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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:31:47 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:31:47 -0700 |
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diff --git a/8559-h/8559-h.htm b/8559-h/8559-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b93e85 --- /dev/null +++ b/8559-h/8559-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5138 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, November 25, 1882</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement No. 360, +November 25, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 360, November 25, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8559] +Release Date: July, 2005 +First Posted: July 23, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 360 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 360</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 25, 1882</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 360.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Soaking Pits for Steel +Ingots. --On the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own +initial heat by means of the soaking pit process. By JOHN GJERS. 6 +figures.--Gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Tempering by compression.--L. Clemandot's +process.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Economical Steam Power. By WILLIAM BARNET LE +VAN.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Mississippi River Improvements near St. Louis, +Mo.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Bunte's Burette for the Analysis of Furnace Gases. +2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">The "Universal" Gas Engine. 8 figures.--Improved +gas engine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Gas Furnace for Baking Refractory Products. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">The Efficiency of Fans. 5 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">Machine for Compressing Coal Refuse into Fuel. 1 +figure.-- Bilan's machine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Hank Sizing and Wringing Machine. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Improved Coke Breaker. 2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Improvements in Printing Machinery. 2 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#13">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Apparatus for +Obtaining Pure Water for Photographic Use. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Black Phosphorus.--By P THENARD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Composition of Steep Water</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Schreiber's Apparatus for Revivifying Bone Black. +5 figures.-- Plant: elevation and plan.--Views of +elevation.--Continuous furnace.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">Soap and its Manufacture from a Consumer's Point +of View. (Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330).</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">Cotton seed Oil.--By S. S. BRADFORD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">On some Apparatus that Permit of Entering +Flames.--Chevalier Aldini's wire gauze and asbestos +protectors.--Brewster's account of test experiments.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#20">ELECTRICITY, LIGHT. ETC.--On a New Arc Electric +Lamp. By W. H. PREECE. 6 figures--The Abdank system.--The lamp.-- +The Electro-magnet.--The Cut-off.--The electrical +arrangement.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Utilization of Solar Heat.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#22">NATURAL HISTORY.--The Ocellated Pheasant. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">The Maidenhair Tree in the Gardens at Broadlands, +Hants, England. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">The Woods of America.--The Jessup collection in +the American Museum of Natural History, Central Park, and the +characteristics of the specimens.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#25">AGRICULTURE, ETC.--An Industrial +Revolution.--Increase in the number of farms.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#26">A Farmer's Lime Kiln. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">The Manufacture of Apple Jelly.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Improved Grape Bags. 4 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#29">ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Building Stone +Supply.--Granite and its sources.--Sandstone.--Blue and gray +limestone.--Marble.-- Slate.--Other stones.--A valuable summary of +the sources and uses of quarry products.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#30">ASTRONOMY. ETC.--How to Establish a True +Meridian. By Prof. L. M. HAUPT.--Introduction.--Definitions.--To +find the azemuth of Polaris.--Applications, etc.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#31">MISCELLANEOUS.--A Characteristic Mining +"Rush."--The Prospective Mining Center of Southern New +Mexico.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">The Food and Energy of Man. By Prof. DE +CHAUMONT.--Original food of man.--Function of food.--Classes of +alimentary substances.--Quantity of food.--Importance of varied +diet.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#33">Rattlesnake Poison.--Its Antidotes. By H. H. +CROFT.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#34">The Chinese Sign Manual.--The ethnic bearing of +skin furrows on the hand.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#35">Lucidity.--Matthew Arnold's remarks at the +reopening of the Liverpool University College and School of +Medicine.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.</h2> + +<h3>ON THE SUCCESSFUL ROLLING OF STEEL INGOTS WITH THEIR OWN +INITIAL HEAT BY MEANS OF THE SOAKING PIT PROCESS.</h3> + +<h3>By Mr. JOHN GJERS, Middlesbrough.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute at +Vienna.]</p> + +<p>When Sir Henry Bessemer, in 1856, made public his great +invention, and announced to the world that he was able to produce +malleable steel from cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel +except that which already existed in the fluid metal imparted to it +in the blast furnace, his statement was received with doubt and +surprise. If he at that time had been able to add that it was also +possible to roll such steel into a finished bar with no further +expenditure of fuel, then undoubtedly the surprise would have been +much greater.</p> + +<p>Even this, however, has come to pass; and the author of this +paper is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is +not only possible, but that it is extremely easy and practical, by +the means to be described, to roll a steel ingot into, say, a +bloom, a rail, or other finished article with its own initial heat, +without the aid of the hitherto universally adopted heating +furnace.</p> + +<p>It is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the +mould there is a larger store of heat than is required for the +purpose of rolling or hammering. Not only is there the mere +apparent high temperature of fluid steel, but there is the store of +latent heat in this fluid metal which is given out when +solidification takes place.</p> + +<p>It has, no doubt, suggested itself to many that this heat of the +ingot ought to be utilized, and as a matter of fact, there have +been, at various times and in different places, attempts made to do +so; but hitherto all such attempts have proved failures, and a kind +of settled conviction has been established in the steel trade that +the theory could not possibly be carried out in practice.</p> + +<p>The difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly +stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling, +and if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit +state, then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be +rolled successfully. It has been attempted to overcome this +difficulty by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods, lined +with non-heat-conducting material, and to bury them in +non-heat-conducting material in a pulverized state, for the purpose +of retaining and equalizing the heat; but all these attempts have +proved futile in practice, and the fact remains, that the universal +practice in steel works at the present day all over the world is to +employ a heating furnace of some description requiring fuel.</p> + +<p>The author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the +Darlington Steel and Iron Company's Works, in Darlington, early in +June this year, and they are now blooming the whole of their make, +about 125 tons a shift, or about 300 ingots every twelve hours, by +such means.</p> + +<p>The machinery at Darlington is not adapted for rolling off in +one heat; nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot +treated in the "soaking pits" a considerable number of double-head +rails; and the experience so gained proves conclusively that with +proper machinery there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly. +The quality of the rails so rolled off has been everything that +could be desired; and as many of the defects in rails originate in +the heating furnace, the author ventures to predict that even in +this respect the new process will stand the test.</p> + +<p>Many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at +Darlington, and they one and all have expressed their great +surprise at the result, and at the simple and original means by +which it is accomplished.</p> + +<p>The process is in course of adoption in several works, both in +England and abroad, and the author hopes that by the time this +paper is being read, there may be some who will from personal +experience be able to testify to the practicability and economy of +the process, which is carried out in the manner now to be +described.</p> + +<p>A number of upright pits (the number, say, of the ingots in a +cast) are built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the +level of the floor, such pits in cross-section being made slightly +larger than that of the ingot, just enough to allow for any fins at +the bottom, and somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be +used. In practice the cross section of the pit is made about 3 in. +larger than the large end of the ingot, and the top of the ingot +may be anything from 6 in. to 18 in. below the top of the pit. +These pits are commanded by an ingot crane, by preference so placed +in relation to the blooming mill that the crane also commands the +live rollers of the mill.</p> + +<p>Each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level, and +after having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the +insertion of hot ingots, they are ready for operation.</p> + +<p>As soon as the ingots are stripped (and they should be stripped +as early as practicable), they are transferred one by one, and +placed separately by means of the crane into these previously +heated pits (which the author calls "soaking pits") and forthwith +covered over with the lid, which practically excludes the air. In +these pits, thus covered, the ingots are allowed to stand and soak; +that is, the excessive molten heat of the interior, and any +additional heat rendered sensible during complete solidification, +but which was latent at the time of placing the ingots into the +pit, becomes uniformly distributed, or nearly so, throughout the +metallic mass. No, or comparatively little, heat being able to +escape, as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as itself, +it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly increased; +and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes, according to +circumstances, the ingot is lifted out of the pit apparently much +hotter than it went in, and is now swung round to the rolls, by +means of the crane, in a perfect state of heat for rolling, with +this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an +ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold, that it is always +certain to be at least as hot in the center as it is on the +surface.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/1b.png" alt="Fig. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2</p> + +<p>Every ingot, when cast, contains within itself a considerably +larger store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation. +Some of this heat is, of course, lost by passing into the mould, +some is lost by radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking +pit, and some is lost after it enters, by being conducted away by +the brickwork; but in the ordinary course of working, when there is +no undue loss of time in transferring the ingots, after allowing +for this loss, there remains a surplus, which goes into the +brickwork of the soaking pits, so that this surplus of heat from +successive ingots tends continually to keep the pits at the intense +heat of the ingot itself. Thus, occasionally it happens that +inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the pit as +to arrive there somewhat short of heat, its temperature will be +raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself; the refractory +mass wherein the pit is formed, in fact, acting as an accumulator +of heat, giving and taking heat as required to carry on the +operation in a continuous and practical manner.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1c.png"><img src= +"images/1c_th.jpg" alt= +"GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GJERS' SOAKING PITS FOR STEEL INGOTS.</p> + +<p>During the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the +ingot and fills the pit, thus entirely excluding atmospheric air +from entering; this is seen escaping round the lid, and when the +lid is removed combustion takes place.</p> + +<p>It will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is +entirely composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, so +that the ingots soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium. Hence +loss of steel by oxidation does not take place, and consequently +the great loss of yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating +furnace is entirely obviated.</p> + +<p>The author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the +economical advantages of his process, as they are apparent to every +practical man connected with the manufacture of steel.</p> + +<p>The operation of steel making on a large scale will by this +process be very much simplified. It will help to dispense with a +large number of men, some of them highly paid, directly and +indirectly connected with the heating department; it will do away +with costly heating furnaces and gas generators, and their costly +maintenance; it will save all the coal used in heating; and what is +perhaps of still more importance, it will save the loss in yield of +steel; and there will be no more steel spoiled by overheating in +the furnaces.</p> + +<p>The process has been in operation too short a time to give +precise and reliable figures, but it is hoped that by the next +meeting of the Institute these will be forthcoming from various +quarters.</p> + +<p>Referring to the illustrations annexed, Fig. 1 shows sectional +elevation, and Fig. 2 plan of a set of eight soaking pits (marked +A). These pits are built in a mass of brickwork, B, on a concrete +foundation, C; the ingots, D, standing upright in the pits. The +pits are lined with firebrick lumps, 6 in. thick, forming an +independent lining, E, which at any time can be readily renewed. F +is a cast iron plate, made to take in four pits, and dropped +loosely within the large plate, G, which surrounds the pits. H is +the cover, with a firebrick lining; and I is a false cover of +firebrick, 1 in. smaller than the cross section of the pit, put in +to rest on the top of the ingot. This false cover need not +necessarily be used, but is useful to keep the extreme top of the +ingot extra hot. J is the bottom of the pit, composed of broken +brick and silver sand, forming a good hard bottom at any desired +level.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits, K +K, eight each, placed under a 25 ft. sweep crane, L. This crane, if +a good one, could handle any ordinary make--up to 2,000 tons per +week, and ought to have hydraulic racking out and swinging round +gear. This crane places the ingots into the pits, and, when they +are ready, picks them out and swings them round to blooming mill, +M. With such a crane, four men and a boy at the handles are able to +pass the whole of that make through the pits. The author recommends +two sets of pits as shown, although one set of eight pits is quite +able to deal with any ordinary output from one Bessemer pit.</p> + +<p>In case of an extraordinarily large output, the author +recommends a second crane, F, for the purpose of placing the ingots +in the pits only, the crane, L, being entirely used for picking the +ingots out and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill. +The relative position of the cranes, soaking pits, and blooming +mill may of course be variously arranged according to +circumstances, and the soaking pits may be arranged in single or +more rows, or concentrically with the crane at pleasure.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 also show outline plan and elevation of a Bessemer +plant, conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system. +A A are the converters, with a transfer crane, B. C is the casting +pit with its crane, D. E E are the two ingot cranes. F is a leading +crane which transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the +soaking pits, K K, commanded by the crane, L, which transfers the +prepared ingots to the mill, M. as before described.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>TEMPERING BY COMPRESSION.</h2> + +<p>L. Clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals, +especially steel, which consists in heating to a cherry red, +compressing strongly and keeping up the pressure until the metal is +completely cooled. The results are so much like those of tempering +that he calls his process tempering by compression. The compressed +metal becomes exceedingly hard, acquiring a molecular contraction +and a fineness of grain such that polishing gives it the appearance +of polished nickel. Compressed steel, like tempered steel, acquires +the coercitive force which enables it to absorb magnetism. This +property should be studied in connection with its durability; +experiments have already shown that there is no loss of magnetism +at the expiration of three months. This compression has no analogue +but tempering. Hammering and hardening modify the molecular state +of metals, especially when they are practiced upon metal that is +nearly cold, but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater. +The phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may +be interpreted in different ways, but it seems likely that there is +a molecular approximation, an amorphism from which results the +homogeneity that is due to the absence of crystallization. Being an +operation which can be measured, it may be graduated and kept +within limits which are prescribed in advance; directions may be +given to temper at a specified pressure, as readily as to work +under a given pressure of steam.--<i>Chron. Industr</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>ECONOMICAL STEAM POWER.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of +the Franklin Institute]</p> + +<h3>By WILLIAM BARNET LE VAN.</h3> + +<p>The most economical application of steam power can be realized +only by a judicious arrangement of the plant: namely, the engines, +boilers, and their accessories for transmission.</p> + +<p>This may appear a somewhat broad assertion; but it is +nevertheless one which is amply justified by facts open to the +consideration of all those who choose to seek for them.</p> + +<p>While it is true that occasionally a factory, mill, or a +water-works may be found in which the whole arrangements have been +planned by a competent engineer, yet such is the exception and not +the rule, and such examples form but a very small percentage of the +whole.</p> + +<p>The fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the +numerous items which compose the cost of economical steam power, +while a yet smaller number give sufficient consideration to the +relations which these items bear to each other, or the manner in +which the economy of any given boiler or engine is affected by the +circumstances under which it is run.</p> + +<p>A large number of persons--and they are those who should know +better, too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good +for one situation is good for all; a greater error than such an +assumption can scarcely be imagined.</p> + +<p>It is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers +which may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost +any situation--and the best results should <i>always</i> be desired +in arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of +details which must be taken into consideration in making a choice +of boilers and engines.</p> + +<p>Take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the +motive power could be best exerted by a single engine. The question +now is whether or not it would be best to divide the total power +required among a number of engines.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>.--A division of the motive power presents the +following advantages, namely, a saving of expense on lines of +shafting of large diameter.</p> + +<p><i>Second</i>.--Dispensing with the large driving belt or +gearing, the first named of which, in one instance under the +writer's observation, absorbed <i>sixty horse-power</i> out of +about 480, or about <i>seven per cent</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>.--The general convenience of subdividing the work +to be done, so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the +work by reason of a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley, +etc., that portion only would need to be stopped.</p> + +<p>This last is of itself a most important point, and demands +careful consideration.</p> + +<p>For example, I was at a mill a short time ago when the governor +belt broke. The result was a stoppage of the whole mill. Had the +motive power of this mill been subdivided into a number of small +engines only one department would have been stopped. During the +stoppage in this case the windows of the mill were a sea of heads +of men and women (the operatives), and considerable excitement was +caused by the violent blowing off of steam from the safety-valves, +due to the stoppage of the steam supply to the engine; and this +excitement continued until the cause of the stoppage was +understood. Had the power in this mill been subdivided the stoppage +of one of a number of engines would scarcely have been noticed, and +the blowing off of surplus steam would not have occurred.</p> + +<p>In building a mill the first item to be considered is the +interest on the first cost of the engine, boilers, etc. This item +can be subdivided with advantage into the amounts of interest on +the respective costs of,</p> + +<p><i>First</i>. The engine or engines;</p> + +<p><i>Second</i> The boiler or boilers;</p> + +<p><i>Third</i>. The engine and boiler house.</p> + +<p>In the same connection the <i>form</i> of engine to be used must +be considered. In some few cases--as, for instance, where engines +have to be placed in confined situations--the form is practically +fixed by the space available, it being perhaps possible only to +erect a vertical or a horizontal engine, as the case may be. These, +however, are exceptional instances, and in most cases--at all +events where large powers are required--the engineer may have a +free choice in the matter. Under these circumstances the best form, +in the vast majority of cases where machinery must be driven, is +undoubtedly the horizontal engine, and the worst the beam engine. +When properly constructed, the horizontal engine is more durable +than the beam engine, while, its first cost being less, it can be +driven at a higher speed, and it involves a much smaller outlay for +engine house and foundations than the latter. In many respects the +horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in advantages +by the best forms of vertical engines; but on the whole we consider +that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages is +decidedly in favor of the former class, and particularly so in the +case of large powers.</p> + +<p>The next point to be decided is, whether a condensing or +non-condensing engine should be employed. In settling this question +not only the respective first costs of the two classes of engines +must be taken into consideration, but also the cost of water and +fuel. Excepting, perhaps, in cases of very small powers, and in +those instances where the exhaust steam from a non-condensing +engine can be turned to good account for heating or drying purpose, +it may safely be asserted that in all instances where a sufficient +supply of condensing water is available at a moderate cost, the +extra economy of a well-constructed condensing engine will fully +warrant the additional outlay involved in its purchase. In these +days of high steam pressures, a well constructed non-condensing +engine can, no doubt, be made to approximate closely to the economy +of a condensing engine, but in such a case the extra cost of the +stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost +of the condensing engine.</p> + +<p>Having decided on the form, the next question is, what "class" +of engine shall it be; and by the term class I mean the relative +excellence of the engine as a power-producing machine. An automatic +engine costs more than a plain slide-valve engine, but it will +depend upon the cost of fuel at the location where the engine is to +be placed, and the number of hours per day it is kept running, to +decide which class of machine can be adopted with the greatest +economy to the proprietor. The cost of lubricating materials, fuel, +repairs, and percentage of cost to be put aside for depreciation, +will be less in case of the high-class than in the low-class +engine, while the former will also require less boiler power.</p> + +<p>Against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of +the automatic engine, and the consequent annual charge due to +capital sunk. These several items should all be fairly estimated +when an engine is to be bought, and the kind chosen accordingly. +Let us take the item of fuel, for instance, and let us suppose this +fuel to cost four dollars per ton at the place where the engine is +run. Suppose the engine to be capable of developing one hundred +horse-power, and that it consumes five pounds of coal per hour per +horse-power, and runs ten hours per day: this would necessitate the +supply of two and one-half tons per day at a cost of ten dollars +per day. To be really economical, therefore, any improvement which +would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour per horse-power +must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on which the +cost of the difference of the coal saved (one pound of coal per +hour per horse-power, which would be 1,000 pounds per day) for, +say, three hundred days, three hundred thousand (300,000) pounds, +or one hundred and fifty tons (or six hundred dollars), would pay a +fair interest.</p> + +<p>Assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to +him ten per cent, per annum, then the improvement which would +effect the above mentioned saving must not cost more than six +thousand dollars, and so on. If, instead of being run only ten +hours per day, the engine is run night and day, then the outlay +which it would be justifiable to make to effect a certain saving +per hour would be doubled; while, on the other hand, if an engine +is run less than the usual time per day a given saving per hour +would justify a correspondingly less outlay.</p> + +<p>It has been found that for grain and other elevators, which are +not run constantly, gas engines, although costing more for the same +power, are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where +only occasionally used.</p> + +<p>For this reason it is impossible without considerable +investigation to say what is really the most economical engine to +adopt in any particular case; and as comparatively few users of +steam power care to make this investigation a vast amount of +wasteful expenditure results. Although, however, no absolute rule +can be given, we may state that the number of instances in which an +engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used profitably is +exceedingly small. As a rule, in fact, it may generally be assumed +that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind +cannot be of too high a class, the saving effected by the +economical working of such engines in the vast majority of cases +enormously outweighing the interest on their extra first cost. So +few people appear to have a clear idea of the vast importance of +economy of fuel in mills and factories that I perhaps cannot better +conclude than by giving an example showing the saving to be +effected in a large establishment by an economical engine.</p> + +<p>I will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which +employed two engines that required forty pounds of water to be +converted into steam per hour per indicated horse-power. This, at +the time, was considered a moderate amount and the engines were +considered "good."</p> + +<p>These engines indicated seventy horse power each, and ran +twenty-four hours per day on an average of three hundred days each +year, requiring as per indicator diagrams forty million three +hundred and twenty thousand pounds (40 x 70 x 24 x 300 x 2 = +40,320,000) of feed water to be evaporated per annum, which, in +Philadelphia, costs three dollars per horse-power per annum, +amounting to (70 x 2 x 300 = $420.00) four hundred and twenty +dollars.