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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/78797-0.txt b/78797-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b3f5ca --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2886 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78797 *** + +Transcriber’s Notes: + +Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + +Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH VIA THE FÆRÖE ISLES, ICELAND, AND +GREENLAND. + + + PROCEEDINGS + OF THE + ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN, + JANUARY 28TH AND FEBRUARY 11TH, 1861. + + REPORTS OF THE SURVEYING EXPEDITIONS, + ETC., ETC. + + THE LORD ASHBURTON, PRESIDENT. + + LONDON: + EDWARD STANFORD, 6, CHARING CROSS. + 1861. + + * * * * * + + LONDON: + BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + + I. Introduction 7 + + II. Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, Jan. 28th, 1861 13 + + Remarks by the Lord Ashburton 14 + + III. A paper on the Surveys of the Deep Seas, showing the + practicability of the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph + route; by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, late Commanding Her + Majesty’s ship “Bulldog.” 16 + + IV. A paper on the Surveys of the Landing-places for the + proposed Telegraph, being a synopsis of the reports of Mr. + Allen Young, Commander of the “Fox” Expedition; + with other remarks by Sir Charles Bright 29 + + V. A paper on the Land Sections of the proposed Telegraph + over the Færöe Isles and Iceland; by Dr. John Rae, + Commander of the Land Expeditions 44 + + VI. A paper on the Fiords of South Greenland; by Mr. J. W. + Tayler, late resident of Greenland for seven years 61 + + VII. Remarks on the Electric Circuits of the proposed North + Atlantic Telegraph; by Col. Tal. P. Shaffner 67 + + VIII. Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, Feb. 11th, 1861 75 + Remarks by The Lord Ashburton 75 + ” Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. 76 + ” Pliny Miles, Esq. 78 + ” Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. 81 + ” John Ball, Esq. 83 + ” Sir Roderick Murchison 85 + ” Dr. John Rae 86 + + IX. Opinions of Residents of Greenland on the practicability + of laying Telegraph Cables upon the coast of Julianshaab + District 89 + + X. Opinions of the Danish Commissioners on the practicability + of the proposed Telegraph Route 94 + + + + +MAPS, DIAGRAMS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS + + +EXHIBITED AT THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, PERTAINING TO THE NORTH +ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. + + 1. A LARGE SPHERICAL MAP, embracing the seas and lands to be + traversed by the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph; also of the + Continents of Europe and North America. + + 2. A MAP, showing the rivers, lakes, geysers, mountains, glaciers, + plains, farms, and towns of Iceland; also the track travelled + over by Dr. John Rae, Commander of the Land Expedition of the + North Atlantic Telegraph, and of the proposed route of the line + across Iceland. + + 3. A LARGE MAP OF THE FÆRÖE ISLES, and another of the Stromöe Isle, + showing the mountains, valleys, fiords, bays, and towns; and + the track travelled over by the Land Expedition, and the route + proposed for the Telegraph. + + 4. A MAP OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, with all the deep-sea soundings + taken by the British and American Governments north of the + Tropics, showing the superior favourable depths of the seas on + the North Atlantic Telegraph route. + + 5. A MAP OF GREENLAND, showing the mountains, islands, unexplored + regions, glaciers, and fiords, south of the Arctic Circle. + + 6. A LARGE MAP OF JULIANSHAAB DISTRICT, SOUTH GREENLAND, showing the + mountain ranges, groups of isles, the many long, deep, and wide + fiords in which the Telegraph Cables can be safely laid, and + beyond the reach of icebergs. + + 7. CHARTS of the various bays and fiords examined by Mr. Allen + Young, Commander of the “Fox” Expedition, and reported by him as + suitable and safe places for the landing of the cables on the + coasts of the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland. + + 8. MAPS, with the deep-sea soundings, taken by Sir Leopold + M‘Clintock, on the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph route, viâ + the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland; and with the soundings + taken by Commander Daymon on the route of the late Atlantic + Telegraph from Ireland to Newfoundland. + + 9. A DIAGRAM, showing the mode of telegraphic manipulation over air + lines, with the earth forming half of the circuit, connecting the + respective voltaic batteries. + + 10. A LARGE DIAGRAM, illustrating the mode of coupling together + two or more electric circuits by mechanical contrivances, so + as to overcome great distances by a combination of separate + and independent circuits, charged respectively by batteries; + precisely as can be practically applied and operated on the + proposed North Atlantic Telegraph. + + 11. MODEL STATIONS, with telegraphic apparatuses, representing + Europe, Færöe Isles, Iceland, Greenland and America; by which + dispatches were sent by the motion of the finger from Europe + to America, and simultaneously to the Færöe Isles, Iceland, + and Greenland, precisely as can be done on the proposed North + Atlantic Telegraph; so that dispatches need not be re-written at + the respective places, but sent instantaneously from Europe to + America, in the same manner as is daily done from London to St. + Petersburg, to Vienna, to Constantinople, and other places far + distant. + + 12. A CHART of the surveys of Hamilton’s Inlet and the sea adjacent + thereto, by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock’s expedition, showing that + the water is sufficiently deep to permit a heavy shore cable to + lie in safety. + + 13. ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS, illustrating the + people, houses, churches, farms, towns, bays, mountains, valleys, + water-falls, geysers, and various subjects of interest on the + route of the proposed telegraph at the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and + Greenland; taken by Mr. John E. Woods, of the “Fox” Expedition. + + 14. SPECIMENS of deep-sea soundings, taken on the route of the + proposed telegraph, exhibited through microscopes. [These + soundings have been examined by the philosopher Ehrenberg, + and they prove his theory of life at the bottom of the ocean; + and, also that the bottoms of the respective seas are highly + favourable for the proposed telegraph.] + +[Illustration] + + + + +THE NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. + + +The idea of laying down a telegraph line between Europe and America, +by what is now familiarly known as the North Atlantic _route_, was +advanced many years ago both in England and America. In the year +1854 Colonel Shaffner of the United States took steps towards the +actual realisation of the project. Owing, however, to the Russian war +distracting public attention at the time, and subsequently to the +engrossing claims of the attempt to carry a deep-sea cable direct from +Ireland to Newfoundland, it was not until within the last twelvemonths +that the British nation became acquainted with the proposed north-about +route, as offering the most practicable mode of effecting Transatlantic +telegraphic communication. + +The success which attended the laying of the cable between Dover and +Calais in 1851, gave an impetus to submarine telegraphy. Cables were +laid from time to time over various rivers and arms of the seas; and +as no instance of failure occurred, the possibility of crossing the +Atlantic itself came to be regarded as a feasible project. There had +been no manifestations in electrical phenomena to cause any doubt +as to the successful transmission of the galvanic current through a +cable of the length required to connect the two continents, a distance +of 2100 miles, until the latter part of the year 1853, when it was +made known by that distinguished philosopher, Professor Faraday, +that the electric force is arrested in its transit through very long +cables. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that this retardation is +cumulative, increasing in a certain ratio in proportion to the distance +traversed; that is to say, while it takes one-third of a second to +transmit a current through a cable 500 miles in length, it will take +about a second to transmit it 1000 miles. The discovery of this fact +was considered by many electricians both in England and America to be a +fatal obstacle to the commercial success of working a cable from Europe +to America direct. + +Among the most prominent who held this opinion was Colonel Shaffner +of America. And early in the year 1855 we find that he published +his opinion in the following language, which up to the present time +he continues to entertain, viz.: “I will not say that a galvanic or +magnetic electrical current can never be sent from Newfoundland to +Ireland; but, I do say that, with the present discoveries of science, +I do not believe it practicable for telegraph service.” That gentleman +had devoted himself to the science and art of electric telegraphy for +many years, and had been the pioneer of the telegraph in the Western +States, where under his guidance the wires were extended to the verge +of civilisation in the West as early as 1851. By 1850 his name stood +high as one of the first telegraphic engineers of the United States. A +short time after Professor Faraday’s lecture, he started the project of +a telegraphic communication between the two continents by a series of +short stages, in preference to a continuous line carried right across +the ocean. His original idea was to connect Europe generally with +America, and he accordingly proposed to carry his line from Labrador +to Greenland, from Greenland to Iceland and the Færöe Islands, and +from the Færöe Islands to Norway, and thence to Copenhagen. He visited +Europe for the purpose of securing the necessary concessions, and in +August 1854 obtained one from the King of Denmark, and others from +the Governments of Sweden and Norway in the following year. Thus, at +the time when the question of a connection by telegraph with America +had been but scarcely entertained in this country, Colonel Shaffner +had already laid down a route, availing himself of those natural +stepping-stones which Providence had placed across the ocean in the +North, and thus evading many of the difficulties and risks which it was +predicted would be encountered in the direct sea route. + +Subsequently, when the difficulties connected with that route came +to be demonstrated by actual trial, Colonel Shaffner, with a view to +meet the urgent wants of the British mercantile community, resolved +upon diverting the European end of the cable from Norway to Scotland, +which was cheerfully accorded by the Government of Denmark. In 1859 +he took another important step in the execution of his project, +which was to explore personally the intended route by Greenland and +Iceland. He conceived he had good grounds for believing that the ice +of Labrador and Greenland would not imperil the safety of a cable +laid on the bed of the sea, provided the shore-end could be properly +secured, and that there was nothing in the electrical conditions of the +Northern regions to interfere with the working of the telegraph. He, +accordingly, chartered a small sailing vessel, and embarking with his +family on board, put forth from Boston on the 29th of August, 1859, for +the purpose of making this preliminary survey. He landed at Glasgow +in November of that year, and presented to the public the results of +his voyage, at a meeting over which presided the Dean of Guild, Mr. +Buchanan. The observations made and facts collected on that voyage +gave the public reason to hope that telegraphic communication could be +established by way of the proposed route, and so satisfied were his +friends in London with the advantages held out, that funds necessary +to secure the undertaking were promptly found. + +During the voyage above referred to, Colonel Shaffner sounded the deep +seas to be traversed by the telegraph between Labrador and Greenland, +and between Greenland and Iceland. These and other observations have +been most singularly corroborated by the more recent Government survey +by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, and by that of Mr. Allen Young, commander of +the “Fox” Expedition. + +In the course of the spring of 1860, Colonel Shaffner read a paper +on the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph to the members of the Royal +Geographical Society, and every assistance was rendered, under the able +direction of the President, Earl de Grey, Sir Roderick Murchison, and +the Secretary, Dr. Norton Shaw. On the 15th of May, Lord Palmerston +granted an audience to an influential deputation, headed by the Right +Hon. Milner Gibson, and four other members of the House of Commons, +to solicit the assistance of Government in sending out ships and +officers to make the necessary official survey for ascertaining the +practicability of the proposed route. The Premier appeared fully to +appreciate the advantages of the north-about scheme, and in a very +short time the Admiralty were directed to send out an expedition for +the purpose of making the required survey. + +The Admiralty selected for this duty Captain Sir Francis Leopold +M‘Clintock, an officer of great experience in the navigation of the +Arctic Seas, and Her Majesty’s steamer “Bulldog” was placed under his +command. This distinguished officer was directed to take the deep-sea +soundings, and he sailed from Portsmouth on his mission in June, 1860. +In the meantime, the promoters of the enterprise purchased the “Fox,” +the yacht formerly employed in the successful search for the remains +of the Franklin expedition, and fitted her out for the purpose of +making the surveys of the landing places of the respective cables. +The “Fox” was placed under the command of Captain Allen Young, of the +mercantile marine, an officer well known for his distinguished labours +under M‘Clintock in the Franklin search. At the same time, Dr. Rae, +an intrepid Arctic explorer, volunteered his services to join the +“Fox,” and take charge of the overland expeditions in the Færöe Isles, +Iceland, and Greenland. Whilst Colonel Shaffner, as Concessioner and +Telegrapher, and two delegates on the part of the Danish Government, +Lieutenant Von Zeilau and Arnljot Olafsson, a member of the Icelandic +Diet, accompanied the “Fox” Expedition, to take part in the necessary +surveys. + +Before the departure of the “Fox,” which sailed on July 18th, 1860, +Her Majesty the Queen, the Prince Consort, and other members of the +Royal Family, honoured the enterprise by a visit to that vessel, while +lying off Osborne, and took a lively interest in the details of the +expedition. + +The “Bulldog” returned to England in November, and the “Fox” arrived +towards the latter part of the same month. Both expeditions, +notwithstanding an unusually tempestuous season, were successfully +carried out, and on the evening of Monday, the 28th January, in the +present year, the results of their labours, as well as those of Dr. Rae +and Colonel Shaffner, with a report upon the Greenland Fiords, by Mr. +J. W. Tayler, a resident on that coast for seven years, were presented +to the members of the Royal Geographical Society. + +The respective papers were received with repeated applause, and every +possible manifestation was given, indicating the confidence of those +present in the practicability of the enterprise. At the subsequent +meeting, February 11th, a discussion upon the papers took place, +on which occasion the promoters and others engaged in this great +undertaking were enthusiastically congratulated upon their most +triumphant success, in proving the practicability of the proposed +telegraphic route, _viâ_ the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland. + +Before closing these remarks it is but justice to notice the assistance +given to the enterprise by Mr. Joseph Rodney Croskey, of London. This +gentleman not only advanced the 100,000 rix dollars caution money paid +to the Danish Government, but he also made the requisite advances for +the purchase of the “Fox,” fitting her out for the late Expedition, and +all the preliminary expenses up to the present time. + + + + +THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. MONDAY EVENING, JANUARY 28, 1861. + + +A crowded meeting of the members and their friends assembled at +Burlington House, on Monday, January 28th, to receive the Reports of +the late Expeditions for the survey of the North Atlantic Telegraph +route. + +The LORD ASHBURTON, President of the Society, in the Chair. + +Among the many distinguished and influential personages present +were Sir R. I. Murchison, His Excellency the Danish Minister M. +de Billé, Count Apponyi, Sir Walter Trevelyan, Admiral Sir Thomas +Herbert, General Portlock, R.E., Lord Alfred Churchill, M.P., Sir +Thomas Fremantle, Sir H. Maxwell, Sir John Login, Sir Charles Bright, +Captains Collinson and Ommanney, Sir F. L. M‘Clintock, Sir F. Nicolson, +Sherard Osborn, J. Stopford, G. A. Bedford, Byron Drury, A. Ryder, and +Pike, R.N., Hon. A. Kinnaird, M.P., Mr. J. Wyld, M.P., Mr. Cornelius +Grinnell, of New York, Dr. Hamel, of Russia, Colonels Loyd and +Cartwright, Major Edwards, R.E., Captains Sydney Webb, C. Johnston, R. +Burton, Claude Clerk, E. M. Jones, and D. J. Herd, Drs. Ogle, Lister, +Bennett, Bigsby, and M‘Cosh, Messrs. J. R. Croskey, J. E. Davis, W. J. +Hamilton, J. Crawfurd, Brooking, C. White, R. Bentley, J. Murray, C. +V. Walker, George Saward, Arrowsmith, E. O. Smith, Cook, Gould, Vaux, +Finlay, Rev. C. P. Wilbraham, and Colonel Shaffner, Dr. Holland, Pliny +Miles, and Geo. F. Train, of the United States. + +Sir Charles Bright, General Eber, the Rev. C. J. Fynes Clinton, Consul +C. P. Hodgson, of Japan, the Rev. E. H. Mainwaring Sladen, the Marquis +of Sligo, the Rev. C. Hill Wallace, the Rev. S. E. Wharton, Lieutenant +A. S. Windus, R.N., and James Aiken, Walter Brodie, James Campbell, +John E. Davis, R.N., N. Vaughan Edwards Vaughan, J. Wilson Holme, John +Learmouth, Alexander Macmillan, George Newman, G. H. Oliphant Ferguson, +Julius Reuter, Frederick Simpson, Ronald Thomson of Tehran, John +Walker, and W. Warder were elected Fellows. + + +THE NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. + +The LORD ASHBURTON.--The subjects for our consideration to-day are of +so interesting a character, that I should be doing unwisely if I were +to occupy your time beyond a few moments, in making such preliminary +observations as are expected from your President. + +The papers which are about to be read relate altogether to the physical +and geographical facts upon which the proposition has been based for +the extension of the Electric Telegraph line between this country +and America, by the route of the Færöe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, +and Labrador. It comes especially within the province of the Royal +Geographical Society to receive and to record those facts as purely +belonging to the science of Physical Geography. We are so fortunate +as to have a great many labourers working for us in the field of +geography; some who have been sent out by the Society, like Speke and +Livingstone, are doing our work, and at the same time doing work for +many other societies. We have labourers also not less diligent, and +not less useful to us as well as to the world: they are those who are +occupied in other pursuits, but who come to us to record the facts they +have observed, and to enable us to treasure them up as the material +for future research. + +Among the labours of this class, not the least valuable are the +researches which we are met to record to-day. They were undertaken +not for the purpose of acquiring geographical knowledge simply, but +in order to carry out the great and beneficent scheme of connecting +the two continents of Europe and America by means of telegraphic +communication. Yet, at the same time that we receive these facts, we +must take care not to suffer ourselves to be led away into that which +is altogether out of our province, an attempt to pronounce any judgment +upon the value of that scheme. That is a question for others to decide, +not for us. + +Therefore, whilst we ourselves may look upon the facts that may be +presented to us with philosophic calmness, there may, on the other +hand, be those who are so deeply interested in the material success +of electric telegraph connection with America, as to be drawn into an +eager contest to set up the merits of one scheme in preference to those +of another. Should there be any gentlemen present prepared to carry +these feelings into the discussion, I feel assured they will remember +this, that it is those who are beaten that generally complain, and +that the man who is the winner at chess is not the man to throw the +pieces at his adversary’s head. I believe we shall have no symptoms +of distress exhibited; that we shall not have anybody manifesting the +conviction passing in his mind that he is worsted in the argument. + +I will now call upon Sir Leopold M‘Clintock to read the first paper +that is set down on the list. + + + + +SURVEY OF THE DEEP SEAS, AND OTHER OBSERVATIONS; BY CAPTAIN SIR +F. LEOPOLD M‘CLINTOCK, R.N., LL.D., F.R.G.S., LATE COMMANDING HER +MAJESTY’S SHIP “BULLDOG.” + + +SIR LEOPOLD M‘CLINTOCK then read the following paper: + +In compliance with a request from the promoters of the North Atlantic +Telegraph Route, her Majesty’s Government dispatched the “Bulldog” +under my command, on the 1st of July last, with orders to ascertain +the depth of the ocean, and as far as possible the nature of the +bottom, between the Færöe Islands and Iceland, Iceland and Greenland, +and between Greenland and Hamilton Inlet on the Labrador coast. I was +also directed, should my time permit, to make a slight examination of +that inlet--being British territory;--but in no other instance did my +duty extend to the examination of any of the coasts I was required to +approach. + +With the exception of Hamilton Inlet, none of the positions for the +shore-ends of the proposed lengths of cable were suggested when I +sailed from England. The duty of selecting them was subsequently +entrusted, by the promoters of this Telegraph Route, to Captain Allen +Young, in the “Fox”; consequently, my lines of soundings have not +in every instance been carried in from the deep sea, so as to unite +exactly with the coast explorations of Captain Young. + +Although my visit to the Færöe Islands was not for the purpose of +making any examination of their shores, yet I could not fail to observe +that a submarine cable, in connection with the main island, and a +land-wire across it, could be maintained with perfect ease. + +In my official report to the Secretary of the Admiralty, written +previously to my return to England, and which I shall have frequent +occasion to quote, I have remarked that on landing at Thorshaven, the +chief town of the islands, I observed that the little bays near it +afforded ample shelter and security for any cable landed within them. + +The best harbour in the group is Westmanshaven, but it is situated in +a channel through which the tide runs fully six miles an hour, and for +this reason it would not be advisable to bring the cable there. + +I was informed that the channel between the islands of Stromöe and +Osteröe is almost obstructed in the middle, being contracted to fifty +or eighty yards; hence there can be but a very slight flow of tide +through it, and upon this account I would seek a landing-place for +the Iceland cable near to the north-west outlet of this channel, at +Haldervig or Eide. + +Leaving the Færöe Isles on the 6th of July, we sounded across towards +Ingolfshofde upon the S.E. shore of Iceland, a distance of 280 miles, +and found the depth to be generally less than 300 fathoms, the greatest +depth being 680 fathoms. The specimens of the bottom consisted, +chiefly, of fine sand, or mud and broken shells, and in two instances, +of minute volcanic debris; the temperature of the sea at 100 fathoms +below the surface scarcely varied from 46°. + +The depth of water upon this section of the telegraph route is so +moderate, that it would be an easy matter to lay down a cable between +Færöe and Iceland. + +Since my return I find that Beru Fiord, upon the east coast of +Iceland, has been examined with a view to its selection as the +landing-place for a cable; it is about eighty miles to the north-east +of Ingolfshofde, and has the advantage of being somewhat nearer to +Færöe. + +On the 11th of July I arrived at Reikiavik, the chief town of Iceland; +an expected supply of coals had not arrived, therefore I remained only +three days, but returned again in October, when my stay extended from +the 19th to the 28th. During these visits I obtained some interesting +information about its physical aspect, its climatic condition, and +the movements of the ice in the adjacent seas. I was informed that a +telegraphic wire could not be carried along the south shore eastward of +Portland, on account of the many wide rivers which have their sources +amidst the mountains and glaciers of the interior. These rivers are +much swollen in spring, when they carry down vast quantities of ice, +and sometimes change their beds; but to the north of the central +mountains no such difficulty would be experienced. + +The east and west coasts are very seldom visited by drift-ice, not +oftener than seven or eight times in each century, whilst it is only +upon two or three of these occasions that the drift of Arctic ice is +sufficiently extensive to reach the south coast. True icebergs are +_never_ seen; the masses sometimes mistaken for them are small enough +to float in comparatively shallow water, so that a cable would remain +undisturbed at the bottom, its shore end being carried into a fiord. +Faxe Bay, on the south-west coast, enjoys a remarkable exemption from +drift-ice; the last mention of its appearance within it is as long ago +as 1683; neither does it freeze over--merchant vessels trade there +throughout the winter. A cable could therefore be landed in this +bay with perfect ease and security, and probably to the westward of +Reikiavik. + +The entire population of Iceland scarcely exceeds 60,000 souls. +Education is perhaps more generally diffused than in any other country, +and the topographical maps recently published by the Danish government +delineate its features most fully, and with the greatest possible +accuracy, and would greatly facilitate the survey of a land-line. + +Although Iceland is considerably larger than Ireland, and is of +volcanic origin throughout, yet for long ages the disturbance +occasioned by its subterranean fires has been limited almost +exclusively to its south-western quarter, where Hecla is occasionally, +and Katla has been very recently, in an active state, and where +Geysers and boiling springs are numerous; nor is the adjacent sea +free from like convulsions. In 1783, a submarine volcano burst forth +in a probable depth of 200 fathoms, about thirty miles off the S.W. +extreme of the island; by it a new islet was formed; it soon after +subsided, but still exists under water as a dangerous sunken rock. This +volcano was again active in 1830;[1] its action appears to have been +very limited, and within four leagues of it stands the time-honoured +“Grenadiers Cap,” a basaltic column, eighty feet above the sea; within +500 or 600 yards of this most remarkable rock the “Bulldog” sounded in +seventy fathoms. + +Fortunately the telegraph route is not required to pass, by sea or +land, through any part of this disturbed or suspected area. + +Five days of very calm weather enabled us to complete the line of +soundings between Faxe Bay and the south-east coast of Greenland. + +The depths generally were very regular, the greatest being 1572 +fathoms, and situated in mid-channel; but when within forty miles of +Greenland the depth decreased from 806 fathoms to 228 fathoms, in the +short distance of 3-1/4 geographical miles. + +The nature of the bottom was chiefly oaze, that is fine mud partly +consisting of minute organic remains, but near to Iceland, volcanic mud +and sand was more frequently brought up. + +The temperature of the sea at 100 fathoms below the surface gradually +diminished from 46° near Iceland, to 39° off the Greenland coast. + +Circumstances which it is unnecessary to allude to here prevented me +from commencing, before 18th August, the line of soundings between the +S.W. coast of Greenland, and Hamilton Inlet on the Labrador coast,--a +distance of 550 miles. + +The Greenland shore was still blockaded by such a vast accumulation of +drift-ice that we could not approach within 45 miles of it, at which +distance the depth was ascertained to be 1175 fathoms. This line of +soundings to Hamilton Inlet shows that the greatest depth,--which is in +mid-channel,--is 2032 fathoms; and that the decrease is very gradual +until within about 80 miles of Labrador, where there is a change from +about 900 fathoms to 150 fathoms in 7 or 8 miles. + +The ocean bed consisted of oaze, but with fewer microscopic organisms +than previously met with, whilst the average temperature of the sea at +100 fathoms below the surface was 40°. + +Seven days were all I could devote to the examination of Hamilton +Inlet. Its length was found to be 120 miles, whilst its width varies +from about 15 miles at its mouth, to scarcely half a mile at “the +Narrows,” which are about half way up to its head, and above which it +expands into an inland sea of about 20 miles in width. All this great +inlet was rapidly explored, its main channel from “the Narrows” to +seaward was sounded, and the whole laid down by Mr. Reed, master and +assistant-surveyor, with sufficient accuracy for ordinary purposes; but +these soundings are not nearly sufficient to meet the requirements +of a cable-route, nor even to decide whether a cable should be landed +there. + +We found the depths to be very irregular, and seldom sufficient to +secure a submerged cable from disturbance by icebergs. A perfect survey +is absolutely necessary, and may show that the shallow water and reefs +of rocks which to our imperfect knowledge appeared intricate and +unfavourable, may not only be avoided, but may afford a sure protection +against the intrusion of icebergs within the mouth of the inlet. + +There are some small rocky islets off the mouth of this inlet, and of +these the Hern Islets lie nearly in the middle and contract the widest +channel of entrance to about 5 miles; the greatest depth obtained in +this channel was 49 fathoms. Had the depth of water amounted to 70 +fathoms in as far as this position, I would not hesitate in pronouncing +favourably of Hamilton Inlet as a terminus to the cable from Greenland. + +The greater part of the local information which I obtained here was +kindly furnished by Captain Norman, a Newfoundland merchant who has +traded here each successive summer for 24 years; during the summer he +resides at Indian Harbour, at the north entrance of the inlet, where +there is a secure anchorage for vessels of moderate size. Captain +Norman states that icebergs very rarely enter the mouth of Hamilton +Inlet, and never pass within the Hern Islets; and for these reasons: +1st, that the current which has borne them from the north is here +deflected off-shore by the Esquimaux Islands, and carries them past the +mouth of the inlet; and 2ndly, that the flow of water caused by the +discharge of several large rivers into the inlet, still further aids in +carrying the drift-ice and icebergs out to seaward. + +During winter and spring this drifting ice prevents all access to +Labrador, but by June, Hamilton Inlet is usually quite free from it. + +From Captain Norman I also learnt that the deepest water along the +coast is off Cape Harrison, and that a large river runs into Byron Bay +adjoining it; moreover, Sloop Harbour (which is close to the river) +is said to be an excellent one. Unfortunately my time was too limited +to admit of any examination of this promising locality. It is very +desirable to obtain more information respecting the ice and icebergs +upon this coast. It could be furnished by the Newfoundland traders and +seal-fishers and perhaps by persons in the employ of Messrs. Hunt, +Henley & Co., of 8, Broad Street Buildings, E.C., a firm which has +maintained an extensive establishment near to Hamilton Inlet for a +very long period, fifty or sixty years I believe. In addition to these +sources of information, there are intelligent Moravian missionaries, +whose settlements on the Labrador coast have existed for more than one +hundred years. + +The shores of Hamilton Inlet appear bold, rocky, and almost devoid of +vegetation when viewed from the sea; as we advance up it, the land +becomes lower, the undulations more gentle, verdure and trees appear, +and at its head the whole country is densely covered with spruce, white +pine, and white birch, but the tallest trees do not exceed forty feet. + +I was informed that the interior is similarly wooded, and has an +exceedingly scanty population of Indians, allied to the Cree nation; +they all profess Christianity, and are a strictly honest quiet race. + +The residents along the shores of this great inlet are of European or +mixed blood, and do not amount to 200 souls. During summer they catch +codfish, herrings, and salmon; and in winter they are occupied in +trapping fur-bearing animals. + +At the Hudson Bay trading post upon North-west River, at the head +of the inlet, I met Mr. Smith, the gentleman in charge, who kindly +supplied me with the only information respecting the interior that I +was able to obtain. He seemed to think there would be no difficulty +in carrying a wire from here overland to Mingan, on the Gulf of St. +Lawrence. The Indians frequently travel from one place to the other, +the distance not exceeding 250 miles. Should the cable be taken to +this inlet, I would suggest that it be landed upon the south shore, +to seaward of “the Narrows,” as the tides run through them with very +great velocity. All other parts of the inlet freeze over to a depth +of three feet, for the winters are very severe. The summers, though +short, are no less remarkable for their warmth. At Northwest River +barley and oats ripen, and potatoes and other vegetables grow tolerably +well. Mosquitoes are such an intolerable plague, especially to new +comers, that unless their faces are carefully veiled or smeared with +camphorated oil, brimstone ointment, or dilute creosote, they cannot +either repel or endure their bloodthirsty attacks. + +Leaving Labrador on the 17th September, I returned to Greenland for the +purpose of completing such soundings as the drift ice had previously +compelled me to leave undone. Being, moreover, very desirous of meeting +the “Fox,” and of ascertaining from Captain Young where the cables were +to be landed, so that I might continue the deep-sea soundings in to +those positions, I visited the settlement of Julianshaab on the 29th +September, but no information could there be obtained of the “Fox.” + +The season was very remarkable for the great quantity of drift ice +which encumbered the shore, and had hitherto prevented vessels from +approaching Julianshaab; in fact, so much ice had not been known for +nearly 30 years. + +This coast, I may remark, is usually quite free from ice by September. + +Following up my inquiries, I learnt that the climate is not nearly so +severe as is generally supposed, the fiords are only partially frozen +over in winter; a few cows, goats, and poultry are reared: and although +the summers are cold, turnips, spinach, lettuce, and radishes grow in +the open air. + +I was informed that the large fiord of Tessermiut, which lies midway +between Julianshaab and Cape Farewell, was the most likely place to +afford security for a cable: that icebergs never came into it, and that +there would be found ample depth of water from it out to sea; also that +there is safe anchorage in a spacious bay near its mouth as well as +high up in the fiord. + +On 3rd October I put to sea, intending to sound into Tessermiut +Fiord should the ice permit; but it was with difficulty we got out, +for a S.E. wind had brought up much more ice from Cape Farewell, +and prevented our approaching within 40 miles of Tessermiut or the +adjoining coast; and the ship sustained considerable damage from +unavoidable collisions with the ice before she got clear out to sea. + +It is well known that a current from the North Atlantic Ocean bears +along with it all this ice round Cape Farewell, and up the west coast +of Greenland for several hundred miles. It carries the drift-ice for +the most part along the outer islands, and it is only when there is a +strong wind blowing in from the sea, that the ice comes in between the +islands and enters the fiords; it is almost exclusively low or flat ice +which thus drifts in, the larger masses and icebergs, which draw more +water, nearly always keep themselves in the main stream along the outer +islands. + +It is evident, that were a cable brought in from the deep water +existing outside and between these islands, and carried sufficiently +far up a deep fiord, its security from icebergs would be insured; and +that to protect the mere shore-end from the ordinary flat ice would be +a matter of no great difficulty. + +Since my return to England I have received a letter from the Resident +Inspector of South Greenland, the well known Dr. Rink, whose writings +on Greenland have added so largely to our knowledge of the physical +condition of that great arctic continent. The opinion of such a man +deserves serious attention, since it is scarcely possible to quote a +higher authority upon the point in question. I therefore do so almost +in his own words. + +“I have thought much,” he writes, “over the proposed route for the +North Atlantic Telegraph; at first I doubted the possibility of +accomplishing it, but now I am of a contrary opinion. You can lay down +the cable from Iceland round Cape Farewell into some fiord upon the +south-west coast, where ice cannot ground upon it, or touch it except +for a few fathoms out from the shore, and this last part may be easily +protected. But to carry the wire across the interior of Greenland, as +I have heard of, would be impracticable.” This letter was written in +Greenland, before either the “Bulldog” or “Fox” had arrived there, +and experience has since shown the necessity for acting in accordance +with the suggestion of Dr. Rink. The length of cable required to unite +Iceland with West Greenland will be about 800 miles. + +Finding that nothing more could be done upon the Greenland coast, I +commenced a line of soundings towards Rockall, but a succession of +tremendous storms and want of fuel prevented the completion of this +service. One of the few casts obtained deserves particular mention; the +depth was first ascertained to be 1260 fathoms: then a sounding machine +was lowered to obtain a specimen of the bottom, and about fifty fathoms +of line more than the depth required was payed overboard, to insure +its being down. On hauling it in, several small star-fishes were found +adhering to that part of the line which had lain upon the bottom! The +nearest land at the time was Iceland, and it was 250 miles distant. I +simply mention this interesting fact, which I witnessed, leaving it to +be enlarged upon by Dr. Wallich, the able naturalist of the Expedition, +who is still employed by the Admiralty in the microscopic examination +of our specimens of the sea-bottom. The result of his investigations +(which will be published hereafter) may be of great importance to +Marine Telegraphy, proving, as it will do, the existence of animal life +at very great depths. + +We are aware that the coating of a Mediterranean cable was attacked +by minute creatures allied to the ordinary Teredo,[2] at the depth of +sixty or seventy fathoms, and should it be found that similar boring +animals exist in great depths, it will become imperative to protect the +insulation of the wire against their ravages; but time does not admit +of a digression from the object of this paper, which is simply to lay +before you my experience and opinion with regard to the physical aspect +of the proposed route; it may not, however, be out of place to mention, +that the great pressure exerted at depths approaching to 2000 fathoms +is sufficient to squeeze the tar freely out of rope: could we recover a +cable from these depths, we would find the tar similarly expressed from +its canvas wrappings. If the tar used were of a sufficiently viscid +description to harden and remain coated upon the wrappings, it would +probably afford quite a sufficient protection against these destructive +creatures. + +Once laid in deep water, the North Atlantic Cable will probably be more +secure and more durable than any other; as it will lie at the bottom of +a sea where the temperature is unusually low, and where animal life is +proportionately rare. + +If, during the coming summer a final selection and survey of a landing +place in Greenland be made, all that will remain to complete the entire +route will be a landing position in Labrador; and that a cable can be +safety landed upon some part of this coast, if not in Hamilton Inlet, +it is hardly possible to doubt. + +Judging then from my own experience, and from the facts which the +voyage of the “Bulldog” has brought to light,--many of which are +supported by the most reliable local authorities,--I am of opinion that +with regard to the practicability of laying a North Atlantic cable, +there are no grounds for serious misgivings; on the contrary, nearly +all the information which has so far been ascertained is of a kind +favourable to the accomplishment of the undertaking. + +That there is usually impenetrable ice upon the south-west coast of +Greenland for eight months out of the twelve,--(_i.e._ from January +until September,)--we are well aware; and hence originates the chief +difficulty of the route. It is obvious that the Greenland cables cannot +possibly be laid down whilst this ice remains upon the coast; but in +ordinary seasons it does not clear away until Autumn is far advanced, +and stormy weather becomes frequent. This difficulty, I apprehend, +however, is not an insuperable or extraordinary one, since it is common +to all similar operations at sea, requiring for their accomplishment a +like period of four or five consecutive days. + +I have assumed that the ice ceases to obstruct the south-west shore of +Greenland about the middle of September; but we can no more predict its +movements, than we can foretel the temperatures of the seasons, and the +winds by which those movements are governed. + +Exceptional seasons occur when it would be imprudent to attempt laying +a Greenland cable: also rare seasons when it could be laid as early as +July: again, there are seasons when the icedrifts are detached from +each other so that vessels watching their opportunity may freely pass, +into harbour, or out to sea, during the summer months. + +In order to meet these ever-varying circumstances, it is the more +necessary that the utmost caution be observed in all matters connected +with the laying down of the Greenland lengths of the great cable; that +the most suitable steamers be selected, and the highest engineering and +nautical skill be employed. + +And that this country possesses all the needful appliances, and the +amount of professional talent requisite for the accomplishment of this +great undertaking, is no more to be doubted, than that she possesses +men of sagacity to appreciate its vast utility, and of commercial +enterprise to bring about so desirable an issue within the next two or +three years. