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diff --git a/8717-8.txt b/8717-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ce6397 --- /dev/null +++ b/8717-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4713 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, +August 5, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8717] +Release Date: August, 2005 +First Posted: August 3, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 344 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344 + + + + +NEW YORK, August 5, 1882 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By + MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries + in Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua + projects.--Panama railway, etc. + + Improved Averaging Machine. + + Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's improved + compound beam engine. + + Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL + LONGWORTH. 5 figures. + + The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the Puddling of + Iron. 2 figures. + + Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3 figures. + + Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures. + + Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines. + +II. NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's + Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures. + + Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of skeletons of man, + orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical resemblances + and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and the + countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs. + --Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of monkeys. + + Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera reared in + 1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe + d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important + European, Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other + silk producers. + +III. MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical + Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals + Occurring Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for + collecting within one hour's ride of New York.--Methods + of collecting and testing.--Localities on Bergen + Hill.--The Weehawken Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of + occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite. + --Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites. + --Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite. + + Antiseptics. + + Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By N.B. WOOD.-- + Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth + of crystals.--Some large crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence + of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature of steel.--Burnt + steel.--Effect of annealing. + +IV. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos, Spain. + --Full page illustration from photograph. + + Description of Burgos Cathedral. + + Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON VIDAL. + + Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding the true + meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND. + +V. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU + WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and + delusion.--Early scientific attempts at electro-motors, + electric lamps, etc. + + Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU + MONCEL. 2 figures. + + Volckmar's Secondary Batteries. + + * * * * * + + + + +METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS. + + +Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones +immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have just +been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and observe the +habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It will, therefore, +be of interest to examine the accompanying drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann, +one of them showing a deer while shedding its antlers, and the other +as the animal appears after losing them. In the first illustration the +animal has just lost one of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it +to throw its head upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining +antler draws down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the +animal. The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base, +and the deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and +weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining thicket, +where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its antlers, but +the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal was jumping over a +ditch, and as soon as it touched the further bank it jumped high in the +air, arched its back, bent its head to one side in the manner of an +animal that has been wounded, and then sadly approached the nearest +thicket, in the same manner as the artist has represented in the +accompanying picture. Both antlers dropped off and fell into the ditch. + +[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.] + +Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are lost at +intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss the stumps +upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin, which grows +upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers are formed, so +that by the end of July the bucks have new and strong antlers, from +which they remove the fine hairy covering by rubbing them against young +trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman, who knows everything in regard +to deer, and has seventy-two signs by which he can tell whether a male +or female deer passes through the woods, does not know at what age the +deer gets its first antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the +animal. Prof. Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information +in regard to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of +their antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very +clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his may +be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in June--the +burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the animal has two +protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the first branches of +the antlers rise; these branches having the length of a finger only, or +being even shorter, as shown at 1, in diagram, on p. 5481. After the +second year more branches are formed, which are considerably longer and +much rougher at the lower ends than the first. The third pair of antlers +is different from its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is, +annular ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent +in the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch (Fig. +3, _a_), or besides the point it has another short end, which is a most +rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3, _b_), or it has two forks +(Fig. 3, _c_). In the following year the antlers take the form shown +in Fig. 4, and then follows the antler shown in Fig. 5, _a_, which +generally has "forks" in place of points, and is known as forked antler +in contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, _b_, which +retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional or +intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the antlers by +the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For instance, Fig. 4 is +a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.; and antlers have been +known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If the two antlers do not +have the same number of ends the number of ends on the larger antler +is multiplied by two and the word "odd" is placed before the word +designating the number of ends. For instance, if one antler has +three ends and the other four, the antler would be termed an "odd" +eight-ender. The sixth antler shown in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and +appears in two different forms, either with a fork at the upper end, as +shown in Fig. 6, _a_, or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, _b_. In Fig. +7 an antler is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year +until the month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the +crowns only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is +not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when food +is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when food is +plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and sometimes +skip an entire year's growth.--_Karl Brandt, in Leipziger lllustrirte +Zeitung_. + +[Illustration: METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.] + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +MONKEYS. + +By ALFRED R. WALLACE. + + +If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared with +that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful resemblance, +together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone, throughout the +whole structure, will be found to agree in general form, position, and +function, the only absolute differences being that the orang has nine +wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee have but eight; and the +chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs, whereas the orang, like man, has +but twelve. With these two exceptions, the differences are those of +shape, proportion, and direction only, though the resulting differences +in the external form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of +these are, that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as +those of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs +fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect walking, +while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and powerful +fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for climbing up +trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal branches. The +almost complete identity of the skeleton, however, and the close +similarity of the muscles and of all the internal organs, have produced +that striking and ludicrous resemblance to man, which every one +recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a less degree, in the whole +monkey tribe; the face and features, the motions, attitudes, and +gestures being often a strange caricature of humanity. Let us, then, +examine a little more closely in what the resemblance consists, and how +far, and to what extent, these animals really differ from us. + +Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the absence +of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously infantile aspect, +monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most closely in the hand and +arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with nails, and the skin of the +palm is lined and furrowed like our own. The thumb is, however, smaller +and weaker than ours, and is not so much used in taking hold of +anything. The monkey's hand is, therefore, not so well adapted as that +of man for a variety of purposes, and cannot be applied with such +precision in holding small objects, while it is unsuitable for +performing delicate operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a +pen. A monkey does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb, +as we do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy +way, just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of +its hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South +America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to be +in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most of the +American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as the fingers, +and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers as our thumbs are; +and all these circumstances show that the hand of the monkey is, both +structurally and functionally, a very different and very inferior organ +to that of man, since it is not applied to similar purposes, nor is it +capable of being so applied. + +When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater difference, +for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs, and are therefore +more like our hands; and this is the case with all monkeys, so that even +those which have no thumbs on their hands, or have them small and weak +and parallel to the fingers, have always large and well-formed thumbs on +their feet. It was on account of this peculiarity that the great French +naturalist Cuvier named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or +four-handed animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs, +they have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern +naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say that +the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only these feet +are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy, or rather of +nomenclature, which we need not here discuss. + +Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose and +use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is simply an +adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which possess it. Monkeys, +as a rule, live in trees, and are especially abundant in the great +tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon fruits, and occasionally eat +insects and birds'-eggs, as well as young birds, all of which they find +in the trees; and, as they have no occasion to come down to the ground, +they travel from tree to tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the +greater part of their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty +trees. For such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move +with perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly +from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering fruit +and catching insects or birds, they require some means of holding on +with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to continual falls, and +they are able to do this by means of their long finger-like toes and +large opposable thumbs, which grasp a branch almost as securely as a +bird grasps its perch. The true hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly +to climb with, and to swing the whole weight of the body from one branch +or one tree to another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long +and strong, and in many species they are further strengthened by being +partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew together +as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate action of the +fingers, which is so important to us, is little required by monkeys, +whose hand is really an organ for climbing and seizing food, while their +foot is required to support them firmly in any position on the branches +of trees, and for this purpose it has become modified into a large and +powerful grasping hand. + +Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the former +never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use their arms in +climbing or in walking on all-fours like most quadrupeds. The monkeys +that we see in the streets dressed up and walking erect, only do so +after much drilling and teaching, just as dogs may be taught to walk in +the same way; and the posture is almost as unnatural to the one animal +as it is to the other. The largest and most man-like of the apes--the +gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours; +but in these the arms are so long and the legs so short that the body +appears half erect when walking; and they have the habit of resting on +the knuckles of the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys, +whose arms and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends +still further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never +known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though they +can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a stick and +walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true. Monkeys, then, +are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they possess four hands +formed very much like our hands, and capable of picking up or holding +any small object in the same manner; but they are also four-footed, +because they use all four limbs for the purpose of walking, running, or +climbing; and, being adapted to this double purpose, the hands want the +delicacy of touch and the freedom as well as the precision of movement +which ours possess. Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with +perfect ease, and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes +to apply them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction +between monkeys and men. + +We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys and the +countries they inhabit. + + +THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY INHABIT. + +Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and +baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are really +more different from all those of the Old World than any of the +latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the whole +monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and the New +World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind of differences +by which these several groups are distinguished, we shall be able +to understand something of the classification of animals, and the +difference between important and unimportant characters. + +Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined: apes have +no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long; while baboons have +short tails, and their faces, instead of being round and with a man-like +expression as in apes and monkeys, are long and more dog-like. These +differences are, however, by no means constant, and it is often +difficult to tell whether an animal should be classed as an ape, a +monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar ape, for example, though it has no +tail, is really a monkey, because it has callosities, or hard pads of +bare skin on which it sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away +food; the latter character being always absent in the true apes, while +both are present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals, +however, from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same +number of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner, +although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large, like +those of a dog. + +The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of the +marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw on +either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek pouches. They +never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their nostrils are placed +wide apart and open sideways on the face; the tail, though sometimes +short, is never quite absent; and the thumb bends the same way as the +fingers, is generally very short and weak, and is often quite wanting. +We thus see that these American monkeys differ in a great number of +characters from those of the Eastern hemisphere; and they have this +further peculiarity, that many of them have prehensile or grasping +tails, which are never found in the monkeys of any other country. +This curious organ serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much +muscular power that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled +round a branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with +almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those +species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and +powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin, exactly +resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and apparently equally +sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys that accompany street +organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not of the most perfect kind; +since in this species the tail is entirely clad with hair to the tip, +and seems to be used chiefly to steady the animal when sitting on a +branch by being twisted round another branch near it. The statement is +often erroneously made that all American monkeys have prehensile tails; +but the fact is that rather less than half the known kinds have them +so, the remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long +and slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All +prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys are not +prehensile-tailed. + +By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little observation, +to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America or from the Old +World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating it fills its mouth +till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we may be sure it comes from +some part of Africa or Asia; while if it can curl up the end of its tail +so as to take hold of anything, it is certainly American. As all the +tailed monkeys of the Old World have seat-pads (or ischial callosities +as they are called in scientific language), and as all the American +monkeys have tails, but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external +character by which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look +for the other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the +distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position. + +The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds being +found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits the Rock +of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and these are the +two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In the tropics they +become very abundant and increase in numbers and variety as we approach +the equator, where the climate is hot, moist, and equable, and where +flowers, fruits, and insects are to be found throughout the year. Africa +has about 55 different kinds, Asia and its islands about 60, while +America has 114, or almost exactly the same as Asia and Africa together. +Australia and its islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and +luxuriant island of New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well +adapted for them. We will now give a short account of the different +kinds of monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents. + +Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and the +chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one which, +on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its countenance is less +human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are found in West Africa, near +the equator, but they also inhabit the interior wherever there are great +forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth states that the chimpanzee inhabits the +country about the sources of the Shari River in 28° E. long. and 4° N. +lat. + +The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied. One +group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many of these +have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous group are the +Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very active and lively, +and often having their faces curiously marked with white or black, or +ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of hair; and they all have large +cheek pouches and good sized thumbs. Many of them are called green +monkeys, from the greenish yellow tint of their fur, and most of them +are well formed, pleasing animals. They are found only in tropical +Africa. + +The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in the +general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have hands +with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs; and this, +with something in the expression of the face and their habit of sitting +up and using their hands in a very human fashion, at once shows that +they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them are very ugly, and in +their wild state they are the fiercest and most dangerous of monkeys. +Some have the tail very long, others of medium length, while it is +sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and all have large cheek pouches and +bare seat pads. They are found all over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape +of Good Hope; while one species, called the hamadryas, extends from +Abyssinia across the Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found +out of Africa. This species was known to the ancients, and it is often +represented in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found +in the catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons +is the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is +ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has a +tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is not much +inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands, and are said to +be a match for any other animals in the African forests, and even to +attack and drive away the elephants from the districts they inhabit. + +Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the large +man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large islands, +Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of the woods," +and it should be pronounced órang-óotan, the accent being on the first +syllable of both words. It is a very curious circumstance that, whereas +the gorilla and chimpanzee are both black, like the negroes of the same +country, the orang-outang is red or reddish brown, closely resembling +the color of the Malays and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests. +Though very large and powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on +fruit, and never attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A +full-grown male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but +with a body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long +and powerful arms. + +Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic islands, +and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole family. These +are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are generally of small size +and of a gentle disposition, but possessing the most wonderful agility. +In these creatures the arms are as long as the body and legs together, +and are so powerful that a gibbon will hang for hours suspended from +a branch, or swing to and fro and then throw itself a great distance +through the air. The arms, in fact, completely take the place of the +legs for traveling. Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running +on the branches, like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along +while hanging suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to +bough, and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb +along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so prodigious, +and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand before they have +caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost to fly through the +air by a series of swinging leaps; and they travel among the network of +interlacing boughs a hundred feet above the earth with as much ease and +certainty as we walk or run upon level ground, and with even greater +speed. These little animals scarcely ever come down to the ground of +their own accord; but when obliged to do so they run along almost erect, +with their long arms swinging round and round, as if trying to find some +tree or other object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally +walk without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not +make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not an +easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually used to +swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead of downward, +as they must be when walking on them. + +The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of which +have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They are +true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The most +remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which is very +large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by possessing a long, +pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all other monkeys. Another +interesting species is the black and white entellus monkey of India, +called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and considered sacred by them. +These animals are petted and fed, and at some of the temples numbers +of them come every day for the food which the priests, as well as the +people, provide for them. + +The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are more like +baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more bold and vicious +than the others. All have cheek pouches, and though some have long +tails, in others the tail is short, or reduced to a mere stump. In some +few this stump is so very short that there appears to be no tail, as in +the magot of North Africa and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that +inhabits Japan. + + +AMERICAN MONKEYS. + +The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct groups: +1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails; 2nd, the +Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short; and, 3rd, the +Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws, long tails which are +not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth than all other American +monkeys. Each of these three groups contain several sub-groups, or +_genera_, which often differ remarkably from each other, and from all +the monkeys of the Old World. + +We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest found in +America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the males. Often in +the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a tremendous noise is heard +in the night or early morning, as if a great assemblage of wild beasts +were all roaring and screaming together. The noise may be heard for +miles, and it is louder and more piercing than that of any other +animals, yet it is all produced by a single male howler, sitting on the +branches of some lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary +noise by means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The +lower jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony +vessel about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the +tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal +can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice, acting +something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing those +marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the celebrated +traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as might have had their +origin in the infernal regions. The howlers are large and stout bodied +monkeys, with bearded faces, and very strong and powerfully grasping +tails. They inhabit the wildest forests; they are very shy, and are +seldom taken captive, though they are less active than many other +American monkeys. + +Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender bodies and +enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the tail is so long, +strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the place of a fifth hand. +By twisting the end of it round a branch the animal can swing freely in +the air with complete safety; and this gives them a wonderful power of +climbing end passing from tree to tree, because the distance they can +stretch is that of the tail, body, and arm added together, and these are +all unusually long. They can also swing themselves through the air for +great distances, and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree +without ever descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the +Malayan forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the +spider monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and +have a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most +monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers, being +adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting hold of small +objects. It is said that when they have to cross a river the trees on +the opposite banks of which do not approach near enough for a leap, +several of them form a chain, one hanging by its tail from a lofty +overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail of the one below it, +then gradually swinging themselves backward and forward till the lower +one is able to seize hold of a branch on the opposite side. He then +climbs up the tree, and, when sufficiently high, the first one lets go, +and the swing either carries him across to a bough on the opposite side +or he climbs up over his companions. + +Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an equally +well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned limbs, and a +thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color. They have well +formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and feet, and are rather +deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly tame and affectionate in +captivity. They are great eaters, and are usually very fat. They are +found only in the far interior of the Amazon valley, and, having a +delicate constitution, seldom live long in Europe. These monkeys are not +so fond of swinging themselves about by their tails as are the spider +monkeys, and offer more opportunities of observing how completely this +organ takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on +the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a horizontal +position on the ground, and the moment it touches anything it twists +round it and brings it forward, when, if eatable, it is at once +appropriated; and when fastened up the animal will obtain any food that +may be out of reach of its hands with the greatest facility, picking up +small bits of biscuit, nuts, etc., much as an elephant does with the tip +of his trunk. + +We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a less +perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip, and is of +no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a branch, and +serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding, but is never used +to hang and swing by in the manner so common with the spider monkeys and +their allies. These are rather small-sized animals, with round heads and +with moderately long tails. They are very active and intelligent, their +limbs are not so long as in the preceding group, and though they have +five fingers on each hand and foot, the hands have weak and hardly +opposable thumbs. Some species of these monkeys are often carried about +by itinerant organ men, and are taught to walk erect and perform many +amusing tricks. They form the genus _Cebus_ of naturalists. + +The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails, like +those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they consist of +several distinct groups, and differ very much in appearance and habits. +First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy tail and usually very long +and thick hair, something like that of a bear. Sometimes the tail is +very short, appearing like a rounded tuft of hair; many of the species +have fine bushy whiskers, which meet under the chin, and appear as if +they had been dressed and trimmed by a barber, and the head is often +covered with thick curly hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have +the face quite red, and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable +peculiarity among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates +on the Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid +scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long, straight, +and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald, owing to the +very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to their striking +physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a sandy color meeting +under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The color of the face is so +vivid that it looks as if covered with a thick coat of bright scarlet +paint. These creatures are very delicate, and have never reached Europe +alive, although several of the allied forms have lived some time in our +Zoological Gardens. + +An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with long, +straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty variegated colors. +They are usually small animals; some have the face marked with black and +white, others have curious whiskers, and their nails are rather sharp +and claw like. They have large round heads, and their fur is more glossy +and smooth than in most other American monkeys, so that they more +resemble some of the smaller monkeys of Africa. These little creatures +are very active, running about the trees like squirrels, and feeding +largely on insects as well as on fruit. + +Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys, which have +large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of ruff of whitish +fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance, whence they are sometimes +called owl-faced monkeys. They are covered with soft gray fur, like that +of a rabbit, and sleep all day long concealed in hollow trees. The +face is also marked with white patches and stripes, giving it a rather +carnivorous or cat like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection, +by causing the defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger +cat or some such beast of prey. + +This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have a +larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is another +group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth as Eastern +monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a premolar being +substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars they resemble the +rest of the American monkeys. They are very small and delicate creatures +some having the body only seven inches long. The thumb of the hands +is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails they have sharp compressed +claws. These diminutive monkeys have long, non-prehensile tails, and +they have a silky fur often of varied and beautiful colors. Some are +striped with gray and white, or are of rich brown or golden brown tints, +varied by having the head or shoulders white or black, while in many +there are crests, frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to +their variety and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless; +their motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their +sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they +seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live on +fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are said to +recognize even in a picture. + +[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable', ...] + +This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see that, +although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla or the +baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external characters, +considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely arboreal life. +In the howlers we have a specially developed voice organ, which is +altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find the adaptation to +active motion among the topmost branches of the forest trees carried to +an extreme point of development; while the singular nocturnal monkeys, +the active squirrel monkeys, and the exquisite little marmosets, show +how distinct are the forms under which the same general type, may be +exhibited, and in how many varied ways existence may be sustained under +almost identical conditions. + + +LEMURS. + +In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the order +Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to include another +sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of a lower grade than +the true monkeys, from which they differ in so many points of structure +that they are considered to form a distinct sub-order, or, by some +naturalists, even a separate order. They have usually a much larger head +and more pointed muzzle than monkeys; they vary considerably in the +number, form, and arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well +developed, but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails +are usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they +are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily variegated +with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of Africa, +Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in their movements +than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal and crepuscular +habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also fruits and the eggs or +young of birds. + +The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India, small +tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in appearance, +and almost as deliberate in their movements, except when in the act of +seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or specter lemur, of the Malay +islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal lemur, remarkable for the +curious development of the hind feet, which have two of the toes very +short, and with sharp claws, while the others have