</p> + +<p>The coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per +horse-power, which, at four dollars per ton, costs</p> + +<p>((70 x 2 x 5.5 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00= $11,088</p> + +<p>Eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars.</p> + +<pre> + Cost of coal for 300 days. $11,088 + Cost of water for 300 days. 420 + ------- + Total cost of coal and water. $11,503 +</pre> + +<p>These engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine, +which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with +a consumption of <i>three pounds</i> of coal per hour per +horse-power, and the indicator diagrams showed a consumption of +<i>thirty</i> pounds of water per hour per horse-power. Coal +cost</p> + +<p>((142 x 3 x 24 x 300) / 2,000) x 4.00 = $6,134</p> + +<p>Six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars. Water cost +(142 x 3.00= $426.00) four hundred and twenty-six dollars.</p> + +<pre> + Cost of coal for 300 days. $6,134 + Cost of water for 300 days. 426 + ------ + Total cost of coal and water. $6,560 +</pre> + +<p>The water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work +was (142 x 30 x 24 x 300 = 30,672,000) thirty million six hundred +and seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against (40,320,000) +forty million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the +former, a saving of (9,648,000) nine million six hundred and +forty-eight thousand pounds per annum; or,</p> + +<p>(40,320,000 - 30,672,000) / 9,648,000 = 31.4 per cent.</p> + +<p>--<i>thirty-one and four-tenths per cent</i>.</p> + +<p>And a saving in coal consumption of</p> + +<p>(11,088 - 6,134) / 4,954 = 87.5 per cent.</p> + +<p>--<i>eighty-seven and one-half per cent</i>., or a saving in +dollars and cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four +dollars ($4,954).</p> + +<p>In this city, Philadelphia, no allowance for the consumption of +water is made in the case of first class engines, such engines +being charged the same rate per annum per horse-power as an +inferior engine, while, as shown by the above example, a saving in +water of <i>thirty-one and four-tenths per cent</i>. has been +attained by the employment of a first-class engine. The builders of +such engines will always give a guarantee of their consumption of +water, so that the purchaser can be able in advance to estimate +this as accurately as he can the amount of fuel he will use.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>RIVER IMPROVEMENTS NEAR ST. LOUIS.</h2> + +<p>The improvement of the Mississippi River near St. Louis +progresses satisfactorily. The efficacy of the jetty system is +illustrated in the lines of mattresses which showed accumulations +of sand deposits ranging from the surface of the river to nearly +sixteen feet in height. At Twin Hollow, thirteen miles from St. +Louis and six miles from Horse-Tail Bar, there was found a sand bar +extending over the widest portion of the river on which the +engineering forces were engaged. Hurdles are built out from the +shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction, and then to +protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between the +piles. At Carroll's Island mattresses 125 feet wide have been +placed, and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water +to a 16 foot stage. There is plenty of water over the bar, and at +the most shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet. +Beard's Island, a short distance further, is also being improved, +the largest force of men at any one place being here engaged. Four +thousand feet of mattresses have been begun, and in placing them +work will be vigorously prosecuted until operations are suspended +by floating ice. The different sections are under the direction of +W. F. Fries, resident engineer, and E. M. Currie, superintending +engineer. There are now employed about 1,200 men, thirty barges and +scows, two steam launches, and the stern-wheel steamer A. A. +Humphreys. The improvements have cost, in actual money expended, +about $200,000, and as the appropriation for the ensuing year +approximates $600,000, the prospect of a clear channel is +gratifying to those interested in the river.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>BUNTE'S BURETTE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FURNACE GASES.</h2> + +<p>For analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus +of Orsat have long been employed; but, by reason of its simplicity, +the burette devised by Dr. Bünte, and shown in the +accompanying figures, is much easier to use. Besides, it permits of +a much better and more rapid absorption of the oxide of carbon; and +yet, for the lost fractions of the latter, it is necessary to +replace a part of the absorbing liquid three or four times. The +absorbing liquid is prepared by making a saturated solution of +chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid, and adding thereto a small +quantity of dissolved chloride of tin. Afterward, there are added +to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper, and the +mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air.</p> + +<p>To fill the burette with gas, the three-way cock, <i>a</i>, is +so placed that the axial aperture shall be in communication with +the graduated part, A, of the burette. After this, water is poured +into the funnel, t, and the burette is put in communication with +the gas reservoir by means of a rubber tube. The lower point of the +burette is put in communication with a rubber pump, V (Fig. 2), on +an aspirator (the cock, <i>b</i>, being left open), and the gas is +sucked in until all the air that was in the apparatus has been +expelled from it. The cocks, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, are turned 90 +degrees. The water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating +with the top. The point of the three-way cock is afterward closed +with a rubber tube and glass rod.</p> + +<p>If the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator, it is +made to pass into the apparatus in the following manner: The +burette is completely filled with water, and the point of the +three-way cock is put in communication with a reservoir. If the gas +is under pressure, a portion of it is allowed to escape through the +capillary tube into the water in the funnel, by turning the cock, +<i>a</i>, properly, and thus all the water in the conduit is +entirely expelled. Afterward <i>a</i> is turned 180°, and the +lower cock, <i>b</i>, is opened. While the water is flowing through +<i>b</i>, the burette becomes filled with gas.</p> + +<p><i>Mode of Measuring the Gases and Absorption</i>.--The tube +that communicates with the vessel, F, is put in communication, +after the latter has been completely filled with water, with the +point of the cock, <i>b</i> (Fig. 2). Then the latter is opened, as +is also the pinch cock on the rubber tubing, and water is allowed +to enter the burette through the bottom until the level is at the +zero of the graduation. There are then 100 cubic centimeters in the +burette. The superfluous gas has escaped through the cock, +<i>a</i>, and passed through the water in the funnel. The cock, +<i>a</i>, is afterward closed by turning it 90°. To cause the +absorbing liquid to pass into the burette, the water in the +graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube, +s, of the bottle, S, with the point of the burette. The cock is +opened, and suction is effected with the mouth of the tube, r. When +the water has flowed out to nearly the last drop, <i>b</i> is +closed and the suction bottle is removed. The absorbing liquid +(caustic potassa or pyrogallate of potassa) is poured into a +porcelain capsule, P, and the point of the burette is dipped into +the liquid. If the cock, <i>b</i>, be opened, the absorbing liquid +will be sucked into the burette. In order to hasten the absorption, +the cock, <i>b</i>, is closed, and the burette is shaken +horizontally, the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand +during the operation.</p> + +<p>If not enough absorbing liquid has entered, there may be sucked +into the burette, by the process described above, a new quantity of +liquid. The reaction finished, the graduated cylinder is put in +communication with the funnel by turning the cock, <i>a</i>. The +water is allowed to run from the funnel, and the latter is filled +again with water up to the mark. The gas is then again under the +same pressure as at the beginning.</p> + +<p>After the level has become constant, the quantity of gas +remaining is measured. The contraction that has taken place gives, +in hundredths of the total volume, the volume of the gas +absorbed.</p> + +<p>When it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to +combustion, caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette. After +complete absorption, and after putting the gas at the same +pressure, the diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid.</p> + +<p>To determine the oxygen in the remaining gas, a portion of the +caustic potash is allowed to flow out, and an aqueous solution of +pyrogallic acid and potash is allowed to enter. The presence of +oxygen is revealed by the color of the liquid, which becomes +darker.</p> + +<p>The gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until, upon +opening the cock, <i>a</i>, the liquid remains in the capillary +tube, that is to say, until no more water runs from the funnel into +the burette. To make a quantitative analysis of the carbon +contained in gas, the pyrogallate of potash must be entirely +removed from the burette. To do this, the liquid is sucked out by +means of the flask, S, until there remain only a few drops; then +the cock, <i>a</i>, is opened and water is allowed to flow from the +funnel along the sides of the burette. Then <i>a</i> is closed, and +the washing water is sucked in the same manner. By repeating this +manipulation several times, the absorbing liquid is completely +removed. The acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to +enter.</p> + +<p>As the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass, it is better, +before noting the level, to replace these liquids by water. The +cocks, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, are opened, and water is allowed to +enter from the funnel, the absorbing liquid being made to flow at +the same time through the cock, <i>b</i>.</p> + +<p>When an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed, dilute +hydrochloric acid is used instead of water.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the +quantitative analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by +combustion. The gas in the burette is first mixed with atmospheric +air, by allowing the liquid to flow through <i>b</i>, and causing +air to enter through the axial aperture of the three way cock, +<i>a</i>, after cutting off communication at v. Then, as shown in +the figure, the burette is connected with the tube, B, which is +filled with water up to the narrow curved part, and the interior of +the burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube, v, by +turning the cock, a. The combustion tube is heated by means of a +Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp, L. It is necessary to proceed, so +that all the water shall be driven from the cock and the capillary +tube, and that it shall be sent into the burette. The combustion is +effected by causing the mixture of gas to pass from the burette +into the tube, B, through the tube, v, heated to redness, into +which there passes a palladium wire. Water is allowed to flow +through the point of the tube, B, while from the flask, F, it +enters through the bottom into the burette, so as to drive out the +gas. The water is allowed to rise into the burette as far as the +cock, and the cocks, <i>b</i> and <i>b¹</i>, are afterward +closed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src= +"images/3a_th.jpg" alt="DR. BÜNTE'S GAS BURETTE"> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">DR. BÜNTE'S GAS BURETTE</p> + +<p>By a contrary operation, the gas is made to pass from B into the +burette. It is then allowed to cool, and, after the pressure has +been established again, the contraction is measured. If the gas +burned is hydrogen, the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives +the original volume of the hydrogen gas burned. If the gas burned +is oxide of carbon, there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid, +and the contraction is the half of CO. Thus, to analyze CO, a +portion of the liquid is removed from the burette, then caustic +potash is allowed to enter, and the process goes on as explained +above.</p> + +<p>The total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption, +multiplied by two-thirds, gives the volume of the oxide of +carbon.</p> + +<p>The hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively +analyzed together or separately.--<i>Revue Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>THE "UNIVERSAL" GAS ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple +form of gas engine, the invention of J. A. Ewins and H. Newman, and +made by Mr. T. B. Barker, of Scholefield-street, Bloomsbury, +Birmingham. It is known as the "Universal" engine, and is at +present constructed in sizes varying from one-eighth +horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power, though larger sizes +are being made. The essentially new feature of the engine is, says +the <i>Engineer</i>, the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of +a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots +which successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder, +and through which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge. In our +illustrations Fig. 1 is a side elevation; Fig. 2 an end view of +same; Fig. 3 a plan; Fig. 4 is a sectional view of the chamber in +which the gas and air are mixed, with the valves appertaining +thereto; Fig. 5 is a detail view of the ratchet plate, with pawl +and levers and valve gear shaft; Fig. 6 is a sectional view of a +pump employed in some cases to circulate water through the jacket; +Fig. 7 is a sectional view of arrangement for lighting, and ratchet +plate, j, with central spindle and igniting apertures, and the +spiral spring, k, and fly nut, showing the attachment to the end of +the working cylinder, f<sup>1</sup>; b<sup>5</sup>, b<sup>5</sup>, +bevel wheels driving the valve gear shaft; e, the valve gear +driving shaft; e<sup>2</sup>, eccentric to drive pump; e³, +eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve; e<sup>4</sup>, crank to +drive ratchet plate; e<sup>5</sup>, connecting rod to ratchet pawl; +f, cylinder jacket; f<sup>1</sup>, internal or working cylinder; +f<sup>2</sup>, back cylinder cover; g, igniting chamber; h, mixing +chamber; h<sup>1</sup>, flap valve; h<sup>2</sup>, gas inlet valve, +the motion of which is regulated by a governor; h<sup>3</sup>, gas +inlet valve seat; h<sup>4</sup>, cover, also forming stop for gas +inlet valve; h<sup>5</sup>, gas inlet pipe; h<sup>6</sup>, an inlet +valve; h<sup>8</sup>, cover, also forming stop for air inlet valve; +h<sup>9</sup>, inlet pipe for air with grating; i, exhaust chamber; +i<sup>2</sup>, exhaust valve spindle; i<sup>7</sup>, exhaust pipe; +j<sup>6</sup>, lighting aperture through cylinder end; l, igniting +gas jet; m, regulating and stop valve for gas.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3b.png"><img src= +"images/3b_th.jpg" alt="IMPROVED GAS ENGINE"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED GAS ENGINE</p> + +<p>The engine, it will be seen, is single-acting, and no +compression of the explosive charge is employed. An explosive +mixture of combustible gas and air is drawn through the valves, +h<sup>2</sup> and h<sup>6</sup>, and exploded behind the piston +once in a revolution; but by a duplication of the valve and +igniting apparatus, placed also at the front end of the cylinder, +the engine may be constructed double-acting. At the proper time, +when the piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the +mixing chamber, h, into the igniting chamber, g, the requisite +amount of gas and air, the ratchet plate, j, is pushed into such a +position by the pawl, j<sup>3</sup>, that the flame from the +igniting jet, l, passes through one of the slots or holes, +j<sup>1</sup>, and explodes the charge when opposite j<sup>6</sup>, +which is the only aperture in the end of the working cylinder (see +Fig. 7 and Fig. 2), thus driving the piston on to the end of its +forward stroke. The exhaust valve, Fig. 9, though not exactly of +the form shown, is kept open during the whole of this return stroke +by means of the eccentric, e<sup>3</sup>, on the shaft working the +ratchet, and thus allowing the products of combustion to escape +through the exhaust pipe, i<sup>7</sup>, in the direction of the +arrow. Between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small +plate not shown is affixed to the pipe, its edge being just above +the burner top. The flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing +air when the slots in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite. +This ratchet plate or ignition valve, the most important in any +engine, has so very small a range of motion per revolution of the +engine that it cannot get out of order, and it appears to require +no lubrication or attention whatever. The engines are working very +successfully, and their simplicity enables them to be made at low +cost. They cost for gas from ½d. to 1½d. per hour for +the sizes mentioned.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/3c.png" alt="Fig.9."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig.9.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.</h2> + +<p>In order that small establishments may put to profit the +advantages derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with +gas, smaller dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such +furnaces. The accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of +this kind, set into the ground, and the height of whose baking +chamber is only one and a half meters. The chamber is not vaulted, +but is covered by slabs of refractory clay, D, that may be +displaced by the aid of a small car running on a movable track. +This car is drawn over the compartment that is to be emptied, and +the slab or cover, D, is taken off and carried over the newly +filled compartment and deposited thereon.</p> + +<p>The gas passes from the channel through the pipe, a, into the +vertical conduits, b, and is afterward disengaged through the +tuyeres into the chamber. In order that the gas may be equally +applied for preliminary heating or smoking, a small smoking +furnace, S, has been added to the apparatus. The upper part of this +consists of a wide cylinder of refractory clay, in the center of +whose cover there is placed an internal tube of refractory clay, +which communicates with the channel, G, through a pipe, d. This +latter leads the gas into the tube, t, of the smoking furnace, +which is perforated with a large number of small holes. The air +requisite for combustion enters through the apertures, o, in the +cover of the furnace, and brings about in the latter a high +temperature. The very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion +of this small furnace and pass through a tube, e, into the smoking +chamber by the aid of vertical conduits, b', which serve at the +same time as gas tuyeres for the extremity of the furnace that is +exposed to the fire.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4a.png"><img src= +"images/4a_th.jpg" alt= +"GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GAS FURNACE FOR BAKING REFRACTORY PRODUCTS.</p> + +<p>In the lower part of the smoking furnace, which is made of +boiler plate and can be put in communication with the tube, e, +there are large apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by +means of registers so as to carry to the hot gas derived from +combustion any quantity whatever of cold and dry air, and thus +cause a variation at will of the temperature of the gases which are +disengaged from the tube, e.</p> + +<p>The use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also +with the inconveniences of the ordinary system, in which the +products are soiled by cinders or dust, and which render the +gradual heating of objects to be baked difficult. At the beginning, +there is allowed to enter the lower part of the small furnace, S, +through the apertures, a very considerable quantity of cold air, so +as to lower the temperature of the smoke gas that escapes from the +tube, e, to 30 or 50 degrees. Afterward, these secondary air +entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the temperature of +the gases at will.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>THE EFFICIENCY OF FANS.</h2> + +<p>Air, like every other gas or combination of gases, possesses +weight; some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a +pressure of 14.7 lb. per square inch, cannot, however, be got to +realize the fact that a cubit foot of air at the same pressure and +at a temperature of 62 deg. weighs the thirteenth part of a pound, +or over one ounce; 13.141 cubic feet of air weigh one pound. In +round numbers 30,000 cubic feet of air weigh one ton; this is a +useful figure to remember, and it is easily carried in the mind. A +hall 61 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 17 feet high will contain one +ton of air.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4b.png" alt="FIG. 1"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p> + +<p>The work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that +of the air--in motion. The resistances incurred are due to the +inertia of the air and various frictional influences; the nature +and amount of these last vary with the construction of the fan. As +the air enters at the center of the fan and escapes at the +circumference, it will be seen that its motion is changed while in +the fan through a right angle. It may also be taken for granted +that within certain limits the air has no motion in a radial +direction when it first comes in contact with a fan blade. It is +well understood that, unless power is to be wasted, motion should +be gradually imparted to any body to be moved. Consequently, the +shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first +slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air. It +is also clear that the change of motion should be effected as +gradually as possible. Fig. 1 shows how a fan should not be +constructed; Fig. 2 will serve to give an idea of how it should be +made.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<p>In Fig. 1 it will be seen that the air, as indicated by the bent +arrows, is violently deflected on entering the fan. In Fig. 2 it +will be seen that it follows gentle curves, and so is put gradually +in motion. The curved form of the blades shown in Fig. 2 does not +appear to add much to the efficiency of a fan; but it adds +something and keeps down noise. The idea is that the fan blades +when of this form push the air radially from the center to the +circumference. The fact is, however, that the air flies outward +under the influence of centrifugal force, and always tends to move +at a tangent to the fan blades, as in Fig. 3, where the circle is +the path of the tips of the fan blades, and the arrow is a tangent +to that path; and to impart this notion a radial blade, as at C, is +perhaps as good as any other, as far as efficiency is concerned. +Concerning the shape to be imparted to the blades, looked at back +or front, opinions widely differ; but it is certain that if a fan +is to be silent the blades must be narrower at the tips than at the +center. Various forms are adopted by different makers, the straight +side and the curved sides, as shown in Fig. 4, being most commonly +used. The proportions as regards length to breadth are also varied +continually. In fact, no two makers of fans use the same +shapes.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4d.png" alt="FIG. 3"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3</p> + +<p>As the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a +stated velocity to a given weight of air, it is very easy to +calculate the power which must be expended to do a certain amount +of work. The velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be +greater than that of the fan tips. In a good fan it may be about +two-thirds of that speed. The resistance to be overcome will be +found by multiplying the area of the fan blades by the pressure of +the air and by the velocity of the center of effort, which must be +determined for every fan according to the shape of its blades. The +velocity imparted to the air by the fan will be just the same as +though the air fell in a mass from a given height. This height can +be found by the formula h = v² / 64; that is to say, if the +velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by 64 we have the +height. Thus, let the velocity be 88 per second, then 88 x 88 = +7,744, and 7,744 / 64 = 121. A stone or other body falling from a +height of 121 feet would have a velocity of 88 per second at the +earth. The pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of +a column of air of the height due to the velocity, or, in this +case, 121 feet. We have seen that in round numbers 13 cubic feet of +air weigh one pound, consequently a column of air one square foot +in section and 121 feet high, will weigh as many pounds as 13 will +go times into 121. Now, 121 / 13 = 9.3, and this will be the +resistance in pounds per <i>square foot</i> overcome by the fan. +Let the aggregate area of all the blades be 2 square feet, and the +velocity of the center of effort 90 feet per second, then the power +expended will bve (90 x 60 x 2 x 9.3) / 33,000 = 3.04 horse power. +The quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in volume to that +of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan blade +moving at 88 feet per second, or a mile a minute. The blade having +an area of 1 square foot, the delivery ought to be 5,280 feet per +minute, weighing 5,280 / 13 = 406.1 lb. In practice we need hardly +say that such an efficiency is never attained.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4e.png" alt="FIG. 4"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>The number of recorded experiments with fans is very small, and +a great deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency. Mr. +Buckle is one of the very few authorities on the subject. He gives +the accompanying table of proportions as the best for pressures of +from 3 to 6 ounces per square inch:</p> + +<pre> +-------------------------------------------------------------- + | Vanes. | Diameter of inlet +Diameter of fans. |------------------------| openings. + | Width. | Length. | +-------------------------------------------------------------- + ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. | ft. in. + 3 0 | 0 9 | 0 9 | 1 6 + 3 6 | 0 10½ | 0 10½ | 1 9 + 4 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 2 0 + 4 6 | 1 1½ | 1 1½ | 2 3 + 5 0 | 1 3 | 1 3 | 2 6 + 6 0 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 3 0 + | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p>For higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower, +and the inlet openings smaller. The case is to be made in the form +of an arithmetical spiral widening, the space between the case and +the blades radially from the origin to the opening for discharge, +and the upper edge of the opening should be level with the lower +side of the sweep of the fan blade, somewhat as shown in Fig. +5.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4f.png" alt="FIG. 5"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5</p> + +<p>A considerable number of patents has been taken out for +improvements in the construction of fans, but they all, or nearly +all, relate to modifications in the form of the case and of the +blades. So far, however, as is known, it appears that, while these +things do exert a marked influence on the noise made by a fan, and +modify in some degree the efficiency of the machine, that this last +depends very much more on the proportions adopted than on the +shapes--so long as easy curves are used and sharp angles avoided. +In the case of fans running at low speeds, it matters very little +whether the curves are present or not; but at high speeds the case +is different.--<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING COAL REFUSE INTO FUEL.</h2> + +<p>The problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has +been solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated +artificial fuel, which is coming more and more into general use on +railways and steamboats, in the industries, and even in domestic +heating.</p> + +<p>The qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present +are as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Very great simplicity, inasmuch as it is called upon to +operate in an atmosphere charged with coal dust, pitch, and steam; +and, under such conditions, it is important that it may be easily +got at for cleaning, and that the changing of its parts (which wear +rapidly) may be effected without, so to speak, interrupting its +running.</p> + +<p>2. The compression must be powerful, and, that the product may +be homogeneous, must operate progressively and not by shocks. It +must especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of +the conglomerate, and this is something that most machines fail to +do.</p> + +<p>3. The removal from the mould must be effected easily, and not +depend upon a play of pistons or springs, which soon become foul, +and the operation of which is very irregular.