbins, and cedar building-blocks.
+The Turnverein was greatly interested, and loaned portable
+apparatus for each school, such as parallel bars, horizontal bars,
+horse, ladders, etc., which were taken into the building at night.
+The playgrounds chosen were all in densely populated districts and
+among various nationalities.... For each there were engaged
+a kindergartner and a man who should be a ‘big brother to the
+boys,’ for the older boys were considered equally or more than the
+younger ones.... The men were inexperienced, but entered into
+the spirit of the work with enthusiasm, and from week to week rose
+in efficiency on the mistakes of the foregoing days.”</p>
+
+<p>But it is the municipal aspect of the movement that demands
+more than passing mention. The <i>City Club Bulletin</i> of March 4,
+1908, presents the significant features of the story as follows:
+“During the last half-dozen years Chicago has achieved a development
+of small parks and playgrounds more remarkable than has
+taken place in any other city of the world. It is remarkable, first,
+because of its extent, and second, because of its unique character.
+Eight years ago there were, besides the six main parks of the city,
+fifteen or sixteen small public parks and squares, some maintained
+by the three divisional park commissions and some by the city
+Department of Public Works. There was not a public playground,
+however, in all Chicago nor a public bathing beach. Today there
+are in the city over 30 such small parks and squares, 13 public
+playgrounds, 17 combination small park playgrounds and 3 bathing
+beaches—in all, 63 public neighborhood centers of rest, beauty,
+recreation and culture. This number is also being added to and
+does not include school playgrounds.</p>
+
+<p>“This expansion has been carried out by four separate authorities,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the Lincoln Park Commission, the regular park authority for
+the north side of the city; the South Park Commission, the regular
+park authority for the south side; the West Park Commission, the
+regular park authority for the west side; and the Special Park
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span>Commission, whose field is the entire city. The first three commissions
+were created by the legislature about 1870. The Special
+Park Commission was created by the City Council in 1899, to investigate
+and report upon the need both for small parks and playgrounds,
+and for an outer belt park system. While investigating and reporting
+upon these two subjects it also became, by the very pressure of
+the subject with which it was dealing, both a promoting and an
+administrative body. In 1900 it secured from the City Council an
+appropriation of $10,000 and opened four ‘municipal playgrounds’
+in thickly populated neighborhoods of the city. The next year it
+secured legislation authorizing the three regular park commissions
+to raise and expend $2,500,000—that is, $1,000,000 each on the
+south and west sides, and $500,000 on the north side—for small
+parks and playgrounds.</p>
+
+<p>“The Park Commissions of the north and west sides were slow in
+securing the necessary amendment, and approval on referendum,
+of their laws in this matter, but in 1903 the South Park Commission
+secured the amendment of the law applying to its district, together
+with legislative authority for a still larger expenditure for like purposes,
+and the proposed bond issues having been approved at the
+polls, the Commission entered upon an unparalleled career of small
+park and playground development.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> In 1904 and 1905 it acquired
+fourteen sites, ranging in size from 7 to 300 acres, and equipped
+ten of them on an entirely novel plan. Two more of these are
+being thus equipped, and three more sites are being acquired.
+The proposed bond issue for the west side was approved on
+referendum in 1905, and the West Park Commission has within
+the last year and a half secured and nearly finished the equipment,
+after the south side plan, of two sites in crowded neighborhoods.
+It is now acquiring a third site. It has also made ‘Holstein Park’
+a very attractive playground. The Lincoln Park Commission,
+having secured approval on referendum for its proposed $500,000
+bond issue, has now acquired three sites, and they are nearly
+equipped in somewhat like fashion. Two of the three lack park
+features proper, on account of limited space, but they provide
+equipment similar to the park-playgrounds, among which they are
+here counted. The sites for these various park-playgrounds range
+in size from 4 to 60 acres, have cost from $40,000 to $290,000
+each, and the buildings cost from $60,000 to $100,000 for each site.
+Each of these centers calls for an annual maintenance budget of
+from $20,000 to $30,000....</p>
+
+<p>“Small park and playground development in Chicago is even more
+remarkable because of its unique character than because of its
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span>extent. The assemblage of functions represented in the small park-playgrounds
+which we have been considering is a new thing in the
+world, and its creation three or four years ago by the South Park
+Commission was an event of civic imagination and adventure of
+which Chicago is worthily proud. A typical center includes both
+outdoor and indoor activities. The outdoor activities comprise as
+the central feature a liberally planned bathing pool, with sandbanks,
+dressing rooms, cleansing showers, life-guards and bathing suits.
+Collateral to this are an outdoor gymnasium for men, another for
+women, another for boys, another for girls, running tracks, wading
+pools, and sand courts for the youngsters; also tennis courts and ball
+fields—turned into skating rinks in the winter time. The interior
+features include a thoroughly equipped gymnasium for men, another
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span>for women, each having a trained director and being furnished with
+baths and lockers, a lunch room, reading and library room, one or
+two small club rooms for small gatherings, and a large and beautiful
+assembly hall for neighborhood meetings, lectures or pleasure
+parties. The entire construction is on a liberal plan and is carried
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>out in accordance with high standards. So is the maintenance....”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="figure96" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure96.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—South Parks, Chicago: Plan of Armour Square.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure97" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure97.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—South Parks, Chicago: Typical Outdoor Gymnasium for Girls.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure98" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure98.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>
+    <p><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—South Parks, Chicago: Typical Swimming Pool Scene.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to repeat here in detail the experiences of other
+cities in connection with the playground movement. A special
+report (“General Statistics of Cities, 1916”) of the United States
+Bureau of the Census relating to the recreation service of cities having
+a population of over 30,000 contains this statement of progress,
+prepared by Joseph Lee, president of the Playground and Recreation
+Association of America:</p>
+
+<p>“Thirty years have passed since the birth of the movement to
+protect children’s play—an era which has seen the spread of the
+movement from Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York
+to Chicago and the Pacific coast; which has witnessed at least the
+theoretical establishment of the children’s right to play in safety
+under good influences and of a man’s right to spend his leisure hours,
+through the provision of the proper facilities by the city in which he
+lives, in a way which will fit him to make the best use of his working
+hours, and will keep alive in him those ideal interests for which his
+work too often furnishes no scope.</p>
+
+<p>“In these thirty years playgrounds have been established in large
+and small cities and in rural communities throughout the country.