nails, the third toe +being exceedingly long and slender, though the thumb is very large, +giving the feet a very irregular and _outré_ appearance; and, lastly, +the Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has +very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair. +It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like +appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the +rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore feet +or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed with sharp +curved claws, but one of them, the second, is wonderfully slender, +being not half the thickness of the others. This curious combination of +characters shows that the aye-aye is a very specialized form--that is, +one whose organization has been slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar +mode of life. From information received from its native country, and +from a profound study of its organization, Professor Owen believes +that it is adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring +insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly to the +branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its large delicate +ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing within the branch, +and is thus able to fix its exact position; with its powerful curved +gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and wood till it exposes the +burrow of the insect, most probably the soft larva of some beetle, and +then comes into play the extraordinary long wire-like finger, which +enters the small cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks +out the grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts +and organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same +as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different way; +and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers abound in +all the great continents, and are especially common in the tropical +forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite absent from +Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the aye-aye really occupies +the same place in nature in the forests of this tropical island, as do +the woodpeckers in other parts of the world. + + +DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS. + +Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards their +more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a few words +on their general relations as a distinct order of mammalia. No other +group so extensive and so varied as this, is so exclusively tropical in +its distribution, a circumstance no doubt due to the fact that monkeys +depend so largely on fruit and insects for their subsistence. A very +few species extend into the warmer parts of the temperate zones, their +extreme limits in the northern hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western +Himalayas at 11,000 feet elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America +they are found in Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic. +In the Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests +in South Brazil, which reach about 30° south latitude. In the East, +owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not reach the +tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern extremity of +the continent. + +But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical lands is +only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of geology, +we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in England. In the +earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size, lived in France, +Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely allied to living forms of +Asia and Africa. About the same period monkeys of the South American +type inhabited the United States. In the remote Eocene period the same +temperate lands were inhabited by lemurs in the East, and by curious +animals believed to be intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the +West. We know from a variety of other evidence that throughout these +vast periods a mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all +Central Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate +character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey tribe +then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps filled a +more important place in nature than it does now. Its restriction to the +comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no doubt mainly due to the +great alteration of climate which occurred at the close of the Tertiary +period, but it may have been aided by the continuous development of +varied forms of mammalian life better fitted for the contrasted seasons +and deciduous vegetation of the north temperate regions. The more +extensive area formerly inhabited by the monkey tribe, would have +favored their development into a number of divergent forms, in distant +regions, and adapted to distinct modes of life. As these retreated +southward and became concentrated in a more limited area, such as were +able to maintain themselves became mingled together as we now find them, +the ancient and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with +the more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid apes. + +Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must have been +very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that their fossil +remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to explain. The +deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are those formed in +lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of large numbers of +terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing to their having been +caught by floods in the tributary streams, swallowed up in marginal bogs +or quicksands, or drowned by the giving way of ice. Caverns were the +haunts of hyenas, tigers, bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged +into them the bodies of their victims, and left many of their bones to +become embedded in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods, +while herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods, +or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns from +above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a great +extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by beasts or birds +of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones would usually be left on +dry land, where they would slowly decay under atmospheric influences. +Only under very exceptional circumstances would they become embedded +in aqueous deposits; and instead of being surprised at their rarity +we should rather wonder that so many have been discovered in a fossil +state. + +Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near +relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication of +great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so high a +development must have branched off the great mammalian stock at a very +remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period, since in the +Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already specialized. At this +remoter period they were probably not separable from the insectivora, +or (perhaps) from the ancestral marsupials. Even now we have one living +form, the curious Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently +been separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be +classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the Opossums and +some other marsupials that we again find hand-like feet with opposable +thumbs, which are such a curious and constant feature of the monkey +tribe. + +This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems +inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at the +head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question whether +this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on the obvious +relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being gifted with +high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that of man, to have +visited the earth before man existed in order to study the various forms +of animal life that were found there, we can hardly think he would have +placed the monkey tribe so high as we do. He would observe that their +whole organization was specially adapted to an arboreal life, and this +specialization would be rather against their claiming the first rank +among terrestrial creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty, +would they compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they +would not surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The +carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in the +exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the flexible +trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and admirable +sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in the animal +creation. + +But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that the ape +is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to come to any +other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect of all animals, +but he is so solely in respect of characters in which he differs from +all the monkey tribe--the easily erect posture, the perfect freedom +of the hands from all part in locomotion, the large size and complete +opposability of the thumb, and the well developed brain, which enables +him fully to utilize these combined physical advantages. The monkeys +have none of these; and without them the amount of resemblance they have +to us is no advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too +exclusive consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist +the remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their +organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is doubtful +if we should then class them so high as we now do. We might then dwell +more on their resemblances to lower types--to rodents, to insectivora, +and to marsupials, and should hardly rank the hideous baboon above the +graceful leopard or stately stag. The true conclusion appears to be, +that the combination of external characters and internal structure which +exists in the monkeys, is that which, when greatly improved, refined, +and beautified, was best calculated to become the perfect instrument +of the human intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher +nature; while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and +undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by no +means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the most +perfect development of existing animal life.--_Contemporary Review_. + + * * * * * + +[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.] + + + + +SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN 1881. + +By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Lauréat de la Société d'Acclimatation de +France. + + +By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which appeared +in the _Journal of the Society of Arts_, February 13 and March 5, 1880, +February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen that the bad weather +prevented the successful rearing in the open air of most species of +silk-producing larvć. In 1881, the weather was extremely favorable up +to the end of July, but the incessant and heavy rains of the month of +August and beginning of September, proved fatal to most of the larvć +when they were in their last stages. However, in spite of my many +difficulties, I had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last +stage. Larvć of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in their +different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum. In July, +when the weather was magnificent, the little trees in my garden were +literally covered with larvć of more species than I ever had before, and +two or three more weeks of fair weather would have given me a good crop +of cocoons, instead of which I only obtained a very small number. The +sparrows, as usual, also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire +or fish-netting placed over some of the trees. + +On the trees were to be seen--_Attacus cynthia_ (the Ailantus silkworm), +the rearing of which was, as usual, most successful; _Samia cecropia_ +and _Samia gloveri_, from America; also hybrids of _Gloveri cecropia_ +and _Cecropia gloveri_; _Samia promethea_ and _Telea polyphemus_; +_Attacus pernyi_, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last season by +the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I reared _Actias +selene_, from India, on a nut-tree in the garden, and _Attacus atlas_, +on the ailantus. The _Selene_ larvć reached their fifth and last stage. +The Atlas larvć only reached the third stage, and were destroyed by the +heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the 8th or 9th of +September, when they had to be removed. I shall now reproduce the notes +I took on some of the various species I reared. + +_Actias Selene_.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one pairing. The +moths emerged from the beginning of March till the 13th of August, +at intervals of some duration, or in batches of males or females. I +obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of June, 1881, and the worms +commenced to hatch on the 13th of July. The larvć in first stage are of +a fine brown-red, with a broad black band in the middle of the body. The +second stage commenced on the 20th of July; larvć, of a lighter reddish +color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage commenced on +the 28th of July; larvć green; the first four tubercles yellow, with a +black ring at the base; other tubercles, orange yellow. Fourth stage +commenced on the 6th of August; larvć green; first four tubercles +golden-yellow, the others orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th +of August; first four tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base; +other tubercles yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band +brown and greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated +before, the larvć were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the last +stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry, wild pear, +etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive tree. As far as +I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this species is not found--or +is seldom found--on the coasts, but _Attacus atlas_ and Mylitta are +commonly found there. + +_Attacus (antheroea) roylei_ (with sixty cocoons); three pairings only +were obtained, and this species I found the most difficult to pair in +captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of March, a male and a female, +and a pairing was obtained; but the weather being then too cold, the ova +were not fertile, the female moth, after laying about two hundred eggs, +lived till the 22d of March, which is a very long time; this was owing +to the low temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of +April till the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and +another on the 6th of June. + +Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to Pernyi, the +Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter color, but the +larvć of both species can hardly be distinguished from one another. +The principal difference between the two species is in the cocoon. The +Roylei cocoon is within a very large and tough envelope, while that of +Pernyi has no outer envelope at all. The larvć of Roylei I reared did +not thrive, and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage, +owing to several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A +certain number of the larvć were unable to cut the shell of the egg. + +Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced to hatch +on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of July. The +larvć in the first two stages seemed to me similar to those of Pernyi, +as far as I could see. In second stage, the tubercles were of a +brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot on each side. Third +stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles, two blue dots on anal +segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on +the back, and silver metallic spots at the base of the tubercles on the +sides. No further notes taken. + +One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a remarkable +success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five eggs he had +twenty-three larvć hatched, which produced twenty-three fine cocoons. +The same correspondent, with thirty-five eggs of _Samia gloveri_, +obtained twenty cocoons. My other correspondents did not obtain any +success in rearing these two species, as far as I know. + +_Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi_.--I have said that it is extremely difficult to +obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But the male Pernyi +paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained six such pairings, and +a large quantity of fertile ova. The pairings of Roylei (female) with +Pernyi (male) took place as follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the +3d of June, two on the 4th of June, and one on the 6th. + +The larvć of this new hybrid, _Roylei-Pernyi_, contrary to what might +have been expected, were much easier to rear than those of Roylei, and +the cocoons obtained are far superior to those of Roylei, in size, +weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon of my new hybrid has, like +Roylei, an envelope, but there is no space between this envelope and the +true cocoon inside. Therefore, this time, the crossing of two different +species (but, it must be added, two very closely allied species) has +produced a hybrid very superior, at least to one of the types, that of +Roylei. The cocoons of the hybrid _Roylei-Pernyi_ seem to me larger and +heavier than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen. + +The larvć of this new hybrid have been successfully reared in France, +in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of North America. The +cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my German correspondents, +are remarkable for their size and beauty. The silk is silvery white. + +I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number may be +sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises, "Will the +moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of reproduction?" + +In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with respect to +hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained by the crossing +of _Attacus pernyi_ and _Attacus yama-maď_, but that, although the moths +(some of which may be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and +apparently perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be +reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ essentially +in one particular point. _Yama-maď_ hibernates in the _ovum_ state, +while Pernyi hibernates in the _pupa_ state. The hybrids hibernated in +the _pupa_ state. Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the _pupa_ state. + +In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F. Kirby, +of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its title, +"Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingidć," in which, referring to hybrids of +_Smerinthus ocellatus_ and _populi_, he says that hermaphroditism is the +usual character of such hybrids. + +I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under the +impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of these +hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a possibility, which +I have not, at present, sufficient data either to prove or to disprove, +that the sterility of hybrids in general (still a somewhat obscure +subject) may perhaps be partly due to hybridism having a tendency to +produce hermaphroditism." + +Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect will +emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to hermaphroditism +as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by the crossing of +_Smerinthus populi_ with _Sm. ocellatus_? I do not think that such will +be the case with the moths of the hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of +the close relationship of Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be +known till the moths have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the +hybrid Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these +were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May. Larvć, +black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced on the 21st of +June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles orange-yellow; head dark +brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of July; fourth stage on the +7th. Larva of same color in those stages; tubercles on the back, +violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the sides, blue. Fifth stage +commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with tubercles on back and sides, +blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon commenced on the 10th of August. Want +of time prevented me from taking fuller and more accurate notes. + +_Attacus Atlas_.