</p> + +<p>The operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel +are as follows:</p> + +<p>The refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the +grains of coal. The dust is not submitted to a washing. The grains +are classed into two sizes, after removing the nut size, which is +sold separately. The grains of each size are washed separately. The +washed grains are either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in +order to free them from the greater part of the water, the presence +of this being an obstacle to their perfect agglomeration. The +water, however, should not be entirely extracted because the +combustibles being poor conductors of heat, a certain amount of +dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division of heat in +the paste when the mixture is warmed.</p> + +<p>After being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust, and +broken coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per +cent. of the coal. The mixture is then thrown into a crushing +machine, where it is reduced to powder and intimately mixed. It +then passes into a pug-mill into which superheated steam is +admitted, and by this means is converted into a plastic paste. This +paste is then led into an agitator for the double purpose of +freeing it from the steam that it contains, and of distributing it +in the moulds of the compressing machine.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5a.png"><img src= +"images/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO FUEL."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED MACHINE FOR COMPRESSING REFUSE COAL INTO +FUEL.</p> + +<p>Bilan's machine, shown in the accompanying cut, is designed for +manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes. It +consists of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding +wheels placed at right angles to each other and tangent to the line +of the centers. These wheels carry on their periphery cavities that +have the form of a quarter of a sphere. They thus form at the point +of contact a complete sphere in which the material is inclosed. The +paste is thrown by shovel, or emptied by buckets and chain, into +the hopper fixed at the upper part of the frame. From here it is +taken up by two helices, mounted on a vertical shaft traversing the +hopper, and forced toward the point where the four moulding wheels +meet. The driving pulley of the machine is keyed upon a horizontal +shaft which is provided with two endless screws that actuate two +gear-wheels, and these latter set in motion the four moulding +wheels by means of beveled pinions. The four moulding wheels being +accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at every +revolution, carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper, +compress it powerfully on the four quarters, and, separating by a +further revolution, allow the finished ball to drop out.</p> + +<p>The external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of +four segments, which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by +others when worn.</p> + +<p>This machine produces about 40 tons per day of this globular +artificial fuel.--<i>Annales Industrielles</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>HANK SIZING AND WRINGING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>We give a view of a hank sizing machine by Messrs. Heywood & +Spencer, of Radcliffe, near Manchester. The machine is also +suitable for fancy dyeing. It is well known, says the <i>Textile +Manufacturer</i>, that when hanks are wrung by hand, not only is +the labor very severe, but in dyeing it is scarcely possible to +obtain even colors, and, furthermore, the production is limited by +the capabilities of the man. The machine we illustrate is intended +to perform the heavy part of the work with greater expedition and +with more certainty than could be relied upon with hand labor. The +illustration represents the machine that we inspected. Its +construction seems of the simplest character. It consists of two +vats, between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks. +The large wheel in this gear, although it always runs in one +direction, contains internal segments, which fall into gear +alternately with pinions on the shanks of the hooks. The motion is +a simple one, and it appeared to us to be perfectly reliable, and +not liable to get out of order. The action is as follows: The +attendant lifts the hank out of the vat and places it on the hooks. +The hook connected to the gearing then commences to turn; it puts +in two, two and a half, three, or more twists into the hank and +remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an interval for the +sizer to "wipe off" the excess of size, that is, to run his hand +along the twisted hank. This done, the hook commences to revolve +the reverse way, until the twists are taken out of the hank. It is +then removed, either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus +shown, attached to the right hand side. This arrangement consists +of a lattice, carrying two arms that, at the proper moment, lift +the hank off the hooks on to the lattice proper, by which it is +carried away, and dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying +stove. In sizing, a double operation is customary; the first is +called running, and the second, finishing. In the machine shown, +running is carried on one side simultaneously with finishing in the +other, or, if required, running may be carried on on both sides. If +desired, the lifting off motion is attached to both running and +finishing sides, and also the roller partly seen on the left hand +for running the hanks through the size. The machine we saw was +doing about 600 bundles per day at running and at finishing, but +the makers claim the production with a double machine to be at the +rate of about 36 10 lb. bundles per hour (at finishing), wrung in +1½ lb. wringers (or I½ lb. of yarn at a time), or at +running at the rate of 45 bundles in 2 lb. wringers. The distance +between the hooks is easily adjusted to the length or size of +hanks, and altogether the machine seems one that is worth the +attention of the trade.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5b.png" alt= +"IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED HANK SIZING MACHINE.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.</h2> + +<p>The working parts of the breaker now in use by the South +Metropolitan Gas Company consist essentially of a drum provided +with cutting edges projecting from it, which break up the coke +against a fixed grid. The drum is cast in rings, to facilitate +repairs when necessary, and the capacity of the machine can +therefore be increased or diminished by varying the number of these +rings. The degree of fineness of the coke when broken is determined +by the regulated distance of the grid from the drum. Thus there is +only one revolving member, no toothed gearing being required. +Consequently the machine works with little power; the one at the +Old Kent Road, which is of the full size for large works, being +actually driven by a one horse power "Otto" gas-engine. Under these +conditions, at a recent trial, two tons of coke were broken in half +an hour, and the material delivered screened into the three classes +of coke, clean breeze (worth as much as the larger coke), and dust, +which at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers. The +special advantage of the machine, besides the low power required to +drive it and its simple action, lies in the small quantity of +waste. On the occasion of the trial in question, the dust obtained +from two tons of coke measured only 3½ bushels, or just over +a half hundredweight per ton. The following statement, prepared +from the actual working of the first machine constructed, shows the +practical results of its use. It should be premised that the +machine is assumed to be regularly employed and driven by the full +power for which it is designed, when it will easily break 8 tons of +coke per hour, or 80 tons per working day:</p> + +<pre> + 500 feet of gas consumed by a 2 horse power + gas-engine, at cost price of gas delivered s. d. + in holder. 0 9 + Oil and cotton waste. 0 6 + Two men supplying machine with large + coke, and shoveling up broken, at 4s. + 6d. 9 0 + Interest and wear and tear (say). 0 3 + ----- + Total per day. 10 6 + ----- + For 80 tons per day, broken at the rate + of. 0 1½ + Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt., + with price of coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per + ton. 0 8 + ----- + Cost of breaking, per ton. 0 9½ +</pre> + +<p>As coke, when broken, will usually fetch from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per +ton more than large, the result of using these machines is a net +gain of from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 9d. per ton of coke. It is not so much +the actual gain, however, that operates in favor of providing a +supply of broken coke, as the certainty that by so doing a market +is obtained that would not otherwise be available.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5c.png" alt= +"IMPROVED COKE BREAKER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.</p> + +<p>It will not be overstating the case to say that this coke +breaker is by far the simplest, strongest, and most economical +appliance of its kind now manufactured. That it does its work well +is proved by experience; and the advantages of its construction are +immediately apparent upon comparison of its simple drum and single +spindle with the flying hammers or rocking jaws, or double drums +with toothed gearing which characterize some other patterns of the +same class of plant. It should be remarked, as already indicated, +lest exception should be taken to the size of the machine chosen +here for illustration, that it can be made of any size down to hand +power. On the whole, however, as a few tons of broken coke might be +required at short notice even in a moderate sized works, it would +scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine; since the +regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short +time to increase the demand.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5d.png" alt= +"IMPROVED COKE BREAKER."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED COKE BREAKER.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENT IN PRINTING MACHINERY.</h2> + +<p>This is the design of Alfred Godfrey, of Clapton. According to +this improvement, as represented at Figs. 1 and 2, a rack, A, is +employed vibrating on the pivot a, and a pinion, a<sup>1</sup>, so +arranged that instead of the pinion moving on a universal joint, or +the rack moving in a parallel line from side to side of the pinion +at the time the motion of the table is reversed, there is employed, +for example, the radial arm, a<sup>2</sup>, mounted on the shaft, +a<sup>3</sup>, supporting the driving wheel, a<sup>4</sup>. The +opposite or vibrating end of the radial arm, a<sup>2</sup>, +supports in suitable bearings the pinion, a<sup>1</sup>, and wheel, +a<sup>5</sup>, driving the rack through the medium of the driving +wheel, a<sup>4</sup>, the effect of which is that through the +mechanical action of the vibrating arm, a<sup>2</sup>, and pinion, +a<sup>1</sup> in conjunction with the vibrating movement of the +rack, A, an easy, uniform, and silent motion is transmitted to the +rack and table.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6a.png" alt= +"IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1"></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 1</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6b.png" alt= +"IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING MACHINERY. Fig. 2.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>A CHARACTERISTIC MINING "RUSH."--THE PROSPECTIVE MINING CENTER +OF SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO.</h2> + +<p>A correspondent of the <i>Tribune</i> describes at length the +mining camps about Lake Valley, New Mexico, hitherto thought likely +to be the central camp of that region, and then graphically tells +the story of the recent "rush" to the Perche district. Within a +month of the first strike of silver ore the country was swarming +with prospectors, and a thousand or more prospects had been +located.</p> + +<p>The Perche district is on the eastern flanks of the Mimbres +Mountains, a range which is a part of the Rocky Mountain range, and +runs north and south generally parallel with the Rio Grande, from +which it lies about forty miles to the westward. The northern half +of these mountains is known as the Black Range, and was the center +of considerable mining excitement a year and a half ago. It is +there that the Ivanhoe is located, of which Colonel Gillette was +manager, and in which Robert Ingersoll and Senator Plumb, of +Kansas, were interested, much to the disadvantage of the former. A +new company has been organized, however, with Colonel Ingersoll as +president, and the reopening of work on the Ivanhoe will probably +prove a stimulus to the whole Black Range. From this region the +Perche district is from forty to sixty miles south. It is about +twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, and ten miles west of +Hillsboro, a promising little mining town, with some mills and +about 300 people. The Perche River has three forks coming down from +the mountains and uniting at Hillsboro, and it is in the region +between these forks that the recent strikes have been made.</p> + +<p>On August 15 "Jack" Shedd, the original discoverer of the +Robinson mine in Colorado, was prospecting on the south branch of +the north fork of the Perche River, when he made the first great +strike in the district. On the summit of a heavily timbered ridge +he found some small pieces of native silver, and then a lump of ore +containing very pure silver in the form of sulphides, weighing 150 +pounds, and afterward proved to be worth on the average $11 a +pound. All this was mere float, simply lying on the surface of the +ground. Afterward another block was found, weighing 87 pounds, of +horn silver, with specimens nearly 75 per cent. silver. The strike +was kept a secret for a few days. Said a mining man: "I went up to +help bring the big lump down. We took it by a camp of prospectors +who were lying about entirely ignorant of any find. When they saw +it they instantly saddled their horses, galloped off, and I believe +they prospected all night." A like excitement was created when the +news of this and one or two similar finds reached Lake Valley. Next +morning every waiter was gone from the little hotel, and a dozen +men had left the Sierra mines, to try their fortunes at +prospecting.</p> + +<p>As the news spread men poured into the Perche district from no +one knows where, some armed with only a piece of salt pork, a +little meal, and a prospecting pick; some mounted on mules, others +on foot; old men and men half-crippled were among the number, but +all bitten by the monomania which possesses every prospector. Now +there are probably 2,000 men in the Perche district, and the number +of prospects located must far exceed 1,000. Three miners from there +with whom I was talking recently owned forty-seven mines among +them, and while one acknowledged that hardly one prospect in a +hundred turns out a prize, the other millionaire in embryo remarked +that he wouldn't take $50,000 for one of his mines. So it goes, and +the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the +buyers of mining stock in New York. Fuel was added to the flame by +the report that Shedd had sold his location, named the Solitaire, +to ex-Governor Tabor and Mr. Wurtzbach on August 25 for $100,000. +This was not true. I met Governor Tabor's representative, who came +down recently to examine the properties, and learned that the +Governor had not up to that date bought the mine. He undoubtedly +bonded it, however, and his representative's opinion of the +properties seemed highly favorable. The Solitaire showed what +appeared to be a contact vein, with walls of porphyry and limestone +in a ledge thirty feet wide in places, containing a high assay of +horned silver. The vein was composed of quartz, bearing sulphides, +with horn silver plainly visible, giving an average assay of from +$350 to $500. This was free milling. These were the results shown +simply by surface explorations, which were certainly exceedingly +promising. Recently it has been stated that a little development +shows the vein to be only a blind lead, but the statement lacks +confirmation. In any case the effect of so sensational a discovery +is the same in creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms +of prospectors.</p> + +<p>But the Perche district does not rest on the Solitaire, for +there has been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout +its extent. Four miles south of this prospect, on the middle fork +of the Perche, is an actual mine--the Bullion--which was purchased +by four or five Western mining men for $10,000, and yielded $11,000 +in twenty days. The ore contains horn and native silver. On the +same fork are the Iron King and Andy Johnson, both recently +discovered and promising properties, and there is a valuable mine +now in litigation on the south fork of the Perche, with scores of +prospects over the entire district. Now that one or two sensational +strikes have attracted attention, and capital is developing paying +mines, the future of the Perche District seems assured.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SOY BEAN.</h2> + +<p>The <i>British Medical Journal</i> says that Prof. E. Kinch, +writing in the <i>Agricultural Students' Gazette</i>, says that the +Soy bean approaches more nearly to animal food than any other known +vegetable production, being singularly rich in fat and in +albuminoids. It is largely used as an article of food in China and +Japan. Efforts have been made to acclimatize it in various parts of +the continent of Europe, and fair success has been achieved in +Italy and France; many foods are made from it and its straw is a +useful fodder.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>ON A NEW ARC ELECTRIC LAMP.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Paper read at the British Association, Southampton. +Revised by the Author.--<i>Nature</i>.]</p> + +<h3>By W.H. PREECE.</h3> + +<p>Electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as +the trees in the forest, and it is somewhat fresh to come upon +something that is novel. In these lamps the carbons are consumed as +the current flows, and it is the variation in their consumption +which occasions the flickering and irregularity of the light that +is so irritating to the eyes. Special mechanical contrivances or +regulators have to be used to compensate for this destruction of +the carbons, as in the Siemens and Brush type, or else refractory +materials have to be combined with the carbons, as in the +Jablochkoff candle and in the lamp Soleil. The steadiness of the +light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved +toward each other as they are consumed, so as to maintain the +electric resistance between them a constant quantity. Each lamp +must have a certain elasticity of regulation of its own, to prevent +irregularities from the variable material of carbon used, and from +variations in the current itself and in the machinery.</p> + +<p>In all electric lamps, except the Brockie, the regulator is in +the lamp itself. In the Brockie system the regulation is automatic, +and is made at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine. This +causes a periodic blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for +internal illumination.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6c.png"><img src= +"images/6c_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 1. FIG. 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>M. Abdank, the inventor of the system which I have the pleasure +of bringing before the Section, separates his regulator from his +lamp. The regulator may be fixed anywhere, within easy inspection +and manipulation, and away from any disturbing influence in the +lamp. The lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place.</p> + +<p><i>The Lamp</i> (Figs. 1, 2, and 3.)--The bottom or negative +carbon is fixed, but the top or positive carbon is movable, in a +vertical line. It is screwed at the point, C, to a brass rod, T +(Fig. 2), which moves freely inside the tubular iron core of an +electromagnet, K. This rod is clutched and lifted by the soft iron +armature, A B, when a current passes through the coil, M M. The +mass of the iron in the armature is distributed so that the greater +portion is at one end, B, much nearer the pole than the other end. +Hence this portion is attracted first, the armature assumes an +inclined position, maintained by a brass button, t, which prevents +any adhesion between the armature and the core of the +electromagnet. The electric connection between the carbon and the +coil of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire, +S.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6d.png" alt="FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>The electromagnet, A (Fig. 1), is fixed to a long and heavy +rack, C, which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the +electromagnet and the carbon fixed to it. The length of the rack is +equal to the length of the two carbons. The fall of the rack is +controlled by a friction break, B (Fig. 3), which acts upon the +last of a train of three wheels put in motion by the above weight. +The break, B, is fixed at one end of a lever, B A, the other end +carrying a soft iron armature, F, easily adjusted by three screws. +This armature is attracted by the electromagnet, E E (whose +resistance is 1,200 ohms), whenever a current circulates through +it. The length of the play is regulated by the screw, V. The +spring, L, applies tension to the break.</p> + +<p><i>The Regulator</i>.--This consists of a balance and a +cut-off.</p> + +<p><i>The Balance</i> (Figs. 4 and 5) is made with two solenoids. S +and S', whose relative resistances is adjustable. S conveys the +main current, and is wound with thick wire having practically no +resistance, and S' is traversed by a shunt current, and is wound +with fine wire having a resistance of 600 ohms. In the axes of +these two coils a small and light iron tube (2 mm. diameter and 60 +mm. length) freely moves in a vertical line between two guides. +When magnetized it has one pole in the middle and the other at each +end. The upward motion is controlled by the spring, N T. The spring +rests upon the screw, H, with which it makes contact by platinum +electrodes. This contact is broken whenever the little iron rod +strikes the spring, N T.</p> + +<p>The positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal, +B, then passes through the coil, S, to the terminal, B', whence it +proceeds to the lamp. The negative lead is attached to terminal, A, +passing directly to the other terminal, A', and thence to the +lamp.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/7a.png"><img src= +"images/7a_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 4"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>The shunt which passes through the fine coil, S', commences at +the point, P. The other end is fixed to the screw, H, whence it has +two paths, the one offering no resistance through the spring, T N, +to the upper negative terminal, A'; the other through the terminal, +J, to the electromagnet of the break, M, and thence to the negative +terminal of the lamp, L'.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/7b.png"><img src= +"images/7b_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 5."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.</p> + +<p><i>The Cut-off</i>.--The last part of the apparatus (Fig. 4) to +be described is the cut-off, which is used when there are several +lamps in series. It is brought into play by the switch, C D, which +can be placed at E or D. When it is at E, the negative terminal, A, +is in communication with the positive terminal, B, through the +resistance, R, which equals the resistance of the lamp, which is, +therefore, out of circuit. When it is at D the cut-off acts +automatically to do the same thing when required. This is done by a +solenoid, V, which has two coils, the one of thick wire offering no +resistance, and the other of 2,000 ohms resistance. The fine wire +connects the terminals, A' and B. The solenoid has a movable soft +iron core suspended by the spring, U. It has a cross-piece of iron +which can dip into two mercury cups, G and K, when the core is +sucked into the solenoid. When this is the case, which happens when +any accident occurs to the lamp, the terminal, A, is placed in +connection with the terminal, B, through the thick wire of V and +the resistance, R, in the same way as it was done by the switch, C +D.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical Arrangement</i>.--The mode in which several lamps +are connected up in series is shown by Fig. 6. M is the dynamo +machine. The + lead is connected to B<sub>1</sub> of the balance it +then passes to the lamp, L, returning to the balance, and then +proceeds to each other lamp, returning finally to the negative pole +of the machine. When the current enters the balance it passes +through the coil, S, magnetizing the iron core and drawing it +downward (Fig. 4). It then passes to the lamp, L L', through the +carbons, then returns to the balance, and proceeds back to the +negative terminal of the machine. A small portion of the current is +shunted off at the point, P, passing through the coil, S', through +the contact spring, T N, to the terminal, A', and drawing the iron +core in opposition to S. The carbons are in contact, but in passing +through the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet, M (Fig. +2), which attracts the armature, A B, that bites and lifts up the +rod, T, with the upper carbon, a definite and fixed distance that +is easily regulated by the screws, Y Y. The arc then is formed, and +will continue to burn steadily as long as the current remains +constant. But the moment the current falls, due to the increased +resistance of the arc, a greater proportion passes through the +shunt, S' (Fig. 4), increasing its magnetic moment on the iron +core, while that of S is diminishing. The result is that a moment +arrives when equilibrium is destroyed, the iron rod strikes smartly +and sharply upon the spring, N T. Contact between T and H is +broken, and the current passes through the electromagnet of the +break in the lamp. The break is released for an instant, the +carbons approach each other. But the same rupture of contact +introduces in the shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude +(viz., 1,200 ohms), that of the electromagnets of the break. Then +the strength of the shunt current diminishes considerably, and the +solenoid, S, recovers briskly its drawing power upon the rod, and +contact is restored. The carbons approach during these periods only +about 0.01 to 0.02 millimeter. If this is not sufficient to restore +equilibrium it is repeated continually, until equilibrium is +obtained. The result is that the carbon is continually falling by a +motion invisible to the eye, but sufficient to provide for the +consumption of the carbons.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7c.png" alt="FIG. 6"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 6</p> + +<p>The contact between N T and H is never completely broken, the +sparks are very feeble, and the contacts do not oxidize. The +resistances inserted are so considerable that heating cannot occur, +while the portion of the current abstracted for the control is so +small that it may be neglected.</p> + +<p>The balance acts precisely like the key of a Morse machine, and +the break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in +telegraphy. It emits the same kind of sounds, and acts +automatically like a skilled and faithful telegraphist.</p> + +<p>This regulation, by very small and short successive steps, +offers several advantages: (1) it is imperceptible to the eye; (2) +it does not affect the main current; (3) any sudden instantaneous +variation of the main current does not allow a too near approach of +the carbon points. Let, now, an accident occur; for instance, a +carbon is broken. At once the automatic cut-off acts, the current +passes through the resistance, R, instead of passing through the +lamp. The current through the fine coil is suddenly increased, the +rod is drawn in, contact is made at G and K, and the current is +sent through the coil, R. As soon as contact is again made by the +carbons, the current in the coil, S, is increased, that of the +thick wire in V diminished, and the antagonistic spring, U, breaks +the contact at G and K. The rupture of the light is almost +invisible, because the relighting is so brisk and sharp.</p> + +<p>I have seen this lamp in action, and its constant steadiness +leaves nothing to be desired.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR OBTAINING PURE WATER FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC USE.</h2> + +<p>Our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is +never absolutely free from dissolved impurities; and in ordinary +cases it contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic +and organic kingdoms, together with gaseous substances; these +latter being generally derived from the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>By far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water, +and if this be collected in a secluded district, and after the air +has been well washed by previous rain, its purity is remarkable; +the extraneous matter consisting of little else than a trace of +carbonic acid and other gases dissolved from the air. In fact, such +water is far purer than any distilled water to be obtained in +commerce. The case is very different when the rain-water is +collected in a town or densely populated district, more especially +if the water has been allowed to flow over dirty roofs. The black +and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as soft water is so rich +in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be of very limited +use to the photographer; but by taking the precaution of fitting up +a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the roofs +have been thoroughly washed, it becomes possible to insure a good +supply of clean and serviceable soft water, even in London. Several +forms of shunt have been devised, some of these being so complex as +to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization; but a simple and +efficient apparatus is figured in <i>Engineering</i> by a +correspondent who signs himself "Millwright," and as we have +thoroughly proved the value of an apparatus which is practically +identical, we reproduce the substance of his communication.