+A national organization, the Playground and Recreation Association
+of America, has been called into existence to act as a clearing house
+for information and, through the publishing of literature and
+educational work, to further the recreation movement. Buildings
+used wholly for recreational purposes have been erected. Reports
+made to the Playground and Recreation Association of America in
+December, 1916, show that 38 communities have recreation buildings,
+valued at $4,093,525. In rural communities has come a great
+awakening to the need of wholesome recreation to counteract
+immoral influences and to conserve for the community its young
+men and women who would otherwise go to large cities to find their
+opportunities. Both large and small cities have established systems,
+at the head of which have been placed workers employed throughout
+the year, corresponding to school superintendents in our educational
+system. Schools have introduced organized play in connection
+with their school playgrounds and specially trained play directors
+are employed, who spend their entire time directing the play of the
+pupils. Cities have come to see the economic waste of great buildings
+used a few hours each day for educational purposes and have
+thrown their schoolhouses open at night for the use of all the
+people for evening recreation-center activities, for dramatic clubs,
+orchestras, social dancing, gymnasium work, mothers’ clubs, civic
+forums, lectures, and motion pictures. In December, 1916, 127
+cities reported that their school buildings were being used as neighborhood
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span>recreation centers. Legislation making possible such a
+use of school buildings has been passed in a number of states. The
+creation of special recreation departments and playground and
+recreation commissions to administer playground work has been
+authorized by law in many states and cities. Increasingly has the
+emphasis been laid on the importance of considering recreation work
+as a governmental function and of administering it as one of the
+duties of a municipality to its citizens.</p>
+
+<p>“These facts are borne out by the information gathered by the
+Bureau of the Census in its study of playgrounds and athletic fields,
+the results of which are to be found in Table II. It is a very
+significant fact that during the fiscal year 1916, the 213 cities of more
+than 30,000 population conducted 2190 playgrounds with a total
+area of 4662.1 acres. There were, in addition, 19 athletic fields,
+exclusive of those located in parks, with an area of 148.7 acres.
+For this work there were payments from public funds for expenses
+amounting to $2,502,902; and for outlays, $1,017,539. Three
+thousand seven hundred and ninety-four workers were in charge
+of the activities of these playgrounds. Graphic as these figures are,
+they by no means represent the total municipal provision for play
+and recreation even in the 213 cities themselves. In many of these
+cities the schools have playgrounds equipped with apparatus and
+with play leaders in charge, and organized play periods are conducted
+in connection with their school program. Nor do these
+figures attempt to include the evening recreation-center work conducted
+at many schools at a considerable expense to the school
+board, nor the municipal golf courses, tennis courts, skating facilities,
+and community music provided for the public from city funds.
+The public provision of recreational facilities is by no means limited
+to cities of over 30,000. Reports sent to the Playground and
+Recreation Association of America show that many cities of less
+than 30,000 inhabitants are maintaining playgrounds and neighborhood
+recreation centers, while approximately 50 communities of
+less than 5000 carried on recreational work privately or publicly
+during the year ending December 1, 1916.”</p>
+
+<p>The founding of the Playground and Recreation Association of
+America has already been mentioned on p. 337. One must turn to
+the <i>Proceedings</i> of the first, second, and third “Annual Playground
+Congresses,” the volumes of <i>The Playground</i>, and other publications
+of the Association for the full story of its achievements.</p>
+
+<p>Although there had been legislation favoring statewide physical
+education prior to the outbreak of the Great War (<i>e.g.</i>, North
+Dakota, 1899; Ohio, 1904; Idaho, 1913), it was without doubt the
+same military motive which has operated in the case of European
+countries, or that realization of the fundamental values of physical
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span>fitness which always comes with the approach of war, that led
+twenty-five of our states, in the years 1915-1921, to enact laws
+requiring or permitting the introduction of physical education into
+their schools. The list is as follows: In 1915—Illinois; 1916—New
+York; 1917—California, Nevada, New Jersey, Rhode Island;
+1918—Delaware, Maryland; 1919—Alabama, Indiana, Maine,
+Michigan, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington; 1920—Georgia,
+Kentucky, Mississippi, Virginia; 1921—Connecticut,
+Massachusetts, Missouri, North Carolina, West Virginia. These
+laws differ considerably in their statement of the educational aims
+in view and the means to be employed in attaining them, in the
+ages or school grades affected, and the time requirements, and in
+the provision made for a central authority, supervision, the training
+of teachers, and financial support to make the legislation effective.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a>
+Some of the state authorities have already published manuals of
+physical training.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a></p>
+
+<p>Three examples, quoted from Bulletin 40, 1918, of the United
+States Bureau of Education, will serve to illustrate the general
+character and range of the State laws already adopted. The
+Illinois law (approved June 26, 1915) “provides for physical training
+in all of the public schools and in all of the normal schools of the
+State. Apparently, no special provision has been made in that
+State for the operation of the law; no appropriation for the development
+of a program or the publication of a syllabus; and no resources
+for the employment of State supervisors, inspectors, or other administrators
+of physical education....</p>
+
+<p>“The New York law, approved May 15, 1916, and amended at
+the legislative session of 1918, provides that: ‘All male and female
+pupils, above the age of eight years, in all elementary and secondary
+schools of the State, shall receive, as a part of the prescribed courses
+of instruction therein, such physical training under the direction of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span>the commissioner of education as the regents, after conference with
+the military training commission, may determine, during periods
+which shall average at least twenty minutes each day....’ The
+administration of this law in the State of New York is a function of
+the regents of the University of the State of New York, that is, of the