--For the first time, as stated before, I attempted the +rearing of a small number of Atlas larvć in the open air on the ailantus +tree, but had to remove the last two remaining larvć in September; the +others had all disappeared in consequence of the heavy and incessant +rains. These larvć were from eggs sent to me by one of my German +correspondents. The pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of +July, and the eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August. + +I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas imported +from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged at intervals +from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not only did the moths +emerge too late in the season, but there never was a chance of obtaining +a pairing. In my report on Indian silkworms, published in the November +number of the "Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year +1881, compiled from the work of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first +appendix of Captain Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are +given the names of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year +1871. + +Of _Attacus atlas_, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at 5,500 feet at +Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in some of the deep +warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common at Almorah, where the +larva feeds almost exclusively upon the 'Kilmorah' bush or _Berberis +asiatica_; while at Mussoorie it will not touch that plant, but feeds +exclusively upon the large milky leaves of _Falconeria insignis_. +The worm is, perhaps, more easily reared than any other of the wild +bombycidć." + +I will now quote from letters received from one of my correspondents in +Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and knowledge in sericulture. + +In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The Atlas +moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would probably feed +on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a great number of +other trees of widely different species; but the tree on which I +have kept it most successfully in a domestic state is the _Milnea +roxburghiana_, a handsome tree, with dark-green ternate leaves, which +keep fresh long after being detached from the tree. I do not think the +cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread usually breaks when it comes +to the open end. I have tried to reel a great many Atlas cocoons, but +always found the process too tedious and troublesome for practical use. + +"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas, and I have +had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on the cashew-nut +tree, on the so-called almond of this country (_Terminalia catappa_), +which is a large tree entirely different from the European almond, and +on many other trees. Most of the trees whose leaves turn red when about +to fall seem to suit it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of +the Atlas moth, I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing, +and that was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larvć +had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or twelve +degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days after the +formation of the cocoon. The duration of the _pupa_ stage in this, and +probably in other species, therefore, depends upon the temperature in +which the larvć have lived, as well as the degree of heat in which the +cocoons are kept; and in transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I +think it will be found that the moths are less liable to be prematurely +forced out by the heat of the Red Sea when the larvć have been reared in +a warm climate than when they have been reared in a cold one. + +"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your reports, that +the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a high temperature, has +the effect of diminishing the size of the cocoons, because the Atlas +and Tusser cocoons produced at the sea-level here are quite as large as +those found in the Central Provinces at elevations of three thousand +feet or more. According to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in +"Lardner's Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm +of mulberry silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the +caterpillars attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the +commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day; and +only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and fortieth +day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must, instead of +causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary effect." + +In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent says: "I am +sorry that you have not had better success in the rearing of your +larvć, but you should not despair. It is possible that the choice of an +improper food-plant may have as much to do with failures as the coldness +and dampness of the English climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas +caterpillars before I found out the proper tree to keep them on in a +domesticated state; and when I did attain partial success, I could +not keep them for more than one generation, till I found the _Milnea +roxburghiana_ to be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper +food-plant of the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with +it, as it is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be +polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a tree +proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on any +other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some your +correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta cocoons are +found in the largest numbers, and what is about the greatest number +found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common enough here, but there +does not seem to be any kind of tree here on which the cocoons are to be +found in greater numbers than twos and threes; and there must be some +tree in India on which the cocoons are to be found in much greater +plenty, because they could not otherwise be collected in sufficient +quantity for manufacturing purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty +or more different kinds of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty +cocoons or larvć may be found on a single tree of _Milnea roxburghiana_, +while they are to be found only singly, or in twos and threes, on any +other tree that I know of. The Atlas and Mylitta seem to be respectively +the Indian relations of the Cynthia and Pernyi. It is, therefore, +probable that the Ailantus would be the most suitable European tree for +the Atlas, and the oak for the Mylitta." + +_Attacus mylitta_ (_Antherća paphia_).--I did not receive a single +cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My stock consisted of seven +cocoons, from the lot received from Calcutta at the end of February, +1880. Five were female, and two male cocoons; one of the latter died, +thus reducing the number to six. The moths emerged as follows: One +female on the 21st of June, one female on the 26th, one female on the +28th, one female on the 1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August; +the latter emerging thirty-four days too late to be of any use for +rearing purposes. The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end +of September. These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case +with other Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even +three times. + +_Attacus cynthia_, from the province of Kumaon.--With the Atlas cocoons, +a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected in the province +of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the same trees; as the +Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all inclosed in leaves of the +_Berberis vulgaris_, which shows that Cynthia is also a polyphagous +species. It is already known that it feeds on several species of trees, +besides the ailantus, such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think, +also on the castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be +added to the above food plants. + +These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much darker in +color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on the ailantus. The +moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a richer color than those +of the cultivated species in Europe. + +During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race obtained +from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree. These cocoons +were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or saffron color; which +I had never seen before. This difference in the color of the cocoon was +very likely produced by the change of food, although it has been stated, +and I think it may be quite correct, that with many species of native +lepidoptera the change of food-plants does not produce any difference of +color in the insects obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared +on the laburnum instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which +will emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained +from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only +difference will be in the color of the cocoons. + +The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with Indian +species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not produce moths +at the same time, nor as regularly as the acclimatized species. The +moths emerged as follows: One female on the 22d of July; one female on +the 25th; one male on the 3d August; one female on the 19th; one male on +the 28th of August; one male on the 2d September; one female on the 3d. +A pairing was obtained with the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th +of September; one male on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d; +one female on the 23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five +cocoons, which did not produce any moths, contain pupć, which are still +in perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer +(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia took +place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of September. The +eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a most curious way, in +smaller or larger quantities, but all forming perfect triangles. These +eggs I gave to a florist who has been very successful in the rearing +of silk-producing and other larvć; telling him to rear the Cynthia on +lilacs grown in pots and placed in a hot-house, which was done. The +worms, which hatched in a few days, as they were placed in a hot-house, +thrived wonderfully well, and I might say they thrived too well, as they +grew so fast and became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees +could not keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth +stage, became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of +course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only +heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the +larvć; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another plant after +the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the privet (_Ligustrum +vulgare_) might have been tried, and success obtained with it. + +Of such species as _Attacus pyri_, of Central Europe, and _Attacus +pernyi_, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have mentioned in my +previous reports, and bred every season for several years, I shall only +say that I never could rear Pyri in the open air in London, up to the +formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I had, in 1881, an immense +quantity of splendid moths, from which I obtained the largest quantity +of ova I ever had of this species. I had many thousands of fertile ova +of Pernyi, which I was unable to distribute. Many schoolboys reared +Pernyi worms, but with what success I do not yet know. The number of +fertile ova obtained from Pyri moths was also more considerable than in +former years, which was due partly to the good quality of the pupć, and +partly to the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings +of the moths took place. + +Leaving these, I now come to the North American species. + +_Telea polyphemus_.--As I have stated in former years, this is the best +North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon, somewhat smaller +than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as that of Pernyi. + +The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and inferior in +quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878 and 1879 were +considerably finer and larger than those which were sent in 1880 and +1881; besides, they were sent in much larger quantities. The cocoons +received this year (1882) are finer than those of 1881, but yet they +cannot be compared with those of 1878 and 1879. + +With about sixty cocoons of _Telea polyphemus_ I only obtained three +pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness of the moths, as +the weather was all that could be desired for the pairings. The moths +emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of July. One male moth emerged +on the 7th September. This latter was one from a small number of cocoons +received from Alabama; the other cocoons of the same race had emerged at +the same time as the cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern +States the species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is +double-brooded. + +The larvć of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in England, almost +as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia; they will pass through +their five stages and spin their cocoons on the trees, unless the +weather should be unexceptionally cold and wet, as was the case during +the month of August, 1881, when the larvć had reached their full size; +they were reared this year on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The +species is extremely polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch, +chestnut, beech, willow, nut, etc. + +The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other species, +varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a transparent green, of +extreme beauty; the head is light brown; without any black dots, as in +Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at the base of each of them there is a +brilliant metallic spot. When the sun shines on them the larvć seem to +be covered with diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines +are also seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the +genus Antherća, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have so +many as Polyphemus. + +The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but the larvć +have not the metallic spots of the species of the genus Antherća. + +_Samia Gloveri_.--Three North American silk-producing bombyces, very +closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous reports; they are; +_Samia ceanothi_, from California; _Samia gloveri_, from Utah and +Arizona; and _Samia cecropia_, commonly found in most of the Northern +States--the latter is the best and largest silk producer. Crossings of +these species took places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova +obtained from a long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri +male, were the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons +received in 1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths +from which no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took +place. In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine, +healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about one +hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of fertile +ova were obtained by the crossings of _S. gloveri_ (female) with _S. +cecropia_ (male), and Cecropia (female) with Gloveri (male). No success, +so far as I know, was obtained with the rearing of the hybrid larvć; the +rearings of the larvć of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure, +only one correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents +have not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The larvć +of _Samia cecropia, S. gloveri_, and _S. ceanothi_, are very much alike; +and hardly any difference can be observed in the first two stages. In +the third and fourth stages, the larvć of _S. cecropia_ and _S. gloveri_ +are also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two +species and _S. cecropia_ being that the tubercles on the back are of a +uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia the first four +dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The tubercles on the +sides are blue on the three species. + +The larvć of the hybrids _Gloveri-cecropia_ were, as far as I could +observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some with six red +tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia. They were reared +on plum, apple, and _Salix caprea_; in the open air. + +The larvć of _Samia gloveri_ were reared, during the first four stages +on a wild plum-tree, then on _Salix, caprea_, and I reproduce the notes +taken on this species, which I bred this year (1881) for the first time. + +Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June; five +pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th of June. +First stage--larvć quite black. Second stage--larvć orange, with black +spines. Third stage--dorsal spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue. +Fourth stage--dorsal spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue; +body light blue on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head, +green; legs, yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larvć nearly the same; +tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at the +base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base. + +The above-mentioned American species, like most other silk-producing +bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides these, I reared three +other species of American bombyces in the house, under glass, and with +the greatest success. These are: _Hyperchiria io_, a beautiful species +mentioned in my report for the year 1879; _Orgyia leucostigma_, from ova +received on December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the +27th of May, 1881. + +The third American species reared under glass is the following very +interesting bombyx: _Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis_. The pupć of +this species are rough, and armed with small, sharp points at all the +segments; the last segment having a thick, straight, and bifid tail. The +moths, which measure from four to about six inches in expanse of wings, +are bright yellow, with large patches and round spots of reddish-brown, +with a purple gloss; besides these patches and round spots, the wings +are covered with small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched +than the female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than +the female. + +With twenty-four pupć of Imperialis I obtained nineteen moths from the +21st of June to the 19th of July; five pupć died. Two pairings took +place; the first from the evening of the 13th to the morning of the +14th; the second from the evening of the 15th to the morning of the 16th +of July. + +The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi, or +Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an amber-yellow +color and transparent, like those of sphingidć. When the larvć have +absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg, and are fully developed; they can +be seen through the shell of the egg, which is white or colorless when +the larva has come out. + +The larvć of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced to hatch on +the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th of August; the +third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of August; the fifth, on +the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the 1st of October. The larvć +commenced to pupate on 