</p> + +<p>A gentleman of Newcastle, a retired banker, having tried various +filters to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his +house, at length had the idea to allow no water to run into the +cistern until the roof had been well washed. After first putting up +a hard-worked valve, the arrangement as sketched below has been hit +upon. Now Newcastle is a very smoky place, and yet my friend gets +water as pure as gin, and almost absolutely free from any smack of +soot.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7d.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>The sketch explains itself. The weight, W, and the angle of the +lever, L, are such, that when the valve, V, is once opened it goes +full open. A small hole in the can C, acts like a cataract, and +brings matters to a normal state very soon after the rain +ceases.</p> + +<p>The proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a +careful adjustment of the weight, W, the angle through which the +valve opens, and the magnitude of the vessel, C. It is an advantage +to make the vessel, C, somewhat broader in proportion to its height +than represented, and to provide it with a movable strainer placed +about half way down. This tends to protect the cataract hole, and +any accumulation of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six +months or so. Clean soft water is valuable to the photographer in +very many cases. Iron developer (wet plate) free from chlorides +will ordinarily remain effective on the plate much longer than when +chlorides are present, and the pyrogallic solution for dry-plate +work will keep good for along time if made with soft water, while +the lime which is present in hard water causes the pyrogallic acid +to oxidize with considerable rapidity. Negatives that have been +developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a very +unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water, and +something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of +silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure +frame to impure water.</p> + +<p>To the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value, +as he can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard +water; or, what comes to the same thing, he can dissolve away his +superfluous gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be +necessary.</p> + +<p>The cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a +town is not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the +preparation of the nitrate bath, it being advisable to use the +purest distilled water for this purpose; and in many cases it is +well to carefully distill water for the bath in a glass apparatus +of the kind figured below.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7e.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>A, thin glass flask serving as a retort. The tube, T, is fitted +air-tight to the flask by a cork, C.</p> + +<p>B, receiver into which the tube, T, fits quite loosely.</p> + +<p>D, water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick, which +is shown as surrounding T, in a moist condition. This wick acts as +a siphon, and water is gradually drawn over into the lower +receptacle, E.</p> + +<p>L, spirit lamp, which may, in many cases, be advantageously +replaced by a Bunsen burner.</p> + +<p>A small metal still, provided with a tin condensing worm, is, +however, a more generally serviceable arrangement, and if ordinary +precautions are taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean, the +resulting distilled water will be nearly as pure as that distilled +in glass vessels.</p> + +<p>Such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently +over an ordinary kitchen fire, and should find a place among the +appliances of every photographer. Distilled water should always be +used in the preparation of emulsion, as the impurities of ordinary +water may often introduce disturbing conditions.--<i>Photographic +News</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7f.png" alt=""></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>BLACK PHOSPHORUS.</h2> + +<h3>By P. THENARD.</h3> + +<p>The author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is +merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a +metallic phosphide, and contends that this explanation is not in +all cases admissible. A specimen of black or rather dark gray +phosphorus, which the author submitted to the Academy, became white +if melted and remained white if suddenly cooled, but if allowed to +enter into a state of superfusion it became again black on contact +with either white or black phosphorus. A portion of the black +specimen being dissolved in carbon disulphide there remained +undissolved merely a trace of a very pale yellow matter which +seemed to be amorphous phosphorus.--<i>Comptes Rendus</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>COMPOSITION OF STEEP WATER.</h2> + +<p>According to M. C. Leeuw, water in which malt has been steeped +has the following composition:</p> + +<pre> + Organic matter. 0.56 per cent. + Mineral matter. 0.52 " + ---- + Total dry matter. 1.08 " + ---- + Nitrogen. 0.033 " +</pre> + +<p>The mineral matter consists of--</p> + +<pre> + Potash. 0.193 " + Phosphoric acid. 0.031 " + Lime. 0.012 " + Soda. 0.047 " + Magnesia. 0.016 " + Sulphuric acid. 0.007 " + Oxide of iron. traces. + Chlorine and silica. 0.212 " +</pre> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>SCHREIBER'S APPARATUS FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.</h2> + +<p>We give opposite illustrations of Schreiber's apparatus for +revivifying bone-black or animal charcoal. The object of +revivification is to render the black fit to be used again after it +has lost its decolorizing properties through service--that is to +say, to free its pores from the absorbed salts and insoluble +compounds that have formed therein during the operation of sugar +refining. There are two methods employed--fermentation and washing. +At present the tendency is to abandon the former in order to +proceed with as small a stock of black as possible, and to adopt +the method of washing with water and acid in a rotary washer.</p> + +<p>Figs. 1 and 2 represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black +room, containing light filters, A, arranged in a circle around +wells, B. These latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal +base, whose small sides end at the same point, d, and the large +ones at the filter. The funnel, E, of the washer, F, is placed in +the space left by the small ends of the wells, so that the black +may be taken from these latter and thrown directly into the washer. +The washer is arranged so that the black may flow out near the +steam fitter, G, beneath the floor. The discharge of this filter is +toward the side of the elevator, H, which takes in the wet black +below, and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated at +the upper part of the furnace. This elevator, Figs. 3 and 4, is +formed of two vertical wooden uprights, A, ten centimeters in +thickness, to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as +guides. The lift, properly so-called, consists of an iron frame, C, +provided at the four angles with rollers, D, and supporting a +swinging bucket, E, which, on its arrival at the upper part of the +furnace, allows the black to fall to an inclined plane that leads +it to the upper part of the drier. The left is raised and lowered +by means of a pitch-chain, F, fixed to the middle of the frame, C, +and passing over two pulleys, G, at the upper part of the frame and +descending to the mechanism that actuates it. This latter comprises +a nut, I, acting directly on the chain; a toothed wheel, K, and a +pinion, J, gearing with the latter and keyed upon the shaft of the +pulleys, L and M. The diameter of the toothed wheel, K, is 0.295 of +a meter, and it makes 53.4 revolutions per minute. The diameter of +the pinion is 0.197 of a meter, and it makes 80 revolutions per +minute. The pulleys, M and L, are 0.31 of a meter in diameter, and +make 80 revolutions per minute. Motion is transmitted to them by +other pulleys, N, keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part, +which receives its motion from the engine of the establishment +through the intermedium of the pulley, O. The diameter of the +latter is 0.385 of a meter, and that of N is 0.58. They each make +43 revolutions per minute.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.--ELEVATION OF BONE-BLACK REVIVIFYING PLANT +(SCHREIBER'S SYSTEM.)<br> +<br> +FIG. 2.--PLAN VIEW.<br> +<br> +FIG. 3.--LATERAL VIEW OF ELEVATOR.<br> +<br> +FIG. 4.--FRONT VIEW OF ELEVATOR.<br> +<br> +FIG. 5.--CONTINUOUS FURNACE FOR REVIVIFYING BONE-BLACK.</p> + +<p>The elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the +gearing lever, P, and when this has been done all the other motions +are effected automatically.</p> + +<p><i>The Animal Black Furnace</i>.--This consists of a masonry +casing of rectangular form, in which are arranged on each side of +the same fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts, D, of undulating +form, each composed of three parts, set one within the other. These +retorts, which serve for the revivification of the black, are +incased in superposed blocks of refractory clay, P, Q, S, designed +to regularize the transmission of heat and to prevent burning. +These pieces are kept in their respective places by crosspieces, R. +The space between the retorts occupied by the fire-place, Y, is +covered with a cylindrical dome, O, of refractory tiles, forming a +fire-chamber with the inner surface of the blocks, P, Q, and S. The +front of the surface consists of a cast-iron plate, containing the +doors to the fire-place and ash pan, and a larger one to allow of +entrance to the interior to make repairs.</p> + +<p>One of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying +animal charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for +drying the black on its exit from the washer. It was for the +purpose of remedying this that Mr. Schreiber was led to invent the +automatic system of drying shown at the upper part of the furnace, +and which is formed of two pipes, B, of undulating form, like the +retorts, with openings throughout their length for the escape of +steam. Between these pipes there is a closed space into which +enters the waste heat and products of combustion from the furnace. +These latter afterward escape through the chimney at the upper +part.</p> + +<p>In order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the +furnace, it must be cooled as much as possible. For this purpose +there are arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast +iron tubes, F, of rectangular section, forming a prolongation of +the retorts and making with them an angle of about 45 degrees. The +extremities of these tubes terminate in hollow rotary cylinders, G, +which permit of regulating the flow of the black into a car, J +(Fig. 1), running on rails.</p> + +<p>From what precedes, it will be readily understood how a furnace +is run on this plan.</p> + +<p>The bone-black in the hopper, A, descends into the drier, B, +enters the retorts, D, and, after revivification, passes into the +cooling pipes, F, from whence it issues cold and ready to be +bagged. A coke fire having been built in the fire-place, Y, the +flames spread throughout the fire chamber, direct themselves toward +the bottom, divide into two parts to the right and left, and heat +the back of the retorts in passing. Then the two currents mount +through the lateral flues, V, and unite so as to form but one in +the drier. Within the latter there are arranged plates designed to +break the current from the flames, and allow it to heat all the +inner parts of the pipes, while the apertures in the drier allow of +the escape of the steam.</p> + +<p>By turning one of the cylinders, G, so as to present its +aperture opposite that of the cooler, it instantly fills up with +black. At this moment the whole column, from top to bottom, is set +in motion. The bone-black, in passing through the undulations, is +thrown alternately to the right and left until it finally reaches +the coolers. This operation is repeated as many times as the +cylinder is filled during the descent of one whole column, that is +to say, about forty times.</p> + +<p>With an apparatus of the dimensions here described, 120 +hectoliters of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours, +with 360 to 400 kilogrammes of coke.--<i>Annales +Industrielles</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 330, page 5264.]</p> + +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>SOAP AND ITS MANUFACTURE, FROM A CONSUMER'S POINT OF VIEW.</h2> + +<p>In our last article, under the above heading, the advantages to +be gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were +pointed out, and the reasons of this superiority, especially in the +case of washing wool or woolen fabrics, were pretty fully gone +into. It was also further explained why the potash soaps generally +sold to the public were unfit for general use, owing to their not +being neutral--that is to say, containing a considerable excess of +free or unsaponified alkali, which acts injuriously on the fiber of +any textile material, and causes sore hands if used for household +or laundry purposes. It was shown that the cause of this defect was +owing to the old-fashioned method of making potash or soft soap, by +boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of potash; but that a +perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily be made with +pure caustic potash, which within the last few years has become a +commercial article, manufactured on a large scale; just in the same +manner as the powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda, which was +recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without +boiling.</p> + +<p>The process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple, +and almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure +powdered caustic soda. The following directions, if carefully and +exactly followed, will produce a first-class potash soap, suitable +either for the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool, and the +cloth afterward made from it, or for household and laundry +purposes, for which uses it will be found far superior to any soda +soap, no matter how pure or well made it may be.</p> + +<p>Dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of +water. Pure caustic potash is very soluble, and dissolves almost +immediately, heating the water. Let the lye thus made cool until +warm to the hand--say about 90 F. Melt eighty pounds of tallow or +grease, which must be free from salt, and let it cool until fairly +hot to the hand--say 130 F.; or eighty pounds of any vegetable or +animal oil may be taken instead. Now pour the caustic potash lye +into the melted tallow or oil, stirring with a flat wooden stirrer +about three inches broad, until both are thoroughly mixed and +smooth in appearance. This mixing may be done in the boiler used to +melt the tallow, or in a tub, or half an oil barrel makes a good +mixing vessel. Wrap the tub or barrel well up in blankets or +sheepskins, and put away for a week in some warm dry place, during +which the mixture slowly turns into soap, giving a produce of about +120 pounds of excellent potash soap. If this soap is made with +tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap. When made +by farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be +taken, as it is the cheapest, and ready to hand on the spot. For +manufacturers, or for making laundry soap, nothing could be better +than cotton seed oil. A magnificent soap can be made with this +article, lathering very freely. When made with oil it is better to +remelt in a kettle the potash soap, made according to the above +directions, with half its weight of water, using very little heat, +stirring constantly, and removing the fire as soon as the water is +mixed with and taken up by the soap. A beautifully bright soap is +obtained in this way, and curiously the soap is actually made much +harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is in a +more concentrated state previously to the water being added.</p> + +<p>With reference to the caustic potash for making the soap, it can +be obtained in all sizes of drums, but small packages just +sufficient for a batch of soap are generally more economical than +larger packages, as pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very +quickly when exposed to the air. The Greenbank Alkali Co., of St. +Helens, seems to have appreciated this, and put upon the market +pure caustic potash in twenty pound canisters, which are very +convenient for potash soft soap making by consumers for their own +use.</p> + +<p>While on this subject of caustic potash, it cannot be too often +repeated that <i>caustic potash</i> is a totally different article +to <i>caustic soda</i>, though just like it in appearance, and +therefore often sold as such. One of the most barefaced instances +of this is the so-called "crystal potash," "ball potash," or "rock +potash," of the lye packers, sold in one pound packages, which +absolutely, without exception, do not contain a single grain of +potash, but simply consist of caustic soda more or less +adulterated--as a rule very much "more" than "less!" It is much to +be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively +practiced, as potash has been greatly discredited by this +procedure.</p> + +<p>The subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing +on the sheep, with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste +tallow generally to be had on every sheep farm, seems recently to +have been attracting attention in some quarters, and certainly +would be a source of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool +on the market in the best condition, and at the same time cleaning +the skin of the sheep. It therefore appears to be a move in the +right direction.</p> + +<p>In concluding this series of articles on practical soap making +from a consumer's point of view, the writer hopes that, although +the subject has been somewhat imperfectly handled, owing to +necessarily limited space and with many unavoidable interruptions, +yet that they may have been found of some interest and assistance +to consumers of soap who desire easily and readily to make a pure +and unadulterated article for their own use.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>COTTON SEED OIL.</h2> + +<h3>By S.S. BRADFORD, Ph.G.</h3> + +<p>Having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture +lead plaster in considerable quantities, it occurred to me that +cotton seed oil might be used instead of olive oil, at less +expense, and with as good results. The making of this plaster with +cotton seed oil has been questioned, as, according to some +authorities, the product is not of good consistence, and is apt to +be soft, sticky, and dark colored; but in my experience such is not +the case. If the U. S. P. process is followed in making this +plaster, substituting for the olive oil cotton seed oil, and +instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half pint are +added, the product obtained will be equally as good as that from +olive oil. My results with this oil in making lead plaster led me +to try it in making the different liniments of the Pharmacopoeia, +with the following results:</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Ammoniæ</i>.--This liniment, made with +cotton seed oil, is of much better consistency than when made with +olive oil. It is not so thick, will pour easily out of the bottle, +and if the ammonia used is of proper strength, will make a perfect +liniment.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Calcis</i>.--Cotton seed oil is not at all adapted +to making this liniment. It does not readily saponify, separates +quickly, and it is almost impossible to unite when separated.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Camphoræ</i>.--Cotton seed oil is far +superior to olive oil in making this liniment, it being a much +better solvent of camphor. It has not that disagreeable odor so +commonly found in the liniment.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Chloroformi</i>.--Cotton seed oil being very +soluble in chloroform, the liniment made with it leaves nothing to +be desired.</p> + +<p><i>Linimentum Plumbi Subacetatis</i>.--When liq. plumbi subacet. +is mixed with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time +the oil assumes a reddish color similar to that of freshly made +tincture of myrrh. When the liquor is mixed with olive oil, if the +oil be pure, no such change takes place. Noticing this change, it +occurred to me that this would be a simple and easy way to detect +cotton seed oil when mixed with olive oil. This change usually +takes place after standing from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is +easily detected in mixtures containing five per cent., or even +less, of the oils, and I am convinced, after making numerous +experiments with different oils, that it is peculiar to cotton seed +oil.--<i>American Journal of Pharmacy</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>THE FOOD AND ENERGY OF MAN.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From a lecture delivered at the Sanitary Congress, at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, September 28, 1882.]</p> + +<h3>By PROF. DE CHAUMONT, F.R.S.</h3> + +<p>Although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion, +it has nevertheless been reserved for modern times, and indeed we +may say the present generation, to get a fairly clear idea of the +way in which food is really utilized for the work of our bodily +frame. We must not, however, plume ourselves too much upon our +superior knowledge, for inklings of the truth, more or less dim, +have been had through all ages, and we are now stepping into the +inheritance of times gone by, using the long and painful experience +of our predecessors as the stepping-stone to our more accurate +knowledge of the present time. In this, as in many other things, we +are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the shoulders of a +giant; the dwarf may, indeed, see further than the giant; but he +remains a dwarf, and the giant a giant.</p> + +<p>The question has been much discussed as to what the original +food of man was, and some people have made it a subject of excited +contention. The most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally +a frugivorous or fruit-eating animal, like his cousins the monkeys, +whom he still so much resembles. This forms a further argument in +favor of his being originated in warm regions, where fruits of all +kinds were plentiful. It is pretty clear that the resort to animal +food, whether the result of the pressure of want from failure of +vegetable products, or a mere taste and a desire for change and +more appetizing food, is one that took place many ages ago, +probably in the earliest anthropoid, if not in the latest pithecoid +stage. No doubt some advantage was recognized in the more rapid +digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher +could obtain food, instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in +countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and +inclement weather. Some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted +from the practice, but they are not of sufficiently marked +character to found much argument upon; all that we can say being +that the digestive apparatus in man seems well adapted for +digesting any food that is capable of yielding nutriment, and that +even when an entire change is made in the mode of feeding, the +adaptability of the human system shows itself in a more or less +rapid accommodation to the altered circumstances.</p> + +<p>Food, then, is any substance which can be taken into the body +and applied to use, either in building up or repairing the tissues +and framework of the body itself, or in providing energy and +producing animal heat, or any substance which, without performing +those functions directly, controls, directs, or assists their +performance. With this wide definition it is evident that we +include all the ordinary articles recognized commonly as food, and +that we reject all substances recognized commonly as poisons. But +it will also include such substances as water and air, both of +which are essential for nutrition, but are not usually recognized +as belonging to the list of food substances in the ordinary sense. +When we carry our investigation further, we find that the organic +substances may be again divided into two distinct classes, namely, +that which contains nitrogen (the casein), and those that do not +(the butter and sugar).</p> + +<p>On ascertaining this, we are immediately struck with the +remarkable fact that all the tissues and fluids of the body, +muscles (or flesh), bone, blood--all, in short, except the +fat--contain nitrogen, and, consequently, for their building up in +the young, and for their repair and renewal in the adult, nitrogen +is absolutely required. We therefore reasonably infer that the +nitrogenous substance is necessary for this purpose. Experiment has +borne this out, for men who have been compelled to live without +nitrogenous food by dire necessity, and criminals on whom the +experiment has been tried, have all perished sooner or later in +consequence. When nitrogenous substances are used in the body, they +are, of course, broken up and oxidized, or perhaps we ought to say +more accurately, they take the place of the tissues of the body +which wear away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical +changes.</p> + +<p>Now, modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied +with manifestations of energy in some form or other, most +frequently in that of heat, and we must look, therefore, upon +nitrogenous food as contributing to the energy of the body in +addition to its other functions.</p> + +<p>What are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous. In +the first place, we have the typical example of the purest form in +<i>albumin</i>, or white of egg; and from this the name is now +given to the class of <i>albuminates</i>. The animal albuminates +are: Albumin from eggs, fibrin from muscles, or flesh, myosin, or +synronin, also from animals, casein (or cheesy matter) from milk, +and the nitrogenous substances from blood. In the vegetable +kingdom, we have glutin, or vegetable fibrin, which is the +nourishing constituent of wheat, barley, oats, etc.; and legumin, +or vegetable casein, which is the peculiar substance found in peas +and beans. The other organic constituents--viz., the fats and the +starches and sugars--contain no nitrogen, and were at one time +thought to be concerned in producing animal heat.</p> + +<p>We now know--thanks to the labors of Joule, Lyon Playfair, +Clausius, Tyndall, Helmholtz, etc.--that heat itself is a mode of +motion, a form of convertible energy, which can be made to do +useful or productive work, and be expressed in terms of actual work +done. Modern experiment shows that all our energy is derived from +that of food, and, in particular from the non-nitrogenous part of +it, that is, the fat, starch, and sugar. The nutrition of man is +best maintained when he is provided with a due admixture of all the +four classes of aliment which we have mentioned, and not only that, +but he is also better off if he has a variety of each class. Thus +he may and ought to have albumen, fibrine, gluten, and casein among +the albuminates, or at least two of them; butter and lard, or suet, +or oil among the fats; starch of wheat, potato, rice, peas, etc., +and cane-sugar, and milk-sugar among the carbo-hydrates. The salts +cannot be replaced, so far as we know. Life may be maintained in +fair vigor for some time on albuminates only, but this is done at +the expense of the tissues, especially the fat of the body, and the +end must soon come; with fat and carbo hydrates alone vigor may +also be maintained for some time, at the expense of the tissues +also, but the limit is a near one, In either of these cases we +suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided.</p> + +<p>We must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary; and +this necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the +work of the body is carried on. We must look upon the human body +exactly as a machine; like an engine with which we are all so +familiar. A certain amount of work requires to be done, say, a +certain number of miles of distance to be traversed; we know that +to do this a certain number of pounds, or hundredweights, or tons +of coal must be put into the fire of the boiler in order to furnish +the requisite amount of energy through the medium of steam. This +amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion to the work, and also +to the velocity with which it is done, so both quantity and time +have to be accounted for.