+State department of education. A bureau of physical training has
+been established as a subdivision of the State military training
+commission. The State inspector of physical training, the chief
+officer of this bureau, is required, in accordance with the law, to
+observe and inspect the work and methods described under the
+provisions of the education law relating to instruction in physical
+training. The State law in New York also provides that all public
+schools in the State employing special teachers of physical training,
+qualified and duly licensed under the regulations of the regents,
+may receive financial support from the State to the extent of half
+the salary of each teacher so employed, provided that half the salary
+does not exceed $600....” In the <i>State Plan and Syllabus for
+Physical Training</i> that subject “is interpreted as covering: ‘(1)
+Individual health examination and personal health instruction
+(medical inspection); (2) instruction concerning the care of the body
+and concerning the important facts of hygiene (recitations in
+hygiene); and (3) physical exercise as a health habit, including
+gymnastics, elementary marching and organized supervised play,
+recreation, and athletics.’ For the direction and supervision of the
+State program there is a force of inspectors, consisting of a State
+inspector of physical training and nine assistant inspectors....</p>
+
+<p>“On May 26, 1917, an act providing for physical education became
+a law in the State of California. This law provides that the school
+authorities in the public schools of the State, elementary and
+secondary, shall prescribe suitable courses of physical education for
+all pupils, except such as may be excused from such training on
+account of physical disability. The California law makes it a duty
+of the superintendent of schools in every county and city, and of
+every board of education, board of school trustees, and high-school
+board, to enforce the courses of physical education prescribed by the
+proper authority, and to require that such physical education be
+given in the schools under their jurisdiction or control. In the
+elementary schools the time requirement in California shall ‘average
+twenty minutes in each school day,’ and in the secondary schools
+‘at least two hours each week while that school is in session.’ This
+law requires that, if the number of pupils in a given school system is
+sufficient, there shall be employed a competent supervisor or such
+special teachers of physical education as may be necessary. The
+enactment further specifies that the State board of education shall
+require a course in physical training in all the normal schools of
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span>the State and provides that the State board of education shall
+prescribe a course in physical education for such schools and shall
+make the completion of such course a requirement for graduation.
+Under this law, it is the duty of the State board of education: ‘(1)
+To adopt such rules and regulations as it may deem necessary and
+proper to secure the establishment of courses in physical education
+in the elementary and secondary schools in accordance with the
+provisions of this act; (2) to appoint a State supervisor of physical
+education; (3) to compile, or cause to be compiled or printed, a
+manual in physical education for distribution to teachers in the
+public schools of the State.’ The sum of $10,000 was appropriated
+for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the California
+law....”</p>
+
+<p>Attempts are now being made to secure federal aid to physical
+education in the various states, through laws passed by the Congress
+of the United States. A commission on the reorganization of
+secondary education, appointed by the National Education Association,
+has also recently approved a report on Physical Education in
+Secondary Schools, which is published by the Bureau of Education
+as 1917 <i>Bulletin</i> No. 50.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>The student of the playground movement in America will need to be familiar with
+the following, in addition to the publications already mentioned: G. E. Johnson,
+“Education by Play and Games” (Ginn &amp; Co., 1907); Joseph Lee, “Play in Education”
+(The Macmillan Co., 1915); Henry S. Curtis, “Education through Play” (The
+Macmillan Co., 1915), “The Practical Conduct of Play” (1915), “The Play Movement
+and its Significance” (1917), and other volumes; E. B. Mero, “American
+Playgrounds” (Baker &amp; Taylor Co., 1908); A. and L. H. Leland, “Playground
+Technique and Playcraft” (Baker &amp; Taylor Co., 1910). See also “The Play Movement
+in the United States,” by Clarence E. Rainwater (The University of Chicago
+Press, 1922).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> For a full account of this first year see the eighth annual report (May, 1892) of
+the Mass. Emergency and Hygiene Association, pp. 13-17. See also <i>Reports of
+Proceedings</i>, American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education,
+<b>9</b> (1894), pp. 125-130, and <i>The Bostonian</i> for June, 1896 (pp. 258-266, illustrated).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> See Reports of South Park Commissioners for 1904, 1905, and 1906 (illustrated.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> See United States Bureau of Education <i>Bulletin</i>, 1918, No. 40 (Recent State
+Legislation for Physical Education). Part IV contains copies of the State laws of
+Illinois, New York, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Nevada, California, Delaware, and
+Maryland. Bulletin 1922, No. 1, brings the story up to July, 1921.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> For example, the following: General Plan and Syllabus for Physical Training
+in the Elementary and Secondary Schools of the State of New York, as adopted
+by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York upon the
+report and recommendation of the Military Training Commission of the State of
+New York. Albany, 1917. A second edition (Book 4, Complete Syllabus) was
+published in 1921.—By the Department of Public Instruction, Trenton, New Jersey,
+September, 1917, Courses in Physical Training as follows: For Grades I to VI
+(Manual 1), Grades VII and VIII (Manual 2), and Grades IX to XII (High School
+Manual).—Manual in Physical Education for the Public Schools of the State of
+California—Part IV: Syllabus on Physical Training Activities with Methods of
+Management and Leadership. Sacramento, 1918.—A Course in Physical Training
+for the Graded Schools of Michigan. Bulletin No. 2 (Third Edition). Lansing,
+published by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1919.—Manual of Physical
+Education. Department of Education, State of Alabama, Montgomery, 1920.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest attempt in America to prepare teachers of physical
+education was made by Dio Lewis in the years 1861-1868, at his Normal
+Institute for Physical Education in Boston (see <a href="#Page_256">pp. 256-259</a>).