13th of October. + +The larvć of this curious species vary considerably in color. Some are +of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny, others are black or +nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who bred this species the +same season as I did, in 1881, had some of the larvć that were green. In +all the stages the larvć have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on +the third segment, two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but +one; this is taking the head as the first segment with regard to the +first four spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points +all round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three +stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are fleshy, +and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first three +stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is coral-red, +yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the spine on the last +segment but one is very short. + +Here are a few and short notes from my book: + +1st stage. Larvć, about one-third of an inch; head, brown, shiny, and +globulous. + +2d stage. Larvć, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white at the base, +and black at the extremities; head shiny and light brown. + +3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the back; +spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at the +extremities; other larvć of a brown color. + +4th stage. Larvć, black granulated with white; long white hairs; horns, +brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two brown spots. Spiracles +well marked with outer circle, brown, then black; white and black dot in +the center. Anal segment with brown ribs, the intervals black with white +dots; head shining, black with two brown bands on the face, forming a +triangle. Other larvć in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red +spines; others with black spines. + +5th stage. Larvć, entirely black, with showy eye-like spiracles, +polished black head; other larvć having the head brown and black. Larvć +covered with long white hair; spines black or red. No difference noticed +between the fifth and sixth stages. + +One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was +described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows: "Larva +reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white hairs, with +four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots on the back, +spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings; legs red, prolegs +black, spotted with red. On segments three and four are four long +coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each segment, below which, on +each side, are two rudimentary ones just behind the head; in front of +segment two are four similar rudimentary orange spines or tubercles; +last segment black, strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and +at the sides, with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines +rising from the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above, +with a short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long +coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three and +four, but shorter" + +As soon as my Imperialis larvć had hatched, I gave them various kinds of +foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At first they did not touch +any kind of foliage, or they did not seem to touch any; and I was afraid +I should be unable to rear them; but on the second or third day of their +existence, they made up their minds and decided upon eating the foliage +of some of the European trees I had offered them. They attacked oak, +sallow, and pine, but did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America, +the larvć of Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American +plane-tree (_Platanus occidentalis_), yet they did not take to _Platanus +orientalis_. After a little time I reduced the foliage to oak and sallow +branches, and ultimately gave them the sallow (_Salix caprea_) only, on +which they thrived very well. I was pleased with this success; as I had +previously read in a volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description +of _Ceratocampa imperialis_, which ends as follows: "The caterpillars +are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to perfection in +confinement, as they will not eat in that situation; and, even if they +change into a chrysalis, they die afterward." + +Before I finish with _C. imperialis_, I must mention a peculiar fact. +During the first stage, and, I think, also during the second, several +larvć disappeared without leaving any traces. I also saw two smaller +larvć held tight by the hind claspers of two larger ones. The larvć thus +held and pressed were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed +them. My impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not +from this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with larvć +of Catocalć when they are too crowded, but from the fact that some had +disappeared entirely from the glass under which they were confined. I +began to reduce their numbers, and put six only under each glass, so as +to be able to watch them better. Whether I had made a mistake or not +previously to this I do not exactly know; but from this moment the +larvae behaved in a most exemplary manner, especially when they became +larger. They crawled over each other's backs without the least sign of +spite or animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larvć +are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most pacific +nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that, for want of +sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of cannibalism which +I first intended to bring against them. + +From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic silk-producing +bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have been observed +that several difficulties, standing in the way of success, have to be +overcome. The moths of North American species emerge regularly enough +during the months of May, June, or July, but Indian and other tropical +species may emerge at any time of the year, if the weather is mild, as +has been the case during this unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From +the end of December to the present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four +species of Indian silk-producers, especially _Antherća roylei_ and +_Actias selene_, have constantly emerged, but only one or two at a time. +These moths emerged from cocoons received in December and January last. + +It is only when these tropical species shall have been already reared in +Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular; then they will +be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and some will very +likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But when just imported +the moths of these tropical species will always be uncertain and +irregular in their emergence; hence the importance of having a +sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this difficulty, i.e., the +loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or irregularly. + +Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a previous +report, that the sending of live cocoons and pupć from India and other +distant countries to Europe, can easily be done, so that they will +arrive alive and in good condition, if care be taken that the boxes +containing these live cocoons and pupć should not be left in the sun or +near a fire (which has been the case before), and that they should at +once be put in a cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The +cocoons and pupć should be sent from October to March or April, +according to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases, +"Living silkworm cocoons or pupć, the case to be placed in the ice +room." + +By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pupć, when newly +formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries of Europe. + +To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always be glad +to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for other species, +if preferable. + +ALFRED WAILLY. + +110 Clapham Road, London, S.W. + + * * * * * + + + + +MOSQUITO OIL. + + +A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the size of +its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen, recommends the +following as a very good mixture for anointing the face and hands while +fishing: + + Oil of tar. 1 ounce. + Olive oil. 1 ounce. + Oil of pennyroyal. ˝ ounce. + Spirit of camphor. ˝ ounce. + Glycerine. ˝ ounce. + Carbolic acid. 2 drachms. + +Mix. Shake well before using.--_Drug. Circular_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS. + + +This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same name, adorns +the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The corner stone was laid +July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his Queen Beatrice, assisted +by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is indebted to Mauricio for the +selection of the site, and for the general idea and planning of what he +intended should be, and in fact now is, the finest temple of worship in +the world. This immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns, +pointed arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked +by two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime +invocation of Christian genius. + +Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain distance, as if +the pyramids were floating in space; further on is seen the marvelous +dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers of chiseled lace-work, +over the center of the church. + +Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years after the +work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred years, various +additional portions were completed. On March 4, 1539, the great +transept, built fifty years previous, fell down; but was soon restored. +August 16, 1642, at 6˝ o'clock, P.M., a furious hurricane overthrew the +eight little towers that form the exterior corner of the dome; but in +two years they were replaced, namely July 19, 1644: the same night the +great bells sounded an alarm of fire, the transept having in some way +become ignited. The activity of the populace, however, prevented the +loss of the edifice, which for a time was in great danger. + +The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the edifice +was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the Cathedral of +Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was Juan Perez, who +died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under the cathedral. He is +believed to have been either the son or brother of the celebrated Master +Pedro Perez, who designed the Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299. +The third architect of the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who +directed the work in 1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina, +Martin Fernandez, the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe, +the elder Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and +others. It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were +employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as +Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the +Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the figure +sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the Masters Gil and +Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan +de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and many others. Our engraving is from +a recent number of _La Ilustracion Espanola y Americana_. + +[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE +LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PANAMA CANAL. + +By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal. + +I. + +HISTORICAL NOTES. + + +When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two great +oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in those remote +days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut through the +Cordilleras. + +Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a modern +one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a great +depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As Professor T.E. +Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs: + +"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said to +possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It clearly +links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez, three and a half +centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been left for our modern era +to solve, but nevertheless its history is thereby rendered still more +interesting, having needed so many centuries to bring it to an issue. + +[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of +Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.] + +Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying near, as +it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be indifferent, from +the moment of her discoveries, to the means of crossing these lands to +yet richer ones beyond. + +India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela, Strabo, +and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the spices, the +inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of commerce thither had +been closed one by one to the Christians; the overland trade had fallen +into the hands of the Arabs; and at the fall of Constantinople, 1453, +the commerce of the Black Sea and of the Bosphorus, the last of the old +routes to the East, finally failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond +the fame of the East, which tradition had brought down from Greek and +Roman, much more had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its +riches an ardor not easily suppressed in men's minds. + +The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern shores +of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the meridian of +the modern San Diego, in California--this error, insisted on in his +dispatches and adopted and continued by his followers, still further +animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns and the men whom they sent into +the New World to reach Asia by a short and easy route. + +Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new continent, +and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then it was known +that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their course there. On +his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his delusion that he had +reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was exploring the coast of Veragua, +in Central America, still looking for the Ganges, and announcing his +being informed on this coast of a sea which would bear ships to the +mouth of that river, while about the same time the Cabots, under Henry +VII., were taking possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of +the island coast of China. + +Although these were grave blunders in geography and in navigation, the +discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones, the acquirement of +a new world, and the rich products continually reaching Europe from it, +for a time aroused Spain from her lethargy. The world opened east and +west. The new routes poured their spices, silks, and drugs through new +channels into all the Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having +near access to the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by +the certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained. + +Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama the first +proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters the South Sea +at the southern extremity of the country, now first proven to be thus +separate and a continent. Men in those days began to think that creation +was doubled, and that such discovered lands must be separate from India, +China, and Japan. And the very successes of the Portuguese under Vasco +da Gama, bringing from their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's +wealth, intensely excited the Spaniards to renew their western search. + +The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought home vast +treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers, as yet, had not +reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the Inca. Their success +"troubled the sleep of the Spaniards." + +Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the thirst +for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold calculations +of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to sacrifice what +Spain already had of most value on the American shores in order to seize +upon a greater good, the Indies, still supposed to be near at hand. And +since it was now certain that the new lands were not themselves Asia, +the next aim was to find the secret of the narrow passage across +them which must lead thither. The very configuration of the isthmus +strengthened the belief in the existence of such a passage by the number +of its openings, which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that +some one of them must extend across the narrow breadth of land. + +For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to +D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the +navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and to +send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible. For +this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led far to the +south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan entered the straits, +which, strangely enough, he affirmed before setting out, that he "would +enter," since he "had seen them marked out on the geographer Martin +Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent out his expeditions on both +coasts, exposing his own life and treasure, and sending home to the +emperor, in his second relation, a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico +(Dispatch from Cortez to Charles V., October 15, 1524). For this great +purpose, and in full expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of +the New World on each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving +westward on the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico, +thence to Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to +the Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence. +"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that the +continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and south." Hence +all these large, numerous, and persevering expeditions by the European +powers. + +Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain. The great +emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all in subordinate +positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the strait. All Spain was +awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was she," says Chevalier, "in the +sixteenth century; what daring, what heroism and perseverance! Never had +the world seen such energy, activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will +that regarded no obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far +higher than those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand +cities, they drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the +very forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of +giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work necessary +to bind together climates and oceans would have been done at the word of +the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature had not left a passage +through the center of America, no matter, so much the better for +the glory of the human race; they would make it up by artificial +communication. What, indeed, was that for men like them? It were done +at a word. Nothing else was left for them to conquer, and the world was +becoming too small for them." + +Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been in vain +sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal or several +canals would have been built to take the place of the long-desired +strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara, the author of the +"History of the Indies," proposed the union of the oceans by three of +the very same lines toward which, to this hour, the eye turns with hope. + +"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these passes, but if +there are mountains there are also hands; let but the resolve be made, +there will be no want of means; the Indies, to which the passage will +be made, will supply