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Some interesting notices of this and other submarine volcanoes are +published in the “Nautical Magazine,” for July, 1860. + +[2] See a Paper by J. Gwyn Jefferys, F.R.S., on “The British Species of +Teredo,” published in “The Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” for +August, 1860. + + + + +SURVEY OF THE LANDING-PLACES FOR THE PROPOSED CABLES; REPORTED BY ALLEN +YOUNG, ESQ., F.R.G.S., COMMANDER OF THE STEAM YACHT “FOX” EXPEDITION; +WITH REMARKS BY SIR CHARLES BRIGHT, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. + + +The LORD ASHBURTON.--The next is Sir Charles Bright’s paper upon +Captain Allen Young’s Reports, which will be read by Mr. Galton, viz.: + +I have been requested by the promoters of the North Atlantic Telegraph +to present to the Royal Geographical Society, a synopsis of the report +which has been handed to me by Captain Allen Young, upon his recent +voyage in the steam yacht “Fox,” and his careful and elaborate survey +of the proposed telegraphic route between Europe and America, by way +of the Færöes, Iceland, and Greenland. The history of this important +undertaking, up to the present date, will probably be familiar to the +minds of most persons present, and I will therefore commence with the +departure of the “Fox” from Southampton, on the 19th June, for the +Færöes, where she arrived on the 3rd of August. + + +FÆRÖE ISLANDS. + +This most interesting group of isles, the capital of which is +Thorshaven, lies some 200 miles north of Scotland, and is under the +authority of the Danish Crown. I will not occupy the time of the +Society in discussing the political, physical, or other characteristics +of these islands, but proceed at once to quote some interesting +extracts from Captain Young’s report. He says:-- + +“We were naturally anxious to reach the spot at which our work was +to commence, and to ascertain the first foreign station at which the +telegraph cable was to be landed. We were glad to make the Færöe +Islands, distant 50 miles, on the evening of the 2nd August, the +remarkable clearness of the atmosphere and the height of the land +making our distance from it apparently far less than we were by our +observations. When 46 miles E.S.E. from Naalsöe we obtained soundings +in 102 fathoms, sand and shells. We here passed through many patches +of discoloured water of a reddish hue, caused probably by minute +animalcules on the surface, specimens of which, brought up by the +towing net, being preserved. Specimens of water, both on the surface +and at various depths, were frequently obtained during our voyage and +preserved, the temperature and specific gravity being registered in the +meteorological journal. + +“On the morning of the 3rd the land was obscured by clouds and mist, +which, as the sun rose, gradually dispersed, and enabled us to obtain +views of the land, and also to fix our positions by Born’s chart to +commence a line of soundings into the north point of Naalsöe; the +depths were 36 to 26 fathoms, with a bottom of sand and shell.” + + +THORSHAVEN. + +“On rounding the north part of Naalsöe we took a fisherman on board as +pilot, and at 10·50 anchored in Thorshaven, and immediately commenced +an inquiry and examination of the locality, and testing the accuracy of +all the charts and maps in our possession. + +“The results were as follow:--Thorshaven and bay is protected by +Naalsöe, and is land-locked, excepting on two points to S.E., and +on one point to N.E. A swell sets in to the inner harbour with S.E. +gales, but this cannot be to any very great extent, from the fact +that vessels lie at their moorings throughout the winter. The bay +has good anchorage, varying in depth from 25 to 8 fathoms, bottom of +sand, gravel, and shells, with a few patches of hard ground. Vessels +usually moor in the two inner harbours or creeks, the northern being +most frequented for the facility it offers for loading and discharging +cargoes. Either of the inner harbours would do very well to land the +telegraph wires, but from the many vessels frequenting the port it +appeared desirable to select another place, for even were the cable to +be buoyed, the risk from the ships’ anchors would be considerable, on +account of the want of space--but half a mile southward of Thorshaven +is a small cove called Sandygerde, where the cable could be landed in +safety and clear of ships’ anchors. This cove is 1-1/2 cable’s length +across and about the same depth, and shoals gradually to a sandy +beach; it is intersected at the head by a water-course and mill, the +land sloping gradually up an extensive valley to the interior. As +many additional soundings were obtained across the fiord as our time +would admit, proving that although the channel is uneven there is +nothing to prevent bringing a cable in from sea. From the most reliable +information from pilots and our own observations, the stream on the +flood never exceeds 4 knots on the strongest spring tides, whilst on +the ebb it is much weaker, and at times scarcely perceptible. It is +high water at full and change at 4 o’clock, the flood runs to the +southward. The gulf stream appears to sweep round these islands from +left to right, or direct as the hands of a watch, and therefore in +sailing from Thorshaven for the northward, by starting with the first +of the flood and passing to the southward of Stromöe and through +Hestöe, and Westmanshaven Fiords, you can carry a 9 hours favorable +tide. The rise of tide at Thorshaven does not exceed 6 feet.” + + +WESTMANSHAVEN. + +“We left Thorshaven at 1 p.m. passing through Hestöe and Westmanshaven +Fiords, and anchored in Westmanshaven in the evening. The scenery in +these fiords is very magnificent, and as we steamed through with a +strong head wind and weather tide, the surface of the water covered +with sea-birds, the lofty hills on either hand rising to the height +of 1500 to 2000 feet, with vast basaltic caverns and columns in the +cliffs, formed a picture not easily forgotten. As I had heard that +Sir Leopold M‘Clintock had already examined this port, I did not deem +it necessary to delay the ship for that purpose. The fiord appears +clean and clear, with deep water close into either shore. I was +informed that there is 70 fathoms water in the middle, a little north +of Welbestad, and the stream in strongest spring tides runs six knots +through the fiord. The rise of water is much influenced by the winds +outside--it has reached ten feet at spring tides, and has been known as +low as four, but the mean rise appears to be from six to eight feet. +Westmanshaven is said to be the best harbour in the islands; it is +completely landlocked, with a bar, probably formed of the débris washed +down from the surrounding hills, and accumulated by the action of the +streams and eddies in the fiord. I fear the current in this fiord would +be disadvantageous.” + + +HALDERVIG. + +“We left Westmanshaven on the evening of August 5th, and, after +weathering the northern extremity of Stromöe entered the sound between +Stromöe and Osteröe, and anchored at Haldervig at 11·30 P.M. on the +same night. An examination of the port and estuary of the sound was +commenced. The results of these observations, which occupied two days, +were, that little or no stream is found in the sound, that Haldervig +has good anchorage, and is perfectly landlocked; the deepest water +is 34 fathoms, bottom black mud and sand, but that a sandbar exists +between Eide Point and Stromöe, over which there are 8-1/4 fathoms in +the deepest part; and as in northerly gales the sea is said to break +upon it, I consider that the cable would require a strong shore-end +to ensure its safety in crossing this place. This bar lies rather +within the entrance and narrowest neck of the sound.” In the summary, +Captain Young states: “At Haldervig we surveyed harbour and fiord, +and found all satisfactory, and I think that place to be well adapted +for the reception of the cable. We found but little current, and the +cable can be taken in, in a tolerable depth of water, into a perfectly +land-locked position.” + + +ICELAND. + +“On approaching the coast of Iceland we got occasional soundings +towards Ostré Horn, under which we were obliged to anchor in a dense +fog, after getting inside an extensive and dangerous reef of rocks, +called by the Icelanders the Hartinger and Bortinger. These reefs lie +two miles east (true) off this cape. They do not appear on the Danish +surveys, but I afterwards found them as a single rock upon a French +chart.” + + +BERUFIORD. + +“On the morning of August 12, the fog having lifted, we weighed +under steam, and got into a position to carry a line of soundings +into Berufiord, between the islands of Papey and Kogar Point--these +soundings average about 30 fathoms, principally sand and shells. We +anchored off Djupivogr factory the same day, and it being Sunday, we +ceased operations during the afternoon. The weather that day was the +finest we had had since we left England, and the evening was truly +summer-like. During the following five days, and when not prevented by +the prevalent rain and fogs, we proceeded with the examination of the +fiord, and finding it would not be advisable to carry a cable into the +small harbour of Djupivogr, on account of many rocks in its vicinity +and its being the anchorage of the small vessels frequenting the coast, +we sought for a more suitable landing-place higher up the fiord, and +succeeded in finding an excellent bay, called Gautavik, on the north +shore, five miles from the entrance. A depth of near thirty fathoms +can be carried in from sea to within a quarter of a mile of the shore, +while the bay itself afforded good protection and anchorage for any +large ships that might be employed in the undertaking. + +“High water at Djupivogr at three o’clock, full and change, rise six +feet. The tide has been known to rise six and a-half feet before the +coming of easterly gales; about the same time flood outside runs S.S.W. +(true), ebb N.N.E., between Papey Island and the main. The strongest +known stream has four knots, but the average in ordinary spring tides +is not more than two and a-half knots. + +“In 1860 drift ice appeared off the coast and entered the fiord, and +again (though in very small quantities) in 1859-60. This ice, called +here Greenland ice, is the ordinary washed and decayed floe-ice, and +comes from the N.W. _No icebergs have ever been seen on the coast._ The +drift-ice appears with northerly and departs with southerly winds, and +less of it comes into Berufiord than any other fiord on the east coast +of Iceland; the residents accounting for this fact by Berufiord having +a S.W. direction, and is consequently protected by the more northerly +and projecting capes which shunt the ice off, while the local tides +keep it drifting up and down the coast. The fiord itself never freezes, +but thin ice has been known to cover the harbour off the Factory for a +day or two during the winter. + +“A tolerably complete survey of the fiord from the entrance to Gautavik +was completed, but a further examination would be advisable outside, to +ascertain the proper channel in which to lay the cable. The greatest +difficulties experienced on the coast by seamen, are from the prevalent +fogs during the summer months, and with easterly winds, _and this would +render it advisable to start from this coast towards Faröes_, in laying +the cable, because making a good land fall here would be attended +with considerable uncertainty.” Finally, as to the practicability of +Berufiord, Captain Young says, “There will be no difficulties from the +sea, ice, or otherwise, and the only obstacles will be from fogs and +thick weather, but which may be overcome by selecting proper seasons, +and taking precautions in landing or embarking the telegraph cable.” + + +REIKIAVIK. + +Captain Young sailed from Berufiord on the 17th day of August, and +arrived at Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, on the 21st day of +August, and after making enquiries as to the coasts, he says, “I then +determined to examine Hvalfiord, as from its situation it appeared +to have the advantage over any place in Faxe Bay, and on the 27th I +proceeded up that fiord, sounding it as far as ‘Maria Havn,’ a small +harbour and salmon river on the south shore, 7 miles from the entrance +of the fiord. The least depth of water in the channel of the fiord is +14 fathoms, with deeper water both outside and in, the general depth +being 18 to 20 fathoms, soft mud. The cable could be taken into Maria +Havn through soft mud, on a sandy beach in a land-locked position. +Hvalfiord is protected from a heavy sea breaking into it by the shoals +of ‘Vestrhran’ and ‘Sydrahraun’ in Faxe Bay, and on which there is +less water than in the shoalest part of the channel of the fiord. The +bays in the fiord are sometimes covered with thin ice, but the fiord +itself never freezes, and with reference to drift-ice on this part +of the coast, I cannot do better than quote the words of Sir Leopold +M‘Clintock. ‘Faxe Bay never freezes over, and I can find no record of +drift-ice within, since 1683. Merchant vessels come and go throughout +the winter.’” + + +GREENLAND. + +The “Fox” left Reikiavik, August 31st, and after a very rough passage, +arrived at Frederickshaab, October 2nd. Captain Young remained there +to make some necessary repairs, and finally arrived at Julianshaab +on the 22nd October. He then reports: “Having made all inquiries +about Igalikko or Julianshaab Fiord, I deemed it advisable at once to +commence a survey of this beautiful arm of the sea, and acting upon the +opinion of Colonel Shaffner, that were this fiord found practicable, +the electric circuit from Reikiavik would not be too extended.” + + +JULIANSHAAB FIORD. + +“We first sounded up to the head of the Fiord, which gave an +opportunity for our landing a travelling party under command of Dr. +Rae, to examine the inland ice and nature of the country. A party also +went to the Old Nordisker Ruins, at Igalikko.” Returning with the “Fox” +to Julianshaab, October 27th, Captain Young then surveyed the estuary +of the fiord, and from the soundings obtained, says, “I am of a decided +opinion that a _depth of not less than 150 to 160 fathoms_ can be +carried from the middle of the fiord abreast the settlement, out to +sea, with a general muddy bottom. + +“_This depth of water will effectually preclude injury to the cable +from the largest icebergs ever seen upon the coast._ Although many +bergs lay along the coast, we saw none aground in this valley of the +fiord, nor according to information obtained from the residents, have +they been seen grounded in that channel.” Captain Young then proceeds +to say--“This report and my previous letters will show that my decided +opinion (so far as we have been upon that route) is favourable to +the practicability of the undertaking, and that Julianshaab will, +under all circumstances, be well adapted for the reception of the +cable. With regard to the operation of laying the cable, I consider +that no apprehension may be felt on that point, for from the sudden +disappearance which we witnessed of the ice from the coast, and from +the ice _usually_ dispersing from the south-east shores of Greenland in +the autumnal months, opportunities will always occur when a ship having +the cable on board and lying in readiness in Julianshaab, may depend +upon having a period of clear and open sea. _The cable once laid, no +drift ice can in any way injure it, if the proper precautions are taken +in securing the shore end._” + + +ICE OF THE GREENLAND SEAS. + +“Since my arrival I have seen the admirable remarks of Mr. J. W. Tayler +upon the southern coast of Greenland, the results of his experience +during seven years residence there. His opinions must be most +satisfactory to you, and I am sure that all who are interested in the +work must be grateful to him for having so freely given them. + +“I perfectly coincide with his views with regard to the size of the +icebergs frequenting the above coast and accompanying the Spitzbergen +drift ice; and as this bears upon my own opinion that no iceberg +will ground in the channel of Julianshaab Fiord, I think I may here +explain my reasons for this statement. Having navigated the entire west +coast of Greenland and into all the principal settlements, and having +experienced a whole winters drift in the ice, through Baffin’s Sea and +Davis’ Strait, I have had occasion to remark and to gather all possible +information upon the ice movements. + +“Around the coast of Greenland, westward of Cape Farewell, there +are two distinct descriptions, or rather kinds, of drift ice ever +approaching but never meeting together. The first is the ice formed +during the winter on the vast area of Baffin’s Sea and the different +channels from the Polar Seas westward of Greenland. This ice, called by +the Greenlanders _the west ice_, often blocks up throughout the year +the upper part of Melville Bay, and drifts constantly throughout the +winter and early spring to the southward through Davis’ Strait into +the Atlantic. It seldom comes in contact with the coast of Greenland +below the parallel of Disko, _and there is always an open sea between +it and Greenland as far up as Holsteinberg throughout the winter_. The +second is the Spitzbergen called also the ‘store ice,’ which as has +been shown comes down the east coast of Greenland around Cape Farewell, +and is carried by the current up the west coast at times even to the +Arctic Circle, but by which time it is usually pretty much broken up, +and if not entirely dispersed, the last remnants are supposed to return +southward by Davis’ Strait to the Atlantic--so near these two great ice +streams approach that vessels bound to the colonies have in the early +spring passed up Davis’ Strait with the west ice and the Spitzbergen +ice on either hand. But as there are two kinds of oceanic ice, so also +are there two distinct classes of icebergs, namely, the bergs from the +stupendous glaciers far up the west coast of Greenland, and especially +in Melville Bay:--these bergs attain an astonishing magnitude, but +like the west ice which they accompany, or outsail, they do not come +upon the west coast of Greenland below the same parallel, although in +exceptional seasons of violent gales such as the last, they may be +blown in upon the land a little more to the southward; and I saw some +of these _ice islands_ last October aground, upon and near Tallert +Bank northward of Frederickshaab. The other icebergs are those which +accompany the Spitzbergen ice, and may be said to follow its movements. +They are launched from the glaciers far up the east coast of Greenland, +and from those in the island of Spitzbergen, and besides being +originally far less in their dimensions they are exposed during their +long passage southward to the warmer Atlantic winds and heavy swells, +and are proportionally reduced before their arrival at Cape Farewell. +The bergs from the southern glaciers of Greenland are but small, and +need scarcely to be taken into consideration, for as they must come out +from the heads of the fiords, they surely would not take the ground in +again entering the _channel_ of the deepest fiords. + +“With regard to the flotation of ice, it has been calculated that +seven-eighths of a cubical mass of ice will be immersed, but icebergs +being very irregular in their formation and having usually very peaked +and angular summits, whilst below the water they are smooth, rounded, +and most frequently widened out. I think that icebergs are not found +that draw more water than the proportion of six feet below to one foot +of perpendicular height above the water. Therefore in 150 fathoms of +water (the very least found in the entrance to Julianshaab Fiord) an +iceberg of an elevation above the water of 150 feet, or having an +entire perpendicular height of 1050 feet, will there be suspended above +the ground, and such bergs are not to be met with in that place.” + + +REMARKS UPON THE SEASONS. + +“The finest months in the Faröes are June and July, and in these months +only should the cable be laid, and then about the last quarter of the +moon, because the tides are greater at the full than at the change, +consequently the neap tides and immediately after the last quarter, +should be selected, as the currents are then inconsiderable. I have +already given my reasons for recommending that the cable be laid from +Iceland towards the Faröes, not only on account of the prevailing fogs +on the east coast of Iceland, but also from the greater facilities +for making the coast of the Faröes, and the opportunity that the +comparatively speaking shallow water off the N.W. coast would give of +shipping and buoying the cable in the event of a sudden gale of wind +occurring at the time of laying it. The finest months upon the east +coast of Iceland are also June and July, but I was informed that the +weather is clearer earlier in the season, in the months of May and +June--I suppose from the alternations of temperature being then less +frequent. A few hours, however, of clear weather would always carry +a ship beyond these mists, which usually hang only on the land. With +reference to Faxe Bay station, the west coast of Iceland is generally +free from fogs, and the gulf stream which sets round Cape Reikianess, +and appears to keep up a continuous flow around Faxe Bay to the +northward, passing out by Snœfellssness, also appears to considerably +affect the climatic condition of the west coast. Navigation is open +all the year round, and the operation of bringing the cable here can +be timed to the opportunities for departing from Greenland. A fine +pyramidal beacon has lately been erected on the Skagen, and is of great +assistance to navigators entering Faxe Bay from the southward.” + + +CONCLUSION. + +Before concluding, it is proper to state that the voyage was one +surrounded with much peril, on account of the succession of gales +and the extraordinary quantities of ice found in the Greenland seas; +never within the memory of man has there been so much and so long +a continuation of ice upon the Greenland coasts as during the past +year. In the arduous labours of the voyage Captain Young was most +ably assisted by Mr. J. E. Davis, Master in the Royal Navy, who by +the kindness of Captain Washington, Hydrographer to the Admiralty of +the British Government, was permitted to accompany the expedition and +take part in the necessary surveys; and his former well-known services +under Sir James Ross in the Antarctic regions, and great experience as +a marine surveyor, enabled him to render the most valuable assistance +in the especial mission of the “Fox,” which is acknowledged by Captain +Young in his report in the highest possible terms. During the voyage +various specimens of deep interest to the geologist and naturalist were +collected; a large number of scientific observations were made, and a +detailed meteorological journal was kept, which, together with other +valuable information and an extensive collection of photographs made +with great zeal by Mr. Woods under very difficult circumstances, have +been furnished by Captain Young and Dr. Rae to the promoters of the +enterprise, with the hope that they will be found to contribute to the +cause of science, as well as to the immediate object for which they +were made. Time will not now permit me to give further details of this +most interesting voyage; but any members of this Society who may desire +to make personal inspection of the charts, meteorological tables, logs, +reports, and specimens, will be gladly permitted to do so. + +Having thus presented to the Society some of the most valuable and +interesting portion of Captain Young’s report, I have only to observe +that the result of the recent survey has been to remove from my mind +the apprehensions which I previously entertained in common with many +others, as to the extent and character of the difficulties to be +overcome, in carrying a line of telegraph to America by the northern +route. + +Prior to the dispatch of the surveying expedition we had no knowledge +of the depth of the seas to be crossed, with the exception of the few +soundings obtained by Colonel Shaffner in 1859, and our information as +to the nature of the shores of Greenland in regard to the requirements +for a telegraphic cable was equally small. + +These points are of vital consequence to the prospects of the +North Atlantic Route, and the survey has placed us in possession +of satisfactory particulars respecting them. The soundings taken +by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock will be a guide in the selection of the +most suitable form for the deep-sea lengths of the cables, while the +information furnished by Captain Young will direct the construction of +the more massive cables to be laid in the inlets of the coast. It is +not necessary to determine upon the precise landing places and other +points of detail in connection with the enterprise at the present time, +but the promoters of the undertaking have received ample encouragement +from the survey, and from the testimony of competent and experienced +voyagers and sojourners in the countries to which the line is to +be carried, to warrant them in proceeding with their labours with +renewed vigour and confidence. When they have achieved that success +which their perseverance and energy deserve, I am sure they will +always gratefully remember that their endeavours at the stage of their +operations which is now under discussion would have been very much less +productive of good results, but for the patriotic foresight of Lord +Palmerston in ordering the “Bulldog” on her late successful service; +and for the assistance of Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, Captain Young, Dr. +Rae, and the Commissioners appointed to accompany the “Fox” by the +Danish government, as well as others who took part in the cause, whose +patience and devotion to their self-imposed work has been above all +praise. Nor can those interested in this important undertaking forget +the great assistance which has been rendered to them by the Royal +Geographical Society. + + + + +SURVEY OF THE LAND SECTIONS, WITH REMARKS UPON THE CLIMATE, PEOPLE, +&c.; BY DR. JOHN RAE, F.R.G.S., &c., COMMANDER OF THE LAND EXPEDITIONS. + + +The LORD ASHBURTON: I will now call upon Dr. Rae to read his paper. + +DR. RAE then read the following, viz.:-- + +When the promoters of the North Atlantic Telegraph were about to fit +out expeditions for the purpose of examining a practicable route, +_viâ_ the Færöes, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador, by which to form a +telegraph communication between England and America, I volunteered my +services for the land portion of the survey. + +In this paper I will give a brief account of my observations, and of +information obtained from reliable sources regarding the nature of the +lands travelled over, and their suitability for the objects of the +telegraph. + + +THE FÆRÖE ISLES. + +After a passage of fourteen days from England in the screw yacht “Fox,” +we arrived, on the 3rd August, at Thorshaven, the capital of the +Færöes. It contains about 900 inhabitants. + +On the day following, Colonel Shaffner, Lieutenant Von Zeilau (Danish +Commissioner), and myself, accompanied by two Faröese as guides, +commenced a journey over Stromöe, our destination being Haldervig, a +village near the northern extremity of that island. + +Our course for the first two miles was W.N.W., over the shoulder of a +hill (named Klubbin), the height of which about fifty feet below its +summit was 1048 feet; we then turned more to the northward until we +reached the high land immediately south of Kalbakfiord, 1408 feet above +the sea level. The walking round the head of this fiord was fatiguing +in consequence of the unfinished state of the path. At the end of five +hours we reached the top of the pass overlooking Kallefiord, having +an altitude of 1179 feet. When we descended to the valley, we took up +our night’s quarters at the house of Mr. Dam, a farmer, who gave us a +hospitable welcome, and provided us with a good dinner of fish, dried +mutton, ham, cheese, butter, milk, cream, and coffee. + +Next morning I ascended a hill named Skarling, said to be the highest +on Stromöe. Strong squalls of wind, with heavy rain changing into snow +as we neared the summit, made the climbing difficult. The barometer +indicated a height of 2506 feet. The Colonel had in the mean time +travelled along the path a distance of five miles, to the house of J. +C. Jacobson, where we joined him. We were again hospitably entertained, +and after remaining an hour we resumed our journey. + +Our active guides led us by the shortest but the most difficult of two +routes, the highest point of which was 1711 feet above the sea. We +arrived in the afternoon at Qualvig, a village having 132 inhabitants, +where we passed the night. + +Next morning we traced back the more level but longer route between +Qualvig and Kallefiord. We found its highest point to be 1275 feet at +2-1/4 miles distance from Qualvig. The hill is not too steep for loaded +ponies. We hired some of these excellent little animals for the purpose +of testing their qualities. They were strong, sure footed, and carried +with ease a man weighing over fifteen stone. + +From Qualvig to Haldervig the distance is nine miles, and the path, +lies close to the shore all the way. We found the “Fox” at Haldervig. + +The formation of the Island of Stromöe is almost wholly basaltic, with +an occasional thin stratum of red tuffa. Opals are found in the hills +north of Kollefiord. + +No difficulties of importance present themselves to the placing of a +telegraph line over the route examined, which is about twenty-seven +miles in length. At three points of the line some expense would +necessarily be incurred in improving the paths, so as to make them more +easy for loaded ponies to travel over. These places are, the ascent +of the high grounds north and south of Kalbakfiord, the descent to +Kollefiord, and the height between Kollefiord and Qualvig. + +The inhabitants generally appear to be well educated and religious, and +so fully aware of the advantages they would derive from a telegraph +being carried through their island, that they would use their best +efforts to protect it from injury. + +Labour is comparatively cheap, the average day’s wages being about +1_s._ 4_d._ sterling. Our guides, were well pleased to receive 2_s._ +each per day. + +The climate is not well suited for the growth of grain, but small +quantities of barley and oats are raised, and a few potatoes, turnips, +and other vegetables are cultivated. The live stock of the farmers are +sheep, horned cattle, and ponies, sheep being the principal and most +valuable productive source. The population of Stromöe is upwards of +2600. The chief exports are wool, woollen goods, eider-down, fish, +ponies, and oil. The inland transport is, principally, by pack-horses. + +Two small bays, the one a short distance to the south of Thorshaven, +the other at Haldervig, having been examined by Captain Allen Young, +were found well adapted for the landing of a telegraph cable; and the +route examined by me overland forms the connection of the projected +telegraph. + +The sound separating Stromöe from Osteröe offers great facilities +for the transport of materials, as it is navigable throughout the +whole length, with the exception of about 100 yards near Qualvig, for +vessels of ordinary size. The arms of this sound, namely, Kalbakfiord, +Kollefiord, and Qualvig Bay, afford good anchorages and approach at +three points to within a quarter of a mile of the projected route. + + +ICELAND. + +The “Fox” reached Berufiord, on the east coast of Iceland, on the +afternoon of the 12th, and anchored in the harbour of Djupivogr, near +the entrance of the fiord. From this place the Land Expedition resumed +its labours to travel across the island to Reikiavik. About fourteen +horses, and two men, to act as guides and pony-drivers, were required. +We had two very zealous auxiliaries in the persons of Mr. Weywadt, the +Danish merchant, and Lieut. Von Zeilau, both of whom exerted themselves +to procure the necessary assistance and accommodations for the journey. +Only eight ponies, exclusive of those of the guides, could be obtained +at prices varying from 2_l._ 12_s._ to 5_l._ 10_s._ Hoping to complete +our number of ponies on the way, we left Djupivogr on the afternoon +of the 15th. With the exception of the guides, our party was the same +as that when travelling across Stromöe. Our path ran along the south +shore of Berufiord, and was rough and stony. + +It was getting late when we reached the head of the fiord, a distance +of only nine-and-a-half miles in a straight line; so we proceeded to +the pastor’s house, which we made our home for the night. This worthy +man, Sira Hosias, who had been to Djupivogr, overtook us as we were +dismounting at his door and gave us a hearty welcome. + +It was difficult to make an early morning’s start. Our horse-drivers +were active and willing enough, yet we could seldom get away before +eight or nine o’clock. A lamb was bought for 2_s._ 3_d._ sterling. +After taking an observation with the barometer we resumed our +journey--and ascended to the tableland west of Berufiord by a series of +four steps. The path which is formed among stones, gravel, and earth, +might be much improved by a very little labour. Two observations for +altitude were obtained. The first about halfway up, giving 891 feet, +the last, near the top, 1282 feet, at which the latitude 64° 49′ 3″ N. +was also observed. + +From this point our path lay nearly due north, for 8 miles, to a small +lake 426 feet above the sea level. After travelling 7 miles farther in +the same direction we arrived at Thingmuli and took up our quarters in +the church, where we found ourselves very comfortable. The clergyman +Sira Biarni was a kind and good man. A strong horse suitable for either +pack or riding, was bought here for 3_l._ 8_s._ + +Our course for five miles was north, along the slope of a hill. We +then travelled west until crossing the ridge, when we turned to the +south-west, and reached in a short time Hallormstadr on the banks of +Lagar Fliot. Hitherto we had been surrounded by a dense fog, which we +emerged from on descending the hill. We here allowed our horses to feed +for an hour, and an observation with the barometer gave the altitude +of our position 528 feet, that of the river which was upwards of a +quarter of a mile distant being 90 feet lower. This river has its +source in the Vatna Jökull, and the muddy and white colour of its water +indicate its glacier origin. As far as we could see to the northward +the river widens into the form of a narrow lake having little or no +current. This was the case we were told for 30 miles or more. As we +rode to the southward along the stream we passed through a grove of +small birch trees, many of which were from 16 to 18 feet in height. At +four miles above Hallormstadr the lake-like river ends, and four miles +further up we came to the ferry. The river was here about 170 yards +wide, the current strong, and the water so deep from the recent rains +that the horses had to swim when crossing. The ferry-boat carried us +all over with the baggage at two trips. We walked to the parsonage of +Valthiofstadr, 2 miles distant, and met with a most kind reception +from Sira Pietra. Taking the direct route to Valthiofstadr, it may +be reached in one day from Berufiord, as the distance is about 26 +geographical miles, and we learned that the road was not bad. + +The morning of the 18th was very beautiful. Our horses having strayed +during the night, we were detained some hours. We here bought another +horse for 2_l._ 14_s._ + +After riding eight miles along a fine level path, we turned to the N. +W., and commenced the ascent of a steep hill, up which we had not gone +half way before we were in a thick fog. Fortunately we had engaged a +guide, otherwise it would have been difficult to have kept the proper +track. + +It was half-past nine, and very dark, when we arrived opposite to Bru, +where we had to cross a river on one of those curious swing-bridges, +before reaching the house. This conveyance was about 2 feet 6 inches +long, 2 feet wide, and 2 feet deep, suspended by pullies to two ropes, +which stretch over the river at a height of thirty feet above the +stream, which is about seventy feet wide. + +Our day’s ride had been long and fatiguing, but there were only two +parts of the road by any means difficult. The first being the ascent of +the hill in the early part of the day already mentioned, and the other +where we descended to a small stream, about seven miles distant from +Bru. In both instances the ground is of such a nature, that the paths +are capable of easy improvement. The heavy rains had made a portion of +the road rather swampy. + +Sunday, 19th.--Taking with us a guide we started for Mödrudalr. For +twelve miles our course was north, we then turned to the westward, +which we kept all the way to Mödrudalr, where we arrived at half-past +six. The roads were good throughout the day’s journey and we passed +great quantities of dwarf willow,--at eight miles from Mödrudalr we +traversed a perfectly desert plain flat as a bowling green, and covered +with black sand and gravel, the débris of lava. Sigurder Jonsson, the +owner of the comfortable farm-house gave us a most hearty welcome. +The farm is extensive, and produces an excellent crop of grass and +quantities of dwarf willow, which, when cut and dried, furnishes +excellent fodder for both sheep and cattle. Mr. Jonsson possesses 600 +of the former, three or four of the latter, and a number of horses. + +Mödrudalr is situated in a beautiful plain extending to a long distance +north and south. Far to the south, at least forty-five miles off, you +see one of the peaks of Vatna Jökull, having a deep snow filled cleft +in the centre. Within fifteen miles to the south-west is Herdubreid, +one of the highest mountains in Iceland. + +20th.--In company with a Mr. Skulason, who was going in the same +direction as ourselves, we left Mödrudalr at nine A.M. + +Our course during the whole day’s travel was north with a very little +westing. The road was good, and we arrived at Grimstadr, twenty-five +miles distant, at half-past two, P.M. + +21st.--Mr. Skulason still gave us the advantage of his company. We +arrived at the ferry on the Jökulsa Axarfiordr at 9·15 A.M., which is +four miles from Grimstadr. The river is 150 yards wide, the water deep, +and the current very strong. The horses had to swim about half the way. +We crossed in a boat. The banks of the river are of fine black sand. +The water was white and muddy, bearing the characteristics of a river +that has its source from a jökull, or glacier. Its west bank is 951 +feet above the sea-level. When we had ridden sixteen miles from the +river, we arrived at an immense bed of very rugged lava in a valley to +our left, and in one place there was an appearance as if it had filled +up the bed of a river. We rode for seven miles along this lava, and +then turned aside to visit a number of boiling mud-springs. + +Before reaching Reikialith we had ridden among or close to the most +recent lava we had seen. The only object I could compare the rough lava +beds to, except in colour, was a field of ice that had been floated +at high water to a low flat beach, covered with large boulder-rocks, +which, when the tide ebbed, broke up the ice into all sorts of forms. +Reikialith is situated on the shores of Myvatn (Lake), which is very +irregular in form, and studded with rugged lava islands. Our course +to-day was nearly west, and the distance travelled fully thirty miles. + +22nd.--The first portion of the route was crooked, to avoid holes in +the lava which were overgrown with moss and grass. A ride of six and a +half hours, including an hour of stoppage to graze horses, brought us +to the ford of Arndisarstadr, on the Skialfandafliot. It was about 100 +yards wide, two feet deep, the current strong, and the water white and +muddy. We reached the house of the worthy pastor (Sira Pallson) at Hals +in the evening. + +Hals is in lat. 65° 44′ N., and was the farthest north point reached by +us. I learned that, during the winter, snow occasionally falls to great +depth, and is blown into deep drifts. The cold is not usually severe, +the lowest temperature being 20° or 21° below zero of Reaumur, equal to +13° or 15° below zero of Fahrenheit, and this occurs but rarely. + +Thursday, 23rd.