+Its first course opened at 20 Essex Street July 5, 1861, and at the
+commencement exercises held nine weeks later, on September 5,
+7 men and 7 women were graduated. The second course, which
+extended from January 2 to March 13, 1862 (ten weeks), was
+completed by a class of 18, the third (July 5 to September 15, 1862)
+by one of 12, and the fourth class, graduated March 13, 1863,
+numbered 22. Details of later courses are lacking. In a volume
+published in 1868 Lewis says that more than 250 persons had taken
+the diploma of the Normal Institute in the nine sessions which had
+been held, but his biographer states that “421 ladies and gentlemen,
+in almost equal numbers,” were graduated in the seven years following
+its establishment.</p>
+
+<p>The second normal school, that of the North American <i>Turnerbund</i>,
+was projected as far back as 1856, but not actually opened
+until November 22, 1866. After two courses in New York City
+(1866-1867, 1869), one in Chicago (1871), and a third in New York
+(1872-1873), it became firmly established in Milwaukee under
+Brosius (1875-1888). Then followed two years in Indianapolis (1889-1891),
+a return to more ample quarters in Milwaukee, under Brosius
+and Wittich (1891-1907), and finally a permanent transfer to
+Indianapolis (in 1907). Its present name, Normal College of the
+American Gymnastic Union, was received in 1919. Four summer
+courses were given at Milwaukee, 1895-1898 inclusive. The
+history of the school is given at some length on pp. <a href="#Page_297">297-300</a> and <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>We have already mentioned Dr. Sargent’s contribution to
+the training of teachers (<a href="#Page_284">p. 284</a>). During his forty years at
+Hemenway Gymnasium (1879-1919) his influence in this direction
+was more widely felt than that of any other man in America. The
+beginning was modest enough, at Witneys Block, corner of Palmer
+and Brattle Streets in Cambridge (1881-1883), where a single pupil,
+Mrs. Mary E. W. Jones, completed the one-year course in 1882.
+A second year was now added, and 4 women were graduated in
+1884. Meanwhile quarters had been secured and equipped at 20
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span>Church Street, and here in the years 1883-1904 a total of 261 women
+finished the prescribed work in theory and practice. About 70
+others remained for a single year only. In 1902 the course became
+a three-year one, with attendance at a summer camp in New Hampshire
+added in 1912. When the new “Sargent Gymnasium,” on
+Everett Street, was occupied, in the school year 1904-1905, men as
+well as women were received as students, and in the next five years
+130 more women and 6 men were graduated. In the year 1918-1919
+the total enrollment had reached 406, with 22 names on the
+list of “officers of instruction,” not counting student assistants and
+special camp instructors and assistants.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the Harvard University Summer School five-week
+courses in physical education, under the direction of Dr.
+Sargent, were first given in 1887, attended that year by 18 men and
+37 women. The total registration in the years 1887-1898 was 982
+(329 men and 653 women), or an average attendance of 82. For
+the next three years the course was lengthened to two summers, and
+the enrollment was 98 men and 204 women, or a total of 302 and an
+average of 101. Thereafter the graded course covered four successive
+summers of theory and practice. The figures reached in the
+period 1902-1919 were 971 men and 2211 women, or a total of 3182
+and an average per season of 177. For the entire period of thirty-three
+years, from 1887 through 1919, the enrollment was 4466 (1398
+men and 3068 women), with an average attendance of 135.</p>
+
+<p>The Brooklyn-Anderson-New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics
+and the Chautauqua (summer) School of Physical Education
+stood in much the same relation, in the years 1886-1904, as the
+Sargent Normal School and the Harvard University summer
+courses. William Gilbert Anderson, the prime mover in each, was
+the son of Edward Anderson, a Congregational clergyman, and
+grandson of Rufus Anderson, assistant secretary of the American
+Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions 1824-1832 and secretary
+1832-1866. He was born at St. Joseph, Michigan, September 9,
+1860. From 1874 to 1880 his father was pastor in Quincy, Illinois, and
+early in this period the boy became “an ardent champion of advanced
+work in gymnastics, possessed of considerable skill as a performer on
+the horizontal bars, a tumbler and a battoule-board and springboard
+leaper.... Attainment as an acrobat had come, in part, from
+association with the circus men who wintered” in Quincy, and his
+enthusiasm was further stimulated by William Blaikie’s “How to
+Get Strong” (New York, 1879) and Archibald Maclaren’s “Physical
+Education” (Oxford, 1869). In the year 1877-1878, while a
+student in the Roxbury Latin School, Boston, Anderson was a pupil of
+Robert J. Roberts in the Young Men’s Christian Association at 68
+Eliot Street. Then came two years (1878-1880) as freshman and
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span>sophomore in the classical course at the University of Wisconsin,
+where military drill was the only required form of exercise, though
+there was a crude outdoor gymnasium which the catalogue described
+as “well-furnished,” and “open to students at fixed hours.” After
+teaching school for a year in Clayton, Illinois, he became superintendent
+of the Cleveland, Ohio, Young Men’s Christian Association
+gymnasium (1881-1882), and received the degree of doctor of medicine
+from the Cleveland Medical College in 1883. The next two years
+were spent in Columbus and Toledo, Ohio. He had now decided
+to follow physical training as a profession, and in the fall of 1885
+accepted an appointment as director of the gymnasium at Adelphi
+Academy (now Adelphi College), Brooklyn, New York.</p>
+
+<p>Here, early the next year, he organized the “Brooklyn Normal
+School for Physical Education.” Its first announcement, which
+lists a faculty of ten, calls attention to the fact that “no school in the
+country pays more attention to the physical education of its scholars
+than the Adelphi Academy. The number of scholars enrolled is
+within a few of one thousand, the majority of whom take daily
+exercise (obligatory). Members of the Normal Class will have
+opportunity to observe and assist in the instruction of these classes....