them. To a king of Spain, with the wealth of the +Indies at his command, when the object to be obtained is the spice +trade, what is possible is easy. + +But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The peninsula +had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in smothering free +thought among his own people, and in wasting his immense resources in +vain efforts to repress it also outside of his own dominions through all +Europe. From that hour, Spain became benumbed and estranged from all +the advances of science and art, by means of which other nations, and +especially England, developed their true greatness. + +Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that boats could +ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear that the +Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a like means of +establishing any communication between her sea of the Antilles and the +South Sea. The mystery enveloping the deliberations of the council of +the Indies has not always remained so profound that we could not know +what was going on in that body. The Spanish government afterward opened +up to Humboldt free access to its archives, and in these he found +several memoirs on the possibility of a union between the two oceans; +but he says that in no one of them did he find the main point, the +height of the elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and +he could not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or +English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age of +Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in every +one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of Spain, when a +traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after making him tell of +the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of the Inca, Atahualpa, +and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after asking his opinion of El +Dorado, the question was always about the two oceans, and what great +things would happen if they could succeed in joining them. + +During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spain +had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures across the +isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route from Panama to +the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her European wares for +her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while the roughest of +communication farther north connected the Chimalapa and the Guasacoalcos +in Mexico, and the trade there was limited sternly to but one port on +each side. As late as Humboldt's visit, in 1802, when remarking upon the +"unnatural modes of communication" by which, through painful delays, the +immense treasures of the New World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil, +and Lima, to Spain, he says: "These will soon cease whenever an active +government, willing to protect commerce, shall construct a good road +from Panama to Porto Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and +her fear to open to strangers the way to the countries explored for her +own profit, only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on +pain of death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They +wronged their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and +the rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving the +route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as 1775, +an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned. The +memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy fell under +the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor the plans. + +The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish +government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and the +lines of communication which we know to-day were then noted. + +In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored north or +south of that which early became the main highway, the Panama route, +there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain concealed and even +falsified much of her generally accurately made surveys. No stronger +proof of this need be asked than that which Alcedo gives in connection +with the proposal by Gogueneche, the Biscayan pilot, to open +communication by the Atrato and the Napipi. "The Atrato," says the +historian, "is navigable for many leagues, but the navigation of it is +prohibited under pain of death, without the exception of any person +whatever." + +The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious consideration for +a ship canal route by its very marked physical characteristics, among +which is chiefly its great depression between two nearly parallel ranges +of hills, which depression is the basin of its large lake, a natural and +all-sufficient feeder for such a canal. + +In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast of the +South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at only +three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and fell +alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of the North. +Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the idea that here +the easy transit would be established between Spain and the spice lands +beyond. + +It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open +communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps +represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one of +its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake Nicaragua. An +exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli, under the orders of +Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open strait. + +In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her +neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from their +view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the English +government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the solicitudes of +the Spanish government for this section. The English colonels, Hodgson +and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and portions of the country, +forwarding their plans to London, as the basis of an armed incursion, +to renew such as had already been made by the superintendent of the +Mosquito coast, forty years before, when, crossing the isthmus, he took +possession of Realejo, on the Pacific, seeking to change its name to +Port Edward. In 1780, Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from +Admiral Sir Peter Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San +Juan de Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country. + +In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to the great +object of government, I intend to possess the lake of Nicaragua, which, +for the present, may be looked upon as the inland Gibraltar of Spanish +America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its +situation must ever render it a principal post to insure passage to the +Southern Ocean, and by our possession of it Spanish America is severed +into two." + +The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult; for the +seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown, scarcely forced +their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly regretted that the expedition +had not arrived in January, in place of the close of the dry season. It +was a disastrous failure, costing the English the lives of one thousand +five hundred men, and nearly losing to them their Nelson. + +At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to explore the +country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as regarded the route; +but fearing further intrusion from England, forbade all access to the +coast; even falsifying and suppressing its charts and permanently +injuring the navigation of the San Juan and the Colorado by obstructions +in their beds. + +It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt visited the +New World, he could say: "The time is passed when Spain, through a +jealous policy, refused to other nations a thoroughfare across the +possessions of which they kept the whole world so long in ignorance. +Accurate maps of the coasts, and even minute plans of military +positions, are published." It is also true that the Spanish Cortes, +in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a decree deferred and never +executed. + +It was reserved for our century to see this great project carried into +execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of events I should +connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a family who have done much +to bring the scheme, so to say, into practical execution. + +As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views toward the +cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He resided at the time +on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French West India Islands, +where he possessed large estates. Of a high social position, the +representative of one of France's ancient and noble families, with large +means at his disposal and of an enterprising spirit much in advance of +his time, he was well calculated to carry out such a grand scheme. + +He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada (now +Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time and many +efforts were spent before these could be brought to a satisfactory +condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he could again visit +the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a vessel chartered by him +for the purpose, a corps of engineers and employes, medical staff, etc., +etc. After two years spent in exploring and surveying a country at that +time very imperfectly known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his +residence and most of his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake +that visited the island in February, 1843. + +Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla persisted in +his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the French government +the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to insure protection to the +future canal company, and also the sending of two government engineers +of high repute (Messrs. Garella and Courtines), to verify the surveys +already made and complete them. + +After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines, Mr. +De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the Isthmus, +postponing the cutting of the canal until this indispensable auxiliary +should have rendered it practicable and profitable. He then presented +the scheme in that shape to his friends in Paris and London, and formed +a syndicate of thirteen members, among whom we may recall the names of +the well known Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London, +of Sir John Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship +Company, of Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the +exploring engineer. + +A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June, 1847, and +early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the Isthmus the +expedition which was to execute the preliminary works, while the company +was being finally organized in Paris, and its stock placed. + +The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond peradventure, +when the unexpected breaking out of the French revolution in February, +1848, dashed all hopes to the ground. Several of the prominent +financiers engaged in the affair, taken by surprise by the suddenness of +the revolution, had to suspend their payments and of course to withdraw +from the Panama Canal and railroad scheme. Others withdrew from +contagious fear and timidity. Finally the term fixed for carrying out +certain obligations of the contract expired without their fulfillment +by the company, and the concession was forfeited. Another contract was +almost immediately applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the +President of New Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey, +which resulted in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad. + +These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling Mr. +De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new scheme. +Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic terminus of the +railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of Manzanillo, while Mr. +De Sabla insisted on having it on the mainland on the dry and healthy +northern shore of the Bay of Limon. They could not come to an +understanding on this point, and Mr. De Sabla, whose experience and +foresight taught him the dangers that would result to the shipping from +the unprotected situation of the projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall), +and who well knew the insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting +the Island of Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after +having devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of +his life and a large portion of his private means. + +One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively +co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme +of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's +representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the Panama +Railroad Company. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE. + + +At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in +this city, a paper on an improved form of the averaging machine was read +by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S. Auchincloss. + +The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is eliminated +from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited and explained. +This is accomplished by counterweights sliding automatically in tubes, +so that in any position the unloaded platform is always in equilibrium. +Any combination of representative weights can then be placed on this +platform at the proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform +to its balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at +once be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central trunnion. + +The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with intermediate +weights for closer working, or they may be made so as to express +multiples or factors. + +Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales, divided +suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of time, the +scale represents months and days; for problems of proportion, the zero +of the scale is at the center of its length; for problems for the +location of center of gravity of a system from a fixed point, the zero +is at the extremity of the scale, etc. + +The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which, by +arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two hundred +and fifty-two grooves. + +The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and weighs about +13 pounds. + +With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance, of +purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also average +prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton brokers. The +problem of average haul, so often presented to the engineer, can be +solved with ease and great celerity. Practical examples of the solution +of these and a number of other problems involving proportions or +averages were given by the author. + + * * * * * + + + + +COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE. + + +The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for a mill, +and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure being seven +atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five per minute. As +will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed in a separate +foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon cranks keyed +at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the drum, T. The +high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low pressure cylinder +being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed 2.28 m. The drum, which +also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel, is provided with twenty-eight +grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter. With the exception of the +cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve chests, the engines are of the +same size, corresponding to the equal maximum pressures which come into +action in each cylinder, and in this respect alone the engine differs in +principle from an ordinary twin machine. + +[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1] + +The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the steam pipe, +D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done its work, goes into +the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the receiver it is led into +the low-pressure cylinder, C1, and thence into the condenser. Provision +is made for working both engines independently with direct steam when +desired, suitable gear being provided for supplying steam of the proper +pressure to the condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform +exactly the same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a +hand-wheel, H, which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which +opens the valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The +hand-wheel, h1 and h2, govern the valves, which turn the steam direct +into the two cylinders. There are also lever, g, which opens the +principal injection cock, H1, and the auxiliary injection cock, H2, the +function of which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the +engine has been standing for some time. + +[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2] + +The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a total +weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with balance weights +cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of wrought iron, and +the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods, etc., of steel. The +bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast in one piece with the +standards for the beam, which are connected firmly together by the +center bearing, M M1, which is cast in one piece, and also by the +diagonal bracing piece, N N1. The construction of the cylinder and valve +chests is shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a +liner to the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to +future renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting +it down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper packing +ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is pressed down by +the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and strengthened by ribs. +The pistons are provided with cast iron double self-expanding packing +rings. For preventing accidents by condensed water, spring safety +valves, ss and s1 s1, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear, +which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is actuated +by shafts, w and w1, rotated by toothed wheels as shown. Motion is +communicated from the way-shafts, w and w1, by the eccentrics, and the +eccentric rods, e1 e2 e3 e4, and the levers and rods belonging thereto, +to the short steam valve rocking shafts levers, f1 f2 f3 f4, and the +exhaust valve rocking shafts, k1 k2 k3 k4, the bearings of which are +carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being furnished with +tappet levers, raise and lower the valves. + +[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3] + +The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the inlet +and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the seats being +also conically ground and inserted through the cover of the valve chest. +Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from above, and are removable +upward, an arrangement which admits of the valves being more easily +examined than when the two are actuated from different sides of the +valve chest. To carry out this idea the inlet valves are furnished with +two guides, which, passing upward through the stuffing-box, are attached +to a hard steel cross piece, which receives the action of a bent catch +turning on a pin attached to the levers, t1, t2, t3, t4. The exhaust +valves, on the contrary, have only one guide each, which passes upward +through the seat of the admission valve, through the valve itself by +means of a collar, and through the stuffing-box. It is furnished with +hard steel armatures, through which the levers, z1 z2, Fig. 3, act upon +the exhaust valves. + +[Illustration: BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4] + +The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the loosening of +the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard steel projections +on the shaft, v1, the position of which, by means of levers, is +regulated by the governor, which in its highest position does not allow +the lifting of the inlet valve at all. The regulation of the expansion +by the governor from 0 to 0.45 takes place generally only in the case of +the high-pressure cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed +rate of expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required +to work with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to +regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides and +a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash pot +pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily admitted by +a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again is controlled at +pleasure.