--We resumed our journey, having with us Mr. Eggerd +Olafsson, a young student, who most obligingly offered his services +as guide. After travelling south two miles along the small river that +flows northward past Hals, we forded the stream. We crossed to the +west the ridge of hills about 1900 feet high, that lies between Hals +and Akreyri. This last-named place is next in size to Reikiavik. As +soon as we appeared from under the fog on the hill side, the twelve +vessels at anchor in the harbour hoisted their colours. Akreyri is +built at the head and on the west shore of Eyjafiord. Its harbour is +sheltered by a spit of land that runs half way across the fiord where +its width is about a mile. From the beginning of November to the end +of March or April, the navigation is usually closed by ice; but during +the summer months there is considerable trade at this place. The valley +is one extensive and productive grass meadow running southward for +nearly thirty miles, on which a great number of persons were occupied +haymaking. The river I found to be navigable for boats drawing about +two feet of water, to the distance of twenty-five or thirty miles. Its +width varies from twenty-five to eighty yards. The path was good and +level, fitted for a waggon in summer, or for a sledge in winter. + +Early in the evening we came to Saurbær, and were most cordially +welcomed by Sira Thorlacius--a clergyman distinguished for his goodness +and learning. We here made our arrangements for the next three days’ +journey, which lay through an uninhabited part of the country. The +guide lived at some distance, and our young student rode to his house +and engaged him. + +24th.--From Holar, the path led us south for four miles along the east +bank of the stream, we then commenced an ascent of the high grounds in +a south-west direction. The hill was 2868 feet in height, being the +greatest altitude we had yet passed over. We reached the top in an +hour and a half; although the road was now pretty level, and many of +the larger stones had been removed to one side, the path was not good +enough to permit us to ride fast. + +We made many detours so as to avoid the rougher portions of the ground, +but the general direction of our travel was to W.S.W. In the evening a +thick fog came on, and as the cairns of stone set up as marks became +less frequent, the guide lost his way, and I had to put him right by +the compass. About half-past eight we pitched our tent on the bank of +a small stream, where there was a little grass for our tired horses. +Generally speaking, when travelling over Iceland, sufficient dry +willows and willow roots can be picked up for cooking, but here none +could be found, so we had recourse to an “Etna” and some alcohol we had +carried with us, for the preparation of our coffee. + +25th.--Our position by computation was in latitude 65° 8′ N., longitude +18° 53′ W. Height by observation above sea, 2385 feet. The fog still +continued this morning, but not very thick. We had to put back a short +distance to recover the proper route; we then crossed a small white +water stream, very rapid and stony, named Jökulsa Eystri. Our course +was generally S.W. by W., marked by little heaps of stones. As usual, +we stopped twice to-day to grass the horses, near some lakes, where +several swans were seen. We would have made a long journey to-day, +but fog again came on in the evening, notwithstanding which our guide +insisted that he could find the way. His confidence in himself was +misplaced. + +Two observations for height were obtained to-day. One at Pollar, +latitude 65° 5′ N., 19° 2′ W., gave altitude 2368 feet; the other, 6 +miles S.W. of Pollar, 2463 feet. Both these places afford good grass +and water for horses. In latitude 64° 45′ we crossed nearly two miles +of very rough lava, extremely difficult to travel over. A small amount +of labour would remedy this evil. Further on we passed quagmires of +very adhesive clay. These by a little care can be easily avoided. + +Between the latitudes of 65° and 64° 45′ N., and in long. 19° 20′ W., +we crossed a number of rivers, very rapid and some of them two feet +deep, flowing from Hofsjökull, which lay to our left. Many of these +streams appear to change their beds, or to spread out to considerable +extent during thaws or rainy weather, and could be crossed with +difficulty by a telegraph wire, were it not that I noticed that at some +points the water was kept within bounds on both sides by solid barriers +of rock or lava, generally not more than 20 yards apart. + +26th.--Our position by account was in lat. 64° 40′ N., long. 19° 33′ +W., and height above sea 1983 feet. It was ten o’clock before we got +away. Our road was better than for the past two days, and we went ahead +faster. About half-past three P.M., we arrived at the Hvita River, a +mile or two below its source from Hvitarvatn, having come twenty-two +miles, down hill, the incline being very gradual. The altitude here was +1580 feet. + +The river, which is 120 yards wide, could be forded by the horses, but +they were very nearly swimming; so to save our baggage from getting +wet, we had a boat brought across, and were ferried over. After +permitting the horses to feed for an hour and a half, we travelled +westward for five miles round the base of the craggy and lofty Blafell. +We now passed over a ridge 400 feet higher than the ferry on the Hvita. + +From this point we had a very extensive view of more than fifty miles +down the valley of the Hvita, with its numerous lakes and boiling +springs, the clouds of white vapour from the latter indicating their +positions. We now made a south course, and at the end of seven miles +again came to the banks of the Hvita, along which we found an excellent +path, over which we trotted at a great rate until late, when the guide +again lost his way, and left us at a good grazing place to search for a +house in the neighbourhood. + +27th.--After waiting until half-past eleven, in vain, for the return +of our truant guide, we unpacked our tent, and lay under it, having no +poles to pitch it with. The guide joined us at five in the morning. He +said he had wandered about all night in search of his friend’s house, +which was within less than ten minutes’ ride of where we were. We +reached Haukadalr at a little before six, and took up our quarters in +the church, where we had a good and substantial breakfast. + +We then rode forward to the Geysers where we found Lord Milton +encamped. We collected specimens, and sounded the Geyser, obtaining +seventy-eight feet depth. The barometer gave the height of the position +626 feet above the sea in latitude by observation 64° 18′ 16″ N. + +Our breakfast at Haukadalr had not been so superior as to prevent +us enjoying the good things that Lord Milton most kindly invited us +to join him in partaking of, and after a parting glass of champagne +with his lordship, we rode for sixteen miles further on our way to +Reikiavik, and then took up our night’s quarters at Laugarvatn. Near +this house are several boiling springs of very pure water, which are +used for cooking. + +We arrived at Reikiavik at eight o’clock on the morning of the 29th +August, all well, but our horses very much used up by a journey of +nearly 450 statute miles. + +The results of this journey went to prove that there would be no +serious difficulty in carrying a telegraph across Iceland by the route +travelled over. Doubtless considerable expense would be incurred in +repairing the old paths, so as to make them more easy for loaded +pack-horses, and in making new ones to shorten distances; but this work +will be materially facilitated, as the Icelandic Diet has appropriated +a considerable amount of money to be paid annually for this purpose. +The six largest rivers that we crossed had high well defined banks, +that showed no indication of ice action or of changing their position. + +A shorter, and in every respects a better route across Iceland for +telegraphic purposes than the one described, is that marked on the +chart in a dotted line. This route, from Berufiord as far as Mödrudalr, +in lat. 65° 17′ N., long. 16° W., is nearly the same as that followed +by us. From this point, instead of running northward, it strikes nearly +west for 45 miles, over what is said to be not a difficult country, to +Isholl, a farm on the Skialfanda river. Following up the west bank of +this stream to near its source, you cross the centre of Iceland in a +south-westerly direction, by the Sprengisandr road, until you fall upon +the head waters of the Thorsa. Trace this stream to south-west, keeping +on its left bank, to avoid the numerous jokul streams that enter it +on the right, until reaching lat. 64° 20′, where the river would be +crossed. The course then would be west to the Hvita and the Geysers. +On nearly fifty miles of this route there is little or no grass, but +depôts of hay can be established. Having measured on the charts four +different routes from Berufiord to Reikiavik, the distances are about +as follows:-- + + Geographical + Miles. + Route travelled over, cutting off several unnecessary detours 310 + By contemplated telegraph route, _viâ_ Sprengisandr 250 + In a straight line, keeping north of Vatna Jökull 210 + Along south shore of Ireland 260 + +The modes of transport through Iceland are by pack-horses, waggons, +and in winter on sledges. Of these the pack-horse is by far the most +general. These little animals are remarkably sure-footed, and so strong +that they can carry a load of 200 or 250 lbs. with apparent ease. They +are easily kept in condition with no other food than grass or hay. +Their prices vary from 2_l._ to 3_l._, those for riding being more +expensive. The pack-saddle in general use is an extremely primitive +affair, the pads employed to protect the back from being injured being +composed of turf which has been well dried, and a portion of the mould +beat out of it. Boats might be used with advantage on some of the +rivers. + +The population of Iceland amounts at present to some 60,000; at one +time it is said to have been as high as 100,000, but the ravages of +epidemic diseases and other causes reduced the numbers to less than +those at present on the island. + +The masses of the people are able and active, harmless and honest. +Wherever we went, we were received with much kindness and hospitality, +and even at the poorest cottages, milk, coffee, and brandy were handed +to us. All classes seem more or less educated, and the Lutheran +religion prevails. The chief occupations of the people are fishing and +farming, both being combined when the farms are near the sea. The women +spin, knit woollens, and weave cloth for home consumption. The farm +live stock consists of sheep, ponies, and horned cattle; the two last +are of small size. Of these, the sheep are the chief source of wealth. +A farmer having 800 or 1000 sheep is considered wealthy. The usual food +is mutton, fish (fresh and dried), rye-bread, butter, cheese, milk, one +preparation of which, named _skuer_, is much used. + +The price of labour varies from 1_s._ 2_d._ to 2_s._ 8_d._ per day, +according to the season. During the haymaking, in the months of July, +August, and September, it is highest. + +Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland (a town of 1500 inhabitants), has +been so often described by others that it is needless for me to say +anything on the subject. A little thin ice forms along shore near +Reikiavik during calm weather in the winter time, but the first breeze +of wind disperses it. + + +GREENLAND. + +The “Fox” sailed from Reikiavik on the 31st August, for Greenland. On +the 2nd of October we reached Frederickshaab. + +There is a Danish superintendent, a clergyman, and several clerks +at this place, and about two hundred Esquimaux. These Esquimaux +are civilised;--sober, honest, and faithful, apt and willing to be +instructed; attentive to their religious observances, and thankful for +kindness. The evening amusement was dancing. The principal food of the +natives is fish, seal, whale, a few ptarmigan, waterfowl, including +eider duck, with biscuit and coffee, imported from Denmark. Large +quantities of a small fish (the kepling), called by the Esquimaux +“amaset,” are caught in scoop nets in the summer, and dried on the +rocks. These are laid up for winter food, and sometimes given to the +cattle. + +After lying here eighteen days, the “Fox” sailed on the 20th of October +for Julianshaab, at which place she anchored on the evening of the 22d. +Julianshaab is one of the principal stations on the coast. + +On the 24th I learnt that it had been decided to sound and examine the +Fiord of Igalikko, which ran by Julianshaab. During the time that the +“Fox” would be employed on this service, which I was told by Captain +Young might probably occupy four days, I thought with Colonel Shaffner +that a short journey should be made to the interior of the country, +for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of travelling +over it. The use of one seaman and a whale-boat were obtained from +Captain Young, to enable us to return from the head of the fiord to +Julianshaab. Four Esquimaux women were engaged as rowers. At sixteen +miles inland from the fiord a heavy fall of snow stopped further +travel. After an absence of four days, we returned to our boat, but +found that the fall of snow, followed by unusually cold weather, had +already caused the fiord to freeze up for many miles. We had enough of +provisions, and were supplied with some excellent fresh mutton, milk, +and butter, by an Esquimaux that lived in the neighbourhood, to whose +house we removed. The frost continued for several days with unusual +severity, and made the ice strong enough to enable Captain Young (after +coming half-way up the fiord in a boat) to travel over the ice with a +sledge party from the “Fox,” to our relief. Another party of men, sent +by Superintendent Möller from Julianshaab to aid us arrived at the same +time. We all returned next day (the 6th) to the “Fox.” + +At Julianshaab, as at Frederickshaab, nothing could exceed the kindness +and hospitality of the resident Danish gentlemen. Mr. Möller, the +Superintendent, Mr. Höyer, his Assistant, the Doctor, and others vied +with each other in paying us attention. + +The chief exports of the place are whale and seal oil, fox skins (blue +and white), bear skins, and eider down. A few cattle, goats and sheep +are kept. The hay is usually collected at the summer encamping places +of the natives, and must be very nutritious, as I was informed that one +small cow during the past summer, had not only yielded sufficient milk +and cream to supply the family, but also to make eighty Danish pounds +of butter. The natives here, as at Frederickshaab, are honest, docile, +and well conducted, doing great credit to the Danish Government. The +prevailing form of worship is the Lutheran. + +The result of this expedition, as far as regards the land portion of +it over the Færöe Isles and Iceland, was extremely favourable to the +practicability of laying down or erecting a telegraphic wire. The +question in Iceland will be, whether the telegraph should be carried +across the whole island from Berufiord to Faxe Bay, or only from +Portland Bay to the latter place. The latter will reduce the distance +on land from about 250 to 90 miles. + + + + +THE FIORDS OF SOUTH GREENLAND, AS TO THEIR DEPTH, MUD BOTTOMS, &C.; BY +J. W. TAYLER, ESQ., F.G.S., LATE A RESIDENT AND MINERALOGIST IN SOUTH +GREENLAND. + + +The LORD ASHBURTON: I will now call upon Mr. J. W. Tayler to read his +paper. + +MR. TAYLER then read the following, viz.:-- + +I have been desired by the promoters of the North Atlantic Telegraph to +give you a short description of the Fiords of South Greenland, and to +point out the advantages they offer to the landing of the cable on that +coast. + +Any one who has travelled in Norway will have an idea of the leading +characteristics of fiords in general, but as many of the Society have +probably not had that opportunity, I will endeavour to describe, as +well as I can, the general appearances of fiords in Greenland. + +The land of Greenland is very elevated, the average height of its +mountains being not less, perhaps, than 1500 feet, and in some places +exceeding 6000 feet, above the level of the sea. It appears that at +the time of the elevation of the west coast of Greenland, a chain of +mountains of about 50 miles in breadth, running about north and south, +was acted on in a wave-like manner, _i. e._ leaving depressions nearly +equal to the elevations and more or less at right angles with the +direction of the chain. These depressions or long valleys into which +the sea runs constitute the fiords:--they vary in breadth from one to +eight miles, and run up into the interior from ten to sixty or more +miles. + +The scenery in these fiords is magnificent, perhaps unequalled. The +lofty mountains--rugged, precipitous, and barren--with patches of ice, +(projections from the great interior glaciers), and snow unmelted by +the summer’s sun; with valleys half filled up by enormous angular +blocks of stone detached from the sides of the steep mountains by the +alternate frost and thaws; the solitude, and the almost total absence +of life, animal and vegetable, make up a picture of indescribable +desolation. + +In other places the more rounded and sloping mountains are covered +with green and yellow moss. Grass, heath, and wild flowers grow in +the valleys; whilst in some still more favoured and sheltered dales, +miniature forests of Arctic willow six feet in height are pointed out +by the Esquimaux as proofs of the extraordinary excellence of the +climate of Greenland and fertility of the soil. Of the latter material +there is not, however, in many places sufficient to bury the dead, and +they are compelled to place the body on the surface and form a grave by +building up stones around it. + +These fiords with grassy dales offer the most pleasant places of abode +in Greenland; in fact, it is only to the more fertile parts of the +fiords that the name of Greenland is at all appropriate. But these +parts of the fiords form a striking contrast to the outer coast of +Greenland. + +The Danish settlements are mostly at the entrance of the fiords, +for the convenience of seal hunting and of shipping; but the old +Scandinavians who settled in Greenland in the ninth century brought +cattle with them, and therefore established themselves at the interior +ends of the fiords and bays, where grass was to be found. The ruins of +their habitations, constructed of very large blocks of stone, are still +to be seen at all the more fertile places. Judging from the number of +ruins and the accounts in the Icelandic Sagas, their number must at one +time have reached about 10,000. But the Scandinavians of Greenland have +perished; cattle no longer graze in the valleys as then; and some heaps +of stones are all that remain to show the enterprise of those early +western pioneers. + +The Icelandic Sagas contain descriptions of most of the fiords of +South Greenland, and of the chief settlers in them. Perhaps the most +notable in this respect is the Fiord of Igalikko. This fiord ends in +two forks or arms;--in the northern stand the ruins of Brattelid, the +first town in Greenland, built by the first settler, Eric the Red, in +986; in the other was built the town of Garde, the residence of the +Bishop of Greenland. These two towns vied with each other in the claim +for precedence--Brattelid claiming it on the ground of its being the +first erected, and the residence of Eric the Red and his descendants; +whilst Garde asserted its superior worthiness in being the residence of +the bishop. After much wordy quarreling and sundry duels, Garde appears +to have triumphed, and was henceforth considered as the capital of +Greenland. + +But Garde now shares the ruin and desolation of Brattelid, with nothing +else to recommend it to our further notice. Not so however with its +rival Brattelid. In the time of Eric the Red, Anno Domini 1000, there +sailed from the fiord of Igalikko and from the town of Brattelid an +expedition of discovery. These enterprising Scandinavians were not +contented with having discovered the vast territory of Greenland; this +appears to have only stimulated their thirst for further discoveries, +and it may perhaps also be that after two or three years’ residence +in Greenland, they found it was not the El Dorado they had dreamed +of; however, the expedition sailed to the west and south, and finally +discovered the continent of America. They found good prairie land which +they called Markland, and sailing on they came to land bearing wild +grapes in great abundance, this they called Vinland. They wintered +in America, left some settlers (who after some time succumbed to the +natives), carved their runics on the rocks, and taking in cargoes of +timber and supplies of wild grapes sailed the next summer and safely +returned to Brattelid. + +Thus the credit of discovering America is certainly due to the +Scandinavians of Greenland. And Columbus when he visited Iceland some +years previous to his celebrated voyage, no doubt read the accounts +of the discovery in the Icelandic Sagas. But as these accounts were +suffered to remain almost unknown to the world, and as the navigators +of northern Europe had in his time forgotten the route discovered +by their more energetic forefathers not only to America but also to +Greenland, (which was then called the “Lost Land,”) all honor is +certainly due to Columbus for the re-discovery of America. + +When Eric the Red first settled in the fiord of Igalikko, the Christian +religion had not reached Iceland or Norway. Thor with his hammer +reigned supreme. But Thor and his worshippers have sunk into oblivion, +bequeathing us his hammer, the symbol of industry. The fiords of +Greenland are about to witness a new era of enterprise and engineering +skill, ere long the North Atlantic Telegraph Cable will repose at the +bottom of one of its fiords, again uniting with Europe the countries of +Iceland, Greenland, and America. + + * * * * * + +In the neighbourhood of high land the water is generally of great +depth, and the fiords of Greenland form no exception to the rule; in +fact, it is only near the lower and more sloping land that vessels +can lay at anchor, and this only in small coves so near to the land +that it is the general practice to make fast to the shore by hawsers. +Outside of this the water deepens rapidly, and in the middle of many of +the fiords there is some 500 fathoms water; I should say that of the +deeper fiords 300 fathoms will be found to be the average depth. In +some places where the rocks are nearly perpendicular, a fishing-line of +100 fathoms fails to reach the bottom within a few yards of the shore. + +Looking at the map of Julianshaab’s district, you will see that some of +the fiords terminate at the continental ice, whilst others do not reach +it; the former fiords have glaciers, the latter have not. + +These glaciers are the outlets of the continental ice, which has a +motion from the interior towards the sea coasts, and as the deep +valleys or fiords are the only outlets, the ice is forced into them +until, by projecting from the land into the sea, or fiord, portions +give way and break off, owing to not being sufficiently supported by +being adequately immersed, or owing to the rifts and chasms which exist +in the glacier. The larger of these portions, when thus detached from +the glacier, constitute icebergs. + +The glaciers in the fiords of the southern parts of the west coast +of Greenland are not very large, and consequently their icebergs are +never of great dimensions. I do not think any iceberg produced by the +glaciers of the fiords within 100 miles north or south of Julianshaab +would ground in 60 fathoms. + +The glaciers bring down with them boulders, sand and much fine clay, +the result of attrition; the boulders are always rounded, owing to +the severe abrasion they have undergone by being transported over the +rocks below, whilst under the enormous pressure of the vast thickness +of continental ice. This glacial clay floats suspended in the water, +several miles from the glacier, rendering it turbid or milky, and +depositing itself gradually throughout the whole length of the fiord. +So vast has been the quantity, and so long the period of time during +which this transport of clay has proceeded, that some fiords have been +so completely filled up by it that they are only navigable in boats of +light draught and at high water. + +From this choking up of the fiord the glacier has ended in being +unable to longer launch its icebergs; it has therefore found a new +outlet through some other valley, where it will repeat the process of +gradually filling up the fiord. + +As nearly all the fiords have, or have had, glaciers in them bringing +down the clayey deposits I have mentioned, the bottom must be of soft +material. If the cable be taken into a fiord having a glacier, I +think the clay which will be gradually deposited over it will be of +great service in protecting it from injury by marine animals or other +damaging agents. + +The existence of these fiords is extremely advantageous to the carrying +of the telegraph cable to Greenland, and there bringing it on shore. +Were it not for these, some difficulties might have been met with in +finding a suitable place for the landing, owing to the ice streams on +the outside coast; but in several of these fiords, Tessermiut, for +example, the water is of such depth as to preclude the possibility +of icebergs grounding upon the cable, and the almost perpendicular +mountains forming parts of the lateral coasts of the fiords, and the +deep water at their bases, offer excellent situations for leading up +the cable from the middle of the fiord to the shore, without exposing +it in the slightest degree to the grounding of icebergs upon it. + +In conclusion, I beg to state, that from the results of seven years’ +observation in Greenland, I am of opinion that neither the ice nor the +configuration of the coast, will offer any impediment to the successful +laying and landing of the telegraph cable in Greenland. + + + + +THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS OF THE PROPOSED NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH; BY +COLONEL TAL. P. SHAFFNER, LL.D., F.R.G.S., OF THE UNITED STATES OF +AMERICA. + + +The LORD ASHBURTON.--We have now come to the end of these papers +which more particularly come within our province as geographers. +There seems to me to be something wanting still. Physical geography +is only interesting in so far as the results detailed are associated +in some manner either with human feelings, human sympathies, or human +interests. Now, the great purpose which has given attraction to the +details which we have just listened to, is that of ascertaining whether +the physical conditions of these northern regions are suited for the +carrying out of the great enterprise which both Continents have at +heart. Therefore, it seems to me you will hear with great interest how +these details dovetail, as it were, into the necessities required by +the establishment of the electric telegraph. The particular features of +this scheme will be put before you by Colonel Shaffner, and I trust you +will take the same interest in it that I am sure I myself shall. + +COLONEL SHAFFNER then read the following, viz.:-- + +As preliminary, I will briefly refer to the respective circuits +proposed on the north-about route, as marked upon the large map before +the Society. + + +LANDING PLACES AND LENGTHS OF CIRCUITS. + +SCOTLAND TO FÆRÖE ISLES.--One end of the cable for this section will +be landed in one of the many safe bays in north Scotland--the precise +place has not been determined. The other end it is proposed to land in +a beautiful bay near Thorshaven. This section will be some 225 miles, +and the depth of the sea not exceeding 254 fathoms; bottom, mud and +shells. + +FÆRÖES TO ICELAND.--One end of the cable will probably be landed at +Haldervig, near the north of Stromöe Isle. Captain Young strongly +recommends this bay, and that the other end be landed in Berufiord, +Iceland, a very good place, with deep water and muddy bottom. The +cable to this place will be about 240 miles. Depth of sea, maximum, +683 fathoms, bottom mud and shells. It may be found more advantageous, +for reasons not necessary now to be discussed, to carry the cable more +westward, to or near Portland, and to which place it can be laid on a +muddy and sandy bottom, in water of good depth. Both of these places, +namely, Berufiord and Portland, are free from any volcanic influences +whatever, and ever have been, as far back as the discovery of that +remarkable island in the year 863. + +ICELAND TO GREENLAND.--This section will be the longest of the series, +between 600 and 700 miles. Captain Young has reported in favour of +Hvalfiord, a little north of Reikiavik, in the Faxe Bay, but in order +to economise as to length of cable, it is quite probable that a more +westerly place will be selected, on the south side of Faxe Bay. The +other end of the cable he recommends be landed in Julianshaab fiord, on +the south-west coast of Greenland. He examined that beautiful bay, and +found it to contain deep water, with muddy bottom; and he states that +it is his decided opinion that bergs cannot reach the cable when laid +in it. The reports of others concur in this opinion. There are other +fiords near Cape Farewell, equally favourable. Tessermiut and Illoa +fiords are considered well suited for the cables. + +Heretofore it was contemplated to land this section of the cable upon +the east coast of Greenland, south of latitude 61° north, in or near +Prince Christian’s sound, and then, either to carry the cable out +at the other end of the sound, or to connect this section with the +next by a cable around Cape Farewell; or, by a line across the land, +avoiding the inland ice. For the present, the intention to land on the +east coast has been abandoned, not because it has been found to be +impracticable, but because it has not been proved to be practicable. It +is now proposed to carry the cable from Iceland, around Cape Farewell, +to one of the fiords on the west side, and from the same fiord run the +cable to Labrador. Hereafter the Company may find it best to land on +the east coast, and carry out the original intentions as above stated. + +GREENLAND TO LABRADOR.--The cable will start from Greenland, and +land at or near Hamilton’s Inlet. The soundings taken by Sir Leopold +M‘Clintock show 180 fathoms interior from the outer rocks on the coast, +so that the cable can be laid into the inlet from the sea in water +sufficiently deep to place the cable beyond the reach of icebergs. If, +however, the depths be found more favourable from the sea into Byron’s +Bay, near and south of Cape Harrison, that place will be equally +satisfactory, all questions being considered; and from thence the +cable can be carried into Hamilton’s Inlet, through one of the several +channels connecting Byron’s Bay with the Inlet. Length of section about +510 miles. + +Before the respective cables are laid, each of the places will be +carefully sounded, and buoys will be placed indicating the deep +trenches; and, besides, steam tenders will be in readiness to serve +as pilots. Every precaution will be taken to obtain the most complete +information, in regard to the depths of the bays and of the seas. + + +THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS. + +I will now explain to the Society the respective electric circuits, as +practically applied to commercial telegraphy. I propose to illustrate +the mode of manipulating one or more circuits singly and combined: when +I say singly, I mean from one station to another, and the employment of +one voltaic series: when I say combined, I mean the coupling together +two or more circuits in succession, all of which are brought into +action by the manipulation of any given one. The diagram, I. represents +a voltaic current traversing a line on poles: M. is the magnet, B. +the battery, and K. the key, or circuit closer at contact point C. +of station A., A. the armature of the lever seen in the apparatus +at station B. By this diagram it will be seen that the course of +the electric current leaves the positive end of the battery B., and +passes through the metallic key K. when brought into contact with the +metallic point C., thence with the line wire to station B., and there +through the respective instruments to the metallic plate P., thence +through the earth E. E. to the metallic plate N., up with the wire to +the magnet M., thence to the negative pole of the battery B., which +completes the voltaic circuit. Before proceeding further, it is proper +to say that the course of the current, when it takes the earth at +station B., remains a mystery in physics, and I assume its return to +the battery from whence it originated. By elevating key K. the circuit +will be broken, and it is the opening and closing of the circuit, in +time methodically arranged, that constitutes the alphabet for the +transmission of intelligence. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM I.] + +I will next call the attention of the society to diagram II., which +illustrates the respective circuits contemplated to be organised on +the North Atlantic Telegraph. The first circuit connects Scotland with +the Færöes by submarine cable of some 225 miles in length. The course +of the voltaic current runs through the cable, starting from Scotland, +passing through the apparatus at the Færöes, descending into the earth, +and thence direct to the source of its origination in Scotland. The +current of this circuit passes through the spools of wire at the Færöes +constructed as the one which I hold in my hand, and when the wires are +thus charged, the cores, or iron centres, become magnetised, and they +attract down the armature, which causes the other end of the lever to +form a metallic contact so as to close the succeeding circuit extending +to Iceland. The course of the current on this second section extends +from the Færöes to Iceland, thence through the apparatus, similar +to that at the Færöes, and then returns to the battery, from whence +it sprung. In like manner the circuit from Iceland to Greenland is +opened and closed, and the same action takes place on the circuit from +Greenland to America. It will be observed that these circuits are not +of equal lengths, but the science of telegraphy has been so carefully +studied by the practical manipulator, that the conductors can be +adapted to the requirements of each circuit, if desired. + +[Illustration: ELECTRIC CIRCUITS COMBINED. DIAGRAM II. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUSES.--At _Scotland_:--K is the key; c, point +to close circuit; B, the battery connected with earth plate N from +negative pole N. At FÆRÖE ISLES:--M is the magnet; A, the armature of +the lever L; F, the fulcrum post; C, the contact post; B, the battery, +with its positive pole P; N and P are earth plates. The black arrows +indicate the course of the voltaic current through the cable; dotted +line E the current returning to the earth plate N, and to the battery +at N. At _Iceland_:--The apparatus is the same as that at the Færöe +Isles. + +MANIPULATION OF THE APPARATUSES.--When the key K at Scotland is +pressed to make a contact at c, battery B sends its electric current +in the direction indicated by the arrows to C; through the key K, the +submarine cable to the magnet M, through the coils of the magnet M +to earth plate P, and thence to earth plate N, as indicated by the +dotted line E. In this manner the circuit is completed. At the Færöe +Isles, when the current traverses the magnet coils M, the armature A is +attracted down, and the lever L makes a contact with C, which closes +the next circuit. The current passes from battery B through the cable +to the magnet M at Iceland; then to the earth plate P; then with the +dotted line EE, to plate N; then up to the fulcrum post F, through +the metallic lever L, and the contact post C to the battery B. When +the current traverses the coils of magnet M at Iceland, the armature +of lever L is attracted down, and a connection is made at C, which +closes the next circuit to Greenland. At Greenland there will be a like +apparatus, which will close the circuit to Labrador; and at Labrador +will be another apparatus which will close another circuit to Quebec. +At each place there can be a recording instrument, and dispatches can +be received simultaneously at the Færöe Isles, Iceland, Greenland, +Labrador, and Quebec.] + +The limited time allowed at this meeting of the Society prevents me +from going further into detail in explanation of the sciences and the +arts pertaining to the subject under consideration. But in order that +the Society may more clearly understand that which I have already said, +I have arranged the models of apparatuses placed in different parts of +this room. Before me is an apparatus supposed to be at North Scotland, +that on my right the Færöes station. I will now call the Færöe station +by the opening and the closing of the circuit as shown in diagram II., +section 1, and it will be seen that the bell at Færöes is made to ring +by the instrument at Scotland. I will next call Iceland, which is the +station immediately beyond the Færöes, as seen in diagram II. When I +call Iceland, the Færöe station connects or couples on the circuit to +Iceland; when Iceland hears the call by the ringing of his bell, he +immediately responds. The next station desired is Greenland, and when +that station is called, Iceland couples on the circuit to Greenland, +and in like manner Greenland couples on the circuit to America, and +now I communicate by the combination of the respective circuits from +Scotland to America by the simple motion of my finger. + +I have reduced this illustration to the most simple form, so as to +bring it within the comprehension of the most uninitiated. It has not +been done for the expert telegrapher. The apparatuses required at the +respective stations to effect the working in the manner described, will +be more complicated, and a description of them would occupy more time +than is allotted to me on the present occasion. I have upon the table +one of the instruments used on the continental lines for the uniting of +two or more circuits, by which the end heretofore described is effected. + +The respective circuits of the North Atlantic Telegraph will be within +the bounds of known practicabilities, and we have no reason to expect +other than the fullest success and the attainment of a calculated +celerity. There are no air lines or lines constructed on poles that +work in circuits more than perhaps 500 miles. There is no retardation +on such lines. The telegraph from London to St. Petersburg is about +1900 miles, and upon that range there are eight relay stations. From +London to Odessa the telegraph is about 3500 miles, and there are +about fourteen relay stations. From London to Constantinople it is +about 3200 miles, and there are about twelve relay stations. It is a +common occurrence to work to the stations mentioned through the aid +of mechanical contrivances. It is in this manner that telegraphic +manipulation overcomes long distances, and although the original +electric spark will not “leap with one bound” from continent to +continent by the North Atlantic Telegraph, the intelligence will pass +between the hemispheres with a celerity commensurate with the grandeur +of the enterprise and the wants of the age. + + * * * * * + +THE LORD ASHBURTON: The Society has heard, I have no doubt with +much pleasure, the very interesting papers that have been read this +evening, and to afford an opportunity for a discussion upon them, their +consideration will be continued at the next meeting. + +The Society then adjourned. + + + + +THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. MEETING, FEBRUARY 11TH, 1861. THE LORD +ASHBURTON IN THE CHAIR. + + + _A crowded Meeting of the Members and their Friends was held at + Burlington House, on Monday Evening, February 11th, 1861, when the + Adjourned Discussion took place._ + +THE PRESIDENT: I need not read over to you again the names of the very +interesting papers that were submitted to you on the last occasion +of our meeting. We have now amongst us travellers who have gained +experience in every quarter of the globe;--many learned geographers, +who have been themselves present in those portions of the earth which +have been alluded to in these papers: and I trust that we may have +their assistance in correcting what they may see to be wrong; in +amplifying and illustrating what we have heard. The subjects which +come before us, within our province, are the geographical features; we +are not engineers, nor electricians, to judge of the power of electric +currents to pass from this or that part of the earth; we are not +members of Parliament, who are to determine what aid, what facilities +by law are to be afforded to men who have devoted themselves to this +great enterprise; nor are we capable of judging of the respective +merits of the many plans which have been put forward before the public. +All that we can judge of are the geographical facts which have been +laid before us, and of those facts there cannot be better judges than +the assembly that I see before me. (Applause.) It is, therefore, with +hopes of receiving instruction and much knowledge, that I call upon +those gentlemen, more particularly, who have been in these scenes, +to give us the advantage of their experience, in either amplifying, +correcting, or illustrating, the several facts which have been brought +before us. (Applause.) + + * * * * * + +SIR EDWARD BELCHER, R.N.: I took a very deep interest in the deputation +to Lord Palmerston to get the expedition sent out for this northern +telegraph; and I am very happy indeed to find that nearly all the +arguments that were then used have been so thoroughly realised. I +thought, in the first instance, as has been proved, that we should find +a great connecting bank between Scotland and the Færöes, and between +Iceland and Greenland. As to the difficulties which were raised with +reference to the Labrador shore, I am very glad to find that the reefs, +which it was said would entirely prevent any cable being laid across +there, have vanished with the ice; they have gone southerly somewhere +or other, and have not yet been found; at least those reefs that are +there are rather helps than otherwise by preventing the ice coming down +upon the entrance. I should like very much to have been present at the +last meeting to have understood the nature of the soundings;--and while +I am speaking of the soundings, I am sorry to say that before another +institution--the Civil Engineers--it has been assumed that we surveyors +know nothing at all about soundings--that we do not know our business, +and that really some civilians will have to teach us our work. Now, +as far as I am myself concerned, during the whole of my servitude +I adopted a particular means for getting up the bottom in large +quantities, and in such large quantities that I thought nothing of +bringing up a hatful at a time. I have six cases of microscopic shells, +a very handsome collection, all of which I have got up by that means. +The very simple mode that I adopted to sink my lead and to get up the +soundings from the bottom was this. The sounding lead was encased by +a cylinder, and the lead being conical, the cylinder on striking the +ground flew up, and the lower part of the lead stuck to the bottom, +picked up its quantity of soundings, and as the lead was withdrawn this +cylinder (pointing) slipped down and completely protected whatever +adhered to the lead from being washed away. The other one which I used +for obtaining shells was a small dredge attached to the lead, and as +the lead struck the bottom, the flanges scraped up a quantity of earth. + +The Labrador coast takes its name “Labrador” from people having found +there golden pyrites, as they termed them in those days, when they +thought that they had made a discovery of a golden coast. It is a +golden coast, inasmuch as the copper contains a great quantity of gold. +In approaching that coast, I think that it would have been as well if +the “Bulldog” had been furnished with a fine wire chain, such as our +jack chains, as used in sweeping up anchors, and had it connected with +an electrical machine. As she ran over the ground she might easily have +detected at the instant whether there was any copper there. And as +to any chance of the cable being corroded or cut, on approaching the +shores of Labrador, or any of the places, I think that if application +be made to the civil engineers, there are men of talent who would +inform them instantly how they were to obviate it. + +And if the cable is to be properly laid down, the ground must be +properly examined; for it is quite absurd to attempt to lay cables in +the teeth of nature. If that cable is to be connected with the Labrador +coast, and that coast runs off in ridges under water, as is very +natural, a further survey must be made to find where the hollows run. +A correct and a very accurate survey should be made, so that the cable +may be laid in the hollows. + +I am very happy indeed that the experiment has been made, and that the +officers have been so successful in planning the ground; and that we +have a chance of connecting our coasts with those of our cousins across +the Atlantic. (Cheers.) + + * * * * * + +MR. PLINY MILES.