+The gymnasium of Adelphi Academy, corner of St. James
+Place and Lafayette Avenue, has been secured for the use of Normal
+classes.... The first course in reading and study will extend
+from February 1 to October 1, 1886. The course in practical training
+in the gymnasium will begin February 1 and end June 1, 1886.
+The second term will begin October 4, 1886, and end June, 1887.”
+A class of 10 students was graduated in 1887, and 87 altogether in
+the period 1886-1892. At the end of that time Dr. Anderson removed
+to New Haven, Connecticut, to become associate director
+of the Yale University gymnasium, and the school, rechristened the
+“Anderson Normal School of Gymnastics,” was opened in the new
+location in September of 1892. In the next eleven years its graduates
+numbered 140. Meanwhile Dr. Ernst Hermann Arnold&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> had
+been associated with Dr. Anderson in the management of the school,
+and in 1903 the latter’s active connection with it ceased altogether.&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a>
+The name had again been changed in January of 1901, this time to
+“New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1886 Dr. Anderson went to Chautauqua, New York, to take
+charge of physical education in the summer school established there
+by the Chautauqua Institution seven years before, and gave some
+free instruction to a normal class of three pupils. The next season
+there was a charge for such tuition, and certificates were given to the
+few who finished the work; but the normal course was not formally
+established until the following summer (1888). An old skating rink
+at the corner of Palestine and Scott avenues served as headquarters
+until a new gymnasium, started in 1890 and completed in the winter
+of 1890-1891, was ready for use. Meanwhile a company had been
+organized to erect the building and conduct the normal course, and
+the summer school of physical education was managed by this
+company in the years 1890-1912. Dr. Anderson held the position
+of principal from 1890 to 1894, and dean 1895-1904. By the
+addition of an advanced year in 1891 the course was extended to
+cover two summers, and in 1903 a third term was offered for the first
+time. In 1902 a second gymnasium, for classes in Swedish and
+corrective gymnastics, was available. Upon Dr. Anderson’s
+retirement Jacob Bolin, a member of the faculty since 1891, succeeded
+him as dean (1905-1909). In 1913 the school passed into the
+hands of the Chautauqua Institution. Dr. Jay W. Seaver&#x2060;<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> had been
+an instructor at the summer school since 1889 and president of the
+company 1895-1912, and now became director of the courses in
+physical education. After his death Dr. Joseph E. Raycroft was
+acting director for two years (1916 and 1917), and in 1918 the
+position was given to Professor Charles Winfred Savage of Oberlin
+College, who had already served for two seasons as a member of the
+faculty.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the physical training departments of the International
+Young Men’s Christian Association College at Springfield,
+Massachusetts (since 1887) and the Young Men’s Christian Association
+College in Chicago (since 1890) has been given in a previous
+chapter (<a href="#Page_309">pp. 309-319</a>). In the absence of other opportunities for
+the professional training of men, these schools have enrolled among
+their students some who were not looking forward to Association
+service, and on the other hand many of their graduates have withdrawn
+from Association positions to accept others in public schools,
+in secondary and state normal schools, in colleges and universities,
+in church or settlement or playground work, or with athletic clubs
+or Boy Scouts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span></p>
+
+<p>We have already noted (<a href="#Page_325">p. 325</a>) the beginning of the Boston
+Normal School of Gymnastics, in 1889, the teaching done there by
+Posse, Enebuske, and Collin, and that in September of 1909 this
+school became the department of hygiene and physical education
+of Wellesley College. Mrs. Hemenway, at her death in 1894, had
+endowed it for a period of fifteen years, and Miss Amy Morris
+Homans was its director from the start until her retirement from the
+Wellesley faculty in the summer of 1918. After occupying temporary
+quarters at Boyleston Place and on Park Street, in Boston,
+the school was housed in Paine Memorial Building, 9 Appleton
+Street, between Tremont and Berkeley, and then from September
+of 1897 until the transfer in 1909 in the building of the Massachusetts
+Charitable Mechanic Association at 97 Huntington Avenue, near
+Exeter Street. At Wellesley the new Mary Hemenway Hall,
+constructed with a view to the needs of the Normal School and also
+to provide for the physical training of all Wellesley College students,
+was ready for its use. Twelve women had graduated from the first