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + +TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the salt +to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add to +the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop. Should a +turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should the liquid +remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be added, which will +cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace of an alkali be present. + + * * * * * + + + + +POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM. + +[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers.--_Engineering_.] + +By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London. + + +The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer about five +and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a power hammer +which, while under the complete control of only one workman, could +produce blows of varying forces without alteration in the rapidity with +which they were given. It was also necessary that the vibration and +shock of the hammer head should not be transmitted to the driving +mechanism, and that the latter should be free from noise and liability +to derangement. The various uses to which the movable fulcrum hammers +have been put, and their success in working[1]--as well as the +importance of the general subject which includes them, namely, the +substitution of stored power for human effort--form the author's excuse +for now occupying the time of the meeting. + +[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A. Bamlett, of +Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs. W.&T. Avery, of +Birmingham; Pullar & Sons, of Perth; Salter & Co., of West Bromwich; +Vernon Hope & Co., of Wednesbury, etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs. +Collins & Co., of Birmingham, etc.] + +Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had been +devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally adopted +was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the driving belt, a +friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the driving pulley, put in +action by the hand or foot of the workman. Heavy blows were produced +by simply increasing the number of blows per minute (and therefore the +velocity), and light blows by diminishing it--a plan which was quite +contrary to the true requirements of the case. To prevent the shock +of the hammer head being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic +connection was usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring +or a cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation +which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer was +very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but with the +compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary considerably +in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer weighing 400lb. The +pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a connecting rod or a slotted +crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston and a cylinder which formed the +hammer-head. The piston-rod was packed with a cup leather, or with +ordinary packing, the latter required to be adjusted with the greatest +nicety, otherwise the piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or +else the force of the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston +moved with the same velocity during its upward and downward strokes, +and, in the latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under +the action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give +a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer was +required than if the velocity of the piston had been accelerated to a +greater degree. + +As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all the +forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged, two types +only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a small planishing +hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1] + +[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings & Co, of +Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of these +hammers.] + +The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used for +copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other thin work, +for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the blow once for all +by hand, according to the thickness and quality of the material before +commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs 15 lb., and has a stroke +variable from 2˝ in. to 9˝ in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The +driving shaft, A, is fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt +fork being connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the +foot of the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and +starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight on +the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and the hammer +is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on one side, +so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its stroke after +working; thus enabling the material to be placed on the anvil before +starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B, consists of a stud, free to +slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and held in position by a nut and +toothed washer. On the fulcrum is mounted the socket, D, through which +passes freely a round bar or rocking lever, E, attached at one end to +the main piston, F, of the hammer, G, and having at the other extremity +a long slide, H, mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the +crank-pin, I, fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A. +The crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and +main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection, the +hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also moves +backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the fulcrum, +B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from it during +the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer is considerably +accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp blow to be given +while it is gently raised during its upward stroke. + +To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise and fall +through a greater or less distance, as may be required, from the fixed +anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving heavy or light +blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special alteration of the +stroke could not be obtained by altering the throw of a simple crank and +connecting rod; but by placing the slot, C, parallel with the direction +of the rocking lever, E, when the latter is in its lowest position, with +the hammer resting on the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its +stroke, this lowest position of the rocking lever and hammer is made +constant, no matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot, +C. To obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum +is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long stroke +and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite direction. + +Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the main +piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are dispensed +with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit the main piston, +F, the latter being also bored out to receive an internal piston, L. A +pin, M, passing freely through slots in the main piston, F, connects +rigidly the internal piston, L, with the hammer, G. When the main piston +is raised by the rocking lever, the air in the space, X, between the +main and internal pistons, is compressed, and forms an elastic medium +for lifting the hammer; when the main piston is moved down, the air in +the space, Y, is compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to +give the blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air +automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the hammer. + +Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size forging +hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting bars, and +plating edged tools, etc. + +The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to 14˝ in., +and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air space between the +main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long to admit forgings up to +3 in. thick under the hammer. + +To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them into the +desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is still in a +highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a succession of +lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a slower rate than the +lighter ones, to allow time for turning the work in the dies or on the +anvil, and so to avoid the risk of spoiling it. In forging with the +steam hammer the workman requires an assistant, who, with the lever +of the valve motion in hand, obeys his directions as to starting and +stopping, heavy or light blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest +speed attainable depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant. +In the movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and +stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the complete +control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore no assistant; +and by properly proportioning the diameter of the driving pulley and +size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are given at a slower rate +than the light ones, owing to the greater resistance which they offer to +the driving belt. + +In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for the +starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as those for +communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer by means of +a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to those in the +planishing hammer, differing only in the details, which provide double +guides and bearings for the principal working parts. + +[Illustration: LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.] + +The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two adjustable steel +pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned conical where they +fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in +the framing of the machine, and is connected at its lower extremity +to the nut, S, in gear with the regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro +movement of the fulcrum lever, Q, by which heavy or light blows are +given by the hammer, is placed under the control of the foot of the +workman, in the following manner: U is a double-ended forked lever, +pivoted in the center, and having one end embracing the starting pedal, +P, and the other end the small belt which connects the fast pulley +on the driving shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing +pulleys, W and X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels, +W_{1}, and X_{1}, gearing into and placed at opposite sides of the bevel +wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in connection with the fulcrum lever. +When the workman places his foot on the pedal, P, to start the hammer, +he finds his foot within the fork of the lever, U; and by slightly +turning his foot round on his heel he can readily move the forked +lever to right or left, so shifting the small belt on to either of the +reversing pulleys, W or X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to +revolve in either direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move +forward or backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked +lever into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place +on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the +lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work, adjustable +stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y, connected to an arm of +the forked lever. When the nut of the regulating screw comes in contact +with either of the stops, the forked lever is forced into mid position, +in spite of the pressure of the foot of the workman, and thus further +movement of the fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking, +is prevented. The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any +required blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in +connection with the regulating screw. + +In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact, that in +many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the midland counties, +foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is still employed to an +enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with hammers up to 60 lb. in +weight, are laboriously put in motion by the foot of the workman, at a +speed averaging fifty blows per minute; while large numbers of stamps, +worked by hand and foot, and weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed. +The low first cost of the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the +system of piece work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their +methods of working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small +amount of progress that has been made; although in a few cases +competition, particularly with the United States of America, has forced +the manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to employ +steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in connection +with forging and stamping processes there is still a wide and profitable +field for the ingenuity and capital of engineers, who choose to +occupy themselves with this minor, but not the less useful, branch of +mechanics. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF IRON. + + +Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougrée, near Liege, have +applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating, and, since the +year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been obtained in this +last-named application are so satisfactory that it appears to us to be +of interest to speak of the matter in some detail. + +The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of three +distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber into which +the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and wherein the +combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or laboratory (not +represented in the figure), wherein the combustion is nearly finished, +and wherein take place the different reactions of puddling. These three +parts are given dimensions that vary according to the composition of the +different coals, and they may be made to use any sort of coal, even +the fine and schistose kinds which would not be suitable for ordinary +puddling. The gases and the air necessary for the combustion of these +being brought together at different temperatures, and being drawn into +the mixing chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the +dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind of +coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought together is not +a matter of indifference. + +[Illustration: THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE. + +Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR] + +The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops, through +small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D. These apertures +are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the generator is formed of +a small standing grate. The coal, on falling upon a mass in a state of +ignition, distills and becomes transformed into coke, which gradually +slides down over a grate to produce afterward, through its own +combustion, a distillation of the coal following it. But as these are +features found in all generators we will not dwell upon them. + +The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue, B, into +a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the upper part a +series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that has been heated. +The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c (not shown in the +cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before the air is allowed to +reach the intervening chamber it is made to pass into the sole of the +furnace and into the walls of the chamber, so that to the advantage of +having the air heated there is joined the additional one of having those +portions of the furnace cooled that cannot be heated with impunity. + +The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are utilized +in heating the boilers of the establishment. The dimensions given these +furnaces vary greatly according to the charge to be used. All the +results at Ougrée have been obtained with 400 kilogramme charges, +and the dimensions of the gas generators have been calculated for +Six-Bonniers coal, which does not yield over 20 per cent. of gas. + +The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all the +operations of puddling, are as follows: + +1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and quality. + +2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with a +consequent improvement in the quality of the products obtained. + +3. Diminution in cost of repairs. + +4. Less rapid wear in the grates. + +5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling. + +As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that the +puddling of ordinary Ougrée forge iron, which required with other +furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now performed with less +than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron produced. The puddling of fine +grained iron which required 1,300 to 1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now +done with 800. So much for quantity; as for quality the system presents +also a very marked advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the +operation of the furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that +sifted through screens of 0.02 meter. + +The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost +complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage amounts +to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of iron produced is +accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes, instead of 13 to 15 +as ordinarily reckoned. + +The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that the +furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to all +parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact with the +fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in other styles of +furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without the necessity of +the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates results from the low +temperature that can be used in the furnace, and the quantity of clinker +that can be left therein without interfering with its operation, thus +permitting of having the grates always black. These latter in no wise +change, and after five months of work the square bars still preserve +their sharpness of edges. + +As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of puddling, it +may be stated that with a uniform price per 100 kilogrammes for all the +furnaces, the laborers working at the gas furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per +cent. more than those working at ordinary furnaces. + + * * * * * + + + + +GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE. + + +It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the usual +plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with press plates, +press papers, and presses. Three objections of great weight may be +mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a fourth. The three +objections are--the labor required in setting or folding the cloth, +the expense of the press papers, and the time required. The fourth +objection, about which a dispute has occurred between the press-setters +and the master finishers