--I do not know, My Lord, that I can throw any +particular light on the subject of the explorations in Iceland and +Greenland. I can, however, mention one or two facts that I noticed +while travelling in Iceland a few years since. One great consideration +of course will be that of climate; we can ascertain from certain +circumstances that that country is not so cold as we should imagine +it to be from its name and locality. The small hardy race of horses +there subsist entirely out of doors in the winter, without any kind of +food being given them in the shape of hay, excepting only those horses +which they use for domestic purposes, during those months. The rest +are without any kind of food, except what they gather from the open +country. I saw in one case a mahogany tree on the south coast, not far +from Portland, that had unquestionably floated with the gulf stream +from the Gulf of Mexico itself. I was told also by Professor Johnson, +that it was not unfrequently the case that spruce or other logs from +Norway were found driven on to the northern coast, at the same time +that logs of wood floated from the southern portion of the North +American continent. They are there found together, the one current +having come from Spitzbergen, and the other from the gulf stream. +Standing on any mountain or height in Iceland, you will see a green and +beautiful landscape; in fact, the natives say, “Iceland is the finest +country the sun shines upon,” though at some seasons of the year they +have very little of the sun to shine. I am satisfied of the feasibility +of running the wires from this country to the Færöes and Iceland. + +With regard to the absence or presence of trees in Iceland, that has +nothing to do with the coldness or the severity of the climate. It is +well known that there are trees of large size on the coast of Norway, +where the climate is far colder than in any, the most severe seasons +that have ever been known in Iceland, or in regions still farther +north. It is a fact, that on some portions of the coast of Scotland, +and in all parts of the Orkney and Shetland and Færöe Islands, you will +not find a single tree six feet high, while they are found in Iceland +18 feet high. I will not attempt to explain, or to give a reason why, +we find trees growing in one very severe climate, and not in others, +but it is undoubtedly owing, to a certain extent, to the direction of +the wind, and to some particular effect of the sea air. At any rate +we find no trees whatever on some of our more southern coasts, while, +farther north--on the Labrador coast, there are large trees, spruce, +pine, larch, and others. So that the fact that there are no trees in +Iceland, must not lead persons to suppose that the cold is necessarily +extremely severe. + +I would just refer to a statement made by a gentleman who read a paper +here two weeks ago, with regard to the thickness of ice at Reikiavik. +I have a distinct recollection that the lake seldom freezes to the +depth of 18 inches. I have been told that sometimes it is not frozen +more than two inches during the whole course of the winter, showing +most conclusively the mildness of the climate. These circumstances will +throw considerable light on the peculiarities of that climate; and +prove that it is far more genial than you would naturally suppose from +its name and locality. (Applause.) + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: PROFILES OF THE DEEP SEAS ON THE NORTH ATLANTIC +TELEGRAPH ROUTE. + +[_Referred to in the Remarks of Captain Osborn._] + +FÆRÖE ISLES. _About 225 Miles._ SCOTLAND. + +ICELAND. _About 240 Miles._ FÆRÖE ISLES. + +GREENLAND. _About 670 Miles._ ICELAND. + +LABRADOR. _About 510 Miles._ GREENLAND.] + +CAPTAIN SHERARD OSBORN, R.N.: I will not attempt to say anything as +to the practicability of the route, inasmuch as the distinguished +travellers and navigators, who read their papers at the last meeting, +have given us sufficient authority to say that there were obstacles on +the route undoubtedly, but that all those obstacles are surmountable. +Touching the soundings, I would call your attention to the agreeable +fact that the entire line of soundings show that there is no depth +greater than 1000 fathoms between Scotland and longitude 30 west on +the proposed route, or exactly halfway across the Atlantic Ocean. +There are then two valleys of deep water, of small width, on either +side of Greenland. The soundings diminished, as you see, very abruptly +as Greenland is approached, and shallow water will be found probably +round Cape Farewell. With regard to the Labrador coast, the principal +difficulty was in carrying the cable within the 150 fathoms of water, +so that it might not be exposed to the action of the icebergs. I am +sure that Arctic men all agree that 150 fathoms would be about the +maximum draught of any iceberg, so that the chief object to be secured +in placing the cable is to push the 150 fathom mark as near into the +coast as possible. They would remember that Sir Leopold M‘Clintock +had said that he would like to have a more accurate survey of the +Labrador coast, so as to carry the deep water a little closer. If they +looked at the map they would see 1190 fathoms carried just to the +north of Hamilton Inlet, and there was every reason to believe that +the bank of Newfoundland--they might call it so, although it extended +a long way up the Labrador coast--deepened suddenly there. As far as +one might speculate upon the question, I have no doubt that a more +accurate survey would lead to the obtaining of such information as +would give us a channel leading close into the Labrador shore, near +Cape Harrison. I would propose, that the cable there should open out +and form, say, half-a-dozen strands running into the shore at certain +distances from each other, so that if a berg drifted down and happened +to pick up one, it would not pick up all the rest, and by that means +the cable in the deep water would be at all times safe and recoverable +by following out those strands. There was one feature that struck me +particularly, and on which I wrote to Captain M‘Clintock. No man would +dispute that bergs of ice sounding the bottom would rip it up, just as +a plough would a ploughed field; and that if that bank was thus ripped +up by the floes of ice, there would be hardly any animal or vegetable +life upon it; it would be a kind of subterranean desert. Sir Leopold +M‘Clintock was continually dredging there, and in a note just received, +that distinguished navigator said, “The bank of Hamilton Inlet has +from 100 to 200 fathoms upon it. I am of opinion that icebergs which +ever drift down there cannot possibly reach the bottom. They ground +near the islands at the entrance and are not bergs of the largest +size. Shells and other small things were brought up by the sounding +machines in 40 or 50 fathoms, _as in other parts of the sea_ where +icebergs cannot possibly interfere with them.” Near Frederickshaab +Captain Sir L. M‘Clintock says they dredged up in 26 fathoms delicate +corals and creatures which could not live at the bottom of the sea if +much disturbed by icebergs,--and adds “_so much for the destructive +propensities of icebergs_.” How all this came about was a question I do +not pretend to solve, but the fact was very curious, as showing that +bergs could touch the bottom without sweeping everything before them. I +am sure that every geographer will be interested in the following fact, +for it related to the late Sir John Ross, who stated that in his voyage +in 1818 he brought up mud from 1050 fathoms, the deepest soundings ever +obtained at that time; and in the mud were shells and fish. So to that +old navigator they first owed that the fact of animal life in great +depths had been discovered. We were talking the other day about the +difficulties with regard to the intense cold and the aurora borealis +affecting the telegraph. It might be interesting for the Society to +know that a few seasons ago, Captain Kellett and Captain M‘Clintock +were beset in the ice in 74-1/2° north, and they communicated with each +other by telegraph from ship to ship. Now 74-1/2° north latitude was a +long way in the Arctic zone, and the cable, the practicability of which +they were at present discussing, would lie a long way without it. That +telegraph was at work throughout the whole winter, and was not in any +way affected by that terrible bug-bear the aurora borealis, nor by the +intense cold experienced so far north. (Applause.) + + * * * * * + +MR. JOHN BALL: It is impossible to over-rate the importance of the +subject brought to the attention of the Society by the gentlemen who +read their papers. It is very desirable that we should not under-rate +the difficulties which still remain, and which I think have not all of +them been sufficiently brought forward, and it is by pointing out the +difficulties at this early stage that we shall soonest arrive at the +solution of those difficulties and the great end which I trust we shall +live to see accomplished. I have long felt that this northern route +was the right one; but I am not blind to the many difficulties which +still remain in our way. With reference to the precise points which +come particularly under the attention of this Society, and were brought +clearly before us at the last meeting, there are two or three on which +I wish to make a few observations. As to the Færöes, I apprehend there +is no great difficulty. As to Iceland, it is proposed to land the +cable at the south-east side of the island, to carry it across the +island, and start again from Reikiavik in order to communicate from +thence to Greenland. Now there, are we not unnecessarily encountering +very serious difficulties and incurring a great increase of +expenditure? It is true that it is possible to cross Iceland--perfectly +possible--but so experienced a traveller as Dr. Rae found that it was +not practicable without very great sacrifice of time, and encountering +great difficulties, to take that direct route pretty nearly from east +to west; but has he at all considered what the difficulties and cost +of laying down a telegraphic wire are? I think he has mentioned--every +traveller in Iceland has mentioned--that large district in the +interior of the island over which you must hurry as fast as your +horses can carry you, for the simple reason that there is nothing upon +which to live; and if you are to lay down a telegraph across that +interior desert of Iceland, you must be prepared for a vast number of +difficulties and an enormous amount of money, and time, and labour, +while they are doing it, and to accomplish it within a reasonable time. +But, furthermore, how is it to be done? If you require piles, you must +carry every pile into the island, across the island by horses, and +supposing you could hire every one of the horses, there are not enough +to enable you, in one or two seasons, to accomplish the work. And then, +again, I have not alluded to the difficulty which every voyager will +have encountered with respect to the breakers. Would it not be better +to confine the difficulties to one point alone,--the entrance into the +Faxe Fiord? I don’t know whether it is proposed to land it at that +point or not, but let the difficulties be confined to one point instead +of two. With reference to Labrador, even though it be true that we can +carry the 150 fathoms depth near to the coast, still that, my lord, may +be as formidable as ten, or twenty, or fifty miles in another place. If +it be a part of the coast on which there are icebergs, it is necessary, +it appears to me, not only to carry your 150 fathoms of water close in +shore, but you must get it safe behind some headland which will throw +aside the icebergs. May it not be possible that by making the line a +little longer, and running it into the strait of Belle Isle, the true +solution will be found? + + * * * * * + +SIR RODERICK MURCHISON:--If any Arctic geographer or voyager had been +prepared to rise, I would not have occupied the time of the Society +for one moment, upon a subject on which I know little. I will only say +I am one of the very many well-wishers to every expedition of this +sort which the Royal Geographical Society holds within its number. +My lord, we are not here, as you have very properly said, to discuss +the engineering merits of the project, nor are we really capable of +estimating the difficulties that have been apprehended by my friend Mr. +Ball; but we are capable of estimating, in a very decisive manner, the +facts that Sir Leopold M‘Clintock and Captain Sherard Osborn, who are +men of great experience as Arctic voyagers, have pronounced in favour +of this scheme. + +I make no observations upon the scheme, except to say that had I risen +at our last meeting, when your lordship adjourned the discussion to +this evening, I should have felt it necessary to say that we owe a +deep debt of obligation to those five gentlemen, who brought before +us on that occasion their well elaborated and well received papers. +They brought before us a mass of geographical knowledge which we never +could have possessed, had not this expedition been matured--I say it +to his honour--through the patronage of Lord Palmerston, and carried +out through the active enterprise of the gentlemen who undertook this +service. + +Being in favour of all such expeditions, the moment my distinguished +friend Captain Allen Young offered to go out in command of the little +“Fox,” in which you know I took a deep interest, I went down to +Southampton, to attend a great meeting assembled by the Mayor in honour +of this expedition. There Colonel Shaffner and Mr. Croskey, and the +other gentlemen associated with them, and the Danish officers and +others present received from us as Englishmen every encouragement we +could offer to promote this enterprise. + +My lord, the details of the two expeditions have been so admirably +laid before you that I, for one, should have been contented with the +results, if I were in any way embarked as a speculator in the success +of the undertaking. But not having any pecuniary interest in it, or in +any rival speculation, I may say to the gentlemen of the North Atlantic +Company, you have put your case so well before the public, that no +gentleman associated with other lines can say that it is possible to +have treated the subject in a more ingenuous and fair manner. (Hear, +hear, and applause.) + +And now, my lord, I cannot sit down without saying, it gave me very +great satisfaction to hear Dr. Rae expatiate, as he did, upon the +warm and hearty reception that he received from all the inhabitants +of the Danish settlement of the Færöe Islands and of Iceland. I say +this in the presence of the Danish minister; and I am sure Dr. Rae was +justified when he spoke in the name of Englishmen, of our gratitude to +the King of Denmark, and to the government of that country, for having +so warmly assisted us in one of those great enterprises, which may lead +us to connect America with our own country. (Applause.) + + * * * * * + +DR. RAE: My Lord,--The time allowed me at the last meeting of this +Society was necessarily so short, that I left unmentioned some +important points connected with my journey over Iceland; so I now beg +to say a few words in reply to the observations of Mr. Ball. + +The interior of Iceland over which we travelled is not devoid of grass, +there being sufficient for our horses throughout the whole route, +which offered comparatively few difficulties. Although two of the party +were heavy men, we crossed the island in thirteen or fourteen days, +riding the same horses at the rate of more than thirty miles per day. +These ponies can carry a load of 200 lbs. or upwards, and pieces of +wood ten or fifteen feet long can be carried by them over the highest +and steepest ground on the route. The best line for the telegraph lies +to the south of that we travelled over, and is marked on the chart by +a dotted line. Along this route there is abundance of water, and grass +also, except at one station, to supply which a depôt of hay could be +made. This portion of the way (about the centre of Iceland), called +the Sprengisandr road, is almost a flat table land. Again, some of the +larger rivers that flow northward appear to be navigable for boats +similar to those used in Hudson’s Bay, which carry from three to four +tons weight. By this means materials could be deposited at several +stations near to the proposed line. I do not profess to be a surveyor, +but having travelled a good deal both in the United States and Canada, +I have seen telegraphs carried over more difficult and rougher country +than we encountered in crossing Iceland. But should objections be +offered to carrying the telegraph completely across the island, I am +of opinion, from information obtained, that Portland, in the south of +Iceland, although no safe harbour for ships, would form a good landing +place for a cable. From Portland to Reikiavik the distance is not over +ninety miles, and the road offers no obstacles. The object of our +journey was not to make a minute or detailed survey, but to determine +if it were practicable to carry a telegraph over the island. (Applause.) + + + + +APPENDIX. + + + OPINIONS OF GREENLANDERS, ON THE PRACTICABILITY OF LAYING THE + TELEGRAPHIC CABLES UPON THE COAST OF SOUTH GREENLAND. + +The following extracts are taken from letters written in Greenland by +residents there, who have had much experience upon the coast. They +prove that the floe-ice is seen off the coast of Julianshaab in January +or February, and that sometimes during the summer months there is none +off the coast, and that every year, from and after the month of August +until January, “the coast is free from ice.” During the months that are +free from ice a steamer can enter or depart with the cable, and lay +it without the slightest interruption. The floe-ice runs north, along +and within sight of the coast, unless driven to sea by extraordinary +gales, which circumstance is always known. When it is driven to sea it +clusters together in small patches of a few hundred yards in length. + +The year 1860 was a remarkable era; there was a greater quantity of +ice, and it remained longer upon the coast, than ever before within +the memory of man or traditional accounts. Even during this year the +cables could have been safely landed in Julianshaab and other fiords. +Severe seasons occasionally occur in all climates, and so it has been +in England the present winter (1861). The first fourteen days were +colder than has been experienced since 1839, and it has been the third +occurrence of severe cold within this century. + + + _Extracts from a Letter dated Godthaab, Greenland, September 4th, + 1860, from Dr. Rink, Inspector (Governor) of South Greenland._ + +“I need not tell you how interesting your letter from Julianshaab, +of October, last year, was to me, and how much I regretted the +impossibility of meeting you. + +“I have thought much on your grand enterprise, and though I doubt very +much that the telegraph line can be carried across Greenland from +the east side, I am convinced that it can be landed in some of the +inlets (or fiords) in the vicinity of Cape Farewell, without fear of +interruption from ice. + +“The drift ice has been very bad this summer, and has deprived me of an +opportunity to meet you.” + + * * * * * + + _Extracts from a Letter dated Julianshaab, November 2nd, 1860, from + Mr. Möller, Governor of the Julianshaab District, a resident of + Greenland since 1825._ + +“As a general rule the first drift ice appears in the months of January +or February, but it is seldom of such extent as to reach further north +than this district. When it does so, it is in the spring months. + +“The Spitzbergen ice this year (1860) has beset the coast of this +district from the month of January, but at some times not so much as to +prevent vessels coming into this port. + +“The worst months were June and July and a part of August. The +reason that Col. Shaffner’s vessel was able to run into this port so +successfully in the autumn of last year (October 2nd, 1859), was that +the ice had long before entirely left the coast; in fact the ice had +gone away in August. + +“The Colonel’s ship, without the slightest hindrance, navigated the +coast in the month of September, and put to sea from near this harbour +in October 1859. But this year the ice has remained upon the coast +longer than ever before within my memory. The coast is usually free +from ice during the autumn months.” + + * * * * * + + _Extracts from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 11th, 1860, + from Mr. Twede, Governor of the Frederickshaab District, a resident + of Greenland since 1850._ + +“The ice off this coast has continued later this year than it has ever +before during my residence in Greenland. During the past ten years, and +before this season, the ice on the coast of this and the Julianshaab +Districts, with but one exception, has never prevented the Julianshaab +vessels from sailing direct to this place, and they have generally +arrived by the middle of August, and in 1855 on the 5th of July. Last +year the vessels proceeded direct from sea to Julianshaab, the ice +having disappeared off the coast early in the summer. + +“In September 1855, I sailed along the coast of Julianshaab District +beyond Cape Farewell to Itiblik, without having encountered any +floe ice whatever. In September 1859, Col. Shaffner’s ship was seen +steering along the coast, and subsequently anchored at Kaksimiut, in +the Julianshaab District, without any interruption from ice. The coast +during the autumn months is nearly always free from ice.” + + * * * * * + + _Extract from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 11th, 1860, from + the Rev. F. P. Barfoed, a resident of Greenland since 1852._ + +“During my residence in Greenland, I have never seen so much ice as +during the present year. Dr. Rink, the Inspector (Governor) of South +Greenland, and all other Danes and Greenlanders with whom I have +consulted on the subject, are unanimous in declaring that never before +within the memory of man has there been a year of so much ice as that +of 1860. + +“It is my opinion that both the east and the west coasts are every +year, at times, free from ice, but possibly not on both coasts at the +same time; and it is my decided opinion that a steamer will almost +always find an opportunity to proceed unobstructed, direct from and to +Julianshaab District, either from or to Labrador and Iceland, after, +and many times during, the month of August. In the month of September +1859, I saw Col. Shaffner’s vessel coasting southward, and in a few +days afterwards we heard that he had anchored at Kaksimiut in the +Julianshaab District. There was but little ice last year, and in an +especial manner was the Julianshaab District free from ice.” + + * * * * * + + _Statement of Mr. Motzfeldt, Superintendent at Kaksimiut, one of the + oldest residents in Greenland, November 1860._ + +“The year 1860 has been one of the worst ice years that we have ever +had. Last year (October 2nd, 1859), Colonel Shaffner’s ship entered +Kaksimiut without difficulty. In the months of September, October, and +November, generally, this coast is free from ice, and a steam vessel +can enter from the sea and depart from the coast almost any day, and +not be interrupted during the autumn months. I am now over fifty years +of age, and do not remember ever having seen an ice year as bad as this +(1860). Even this year the coast of the Julianshaab District has been +free from ice during the past and present months.” + + * * * * * + + _Extract from a Letter dated Julianshaab, November 3rd, 1860, from + J. Anderson, Captain in the Royal Greenland Commercial Service since + 1848._ + +“During eight years, I was boatswain to a merchant vessel trading +to this district, and during the last twelve years commander of the +district schooner ‘Activ,’ of 22 tons burthen. During those periods, I +have as an old sailor (for I have been forty years at sea) made many +careful observations as to the nature of the ice along this coast. I +have also kept a correct log (book which is now in the possession of +the Board of Management of the Royal Danish Commercial Institution of +Greenland), ever since the year 1849. + +“Having gone through that log book, and compared it with my own views, +I now express the opinion that, as a general rule, the ice mostly lies +on the coast during the months of April and May, and that, on the other +hand, the months which are free from ice are September, October, and +November. It may be taken as a general rule, that during the months of +September and October, even in what are called ‘bad ice years,’ this +coast is free from ice. + +“My own experience enables me to state positively--and my log book +will bear me out in the statement--that steam-vessels can run straight +into the settlement from the sea, with certainty, during the months +before mentioned; and, as a proof of the correctness of this opinion, +reference may be made to this very year, which, in regard to ice, to +my own knowledge, has been the worst and the longest in duration of +any ‘bad ice year’ since my arrival here in the year 1841. The large +vessel, ‘Bulldog,’ came straight to this place from sea; and since the +date of its arrival, up to the present time, any ship, be it what it +may, might have been equally able to make this port, from the sea, and +to leave it again without interruption from ice. + +“Last year (1859) an American barque came straight into Kaksimint, +which is a little to the north of this settlement; but that is not to +be wondered at, as last year was what we call here an ‘ice-free year;’ +and if the captain of that vessel had been acquainted with the coast +navigation, he might have easily come in and gone out more than twenty +times, and from as many places.” + + * * * * * + + _Extract from a Letter dated Julianshaab, October 23rd, 1860, + from Mr. Dorph, retired assistant from Nennortalik; I. Holm, + superintendent at Sardlok; M. Schonheyder, superintendent at East + Proven; and S. G. Lund, superintendent at South Proven._ + +“In compliance with the request made to us, we hereby declare that the +present year has been what is called, in Greenland, a ‘bad ice year.’ + +“The large ice remained an unusually long time at the shore. Neither of +us, nor any of the old Greenlanders with whom we have conversed on the +subject, remember ever having seen, in the course of our lives, the ice +remaining for so long a period along the coasts. + +“The ice lay so thick for so long a time that the hunters were +prevented thereby from performing their usual work, even in their +Kayaks. In the present year the ice set in from the first month, and +remained until September, when it disappeared. This coast is usually +free from ice during the autumn months, and vessels can enter and +depart without interruption from ice. + +“One of the undersigned, Mr. Dorph, who has resided in this district +during forty-one years, remembers well the year 1825, which was a +remarkable ‘bad ice year,’ but it was not such a ‘bad’ one as the year +1860.” + + * * * * * + + _Extract from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 12th, 1860, from + T. Ordrorpe and C. Fotel, Captains of vessels from Denmark._ + +“On the 19th of June (1860), at about eight miles from land off Cape +Farewell, we found much ice; on the 22nd, off Julianshaab, there was no +ice. The ice was in patches, more north, and the greater part of our +voyage on the coast, it was near to land. We were informed by the old +people of Godthaab, that during the past thirty years there has not +been any year with as much ice on the Greenland coast as the present, +1860.” + + + + + _Opinions of Lieut. von Zeilau, of the Royal Danish Army, and Arnljot + Olafsson, Member of the Icelandic Diet (both of whom accompanied + the “Fox” Telegraph Expedition in 1860), Commissioners appointed by + the Royal Danish Government, on the practicability of the proposed + telegraphic route._ + + +“We concur in the opinion that it is practicable to submerge or land +telegraph-cables at the places selected on the Færöe Islands, and also +to construct a line over-land there, and that in our opinion, cables, +when landed, will remain undisturbed. + +“We have the same opinion in regard to the landing and maintaining +cables on the coast of Iceland, and also that a line can be constructed +across Iceland with all reasonable prospects of permanency. + +“As regards Greenland, we give it as our decided opinion, based +upon our own observations and received information from the best +authorities, that cables can be safely laid from Greenland during the +autumn months, for instance, at the Igalikko (Julianshaab) Fiord, where +cables can be submerged beyond the reach of icebergs.” + + * * * * * + +Transcriber’s Notes: + +Footnotes have been moved to the end of the chapter and relabeled +consecutively. + +Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are +mentioned, except for the frontispiece map. + +Punctuation has been made consistent. + +Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in +the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors have +been corrected. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78797 *** diff --git a/78797-h/78797-h.htm b/78797-h/78797-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..72b05a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/78797-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3491 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> + <title> + The North Atlantic telegraph via the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; 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vertical-align: top; text-indent: -1.3em; padding-left: 1.3em;} +td.tocpage { text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom; padding-left: 1em;} + +.hangindent{ + text-indent: -1.5em; + padding-left: 1.5em; + text-align:left;} + +.hanglist{ + text-indent: -2.0em; + padding-left: 2.0em; + text-align:left;} + +/*CSS to set font sizes*/ +/*font sizes for non-header font changes*/ +.largefont{font-size: large} +.mediumfont{font-size: medium} +.smallfont{font-size: small} + +/*Fractions*/ +.fnum, .fden { font-size: .7em; } +.fnum { vertical-align: text-top } +.fden { vertical-align: text-bottom } + +.nowrap { + white-space:nowrap; + word-spacing:-0.2em; +} +/* End fractions */ + +/* Half-title page */ +#half-title{ + page-break-before: always; + page-break-after: always; + text-align: center; + font-size: x-large; + padding: 6em 0; +} + +/* >>+++ END ADDITIONS +++<< */ + +/* >>+++ START MODIFICATIONS +++<< */ + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 0.05em;} +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: top; + font-size: .66em; + text-decoration: none; +} + +/* >>+++ END MODIFICATIONS +++<< */ + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowp49 {width: 49%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp49 {width: 100%;} +.illowp47 {width: 47%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp47 {width: 100%;} +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} +.illowp54 {width: 54%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp54 {width: 100%;} + </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78797 ***</div> + + + +<figure class="figcenter illowp49" style="max-width: 106.0625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover."> +</figure> + +<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp47" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/title.jpg" alt="Title page."> +</figure> + +<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h1 style="line-height:1.2"> +<span class="largefont">THE</span><br> +<span style="word-spacing:0.25em">NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH</span><br> +<span class="mediumfont">VIA</span><br> +<span style="font-size:0.7em">THE FÆRÖE ISLES, ICELAND, AND GREENLAND.</span> +</h1> + + +<p class="center p3 largefont" style="line-height:1.75">PROCEEDINGS<br> +<span class="smallfont">OF THE</span><br> +ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN,<br> +<span class="smcap mediumfont">January 28th and February 11th, 1861</span>.</p> + +<p class="center largefont" style="line-height:1.5">REPORTS OF THE SURVEYING EXPEDITIONS,<br> +<span class="smallfont">ETC., ETC.</span></p> + +<p class="center p3">THE LORD ASHBURTON, PRESIDENT.</p> + +<p class="center p3" style="line-height:1.5">LONDON:<br> +<span class="largefont">EDWARD STANFORD, 6, CHARING CROSS.</span><br> +1861.</p></div> + + +<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center smallfont">LONDON:<br> +BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.</p></div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + <h2 class="nobreak"> + CONTENTS. + </h2> +</div> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="toc" style="border:0em; padding:0em; border-spacing:0em"> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td></td><td class="tocpage"><span class="smallfont">PAGE</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">I.</td><td class="toctitle">Introduction</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_I">7</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">II.</td><td class="toctitle">Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, Jan. 28th, 1861</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_II">13</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle">Remarks by the Lord Ashburton</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_IIa">14</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">III.</td><td class="toctitle">A paper on the Surveys of the Deep Seas, showing the +practicability of the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph +route; by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, late Commanding Her +Majesty’s ship “Bulldog.”</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_III">16</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">IV.</td><td class="toctitle">A paper on the Surveys of the Landing-places for the proposed +Telegraph, being a synopsis of the reports of Mr. +Allen Young, Commander of the “Fox” Expedition; +with other remarks by Sir Charles Bright</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_IV">29</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">V.</td><td class="toctitle">A paper on the Land Sections of the proposed Telegraph +over the Færöe Isles and Iceland; by Dr. John Rae, Commander +of the Land Expeditions</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_V">44</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">VI.</td><td class="toctitle">A paper on the Fiords of South Greenland; by Mr. J. W. +Tayler, late resident of Greenland for seven years</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VI">61</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">VII.</td><td class="toctitle">Remarks on the Electric Circuits of the proposed North +Atlantic Telegraph; by Col. Tal. P. Shaffner</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VII">67</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">VIII.</td><td class="toctitle">Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, Feb. 11th, 1861</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIII">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle">Remarks by The Lord Ashburton</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIIa">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle"><span style="padding-left:1.75em; padding-right:3.0em">”</span>Sir Edward Belcher, R.N.</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIIb">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle"><span style="padding-left:1.75em; padding-right:3.0em">”</span>Pliny Miles, Esq.</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIIc">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle"><span style="padding-left:1.75em; padding-right:3.0em">”</span>Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIId">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle"><span style="padding-left:1.75em; padding-right:3.0em">”</span>John Ball, Esq.</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIIe">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle"><span style="padding-left:1.75em; padding-right:3.0em">”</span>Sir Roderick Murchison</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIIf">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocchapter"></td><td class="toctitle"><span style="padding-left:1.75em; padding-right:3.0em">”</span>Dr. John Rae</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_VIIIg">86</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">IX.</td><td class="toctitle">Opinions of Residents of Greenland on the practicability of +laying Telegraph Cables upon the coast of Julianshaab +District</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_IX">89</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tocchapter">X.</td><td class="toctitle">Opinions of the Danish Commissioners on the practicability of +the proposed Telegraph Route</td><td class="tocpage"><a href="#Chapter_X">94</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + <h2 class="nobreak"> + MAPS, DIAGRAMS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.5">EXHIBITED AT THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, PERTAINING<br> + TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. + </p> +</div> + + +<p class="hanglist">1. <span class="smcap">A Large Spherical Map</span>, embracing the seas and lands to be +traversed by the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph; also of +the Continents of Europe and North America.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">2. <span class="smcap">A Map</span>, showing the rivers, lakes, geysers, mountains, glaciers, +plains, farms, and towns of Iceland; also the track travelled +over by Dr. John Rae, Commander of the Land Expedition of +the North Atlantic Telegraph, and of the proposed route of the +line across Iceland.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">3. <span class="smcap">A Large Map of the Færöe Isles</span>, and another of the Stromöe +Isle, showing the mountains, valleys, fiords, bays, and towns; +and the track travelled over by the Land Expedition, and the +route proposed for the Telegraph.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">4. <span class="smcap">A Map of the Atlantic Ocean</span>, with all the deep-sea soundings +taken by the British and American Governments north of the +Tropics, showing the superior favourable depths of the seas on +the North Atlantic Telegraph route.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">5. <span class="smcap">A Map of Greenland</span>, showing the mountains, islands, unexplored +regions, glaciers, and fiords, south of the Arctic Circle.</p> + +<p class="hanglist"><span class="pagenum">[5]</span></p> + +<p class="hanglist">6. <span class="smcap">A Large Map of Julianshaab District, South Greenland</span>, +showing the mountain ranges, groups of isles, the many long, +deep, and wide fiords in which the Telegraph Cables can be +safely laid, and beyond the reach of icebergs.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">7. <span class="smcap">Charts</span> of the various bays and fiords examined by Mr. Allen +Young, Commander of the “Fox” Expedition, and reported +by him as suitable and safe places for the landing of the cables +on the coasts of the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">8. <span class="smcap">Maps</span>, with the deep-sea soundings, taken by Sir Leopold +M‘Clintock, on the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph route, +viâ the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland; and with the +soundings taken by Commander Daymon on the route of the +late Atlantic Telegraph from Ireland to Newfoundland.