</p> + +<p>No lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the +vexed question of alcohol. I am no teetotal advocate, and I +repudiate the rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms, +talk that is, perhaps, inseparable from the advocacy of a cause +that imports a good deal of enthusiasm. I am at one, however, in +recognizing the evils of excess, and would gladly hail their +diminution. But I believe that alcohol properly used may be a +comfort and a blessing, just as I know that improperly used it +becomes a bane and a curse. But we are now concerned with it as an +article of diet in relation to useful work, and it may be well to +call attention markedly to the fact that its use in this way is +very limited. The experiments of the late Dr. Parkes, made in our +laboratory, at Netley, were conclusive on the point, that beyond an +amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two +pints of beer, alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy, +and that, therefore, to take it in the belief that it did do so is +an error. It may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses, +but this is invariably followed by a corresponding depression, and +it is a maxim now generally followed, especially on service, never +to give it before or during work. There are, of course, some +persons who are better without it altogether, and so all moderation +ought to be commended, if not enjoyed.</p> + +<p>There are other beverages which are more useful than the +alcoholic, as restoratives, and for support in fatigue. Tea and +coffee are particularly good. Another excellent restorative is a +weak solution of Liebig's extract of meat, which has a remarkable +power of removing fatigue. Perhaps one of the most useful and most +easily obtainable is weak oatmeal gruel, either hot or cold. With +regard to tobacco, it also has some value in lessening fatigue in +those who are able to take it, but it may easily be carried to +excess. Of it we may say, as of alcohol, that in moderation it +seems harmless, and even useful to some extent, but, in excess, it +is rank poison.</p> + +<p>There is one other point which I must refer to, and which is +especially interesting to a great seaport like this. This is the +question of scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime +nation. A paper lately issued by Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Board of +Trade, discloses the regrettable fact that since 1873 there has +been a serious falling off, the outbreaks of scurvy having again +increased until they reached ninety-nine in 1881. This, Mr. Gray +seems to think, is due to a neglect of varied food scales; but it +may also very probably have arisen from the neglect of the +regulation about lime-juice, either as to issue or quality, or +both. But it is also a fact of very great importance that mere +monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health; variety of +food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed, but a real +sanitary benefit, aiding digestion and assimilation. Our Board of +Trade has nothing to do with the food scales of ships, but Mr. Gray +hints that the Legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners +look to it themselves. The ease with which preserved foods of all +kinds can be obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an +excuse for backwardness in this matter, and in particular the +provision of a large supply of potatoes, both fresh and dried, +ought to be an unceasing care; this is done on board American +ships, and to this is doubtless owing in a great part the +healthiness of their crews. Scurvy in the present day is a disgrace +to shipowners and masters; and if public opinion is insufficient to +protect the seamen, the legislature will undoubtedly step in and do +so.</p> + +<p>And now let me close by pointing out that the study of this +commonplace matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the +conception of the grand unity of nature; since we see that the body +of man differs in no way essentially from other natural +combinations, but is subject to the same universal physical laws, +in which there is no blindness, no variableness, no mere chance, +and disobedience of which is followed as surely by retribution as +even the keenest eschatologist might desire.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="33"></a></p> + +<h2>RATTLESNAKE POISON.</h2> + +<h3>By HENRY H. CROFT.</h3> + +<p>Some time since, in a paper to which I am unfortunately unable +to refer, a French chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in +snakes, or eliminated by snakes, was of the nature of an alkaloid, +and gave a name to this class of bodies.</p> + +<p>Mr. Pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or +neutralized by means of platinic chloride, owing probably to the +formation of an insoluble double platinic chloride, such as is +formed with almost if not all alkaloids.</p> + +<p>In this country (Texas) where rattlesnakes are very common, and +persons camping out much exposed to their bites, a very favorite +anecdote, or <i>remedia</i> as the Mexicans cull it, is a strong +solution of iodine in potassium iodide.[1]</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: The solution is applied as soon as possible to the +wound, preferably enlarged, and a few drops taken internally. The +common Mexican <i>remedia</i> is the root of the <i>Agave +virginica</i> mashed or chewed and applied to the wound, while part +is swallowed.</p> + +<p>Great faith is placed in this root by all residents here, who +are seldom I without it, but, I have had no experience of it +myself; and the internal administration is no doubt useless.</p> + +<p>Even the wild birds know of this root; the queer paisano (? +ground woodpecker) which eats snakes, when wounded by a <i>vibora +de cascabel</i>, runs into woods, digs up and eats a root of the +agave, just like the mongoose; but more than that, goes back, +polishes off his enemy, and eats him. This has been told me by +Mexicans who, it may be remarked, are not <i>always</i> +reliable.]</p> + +<p>I have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two +cases of <i>cascabel</i> bites, one on a buck, the other on a dog; +and it occurred to me that the same explanation of its action might +be given as above for the platinum salt, viz., the formation of an +insoluble iodo compound as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake +poison really belongs to this class.</p> + +<p>Having last evening killed a moderate sized +rattlesnake--<i>Crotalus horridus</i>--which had not bitten +anything, I found the gland fully charged with the white opaque +poison; on adding iodine solution to a drop of this a dense +light-brown precipitate was immediately formed, quite similar to +that obtained with most alkaloids, exhibiting under the microscope +no crystalline structure.</p> + +<p>In the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for +testing alkaloids, and perhaps a snake poison antidote, may be made +by adding a few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium +of iodide; this is a very convenient test agent which I used in my +laboratory for many years.</p> + +<p>Although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very +considerable quantity, it is out of my power to make such +experiments as I could desire, being without any chemical +appliances and living a hundred miles or more from any laboratory. +The same may be said with regard to books, and possibly the above +iodine reaction has been already described.</p> + +<p>Dr. Richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by +potassium permanganate; but this is no argument in favor of that +salt as an antidote. Mr. Pedler also refers to it, but allows that +it would not be probably of any use after the poison had been +absorbed. Of this I think there can be no doubt, remembering the +easy decomposition of permanganate by most organic substances, and +I cannot but think that the medicinal or therapeutic advantages of +that salt, taken internally, are equally problematical, unless the +action is supposed to take place in the stomach.</p> + +<p>In the bladder of the same rattlesnake I found a considerable +quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate, the urine pale +yellow.--<i>Chemical News</i>.</p> + +<p>Hermanitas Ranch, Texas.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="34"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CHINESE SIGN MANUAL.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Dr. D. J. Macgowan, in Medical Reports of China. +1881.]</p> + +<p>Two writers in <i>Nature</i>, both having for their theme +"Skin-furrows on the Hand," solicit information on the subject from +China.[1] As the subject is considered to have a bearing on medical +jurisprudence and ethnology as well, this report is a suitable +vehicle for responding to the demand.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: Henry Faulds, Tzukiyi Hospital, Tokio, Japan. W. J. +Herschel, Oxford, England.--<i>Nature</i>, 28th October and 25th +November, 1880.]</p> + +<p>Dr. Faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the Japanese have +an ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity. Mr. +Herschel considers the subject as an agent of Government, he having +charge for twenty years of registration offices in India, where he +employed finger marks as sign manuals, the object being to prevent +personation and repudiation. Doolittle, in his "Social Life of the +Chinese," describes the custom. I cannot now refer to native works +where the practice of employing digital rugæ as a sign manual +is alluded to. I doubt if its employment in the courts is of +ancient date. Well-informed natives think that it came into vogue +subsequent to the Han period; if so, it is in Egypt that earliest +evidence of the practice is to be found. Just as the Chinese courts +now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing thereto the +whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of women, +the left in the case of men--so the ancient Egyptians, it is +represented, required confessions to be sealed with their +thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit, as in China. Great +importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of +signature, "finger form." Without a confession no criminal can be +legally executed, and the confession to be valid must be attested +by the thumb-print of the prisoner. No direct coercion is employed +to secure this; a contumacious culprit may, however, be tortured +until he performs the act which is a prerequisite to his execution. +Digital signatures are sometimes required in the army to prevent +personation; the general in command at Wenchow enforces it on all +his troops. A document thus attested can no more be forged or +repudiated than a photograph--not so easily, for while the period +of half a lifetime effects great changes in the physiognomy, the +rugæ of the fingers present the same appearance from the +cradle to the grave; time writes no wrinkles there. In the army +everywhere, when the description of a person is written down, the +relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted. It +is called taking the "whelk striæ," the fusiform being called +"rice baskets," and the volutes "peck measures." A person unable to +write, the form of signature which defies personation or +repudiation is required in certain domestic cases, as in the sale +of children or women. Often when a child is sold the parents affix +their finger marks to the bill of sale; when a husband puts away +his wife, giving her a bill of divorce, he marks the document with +his entire palm; and when a wife is sold, the purchaser requires +the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet, the four organs +duly smeared with ink. Professional fortune tellers in China take +into account almost the entire system of the person whose future +they attempt to forecast, and of course they include palmistry, but +the rugæ of the finger-ends do not receive much attention. +Amateur fortune-tellers, however, discourse as glibly on them as +phrenologists do of "bumps"--it is so easy. In children the +relative number of volute and conical striæ indicate their +future. "If there are nine volutes," says a proverb, "to one +conical, the boy will attain distinction without toil."</p> + +<p>Regarded from an ethnological point of view, I can discover +merely that the rugæ of Chinamen's fingers differ from +Europeans', but there is so little uniformity observable that they +form no basis for distinction, and while the striæ may be +noteworthy points in certain medico-legal questions, heredity is +not one of them.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="35"></a></p> + +<h2>LUCIDITY.</h2> + +<p>At the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the +reopening of the Liverpool University College and School of +Medicine, Mr. Matthew Arnold said if there was one word which he +should like to plant in the memories of his audience, and to leave +sticking there after he had gone, it was the word <i>lucidity</i>. +If he had to fix upon the three great wants at this moment of the +three principal nations of Europe, he should say that the great +want of the French was morality, that the great want of the Germans +was civil courage, and that our own great want was lucidity. Our +own want was, of course, what concerned us the most. People were +apt to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities, and +to think that the qualities could not be desirable because of the +defects which they saw accompanying them. There was no greater and +salutary lesson for men to learn than that a quality may be +accompanied, naturally perhaps, by grave dangers; that it may +actually present itself accompanied by terrible defects, and yet +that it might itself be indispensable. Let him illustrate what he +meant by an example, the force of which they would all readily +feel. Seriousness was a quality of our nation. Perhaps seriousness +was always accompanied by certain dangers. But, at any rate, many +of our French neighbors would say that they found our seriousness +accompanied by so many false ideas, so much prejudice, so much that +was disagreeable, that it could not have the value which we +attributed to it. And yet we knew that it was invaluable. Let them +follow the same mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity. +The French had a national turn for lucidity as we had a national +turn for seriousness. Perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried +with it always certain dangers. Be this as it might, it was certain +that we saw in the French, along with their lucidity, a want of +seriousness, a want of reverence, and other faults, which greatly +displeased us. Many of us were inclined in consequence to +undervalue their lucidity, or to deny that they had it. We were +wrong: it existed as our seriousness existed; it was valuable as +our seriousness was valuable. Both the one and the other were +valuable, and in the end indispensable.</p> + +<p>What was lucidity? It was negatively that the French have it, +and he would therefore deal with its negative character merely. +Negatively, lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and +validness in notions long current, the perception that they are no +longer possible, that their time is finished, and they can serve us +no more. All through the last century a prodigious travail for +lucidity was going forward in France. Its principal agent was a man +whose name excited generally repulsion in England, Voltaire. +Voltaire did a great deal of harm in France. But it was not by his +lucidity that he did harm; he did it by his want of seriousness, +his want of reverence, his want of sense for much that is deepest +in human nature. But by his lucidity he did good.</p> + +<p>All admired Luther. Conduct was three-fourths of life, and a man +who worked for conduct, therefore, worked for more than a man who +worked for intelligence. But having promised this, it might be said +that the Luther of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated +classes was Voltaire. As Luther had an antipathy to what was +immoral, so Voltaire had an antipathy to what was absurd, and both +of them made war upon the object of their antipathy with such +masterly power, with so much conviction, so much energy, so much +genius, that they carried their world with them--Luther his +Protestant world, and Voltaire his French world--and the cultivated +classes throughout the continent of Europe generally.</p> + +<p>Voltaire had more than negative lucidity; he had the large and +true conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were +necessary for man. "<i>Il faut douner à notre áme +toutes les formes possibles</i>" was a maxim which Voltaire really +and truly applied in practice, "advancing," as Michelet finely said +of him, in every direction with a marvelous vigor and with that +conquering ambition which Vico called <i>mens heroica</i>. +Nevertheless. Voltaire's signal characteristic was his lucidity, +his negative lucidity.</p> + +<p>There was a great and free intellectual movement in England in +the eighteenth century--indeed, it was from England that it passed +into France; but the English had not that strong natural bent for +lucidity which the French had. Its bent was toward other things in +preference. Our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for +lucidity which distinguished Voltaire. In their free inquiry they +soon found themselves coming into collision with a number of +established facts, beliefs, conventions. Thereupon all sorts of +practical considerations began to sway them. The danger signal went +up, they often stopped short, turned their eyes another way, or +drew down a curtain between themselves and the light. "It seems +highly probable," said Voltaire, "that nature has made thinking a +portion of the brain, as vegetation is a function of trees; that we +think by the brain just as we walk by the feet." So our reason, at +least, would lead us to conclude, if the theologians did not assure +us of the contrary; such, too, was the opinion of Locke, but he did +not venture to announce it. The French Revolution came, England +grew to abhor France, and was cut off from the Continent, did great +things, gained much, but not in lucidity. The Continent was +reopened, the century advanced, time and experience brought their +lessons, lovers of free and clear thought, such as the late John +Stuart Mill, arose among us. But we could not say that they had by +any means founded among us the reign of lucidity.</p> + +<p>Let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much +just now: let them look at the Salvation Army and its operations. +They would see numbers, funds, energy, devotedness, excitement, +conversions, and a total absence of lucidity. A little lucidity +would make the whole movement impossible. That movement took for +granted as its basis what was no longer possible or receivable; its +adherents proceeded in all they did on the assumption that that +basis was perfectly solid, and neither saw that it was not solid, +nor ever even thought of asking themselves whether it was solid or +not.</p> + +<p>Taking a very different movement, and one of far higher dignity +and import, they had all had before their minds lately the +long-devoted, laborious, influential, pure, pathetic life of Dr. +Pusey, which had just ended. Many of them had also been reading in +the lively volumes of that acute, but not always good-natured +rattle, Mr. Mozley, an account of that great movement which took +from Dr. Pusey its earlier name. Of its later stage of Ritualism +they had had in this country a now celebrated experience. This +movement was full of interest. It had produced men to be respected, +men to be admired, men to be beloved, men of learning, goodness, +genius, and charm. But could they resist the truth that lucidity +would have been fatal to it? The movers of all those questions +about apostolical succession, church patristic authority, primitive +usage, postures, vestments--questions so passionately debated, and +on which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin +by taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable, +build on this basis as if it were indubitably solid, and fail to +see that their basis not being solid, all they built upon it was +fantastic?</p> + +<p>He would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a +satisfactory possession, but he said that it was inevitable and +indispensable, and that it was the condition of all serious +construction for the future. Without it at present a man or a +nation was intellectually and spiritually all abroad. If they saw +it accompanied in France by much that they shrank from, they should +reflect that in England it would have influences joined with it +which it had not in France--the natural seriousness of the people, +their sense of reverence and respect, their love for the past. Come +it must; and here where it had been so late in coming, it would +probably be for the first time seen to come without danger.</p> + +<p>Capitals were natural centers of mental movement, and it was +natural for the classes with most leisure, most freedom, most means +of cultivation, and most conversance with the wide world to have +lucidity though often they had it not. To generate a spirit of +lucidity in provincial towns, and among the middle classes bound to +a life of much routine and plunged in business, was more difficult. +Schools and universities, with serious and disinterested studies, +and connecting those studies the one with the other and continuing +them into years of manhood, were in this case the best agency they +could use. It might be slow, but it was sure. Such an agency they +were now going to employ. Might it fulfill all their expectations! +Might their students, in the words quoted just now, advance in +every direction with a marvelous vigor, and with that conquering +ambition which Vico called <i>mens heroica</i>! And among the many +good results of this, might one result be the acquisition in their +midst of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity!</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>ON SOME APPARATUS THAT PERMIT OF ENTERING FLAMES.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A. de Rochas in the <i>Revue Scientifique</i>.]</p> + +<p>In the following notes I shall recall a few experiments that +indicate under what conditions the human organism is permitted to +remain unharmed amid flames. These experiments were published in +England in 1882, in the twelfth letter from Brewster to Walter +Scott on natural magic. They are, I believe, not much known in +France, and possess a practical interest for those who are engaged +in the art of combating fires.</p> + +<p>At the end of the last century Humphry Davy observed that, on +placing a very fine wire gauze over a flame, the latter was cooled +to such a point that it could not traverse the meshes. This +phenomenon, which he attributed to the conductivity and radiating +power of the metal, he soon utilized in the construction of a lamp +for miners.</p> + +<p>Some years afterward Chevalier Aldini, of Milan, conceived the +idea of making a new application of Davy's discovery in the +manufacture of an envelope that should permit a man to enter into +the midst of flames. This envelope, which was made of metallic +gauze with 1-25th of an inch meshes, was composed of five pieces, +as follows: (1) a helmet, with mask, large enough, to allow a +certain space between it and the internal bonnet of which I shall +speak; (2) a cuirass with armlets; (3) a skirt for the lower part +of the belly and the thighs; (4) a pair of boots formed of a double +wire gauze; and (5) a shield five feet long by one and a half wide, +formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron frame. Beneath +this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a close coat +of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution of +alum. The head, hands, and feet were covered by envelopes of +asbestos cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in +diameter. The bonnet contained apertures for the eyes, nose, and +ears, and consisted of a single thickness of fabric, as did the +stockings, but the gloves were of double thickness, so that the +wearer could seize burning objects with the hands.</p> + +<p>Aldini, convinced of the services that his apparatus might +render to humanity, traveled over Europe and gave gratuitous +representations with it. The exercises generally took place in the +following order: Aldini began by first wrapping his finger in +asbestos and then with a double layer of wire gauze. He then held +it for some instants in the flame of a candle or alcohol lamp. One +of his assistants afterward put on the asbestos glove of which I +have spoken, and, protecting the palm of his hand with another +piece of asbestos cloth, seized a piece of red-hot iron from a +furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or fifty +meters, lighted some straw with it, and then carried it back to the +furnace. On other occasions, the experimenters, holding firebrands +in their hands, walked for five minutes over a large grating under +which fagots were burning.</p> + +<p>In order to show how the head, eyes, and lungs were protected by +the wire gauze apparatus, one of the experimenters put on the +asbestos bonnet, helmet, and cuirass, and fixed the shield in front +of his breast. Then, in a chafing dish placed on a level with his +shoulder, a great fire of shavings was lighted, and care was taken +to keep it up. Into the midst of these flames the experimenter then +plunged his head and remained thus five or six minutes with his +face turned toward them. In an exhibition given at Paris before a +committee from the Academic des Sciences, there were set up two +parallel fences formed of straw, connected by iron wire to light +wicker work, and arranged so as to leave between them a passage 3 +feet wide by 30 long. The heat was so intense, when the fences were +set on fire, that no one could approach nearer than 20 or 25 feet; +and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between them, and +rose to a height of 9 or 10 feet. Six men clad in the Aldini suit +went in, one behind the other, between the blazing fences, and +walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage, while the +fire was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior. One +of these men carried on his back, in an ozier basket covered with +wire gauze, a child eight years of age, who had on no other +clothing than an asbestos bonnet. This same man, having the child +with him, entered on another occasion a clear fire whose flames +reached a height of 18 feet, and whose intensity was such that it +could not be looked at. He remained therein so long that the +spectators began to fear that he had succumbed; but he finally came +out safe and sound.</p> + +<p>One of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is +that man can breathe in the midst of flames. This marvelous +property cannot be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air +by its passage through the gauze before reaching the lungs; it +shows also a very great resistance of our organs to the action of +heat. The following, moreover, are direct proofs of such +resistance. In England, in their first experiment, Messrs. Joseph +Banks, Charles Blagden, and Dr. Solander remained for ten minutes +in a hot-house whose temperature was 211° Fahr., and their +bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat. On breathing +against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several +degrees. Each expiration, especially when it was somewhat strong, +produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness, and +the same impression was also produced on their fingers when +breathed upon. When they touched themselves their skin seemed to be +as cold as that of a corpse; but contact with their watch chains +caused them to experience a sensation like that of a burn. A +thermometer placed under the tongue of one of the experimenters +marked 98° Fahr., which is the normal temperature of the human +species.</p> + +<p>Emboldened by these first results, Blagden entered a hot-house +in which the thermometer in certain parts reached 262° Fahr. He +remained therein eight minutes, walked about in all directions, and +stopped in the coolest part, which was at 240° Fahr. During all +this time he experienced no painful sensations; but, at the end of +seven minutes, he felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted +him and caused him to leave the place. His pulse at that moment +showed 144 beats to the minute, that is to say, double what it +usually did. To ascertain whether there was any error in the +indications of the thermometer, and to find out what effect would +take place on inert substances exposed to the hot air that he had +breathed, Blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in the +hot-house, alongside the thermometer, and found that in twenty +minutes they were baked hard.</p> + +<p>A case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying +moulds, in England, the temperature of which was 177°, and +whose iron sole plate was so hot that it carbonized their wooden +shoes. In the immediate vicinity of this furnace the temperature +rose to 160°. Persons not of the trade who approached anywhere +near the furnace experienced pain in the eyes, nose, and ears.</p> + +<p>A baker is cited in Angoumois, France, who spent ten minutes in +a furnace at 132° C.</p> + +<p>The resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can +be attributed to several causes. First, it has been found that the +quantity of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs, and consequently +the chemical phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of +animal heat, diminish in measure as the external temperature rises. +Hence, a conflict which has for result the retardation of the +moment at which a living being will tend, without obstacle, to take +the temperature of the surrounding medium. On another hand, it has +been observed that man resists heat so much the less in proportion +as the air is saturated with vapors. Dr. Berger, who supported for +seven minutes a temperature varying from 109° to 110° C. in +dry air, could remain only twelve minutes in a bagnio whose +temperature rose from 41° to 51.75°. At the Hammam of Paris +the highest temperature obtained is 87°, and Dr. E. Martin has +not been able to remain therein more than five minutes. This +physician reports that in 1743, the thermometer having exceeded +40° at Pekin, 14,000 persons perished. These facts are +explained by the cooling that the evaporation of perspiration +produces on the surface of the body. Edwards has calculated that +such evaporation is ten times greater in dry air in motion than in +calm and humid air. The observations become still more striking +when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a solid which +suppresses perspiration. Lemoine endured a bath of Bareges water of +37° for half an hour; but at 45° he could not remain in it +more than seven minutes, and the perspiration began to flow at the +end of six minutes. According to Brewster, persons who experience +no malaise near a fire which communicates a temperature of 100° +C. to them, can hardly bear contact with alcohol and oil at 55° +and mercury at 48°.