+class, in 1891, and 433 women and 9 men in the years 1891-1909
+inclusive.</p>
+
+<p>Upon severing his connection with the Boston Normal School
+of Gymnastics Baron Posse at once opened a small gymnasium of
+his own in the Harcourt Building, 23 Irvington Street, on February
+1, 1890. Afterwards more spacious quarters in the same building
+were occupied. From the normal classes, during the next six years
+(1890-1895), a total of 96 women and 6 men were graduated, 3
+of them receiving the diploma from the medico-gymnastic course
+only. A still larger number had come under his instruction in the
+brief summer courses conducted in the Boston gymnasium, at the
+Martha’s Vineyard Summer Institute, and at Harvey, Illinois
+(see <a href="#Page_326">p. 326</a>). Following Baron Posse’s death, on December 18,
+1895, Baroness Rose Posse became director of the school. In the
+fall of 1900 it was transferred to the Fensmere Building, 206 Massachusetts
+Avenue, and in June of 1911 incorporated under the name
+“Posse Normal School of Gymnastics,” with Baroness Posse as
+president. That same summer (1911) the building at the corner of
+Garrison and St. Botolph streets, originally constructed (1886)
+for the (Mary E.) Allen Gymnasium and later used by the Women’s
+Athletic Club of Boston, was secured. This was completely
+destroyed by fire in the spring of 1913. A plot of land at 773-781
+Beacon Street, near its intersection with Commonwealth Avenue,
+was now purchased, and the formal opening of the new building
+erected here took place on November 17 of that year. Baroness
+Posse retired from active connection with the school in May, 1915,
+and was succeeded as president by Mr. Hartvig Nissen (see <a href="#Page_332">p. 332</a>).</p>
+
+<p>No attempt is made here to trace the growth of the numerous
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span>other privately owned gymnasia, most of them of later origin, which
+have offered training courses for teachers. Nor have the data been
+collected which would make possible a history of physical training
+at the various state normal schools. One recalls, however, in the
+case of the latter, the long service of Dr. and Mrs. C. E. Ehinger at
+West Chester, Pa., Dr. H. B. Boice at Trenton, N. J., and
+Professor Wilbur P. Bowen at Michigan Normal College, Ypsilanti
+(since 1894). Much more significant, as pointing the way to the
+final solution of the problem of adequate professional preparation
+for leadership in physical education, are the beginning of teachers’
+courses at our colleges and universities. But here again the facts
+are not at hand for a complete story. Such courses, counting
+toward a bachelor’s degree, have been offered at the University of
+California since 1898, the University of Nebraska since 1899, Oberlin
+College since 1900, University of Missouri at about the same time,
+Teachers College of Columbia University since 1903, Wellesley
+College since 1909, and University of Wisconsin since the fall of
+1911. Doubtless there are other institutions which should be added
+to this list for the period it covers, and within the last ten years the
+number has grown considerably. Summer courses, with university
+credit allowed, have been conducted at Columbia University since
+1899. Carefully coördinated courses leading to advanced degrees
+will mark the next step in advance, and in this direction, also, there
+are some encouraging signs of progress.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<h4>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h4>
+
+<p>Catalogues, announcements, and lists of graduates published by the institutions
+or in connection with the summer courses of which mention has been made.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> Born in Erfurt, Germany, February 11, 1865, of German and Polish ancestry;
+educated in the <i>Realgymnasium</i> at Halle until 1883; completed the ten-month course
+at the normal school of the North American <i>Turnerbund</i>, in Milwaukee, in April of
+1888, and was teacher of gymnastics in <i>Turnvereine</i> in Trenton, New Jersey (1888-1891),
+and New Haven, Connecticut (1891-1894); M.D., Yale University Medical
+School, 1894, and the next year took courses in surgery and orthopedics in the
+universities at Halle and Leipsic; became associate director of the Anderson Normal
+School of Gymnastics in 1895, and its director in 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> Dr. Anderson published a volume on “Light Gymnastics” in 1890 (New York,
+Effingham Maynard &amp; Co), and another on “Methods of Teaching Gymnastics”
+in 1896 (Meadville, Pa., Flood &amp; Vincent).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Born at Craftsbury, Vermont, March 9, 1855; prepared for college at Craftsbury
+Academy and Williston Seminary; A.B., Yale, 1880, and M.D., Yale Medical School,
+1885; instructor in physical training at Yale University 1883-1892, and medical
+examiner in the department after 1885; died at Berkeley, California, May 5, 1915.