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">9. <span class="smcap">A Diagram</span>, showing the mode of telegraphic manipulation over +air lines, with the earth forming half of the circuit, connecting +the respective voltaic batteries.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">10. <span class="smcap">A Large Diagram</span>, illustrating the mode of coupling together +two or more electric circuits by mechanical contrivances, so as to +overcome great distances by a combination of separate and +independent circuits, charged respectively by batteries; precisely +as can be practically applied and operated on the proposed +North Atlantic Telegraph.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">11. <span class="smcap">Model Stations</span>, with telegraphic apparatuses, representing +Europe, Færöe Isles, Iceland, Greenland and America; by +which dispatches were sent by the motion of the finger from +Europe to America, and simultaneously to the Færöe Isles, +Iceland, and Greenland, precisely as can be done on the proposed +North Atlantic Telegraph; so that dispatches need not +be re-written at the respective places, but sent instantaneously +from Europe to America, in the same manner as is daily done +from London to St. Petersburg, to Vienna, to Constantinople, +and other places far distant.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">12. <span class="smcap">A Chart</span> of the surveys of Hamilton’s Inlet and the sea adjacent +thereto, by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock’s expedition, showing that +<span class="pagenum">[6]</span>the water is sufficiently deep to permit a heavy shore cable to +lie in safety.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">13. <span class="smcap">One Hundred and Sixty Stereoscopic Views</span>, illustrating the +people, houses, churches, farms, towns, bays, mountains, valleys, +water-falls, geysers, and various subjects of interest on the +route of the proposed telegraph at the Færöe Isles, Iceland, +and Greenland; taken by Mr. John E. Woods, of the “Fox” +Expedition.</p> + +<p class="hanglist">14. <span class="smcap">Specimens</span> of deep-sea soundings, taken on the route of the proposed +telegraph, exhibited through microscopes. [These soundings +have been examined by the philosopher Ehrenberg, and +they prove his theory of life at the bottom of the ocean; and, +also that the bottoms of the respective seas are highly favourable +for the proposed telegraph.]</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 83.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/map.jpg" alt="Map showing the routes across the Atlantic Ocean for the North Atlantic telegraph cable and the Atlantic telegraph cable."> +</figure> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[7]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_I"> + <span class="mediumfont">THE</span><br> + NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. + </h2> +</div> + + +<p>The idea of laying down a telegraph line between Europe +and America, by what is now familiarly known as the North +Atlantic <em>route</em>, was advanced many years ago both in England +and America. In the year 1854 Colonel Shaffner of the United +States took steps towards the actual realisation of the project. +Owing, however, to the Russian war distracting public attention +at the time, and subsequently to the engrossing claims of the +attempt to carry a deep-sea cable direct from Ireland to Newfoundland, +it was not until within the last twelvemonths that +the British nation became acquainted with the proposed north-about +route, as offering the most practicable mode of effecting +Transatlantic telegraphic communication.</p> + +<p>The success which attended the laying of the cable between +Dover and Calais in 1851, gave an impetus to submarine telegraphy. +Cables were laid from time to time over various rivers +and arms of the seas; and as no instance of failure occurred, the +possibility of crossing the Atlantic itself came to be regarded +as a feasible project. There had been no manifestations in +electrical phenomena to cause any doubt as to the successful +transmission of the galvanic current through a cable of the +length required to connect the two continents, a distance of +2100 miles, until the latter part of the year 1853, when it was +<span class="pagenum">[8]</span>made known by that distinguished philosopher, Professor +Faraday, that the electric force is arrested in its transit through +very long cables. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that +this retardation is cumulative, increasing in a certain ratio in +proportion to the distance traversed; that is to say, while it +takes one-third of a second to transmit a current through a +cable 500 miles in length, it will take about a second to transmit +it 1000 miles. The discovery of this fact was considered by +many electricians both in England and America to be a fatal +obstacle to the commercial success of working a cable from +Europe to America direct.</p> + +<p>Among the most prominent who held this opinion was +Colonel Shaffner of America. And early in the year 1855 +we find that he published his opinion in the following language, +which up to the present time he continues to entertain, viz.: “I +will not say that a galvanic or magnetic electrical current can +never be sent from Newfoundland to Ireland; but, I do say +that, with the present discoveries of science, I do not believe +it practicable for telegraph service.” That gentleman had +devoted himself to the science and art of electric telegraphy +for many years, and had been the pioneer of the telegraph +in the Western States, where under his guidance the wires +were extended to the verge of civilisation in the West +as early as 1851. By 1850 his name stood high as one of the +first telegraphic engineers of the United States. A short time +after Professor Faraday’s lecture, he started the project of a +telegraphic communication between the two continents by a +series of short stages, in preference to a continuous line carried +right across the ocean. His original idea was to connect +Europe generally with America, and he accordingly proposed +to carry his line from Labrador to Greenland, from Greenland +to Iceland and the Færöe Islands, and from the Færöe Islands +to Norway, and thence to Copenhagen. He visited Europe for +<span class="pagenum">[9]</span>the purpose of securing the necessary concessions, and in August +1854 obtained one from the King of Denmark, and others +from the Governments of Sweden and Norway in the following +year. Thus, at the time when the question of a connection by +telegraph with America had been but scarcely entertained in this +country, Colonel Shaffner had already laid down a route, availing +himself of those natural stepping-stones which Providence +had placed across the ocean in the North, and thus evading many +of the difficulties and risks which it was predicted would be +encountered in the direct sea route.</p> + +<p>Subsequently, when the difficulties connected with that route +came to be demonstrated by actual trial, Colonel Shaffner, with +a view to meet the urgent wants of the British mercantile community, +resolved upon diverting the European end of the cable +from Norway to Scotland, which was cheerfully accorded by +the Government of Denmark. In 1859 he took another +important step in the execution of his project, which was to +explore personally the intended route by Greenland and Iceland. +He conceived he had good grounds for believing that the ice +of Labrador and Greenland would not imperil the safety of a +cable laid on the bed of the sea, provided the shore-end could +be properly secured, and that there was nothing in the electrical +conditions of the Northern regions to interfere with the working +of the telegraph. He, accordingly, chartered a small sailing +vessel, and embarking with his family on board, put forth from +Boston on the 29th of August, 1859, for the purpose of making +this preliminary survey. He landed at Glasgow in November +of that year, and presented to the public the results of his +voyage, at a meeting over which presided the Dean of Guild, +Mr. Buchanan. The observations made and facts collected on +that voyage gave the public reason to hope that telegraphic +communication could be established by way of the proposed +route, and so satisfied were his friends in London with the +<span class="pagenum">[10]</span>advantages held out, that funds necessary to secure the undertaking +were promptly found.</p> + +<p>During the voyage above referred to, Colonel Shaffner +sounded the deep seas to be traversed by the telegraph between +Labrador and Greenland, and between Greenland and Iceland. +These and other observations have been most singularly corroborated +by the more recent Government survey by Sir Leopold +M‘Clintock, and by that of Mr. Allen Young, commander of +the “Fox” Expedition.</p> + +<p>In the course of the spring of 1860, Colonel Shaffner read +a paper on the proposed North Atlantic Telegraph to the +members of the Royal Geographical Society, and every assistance +was rendered, under the able direction of the President, +Earl de Grey, Sir Roderick Murchison, and the Secretary, +Dr. Norton Shaw. On the 15th of May, Lord Palmerston +granted an audience to an influential deputation, headed by the +Right Hon. Milner Gibson, and four other members of the +House of Commons, to solicit the assistance of Government in +sending out ships and officers to make the necessary official +survey for ascertaining the practicability of the proposed route. +The Premier appeared fully to appreciate the advantages of +the north-about scheme, and in a very short time the Admiralty +were directed to send out an expedition for the purpose of +making the required survey.</p> + +<p>The Admiralty selected for this duty Captain Sir Francis +Leopold M‘Clintock, an officer of great experience in the +navigation of the Arctic Seas, and Her Majesty’s steamer +“Bulldog” was placed under his command. This distinguished +officer was directed to take the deep-sea soundings, and he +sailed from Portsmouth on his mission in June, 1860. In the +meantime, the promoters of the enterprise purchased the +“Fox,” the yacht formerly employed in the successful search +for the remains of the Franklin expedition, and fitted her out +<span class="pagenum">[11]</span>for the purpose of making the surveys of the landing places of +the respective cables. The “Fox” was placed under the +command of Captain Allen Young, of the mercantile marine, +an officer well known for his distinguished labours under +M‘Clintock in the Franklin search. At the same time, +Dr. Rae, an intrepid Arctic explorer, volunteered his services +to join the “Fox,” and take charge of the overland expeditions +in the Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland. Whilst +Colonel Shaffner, as Concessioner and Telegrapher, and two +delegates on the part of the Danish Government, Lieutenant +Von Zeilau and Arnljot Olafsson, a member of the Icelandic +Diet, accompanied the “Fox” Expedition, to take part in +the necessary surveys.</p> + +<p>Before the departure of the “Fox,” which sailed on July +18th, 1860, Her Majesty the Queen, the Prince Consort, and +other members of the Royal Family, honoured the enterprise +by a visit to that vessel, while lying off Osborne, and took a +lively interest in the details of the expedition.</p> + +<p>The “Bulldog” returned to England in November, and the +“Fox” arrived towards the latter part of the same month. +Both expeditions, notwithstanding an unusually tempestuous +season, were successfully carried out, and on the evening of +Monday, the 28th January, in the present year, the results of +their labours, as well as those of Dr. Rae and Colonel Shaffner, +with a report upon the Greenland Fiords, by Mr. J. W. Tayler, +a resident on that coast for seven years, were presented to the +members of the Royal Geographical Society.</p> + +<p>The respective papers were received with repeated applause, +and every possible manifestation was given, indicating the confidence +of those present in the practicability of the enterprise. +At the subsequent meeting, February 11th, a discussion upon +the papers took place, on which occasion the promoters and +others engaged in this great undertaking were enthusiastically +<span class="pagenum">[12]</span>congratulated upon their most triumphant success, in proving +the practicability of the proposed telegraphic route, <i lang="la">viâ</i> the +Færöe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland.</p> + +<p>Before closing these remarks it is but justice to notice the +assistance given to the enterprise by Mr. Joseph Rodney +Croskey, of London. This gentleman not only advanced the +100,000 rix dollars caution money paid to the Danish Government, +but he also made the requisite advances for the purchase +of the “Fox,” fitting her out for the late Expedition, and all +the preliminary expenses up to the present time.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[13]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_II"> + THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.</h2> + <p class="center largefont"><span class="smcap">Monday Evening, January 28, 1861.</span> + </p> +</div> + + +<p>A crowded meeting of the members and their friends +assembled at Burlington House, on Monday, January 28th, to +receive the Reports of the late Expeditions for the survey of +the North Atlantic Telegraph route.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lord Ashburton</span>, President of the Society, in the Chair.</p> + +<p>Among the many distinguished and influential personages +present were Sir R. I. Murchison, His Excellency the Danish +Minister M. de Billé, Count Apponyi, Sir Walter Trevelyan, Admiral +Sir Thomas Herbert, General Portlock, R.E., Lord Alfred +Churchill, M.P., Sir Thomas Fremantle, Sir H. Maxwell, +Sir John Login, Sir Charles Bright, Captains Collinson and +Ommanney, Sir F. L. M‘Clintock, Sir F. Nicolson, Sherard +Osborn, J. Stopford, G. A. Bedford, Byron Drury, A. Ryder, +and Pike, R.N., Hon. A. Kinnaird, M.P., Mr. J. Wyld, M.P., +Mr. Cornelius Grinnell, of New York, Dr. Hamel, of Russia, +Colonels Loyd and Cartwright, Major Edwards, R.E., Captains +Sydney Webb, C. Johnston, R. Burton, Claude Clerk, E. M. +Jones, and D. J. Herd, Drs. Ogle, Lister, Bennett, Bigsby, +and M‘Cosh, Messrs. J. R. Croskey, J. E. Davis, W. J. Hamilton, +J. Crawfurd, Brooking, C. White, R. Bentley, J. Murray, C. V. +Walker, George Saward, Arrowsmith, E. O. Smith, Cook, Gould, +Vaux, Finlay, Rev. C. P. Wilbraham, and Colonel Shaffner, Dr. +Holland, Pliny Miles, and Geo. F. Train, of the United States.</p> + +<p>Sir Charles Bright, General Eber, the Rev. C. J. Fynes +Clinton, Consul C. P. Hodgson, of Japan, the Rev. E. H. Mainwaring +<span class="pagenum">[14]</span>Sladen, the Marquis of Sligo, the Rev. C. Hill Wallace, +the Rev. S. E. Wharton, Lieutenant A. S. Windus, R.N., and +James Aiken, Walter Brodie, James Campbell, John E. Davis, +R.N., N. Vaughan Edwards Vaughan, J. Wilson Holme, John +Learmouth, Alexander Macmillan, George Newman, G. H. +Oliphant Ferguson, Julius Reuter, Frederick Simpson, Ronald +Thomson of Tehran, John Walker, and W. Warder were +elected Fellows.</p> + + +<h3 id="Chapter_IIa">THE NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH.</h3> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lord Ashburton</span>.—The subjects for our consideration +to-day are of so interesting a character, that I should be doing +unwisely if I were to occupy your time beyond a few moments, +in making such preliminary observations as are expected from +your President.</p> + +<p>The papers which are about to be read relate altogether to +the physical and geographical facts upon which the proposition +has been based for the extension of the Electric Telegraph +line between this country and America, by the route of the +Færöe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador. It comes +especially within the province of the Royal Geographical +Society to receive and to record those facts as purely belonging +to the science of Physical Geography. We are so fortunate as +to have a great many labourers working for us in the field of +geography; some who have been sent out by the Society, +like Speke and Livingstone, are doing our work, and at the +same time doing work for many other societies. We have +labourers also not less diligent, and not less useful to us as +well as to the world: they are those who are occupied in other +pursuits, but who come to us to record the facts they have +<span class="pagenum">[15]</span>observed, and to enable us to treasure them up as the material +for future research.</p> + +<p>Among the labours of this class, not the least valuable are +the researches which we are met to record to-day. They were +undertaken not for the purpose of acquiring geographical +knowledge simply, but in order to carry out the great and +beneficent scheme of connecting the two continents of Europe +and America by means of telegraphic communication. Yet, at +the same time that we receive these facts, we must take care +not to suffer ourselves to be led away into that which is +altogether out of our province, an attempt to pronounce any +judgment upon the value of that scheme. That is a question +for others to decide, not for us.</p> + +<p>Therefore, whilst we ourselves may look upon the facts that +may be presented to us with philosophic calmness, there may, +on the other hand, be those who are so deeply interested in +the material success of electric telegraph connection with +America, as to be drawn into an eager contest to set up the +merits of one scheme in preference to those of another. +Should there be any gentlemen present prepared to carry these +feelings into the discussion, I feel assured they will remember +this, that it is those who are beaten that generally complain, +and that the man who is the winner at chess is not the man to +throw the pieces at his adversary’s head. I believe we shall +have no symptoms of distress exhibited; that we shall not +have anybody manifesting the conviction passing in his mind +that he is worsted in the argument.</p> + +<p>I will now call upon Sir Leopold M‘Clintock to read the +first paper that is set down on the list.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[16]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_III"> + SURVEY OF THE DEEP SEAS,</h2> + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.5"><span class="smallfont">AND OTHER OBSERVATIONS; BY</span><br> + <span class="largefont">CAPTAIN SIR F. LEOPOLD M‘CLINTOCK, R.N., + LL.D., F.R.G.S.,</span><br> + <span class="smallfont">LATE COMMANDING HER MAJESTY’S SHIP “BULLDOG.”</span> + </p> +</div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir Leopold M‘Clintock</span> then read the following paper:</p> + +<p>In compliance with a request from the promoters of the +North Atlantic Telegraph Route, her Majesty’s Government +dispatched the “Bulldog” under my command, on the 1st of +July last, with orders to ascertain the depth of the ocean, and +as far as possible the nature of the bottom, between the Færöe +Islands and Iceland, Iceland and Greenland, and between +Greenland and Hamilton Inlet on the Labrador coast. I was +also directed, should my time permit, to make a slight examination +of that inlet—being British territory;—but in no other +instance did my duty extend to the examination of any of the +coasts I was required to approach.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Hamilton Inlet, none of the positions +for the shore-ends of the proposed lengths of cable were suggested +when I sailed from England. The duty of selecting them +was subsequently entrusted, by the promoters of this Telegraph +Route, to Captain Allen Young, in the “Fox”; consequently, +my lines of soundings have not in every instance been carried +in from the deep sea, so as to unite exactly with the coast +explorations of Captain Young.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[17]</span></p> + +<p>Although my visit to the Færöe Islands was not for the purpose +of making any examination of their shores, yet I could +not fail to observe that a submarine cable, in connection with +the main island, and a land-wire across it, could be maintained +with perfect ease.</p> + +<p>In my official report to the Secretary of the Admiralty, +written previously to my return to England, and which I shall +have frequent occasion to quote, I have remarked that on +landing at Thorshaven, the chief town of the islands, I +observed that the little bays near it afforded ample shelter and +security for any cable landed within them.</p> + +<p>The best harbour in the group is Westmanshaven, but it is +situated in a channel through which the tide runs fully six +miles an hour, and for this reason it would not be advisable to +bring the cable there.</p> + +<p>I was informed that the channel between the islands of +Stromöe and Osteröe is almost obstructed in the middle, being +contracted to fifty or eighty yards; hence there can be but a +very slight flow of tide through it, and upon this account I +would seek a landing-place for the Iceland cable near to the +north-west outlet of this channel, at Haldervig or Eide.</p> + +<p>Leaving the Færöe Isles on the 6th of July, we sounded +across towards Ingolfshofde upon the S.E. shore of Iceland, a +distance of 280 miles, and found the depth to be generally less +than 300 fathoms, the greatest depth being 680 fathoms. The +specimens of the bottom consisted, chiefly, of fine sand, or +mud and broken shells, and in two instances, of minute volcanic +debris; the temperature of the sea at 100 fathoms below the +surface scarcely varied from 46°.</p> + +<p>The depth of water upon this section of the telegraph route +is so moderate, that it would be an easy matter to lay down a +cable between Færöe and Iceland.</p> + +<p>Since my return I find that Beru Fiord, upon the east coast +<span class="pagenum">[18]</span>of Iceland, has been examined with a view to its selection as +the landing-place for a cable; it is about eighty miles to the +north-east of Ingolfshofde, and has the advantage of being +somewhat nearer to Færöe.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of July I arrived at Reikiavik, the chief town of +Iceland; an expected supply of coals had not arrived, therefore +I remained only three days, but returned again in October, +when my stay extended from the 19th to the 28th. During +these visits I obtained some interesting information about its +physical aspect, its climatic condition, and the movements of +the ice in the adjacent seas. I was informed that a telegraphic +wire could not be carried along the south shore eastward of +Portland, on account of the many wide rivers which have their +sources amidst the mountains and glaciers of the interior. +These rivers are much swollen in spring, when they carry down +vast quantities of ice, and sometimes change their beds; but +to the north of the central mountains no such difficulty would +be experienced.</p> + +<p>The east and west coasts are very seldom visited by drift-ice, +not oftener than seven or eight times in each century, +whilst it is only upon two or three of these occasions that the +drift of Arctic ice is sufficiently extensive to reach the south +coast. True icebergs are <em>never</em> seen; the masses sometimes +mistaken for them are small enough to float in comparatively +shallow water, so that a cable would remain undisturbed at the +bottom, its shore end being carried into a fiord. Faxe Bay, +on the south-west coast, enjoys a remarkable exemption from +drift-ice; the last mention of its appearance within it is as +long ago as 1683; neither does it freeze over—merchant vessels +trade there throughout the winter. A cable could therefore be +landed in this bay with perfect ease and security, and probably +to the westward of Reikiavik.</p> + +<p>The entire population of Iceland scarcely exceeds 60,000 +<span class="pagenum">[19]</span>souls. Education is perhaps more generally diffused than in +any other country, and the topographical maps recently published +by the Danish government delineate its features most +fully, and with the greatest possible accuracy, and would +greatly facilitate the survey of a land-line.</p> + +<p>Although Iceland is considerably larger than Ireland, and is +of volcanic origin throughout, yet for long ages the disturbance +occasioned by its subterranean fires has been limited almost +exclusively to its south-western quarter, where Hecla is occasionally, +and Katla has been very recently, in an active state, +and where Geysers and boiling springs are numerous; nor is the +adjacent sea free from like convulsions. In 1783, a submarine +volcano burst forth in a probable depth of 200 fathoms, about +thirty miles off the S.W. extreme of the island; by it a new +islet was formed; it soon after subsided, but still exists under +water as a dangerous sunken rock. This volcano was again +active in 1830;⁠<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> its action appears to have been very limited, +and within four leagues of it stands the time-honoured +“Grenadiers Cap,” a basaltic column, eighty feet above the +sea; within 500 or 600 yards of this most remarkable rock the +“Bulldog” sounded in seventy fathoms.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the telegraph route is not required to pass, by +sea or land, through any part of this disturbed or suspected +area.</p> + +<p>Five days of very calm weather enabled us to complete the +line of soundings between Faxe Bay and the south-east coast of +Greenland.</p> + +<p>The depths generally were very regular, the greatest being +1572 fathoms, and situated in mid-channel; but when +within forty miles of Greenland the depth decreased from +<span class="pagenum">[20]</span>806 fathoms to 228 fathoms, in the short distance of <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></span> +geographical miles.</p> + +<p>The nature of the bottom was chiefly oaze, that is fine mud +partly consisting of minute organic remains, but near to Iceland, +volcanic mud and sand was more frequently brought up.</p> + +<p>The temperature of the sea at 100 fathoms below the surface +gradually diminished from 46° near Iceland, to 39° off the +Greenland coast.</p> + +<p>Circumstances which it is unnecessary to allude to here prevented +me from commencing, before 18th August, the line of +soundings between the S.W. coast of Greenland, and Hamilton +Inlet on the Labrador coast,—a distance of 550 miles.</p> + +<p>The Greenland shore was still blockaded by such a vast +accumulation of drift-ice that we could not approach within 45 +miles of it, at which distance the depth was ascertained to be +1175 fathoms. This line of soundings to Hamilton Inlet shows +that the greatest depth,—which is in mid-channel,—is 2032 +fathoms; and that the decrease is very gradual until within about +80 miles of Labrador, where there is a change from about 900 +fathoms to 150 fathoms in 7 or 8 miles.</p> + +<p>The ocean bed consisted of oaze, but with fewer microscopic +organisms than previously met with, whilst the average temperature +of the sea at 100 fathoms below the surface was 40°.</p> + +<p>Seven days were all I could devote to the examination +of Hamilton Inlet. Its length was found to be 120 miles, +whilst its width varies from about 15 miles at its mouth, to +scarcely half a mile at “the Narrows,” which are about half way +up to its head, and above which it expands into an inland sea of +about 20 miles in width. All this great inlet was rapidly explored, +its main channel from “the Narrows” to seaward was +sounded, and the whole laid down by Mr. Reed, master and +assistant-surveyor, with sufficient accuracy for ordinary purposes; +but these soundings are not nearly sufficient to meet +<span class="pagenum">[21]</span>the requirements of a cable-route, nor even to decide whether a +cable should be landed there.</p> + +<p>We found the depths to be very irregular, and seldom sufficient +to secure a submerged cable from disturbance by icebergs. +A perfect survey is absolutely necessary, and may show that +the shallow water and reefs of rocks which to our imperfect +knowledge appeared intricate and unfavourable, may not only be +avoided, but may afford a sure protection against the intrusion +of icebergs within the mouth of the inlet.</p> + +<p>There are some small rocky islets off the mouth of this inlet, +and of these the Hern Islets lie nearly in the middle and contract +the widest channel of entrance to about 5 miles; the +greatest depth obtained in this channel was 49 fathoms. Had +the depth of water amounted to 70 fathoms in as far as this +position, I would not hesitate in pronouncing favourably of +Hamilton Inlet as a terminus to the cable from Greenland.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the local information which I obtained +here was kindly furnished by Captain Norman, a Newfoundland +merchant who has traded here each successive summer for +24 years; during the summer he resides at Indian Harbour, +at the north entrance of the inlet, where there is a secure +anchorage for vessels of moderate size. Captain Norman states +that icebergs very rarely enter the mouth of Hamilton Inlet, +and never pass within the Hern Islets; and for these reasons: +1st, that the current which has borne them from the north is +here deflected off-shore by the Esquimaux Islands, and carries +them past the mouth of the inlet; and 2ndly, that the flow of +water caused by the discharge of several large rivers into the +inlet, still further aids in carrying the drift-ice and icebergs out +to seaward.</p> + +<p>During winter and spring this drifting ice prevents all access +to Labrador, but by June, Hamilton Inlet is usually quite free +from it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[22]</span></p> + +<p>From Captain Norman I also learnt that the deepest water +along the coast is off Cape Harrison, and that a large river runs +into Byron Bay adjoining it; moreover, Sloop Harbour (which +is close to the river) is said to be an excellent one. Unfortunately +my time was too limited to admit of any examination of +this promising locality. It is very desirable to obtain more +information respecting the ice and icebergs upon this coast. +It could be furnished by the Newfoundland traders and seal-fishers +and perhaps by persons in the employ of Messrs. Hunt, +Henley & Co., of 8, Broad Street Buildings, E.C., a firm which +has maintained an extensive establishment near to Hamilton +Inlet for a very long period, fifty or sixty years I believe. In +addition to these sources of information, there are intelligent +Moravian missionaries, whose settlements on the Labrador +coast have existed for more than one hundred years.</p> + +<p>The shores of Hamilton Inlet appear bold, rocky, and almost +devoid of vegetation when viewed from the sea; as we advance +up it, the land becomes lower, the undulations more gentle, +verdure and trees appear, and at its head the whole country is +densely covered with spruce, white pine, and white birch, but the +tallest trees do not exceed forty feet.</p> + +<p>I was informed that the interior is similarly wooded, and has +an exceedingly scanty population of Indians, allied to the Cree +nation; they all profess Christianity, and are a strictly honest +quiet race.</p> + +<p>The residents along the shores of this great inlet are of +European or mixed blood, and do not amount to 200 souls. +During summer they catch codfish, herrings, and salmon; +and in winter they are occupied in trapping fur-bearing +animals.</p> + +<p>At the Hudson Bay trading post upon North-west River, at +the head of the inlet, I met Mr. Smith, the gentleman in +charge, who kindly supplied me with the only information +<span class="pagenum">[23]</span>respecting the interior that I was able to obtain. He seemed +to think there would be no difficulty in carrying a wire from +here overland to Mingan, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The +Indians frequently travel from one place to the other, the +distance not exceeding 250 miles. Should the cable be taken +to this inlet, I would suggest that it be landed upon the south +shore, to seaward of “the Narrows,” as the tides run through +them with very great velocity. All other parts of the inlet +freeze over to a depth of three feet, for the winters are very +severe. The summers, though short, are no less remarkable +for their warmth. At Northwest River barley and oats +ripen, and potatoes and other vegetables grow tolerably well. +Mosquitoes are such an intolerable plague, especially to +new comers, that unless their faces are carefully veiled or +smeared with camphorated oil, brimstone ointment, or dilute +creosote, they cannot either repel or endure their bloodthirsty +attacks.</p> + +<p>Leaving Labrador on the 17th September, I returned to +Greenland for the purpose of completing such soundings as the +drift ice had previously compelled me to leave undone. Being, +moreover, very desirous of meeting the “Fox,” and of ascertaining +from Captain Young where the cables were to be landed, +so that I might continue the deep-sea soundings in to those +positions, I visited the settlement of Julianshaab on the 29th +September, but no information could there be obtained of the +“Fox.”</p> + +<p>The season was very remarkable for the great quantity of +drift ice which encumbered the shore, and had hitherto prevented +vessels from approaching Julianshaab; in fact, so much +ice had not been known for nearly 30 years.</p> + +<p>This coast, I may remark, is usually quite free from ice by +September.</p> + +<p>Following up my inquiries, I learnt that the climate is not +<span class="pagenum">[24]</span>nearly so severe as is generally supposed, the fiords are only +partially frozen over in winter; a few cows, goats, and poultry +are reared: and although the summers are cold, turnips, +spinach, lettuce, and radishes grow in the open air.</p> + +<p>I was informed that the large fiord of Tessermiut, which lies +midway between Julianshaab and Cape Farewell, was the most +likely place to afford security for a cable: that icebergs +never came into it, and that there would be found ample +depth of water from it out to sea; also that there is safe +anchorage in a spacious bay near its mouth as well as high up +in the fiord.</p> + +<p>On 3rd October I put to sea, intending to sound into Tessermiut +Fiord should the ice permit; but it was with difficulty we +got out, for a S.E. wind had brought up much more ice from +Cape Farewell, and prevented our approaching within 40 miles +of Tessermiut or the adjoining coast; and the ship sustained +considerable damage from unavoidable collisions with the ice +before she got clear out to sea.</p> + +<p>It is well known that a current from the North Atlantic +Ocean bears along with it all this ice round Cape Farewell, and +up the west coast of Greenland for several hundred miles. +It carries the drift-ice for the most part along the outer islands, +and it is only when there is a strong wind blowing in from the +sea, that the ice comes in between the islands and enters the +fiords; it is almost exclusively low or flat ice which thus drifts +in, the larger masses and icebergs, which draw more water, +nearly always keep themselves in the main stream along the +outer islands.</p> + +<p>It is evident, that were a cable brought in from the deep +water existing outside and between these islands, and carried +sufficiently far up a deep fiord, its security from icebergs would +be insured; and that to protect the mere shore-end from the +ordinary flat ice would be a matter of no great difficulty.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[25]</span></p> + +<p>Since my return to England I have received a letter from +the Resident Inspector of South Greenland, the well known +Dr. Rink, whose writings on Greenland have added so largely +to our knowledge of the physical condition of that great arctic +continent. The opinion of such a man deserves serious attention, +since it is scarcely possible to quote a higher authority +upon the point in question. I therefore do so almost in his +own words.</p> + +<p>“I have thought much,” he writes, “over the proposed route +for the North Atlantic Telegraph; at first I doubted the possibility +of accomplishing it, but now I am of a contrary opinion. +You can lay down the cable from Iceland round Cape Farewell +into some fiord upon the south-west coast, where ice cannot +ground upon it, or touch it except for a few fathoms out from +the shore, and this last part may be easily protected. But to +carry the wire across the interior of Greenland, as I have +heard of, would be impracticable.” This letter was written +in Greenland, before either the “Bulldog” or “Fox” had +arrived there, and experience has since shown the necessity for +acting in accordance with the suggestion of Dr. Rink. The +length of cable required to unite Iceland with West Greenland +will be about 800 miles.</p> + +<p>Finding that nothing more could be done upon the Greenland +coast, I commenced a line of soundings towards Rockall, +but a succession of tremendous storms and want of fuel +prevented the completion of this service. One of the few +casts obtained deserves particular mention; the depth was +first ascertained to be 1260 fathoms: then a sounding machine +was lowered to obtain a specimen of the bottom, and about +fifty fathoms of line more than the depth required was payed +overboard, to insure its being down. On hauling it in, +several small star-fishes were found adhering to that part of +the line which had lain upon the bottom! The nearest land at +<span class="pagenum">[26]</span>the time was Iceland, and it was 250 miles distant. I simply +mention this interesting fact, which I witnessed, leaving it to +be enlarged upon by Dr. Wallich, the able naturalist of the +Expedition, who is still employed by the Admiralty in the +microscopic examination of our specimens of the sea-bottom. +The result of his investigations (which will be published +hereafter) may be of great importance to Marine Telegraphy, +proving, as it will do, the existence of animal life at very great +depths.</p> + +<p>We are aware that the coating of a Mediterranean cable was +attacked by minute creatures allied to the ordinary Teredo,⁠<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> at +the depth of sixty or seventy fathoms, and should it be found +that similar boring animals exist in great depths, it will become +imperative to protect the insulation of the wire against their +ravages; but time does not admit of a digression from the +object of this paper, which is simply to lay before you my experience +and opinion with regard to the physical aspect of the +proposed route; it may not, however, be out of place to mention, +that the great pressure exerted at depths approaching to 2000 +fathoms is sufficient to squeeze the tar freely out of rope: +could we recover a cable from these depths, we would find +the tar similarly expressed from its canvas wrappings. If +the tar used were of a sufficiently viscid description to +harden and remain coated upon the wrappings, it would +probably afford quite a sufficient protection against these +destructive creatures.</p> + +<p>Once laid in deep water, the North Atlantic Cable will probably +be more secure and more durable than any other; as it +will lie at the bottom of a sea where the temperature is unusually +low, and where animal life is proportionately rare.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[27]</span></p> + +<p>If, during the coming summer a final selection and survey +of a landing place in Greenland be made, all that will +remain to complete the entire route will be a landing position +in Labrador; and that a cable can be safety landed upon some +part of this coast, if not in Hamilton Inlet, it is hardly possible +to doubt.</p> + +<p>Judging then from my own experience, and from the facts +which the voyage of the “Bulldog” has brought to light,—many +of which are supported by the most reliable local authorities,—I +am of opinion that with regard to the practicability of laying a +North Atlantic cable, there are no grounds for serious misgivings; +on the contrary, nearly all the information which has +so far been ascertained is of a kind favourable to the accomplishment +of the undertaking.</p> + +<p>That there is usually impenetrable ice upon the south-west +coast of Greenland for eight months out of the twelve,—(<i lang="la">i.e.</i> from +January until September,)—we are well aware; and hence originates +the chief difficulty of the route. It is obvious that the +Greenland cables cannot possibly be laid down whilst this ice +remains upon the coast; but in ordinary seasons it does not +clear away until Autumn is far advanced, and stormy weather +becomes frequent. This difficulty, I apprehend, however, is +not an insuperable or extraordinary one, since it is common to +all similar operations at sea, requiring for their accomplishment +a like period of four or five consecutive days.</p> + +<p>I have assumed that the ice ceases to obstruct the south-west +shore of Greenland about the middle of September; but we can +no more predict its movements, than we can foretel the temperatures +of the seasons, and the winds by which those movements +are governed.</p> + +<p>Exceptional seasons occur when it would be imprudent to +attempt laying a Greenland cable: also rare seasons when it +could be laid as early as July: again, there are seasons when +<span class="pagenum">[28]</span>the icedrifts are detached from each other so that vessels watching +their opportunity may freely pass, into harbour, or out to +sea, during the summer months.</p> + +<p>In order to meet these ever-varying circumstances, it is the +more necessary that the utmost caution be observed in all +matters connected with the laying down of the Greenland +lengths of the great cable; that the most suitable steamers +be selected, and the highest engineering and nautical skill +be employed.</p> + +<p>And that this country possesses all the needful appliances, +and the amount of professional talent requisite for the accomplishment +of this great undertaking, is no more to be doubted, +than that she possesses men of sagacity to appreciate its vast +utility, and of commercial enterprise to bring about so desirable +an issue within the next two or three years.