</p> + +<p>The facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to +bear one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who +wished to be initiated into the Egyptian mysteries. In a vast +vaulted chamber nearly a hundred feet long, there were erected two +fences formed of posts, around which were wound branches of Arabian +balm, Egyptian thorn, and tamarind--all very flexible and +inflammable woods. When this was set on fire the flames arose as +far as the vault, licked it, and gave the chamber the appearance of +a hot furnace, the smoke escaping through pipes made for the +purpose. Then the door was suddenly opened before the neophyte, and +he was ordered to traverse this burning place, whose floor was +composed of an incandescent grating.</p> + +<p>The Abbé Terrason recounts all these details in his +historic romance "Sethos," printed at the end of last century. +Unfortunately literary frauds were in fashion then, and the book, +published as a translation of an old Greek manuscript, gives no +indication of sources. I have sought in special works for the data +which the abbé must have had as a basis, but I have not been +able to find them. I suppose, however, that this description, which +is so precise, is not merely a work of the imagination. The author +goes so far as to give the dimensions of the grating (30 feet by +8), and, greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero was enabled to +traverse it without being burned, is obliged to suppose it to have +been formed of very thick bars, between which Sethos had care to +place his feet. But this explanation is inadmissible. He who had +the courage to rush, head bowed, into the midst of the flames, +certainly would not have amused himself by choosing the place to +put his feet. Braving the fire that surrounded his entire body, he +must have had no other thought than that of reaching the end of his +dangerous voyage as soon as possible. We cannot see very well, +moreover, how this immense grate, lying on the ground, was raised +to a red heat and kept at such a temperature. It is infinitely more +simple to suppose that between the two fences there was a ditch +sufficiently deep in which a fire had also been lighted, and which +was covered by a grating as in the Aldini experiments. It is even +probable that this grating was of copper, which, illuminated by the +fireplace, must have presented a terrifying brilliancy, while in +reality it served only to prevent the flames from the fireplace +reaching him who dared to brave them.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BUILDING STONE SUPPLY.</h2> + +<p>The use of stone as a building material was not resorted to, +except to a trifling extent, in this country until long after the +need of such a solid substance was felt. The early settler +contented himself with the log cabin, the corduroy road, and the +wooden bridge, and loose stone enough for foundation purposes could +readily be gathered from the surface of the earth. Even after the +desirability of more handsome and durable building material for +public edifices in the colonial cities than wood became apparent, +the ample resources which nature had afforded in this country were +overlooked, and brick and stone were imported by the Dutch and +English settlers from the Old World. Thus we find the colonists of +the New Netherlands putting yellow brick on their list of +non-dutiable imports in 1648; and such buildings in Boston as are +described as being "fairly set forth with brick, tile, slate, and +stone," were thus provided only with foreign products. Isolated +instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last +century; but they are rare. The edifice known as "King's Chapel," +Boston, erected in 1752, is the first one on record as being built +from American stone; this was granite, brought from Braintree, +Mass.</p> + +<p>Granite is a rock particularly abundant in New England, though +also found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country. The +first granite quarries that were extensively developed were those +at Quincy, Mass., and work began at that point early in the present +century. The fame of the stone became widespread, and it was sent +to distant markets--even to New Orleans. The old Merchants' +Exchange in New York (afterward used as a custom house) the Astor +House in that city, and the Custom House in New Orleans, all nearly +or quite fifty years old, were constructed of Quincy granite, as +were many other fine buildings along the Atlantic coast. In later +years, not only isolated public edifices, but also whole blocks of +stores, have been constructed of this material. It was from the +Quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built; +this was a horse-railroad, three miles long, extending to Neponset +River, built in 1827.</p> + +<p>Other points in Massachusetts have been famed for their +excellent granite. After Maine was set off as a distinct State, Fox +Island acquired repute for its granite, and built up an extensive +traffic therein. Westerly, R.I., has also been engaged in quarrying +this valuable rock for many years, most of its choicer specimens +having been wrought for monumental purposes. Statues and other +elaborate monumental designs are now extensively made therefrom. +Smaller pieces and a coarser quality of the stone are here and +elsewhere along the coast obtained in large quantities for the +construction of massive breakwaters to protect harbors. Another +point famous for its granite is Staten Island, New York. This stone +weighs 180 pounds to the cubic foot, while the Quincy granite +weighs but 165. The Staten Island product is used not only for +building purposes, but is also especially esteemed for paving after +both the Russ and Belgian patents. New York and other cities derive +large supplies from this source. The granite of Weehawken, N.J., is +of the same character, and greatly in demand. Port Deposit, Md., +and Richmond, Va, are also centers of granite production. Near +Abbeville, S.C., and in Georgia, granite is found quite like that +of Quincy. Much southern granite, however, decomposes readily, and +is almost as soft as clay. This variety of stone is found in great +abundance in the Rocky Mountains; but, except to a slight extent in +California, it is not yet quarried there.</p> + +<p>Granite, having little grain, can be cut into blocks of almost +any size and shape. Specimens as much as eighty feet long have been +taken out and transported great distances. The quarrying is done by +drilling a series of small holes, six inches or more deep and +almost the same distance apart, inserting steel wedges along the +whole line and then tapping each gently with a hammer in +succession, in order that the strain may be evenly distributed.</p> + +<p>A building material that came into use earlier than granite is +known as freestone or sandstone; although its first employment does +not date back further than the erection of King's Chapel, Boston, +already referred to as the earliest well-known occasion where +granite was used in building. Altogether the most famous American +sandstone quarries are those at Portland, on the Connecticut River, +opposite Middletown. These were worked before the Revolution; and +their product has been shipped to many distant points in the +country. The long rows of "brownstone fronts" in New York city are +mostly of Portland stone, though in many cases the walls are +chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone. The old red +sandstone of the Connecticut valley is distinguished in geology for +the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds, first noticed +in the Portland quarries in 1802. Some of these footprints measured +ten to sixteen inches, and they were from four to six feet apart. +The sandstone of Belleville, N.J., has also extensive use and +reputation. Trinity Church in New York city and the Boston Atheneum +are built of the product of these quarries; St. Lawrence County, +New York, is noted also for a fine bed of sandstone. At Potsdam it +is exposed to a depth of seventy feet. There are places though, in +New England, New York, and Eastern Pennsylvania, where a depth of +three hundred feet has been reached. The Potsdam sandstone is often +split to the thinness of an inch. It hardens by exposure, and is +often used for smelting furnace hearth-stones. Shawangunk Mountain, +in Ulster County, yields a sandstone of inferior quality, which has +been unsuccessfully tried for paving; as it wears very unevenly. +From Ulster, Greene, and Albany Counties sandstone slabs for +sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use; the principal +outlets of these sections being Kingston, Saugerties, Coxsackie, +Bristol, and New Baltimore, on the Hudson. In this region +quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in +large sheets, which are often sawed into the sizes desired. The +vicinity of Medina, in Western New York, yields a sandstone +extensively used in that section for paving and curbing, and a +little for building. A rather poor quality of this stone has been +found along the Potomac, and some of it was used in the erection of +the old Capitol building at Washington. Ohio yields a sandstone +that is of a light gray color; Berea, Amherst, Vermilion, and +Massillon are the chief points of production. St. Genevieve, Mo., +yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color, which is quite +equal to the famous Caen stone of France. The Lake Superior +sandstones are dark and coarse grained, but strong.</p> + +<p>In some parts of the country, where neither granite nor +sandstone is easily procured, blue and gray limestone are sometimes +used for building, and, when hammer dressed, often look like +granite. A serious objection to their use, however, is the +occasional presence of iron, which rusts on exposure, and defaces +the building. In Western New York they are widely used. Topeka +stone, like the coquine of Florida and Bermuda, is soft like wood +when first quarried, and easily wrought, but it hardens on +exposure. The limestones of Canton, Mo., Joliet and Athens, Ill., +Dayton, Sandusky, Marblehead, and other points in Ohio, +Ellittsville, Ind., and Louisville and Bowling Green, Ky., are +great favorites west. In many of these regions limestone is +extensively used for macadamizing roads, for which it is +excellently adapted. It also yields excellent slabs or flags for +sidewalks.</p> + +<p>One of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its +conversion, by burning, into lime for building purposes. All +limestones are by no means equally excellent in this regard. +Thomaston lime, burned with Pennsylvania coal, near the Penobscot +River, has had a wide reputation for nearly half a century. It has +been shipped thence to all points along the Atlantic coast, +invading Virginia as far as Lynchburg, and going even to New +Orleans, Smithfield, R.I., and Westchester County, N.Y., near the +lower end of the Highlands, also make a particularly excellent +quality of lime. Kingston, in Ulster County, makes an inferior sort +for agricultural purposes. The Ohio and other western stones yield +a poor lime, and that section is almost entirely dependent on the +east for supplies.</p> + +<p>Marbles, like limestones, with which they are closely related, +are very abundant in this country, and are also to be found in a +great variety of colors. As early as 1804 American marble was used +for statuary purposes. Early in the century it also obtained +extensive employment for gravestones. Its use for building purposes +has been more recent than granite and sandstone in this country; +and it is coming to supersede the latter to a great degree. For +mantels, fire-places, porch pillars, and like ornamental purposes, +however, our variegated, rich colored and veined or brecciated +marbles were in use some time before exterior walls were made from +them. Among the earliest marble buildings were Girard College in +Philadelphia and the old City Hall in New York, and the Custom +House in the latter city, afterward used for a sub-treasury. The +new Capitol building at Washington is among the more recent +structures composed of this material. Our exports of marble to Cuba +and elsewhere amount to over $300,000 annually, although we import +nearly the same amount from Italy. And yet an article can be found +in the United States fully as fine as the famous Carrara marble. We +refer to that which comes from Rutland, Vt. This state yields the +largest variety and choicest specimens. The marble belt runs both +ways from Rutland County, where the only quality fit for statuary +is obtained. Toward the north it deteriorates by growing less +sound, though finer in grain; while to the south it becomes +coarser. A beautiful black marble is obtained at Shoreham, Vt. +There are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same state; and +in the extreme northern part, near Lake Champlain, they become more +variegated and rich in hue. Such other marble as is found in New +England is of an inferior quality. The pillars of Girard College +came from Berkshire, Mass., which ranks next after Vermont in +reputation.</p> + +<p>The marble belt extends from New England through New York, +Pennsylvania, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia, +Tennessee, and the Carolinas, to Georgia and Alabama. Some of the +variegated and high colored varieties obtained near Knoxville, +Tenn., nearly equal that of Vermont. The Rocky Mountains contain a +vast abundance and variety.</p> + +<p>Slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in +colonial days. It was then used for gravestones, and to some extent +for roofing and school purposes. But most of our supplies came from +Wales. It is stated that a slate quarry was operated in Northampton +County, Pa., as early as 1805. In 1826 James M. Porter and Samuel +Taylor engaged in the business, obtaining their supplies from the +Kittanninny Mountains. From this time the business developed +rapidly, the village of Slateford being an outgrowth of it, and +large rafts being employed to float the product down the Schuylkill +to Philadelphia. By 1860 the industry had reached the capacity of +20,000 cases of slate, valued at $10 a case, annually. In 1839 +quarries were opened in the Piscataquis River, forty miles north of +Bangor, Me., but poor transportation facilities retarded the +business. Vermont began to yield in 1852. New York's quarries are +confined to Washington County, near the Vermont line. Maryland has +a limited supply from Harford County. The Huron Mountains, north of +Marquette, Mich., contain slate, which is also said to exist in +Pike County, Ga.</p> + +<p>Grindstones, millstones, and whetstones are quarried in New +York, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and other States. Mica is found +at Acworth and Grafton, N. H., and near Salt Lake, but our chief +supply comes from Haywood, Yancey, Mitchell, and Macon counties, in +North Carolina, and our product is so large that we can afford to +export it. Other stones, such as silex, for making glass, etc., are +found in profusion in various parts of the country, but we have no +space to enter into a detailed account of them at +present.--<i>Pottery and Glassware Reporter</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>AN INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.</h2> + +<p>The most interesting change of which the Census gives account is +the increase in the number of farms. The number has virtually +doubled within twenty years. The population of the country has not +increased in like proportion. A large part of the increase in +number of farms has been due to the division of great estates. Nor +has this occurred, as some may imagine, exclusively in the Southern +States and the States to which immigration and migration have +recently been directed. It is an important fact that the +multiplication of farms has continued even in the older Northern +States, though the change has not been as great in these as in +States of the far West or the South. In New York there has been an +increase of 25,000, or 11.5 per cent, in the number of farms since +1870; in New Jersey the increase has been 12.2 per cent., and in +Pennsylvania 22.7 per cent., though the increase in population, and +doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming, has been +much smaller. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois also, have been +considered fully settled States for years, at least in an +agricultural point of view, and yet the number of farms has +increased 26.1 per cent, in ten years in Ohio, 20.3 percent, in +Indiana, and 26.1 per cent, in Illinois. The obvious explanation is +that the growth of many cities and towns has created a market for a +far greater supply of those products which may be most +advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size; but even if this +fully accounts for the phenomenon, the change must be recognized as +one of the highest importance industrially, socially, and +politically. The man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands +on a very different footing from the laborer who works for wages. +It is not a small matter that, in these six States alone, there are +205,000 more owners or managers of farms than there were only a +decade ago.</p> + +<p>As we go further toward the border, west or north, the influence +of the settlement of new land is more distinctly felt. Even in +Michigan, where new railroads have opened new regions to +settlement, the increase in number of farms has been over 55 per +cent. In Wisconsin, though the increase in railroad mileage has +been about the same as in Michigan, the reported increase in number +of farms has been only 28 per cent., but in Iowa it rises to 60 per +cent., and in Minnesota to nearly 100 per cent. In Kansas the +number of farms is 138,561, against 38,202 in 1870; in Nebraska +63,387, against 12,301; and in Dakota 17,435, against 1,720. In +these regions the process is one of creation of new States rather +than a change in the social and industrial condition of the +population.</p> + +<p>Some Southern States have gained largely, but the increase in +these, though very great, is less surprising than the new States of +the Northwest. The prevailing tendency of Southern agriculture to +large farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in +States where land is still abundant. The greatest increase is in +Texas, where 174,184 farms are reported, against 61,125 in 1870; in +Florida, with 23,438 farms, against 10,241 in 1870; and in +Arkansas, with 94,433 farms, against 49,424 in 1870. In Missouri +215,575 farms are reported, against 148,228 in 1870. In these +States, though social changes have been great, the increase in +number of farms has been largely due to new settlements, as in the +States of the far Northwest. But the change in the older Southern +States is of a different character.</p> + +<p>Virginia, for example, has long been settled, and had 77,000 +farms thirty years ago. But the increase in number within the past +ten years has been 44,668, or 60.5 per cent. Contrasting this with +the increase in New York, a remarkable difference appears. West +Virginia had few more farms ten years ago than New Jersey; now it +has nearly twice as many, and has gained in number nearly 60 per +cent. North Carolina, too, has increased 78 per cent. in number of +farms since 1870, and South Carolina 80 per cent. In Georgia the +increase has been still greater--from 69,956 to 138,626, or nearly +100 per cent. In Alabama there are 135,864 farms, against 67,382 in +1870, an increase of over 100 per cent. These proportions, +contrasted with those for the older Northern States, reveal a +change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution. But the +force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in +the States named. Whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms +becomes greater in Northern States as we go from the East toward +the Mississippi River, at the South it is much smaller in Kentucky, +Tennessee, Mississippi, and Louisiana than in the older States on +the Atlantic coast. Thus in Louisiana the increase has been from +28,481 to 48,292 farms, or 70 per cent., and in Mississippi from +68,023 to 101,772 farms, or less than 50 per cent., against 100 in +Alabama and Georgia. In Kentucky the increase has been from 118,422 +to 166,453 farms, or 40 per cent., and in Tennessee from 118,141 to +165,650 farms, or 40 per cent., against 60 in Virginia and West +Virginia, and 78 in North Carolina. Thus, while the tendency to +division is far greater than in the Northern States of +corresponding age, it is found in full force only in six of the +older Southern States, Alabama, West Virginia, and four on the +Atlantic coast. In these, the revolution already effected +foreshadows and will almost certainly bring about important +political changes within a few years. In these six States there +310,795 more farm owners or occupants than there were ten years +ago.--<i>N.Y. Tribune</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>A FARMER'S LIME KILN.</h2> + +<p>For information about burning lime we republish the following +article furnished by a correspondent of the <i>Country +Gentleman</i> several years ago:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/12a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.<br> +Fig. 2. Fig. 3.<br> +A (Fig. 1), Railway Track--B B B, Iron Rods running<br> +through Kiln--C, Capstone over Arch--D, Arch--E,<br> +Well without brick or ash lining.</p> + +<p>I send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my +premises about five years ago. The dimensions of this kiln are 13 +feet square by 25 feet high from foundation, and its capacity 100 +bushels in 24 hours. It was constructed of the limestone quarried +on the spot. It has round iron rods (shown in sketch) passing +through, with iron plates fastened to the ends as clamps to make it +more firm; the pair nearest the top should be not less than 2 feet +from that point, the others interspersed about 2 feet apart--the +greatest strain being near the top. The arch should be 7 feet high +by 5½ wide in front, with a gather on the top and sides of +about 1 foot, with plank floor; and if this has a little incline it +will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn. The arch should have +a strong capstone; also one immediately under the well of the kiln, +with a hole 2 feet in diameter to draw the lime through; or two may +be used with semicircle cut in each. Iron bars 2 inches wide by 1/8 +inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it, working in slots +fastened to capstone. These slots must be put in before the caps +are laid. When it is desired to draw lime, these bars may be pushed +laterally in the slots, or drawn out entirely, according to +circumstances; 3 bars will be enough. The slots are made of iron +bars 1½ inches wide, with ends rounded and turned up, and +inserted in holes drilled through capstone and keyed above.</p> + +<p>The well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick, +with a stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between +the brick and wall, which proves a great protection to the wall. +About 2,000 fire-bricks were used. The proprietors of this kiln say +about one-half the lower part of the well might have been lined +with a first quality of common brick and saved some expense and +been just as good. The form of the well shown in Fig. 3 is 7 feet +in diameter in the bilge, exclusive of the lining of brick and +ashes. Experiments in this vicinity have proved this to be the +best, this contraction toward the top being absolutely necessary, +the expansion of the stone by the heat is so great that the lime +cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls, as was demonstrated in +one instance near here, where a kiln was built on that principle. +The kiln, of course, is for coal, and our stone requires about +three-quarters of a ton per 100 bushels of lime, but this, I am +told, varies according to quality, some requiring more than others; +the quantity can best be determined by experimenting; also the +regulation of the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to +melt or run together as it were, or, if too little, they will not +be properly burned. The business requires skill and judgment to run +it successfully.</p> + +<p>This kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff, the top about +level with the top of the kiln, with railway track built of wooden +sleepers, with light iron bars, running from the bluff to the top +of the kiln, and a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the +kiln. Such a location should be had if possible. Your inquirer may +perhaps get some ideas of the principles of a kiln for using +<i>coal</i>. The dimensions may be reduced, if desired. If for +<i>wood</i>, the arch would have to be formed for that, and the +height of kiln reduced.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE OF APPLE JELLY.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From the report of the New York Agricultural +Society.]</p> + +<p>Within the county of Oswego, New York, Dewitt C. Peck reports +there are five apple jelly factories in operation. The failure of +the apple crop, for some singular and unexplained reason, does not +extend in great degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit. Though +not so many as common, even of these apples, there are yet enough +to keep these five mills and the numerous cider mills pretty well +employed. The largest jelly factory is located near the village of +Mexico, and as there are some features in regard to this +manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be new and +interesting, we will undertake a brief description. The factory is +located on the Salmon Creek, which affords the necessary power. A +portion of the main floor, first story, is occupied as a saw mill, +the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the +evaporating department. Just above the mill, along the bank of the +pond, and with one end projecting over the water, are arranged +eight large bins, holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels +each, into which the apples are delivered from the teams. The floor +in each of these has a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water +and at the lower end is a grate through which the fruit is +discharged, when wanted, into a trough half submerged in the +pond.</p> + +<p>The preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice +proceeds as follows: Upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this +trough, considerable current is caused, and the water carries the +fruit a distance of from thirty to one hundred feet, and passes +into the basement of the mill, where, tumbling down a four-foot +perpendicular fall, into a tank, tight in its lower half and +slatted so as to permit the escape of water and impurities in the +upper half, the apples are thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or +extraneous matter. Such is the friction caused by the concussion of +the fall, the rolling and rubbing of the apples together, and the +pouring of the water, that decayed sections of the fruit are ground +off and the rotten pulp passes away with other impurities. From +this tank the apples are hoisted upon an endless chain elevator, +with buckets in the form of a rake-head with iron teeth, permitting +drainage and escape of water, to an upper story of the mill, whence +by gravity they descend to the grater. The press is wholly of iron, +all its motions, even to the turning of the screws, being actuated +by the water power. The cheese is built up with layers inclosed in +strong cotton cloth, which displaces the straw used in olden time, +and serves also to strain the cider. As it is expressed from the +press tank, the cider passes to a storage tank, and thence to the +defecator.</p> + +<p>This defecator is a copper pan, eleven feet long and about three +feet wide. At each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three +inches in diameter and closed at both ends. Lying between and +connecting these two, are twelve tubes, also of copper, 1½ +inches in diameter, penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances +from their upper and under surfaces, the smaller being parallel +with each other, and 1½ inches apart. When placed in +position, the larger tubes, which act as manifolds, supplying the +smaller with steam, rest upon the bottom of the pan, and thus the +smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch underneath +their outer surfaces.