+Published “Anthropometry and Physical Examination” (New Haven, 1890. New
+edition in 1909).</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">A</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amherst College, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271-274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amoros, Don Francisco, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amsinck, Julius, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anderson, William Gilbert, <a href="#Page_353">353-355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Andre, Christian Carl, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arnold, Ernst Hermann, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Asceticism, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li>
+  <li class="isub1">effects, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">influence on education, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">practices, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athens, physical education at, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">B</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Balck, Viktor, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bardenfleth, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Barrenstreit</i> of 1861 and 1862, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basedow, Johann Bernhard, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beck, Carl, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230-235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beecher, Catharine, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bergmann Österberg, Martina, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Betz, Carl, <a href="#Page_302">302-305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bolin, Jakob, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bornemann, Johann J. W., <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bowdoin College, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Branting, Lars Gabriel, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brosius, George, <a href="#Page_297">297-300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown University, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Burschenschaften</i> in German universities, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">C</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caledonian games, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camerarius, Joachim, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cardano, Girolamo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clias, Phokion Heinrich, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Collin, Carl Oscar Louis, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Comenius, Johann Amos, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coubertin, Pierre de, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">D</li>
+
+<li class="indx">D’Alfonce, J. E., <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dartmouth College, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Demeny, Georges, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diebow, Paul, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dürre, Eduard, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Du Toit, Johann Jakob, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">E</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eckler, Gebhard, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eiselen, Ernst, <a href="#Page_92">92-94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eitner, Gustav Ernst, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elyot, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enebuske, Claës J., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">English public schools and universities, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Euler, Carl Philipp, <a href="#Page_123">123-125</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">F</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Feltre, Vittorino da, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Filelfo, Francesco, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Follen, Charles, <a href="#Page_227">227-233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235-238</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fuller, Francis, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">G</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Georgii, Carl August, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germans in time of Caesar and Tacitus, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goldie, George, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gossler, Gustav von, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Greek gymnastics” at Dessau, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">at Rome, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Griscom, John, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gulick, Luther Halsey, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312-319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">GutsMuths, Johann Christoph Friedrich, <a href="#Page_71">71-81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gymnasium, the Greek, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">H</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hartelius, Truls Johan, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hartwell, Edward Mussey, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327-331</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hartwich, Emil, <a href="#Page_135">135-137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span>Harvard University, <a href="#Page_235">235-237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268-270</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_279">279-284</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hasenheide <i>Turnplatz</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88-95</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hemenway, Mrs. Mary, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hermann, August, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hitchcock, Edward, <a href="#Page_272">272-274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hoffmann, Friedrich, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Homans, Amy Morris, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Humanists of 15th century, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">I</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Isthmian games, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">J</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83-101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">K</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kloss, Moritz, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knight, training of the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Knightly exercises” at Dessau, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Knudsen, Knud Anton, <a href="#Page_189">189-192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Koch, Konrad, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Küppers, Ignaz, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">L</li>
+
+<li class="indx">La Cour, Nils Georg, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Land-grant Act (1862), <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lewis, Dio, <a href="#Page_251">251-263</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lieber, Francis, <a href="#Footnote_47">97 (footnote)</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ling, Hjalmar Fredrick, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159-161</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">Per Henrik, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146-155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Locke, John, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lorinser, Dr. Karl Ignaz, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lübeck, Wilhelm, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Luther, Martin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">M</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maclaren, Archibald, <a href="#Page_203">203-208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mann, Horace, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manual labor movement, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">training advocated by Locke, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li class="isub2">introduced at Dessau Philanthropinum, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">and Rousseau, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">and Schnepfenthal, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Massmann, Hans Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_93">93-99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120-123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mercurialis, Hieronymus, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miami University, <a href="#Page_266">266-268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Military training in Land-grant colleges, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">Roman, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">in Swedish schools, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Milton, John, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montaigne, Michel de, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mount Holyoke College, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mulcaster, Richard, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">N</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nachtegall, Franz, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178-183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neal, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248-250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nemean games, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">New York High School (1825), <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nissen, Hartvig, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Northmen of viking age, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nyblæus, Gustav, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">O</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oberlin College, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Olympic games, ancient, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> (see also <a href="#Page_32">32</a> and <a href="#Page_33">33</a>)</li>
+  <li class="isub1">modern, <a href="#Page_216">216-224</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">P</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palæstra, exercises of the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Partridge, Alden, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pentathlon, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">People’s high schools (Denmark), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philanthropinum at Dessau, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piccolomini, Enea, Silvio, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Posse, Nils, <a href="#Page_322">322-326</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Princeton University, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pythian games, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">R</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rabelais, François, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ramsing, Peter Erhard Marius, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raydt, Hermann, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rifle clubs (Denmark), <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roberts, Robert, J., <a href="#Page_309">309-312</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rothstein, Hugo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122-124</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Round Hill School, <a href="#Page_233">233-235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rousseau, Jean Jacques, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">S</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sadoleto, Jacopo, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span>Sand, Karl Ludwig, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sargent, Dudley Allen, <a href="#Page_279">279-284</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schenckendorff, Emil von, <a href="#Page_139">139-145</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schmidt, Dr. F. A., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Schnepfenthal Educational Institute, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seaver, Jay Webber, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silow, Carl, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simon, Johann Friedrich, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skarstrom, William, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sparta, physical education at, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spiess, Adolf, <a href="#Page_109">109-119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swedish medical gymnastics in America, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">in England, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">T</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thermæ (public baths), Roman, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tissot, Clement Joseph, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">Simon André, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Törngren, Lars Mauritz, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tournaments and jousts, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Turnen</i>, origin of the word, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">its revival, <a href="#Page_101">101 ff.</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">its spread in Germany, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">suppressed in Prussia (1820), <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Turnerschaft, Deutsche</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104-108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Turnfeste</i>, German, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">German-American, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">U</li>
+
+<li class="indx">University courses in physical education in Denmark, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  <li class="isub1">in Germany, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">University courses in physical education in United States, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">V</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vassar College, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vegio, Maffeo, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vergerio, Pietro Paulo, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vieth, Gerhard Ulrich Anton, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Virginia, University of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vives, Juan Luis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Völker, Karl, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">W</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Wartburgfest</i> of 1817, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wassmannsdorff, Karl, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wegener, Johann Theodor, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Welch, Follansbee Goodrich, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weld, Theodore Dwight, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wellesley College, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wesleyan University, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Williams College, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Winship, George Barker, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wood, Williams, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Y</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yale College, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zückert, Joh. Friedrich, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zwingli, Ulrich, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78009 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/78009-h/images/cover.jpg b/78009-h/images/cover.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b55687f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/cover.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure01.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60ff42f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure01.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure02.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dc83d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure02.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure03.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..766d044
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure03.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure04.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..889a8f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure04.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure05.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cfe2de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure05.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure06.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1dcc08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure06.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure07.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d7ee07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure07.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure08.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..257b2fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure08.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure09.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de7fb19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure09.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure10.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23b8848
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure10.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure11.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a743a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure11.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure12.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a3981d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure12.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure13.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d9c9399