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[29]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IV"> + SURVEY OF THE LANDING-PLACES</h2> + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.75"><span class="smallfont">FOR THE PROPOSED CABLES; REPORTED BY</span><br> + <span class="largefont">ALLEN YOUNG, <span class="smcap">Esq.</span>, F.R.G.S.,</span><br> + <span class="smallfont">COMMANDER OF THE STEAM YACHT “FOX” EXPEDITION;</span><br> + <span class="smallfont">WITH REMARKS BY</span><br> + SIR CHARLES BRIGHT, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. + </p> +</div> + + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lord Ashburton</span>.—The next is Sir Charles Bright’s +paper upon Captain Allen Young’s Reports, which will be read +by Mr. Galton, viz.:</p> + +<p>I have been requested by the promoters of the North +Atlantic Telegraph to present to the Royal Geographical +Society, a synopsis of the report which has been handed +to me by Captain Allen Young, upon his recent voyage in the +steam yacht “Fox,” and his careful and elaborate survey of +the proposed telegraphic route between Europe and America, +by way of the Færöes, Iceland, and Greenland. The history +of this important undertaking, up to the present date, will +probably be familiar to the minds of most persons present, and +I will therefore commence with the departure of the “Fox” +from Southampton, on the 19th June, for the Færöes, where +she arrived on the 3rd of August.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[30]</span></p> + + +<h3>FÆRÖE ISLANDS.</h3> + +<p>This most interesting group of isles, the capital of which +is Thorshaven, lies some 200 miles north of Scotland, and is +under the authority of the Danish Crown. I will not occupy +the time of the Society in discussing the political, physical, +or other characteristics of these islands, but proceed at once +to quote some interesting extracts from Captain Young’s report. +He says:—</p> + +<p>“We were naturally anxious to reach the spot at which our +work was to commence, and to ascertain the first foreign station +at which the telegraph cable was to be landed. We were glad +to make the Færöe Islands, distant 50 miles, on the evening of +the 2nd August, the remarkable clearness of the atmosphere +and the height of the land making our distance from it apparently +far less than we were by our observations. When 46 +miles E.S.E. from Naalsöe we obtained soundings in 102 +fathoms, sand and shells. We here passed through many +patches of discoloured water of a reddish hue, caused probably +by minute animalcules on the surface, specimens of which, +brought up by the towing net, being preserved. Specimens of +water, both on the surface and at various depths, were frequently +obtained during our voyage and preserved, the temperature and +specific gravity being registered in the meteorological journal.</p> + +<p>“On the morning of the 3rd the land was obscured by clouds +and mist, which, as the sun rose, gradually dispersed, and +enabled us to obtain views of the land, and also to fix our +positions by Born’s chart to commence a line of soundings into +the north point of Naalsöe; the depths were 36 to 26 fathoms, +with a bottom of sand and shell.”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Thorshaven.</span></h3> + +<p>“On rounding the north part of Naalsöe we took a fisherman +on board as pilot, and at 10·50 anchored in Thorshaven, and +<span class="pagenum">[31]</span>immediately commenced an inquiry and examination of the +locality, and testing the accuracy of all the charts and maps in +our possession.</p> + +<p>“The results were as follow:—Thorshaven and bay is protected +by Naalsöe, and is land-locked, excepting on two points +to S.E., and on one point to N.E. A swell sets in to the inner +harbour with S.E. gales, but this cannot be to any very great +extent, from the fact that vessels lie at their moorings throughout +the winter. The bay has good anchorage, varying in depth +from 25 to 8 fathoms, bottom of sand, gravel, and shells, with a +few patches of hard ground. Vessels usually moor in the two +inner harbours or creeks, the northern being most frequented for +the facility it offers for loading and discharging cargoes. Either +of the inner harbours would do very well to land the telegraph +wires, but from the many vessels frequenting the port it appeared +desirable to select another place, for even were the cable to be +buoyed, the risk from the ships’ anchors would be considerable, +on account of the want of space—but half a mile southward of +Thorshaven is a small cove called Sandygerde, where the cable +could be landed in safety and clear of ships’ anchors. This +cove is <span class="nowrap">1 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span> cable’s length across and about the same depth, and +shoals gradually to a sandy beach; it is intersected at the head +by a water-course and mill, the land sloping gradually up an +extensive valley to the interior. As many additional soundings +were obtained across the fiord as our time would admit, proving +that although the channel is uneven there is nothing to prevent +bringing a cable in from sea. From the most reliable information +from pilots and our own observations, the stream on the +flood never exceeds 4 knots on the strongest spring tides, whilst +on the ebb it is much weaker, and at times scarcely perceptible. +It is high water at full and change at 4 o’clock, the flood runs +to the southward. The gulf stream appears to sweep round +these islands from left to right, or direct as the hands of a +<span class="pagenum">[32]</span>watch, and therefore in sailing from Thorshaven for the northward, +by starting with the first of the flood and passing to the +southward of Stromöe and through Hestöe, and Westmanshaven +Fiords, you can carry a 9 hours favorable tide. The rise +of tide at Thorshaven does not exceed 6 feet.”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Westmanshaven.</span></h3> + +<p>“We left Thorshaven at 1 p.m. passing through Hestöe and +Westmanshaven Fiords, and anchored in Westmanshaven in the +evening. The scenery in these fiords is very magnificent, and +as we steamed through with a strong head wind and weather +tide, the surface of the water covered with sea-birds, the lofty +hills on either hand rising to the height of 1500 to 2000 feet, +with vast basaltic caverns and columns in the cliffs, formed a +picture not easily forgotten. As I had heard that Sir Leopold +M‘Clintock had already examined this port, I did not deem it +necessary to delay the ship for that purpose. The fiord appears +clean and clear, with deep water close into either shore. I was +informed that there is 70 fathoms water in the middle, a little +north of Welbestad, and the stream in strongest spring tides +runs six knots through the fiord. The rise of water is much +influenced by the winds outside—it has reached ten feet at +spring tides, and has been known as low as four, but the mean +rise appears to be from six to eight feet. Westmanshaven is +said to be the best harbour in the islands; it is completely +landlocked, with a bar, probably formed of the débris washed +down from the surrounding hills, and accumulated by the +action of the streams and eddies in the fiord. I fear the +current in this fiord would be disadvantageous.”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Haldervig.</span></h3> + +<p>“We left Westmanshaven on the evening of August 5th, and, +after weathering the northern extremity of Stromöe entered the +<span class="pagenum">[33]</span>sound between Stromöe and Osteröe, and anchored at Haldervig +at 11·30 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> on the same night. An examination of the port +and estuary of the sound was commenced. The results of these +observations, which occupied two days, were, that little or no +stream is found in the sound, that Haldervig has good anchorage, +and is perfectly landlocked; the deepest water is +34 fathoms, bottom black mud and sand, but that a sandbar +exists between Eide Point and Stromöe, over which +there are <span class="nowrap">8 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></span> fathoms in the deepest part; and as in northerly +gales the sea is said to break upon it, I consider that +the cable would require a strong shore-end to ensure its +safety in crossing this place. This bar lies rather within +the entrance and narrowest neck of the sound.” In the summary, +Captain Young states: “At Haldervig we surveyed +harbour and fiord, and found all satisfactory, and I think that +place to be well adapted for the reception of the cable. We +found but little current, and the cable can be taken in, in a +tolerable depth of water, into a perfectly land-locked +position.”</p> + + +<h3>ICELAND.</h3> + +<p>“On approaching the coast of Iceland we got occasional +soundings towards Ostré Horn, under which we were obliged +to anchor in a dense fog, after getting inside an extensive and +dangerous reef of rocks, called by the Icelanders the Hartinger +and Bortinger. These reefs lie two miles east (true) off this +cape. They do not appear on the Danish surveys, but I afterwards +found them as a single rock upon a French chart.”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Berufiord.</span></h3> + +<p>“On the morning of August 12, the fog having lifted, we +weighed under steam, and got into a position to carry a line of +soundings into Berufiord, between the islands of Papey and +<span class="pagenum">[34]</span>Kogar Point—these soundings average about 30 fathoms, +principally sand and shells. We anchored off Djupivogr +factory the same day, and it being Sunday, we ceased operations +during the afternoon. The weather that day was the +finest we had had since we left England, and the evening was +truly summer-like. During the following five days, and when +not prevented by the prevalent rain and fogs, we proceeded +with the examination of the fiord, and finding it would not be +advisable to carry a cable into the small harbour of Djupivogr, +on account of many rocks in its vicinity and its being the +anchorage of the small vessels frequenting the coast, we sought +for a more suitable landing-place higher up the fiord, and +succeeded in finding an excellent bay, called Gautavik, on the +north shore, five miles from the entrance. A depth of near +thirty fathoms can be carried in from sea to within a quarter of +a mile of the shore, while the bay itself afforded good protection +and anchorage for any large ships that might be employed in +the undertaking.</p> + +<p>“High water at Djupivogr at three o’clock, full and change, +rise six feet. The tide has been known to rise six and +a-half feet before the coming of easterly gales; about the same +time flood outside runs S.S.W. (true), ebb N.N.E., between +Papey Island and the main. The strongest known stream +has four knots, but the average in ordinary spring tides is not +more than two and a-half knots.</p> + +<p>“In 1860 drift ice appeared off the coast and entered the fiord, +and again (though in very small quantities) in 1859-60. This +ice, called here Greenland ice, is the ordinary washed and decayed +floe-ice, and comes from the N.W. <em>No icebergs have +ever been seen on the coast.</em> The drift-ice appears with northerly +and departs with southerly winds, and less of it comes into +Berufiord than any other fiord on the east coast of Iceland; +the residents accounting for this fact by Berufiord having a +<span class="pagenum">[35]</span>S.W. direction, and is consequently protected by the more +northerly and projecting capes which shunt the ice off, while +the local tides keep it drifting up and down the coast. The +fiord itself never freezes, but thin ice has been known to cover +the harbour off the Factory for a day or two during the winter.</p> + +<p>“A tolerably complete survey of the fiord from the entrance to +Gautavik was completed, but a further examination would be +advisable outside, to ascertain the proper channel in which to +lay the cable. The greatest difficulties experienced on the +coast by seamen, are from the prevalent fogs during the summer +months, and with easterly winds, <em>and this would render it +advisable to start from this coast towards Faröes</em>, in laying the +cable, because making a good land fall here would be attended +with considerable uncertainty.” Finally, as to the practicability +of Berufiord, Captain Young says, “There will be no difficulties +from the sea, ice, or otherwise, and the only obstacles will be +from fogs and thick weather, but which may be overcome by +selecting proper seasons, and taking precautions in landing +or embarking the telegraph cable.”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Reikiavik.</span></h3> + +<p>Captain Young sailed from Berufiord on the 17th day of +August, and arrived at Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, on the +21st day of August, and after making enquiries as to the +coasts, he says, “I then determined to examine Hvalfiord, as +from its situation it appeared to have the advantage over any +place in Faxe Bay, and on the 27th I proceeded up that fiord, +sounding it as far as ‘Maria Havn,’ a small harbour and +salmon river on the south shore, 7 miles from the entrance of +the fiord. The least depth of water in the channel of the fiord +is 14 fathoms, with deeper water both outside and in, the +general depth being 18 to 20 fathoms, soft mud. The cable +could be taken into Maria Havn through soft mud, on a sandy +<span class="pagenum">[36]</span>beach in a land-locked position. Hvalfiord is protected from a +heavy sea breaking into it by the shoals of ‘Vestrhran’ and +‘Sydrahraun’ in Faxe Bay, and on which there is less water +than in the shoalest part of the channel of the fiord. The bays +in the fiord are sometimes covered with thin ice, but the fiord +itself never freezes, and with reference to drift-ice on this part +of the coast, I cannot do better than quote the words of Sir +Leopold M‘Clintock. ‘Faxe Bay never freezes over, and I +can find no record of drift-ice within, since 1683. Merchant +vessels come and go throughout the winter.’”</p> + + +<h3>GREENLAND.</h3> + +<p>The “Fox” left Reikiavik, August 31st, and after a very rough +passage, arrived at Frederickshaab, October 2nd. Captain +Young remained there to make some necessary repairs, and +finally arrived at Julianshaab on the 22nd October. He then +reports: “Having made all inquiries about Igalikko or Julianshaab +Fiord, I deemed it advisable at once to commence a +survey of this beautiful arm of the sea, and acting upon the +opinion of Colonel Shaffner, that were this fiord found practicable, +the electric circuit from Reikiavik would not be too +extended.”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Julianshaab Fiord.</span></h3> + +<p>“We first sounded up to the head of the Fiord, which gave an +opportunity for our landing a travelling party under command +of Dr. Rae, to examine the inland ice and nature of the country. +A party also went to the Old Nordisker Ruins, at Igalikko.” +Returning with the “Fox” to Julianshaab, October 27th, Captain +Young then surveyed the estuary of the fiord, and from the +soundings obtained, says, “I am of a decided opinion that a +<span class="pagenum">[37]</span><em>depth of not less than 150 to 160 fathoms</em> can be carried from +the middle of the fiord abreast the settlement, out to sea, with +a general muddy bottom.</p> + +<p>“<em>This depth of water will effectually preclude injury to the +cable from the largest icebergs ever seen upon the coast.</em> Although +many bergs lay along the coast, we saw none aground in this +valley of the fiord, nor according to information obtained from +the residents, have they been seen grounded in that channel.” +Captain Young then proceeds to say—“This report and my +previous letters will show that my decided opinion (so far as +we have been upon that route) is favourable to the practicability +of the undertaking, and that Julianshaab will, under all circumstances, +be well adapted for the reception of the cable. With +regard to the operation of laying the cable, I consider that no +apprehension may be felt on that point, for from the sudden +disappearance which we witnessed of the ice from the coast, and +from the ice <em>usually</em> dispersing from the south-east shores of +Greenland in the autumnal months, opportunities will always +occur when a ship having the cable on board and lying in +readiness in Julianshaab, may depend upon having a period of +clear and open sea. <em>The cable once laid, no drift ice can in any +way injure it, if the proper precautions are taken in securing +the shore end.</em>”</p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Ice of the Greenland Seas.</span></h3> + +<p>“Since my arrival I have seen the admirable remarks of Mr. +J. W. Tayler upon the southern coast of Greenland, the results +of his experience during seven years residence there. His +opinions must be most satisfactory to you, and I am sure that +all who are interested in the work must be grateful to him for +having so freely given them.</p> + +<p>“I perfectly coincide with his views with regard to the size of +<span class="pagenum">[38]</span>the icebergs frequenting the above coast and accompanying the +Spitzbergen drift ice; and as this bears upon my own opinion +that no iceberg will ground in the channel of Julianshaab +Fiord, I think I may here explain my reasons for this statement. +Having navigated the entire west coast of Greenland +and into all the principal settlements, and having experienced +a whole winters drift in the ice, through Baffin’s Sea and +Davis’ Strait, I have had occasion to remark and to gather all +possible information upon the ice movements.</p> + +<p>“Around the coast of Greenland, westward of Cape Farewell, +there are two distinct descriptions, or rather kinds, of drift ice +ever approaching but never meeting together. The first is +the ice formed during the winter on the vast area of Baffin’s +Sea and the different channels from the Polar Seas westward +of Greenland. This ice, called by the Greenlanders <em>the west +ice</em>, often blocks up throughout the year the upper part +of Melville Bay, and drifts constantly throughout the +winter and early spring to the southward through Davis’ +Strait into the Atlantic. It seldom comes in contact +with the coast of Greenland below the parallel of Disko, <em>and +there is always an open sea between it and Greenland as +far up as Holsteinberg throughout the winter</em>. The second is +the Spitzbergen called also the ‘store ice,’ which as has been +shown comes down the east coast of Greenland around Cape +Farewell, and is carried by the current up the west coast at +times even to the Arctic Circle, but by which time it is usually +pretty much broken up, and if not entirely dispersed, the +last remnants are supposed to return southward by Davis’ Strait +to the Atlantic—so near these two great ice streams approach +that vessels bound to the colonies have in the early spring +passed up Davis’ Strait with the west ice and the Spitzbergen +ice on either hand. But as there are two kinds of oceanic ice, +so also are there two distinct classes of icebergs, namely, the +<span class="pagenum">[39]</span>bergs from the stupendous glaciers far up the west coast of +Greenland, and especially in Melville Bay:—these bergs +attain an astonishing magnitude, but like the west ice which +they accompany, or outsail, they do not come upon the west +coast of Greenland below the same parallel, although in exceptional +seasons of violent gales such as the last, they may be +blown in upon the land a little more to the southward; and I +saw some of these <em>ice islands</em> last October aground, upon +and near Tallert Bank northward of Frederickshaab. +The other icebergs are those which accompany the Spitzbergen +ice, and may be said to follow its movements. They +are launched from the glaciers far up the east coast of Greenland, +and from those in the island of Spitzbergen, and besides +being originally far less in their dimensions they are exposed +during their long passage southward to the warmer Atlantic +winds and heavy swells, and are proportionally reduced before +their arrival at Cape Farewell. The bergs from the southern +glaciers of Greenland are but small, and need scarcely to be +taken into consideration, for as they must come out from the +heads of the fiords, they surely would not take the ground in +again entering the <em>channel</em> of the deepest fiords.</p> + +<p>“With regard to the flotation of ice, it has been calculated that +seven-eighths of a cubical mass of ice will be immersed, but icebergs +being very irregular in their formation and having usually +very peaked and angular summits, whilst below the water they are +smooth, rounded, and most frequently widened out. I think that +icebergs are not found that draw more water than the proportion +of six feet below to one foot of perpendicular height above +the water. Therefore in 150 fathoms of water (the very least +found in the entrance to Julianshaab Fiord) an iceberg of an +elevation above the water of 150 feet, or having an entire perpendicular +height of 1050 feet, will there be suspended above +the ground, and such bergs are not to be met with in that place.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[40]</span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Remarks upon the Seasons.</span></h3> + +<p>“The finest months in the Faröes are June and July, and in +these months only should the cable be laid, and then about the +last quarter of the moon, because the tides are greater at the +full than at the change, consequently the neap tides and immediately +after the last quarter, should be selected, as the currents +are then inconsiderable. I have already given my reasons for +recommending that the cable be laid from Iceland towards the +Faröes, not only on account of the prevailing fogs on the east +coast of Iceland, but also from the greater facilities for making the +coast of the Faröes, and the opportunity that the comparatively +speaking shallow water off the N.W. coast would give of shipping +and buoying the cable in the event of a sudden gale of wind +occurring at the time of laying it. The finest months upon the +east coast of Iceland are also June and July, but I was informed +that the weather is clearer earlier in the season, in the months +of May and June—I suppose from the alternations of temperature +being then less frequent. A few hours, however, of clear +weather would always carry a ship beyond these mists, which +usually hang only on the land. With reference to Faxe Bay +station, the west coast of Iceland is generally free from fogs, +and the gulf stream which sets round Cape Reikianess, and +appears to keep up a continuous flow around Faxe Bay to the +northward, passing out by Snœfellssness, also appears to considerably +affect the climatic condition of the west coast. Navigation +is open all the year round, and the operation of bringing +the cable here can be timed to the opportunities for departing +from Greenland. A fine pyramidal beacon has lately been +erected on the Skagen, and is of great assistance to navigators +entering Faxe Bay from the southward.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[41]</span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span></h3> + +<p>Before concluding, it is proper to state that the voyage was +one surrounded with much peril, on account of the succession +of gales and the extraordinary quantities of ice found in the +Greenland seas; never within the memory of man has there +been so much and so long a continuation of ice upon the +Greenland coasts as during the past year. In the arduous +labours of the voyage Captain Young was most ably assisted by +Mr. J. E. Davis, Master in the Royal Navy, who by the +kindness of Captain Washington, Hydrographer to the Admiralty +of the British Government, was permitted to accompany +the expedition and take part in the necessary surveys; and his +former well-known services under Sir James Ross in the Antarctic +regions, and great experience as a marine surveyor, enabled +him to render the most valuable assistance in the especial +mission of the “Fox,” which is acknowledged by Captain +Young in his report in the highest possible terms. During the +voyage various specimens of deep interest to the geologist and +naturalist were collected; a large number of scientific observations +were made, and a detailed meteorological journal was +kept, which, together with other valuable information and an +extensive collection of photographs made with great zeal by +Mr. Woods under very difficult circumstances, have been +furnished by Captain Young and Dr. Rae to the promoters of +the enterprise, with the hope that they will be found to contribute +to the cause of science, as well as to the immediate +object for which they were made. Time will not now permit +me to give further details of this most interesting voyage; but +any members of this Society who may desire to make personal +inspection of the charts, meteorological tables, logs, reports, +and specimens, will be gladly permitted to do so.</p> + +<p>Having thus presented to the Society some of the most +<span class="pagenum">[42]</span>valuable and interesting portion of Captain Young’s report, I +have only to observe that the result of the recent survey has +been to remove from my mind the apprehensions which I previously +entertained in common with many others, as to the +extent and character of the difficulties to be overcome, in carrying +a line of telegraph to America by the northern route.</p> + +<p>Prior to the dispatch of the surveying expedition we had no +knowledge of the depth of the seas to be crossed, with the exception +of the few soundings obtained by Colonel Shaffner in +1859, and our information as to the nature of the shores of +Greenland in regard to the requirements for a telegraphic cable +was equally small.</p> + +<p>These points are of vital consequence to the prospects of the +North Atlantic Route, and the survey has placed us in possession +of satisfactory particulars respecting them. The soundings +taken by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock will be a guide in the selection +of the most suitable form for the deep-sea lengths of the +cables, while the information furnished by Captain Young will +direct the construction of the more massive cables to be laid in +the inlets of the coast. It is not necessary to determine upon +the precise landing places and other points of detail in connection +with the enterprise at the present time, but the promoters +of the undertaking have received ample encouragement +from the survey, and from the testimony of competent and +experienced voyagers and sojourners in the countries to which +the line is to be carried, to warrant them in proceeding with +their labours with renewed vigour and confidence. When they +have achieved that success which their perseverance and energy +deserve, I am sure they will always gratefully remember that +their endeavours at the stage of their operations which is now +under discussion would have been very much less productive +of good results, but for the patriotic foresight of Lord Palmerston +in ordering the “Bulldog” on her late successful service; and +<span class="pagenum">[43]</span>for the assistance of Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, Captain Young, +Dr. Rae, and the Commissioners appointed to accompany the +“Fox” by the Danish government, as well as others who took +part in the cause, whose patience and devotion to their self-imposed +work has been above all praise. Nor can those +interested in this important undertaking forget the great +assistance which has been rendered to them by the Royal +Geographical Society.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[44]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_V"> + SURVEY OF THE LAND SECTIONS,</h2> + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.75"><span class="smallfont">WITH REMARKS UPON THE CLIMATE, PEOPLE, &c.; BY</span><br> + <span class="largefont">DR. JOHN RAE, F.R.G.S., &c.,</span><br> + <span class="smallfont">COMMANDER OF THE LAND EXPEDITIONS.</span> + </p> +</div> + + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lord Ashburton</span>: I will now call upon Dr. Rae to +read his paper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Rae</span> then read the following, viz.:—</p> + +<p>When the promoters of the North Atlantic Telegraph were +about to fit out expeditions for the purpose of examining a +practicable route, <i lang="la">viâ</i> the Færöes, Iceland, Greenland, and +Labrador, by which to form a telegraph communication between +England and America, I volunteered my services for the land +portion of the survey.</p> + +<p>In this paper I will give a brief account of my observations, +and of information obtained from reliable sources +regarding the nature of the lands travelled over, and their +suitability for the objects of the telegraph.</p> + + +<h3>THE FÆRÖE ISLES.</h3> + +<p>After a passage of fourteen days from England in the screw +yacht “Fox,” we arrived, on the 3rd August, at Thorshaven, +the capital of the Færöes. It contains about 900 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>On the day following, Colonel Shaffner, Lieutenant Von +<span class="pagenum">[45]</span>Zeilau (Danish Commissioner), and myself, accompanied by two +Faröese as guides, commenced a journey over Stromöe, our +destination being Haldervig, a village near the northern extremity +of that island.</p> + +<p>Our course for the first two miles was W.N.W., over the +shoulder of a hill (named Klubbin), the height of which about +fifty feet below its summit was 1048 feet; we then turned +more to the northward until we reached the high land immediately +south of Kalbakfiord, 1408 feet above the sea level. +The walking round the head of this fiord was fatiguing in +consequence of the unfinished state of the path. At the end +of five hours we reached the top of the pass overlooking +Kallefiord, having an altitude of 1179 feet. When we descended +to the valley, we took up our night’s quarters at the house +of Mr. Dam, a farmer, who gave us a hospitable welcome, +and provided us with a good dinner of fish, dried mutton, +ham, cheese, butter, milk, cream, and coffee.</p> + +<p>Next morning I ascended a hill named Skarling, said to +be the highest on Stromöe. Strong squalls of wind, with +heavy rain changing into snow as we neared the summit, made +the climbing difficult. The barometer indicated a height of +2506 feet. The Colonel had in the mean time travelled along +the path a distance of five miles, to the house of J. C. +Jacobson, where we joined him. We were again hospitably +entertained, and after remaining an hour we resumed our +journey.</p> + +<p>Our active guides led us by the shortest but the most +difficult of two routes, the highest point of which was +1711 feet above the sea. We arrived in the afternoon at +Qualvig, a village having 132 inhabitants, where we passed +the night.</p> + +<p>Next morning we traced back the more level but longer route +between Qualvig and Kallefiord. We found its highest point +<span class="pagenum">[46]</span>to be 1275 feet at <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">4</span></span> miles distance from Qualvig. The hill is +not too steep for loaded ponies. We hired some of these excellent +little animals for the purpose of testing their qualities. +They were strong, sure footed, and carried with ease a man +weighing over fifteen stone.</p> + +<p>From Qualvig to Haldervig the distance is nine miles, and +the path, lies close to the shore all the way. We found the +“Fox” at Haldervig.</p> + +<p>The formation of the Island of Stromöe is almost wholly +basaltic, with an occasional thin stratum of red tuffa. Opals are +found in the hills north of Kollefiord.</p> + +<p>No difficulties of importance present themselves to the +placing of a telegraph line over the route examined, which is +about twenty-seven miles in length. At three points of the +line some expense would necessarily be incurred in improving +the paths, so as to make them more easy for loaded ponies +to travel over. These places are, the ascent of the high +grounds north and south of Kalbakfiord, the descent to +Kollefiord, and the height between Kollefiord and Qualvig.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants generally appear to be well educated and +religious, and so fully aware of the advantages they would +derive from a telegraph being carried through their island, +that they would use their best efforts to protect it from +injury.</p> + +<p>Labour is comparatively cheap, the average day’s wages +being about 1<em>s.</em> 4<em>d.</em> sterling. Our guides, were well pleased +to receive 2<em>s.</em> each per day.</p> + +<p>The climate is not well suited for the growth of grain, but +small quantities of barley and oats are raised, and a few +potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are cultivated. The live +stock of the farmers are sheep, horned cattle, and ponies, +sheep being the principal and most valuable productive source. +The population of Stromöe is upwards of 2600. The chief +<span class="pagenum">[47]</span>exports are wool, woollen goods, eider-down, fish, ponies, +and oil. The inland transport is, principally, by pack-horses.</p> + +<p>Two small bays, the one a short distance to the south of +Thorshaven, the other at Haldervig, having been examined by +Captain Allen Young, were found well adapted for the landing +of a telegraph cable; and the route examined by me overland +forms the connection of the projected telegraph.</p> + +<p>The sound separating Stromöe from Osteröe offers great +facilities for the transport of materials, as it is navigable +throughout the whole length, with the exception of about 100 +yards near Qualvig, for vessels of ordinary size. The arms of +this sound, namely, Kalbakfiord, Kollefiord, and Qualvig Bay, +afford good anchorages and approach at three points to within a +quarter of a mile of the projected route.</p> + + +<h3>ICELAND.</h3> + +<p>The “Fox” reached Berufiord, on the east coast of Iceland, +on the afternoon of the 12th, and anchored in the harbour of +Djupivogr, near the entrance of the fiord. From this place +the Land Expedition resumed its labours to travel across the +island to Reikiavik. About fourteen horses, and two men, +to act as guides and pony-drivers, were required. We had +two very zealous auxiliaries in the persons of Mr. Weywadt, the +Danish merchant, and Lieut. Von Zeilau, both of whom exerted +themselves to procure the necessary assistance and accommodations +for the journey. Only eight ponies, exclusive of those +of the guides, could be obtained at prices varying from 2<em>l.</em> 12<em>s.</em> +to 5<em>l.</em> 10<em>s.</em> Hoping to complete our number of ponies on the +way, we left Djupivogr on the afternoon of the 15th. With the +exception of the guides, our party was the same as that when +<span class="pagenum">[48]</span>travelling across Stromöe. Our path ran along the south shore +of Berufiord, and was rough and stony.</p> + +<p>It was getting late when we reached the head of the fiord, a +distance of only nine-and-a-half miles in a straight line; so we +proceeded to the pastor’s house, which we made our home for +the night. This worthy man, Sira Hosias, who had been to +Djupivogr, overtook us as we were dismounting at his door +and gave us a hearty welcome.</p> + +<p>It was difficult to make an early morning’s start. Our horse-drivers +were active and willing enough, yet we could seldom +get away before eight or nine o’clock. A lamb was bought for +2<em>s.</em> 3<em>d.</em> sterling. After taking an observation with the barometer +we resumed our journey—and ascended to the tableland west of +Berufiord by a series of four steps. The path which is formed +among stones, gravel, and earth, might be much improved by a +very little labour. Two observations for altitude were obtained. +The first about halfway up, giving 891 feet, the last, near the +top, 1282 feet, at which the latitude 64° 49′ 3″ N. was also +observed.</p> + +<p>From this point our path lay nearly due north, for 8 miles, +to a small lake 426 feet above the sea level. After travelling +7 miles farther in the same direction we arrived at +Thingmuli and took up our quarters in the church, where we +found ourselves very comfortable. The clergyman Sira Biarni +was a kind and good man. A strong horse suitable for either +pack or riding, was bought here for 3<em>l.</em> 8<em>s.</em></p> + +<p>Our course for five miles was north, along the slope of a hill. +We then travelled west until crossing the ridge, when we +turned to the south-west, and reached in a short time Hallormstadr +on the banks of Lagar Fliot. Hitherto we had +been surrounded by a dense fog, which we emerged from on +descending the hill. We here allowed our horses to feed for an +hour, and an observation with the barometer gave the altitude +<span class="pagenum">[49]</span>of our position 528 feet, that of the river which was upwards of +a quarter of a mile distant being 90 feet lower. This river has +its source in the Vatna Jökull, and the muddy and white colour +of its water indicate its glacier origin. As far as we could +see to the northward the river widens into the form of a +narrow lake having little or no current. This was the case we +were told for 30 miles or more. As we rode to the southward +along the stream we passed through a grove of small birch +trees, many of which were from 16 to 18 feet in height. +At four miles above Hallormstadr the lake-like river ends, +and four miles further up we came to the ferry. The river +was here about 170 yards wide, the current strong, and the +water so deep from the recent rains that the horses had to swim +when crossing. The ferry-boat carried us all over with the +baggage at two trips. We walked to the parsonage of Valthiofstadr, +2 miles distant, and met with a most kind reception +from Sira Pietra. Taking the direct route to Valthiofstadr, +it may be reached in one day from Berufiord, as the distance +is about 26 geographical miles, and we learned that the road +was not bad.</p> + +<p>The morning of the 18th was very beautiful. Our horses +having strayed during the night, we were detained some hours. +We here bought another horse for 2<em>l.</em> 14<em>s.</em></p> + +<p>After riding eight miles along a fine level path, we turned to +the N. W., and commenced the ascent of a steep hill, up which +we had not gone half way before we were in a thick fog. +Fortunately we had engaged a guide, otherwise it would have +been difficult to have kept the proper track.</p> + +<p>It was half-past nine, and very dark, when we arrived opposite +to Bru, where we had to cross a river on one of those +curious swing-bridges, before reaching the house. This conveyance +was about 2 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet wide, and 2 feet +deep, suspended by pullies to two ropes, which stretch over the +<span class="pagenum">[50]</span>river at a height of thirty feet above the stream, which is about +seventy feet wide.</p> + +<p>Our day’s ride had been long and fatiguing, but there were +only two parts of the road by any means difficult. The first +being the ascent of the hill in the early part of the day already +mentioned, and the other where we descended to a small +stream, about seven miles distant from Bru. In both instances +the ground is of such a nature, that the paths are capable of +easy improvement. The heavy rains had made a portion of the +road rather swampy.</p> + +<p>Sunday, 19th.—Taking with us a guide we started for +Mödrudalr. For twelve miles our course was north, we then +turned to the westward, which we kept all the way to +Mödrudalr, where we arrived at half-past six. The roads +were good throughout the day’s journey and we passed great +quantities of dwarf willow,—at eight miles from Mödrudalr +we traversed a perfectly desert plain flat as a bowling green, +and covered with black sand and gravel, the débris of lava. +Sigurder Jonsson, the owner of the comfortable farm-house gave +us a most hearty welcome. The farm is extensive, and produces +an excellent crop of grass and quantities of dwarf willow, +which, when cut and dried, furnishes excellent fodder for both +sheep and cattle. Mr. Jonsson possesses 600 of the former, +three or four of the latter, and a number of horses.</p> + +<p>Mödrudalr is situated in a beautiful plain extending to a long +distance north and south. Far to the south, at least forty-five +miles off, you see one of the peaks of Vatna Jökull, having a deep +snow filled cleft in the centre. Within fifteen miles to the south-west +is Herdubreid, one of the highest mountains in Iceland.</p> + +<p>20th.—In company with a Mr. Skulason, who was going in +the same direction as ourselves, we left Mödrudalr at +nine <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span></p> + +<p>Our course during the whole day’s travel was north with a +<span class="pagenum">[51]</span>very little westing. The road was good, and we arrived at +Grimstadr, twenty-five miles distant, at half-past two, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span></p> + +<p>21st.—Mr. Skulason still gave us the advantage of his +company. We arrived at the ferry on the Jökulsa Axarfiordr +at 9·15 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, which is four miles from Grimstadr. The river +is 150 yards wide, the water deep, and the current very strong. +The horses had to swim about half the way. We crossed in a +boat. The banks of the river are of fine black sand. The water +was white and muddy, bearing the characteristics of a river +that has its source from a jökull, or glacier. Its west bank is +951 feet above the sea-level. When we had ridden sixteen +miles from the river, we arrived at an immense bed of very +rugged lava in a valley to our left, and in one place there was +an appearance as if it had filled up the bed of a river. We +rode for seven miles along this lava, and then turned aside +to visit a number of boiling mud-springs.