</p> + +<p>The cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream +about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Steam is introduced to +the large or manifold tubes, and from them distributed through the +smaller ones at a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per +inch. Trap valves are provided for the escape of water formed by +condensation within the pipes. The primary object of the defecator +is to remove all impurities and perfectly clarify the liquid +passing through it. All portions of pomace and other minute +particles of foreign matter, when heated, expand and float in the +form of scum upon the surface of the cider. An ingeniously +contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it over +the side of the pan. To facilitate this removal, one side of the +pan, commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider, is +curved gently outward and upward, terminating in a slightly +inclined plane, over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the +rake into a trough and carried away. A secondary purpose served by +the defecator is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a +partial sirup of the specific gravity of about 20° Baume. When +of this consistency the liquid is drawn from the bottom and less +agitated portion of the defecator by a siphon, and thence carried +to the evaporator, which is located upon the same framework and +just below the defecator.</p> + +<p>The evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper +tubes, each twelve feet long and three inches in diameter. These +are each jacketed or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches +internal diameter, fitted with steam-tight collars so as to leave +half an inch steam space surrounding the copper tubes. The latter +are open at both ends permitting the admission and egress of the +sirup and the escape of the steam caused by evaporation therefrom, +and are arranged upon the frame so as to have a very slight +inclination downward in the direction of the current, and each +nearly underneath its predecessor in regular succession. Each is +connected by an iron supply pipe, having a steam gauge or indicator +attached, with a large manifold, and that by other pipes with a +steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity. Steam being let on at +from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure, the stream of sirup is +received from the defecator through a strainer, which removes any +impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube; +passing in a gentle flow through that, it is delivered into a +funnel connected with the next tube below, and so, back and forth, +through the whole system. The sirup enters the evaporator at a +consistency of from 20° to 23° Baume, and emerges from the +last tube some three minutes later at a consistency of from 30° +to 32° Baume, which is found on cooling to be the proper point +for perfect jelly. This point is found to vary one or two degrees, +according to the fermentation consequent upon bruises in handling +the fruit, decay of the same, or any little delay in expressing the +juice from the cheese. The least fermentation occasions the +necessity for a lower reduction. To guard against this, no cheese +is allowed to stand over night, no pomace left in the grater or +vat, no cider in the tank; and further to provide against +fermentation, a large water tank is located upon the roof and +filled by a force pump, and by means of hose connected with this, +each grater, press, vat, tank, pipe, trough, or other article of +machinery used, can be thoroughly washed and cleansed. Hot water, +instead of cider, is sometimes sent through the defecator, +evaporator, etc., until all are thoroughly scalded and purified. If +the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction, the +matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the +evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe. If boiled cider +instead of jelly is wanted for making pies, sauces, etc., it is +drawn off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the +consistency desired; or can be produced at the end of the process +by simply reducing the steam pressure.</p> + +<p>As the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a +tub holding some fifty gallons, and by mixing a little therein, any +little variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of +the fruit used are equalized. From this it is drawn through +faucets, while hot, into the various packages in which it is +shipped to market. A favorite form of package for family use is a +nicely turned little wooden bucket with cover and bail, two sizes, +holding five and ten pounds respectively. The smaller packages are +shipped in cases for convenience in handling. The present product +of this manufactory is from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of jelly each day +of ten hours. It is calculated that improvements now in progress +will increase this to something more than a ton per day. Each +bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds of jelly, +fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than +earlier varieties. Crab apples produce the finest jelly; sour, +crabbed, natural fruit makes the best looking article, and a +mixture of all varieties gives most satisfactory results as to +flavor and general quality.</p> + +<p>As the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese, it is again +ground under a toothed cylinder, and thence drops into large +troughs, through a succession of which a considerable stream of +water is flowing. Here it is occasionally agitated by raking from +the lower to the upper end of the trough as the current carries it +downward, and the apple seeds becoming disengaged drop to the +bottom into still water, while the pulp floats away upon the +stream. A succession of troughs serves to remove nearly all the +seeds. The value of the apple seeds thus saved is sufficient to pay +the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole +establishment. The apples are measured in the wagon box, one and a +half cubic feet being accounted a bushel.</p> + +<p>This mill ordinarily employs about six men: One general +superintendent, who buys and measures the apples, keeps time books, +attends to all the accounts and the working details of the mill, +and acts as cashier; one sawyer, who manufactures lumber for the +local market and saws the slabs into short lengths suitable for the +furnace; one cider maker, who grinds the apples and attends the +presses; one jelly maker, who attends the defecator, evaporator, +and mixing tub, besides acting as his own fireman and engineer; one +who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general helper, and +one man-of-all-work to pack, ship and assist whenever needed. The +establishment was erected late in the season of 1880, and +manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly, besides +considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples, and some +boiled cider.</p> + +<p>The price paid for apples in 1880, when the crop was +superabundant, was six to eight cents per bushel; in 1881, fifteen +cents. The proprietor hopes next year to consume 100,000 bushels. +These institutions are important to the farmer in that they use +much fruit not otherwise valuable and very perishable. Fruit so +crabbed and gnarled as to have no market value, and even frozen +apples, if delivered while yet solid, can be used. (Such apples are +placed in the water while frozen, the water draws the frost +sufficiently to be grated, and passing through the press and +evaporator before there is time for chemical change, they are found +to make very good jelly. They are valuable to the consumer by +converting the perishable, cheap, almost worthless crop of the +bearing and abundant years into such enduring form that its +consumption may be carried over to years of scarcity and furnish +healthful food in cheap and pleasant form to many who would +otherwise be deprived; and lastly, they are of great interest to +society, in that they give to cider twice the value for purposes of +food that it has or can have, even to the manufacturer, for use as +a beverage and intoxicant.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED GRAPE BAGS.</h2> + +<p>It stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be +able to grow grapes successfully on open walls; it is therefore +probable that a new grape bag, the invention of M. Pelletier, 20 +Rue de la Banque, Paris, intended to serve a double purpose, viz., +protecting the fruit and hastening its maturity, will, when it +becomes known, be welcomed in this country. It consists of a square +of curved glass so fixed to the bag that the sun's rays are +concentrated upon the fruit, thereby rendering its ripening more +certain in addition to improving its quality generally. The glass +is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire support. It +covers that portion of it next the sun, so that it increases the +amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them, a +result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air +between it and the bag. M. Pelletier had the idea of rendering +these bags cheaper by employing plain squares instead of curved +ones, but the advantage thus obtained was more than counterbalanced +by their comparative inefficacy. In practice it was found that the +curved squares gave an average of 7° more than the straight +ones, while there was a difference of 10° when the bags alone +were used, thus plainly demonstrating the practical value of the +invention.</p> + +<p>Whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the +case of grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question +that can only be determined by actual experiment; but where the +vines are on walls, either under glass screens or in the open air, +so that the bunches feel the full force of the sun's rays, there +can be no doubt as to their utility, and it is probable that by +their aid many of the continental varieties which we do not now +attempt to grow in the open, and which are scarcely worthy of a +place under glass, might be well ripened. At any rate we ought to +give anything a fair trial which may serve to neutralize, if only +in a slight degree, the uncertainty of our summers. As it is, we +have only about two varieties of grapes, and these not the best of +the hardy kinds, as regards flavor and appearance, that ripen out +of doors, and even these do not always succeed. We know next to +nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much +appreciated in many parts of the Continent. The fact is, our +outdoor culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that +practiced under glass, and although our comparatively sunless and +moist climate affords some excuse for our shortcomings in this +respect, there is no valid reason for the utter want of good +culture which is to be observed in a general way.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13a.png" alt= +"GRAPE BAG.--OPEN."></p> + +<p class="ctr">GRAPE BAG.--OPEN.</p> + +<p>Given intelligent training, constant care in stopping the +laterals, and checking mildew as well as thinning the berries, +allowing each bunch to get the full benefit of sun and air, and I +believe good eatable grapes would often be obtained even in summers +marked by a low average temperature.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13b.png" alt= +"GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED."></p> + +<p class="ctr">GRAPE BAG.--CLOSED.</p> + +<p>If, moreover, to a good system of culture we add some such +mechanical contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches +enjoy an average warmth some 10° higher than they otherwise +would do, we not only insure the grapes coming to perfection in +favored districts, but outdoor culture might probably be practiced +in higher latitudes than is now practicable.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13c.png" alt= +"CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG."></p> + +<p class="ctr">CURVED GLASS FOR FRONT OF BAG.</p> + +<p>The improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for +destroying mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks, as a +light dusting administered as soon as the berries were fairly +formed would suffice for the season, as owing to the glass +protecting the berries from driving rains, which often accompany +south or south-west winds in summer and autumn, the sulphur would +not be washed off.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13d.png" alt= +"CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG."></p> + +<p class="ctr">CURVED GLASS FIXED ON BAG.</p> + +<p>The inventor claims, and we should say with just reason, that +these glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the +ripening of pears and other choice fruits, and with a view to their +being employed for such a purpose, he has had them made of varying +sizes and shapes. In conclusion, it may be observed that, in +addition to advancing the maturity of the fruits to which they are +applied, they also serve to preserve them from falling to the +ground when ripe.--J. COBNHILL, <i>in the Garden</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>UTILIZATION OF SOLAR HEAT.</h2> + +<p>At a popular fête in the Tuileries Gardens I was struck +with an experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention +of the English public and military authorities.</p> + +<p>Among the attractions of the fête was an apparatus for the +concentration and utilization of solar heat, and, though the sun +was not very brilliant, I saw this apparatus set in motion a +printing machine which printed several thousand copies of a +specimen newspaper entitled the <i>Soleil Journal</i>.</p> + +<p>The sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector, which moves at +the same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler, setting the +motive steam-engine at work. As may be supposed, the only object +was to demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated +heat of the solar rays; but I closely examined it, because the +apparatus seems capable of great utility in existing circumstances. +Here in France, indeed, there is a radical drawback--the sun is +often overclouded.</p> + +<p>Thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must +have suggested itself, and there are still savage tribes who know +no other mode of combustion; but the scientific application has +hitherto been lacking. This void this apparatus will fill up. About +fifteen years ago Professor Mouchon, of Tours, began constructing +such an apparatus, and his experiments have been continued by M. +Pifre, who has devoted much labor and expense to realizing M. +Mouchou's idea. A company has now come to his aid, and has +constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes at a factory +which might speedily turn out a large number of them. It is evident +that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be +heated in thirty or forty minutes. A portable apparatus could boil +two and one-half quarts an hour, or, say, four gallons a day, thus +supplying by distillation or ebullition six or eight men. The +apparatus can be easily carried on a man's back, and on condition +of water, even of the worst quality, being obtainable, good +drinking and cooking water is insured. M. De Rougaumond, a young +scientific writer, has just published an interesting volume on the +invention. I was able yesterday to verify his statements, for I saw +cider made, a pump set in motion, and coffee made--in short, the +calorific action of the sun superseding that of fuel. The +apparatus, no doubt, has not yet reached perfection, but as it is +it would enable the soldier in India or Egypt to procure in the +field good water and to cook his food rapidly. The invention is of +especial importance to England just now, but even when the Egyptian +question is settled the Indian troops might find it of inestimable +value.</p> + +<p>Red tape should for once be disregarded, and a competent +commission forthwith sent to 30 Rue d'Assas, with instructions to +report immediately, for every minute saved may avoid suffering for +Englishmen fighting abroad for their country. I may, of course, be +mistaken, but a commission would decide, and if the apparatus is +good the slightest delay in its adoption would be +deplorable.--<i>Paris Correspondence London Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: A paper read before the Engineers' Club of +Philadelphia.]</p> + +<h3>By PROFESSOR L. M. HAUPT.</h3> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY.</h3> + +<p>The discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind, and +has been of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through +trackless waters, and the explorer over desert wastes. In these, +its legitimate uses, the needle has not a rival, but all efforts to +apply it to the accurate determination of permanent boundary lines +have proven very unsatisfactory, and have given rise to much +litigation, acerbity, and even death.</p> + +<p>For these and other cogent reasons, strenuous efforts are being +made to dispense, so far as practicable, with the use of the +magnetic needle in surveying, and to substitute therefor the more +accurate method of traversing from a true meridian. This method, +however, involves a greater degree of preparation and higher +qualifications than are generally possessed, and unless the matter +can be so simplified as to be readily understood, it is +unreasonable to expect its general application in practice.</p> + +<p>Much has been written upon the various methods of determining, +the true meridian, but it is so intimately related to the +determination of latitude and time, and these latter in turn upon +the fixing of a true meridian, that the novice can find neither +beginning nor end. When to these difficulties are added the +corrections for parallax, refraction, instrumental errors, personal +equation, and the determination of the probable error, he is +hopelessly confused, and when he learns that time may be sidereal, +mean solar, local, Greenwich, or Washington, and he is referred to +an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data, he becomes lost in +"confusion worse confounded," and gives up in despair, settling +down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying +is the best after all, even if not the most accurate.</p> + +<p>Having received numerous requests for information upon the +subject, I have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a +description of the method of determining the true meridian which +should be sufficiently clear and practical to be generally +understood by those desiring to make use of such information.</p> + +<p>This will involve an elementary treatment of the subject, +beginning with the</p> + +<h3>DEFINITIONS.</h3> + +<p>The <i>celestial sphere</i> is that imaginary surface upon which +all celestial objects are projected. Its radius is infinite.</p> + +<p>The <i>earth's axis</i> is the imaginary line about which it +revolves.</p> + +<p>The <i>poles</i> are the points in which the axis pierces the +surface of the earth, or of the celestial sphere.</p> + +<p>A <i>meridian</i> is a great circle of the earth cut out by a +plane passing through the axis. All meridians are therefore north +and south lines passing through the poles.</p> + +<p>From these definitions it follows that if there were a star +exactly at the pole it would only be necessary to set up an +instrument and take a bearing to it for the meridian. Such not +being the case, however, we are obliged to take some one of the +near circumpolar stars as our object, and correct the observation +according to its angular distance from the meridian at the time of +observation.</p> + +<p>For convenience, the bright star known as Ursæ Minoris or +Polaris, is generally selected. This star apparently revolves about +the north pole, in an orbit whose mean radius is 1° 19' 13",[1] +making the revolution in 23 hours 56 minutes.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: This is the codeclination as given in the Nautical +Almanac. The mean value decreases by about 20 seconds each +year.]</p> + +<p>During this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice, +once above the pole and once below; the former is called the +<i>upper</i>, and the latter the <i>lower meridian transit or +culmination</i>. It must also pass through the points farthest east +and west from the meridian. The former is called the <i>eastern +elongation</i>, the latter the <i>western</i>.</p> + +<p>An observation may he made upon Polaris at any of these four +points, or at any other point of its orbit, but this latter case +becomes too complicated for ordinary practice, and is therefore not +considered.</p> + +<p>If the observation were made upon the star at the time of its +upper or lower culmination, it would give the true meridian at +once, but this involves a knowledge of the true local time of +transit, or the longitude of the place of observation, which is +generally an unknown quantity; and moreover, as the star is then +moving east or west, or at right angles to the place of the +meridian, at the rate of 15° of arc in about one hour, an error +of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would +introduce an error of one minute of arc. If the observation be +made, however, upon either elongation, when the star is moving up +or down, that is, in the direction of the vertical wire of the +instrument, the error of observation in the angle between it and +the pole will be inappreciable. This is, therefore, the best +position upon which to make the observation, as the precise time of +the elongation need not be given. It can be determined with +sufficient accuracy by a glance at the relative positions of the +star Alioth, in the handle of the Dipper, and Polaris (see Fig. 1). +When the line joining these two stars is horizontal or nearly so, +and Alioth is to the <i>west</i> of Polaris, the latter is at its +<i>eastern</i> elongation, and <i>vice versa</i>, thus:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/14a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>But since the star at either elongation is off the meridian, it +will be necessary to determine the angle at the place of +observation to be turned off on the instrument to bring it into the +meridian. This angle, called the azimuth of the pole star, varies +with the latitude of the observer, as will appear from Fig 2, and +hence its value must be computed for different latitudes, and the +surveyor must know his <i>latitude</i> before he can apply it. Let +N be the north pole of the celestial sphere; S, the position of +Polaris at its eastern elongation; then N S=1° 19' 13", a +constant quantity. The azimuth of Polaris at the latitude 40° +north is represented by the angle N O S, and that at 60° north, +by the angle N O' S, which is greater, being an exterior angle of +the triangle, O S O. From this we see that the azimuth varies at +the latitude.</p> + +<p>We have first, then, to <i>find the latitude of the place of +observation</i>.</p> + +<p>Of the several methods for doing this, we shall select the +simplest, preceding it by a few definitions.</p> + +<p>A <i>normal</i> line is the one joining the point directly +overhead, called the <i>zenith</i>, with the one under foot called +the <i>nadir</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>celestial horizon</i> is the intersection of the +celestial sphere by a plane passing through the center of the earth +and perpendicular to the normal.</p> + +<p>A <i>vertical circle</i> is one whose plane is perpendicular to +the horizon, hence all such circles must pass through the normal +and have the zenith and nadir points for their poles. The +<i>altitude</i> of a celestial object is its distance above the +horizon measured on the arc of a vertical circle. As the distance +from the horizon to the zenith is 90°, the difference, or +<i>complement</i> of the altitude, is called the <i>zenith +distance</i>, or <i>co-altitude</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>azimuth</i> of an object is the angle between the +vertical plane through the object and the plane of the meridian, +measured on the horizon, and usually read from the south point, as +0°, through west, at 90, north 180°, etc., closing on south +at 0° or 360°.</p> + +<p>These two co-ordinates, the altitude and azimuth, will determine +the position of any object with reference to the observer's place. +The latter's position is usually given by his latitude and +longitude referred to the equator and some standard meridian as +co-ordinates.</p> + +<p>The <i>latitude</i> being the angular distance north or south of +the equator, and the <i>longitude</i> east or west of the assumed +meridian.</p> + +<p>We are now prepared to prove that <i>the altitude of the pole is +equal to the latitude of the place of observation</i>.</p> + +<p>Let H P Z Q¹, etc., Fig. 2, represent a meridian section of +the sphere, in which P is the north pole and Z the place of +observation, then H H¹ will be the horizon, Q Q¹ the +equator, H P will be the altitude of P, and Q¹ Z the latitude +of Z. These two arcs are equal, for H C Z = P C Q¹ = 90°, +and if from these equal quadrants the common angle P C Z be +subtracted, the remainders H C P and Z C Q¹, will be +equal.</p> + +<p>To <i>determine the altitude of the pole</i>, or, in other +words, <i>the latitude of the place</i>.</p> + +<p>Observe the altitude of the pole star <i>when on the +meridian</i>, either above or below the pole, and from this +observed altitude corrected for refraction, subtract the distance +of the star from the pole, or its <i>polar distance</i>, if it was +an upper transit, or add it if a lower. The result will be the +required latitude with sufficient accuracy for ordinary +purposes.</p> + +<p>The time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined +with sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens. The +refraction is <i>always negative</i>, and may be taken from the +table appended by looking up the amount set opposite the observed +altitude. Thus, if the observer's altitude should be 40° 39' +the nearest refraction 01' 07", should be subtracted from 40° +37' 00", leaving 40° 37' 53" for the latitude.</p> + +<h3>TO FIND THE AZIMUTH OF POLARIS.</h3> + +<p>As we have shown the azimuth of Polaris to be a function of the +latitude, and as the latitude is now known, we may proceed to find +the required azimuth. For this purpose we have a right-angled +spherical triangle, Z S P, Fig. 4, in which Z is the place of +observation, P the north pole, and S is Polaris. In this triangle +we have given the polar distance, P S = 10° 19' 13"; the angle +at S = 90°; and the distance Z P, being the complement of the +latitude as found above, or 90°--L. Substituting these in the +formula for the azimuth, we will have sin. Z = sin. P S / sin P Z +or sin. of Polar distance / sin. of co-latitude, from which, by +assuming different values for the co-latitude, we compute the +following table:</p> + +<pre> + AZIMUTH TABLE FOR POINTS BETWEEN 26° and 50° N. LAT. +<br> + LATTITUDES + ___________________________________________________________________ +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 26° | 28° | 30° | 32° | 34° | 36° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 28 05 | 1 29 40 | 1 31 25 | 1 33 22 | 1 35 30 | 1 37 52 | +| 1883 | 1 27 45 | 1 29 20 | 1 31 04 | 1 33 00 | 1 35 08 | 1 37 30 | +| 1884 | 1 27 23 | 1 28 57 | 1 30 41 | 1 32 37 | 1 34 45 | 1 37 05 | +| 1885 | 1 27 01 | 1 28 35½ | 1 30 19 | 1 32 14 | 1 34 22 | 1 36 41 | +| 1886 | 1 26 39 | 1 28 13 | 1 29 56 | 1 31 51 | 1 33 57 | 1 36 17 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| Year | 38° | 40° | 42° | 44° | 46° | 48° | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | | | | | | +| | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 1 40 29 | 1 43 21 | 1 46 33 | 1 50 05 | 1 53 59 | 1 58 20 | +| 1883 | 1 40 07 | 1 42 58 | 1 46 08 | 1 49 39 | 1 53 34 | 1 57 53 | +| 1884 | 1 39 40 | 1 42 31 | 1 45 41 | 1 49 11 | 1 53 05 | 1 57 23 | +| 1885 | 1 39 16 | 1 42 07 | 1 45 16 | 1 48 45 | 1 52 37 | 1 56 54 | +| 1886 | 1 38 51 | 1 41 41 | 1 44 49 | 1 48 17 | 1 52 09 | 1 56 24 | +|______|_________|__________|_________|_________|_________|_________| +| | | +| Year | 50° | +|______|_________| +| | | +| | ° ' " | +| 1882 | 2 03 11 | +| 1883 | 2 02 42 | +| 1884 | 2 02 11 | +| 1885 | 2 01 42 | +| 1886 | 2 01 11 | +|______|_________| +</pre> + +<p>An analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year +(1882) increases with the latitude from 1° 28' 05" at 26° +north, to 2° 3' 11" at 50° north, or 35' 06". It also shows +that the azimuth of Polaris at any one point of observation +decreases slightly from year to year. This is due to the increase +in declination, or decrease in the star's polar distance. At +26° north latitude, this annual decrease in the azimuth is +about 22", while at 50° north, it is about 30". As the +variation in azimuth for each degree of latitude is small, the +table is only computed for the even numbered degrees; the +intermediate values being readily obtained by interpolation. We see +also that an error of a few minutes of latitude will not affect the +result in finding the meridian, e.g., the azimuth at 40° north +latitude is 1° 43' 21", that at 41° would be 1° 44' +56", the difference (01' 35") being the correction for one degree +of latitude between 40° and 41°. Or, in other words, an +error of one degree in finding one's latitude would only introduce +an error in the azimuth of one and a half minutes. With ordinary +care the probable error of the latitude as determined from the +method already described need not exceed a few minutes, making the +error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an ordinary transit +graduated to single minutes, practically zero.</p> + +<p>REFRACTION TABLE FOR ANY ALTITUDE WITHIN THE LATITUDE OF THE +UNITED STATES.</p> + +<pre> + _____________________________________________________ +| | | | | +| Apparent | Refraction | Apparent | Refraction | +| Altitude. | _minus_. | Altitude. | _minus_. | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +| | | | | +| 25° | 0° 2' 4.2" | 38° | 0° 1' 14.4" | +| 26 | 1 58.8 | 39 | 1 11.8 | +| 27 | 1 53.8 | 40 | 1 9.3 | +| 28 | 1 49.1 | 41 | 1 6.9 | +| 29 | 1 44.7 | 42 | 1 4.6 | +| 30 | 1 40.5 | 43 | 1 2.4 | +| 31 | 1 36.6 | 44 | 0 0.3 | +| 32 | 1 33.0 | 45 | 0 58.1 | +| 33 | 1 29.5 | 46 | 0 56.1 | +| 34 | 1 26.1 | 47 | 0 54.2 | +| 35 | 1 23.0 | 48 | 0 52.3 | +| 36 | 1 20.0 | 49 | 0 50.5 | +| 37 | 1 17.1 | 50 | 0 48.8 | +|___________|______________|___________|______________| +</pre> + +<h3>APPLICATIONS.