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure13.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure14.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0223ab2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure14.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure15.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..181f1c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure15.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure16.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure16.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3fd9cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure16.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure17.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure17.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c12836c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure17.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure18.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..418d2e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure18.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure19.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure19.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a3cc0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure19.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure20.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure20.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e56c55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure20.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure21.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure21.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c64a797
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure21.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure22.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure22.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e47e81b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure22.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure23.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure23.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec8cdb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure23.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure24.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure24.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c693d12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure24.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure25.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure25.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee1125b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure25.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure26.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure26.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..829ad1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure26.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure27.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure27.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..864b3a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure27.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure28.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure28.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f71a917
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure28.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure29.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure29.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1eeff87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure29.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure30.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure30.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1100384
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure30.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure31.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure31.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..700ef7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure31.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure32.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure32.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11c5d9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure32.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure33.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure33.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a16dd43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure33.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure34.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure34.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2925ad9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure34.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure35.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure35.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9302e40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure35.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure36.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure36.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b147fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure36.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure37.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure37.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2ecae5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure37.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure38.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure38.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4a2ae1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure38.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure39.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure39.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a6e4ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure39.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure40.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure40.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d9bf26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure40.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure41.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure41.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a2c65c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure41.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure42.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure42.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7482888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure42.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure43.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure43.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a871ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure43.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure44.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure44.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9c5906
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure44.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure45.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure45.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cabb67
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure45.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure46.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure46.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4cf1426
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure46.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure47.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure47.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ecbbaa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure47.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure48.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure48.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a9a207
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure48.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure49.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure49.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e25f017
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure49.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure50.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure50.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..610dc90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure50.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure51.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure51.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c9d9913
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure51.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure52.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure52.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d5ae8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure52.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure53.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure53.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6df17e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure53.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure54.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure54.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7bcdf1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure54.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure55.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure55.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f989d8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure55.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure56.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure56.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ffacf28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure56.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure57.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure57.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b157648
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure57.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure58.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure58.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bfc08d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure58.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure59.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure59.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0820f2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure59.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure60.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure60.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dea5f51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure60.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure61.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure61.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b5a237
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure61.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure62.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure62.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df89c60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure62.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure63.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure63.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81b3ee7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure63.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure64.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure64.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77f4265
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure64.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure65.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure65.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..651ee48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure65.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure66.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure66.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea1bfc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure66.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure67.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure67.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e89888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure67.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure68.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure68.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..294dba0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure68.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure69.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure69.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40a2f9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure69.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure70.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure70.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac97a6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure70.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure71.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure71.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efe83da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure71.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure72.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure72.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08be09e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure72.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure73.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure73.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02bf784
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure73.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure74.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure74.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c75862
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure74.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure75.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure75.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63c57f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure75.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure76.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure76.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d361a88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure76.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure77.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure77.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63a9180
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure77.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure78.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure78.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebe7dfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure78.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure79.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure79.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ade7973
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure79.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure80.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure80.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03f90a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure80.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure81.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure81.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24eecfe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure81.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure82.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure82.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82a4789
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure82.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure83.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure83.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fae72bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure83.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure84.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure84.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a8f7e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure84.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure85.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure85.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9bf02eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure85.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure86.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure86.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ea632e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure86.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure87.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure87.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec23ba1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure87.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure88.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure88.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e4b089
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure88.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure89.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure89.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81b3472
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure89.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure90.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure90.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e118d71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure90.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure91.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure91.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b26805
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure91.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure92.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure92.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70c11cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure92.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure93.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure93.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d18b89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure93.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure94.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure94.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0bfa4f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure94.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure95.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure95.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a2713ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure95.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure96.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure96.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..baa479a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure96.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure97.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure97.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34d751c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure97.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/figure98.jpg b/78009-h/images/figure98.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa0a6ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/figure98.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/78009-h/images/frontispiece.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a8e888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/frontispiece.jpg
diff --git a/78009-h/images/imprimatur.jpg b/78009-h/images/imprimatur.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c5402c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/78009-h/images/imprimatur.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c72794
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d05094
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for eBook #78009
+(https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/78009)