</p> + +<p>Before reaching Reikialith we had ridden among or close +to the most recent lava we had seen. The only object I could +compare the rough lava beds to, except in colour, was a field +of ice that had been floated at high water to a low flat beach, +covered with large boulder-rocks, which, when the tide ebbed, +broke up the ice into all sorts of forms. Reikialith is situated +on the shores of Myvatn (Lake), which is very irregular in form, +and studded with rugged lava islands. Our course to-day was +nearly west, and the distance travelled fully thirty miles.</p> + +<p>22nd.—The first portion of the route was crooked, to avoid +holes in the lava which were overgrown with moss and grass. +A ride of six and a half hours, including an hour of stoppage +to graze horses, brought us to the ford of Arndisarstadr, on +the Skialfandafliot. It was about 100 yards wide, two feet +deep, the current strong, and the water white and muddy. We +reached the house of the worthy pastor (Sira Pallson) at Hals +in the evening.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[52]</span></p> + +<p>Hals is in lat. 65° 44′ N., and was the farthest north +point reached by us. I learned that, during the winter, snow +occasionally falls to great depth, and is blown into deep +drifts. The cold is not usually severe, the lowest temperature +being 20° or 21° below zero of Reaumur, equal to +13° or 15° below zero of Fahrenheit, and this occurs but rarely.</p> + +<p>Thursday, 23rd.—We resumed our journey, having with us +Mr. Eggerd Olafsson, a young student, who most obligingly +offered his services as guide. After travelling south two miles +along the small river that flows northward past Hals, we forded +the stream. We crossed to the west the ridge of hills about +1900 feet high, that lies between Hals and Akreyri. This last-named +place is next in size to Reikiavik. As soon as we +appeared from under the fog on the hill side, the twelve vessels +at anchor in the harbour hoisted their colours. Akreyri is +built at the head and on the west shore of Eyjafiord. Its +harbour is sheltered by a spit of land that runs half way across +the fiord where its width is about a mile. From the beginning +of November to the end of March or April, the navigation is +usually closed by ice; but during the summer months there +is considerable trade at this place. The valley is one extensive +and productive grass meadow running southward for nearly +thirty miles, on which a great number of persons were occupied +haymaking. The river I found to be navigable for boats +drawing about two feet of water, to the distance of twenty-five +or thirty miles. Its width varies from twenty-five to eighty +yards. The path was good and level, fitted for a waggon in +summer, or for a sledge in winter.</p> + +<p>Early in the evening we came to Saurbær, and were most +cordially welcomed by Sira Thorlacius—a clergyman distinguished +for his goodness and learning. We here made our +arrangements for the next three days’ journey, which lay +through an uninhabited part of the country. The guide lived +<span class="pagenum">[53]</span>at some distance, and our young student rode to his house +and engaged him.</p> + +<p>24th.—From Holar, the path led us south for four miles +along the east bank of the stream, we then commenced an +ascent of the high grounds in a south-west direction. The hill +was 2868 feet in height, being the greatest altitude we had yet +passed over. We reached the top in an hour and a half; +although the road was now pretty level, and many of the larger +stones had been removed to one side, the path was not good +enough to permit us to ride fast.</p> + +<p>We made many detours so as to avoid the rougher portions +of the ground, but the general direction of our travel was to +W.S.W. In the evening a thick fog came on, and as the cairns +of stone set up as marks became less frequent, the guide lost +his way, and I had to put him right by the compass. About +half-past eight we pitched our tent on the bank of a small stream, +where there was a little grass for our tired horses. Generally +speaking, when travelling over Iceland, sufficient dry willows and +willow roots can be picked up for cooking, but here none could +be found, so we had recourse to an “Etna” and some alcohol +we had carried with us, for the preparation of our coffee.</p> + +<p>25th.—Our position by computation was in latitude 65° 8′ N., +longitude 18° 53′ W. Height by observation above sea, 2385 +feet. The fog still continued this morning, but not very thick. +We had to put back a short distance to recover the proper +route; we then crossed a small white water stream, very rapid +and stony, named Jökulsa Eystri. Our course was generally +S.W. by W., marked by little heaps of stones. As usual, we +stopped twice to-day to grass the horses, near some lakes, +where several swans were seen. We would have made a long +journey to-day, but fog again came on in the evening, notwithstanding +which our guide insisted that he could find the way. +His confidence in himself was misplaced.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[54]</span></p> + +<p>Two observations for height were obtained to-day. One at +Pollar, latitude 65° 5′ N., 19° 2′ W., gave altitude 2368 feet; +the other, 6 miles S.W. of Pollar, 2463 feet. Both these +places afford good grass and water for horses. In latitude +64° 45′ we crossed nearly two miles of very rough lava, +extremely difficult to travel over. A small amount of labour +would remedy this evil. Further on we passed quagmires of +very adhesive clay. These by a little care can be easily avoided.</p> + +<p>Between the latitudes of 65° and 64° 45′ N., and in long. +19° 20′ W., we crossed a number of rivers, very rapid and some +of them two feet deep, flowing from Hofsjökull, which lay to our +left. Many of these streams appear to change their beds, or +to spread out to considerable extent during thaws or rainy +weather, and could be crossed with difficulty by a telegraph +wire, were it not that I noticed that at some points the water +was kept within bounds on both sides by solid barriers of +rock or lava, generally not more than 20 yards apart.</p> + +<p>26th.—Our position by account was in lat. 64° 40′ N., long. +19° 33′ W., and height above sea 1983 feet. It was ten o’clock +before we got away. Our road was better than for the past two +days, and we went ahead faster. About half-past three <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, +we arrived at the Hvita River, a mile or two below its source +from Hvitarvatn, having come twenty-two miles, down hill, +the incline being very gradual. The altitude here was 1580 +feet.</p> + +<p>The river, which is 120 yards wide, could be forded by the +horses, but they were very nearly swimming; so to save our +baggage from getting wet, we had a boat brought across, and +were ferried over. After permitting the horses to feed for an +hour and a half, we travelled westward for five miles round the +base of the craggy and lofty Blafell. We now passed over a +ridge 400 feet higher than the ferry on the Hvita.</p> + +<p>From this point we had a very extensive view of more than +<span class="pagenum">[55]</span>fifty miles down the valley of the Hvita, with its numerous +lakes and boiling springs, the clouds of white vapour from +the latter indicating their positions. We now made a south +course, and at the end of seven miles again came to the banks +of the Hvita, along which we found an excellent path, over +which we trotted at a great rate until late, when the guide +again lost his way, and left us at a good grazing place to +search for a house in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>27th.—After waiting until half-past eleven, in vain, for the +return of our truant guide, we unpacked our tent, and +lay under it, having no poles to pitch it with. The guide +joined us at five in the morning. He said he had wandered +about all night in search of his friend’s house, which was +within less than ten minutes’ ride of where we were. We +reached Haukadalr at a little before six, and took up our +quarters in the church, where we had a good and substantial +breakfast.</p> + +<p>We then rode forward to the Geysers where we found Lord +Milton encamped. We collected specimens, and sounded the +Geyser, obtaining seventy-eight feet depth. The barometer gave +the height of the position 626 feet above the sea in latitude by +observation 64° 18′ 16″ N.</p> + +<p>Our breakfast at Haukadalr had not been so superior as to +prevent us enjoying the good things that Lord Milton most +kindly invited us to join him in partaking of, and after a parting +glass of champagne with his lordship, we rode for sixteen +miles further on our way to Reikiavik, and then took up our +night’s quarters at Laugarvatn. Near this house are several +boiling springs of very pure water, which are used for cooking.</p> + +<p>We arrived at Reikiavik at eight o’clock on the morning of +the 29th August, all well, but our horses very much used up +by a journey of nearly 450 statute miles.</p> + +<p>The results of this journey went to prove that there would +<span class="pagenum">[56]</span>be no serious difficulty in carrying a telegraph across Iceland +by the route travelled over. Doubtless considerable expense +would be incurred in repairing the old paths, so as to make them +more easy for loaded pack-horses, and in making new ones to +shorten distances; but this work will be materially facilitated, +as the Icelandic Diet has appropriated a considerable amount +of money to be paid annually for this purpose. The six +largest rivers that we crossed had high well defined banks, +that showed no indication of ice action or of changing their +position.</p> + +<p>A shorter, and in every respects a better route across Iceland +for telegraphic purposes than the one described, is that marked +on the chart in a dotted line. This route, from Berufiord as far +as Mödrudalr, in lat. 65° 17′ N., long. 16° W., is nearly the same +as that followed by us. From this point, instead of running +northward, it strikes nearly west for 45 miles, over what is said +to be not a difficult country, to Isholl, a farm on the Skialfanda +river. Following up the west bank of this stream to near its +source, you cross the centre of Iceland in a south-westerly +direction, by the Sprengisandr road, until you fall upon the +head waters of the Thorsa. Trace this stream to south-west, +keeping on its left bank, to avoid the numerous jokul streams +that enter it on the right, until reaching lat. 64° 20′, where the +river would be crossed. The course then would be west to the +Hvita and the Geysers. On nearly fifty miles of this route there +is little or no grass, but depôts of hay can be established. Having +measured on the charts four different routes from Berufiord +to Reikiavik, the distances are about as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="toc" style="border:0em; padding:0em; border-spacing:0em"> +<tr><td class="toctitle"></td><td class="tdc">Geographical<br>Miles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toctitle">Route travelled over, cutting off several unnecessary detours</td><td class="tdc">310</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toctitle">By contemplated telegraph route, <i lang="la">viâ</i> Sprengisandr</td><td class="tdc">250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toctitle">In a straight line, keeping north of Vatna Jökull</td><td class="tdc">210</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toctitle">Along south shore of Ireland</td><td class="tdc">260</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[57]</span></p> + +<p>The modes of transport through Iceland are by pack-horses, +waggons, and in winter on sledges. Of these the pack-horse is +by far the most general. These little animals are remarkably +sure-footed, and so strong that they can carry a load of 200 or +250 lbs. with apparent ease. They are easily kept in condition +with no other food than grass or hay. Their prices vary from +2<em>l.</em> to 3<em>l.</em>, those for riding being more expensive. The pack-saddle +in general use is an extremely primitive affair, the pads +employed to protect the back from being injured being composed +of turf which has been well dried, and a portion of the +mould beat out of it. Boats might be used with advantage on +some of the rivers.</p> + +<p>The population of Iceland amounts at present to some +60,000; at one time it is said to have been as high as 100,000, +but the ravages of epidemic diseases and other causes reduced +the numbers to less than those at present on the island.</p> + +<p>The masses of the people are able and active, harmless and +honest. Wherever we went, we were received with much kindness +and hospitality, and even at the poorest cottages, milk, +coffee, and brandy were handed to us. All classes seem more +or less educated, and the Lutheran religion prevails. The +chief occupations of the people are fishing and farming, +both being combined when the farms are near the sea. +The women spin, knit woollens, and weave cloth for home +consumption. The farm live stock consists of sheep, ponies, +and horned cattle; the two last are of small size. Of these, +the sheep are the chief source of wealth. A farmer having 800 +or 1000 sheep is considered wealthy. The usual food is +mutton, fish (fresh and dried), rye-bread, butter, cheese, milk, +one preparation of which, named <em>skuer</em>, is much used.</p> + +<p>The price of labour varies from 1<em>s.</em> 2<em>d.</em> to 2<em>s.</em> 8<em>d.</em> per day, +according to the season. During the haymaking, in the +months of July, August, and September, it is highest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[58]</span></p> + +<p>Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland (a town of 1500 inhabitants), +has been so often described by others that it is needless for +me to say anything on the subject. A little thin ice forms +along shore near Reikiavik during calm weather in the winter +time, but the first breeze of wind disperses it.</p> + + +<h3>GREENLAND.</h3> + +<p>The “Fox” sailed from Reikiavik on the 31st August, for +Greenland. On the 2nd of October we reached Frederickshaab.</p> + +<p>There is a Danish superintendent, a clergyman, and several +clerks at this place, and about two hundred Esquimaux. These +Esquimaux are civilised;—sober, honest, and faithful, apt +and willing to be instructed; attentive to their religious +observances, and thankful for kindness. The evening amusement +was dancing. The principal food of the natives is +fish, seal, whale, a few ptarmigan, waterfowl, including eider +duck, with biscuit and coffee, imported from Denmark. Large +quantities of a small fish (the kepling), called by the Esquimaux +“amaset,” are caught in scoop nets in the summer, and dried +on the rocks. These are laid up for winter food, and sometimes +given to the cattle.</p> + +<p>After lying here eighteen days, the “Fox” sailed on the 20th +of October for Julianshaab, at which place she anchored on the +evening of the 22d. Julianshaab is one of the principal stations +on the coast.</p> + +<p>On the 24th I learnt that it had been decided to sound and +examine the Fiord of Igalikko, which ran by Julianshaab. +During the time that the “Fox” would be employed on +this service, which I was told by Captain Young might probably +occupy four days, I thought with Colonel Shaffner +that a short journey should be made to the interior of the +<span class="pagenum">[59]</span>country, for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of +travelling over it. The use of one seaman and a whale-boat +were obtained from Captain Young, to enable us to return from +the head of the fiord to Julianshaab. Four Esquimaux women +were engaged as rowers. At sixteen miles inland from the fiord a +heavy fall of snow stopped further travel. After an absence of +four days, we returned to our boat, but found that the fall of +snow, followed by unusually cold weather, had already caused +the fiord to freeze up for many miles. We had enough of +provisions, and were supplied with some excellent fresh +mutton, milk, and butter, by an Esquimaux that lived in the +neighbourhood, to whose house we removed. The frost continued +for several days with unusual severity, and made the +ice strong enough to enable Captain Young (after coming +half-way up the fiord in a boat) to travel over the ice with a +sledge party from the “Fox,” to our relief. Another party +of men, sent by Superintendent Möller from Julianshaab to +aid us arrived at the same time. We all returned next day +(the 6th) to the “Fox.”</p> + +<p>At Julianshaab, as at Frederickshaab, nothing could exceed +the kindness and hospitality of the resident Danish gentlemen. +Mr. Möller, the Superintendent, Mr. Höyer, his Assistant, the +Doctor, and others vied with each other in paying us attention.</p> + +<p>The chief exports of the place are whale and seal oil, fox +skins (blue and white), bear skins, and eider down. A few +cattle, goats and sheep are kept. The hay is usually collected +at the summer encamping places of the natives, and must be +very nutritious, as I was informed that one small cow during the +past summer, had not only yielded sufficient milk and cream to +supply the family, but also to make eighty Danish pounds of +butter. The natives here, as at Frederickshaab, are honest, +docile, and well conducted, doing great credit to the Danish +Government. The prevailing form of worship is the Lutheran.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[60]</span></p> + +<p>The result of this expedition, as far as regards the land portion +of it over the Færöe Isles and Iceland, was extremely +favourable to the practicability of laying down or erecting a +telegraphic wire. The question in Iceland will be, whether +the telegraph should be carried across the whole island from +Berufiord to Faxe Bay, or only from Portland Bay to the latter +place. The latter will reduce the distance on land from about +250 to 90 miles.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[61]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VI"> + THE FIORDS OF SOUTH GREENLAND,</h2> + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.75"><span class="smallfont">AS TO THEIR DEPTH, MUD BOTTOMS, &C.; BY</span><br> + <span class="largefont">J. W. TAYLER, ESQ., F.G.S.,</span><br> + <span class="smallfont">LATE A RESIDENT AND MINERALOGIST IN SOUTH GREENLAND.</span> + </p> +</div> + + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lord Ashburton</span>: I will now call upon Mr. J. W. +Tayler to read his paper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mr. Tayler</span> then read the following, viz.:—</p> + +<p>I have been desired by the promoters of the North Atlantic +Telegraph to give you a short description of the Fiords of +South Greenland, and to point out the advantages they offer +to the landing of the cable on that coast.</p> + +<p>Any one who has travelled in Norway will have an idea of +the leading characteristics of fiords in general, but as many of +the Society have probably not had that opportunity, I will +endeavour to describe, as well as I can, the general appearances +of fiords in Greenland.</p> + +<p>The land of Greenland is very elevated, the average height +of its mountains being not less, perhaps, than 1500 feet, and in +some places exceeding 6000 feet, above the level of the sea. +It appears that at the time of the elevation of the west coast of +Greenland, a chain of mountains of about 50 miles in breadth, +running about north and south, was acted on in a wave-like +manner, <i lang="la">i. e.</i> leaving depressions nearly equal to the elevations +<span class="pagenum">[62]</span>and more or less at right angles with the direction of the +chain. These depressions or long valleys into which the sea +runs constitute the fiords:—they vary in breadth from one to +eight miles, and run up into the interior from ten to sixty or +more miles.</p> + +<p>The scenery in these fiords is magnificent, perhaps unequalled. +The lofty mountains—rugged, precipitous, and +barren—with patches of ice, (projections from the great interior +glaciers), and snow unmelted by the summer’s sun; with valleys +half filled up by enormous angular blocks of stone detached +from the sides of the steep mountains by the alternate frost +and thaws; the solitude, and the almost total absence of life, +animal and vegetable, make up a picture of indescribable +desolation.</p> + +<p>In other places the more rounded and sloping mountains are +covered with green and yellow moss. Grass, heath, and +wild flowers grow in the valleys; whilst in some still more +favoured and sheltered dales, miniature forests of Arctic willow +six feet in height are pointed out by the Esquimaux as proofs +of the extraordinary excellence of the climate of Greenland and +fertility of the soil. Of the latter material there is not, however, +in many places sufficient to bury the dead, and they are +compelled to place the body on the surface and form a grave +by building up stones around it.</p> + +<p>These fiords with grassy dales offer the most pleasant places +of abode in Greenland; in fact, it is only to the more fertile +parts of the fiords that the name of Greenland is at all appropriate. +But these parts of the fiords form a striking contrast +to the outer coast of Greenland.</p> + +<p>The Danish settlements are mostly at the entrance of the +fiords, for the convenience of seal hunting and of shipping; +but the old Scandinavians who settled in Greenland in the +ninth century brought cattle with them, and therefore established +<span class="pagenum">[63]</span>themselves at the interior ends of the fiords and bays, +where grass was to be found. The ruins of their habitations, +constructed of very large blocks of stone, are still to be seen +at all the more fertile places. Judging from the number of +ruins and the accounts in the Icelandic Sagas, their number +must at one time have reached about 10,000. But the Scandinavians +of Greenland have perished; cattle no longer graze in +the valleys as then; and some heaps of stones are all that +remain to show the enterprise of those early western pioneers.</p> + +<p>The Icelandic Sagas contain descriptions of most of the +fiords of South Greenland, and of the chief settlers in them. +Perhaps the most notable in this respect is the Fiord of Igalikko. +This fiord ends in two forks or arms;—in the northern +stand the ruins of Brattelid, the first town in Greenland, built +by the first settler, Eric the Red, in 986; in the other was built +the town of Garde, the residence of the Bishop of Greenland. +These two towns vied with each other in the claim for precedence—Brattelid +claiming it on the ground of its being the +first erected, and the residence of Eric the Red and his +descendants; whilst Garde asserted its superior worthiness in +being the residence of the bishop. After much wordy quarreling +and sundry duels, Garde appears to have triumphed, and +was henceforth considered as the capital of Greenland.</p> + +<p>But Garde now shares the ruin and desolation of Brattelid, +with nothing else to recommend it to our further notice. Not +so however with its rival Brattelid. In the time of Eric the +Red, Anno Domini 1000, there sailed from the fiord of Igalikko +and from the town of Brattelid an expedition of discovery. +These enterprising Scandinavians were not contented with +having discovered the vast territory of Greenland; this +appears to have only stimulated their thirst for further discoveries, +and it may perhaps also be that after two or three +years’ residence in Greenland, they found it was not the El +<span class="pagenum">[64]</span>Dorado they had dreamed of; however, the expedition sailed +to the west and south, and finally discovered the continent of +America. They found good prairie land which they called +Markland, and sailing on they came to land bearing wild grapes +in great abundance, this they called Vinland. They wintered in +America, left some settlers (who after some time succumbed to +the natives), carved their runics on the rocks, and taking in +cargoes of timber and supplies of wild grapes sailed the next +summer and safely returned to Brattelid.</p> + +<p>Thus the credit of discovering America is certainly due to +the Scandinavians of Greenland. And Columbus when he +visited Iceland some years previous to his celebrated voyage, +no doubt read the accounts of the discovery in the Icelandic +Sagas. But as these accounts were suffered to remain almost +unknown to the world, and as the navigators of northern Europe +had in his time forgotten the route discovered by their more +energetic forefathers not only to America but also to Greenland, +(which was then called the “Lost Land,”) all honor is +certainly due to Columbus for the re-discovery of America.</p> + +<p>When Eric the Red first settled in the fiord of Igalikko, the +Christian religion had not reached Iceland or Norway. Thor +with his hammer reigned supreme. But Thor and his worshippers +have sunk into oblivion, bequeathing us his hammer, the +symbol of industry. The fiords of Greenland are about to +witness a new era of enterprise and engineering skill, ere long +the North Atlantic Telegraph Cable will repose at the bottom +of one of its fiords, again uniting with Europe the countries of +Iceland, Greenland, and America.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p>In the neighbourhood of high land the water is generally +of great depth, and the fiords of Greenland form no exception +to the rule; in fact, it is only near the lower and more sloping +land that vessels can lay at anchor, and this only in small coves +<span class="pagenum">[65]</span>so near to the land that it is the general practice to make fast +to the shore by hawsers. Outside of this the water deepens +rapidly, and in the middle of many of the fiords there is some +500 fathoms water; I should say that of the deeper fiords 300 +fathoms will be found to be the average depth. In some places +where the rocks are nearly perpendicular, a fishing-line of +100 fathoms fails to reach the bottom within a few yards of +the shore.</p> + +<p>Looking at the map of Julianshaab’s district, you will see that +some of the fiords terminate at the continental ice, whilst others +do not reach it; the former fiords have glaciers, the latter +have not.</p> + +<p>These glaciers are the outlets of the continental ice, which +has a motion from the interior towards the sea coasts, and +as the deep valleys or fiords are the only outlets, the ice is +forced into them until, by projecting from the land into the sea, +or fiord, portions give way and break off, owing to not being +sufficiently supported by being adequately immersed, or owing +to the rifts and chasms which exist in the glacier. The larger +of these portions, when thus detached from the glacier, constitute +icebergs.</p> + +<p>The glaciers in the fiords of the southern parts of the west +coast of Greenland are not very large, and consequently their +icebergs are never of great dimensions. I do not think any +iceberg produced by the glaciers of the fiords within 100 miles +north or south of Julianshaab would ground in 60 fathoms.</p> + +<p>The glaciers bring down with them boulders, sand and much +fine clay, the result of attrition; the boulders are always +rounded, owing to the severe abrasion they have undergone +by being transported over the rocks below, whilst under the +enormous pressure of the vast thickness of continental ice. +This glacial clay floats suspended in the water, several miles +from the glacier, rendering it turbid or milky, and depositing +<span class="pagenum">[66]</span>itself gradually throughout the whole length of the fiord. So +vast has been the quantity, and so long the period of time +during which this transport of clay has proceeded, that some +fiords have been so completely filled up by it that they are only +navigable in boats of light draught and at high water.</p> + +<p>From this choking up of the fiord the glacier has ended in +being unable to longer launch its icebergs; it has therefore +found a new outlet through some other valley, where it will +repeat the process of gradually filling up the fiord.</p> + +<p>As nearly all the fiords have, or have had, glaciers in them +bringing down the clayey deposits I have mentioned, the bottom +must be of soft material. If the cable be taken into a fiord +having a glacier, I think the clay which will be gradually deposited +over it will be of great service in protecting it from +injury by marine animals or other damaging agents.</p> + +<p>The existence of these fiords is extremely advantageous to +the carrying of the telegraph cable to Greenland, and there +bringing it on shore. Were it not for these, some difficulties +might have been met with in finding a suitable place for +the landing, owing to the ice streams on the outside coast; but in +several of these fiords, Tessermiut, for example, the water is of +such depth as to preclude the possibility of icebergs grounding +upon the cable, and the almost perpendicular mountains forming +parts of the lateral coasts of the fiords, and the deep water at +their bases, offer excellent situations for leading up the cable +from the middle of the fiord to the shore, without exposing it +in the slightest degree to the grounding of icebergs upon it.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I beg to state, that from the results of seven +years’ observation in Greenland, I am of opinion that neither +the ice nor the configuration of the coast, will offer any impediment +to the successful laying and landing of the telegraph cable +in Greenland.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[67]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VII"> + THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS</h2> + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.75"><span class="smallfont">OF THE PROPOSED NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH; BY</span><br> + <span class="largefont">COLONEL TAL. P. SHAFFNER, LL.D., F.R.G.S.,</span><br> + <span class="smallfont">OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.</span></p> +</div> + + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lord Ashburton</span>.—We have now come to the end of +these papers which more particularly come within our province +as geographers. There seems to me to be something wanting +still. Physical geography is only interesting in so far as the +results detailed are associated in some manner either with +human feelings, human sympathies, or human interests. Now, +the great purpose which has given attraction to the details +which we have just listened to, is that of ascertaining whether +the physical conditions of these northern regions are suited for +the carrying out of the great enterprise which both Continents +have at heart. Therefore, it seems to me you will hear with +great interest how these details dovetail, as it were, into the +necessities required by the establishment of the electric telegraph. +The particular features of this scheme will be put +before you by Colonel Shaffner, and I trust you will take the +same interest in it that I am sure I myself shall.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colonel Shaffner</span> then read the following, viz.:—</p> + +<p>As preliminary, I will briefly refer to the respective circuits +<span class="pagenum">[68]</span>proposed on the north-about route, as marked upon the large +map before the Society.</p> + + +<h3>LANDING PLACES AND LENGTHS OF CIRCUITS.</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scotland to Færöe Isles.</span>—One end of the cable for this +section will be landed in one of the many safe bays in north +Scotland—the precise place has not been determined. The +other end it is proposed to land in a beautiful bay near Thorshaven. +This section will be some 225 miles, and the depth of +the sea not exceeding 254 fathoms; bottom, mud and shells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Færöes to Iceland.</span>—One end of the cable will probably be +landed at Haldervig, near the north of Stromöe Isle. Captain +Young strongly recommends this bay, and that the other end be +landed in Berufiord, Iceland, a very good place, with deep water +and muddy bottom. The cable to this place will be about 240 +miles. Depth of sea, maximum, 683 fathoms, bottom mud +and shells. It may be found more advantageous, for reasons +not necessary now to be discussed, to carry the cable more +westward, to or near Portland, and to which place it can be +laid on a muddy and sandy bottom, in water of good depth. +Both of these places, namely, Berufiord and Portland, are free +from any volcanic influences whatever, and ever have been, as +far back as the discovery of that remarkable island in the +year 863.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Iceland to Greenland.</span>—This section will be the longest +of the series, between 600 and 700 miles. Captain Young +has reported in favour of Hvalfiord, a little north of Reikiavik, +in the Faxe Bay, but in order to economise as to length of +cable, it is quite probable that a more westerly place will be +selected, on the south side of Faxe Bay. The other end of +the cable he recommends be landed in Julianshaab fiord, on +the south-west coast of Greenland. He examined that +<span class="pagenum">[69]</span>beautiful bay, and found it to contain deep water, with muddy +bottom; and he states that it is his decided opinion that +bergs cannot reach the cable when laid in it. The reports of +others concur in this opinion. There are other fiords near +Cape Farewell, equally favourable. Tessermiut and Illoa fiords +are considered well suited for the cables.</p> + +<p>Heretofore it was contemplated to land this section of the +cable upon the east coast of Greenland, south of latitude 61° +north, in or near Prince Christian’s sound, and then, either to +carry the cable out at the other end of the sound, or to connect +this section with the next by a cable around Cape Farewell; or, +by a line across the land, avoiding the inland ice. For the +present, the intention to land on the east coast has been abandoned, +not because it has been found to be impracticable, but +because it has not been proved to be practicable. It is now +proposed to carry the cable from Iceland, around Cape Farewell, +to one of the fiords on the west side, and from the same +fiord run the cable to Labrador. Hereafter the Company may +find it best to land on the east coast, and carry out the original +intentions as above stated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Greenland to Labrador.</span>—The cable will start from Greenland, +and land at or near Hamilton’s Inlet. The soundings +taken by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock show 180 fathoms interior +from the outer rocks on the coast, so that the cable can be laid +into the inlet from the sea in water sufficiently deep to place +the cable beyond the reach of icebergs. If, however, the +depths be found more favourable from the sea into Byron’s +Bay, near and south of Cape Harrison, that place will be +equally satisfactory, all questions being considered; and from +thence the cable can be carried into Hamilton’s Inlet, through +one of the several channels connecting Byron’s Bay with the +Inlet. Length of section about 510 miles.</p> + +<p>Before the respective cables are laid, each of the places will +<span class="pagenum">[70]</span>be carefully sounded, and buoys will be placed indicating the +deep trenches; and, besides, steam tenders will be in readiness +to serve as pilots. Every precaution will be taken to obtain +the most complete information, in regard to the depths of the +bays and of the seas.</p> + + +<h3>THE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS.</h3> + +<p>I will now explain to the Society the respective electric circuits, +as practically applied to commercial telegraphy. I propose +to illustrate the mode of manipulating one or more circuits singly +and combined: when I say singly, I mean from one station to +another, and the employment of one voltaic series: when I say +combined, I mean the coupling together two or more circuits +in succession, all of which are brought into action by the +manipulation of any given one. The diagram, <span class="allsmcap">I.</span> represents +a voltaic current traversing a line on poles: <span class="allsmcap">M.</span> is the magnet, +<span class="allsmcap">B.</span> the battery, and <span class="allsmcap">K.</span> the key, or circuit closer at contact +point <span class="allsmcap">C.</span> of station A., <span class="allsmcap">A.</span> the armature of the lever seen in +the apparatus at station B. By this diagram it will be seen +<span class="pagenum">[71]</span>that the course of the electric current leaves the positive end of +the battery <span class="allsmcap">B.</span>, and passes through the metallic key <span class="allsmcap">K.</span> when +brought into contact with the metallic point <span class="allsmcap">C.</span>, thence with +the line wire to station B., and there through the respective +instruments to the metallic plate <span class="allsmcap">P.</span>, thence through the earth +<span class="allsmcap">E. E.</span> to the metallic plate <span class="allsmcap">N.</span>, up with the wire to the magnet +<span class="allsmcap">M.</span>, thence to the negative pole of the battery <span class="allsmcap">B.</span>, which completes +the voltaic circuit. Before proceeding further, it is +proper to say that the course of the current, when it takes +the earth at station B., remains a mystery in physics, and I +assume its return to the battery from whence it originated. +By elevating key <span class="allsmcap">K.</span> the circuit will be broken, and it is the +opening and closing of the circuit, in time methodically +arranged, that constitutes the alphabet for the transmission of +intelligence.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="This shows the electric circuit as described in the text."> + <figcaption> + <p><span class="smcap">Diagram I.</span></p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>I will next call the attention of the society to diagram <span class="allsmcap">II.</span>, +which illustrates the respective circuits contemplated to be +organised on the North Atlantic Telegraph. The first circuit +connects Scotland with the Færöes by submarine cable of +some 225 miles in length. The course of the voltaic current +runs through the cable, starting from Scotland, passing +through the apparatus at the Færöes, descending into the +earth, and thence direct to the source of its origination in +Scotland. The current of this circuit passes through the +spools of wire at the Færöes constructed as the one which I +hold in my hand, and when the wires are thus charged, the +cores, or iron centres, become magnetised, and they attract +down the armature, which causes the other end of the +lever to form a metallic contact so as to close the succeeding +circuit extending to Iceland. The course of the current on this +second section extends from the Færöes to Iceland, thence +through the apparatus, similar to that at the Færöes, and then +returns to the battery, from whence it sprung. In like manner +<span class="pagenum">[72]</span>the circuit from Iceland to Greenland is opened and closed, +and the same action takes place on the circuit from Greenland +to America. It will be observed that these circuits are not of +equal lengths, but the science of telegraphy has been so +carefully studied by the practical manipulator, that the conductors +can be adapted to the requirements of each circuit, if +desired.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_073.jpg" alt="This shows the electric circuit as described in the text and the figure caption."> + <figcaption> + <p>ELECTRIC CIRCUITS COMBINED. + <span class="smcap">Diagram II.</span></p> + <p><span class="smcap">Description of the Apparatuses.</span>—At <em>Scotland</em>:—K is the key; c, point to + close circuit; B, the battery connected with earth plate N from negative pole N. + At <span class="smcap">Færöe Isles</span>:—M is the magnet; A, the armature of the lever L; F, the fulcrum + post; C, the contact post; B, the battery, with its positive pole P; N and P + are earth plates. The black arrows indicate the course of the voltaic current + through the cable; dotted line E the current returning to the earth plate N, + and to the battery at N. At <em>Iceland</em>:—The apparatus is the same as that at the + Færöe Isles.</p> + <p><span class="smcap">Manipulation of the Apparatuses.</span>—When the key K at Scotland is pressed + to make a contact at c, battery B sends its electric current in the direction indicated + by the arrows to C; through the key K, the submarine cable to the magnet + M, through the coils of the magnet M to earth plate P, and thence to earth plate + N, as indicated by the dotted line E. In this manner the circuit is completed. + At the Færöe Isles, when the current traverses the magnet coils M, the armature + A is attracted down, and the lever L makes a contact with C, which closes the + next circuit. The current passes from battery B through the cable to the magnet + M at Iceland; then to the earth plate P; then with the dotted line EE, to plate + N; then up to the fulcrum post F, through the metallic lever L, and the contact + post C to the battery B. When the current traverses the coils of magnet M at + Iceland, the armature of lever L is attracted down, and a connection is made at + C, which closes the next circuit to Greenland. At Greenland there will be a like + apparatus, which will close the circuit to Labrador; and at Labrador will be + another apparatus which will close another circuit to Quebec. At each place + there can be a recording instrument, and dispatches can be received simultaneously + at the Færöe Isles, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and Quebec.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The limited time allowed at this meeting of the Society +prevents me from going further into detail in explanation of the +sciences and the arts pertaining to the subject under consideration. +But in order that the Society may more clearly understand +that which I have already said, I have arranged the models of +apparatuses placed in different parts of this room. Before me is +an apparatus supposed to be at North Scotland, that on my +right the Færöes station. I will now call the Færöe station +by the opening and the closing of the circuit as shown in diagram +<span class="allsmcap">II.