</h3> + +<p>In practice to find the true meridian, two observations must be +made at intervals of six hours, or they may be made upon different +nights. The first is for latitude, the second for azimuth at +elongation.</p> + +<p>To make either, the surveyor should provide himself with a good +transit with vertical arc, a bull's eye, or hand lantern, plumb +bobs, stakes, etc.[1] Having "set up" over the point through which +it is proposed to establish the meridian, at a time when the line +joining Polaris and Alioth is nearly vertical, level the telescope +by means of the attached level, which should be in adjustment, set +the vernier of the vertical arc at zero, and take the reading. If +the pole star is about making its <i>upper</i> transit, it will +rise gradually until reaching the meridian as it moves westward, +and then as gradually descend. When near the highest part of its +orbit point the telescope at the star, having an assistant to hold +the "bull's eye" so as to reflect enough light down the tube from +the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the +star, or better, use a perforated silvered reflector, clamp the +tube in this position, and as the star continues to rise keep the +<i>horizontal</i> wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until +it "rides" along this wire and finally begins to fall below it. +Take the reading of the vertical arc and the result will be the +observed altitude.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: A sextant and artificial horizon may be used to +find the <i>altitude</i> of a star. In this case the observed angle +must be divided by 2.]</p> + +<h3>ANOTHER METHOD.</h3> + +<p>It is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the +complement of the observed zenith distance, if the vertical arc has +sufficient range. This is done by pointing first to Polaris when at +its highest (or lowest) point, reading the vertical arc, turning +the horizontal limb half way around, and the telescope over to get +another reading on the star, when the difference of the two +readings will be the <i>double</i> zenith distance, and <i>half</i> +of this subtracted from 90° will be the required altitude. The +less the time intervening between these two pointings, the more +accurate the result will be.</p> + +<p>Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction by +subtracting from it the amount opposite the observed altitude, as +given in the refraction table, and the result will be the latitude. +The observer must now wait about six hours until the star is at its +western elongation, or may postpone further operations for some +subsequent night. In the meantime he will take from the azimuth +table the amount given for his date and latitude, now determined, +and if his observation is to be made on the western elongation, he +may turn it off on his instrument, so that when moved to zero, +<i>after</i> the observation, the telescope will be brought into +the meridian or turned to the right, and a stake set by means of a +lantern or plummet lamp.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/14b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>It is, of course, unnecessary to make this correction at the +time of observation, for the angle between any terrestrial object +and the star may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the +star applied at the surveyor's convenience. It is always well to +check the accuracy of the work by an observation upon the other +elongation before putting in permanent meridian marks, and care +should be taken that they are not placed near any local +attractions. The meridian having been established, the magnetic +variation or declination may readily be found by setting an +instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the +needle. If, for example, it should be north 5° <i>east</i>, the +variation is west, because the north end of the needle is +<i>west</i> of the meridian, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Local time</i> may also be readily found by observing the +instant when the sun's center[1] crosses the line, and correcting +it for the equation of time as given above--the result is the true +or mean solar time. This, compared with the clock, will show the +error of the latter, and by taking the difference between the local +lime of this and any other place, the difference of longitude is +determined in hours, which can readily be reduced to degrees by +multiplying by fifteen, as 1 h. = 15°.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: To obtain this time by observation, note the +instant of first contact of the sun's limb, and also of last +contact of same, and take the mean.]</p> + +<p>APPROXIMATE EQUATION OF TIME.</p> + +<pre> + _______________________ + | | | + | Date. | Minutes. | + |__________|____________| + | | | + | Jan. 1 | 4 | + | 3 | 5 | + | 5 | 6 | + | 7 | 7 | + | 9 | 8 | + | 12 | 9 | + | 15 | 10 | + | 18 | 11 | + | 21 | 12 | + | 25 | 13 | + | 31 | 14 | + | Feb. 10 | 15 | + | 21 | 14 | Clock + | 27 | 13 | faster + | M'ch 4 | 12 | than + | 8 | 11 | sun. + | 12 | 10 | + | 15 | 9 | + | 19 | 8 | + | 22 | 7 | + | 25 | 6 | + | 28 | 5 | + | April 1 | 4 | + | 4 | 3 | + | 7 | 2 | + | 11 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 19 | 1 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 30 | 3 | + | May 13 | 4 | Clock + | 29 | 3 | slower. + | June 5 | 2 | + | 10 | 1 | + | 15 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 20 | 1 | + | 25 | 2 | + | 29 | 3 | + | July 5 | 4 | + | 11 | 5 | + | 28 | 6 | Clock + | Aug. 9 | 5 | faster. + | 15 | 4 | + | 20 | 3 | + | 24 | 2 | + | 28 | 1 | + | 31 | 0 | + | |------------| + | Sept. 3 | 1 | + | 6 | 2 | + | 9 | 3 | + | 12 | 4 | + | 15 | 5 | + | 18 | 6 | + | 21 | 7 | + | 24 | 8 | + | 27 | 9 | + | 30 | 10 | + | Oct. 3 | 11 | + | 6 | 12 | + | 10 | 13 | + | 14 | 14 | + | 19 | 15 | + | 27 | 16 | Clock + | Nov. 15 | 15 | slower. + | 20 | 14 | + | 24 | 13 | + | 27 | 12 | + | 30 | 11 | + | Dec. 2 | 10 | + | 5 | 9 | + | 7 | 8 | + | 9 | 7 | + | 11 | 6 | + | 13 | 5 | + | 16 | 4 | + | 18 | 3 | + | 20 | 2 | + | 22 | 1 | + | 24 | 0 | + | |------------| + | 26 | 1 | + | 28 | 2 | Clock + | 30 | 3 | faster. + |__________|____________| +</pre> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>THE OCELLATED PHEASANT.</h2> + +<p>The collections of the Museum of Natural History of Paris have +just been enriched with a magnificent, perfectly adult specimen of +a species of bird that all the scientific establishments had put +down among their desiderata, and which, for twenty years past, has +excited the curiosity of naturalists. This species, in fact, was +known only by a few caudal feathers, of which even the origin was +unknown, and which figured in the galleries of the Jardin des +Plantes under the name of <i>Argus ocellatus</i>. This name was +given by J. Verreaux, who was then assistant naturalist at the +museum. It was inscribed by Prince Ch. L. Bonaparte, in his +Tableaux Paralléliques de l'Ordre des Gallinaces, as +<i>Argus giganteus</i>, and a few years later it was reproduced by +Slater in his Catalogue of the Phasianidæ, and by Gray is his +List of the Gallinaceæ. But it was not till 1871 and 1872 +that Elliot, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and in +a splendid monograph of the Phasianidæ, pointed out the +peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the +Museum of Paris, and published a figure of them of the natural +size.</p> + +<p>The discovery of an individual whose state of preservation +leaves nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the +correctness of Verreaux's, Bonaparte's, and Elliot's suppositions. +This bird, whose tail is furnished with feathers absolutely +identical with those that the museum possessed, is not a peacock, +as some have asserted, nor an ordinary Argus of Malacca, nor an +argus of the race that Elliot named <i>Argus grayi</i>, and which +inhabits Borneo, but the type of a new genus of the family +Phasianidæ. This Gallinacean, in fact, which Mr. Maingonnat +has given up to the Museum of Natural History, has not, like the +common Argus of Borneo, excessively elongated secondaries; and its +tail is not formed of normal rectrices, from the middle of which +spring two very long feathers, a little curved and arranged like a +roof; but it consists of twelve wide plane feathers, regularly +tapering, and ornamented with ocellated spots, arranged along the +shaft. Its head is not bare, but is adorned behind with a tuft of +thread-like feathers; and, finally, its system of coloration and +the proportions of the different parts of its body are not the same +as in the common argus of Borneo. There is reason, then, for +placing the bird, under the name of <i>Rheinardius ocellatus</i>, +in the family Phasianidæ, after the genus <i>Argus</i> which +it connects, after a manner, with the pheasants properly so-called. +The specific name <i>ocellatus</i> has belonged to it since 1871, +and must be substituted for that of <i>Rheinardi</i>.</p> + +<p>The bird measures more than two meters in length, three-fourths +of which belong to the tail. The head, which is relatively small, +appears to be larger than it really is, owing to the development of +the piliform tuft on the occiput, this being capable of erection so +as to form a crest 0.05 to 0.06 of a meter in height. The feathers +of this crest are brown and white. The back and sides of the head +are covered with downy feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray, +and the front of the neck with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown. +The upper part of the body is of a blackish tint and the under part +of a reddish brown, the whole dotted with small white or +<i>café-au-lait</i> spots. Analogous spots are found on the +wings and tail, but on the secondaries these become elongated, and +tear-like in form. On the remiges the markings are quite regularly +hexagonal in shape; and on the upper coverts of the tail and on the +rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous blotches, +some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface of +the vane, while others, marked in the center with a blackish spot, +are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli. This +similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders +the distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than +in many other Gallinaceans, and the more so in that two median +rectrices are considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect +of tail feathers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15a.png"><img src= +"images/15a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (<i>Rheinardius ocellatus</i>)."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE OCELLATED PHEASANT (<i>Rheinardius +ocellatus</i>).</p> + +<p>The true rectrices are twelve in number. They are all absolutely +plane, all spread out horizontally, and they go on increasing in +length from the exterior to the middle. They are quite wide at the +point of insertion, increase in diameter at the middle, and +afterward taper to a sharp point. Altogether they form a tail of +extraordinary length and width which the bird holds slightly +elevated, so as to cause it to describe a graceful curve, and the +point of which touches the soil. The beak, whose upper mandible is +less arched than that of the pheasants, exactly resembles that of +the arguses. It is slightly inflated at the base, above the +nostrils, and these latter are of an elongated-oval form. In the +bird that I have before me the beak, as well as the feet and legs, +is of a dark rose-color. The legs are quite long and are destitute +of spurs. They terminate in front in three quite delicate toes, +connected at the base by membranes, and behind in a thumb that is +inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking. +This magnificent bird was captured in a portion of Tonkin as yet +unexplored by Europeans, in a locality named Buih-Dinh, 400 +kilometers to the south of Hué.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MAIDENHAIR TREE.</h2> + +<p>The Maidenhair tree--Gingkgo biloba--of which we give an +illustration, is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous +trees, but one of the most interesting. Few persons would at first +sight take it to be a Conifer, more especially as it is destitute +of resin; nevertheless, to that group it belongs, being closely +allied to the Yew, but distinguishable by its long-stalked, +fan-shaped leaves, with numerous radiating veins, as in an +Adiantum. These leaves, like those of the larch but unlike most +Conifers, are deciduous, turning of a pale yellow color before they +fall. The tree is found in Japan and in China, but generally in the +neighborhood of temples or other buildings, and is, we believe, +unknown in a truly wild state. As in the case of several other +trees planted in like situations, such as Cupressus funebris, Abies +fortunei, A. kæmpferi, Cryptomeria japonica, Sciadopitys +verticillata, it is probable that the trees have been introduced +from Thibet, or other unexplored districts, into China and Japan. +Though now a solitary representative of its genus, the Gingkgo was +well represented in the coal period, and also existed through the +secondary and tertiary epochs, Professor Heer having identified +kindred specimens belonging to sixty species and eight genera in +fossil remains generally distributed through the northern +hemisphere. Whatever inference we may draw, it is at least certain +that the tree was well represented in former times, if now it be +the last of its race. It was first known to Kæmpfer in 1690, +and described by him in 1712, and was introduced into this country +in the middle of the eighteenth century. Loudon relates a curious +tale as to the manner in which a French amateur became possessed of +it. The Frenchman, it appears, came to England, and paid a visit to +an English nurseryman, who was the possessor of five plants, raised +from Japanese seeds. The hospitable Englishman entertained the +Frenchman only too well. He allowed his commercial instincts to be +blunted by wine, and sold to his guest the five plants for the sum +of 25 guineas. Next morning, when time for reflection came, the +Englishman attempted to regain one only of the plants for the same +sum that the Frenchman had given for all five, but without avail. +The plants were conveyed to France, where as each plant had cost +about 40 crowns, <i>ecus</i>, the tree got the name of <i>arbre a +quarante ecus</i>. This is the story as given by Loudon, who tells +us that Andre Thouin used to relate the fact in his lectures at the +Jardin des Plantes, whether as an illustration of the perfidy of +Albion is not stated.</p> + +<p>The tree is dioecious, bearing male catkins on one plant, female +on another. All the female trees in Europe are believed to have +originated from a tree near Geneva, of which Auguste Pyramus de +Candolle secured grafts, and distributed them throughout the +Continent. Nevertheless, the female tree is rarely met with, as +compared with the male; but it is quite possible that a tree which +generally produces male flowers only may sometimes bear female +flowers only. We have no certain evidence of this in the case of +the Gingkgo, but it is a common enough occurrence in other +dioecious plants, and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near +Philadelphia, as recently recorded by Mr. Meehan, may possibly be +attributed to this cause.</p> + +<p>The tree of which we give a figure is growing at Broadlands, +Hants, and is about 40 feet in height, with a trunk that measures 7 +feet in girth at 3 feet from the ground, with a spread of branches +measuring 45 feet. These dimensions have been considerably exceeded +in other cases. In 1837 a tree at Purser's Cross measured 60 feet +and more in height. Loudon himself had a small tree in his garden +at Bayswater on which a female branch was grafted. It is to be +feared that this specimen has long since perished.</p> + +<p>We have already alluded to its deciduous character, in which it +is allied to the larch. It presents another point of resemblance +both to the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both +leaves and male catkins are borne, but these contracted branches +are mingled with long extension shoots; there seems, however, no +regular alternation between the short and the long shoots, at any +rate the <i>rationale</i> of their production is not understood, +though in all probability a little observation of the growing plant +would soon clear the matter up.</p> + +<p>The fruit is drupaceous, with a soft outer coat and a hard woody +shell, greatly resembling that of a Cycad, both externally and +internally. Whether the albumen contains the peculiar "corpuscles" +common to Cycads and Conifers, we do not for certain know, though +from the presence of 2 to 3 embryos in one seed, as noted by +Endlicher, we presume this is the case. The interest of these +corpuscles, it may be added, lies in the proof of affinity they +offer between Conifers and the higher Cryptogams, such as ferns and +lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar venation of the +Gingkgo. Conifers are in some degree links between ordinary +flowering plants and the higher Cryptogams, and serve to connect in +genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct. In +germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the Gingkgo remain within +the shell, leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward; the +young stem bears its leaves in threes.</p> + +<p>We have no desire to enter further upon the botanical +peculiarities of this tree; enough if we have indicated in what its +peculiar interest consists. We have only to add that in gardens +varieties exist some with leaves more deeply cut than usual, others +with leaves nearly entire, and others with leaves of a +golden-yellow color.--<i>Gardeners' Chronicle</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15b.png"><img src= +"images/15b_th.jpg" alt= +"THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT BROADLANDS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE MAIDENHAIR TREE IN THE GARDENS AT +BROADLANDS.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE WOODS OF AMERICA.</h2> + +<p>A collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now +being prepared for exhibition by the Directors of the American +Museum of Natural History. Scattered about the third floor of the +Arsenal, in Central Park, lie 394 logs, some carefully wrapped in +bagging, some inclosed in rough wooden cases, and others partially +sawn longitudinally, horizontally, and diagonally. These logs +represent all but 26 of the varieties of trees indigenous to this +country, and nearly all have a greater or less economic or +commercial value. The 26 varieties needed to complete the +collection will arrive before winter sets in, a number of specimens +being now on their way to this city from the groves of California. +Mr. S. D. Dill and a number of assistants are engaged in preparing +the specimens for exhibition. The logs as they reach the workroom +are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases, this method being +used so that the bark, with its growth of lichens and delicate +exfoliations, shall not be injured while the logs are in process of +transportation from various parts of the country to this city. The +logs are each 6 feet in length, and each is the most perfect +specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed +in making the collection. With the specimens of the trees come to +the museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers +of the tree. These come from all parts of the Union--from Alaska on +the north to Texas on the south, from Maine on the east to +California on the west--and there is not a State or Territory in +the Union which has not a representative in this collection of +logs. On arrival here the logs are green, and the first thing in +the way of treatment after their arrival is to season them, a work +requiring great care to prevent them from "checking," as it is +technically called, or "season cracking," as the unscientific term +the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during the seasoning +process. As is well known, the sap-wood of a tree seasons much more +quickly than does the heart of the wood. The prevention of this +splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for +exhibition, for when once the wood has split its value for dressing +for exhibition is gone. A new plan to prevent this destruction of +specimens is now being tried with some success under the direction +of Prof. Bickmore, superintendent of the museum. Into the base of +the log and alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger. +As the wood seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so +has in many instances doubtless saved valuable specimens. One of +the finest in the collection, a specimen of the persimmon tree, +some two feet in diameter, has been ruined by the seasoning +process. On one side there is a huge crack, extending from the top +to the bottom of the log, which looks as though some amateur +woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and had made a poor +job of it. The great shrinking of the sap-wood of the persimmon +tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially. It also has +a discouraging effect upon collectors, as it is next to impossible +to cure a specimen, so that all but this one characteristic of the +wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form.</p> + +<p>Before the logs become thoroughly seasoned, or their lines of +growth at all obliterated, a diagram of each is made, showing in +accordance with a regular scale the thickness of the bark, the +sap-wood, and the heart. There is also in this diagram a scale +showing the growth of the tree during each year of its life, these +yearly growths being regularly marked about the heart of the tree +by move or less regular concentric circles, the width of which +grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows older. In this +connection attention may be called to a specimen in the collection +which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world. It is +not a native wood, but an importation, and the tree from which this +wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the "Pride of India." +The heart of this particular tree was on the port side, and between +it and the bark there is very little sap-wood, not more than an +inch. On the starbord side, so to speak, the sap-wood has grown out +in an abnormal manner, and one of the lines indicative of a year's +growth is one and seven-eighths inches in width, the widest growth, +many experts who have seen the specimen say, that was ever +recorded. The diagrams referred to are to be kept for scientific +uses, and the scheme of exhibition includes these diagrams as a +part of the whole.</p> + +<p>After a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through +the center down about one-third of its length. A transverse cut is +then made and the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the +log is removed. The upper end is then beveled. When a log is thus +treated the inspector can see the lower two-thirds presenting +exactly the same appearance it did when growing in the forest. The +horizontal cut, through the sap-wood and to the center of the +heart, shows the life lines of the tree, and carefully planed as +are this portion, the perpendicular and the beveled sections, the +grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen. That these may be made +even more valuable to the architect and artisan, the right half of +this planed surface will be carefully polished, and the left half +left in the natural state. This portion of the scheme of treatment +is entirely in the interests of architects and artisans, and it is +expected by Prof. Bickmore that it will be the means of securing +for some kinds of trees, essentially of American growth, and which +have been virtually neglected, an important place in architecture +and in ornamental wood-work, and so give a commercial value to +woods that are now of comparatively little value.</p> + +<p>Among the many curious specimens in the collection now being +prepared for exhibition, one which will excite the greatest +curiosity is a specimen of the honey locust, which was brought here +from Missouri. The bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one +to four inches in length, sharp as needles, and growing at +irregular intervals. The specimen arrived here in perfect +condition, but, in order that it might be transported without +injury, it had to be suspended from the roof of a box car, and thus +make its trip from Southern Missouri to this city without change. +Another strange specimen in the novel collection is a portion of +the Yucca tree, an abnormal growth of the lily family. The trunk, +about 2 feet in diameter, is a spongy mass, not susceptible of +treatment to which the other specimens are subjected. Its bark is +an irregular stringy, knotted mass, with porcupine-quill-like +leaves springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all +well-regulated trees. One specimen of the yucca was sent to the +museum two years ago, and though the roots and top of the tree were +sawn off, shoots sprang out, and a number of the handsome flowers +appeared. The tree was supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned +by this Fall, but now, when the workmen are ready to prepare it for +exhibition, it has shown new life, new shoots have appeared, and +two tufts of green now decorate the otherwise dry and withered log, +and the yucca promises to bloom again before the winter is over. +One of the most perfect specimens of the Douglass spruce ever seen +is in the collection, and is a decided curiosity. It is a recent +arrival from the Rocky Mountains. Its bark, two inches or more in +thickness, is perforated with holes reaching to the-sap-wood. Many +of these contain acorns, or the remains of acorns, which have been +stored there by provident woodpeckers, who dug the holes in the +bark and there stored their winter supply of food. The oldest +specimen in the collection is a section of the <i>Picea +engelmanni</i>, a species of spruce growing in the Rocky Mountains +at a considerable elevation above the sea. The specimen is 24 +inches in diameter, and the concentric circles show its age to be +410 years. The wood much resembles the black spruce, and is the +most valuable of the Rocky Mountain growths. A specimen of the nut +pine, whose nuts are used for food by the Indians, is only 15 +inches in diameter, and yet its life lines show its age to be 369 +years. The largest specimen yet received is a section of the white +ash, which is 46 inches in diameter and 182 years old. The next +largest specimen is a section of the <i>Platanus occidentalis</i>, +variously known in commerce as the sycamore, button-wood, or plane +tree, which is 42 inches in diameter and only 171 years of age. +Specimens of the redwood tree of California are now on their way to +this city from the Yosemite Valley. One specimen, though a small +one, measures 5 feet in diameter and shows the character of the +wood. A specimen of the enormous growths of this tree was not +secured because of the impossibility of transportation and the fact +that there would be no room in the museum for the storage of such a +specimen, for the diameter of the largest tree of the class is 45 +feet and 8 inches, which represents a circumference of about 110 +feet. Then, too, the Californians object to have the giant trees +cut down for commercial, scientific, or any other purposes.</p> + +<p>To accompany these specimens of the woods of America, Mr. Morris +K. Jesup, who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection +of specimens, is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the +exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size, +color, and appearance of the fruit, foliage, and flowers of the +various trees. Their commercial products, as far as they can be +obtained, will also be exhibited, as, for instance, in the case of +the long-leaved pine, the tar, resin, and pitch, for which it is +especially valued. Then, too, in an herbarium the fruits, leaves, +and flowers are preserved as nearly as possible in their natural +state. When the collection is ready for public view next spring it +will be not only the largest, but the only complete one of its kind +in the country. There is nothing like it in the world, as far as is +known; certainly not in the royal museums of England, France, or +Germany.</p> + +<p>Aside from the value of the collection, in a scientific way, it +is proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system, which +requires that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials +used for food and clothing. The completeness of the exhibition will +be of great assistance also to landscape gardeners, as it will +enable them to lay out private and public parks so that the most +striking effects of foliage may be secured. The beauty of these +effects can best be seen in this country in our own Central Park, +where there are more different varieties and more combinations for +foliage effects than in any other area in the United States. To +ascertain how these effects are obtained one now has to go to much +trouble to learn the names of the trees. With this exhibition such +information can be had merely by observation, for the botanical and +common names of each specimen will be attached to it. It will also +be of practical use in teaching the forester how to cultivate trees +as he would other crops. The rapid disappearance of many valuable +forest trees, with the increase in demand and decrease in supply, +will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in the not +far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the +country.--<i>N.Y. Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>261 Broadway, New York, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +35 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. 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