</span>, section 1, and it will be seen that the bell at Færöes is +made to ring by the instrument at Scotland. I will next call +Iceland, which is the station immediately beyond the Færöes, +as seen in diagram <span class="allsmcap">II.</span> When I call Iceland, the Færöe +station connects or couples on the circuit to Iceland; when +Iceland hears the call by the ringing of his bell, he immediately +responds. The next station desired is Greenland, and when +that station is called, Iceland couples on the circuit to Greenland, +and in like manner Greenland couples on the circuit to +America, and now I communicate by the combination of the +respective circuits from Scotland to America by the simple +motion of my finger.</p> + +<p>I have reduced this illustration to the most simple form, so +as to bring it within the comprehension of the most uninitiated. +It has not been done for the expert telegrapher. The apparatuses +required at the respective stations to effect the +working in the manner described, will be more complicated, and +<span class="pagenum">[74]</span>a description of them would occupy more time than is allotted +to me on the present occasion. I have upon the table one of +the instruments used on the continental lines for the uniting of +two or more circuits, by which the end heretofore described is +effected.</p> + +<p>The respective circuits of the North Atlantic Telegraph will +be within the bounds of known practicabilities, and we have no +reason to expect other than the fullest success and the attainment +of a calculated celerity. There are no air lines or lines +constructed on poles that work in circuits more than perhaps 500 +miles. There is no retardation on such lines. The telegraph +from London to St. Petersburg is about 1900 miles, and upon +that range there are eight relay stations. From London to +Odessa the telegraph is about 3500 miles, and there are about +fourteen relay stations. From London to Constantinople it is +about 3200 miles, and there are about twelve relay stations. It +is a common occurrence to work to the stations mentioned +through the aid of mechanical contrivances. It is in this +manner that telegraphic manipulation overcomes long distances, +and although the original electric spark will not “leap +with one bound” from continent to continent by the North +Atlantic Telegraph, the intelligence will pass between the +hemispheres with a celerity commensurate with the grandeur +of the enterprise and the wants of the age.</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Lord Ashburton</span>: The Society has heard, I have no +doubt with much pleasure, the very interesting papers that +have been read this evening, and to afford an opportunity for +a discussion upon them, their consideration will be continued +at the next meeting.</p> + +<p>The Society then adjourned.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[75]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VIII"> + THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.</h2> + <p class="center" style="line-height:1.5"><span class="smcap">MEETING, FEBRUARY 11th, 1861.</span><br> + <span class="largefont">THE LORD ASHBURTON IN THE CHAIR.</span> + </p> +</div> + + +<p><em>A crowded Meeting of the Members and their Friends was held at +Burlington House, on Monday Evening, February 11th, 1861, +when the Adjourned Discussion took place.</em></p> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIIa"><span class="smcap">The President</span>: I need not read over to you again the names +of the very interesting papers that were submitted to you on the +last occasion of our meeting. We have now amongst us +travellers who have gained experience in every quarter of the +globe;—many learned geographers, who have been themselves +present in those portions of the earth which have been alluded +to in these papers: and I trust that we may have their assistance +in correcting what they may see to be wrong; in amplifying +and illustrating what we have heard. The subjects which come +before us, within our province, are the geographical features; +we are not engineers, nor electricians, to judge of the power of +electric currents to pass from this or that part of the earth; we +are not members of Parliament, who are to determine what aid, +what facilities by law are to be afforded to men who have +devoted themselves to this great enterprise; nor are we capable +<span class="pagenum">[76]</span>of judging of the respective merits of the many plans which +have been put forward before the public. All that we can judge +of are the geographical facts which have been laid before us, +and of those facts there cannot be better judges than the +assembly that I see before me. (Applause.) It is, therefore, +with hopes of receiving instruction and much knowledge, that I +call upon those gentlemen, more particularly, who have been in +these scenes, to give us the advantage of their experience, in +either amplifying, correcting, or illustrating, the several facts +which have been brought before us. (Applause.)</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIIb"><span class="smcap">Sir Edward Belcher</span>, R.N.: I took a very deep interest in +the deputation to Lord Palmerston to get the expedition sent +out for this northern telegraph; and I am very happy indeed +to find that nearly all the arguments that were then used +have been so thoroughly realised. I thought, in the first +instance, as has been proved, that we should find a great +connecting bank between Scotland and the Færöes, and +between Iceland and Greenland. As to the difficulties which +were raised with reference to the Labrador shore, I am very +glad to find that the reefs, which it was said would entirely +prevent any cable being laid across there, have vanished +with the ice; they have gone southerly somewhere or other, +and have not yet been found; at least those reefs that are there +are rather helps than otherwise by preventing the ice coming +down upon the entrance. I should like very much to have +been present at the last meeting to have understood the nature +of the soundings;—and while I am speaking of the soundings, +I am sorry to say that before another institution—the Civil +Engineers—it has been assumed that we surveyors know +nothing at all about soundings—that we do not know our +business, and that really some civilians will have to teach us +our work. Now, as far as I am myself concerned, during the +<span class="pagenum">[77]</span>whole of my servitude I adopted a particular means for +getting up the bottom in large quantities, and in such large +quantities that I thought nothing of bringing up a hatful at a +time. I have six cases of microscopic shells, a very handsome +collection, all of which I have got up by that means. The +very simple mode that I adopted to sink my lead and to get up +the soundings from the bottom was this. The sounding lead +was encased by a cylinder, and the lead being conical, the +cylinder on striking the ground flew up, and the lower part of +the lead stuck to the bottom, picked up its quantity of soundings, +and as the lead was withdrawn this cylinder (pointing) +slipped down and completely protected whatever adhered to +the lead from being washed away. The other one which I +used for obtaining shells was a small dredge attached to the +lead, and as the lead struck the bottom, the flanges scraped up a +quantity of earth.</p> + +<p>The Labrador coast takes its name “Labrador” from people +having found there golden pyrites, as they termed them in +those days, when they thought that they had made a discovery +of a golden coast. It is a golden coast, inasmuch as the copper +contains a great quantity of gold. In approaching that coast, +I think that it would have been as well if the “Bulldog” had +been furnished with a fine wire chain, such as our jack chains, +as used in sweeping up anchors, and had it connected with +an electrical machine. As she ran over the ground she might +easily have detected at the instant whether there was any copper +there. And as to any chance of the cable being corroded or +cut, on approaching the shores of Labrador, or any of the +places, I think that if application be made to the civil engineers, +there are men of talent who would inform them instantly how +they were to obviate it.</p> + +<p>And if the cable is to be properly laid down, the ground must +be properly examined; for it is quite absurd to attempt to lay +<span class="pagenum">[78]</span>cables in the teeth of nature. If that cable is to be connected +with the Labrador coast, and that coast runs off in ridges under +water, as is very natural, a further survey must be made to find +where the hollows run. A correct and a very accurate survey +should be made, so that the cable may be laid in the hollows.</p> + +<p>I am very happy indeed that the experiment has been made, +and that the officers have been so successful in planning the +ground; and that we have a chance of connecting our coasts +with those of our cousins across the Atlantic. (Cheers.)</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIIc"><span class="smcap">Mr. Pliny Miles.</span>—I do not know, My Lord, that I can +throw any particular light on the subject of the explorations in +Iceland and Greenland. I can, however, mention one or two +facts that I noticed while travelling in Iceland a few years +since. One great consideration of course will be that of climate; +we can ascertain from certain circumstances that that country +is not so cold as we should imagine it to be from its name and +locality. The small hardy race of horses there subsist entirely out +of doors in the winter, without any kind of food being given them +in the shape of hay, excepting only those horses which they +use for domestic purposes, during those months. The rest are +without any kind of food, except what they gather from the +open country. I saw in one case a mahogany tree on the +south coast, not far from Portland, that had unquestionably +floated with the gulf stream from the Gulf of Mexico itself. +I was told also by Professor Johnson, that it was not unfrequently +the case that spruce or other logs from Norway were +found driven on to the northern coast, at the same time that +logs of wood floated from the southern portion of the North +American continent. They are there found together, the one +current having come from Spitzbergen, and the other from the +gulf stream. Standing on any mountain or height in Iceland, +you will see a green and beautiful landscape; in fact, the +<span class="pagenum">[79]</span>natives say, “Iceland is the finest country the sun shines +upon,” though at some seasons of the year they have very little +of the sun to shine. I am satisfied of the feasibility of running +the wires from this country to the Færöes and Iceland.</p> + +<p>With regard to the absence or presence of trees in Iceland, +that has nothing to do with the coldness or the severity of the +climate. It is well known that there are trees of large size on +the coast of Norway, where the climate is far colder than in +any, the most severe seasons that have ever been known in +Iceland, or in regions still farther north. It is a fact, that on +some portions of the coast of Scotland, and in all parts of the +Orkney and Shetland and Færöe Islands, you will not find a single +tree six feet high, while they are found in Iceland 18 feet high. +I will not attempt to explain, or to give a reason why, we find +trees growing in one very severe climate, and not in others, but +it is undoubtedly owing, to a certain extent, to the direction of +the wind, and to some particular effect of the sea air. At any +rate we find no trees whatever on some of our more southern +coasts, while, farther north—on the Labrador coast, there are +large trees, spruce, pine, larch, and others. So that the fact +that there are no trees in Iceland, must not lead persons to +suppose that the cold is necessarily extremely severe.</p> + +<p>I would just refer to a statement made by a gentleman who +read a paper here two weeks ago, with regard to the thickness +of ice at Reikiavik. I have a distinct recollection that the lake +seldom freezes to the depth of 18 inches. I have been +told that sometimes it is not frozen more than two inches +during the whole course of the winter, showing most conclusively +the mildness of the climate. These circumstances will +throw considerable light on the peculiarities of that climate; +and prove that it is far more genial than you would naturally +suppose from its name and locality. (Applause.)</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[80]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp54" style="max-width: 40.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_080.jpg" alt="This includes four sub-figures, as described in the figure caption. The description in the text related to this figure describes the key points illustrated in the figures."> + <figcaption> + <p>PROFILES OF THE DEEP SEAS + ON THE + NORTH ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH ROUTE.</p> + <p>[<em>Referred to in the Remarks of Captain Osborn.</em>]</p> + <p>FÆRÖE ISLES. <em>About 225 Miles.</em> SCOTLAND.</p> + <p>ICELAND. <em>About 240 Miles.</em> FÆRÖE ISLES.</p> + <p>GREENLAND. <em>About 670 Miles.</em> ICELAND.</p> + <p>LABRADOR. <em>About 510 Miles.</em> GREENLAND.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[81]</span></p> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIId"><span class="smcap">Captain Sherard Osborn</span>, R.N.: I will not attempt to +say anything as to the practicability of the route, inasmuch as +the distinguished travellers and navigators, who read their +papers at the last meeting, have given us sufficient authority +to say that there were obstacles on the route undoubtedly, but +that all those obstacles are surmountable. Touching the +soundings, I would call your attention to the agreeable fact +that the entire line of soundings show that there is no depth +greater than 1000 fathoms between Scotland and longitude +30 west on the proposed route, or exactly halfway across the +Atlantic Ocean. There are then two valleys of deep water, of +small width, on either side of Greenland. The soundings diminished, +as you see, very abruptly as Greenland is approached, +and shallow water will be found probably round Cape Farewell. +With regard to the Labrador coast, the principal difficulty +was in carrying the cable within the 150 fathoms of water, so +that it might not be exposed to the action of the icebergs. I +am sure that Arctic men all agree that 150 fathoms would +be about the maximum draught of any iceberg, so that the +chief object to be secured in placing the cable is to push the +150 fathom mark as near into the coast as possible. They +would remember that Sir Leopold M‘Clintock had said +that he would like to have a more accurate survey of the +Labrador coast, so as to carry the deep water a little closer. +If they looked at the map they would see 1190 fathoms carried +just to the north of Hamilton Inlet, and there was every reason +to believe that the bank of Newfoundland—they might call it so, +although it extended a long way up the Labrador coast—deepened +suddenly there. As far as one might speculate upon +the question, I have no doubt that a more accurate survey would +lead to the obtaining of such information as would give us a +channel leading close into the Labrador shore, near Cape +Harrison. I would propose, that the cable there should open +<span class="pagenum">[82]</span>out and form, say, half-a-dozen strands running into the shore +at certain distances from each other, so that if a berg drifted +down and happened to pick up one, it would not pick up all the +rest, and by that means the cable in the deep water would be at +all times safe and recoverable by following out those strands. +There was one feature that struck me particularly, and on which +I wrote to Captain M‘Clintock. No man would dispute that +bergs of ice sounding the bottom would rip it up, just as a plough +would a ploughed field; and that if that bank was thus ripped up +by the floes of ice, there would be hardly any animal or vegetable +life upon it; it would be a kind of subterranean desert. +Sir Leopold M‘Clintock was continually dredging there, and +in a note just received, that distinguished navigator said, +“The bank of Hamilton Inlet has from 100 to 200 fathoms +upon it. I am of opinion that icebergs which ever drift down +there cannot possibly reach the bottom. They ground near +the islands at the entrance and are not bergs of the largest +size. Shells and other small things were brought up by the +sounding machines in 40 or 50 fathoms, <em>as in other parts of +the sea</em> where icebergs cannot possibly interfere with them.” +Near Frederickshaab Captain Sir L. M‘Clintock says they +dredged up in 26 fathoms delicate corals and creatures which +could not live at the bottom of the sea if much disturbed by +icebergs,—and adds “<em>so much for the destructive propensities of +icebergs</em>.” How all this came about was a question I do not +pretend to solve, but the fact was very curious, as showing +that bergs could touch the bottom without sweeping everything +before them. I am sure that every geographer will be interested +in the following fact, for it related to the late Sir John Ross, +who stated that in his voyage in 1818 he brought up mud from +1050 fathoms, the deepest soundings ever obtained at that time; +and in the mud were shells and fish. So to that old navigator +they first owed that the fact of animal life in great depths had +<span class="pagenum">[83]</span>been discovered. We were talking the other day about the difficulties +with regard to the intense cold and the aurora borealis +affecting the telegraph. It might be interesting for the Society to +know that a few seasons ago, Captain Kellett and Captain +M‘Clintock were beset in the ice in <span class="nowrap">74 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span>° north, and they +communicated with each other by telegraph from ship to ship. +Now <span class="nowrap">74 <span class="fnum">1</span>/<span class="fden">2</span></span>° north latitude was a long way in the Arctic zone, +and the cable, the practicability of which they were at present +discussing, would lie a long way without it. That telegraph +was at work throughout the whole winter, and was not in any +way affected by that terrible bug-bear the aurora borealis, nor +by the intense cold experienced so far north. (Applause.)</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIIe"><span class="smcap">Mr. John Ball</span>: It is impossible to over-rate the importance +of the subject brought to the attention of the Society by the +gentlemen who read their papers. It is very desirable that we +should not under-rate the difficulties which still remain, and +which I think have not all of them been sufficiently brought +forward, and it is by pointing out the difficulties at this early +stage that we shall soonest arrive at the solution of those difficulties +and the great end which I trust we shall live to see +accomplished. I have long felt that this northern route was +the right one; but I am not blind to the many difficulties +which still remain in our way. With reference to the precise +points which come particularly under the attention of this +Society, and were brought clearly before us at the last meeting, +there are two or three on which I wish to make a few observations. +As to the Færöes, I apprehend there is no great difficulty. As +to Iceland, it is proposed to land the cable at the south-east side +of the island, to carry it across the island, and start again from +Reikiavik in order to communicate from thence to Greenland. +Now there, are we not unnecessarily encountering very serious +<span class="pagenum">[84]</span>difficulties and incurring a great increase of expenditure? It is +true that it is possible to cross Iceland—perfectly possible—but +so experienced a traveller as Dr. Rae found that it was not practicable +without very great sacrifice of time, and encountering +great difficulties, to take that direct route pretty nearly from east +to west; but has he at all considered what the difficulties and +cost of laying down a telegraphic wire are? I think he has +mentioned—every traveller in Iceland has mentioned—that +large district in the interior of the island over which you must +hurry as fast as your horses can carry you, for the simple reason +that there is nothing upon which to live; and if you are to lay +down a telegraph across that interior desert of Iceland, you +must be prepared for a vast number of difficulties and an +enormous amount of money, and time, and labour, while they +are doing it, and to accomplish it within a reasonable time. +But, furthermore, how is it to be done? If you require piles, +you must carry every pile into the island, across the island by +horses, and supposing you could hire every one of the horses, +there are not enough to enable you, in one or two seasons, to +accomplish the work. And then, again, I have not alluded to +the difficulty which every voyager will have encountered with +respect to the breakers. Would it not be better to confine the +difficulties to one point alone,—the entrance into the Faxe +Fiord? I don’t know whether it is proposed to land it at that +point or not, but let the difficulties be confined to one point +instead of two. With reference to Labrador, even though it be +true that we can carry the 150 fathoms depth near to the +coast, still that, my lord, may be as formidable as ten, or +twenty, or fifty miles in another place. If it be a part of the +coast on which there are icebergs, it is necessary, it appears to +me, not only to carry your 150 fathoms of water close in shore, +but you must get it safe behind some headland which will +<span class="pagenum">[85]</span>throw aside the icebergs. May it not be possible that by +making the line a little longer, and running it into the strait +of Belle Isle, the true solution will be found?</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIIf"><span class="smcap">Sir Roderick Murchison</span>:—If any Arctic geographer or +voyager had been prepared to rise, I would not have occupied +the time of the Society for one moment, upon a subject on which +I know little. I will only say I am one of the very many well-wishers +to every expedition of this sort which the Royal Geographical +Society holds within its number. My lord, we are not +here, as you have very properly said, to discuss the engineering +merits of the project, nor are we really capable of estimating +the difficulties that have been apprehended by my friend Mr. +Ball; but we are capable of estimating, in a very decisive +manner, the facts that Sir Leopold M‘Clintock and Captain +Sherard Osborn, who are men of great experience as Arctic +voyagers, have pronounced in favour of this scheme.</p> + +<p>I make no observations upon the scheme, except to say that +had I risen at our last meeting, when your lordship adjourned +the discussion to this evening, I should have felt it necessary +to say that we owe a deep debt of obligation to those five +gentlemen, who brought before us on that occasion their well +elaborated and well received papers. They brought before us +a mass of geographical knowledge which we never could have +possessed, had not this expedition been matured—I say it to +his honour—through the patronage of Lord Palmerston, and +carried out through the active enterprise of the gentlemen who +undertook this service.</p> + +<p>Being in favour of all such expeditions, the moment my +distinguished friend Captain Allen Young offered to go out +in command of the little “Fox,” in which you know I took +a deep interest, I went down to Southampton, to attend a +great meeting assembled by the Mayor in honour of this expedition. +<span class="pagenum">[86]</span>There Colonel Shaffner and Mr. Croskey, and the other +gentlemen associated with them, and the Danish officers and +others present received from us as Englishmen every encouragement +we could offer to promote this enterprise.</p> + +<p>My lord, the details of the two expeditions have been so +admirably laid before you that I, for one, should have been contented +with the results, if I were in any way embarked as a +speculator in the success of the undertaking. But not having +any pecuniary interest in it, or in any rival speculation, I may +say to the gentlemen of the North Atlantic Company, you have +put your case so well before the public, that no gentleman associated +with other lines can say that it is possible to have treated +the subject in a more ingenuous and fair manner. (Hear, hear, +and applause.)</p> + +<p>And now, my lord, I cannot sit down without saying, it gave +me very great satisfaction to hear Dr. Rae expatiate, as he +did, upon the warm and hearty reception that he received +from all the inhabitants of the Danish settlement of the Færöe +Islands and of Iceland. I say this in the presence of the +Danish minister; and I am sure Dr. Rae was justified when +he spoke in the name of Englishmen, of our gratitude to +the King of Denmark, and to the government of that country, +for having so warmly assisted us in one of those great enterprises, +which may lead us to connect America with our own +country. (Applause.)</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p id="Chapter_VIIIg"><span class="smcap">Dr. Rae</span>: My Lord,—The time allowed me at the last meeting +of this Society was necessarily so short, that I left unmentioned +some important points connected with my journey over +Iceland; so I now beg to say a few words in reply to the +observations of Mr. Ball.</p> + +<p>The interior of Iceland over which we travelled is not +devoid of grass, there being sufficient for our horses throughout +<span class="pagenum">[87]</span>the whole route, which offered comparatively few difficulties. +Although two of the party were heavy men, we crossed the +island in thirteen or fourteen days, riding the same horses at +the rate of more than thirty miles per day. These ponies can +carry a load of 200 lbs. or upwards, and pieces of wood ten or +fifteen feet long can be carried by them over the highest and +steepest ground on the route. The best line for the telegraph +lies to the south of that we travelled over, and is marked on +the chart by a dotted line. Along this route there is abundance +of water, and grass also, except at one station, to supply which +a depôt of hay could be made. This portion of the way (about +the centre of Iceland), called the Sprengisandr road, is almost a +flat table land. Again, some of the larger rivers that flow +northward appear to be navigable for boats similar to those +used in Hudson’s Bay, which carry from three to four tons +weight. By this means materials could be deposited at several +stations near to the proposed line. I do not profess to be a +surveyor, but having travelled a good deal both in the United +States and Canada, I have seen telegraphs carried over more +difficult and rougher country than we encountered in crossing +Iceland. But should objections be offered to carrying the +telegraph completely across the island, I am of opinion, from +information obtained, that Portland, in the south of Iceland, +although no safe harbour for ships, would form a good landing +place for a cable. From Portland to Reikiavik the distance is +not over ninety miles, and the road offers no obstacles. The +object of our journey was not to make a minute or detailed +survey, but to determine if it were practicable to carry a +telegraph over the island. (Applause.)</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[89]</span></p> + + + <h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IX"> + APPENDIX. + </h2> +</div> + + +<p class="center largefont"><span class="smcap">Opinions of Greenlanders, on the practicability of +laying the Telegraphic Cables upon the Coast of +South Greenland.</span></p> + +<p>The following extracts are taken from letters written in +Greenland by residents there, who have had much experience +upon the coast. They prove that the floe-ice is seen off the +coast of Julianshaab in January or February, and that sometimes +during the summer months there is none off the coast, +and that every year, from and after the month of August until +January, “the coast is free from ice.” During the months +that are free from ice a steamer can enter or depart with +the cable, and lay it without the slightest interruption. +The floe-ice runs north, along and within sight of the coast, +unless driven to sea by extraordinary gales, which circumstance +is always known. When it is driven to sea it clusters together +in small patches of a few hundred yards in length.</p> + +<p>The year 1860 was a remarkable era; there was a greater +quantity of ice, and it remained longer upon the coast, than +ever before within the memory of man or traditional accounts. +Even during this year the cables could have been safely landed +in Julianshaab and other fiords. Severe seasons occasionally +occur in all climates, and so it has been in England the present +winter (1861). The first fourteen days were colder than has +been experienced since 1839, and it has been the third occurrence +of severe cold within this century.</p> + + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Extracts from a Letter dated Godthaab, Greenland, September 4th, 1860, +from Dr. Rink, Inspector (Governor) of South Greenland.</em></p> + +<p>“I need not tell you how interesting your letter from Julianshaab, of +<span class="pagenum">[90]</span>October, last year, was to me, and how much I regretted the impossibility +of meeting you.</p> + +<p>“I have thought much on your grand enterprise, and though I doubt +very much that the telegraph line can be carried across Greenland from +the east side, I am convinced that it can be landed in some of the +inlets (or fiords) in the vicinity of Cape Farewell, without fear of interruption +from ice.</p> + +<p>“The drift ice has been very bad this summer, and has deprived me +of an opportunity to meet you.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p><em>Extracts from a Letter dated Julianshaab, November 2nd, 1860, from +Mr. Möller, Governor of the Julianshaab District, a resident of +Greenland since 1825.</em></p> + +<p>“As a general rule the first drift ice appears in the months of January +or February, but it is seldom of such extent as to reach further north +than this district. When it does so, it is in the spring months.</p> + +<p>“The Spitzbergen ice this year (1860) has beset the coast of this +district from the month of January, but at some times not so much as +to prevent vessels coming into this port.</p> + +<p>“The worst months were June and July and a part of August. The +reason that Col. Shaffner’s vessel was able to run into this port so successfully +in the autumn of last year (October 2nd, 1859), was that the +ice had long before entirely left the coast; in fact the ice had gone away +in August.</p> + +<p>“The Colonel’s ship, without the slightest hindrance, navigated the +coast in the month of September, and put to sea from near this harbour +in October 1859. But this year the ice has remained upon the coast +longer than ever before within my memory. The coast is usually free +from ice during the autumn months.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Extracts from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 11th, 1860, from +Mr. Twede, Governor of the Frederickshaab District, a resident of +Greenland since 1850.</em></p> + +<p>“The ice off this coast has continued later this year than it has +ever before during my residence in Greenland. During the past ten +years, and before this season, the ice on the coast of this and the +<span class="pagenum">[91]</span>Julianshaab Districts, with but one exception, has never prevented the +Julianshaab vessels from sailing direct to this place, and they have +generally arrived by the middle of August, and in 1855 on the 5th of +July. Last year the vessels proceeded direct from sea to Julianshaab, +the ice having disappeared off the coast early in the summer.</p> + +<p>“In September 1855, I sailed along the coast of Julianshaab District +beyond Cape Farewell to Itiblik, without having encountered any floe +ice whatever. In September 1859, Col. Shaffner’s ship was seen steering +along the coast, and subsequently anchored at Kaksimiut, in the Julianshaab +District, without any interruption from ice. The coast during the +autumn months is nearly always free from ice.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Extract from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 11th, 1860, from the +Rev. F. P. Barfoed, a resident of Greenland since 1852.</em></p> + +<p>“During my residence in Greenland, I have never seen so much ice +as during the present year. Dr. Rink, the Inspector (Governor) of +South Greenland, and all other Danes and Greenlanders with whom I +have consulted on the subject, are unanimous in declaring that never +before within the memory of man has there been a year of so much ice +as that of 1860.</p> + +<p>“It is my opinion that both the east and the west coasts are every +year, at times, free from ice, but possibly not on both coasts at the same +time; and it is my decided opinion that a steamer will almost always +find an opportunity to proceed unobstructed, direct from and to +Julianshaab District, either from or to Labrador and Iceland, after, +and many times during, the month of August. In the month of September +1859, I saw Col. Shaffner’s vessel coasting southward, and in a +few days afterwards we heard that he had anchored at Kaksimiut in +the Julianshaab District. There was but little ice last year, and in +an especial manner was the Julianshaab District free from ice.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Statement of Mr. Motzfeldt, Superintendent at Kaksimiut, one of the oldest +residents in Greenland, November 1860.</em></p> + +<p>“The year 1860 has been one of the worst ice years that we have +ever had. Last year (October 2nd, 1859), Colonel Shaffner’s ship +entered Kaksimiut without difficulty. In the months of September, +<span class="pagenum">[92]</span>October, and November, generally, this coast is free from ice, and a +steam vessel can enter from the sea and depart from the coast almost any +day, and not be interrupted during the autumn months. I am now over +fifty years of age, and do not remember ever having seen an ice year +as bad as this (1860). Even this year the coast of the Julianshaab +District has been free from ice during the past and present months.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Extract from a Letter dated Julianshaab, November 3rd, 1860, from +J. Anderson, Captain in the Royal Greenland Commercial Service +since 1848.</em></p> + +<p>“During eight years, I was boatswain to a merchant vessel trading to +this district, and during the last twelve years commander of the district +schooner ‘Activ,’ of 22 tons burthen. During those periods, I have as +an old sailor (for I have been forty years at sea) made many careful +observations as to the nature of the ice along this coast. I have also +kept a correct log (book which is now in the possession of the Board of +Management of the Royal Danish Commercial Institution of Greenland), +ever since the year 1849.</p> + +<p>“Having gone through that log book, and compared it with my own +views, I now express the opinion that, as a general rule, the ice mostly +lies on the coast during the months of April and May, and that, on the +other hand, the months which are free from ice are September, October, +and November. It may be taken as a general rule, that during the +months of September and October, even in what are called ‘bad ice +years,’ this coast is free from ice.</p> + +<p>“My own experience enables me to state positively—and my log book +will bear me out in the statement—that steam-vessels can run straight +into the settlement from the sea, with certainty, during the months +before mentioned; and, as a proof of the correctness of this opinion, +reference may be made to this very year, which, in regard to ice, to my +own knowledge, has been the worst and the longest in duration of any +‘bad ice year’ since my arrival here in the year 1841. The large vessel, +‘Bulldog,’ came straight to this place from sea; and since the date of +its arrival, up to the present time, any ship, be it what it may, might have +been equally able to make this port, from the sea, and to leave it again +without interruption from ice.</p> + +<p>“Last year (1859) an American barque came straight into Kaksimint, +which is a little to the north of this settlement; but that is not to be +<span class="pagenum">[93]</span>wondered at, as last year was what we call here an ‘ice-free year;’ and +if the captain of that vessel had been acquainted with the coast navigation, +he might have easily come in and gone out more than twenty times, and +from as many places.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Extract from a Letter dated Julianshaab, October 23rd, 1860, from Mr. +Dorph, retired assistant from Nennortalik; I. Holm, superintendent +at Sardlok; M. Schonheyder, superintendent at East Proven; and +S. G. Lund, superintendent at South Proven.</em></p> + +<p>“In compliance with the request made to us, we hereby declare that +the present year has been what is called, in Greenland, a ‘bad ice year.’</p> + +<p>“The large ice remained an unusually long time at the shore. +Neither of us, nor any of the old Greenlanders with whom we have conversed +on the subject, remember ever having seen, in the course of our +lives, the ice remaining for so long a period along the coasts.</p> + +<p>“The ice lay so thick for so long a time that the hunters were prevented +thereby from performing their usual work, even in their Kayaks. In +the present year the ice set in from the first month, and remained until +September, when it disappeared. This coast is usually free from ice +during the autumn months, and vessels can enter and depart without +interruption from ice.</p> + +<p>“One of the undersigned, Mr. Dorph, who has resided in this district +during forty-one years, remembers well the year 1825, which was a +remarkable ‘bad ice year,’ but it was not such a ‘bad’ one as the +year 1860.”</p> + +<hr class="tb"> + +<p class="hangindent"><em>Extract from a Letter dated Frederickshaab, October 12th, 1860, from +T. Ordrorpe and C. Fotel, Captains of vessels from Denmark.</em></p> + +<p>“On the 19th of June (1860), at about eight miles from land off +Cape Farewell, we found much ice; on the 22nd, off Julianshaab, there +was no ice. The ice was in patches, more north, and the greater part of +our voyage on the coast, it was near to land. We were informed by the +old people of Godthaab, that during the past thirty years there has not +been any year with as much ice on the Greenland coast as the present, +1860.”</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum">[94]</span></p> + + + <h2 id="Chapter_X" class="nobreak mediumfont hangindent" style="font-weight:normal"> + <em>Opinions of Lieut. von Zeilau, of the Royal Danish Army, and + Arnljot Olafsson, Member of the Icelandic Diet (both of + whom accompanied the “Fox” Telegraph Expedition in + 1860), Commissioners appointed by the Royal Danish + Government, on the practicability of the proposed telegraphic + route.</em> + </h2> +</div> + + +<p>“We concur in the opinion that it is practicable to submerge +or land telegraph-cables at the places selected on the Færöe +Islands, and also to construct a line over-land there, and that +in our opinion, cables, when landed, will remain undisturbed.</p> + +<p>“We have the same opinion in regard to the landing and +maintaining cables on the coast of Iceland, and also that a line +can be constructed across Iceland with all reasonable prospects +of permanency.</p> + +<p>“As regards Greenland, we give it as our decided opinion, +based upon our own observations and received information +from the best authorities, that cables can be safely laid from +Greenland during the autumn months, for instance, at the +Igalikko (Julianshaab) Fiord, where cables can be submerged +beyond the reach of icebergs.”</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> Some interesting notices of this and other submarine volcanoes are published in +the “Nautical Magazine,” for July, 1860.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> See a Paper by J. Gwyn Jefferys, F.R.S., on “The British Species of Teredo,” +published in “The Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” for August, 1860.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="transnote"> +<h2 style="margin-top: 0em">Transcriber’s Notes:</h2> + +<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> + +<p>Footnotes have been moved to the end of the text and relabeled consecutively.</p> + +<p>Illustrations have been moved to paragraph breaks near where they are +mentioned, except for the frontispiece map.</p> + +<p>Punctuation has been made consistent.</p> + +<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation were retained as they appear in +the original publication, except that obvious typographical errors +have been corrected.</p></div></div> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 78797 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/78797-h/images/cover.jpg b/78797-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..77330f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/78797-h/images/i_070.jpg b/78797-h/images/i_070.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..06e7538 --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/images/i_070.jpg diff --git a/78797-h/images/i_073.jpg b/78797-h/images/i_073.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d5ff31b --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/images/i_073.jpg diff --git a/78797-h/images/i_080.jpg b/78797-h/images/i_080.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3403feb --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/images/i_080.jpg diff --git a/78797-h/images/map.jpg b/78797-h/images/map.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9813513 --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/images/map.jpg diff --git a/78797-h/images/title.jpg b/78797-h/images/title.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..43d0527 --- /dev/null +++ b/78797-h/images/title.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c72794 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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