in Leeds, refers to the inapplicability of the +common system to long lengths. The men object to these on account of +the great labor involved in shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press +plates to and from the presses. A minor drawback of this system is +that it involves the presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On +account of these drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable +to expedite the process, and also to dispense with the press papers. +This is the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in +which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a species +of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow cylinder, C, +three-quarters of the circumference of which is covered by the hollow +boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes shown, and which are +mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are at bb. By means of the +hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which closes or opens the levers, BB', +the pressure of the boxes upon the central roller may be adjusted at +will, the spring-bolt, F, allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces +of the press-boxes, MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver +attached to the point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers +in the ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is +as follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom board +in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O, after which it +is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is conveyed over the +rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence between the pressing +roller, C, and the German silver press plate covering the heated boxes, +M. Leaving these the piece passes over the roller, P, and is cuttled +down in the bottom board by the cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up +motion may be applied. The maker states that arrangements for brushing +and steaming may also be attached, so that in one passage through the +machine a piece may be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the +cylinder may be adjusted according to the quality or requirements of +the goods that are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the +_Textile Manufacturer_, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the +rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often obtained. +Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth & Co., who have erected many of these +machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us that they find they +are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety of cloths, from Bradford +goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces of Dewsbury and Batley. The +inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue, Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient +for pressing goods with thick lists. He provides an arrangement for +moving the cylinder endwise, according to the different widths of +the pieces to be treated. One list is left outside at the end of the +cylinder, and the other at the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The +machine we saw was 80 in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design +and construction of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES. + + +Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with strap +dividers, has experimented in another direction on the carding engine, +and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we herewith give the +necessary illustrations, so that our readers can judge for themselves as +to the merit of these inventions. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is delivered by +the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer fibers are then +taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the stripper, E, which +transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to the cylinder. The shorter +fibers which are not seized by the comb fall down, but as they drop +they meet a blast of air created by a fan, which throws the lighter and +cleaner parts in a kind of spray upon the roller, L, whence they pass on +to the cylinder, while the dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards +into a box, and are by this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident +that in this arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the +short fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of +the yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end. +Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way, it +runs upon a sheet of linen, Pš, as in the case of carding for felt, with +a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of the rollers. In this +way one or more layers of the fleece can be placed on the sheet, which +in that case passes backwards and forwards from roller S to R, and _vice +versa_. It is, in fact, the bat arrangement used for felt, only with +this difference, that the bat is at once rolled up instead of going +through the bat frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of +importance to have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over +each other in order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the +manufacture of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may +be rather costly. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + * * * * * + + + + +NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES. + + +One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the +traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is exerted +in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with spindles and +bearings as usually made the spindle is supported firmly in its bearing, +and cannot give in case of such a lateral pull when exerted through the +yarn by the traveler, and the consequence is either a breakage of the +yarn or an uneven thread. Impressed with this idea, and in order to +remedy this defect, an eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of +driving the spindle by friction, and to make it more or less loose in +the bearings, so that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the +spindle can give way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the +yarn. This idea has been carried out in four different ways, and as this +seems to be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the +illustrations of their construction in detail. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.] + +Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the thread +guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The spindle is +held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the spindle rail, S, +this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is elongated upwards in a +cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil, and keep it from flying; +d is the wharf, which has attached to it the sleeve, m, and which is +situated loosely in the space between the spindle and the footstep, e. +Above the wharf the spindle is hexagonal in shape, and to this part is +attached the friction plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface +of the wharf a cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The +footstep, e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle +and the sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the +bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite free, +the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the direction of any +sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can follow this motion in the +opposite direction, the collar forming the fulcrum for the spindle. By +this alteration of the vertical position of the spindle into an inclined +one (though ever so trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and +the wharf is interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced. +This will cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be +neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its +centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus bring +the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the extra drag has +been removed. + +In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more closely +fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens out +gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger diameter than +the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable play sideways. The +wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g, which runs upon a steel +ring as above. The upper surface of the wharf is arched, and upon this +is fitted the correspondingly arched friction plate, a, which latter +is attached to the spindle by a screw. The position of the spindle is +maintained by the collar, m. This collar is loose in the spindle rail, +and only held by the spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon +the upper part of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of +this drag, and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position, +the friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring +conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the spindle +into its normal position as soon as the drag is again even. + +Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B, resting +upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf, d, is here +situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in the preceding +case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z. The friction plate +resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar, a, running out into a +cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle, which here has a hexagonal +form. In this case the collar gives with the spindle, which latter +has the necessary play in the long footstep; and as the collar and +friction-plate are one, it is brought back to its normal place by +centrifugal force. + +A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and traveler, +f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the same time an +inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the footstep, e, the +oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its height. The wharf +is placed in the same position as in the previous case, having also +a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a steel ring, z. The +friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf carries the flier, and on its +upper surface is in contact with the inverted cup, a, which is attached +to the spindle by a pin or screw. In order to limit at will the lateral +motion of the spindle there is attached to the latter, between the +footstep and the collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more +or less by a small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the +perpendicular position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a +high degree of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the +bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction motion +whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although the notion of +mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to center themselves +is not new, it is evident that considerable ingenuity has been brought +to bear upon the arrangement of the spindles we have described, but we +are not in a position to say to what extent practice has in this case +coincided with theory.--_Textile Manufacturer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER. + +By LEON VIDAL. + + +This process is similar in many respects to the one which was some +time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by M. +Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and complete +form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the meeting of the +same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The following are the details, +as demonstrated by me at the meeting of the 9th of May last: + +Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully planished +and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive mixture is +composed of: + + The whites of four fresh eggs beaten + to a froth......................... 100 parts + Pure bichromate of ammonia......... 2.50 " + Water.............................. 50 " + +After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper filter, a +few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for some time if well +corked and preserved from exposure to the light. Even two months after +being prepared I have found it to be still good; but too large a +quantity should not be prepared at a time, as it does not improve with +keeping. + +I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as the +fresh. In that case I employ the following formula: + + Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20 parts + Water.............................. 100 " + Ammonia bichromate................. 2.50 " + +Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a well corked +bottle and in a dark place. + +To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which it is +made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the perfect +adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular elastic ring +of the holder before applying it to the metallic surface. When this is +done, the table may be made to rotate quickly without fear of detaching +the plate by the rapidity of the movement. The plate is placed in a +perfectly horizontal position, where no dust can settle on it; the +mixture is then poured on it, and distributed by means of a triangular +piece of soft paper, so as to cover equally all the parts of the plate. +Care should be taken not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and +when the latter is everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a +different vessel from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else +into a filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be +inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is made +to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to make the +film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even. The whole +operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as too strong a +light would render insoluble the film of bichromated albumen. + +When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the turning +table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not more than 40° +or 50° C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient to dry the albumen quickly; +a greater heat would spoil it, as it would produce coagulation. So soon +as the film is dry, which will be seen by the iridescent aspect it +assumes, the plate is allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature, +and is then at once exposed either beneath a positive, or beneath an +original drawing the lines of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as +to completely prevent the luminous rays from passing through them; the +light should only penetrate through the white or transparent ground of +the drawing. + +I say a _positive_ because I wish to obtain an engraved plate; if I +wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I should have to take a +_negative_. After exposure the plate must be at once developed, which is +effected by dissolving in water those parts of the bichromated gelatine +which have been protected from the action of light by the dark spaces +of the cliché; these parts remain soluble, while the others have been +rendered completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water +it would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on +copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with some +aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in water, +answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be dissolved in +the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon as the plate is +plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on by light is dissolved, +while the insoluble parts are colored by absorbing the dye, so that the +metal is exposed in the lines against a red or violet ground, according +to the color of the dye used. + +When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of the +original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry either of its +own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So soon as it is dry +it is etched, and this is done by means of a solution of perchloride +of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron perchloride will coagulate +albumen; their action, therefore, on the image will not be injurious, +since they will harden the remaining albumen still further. But to get +the full benefit of this, the alcohol and the iron perchloride must +both be free from water; it is therefore advisable to use the salt in +crystals which have been thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength +of 95°. + +The following is the formula: + + Perchloride of iron, well dried 50 gr. + Alcohol at 95° 100 " + +This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any deposit +which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked bottle, when it +will keep for a long time. The plate is first coated with a varnish of +bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those parts are not already covered +with albumen) and on the back, so that the etching liquid can only act +on the lines to be engraved. It is then placed, with the side to be +engraved downwards, in a porcelain basin, into which a sufficient +quantity of the solution of perchloride of iron is poured, and the +liquid is kept stirred so as to renew the portion which touches the +plate; but care must be taken not to touch with the brush the parts +where there is albumen remaining. The length of time that the etching +must be continued depends on the depth required to be given to +the engraving; generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be +sufficient. Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over +half an hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved. +When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the plate +must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of water; +it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove all the +albumen, and after it has been polished with a little pumice, the +engraving is complete. + +It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage instead of +that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it is not advisable +to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch, suggests the plan--which +seems to deserve a careful investigation--of combining this process +with that where bitumen is employed; it would be done somewhat in the +following way. The plate of metal would be first coated evenly with +bitumen of Judea on the turning table, and when the bitumen is quite +dry, it should be again coated with albumen in the manner as described +above. In full sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length; +then the plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in +spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all +the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen not +rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be seen +whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method; therefore, +before recommending the process, it ought to be thoroughly studied. The +metal is now exposed in all the parts that have to be etched, while +all the other parts are protected by a layer of bitumen coated with +coagulated albumen. Hence we may employ as mordant water acidulated with +3, 4, or 5 per cent. of nitric acid, according as it is required to have +the plate etched with greater or less vigor. + +By following the directions above given, any one wishing to adopt the +process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its greatest +advantages is that it is within the reach of every one engaged in +printing operations.--_Photo News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MERIDIAN LINE. + +[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County Surveyors of +Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.] + + +The following process has been used by the undersigned for many years. +The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of arc: + +_Directions_.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper window--the +higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or more. Let it +project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and have it swing in a +bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will render the upper part of +the string visible. Place a small table or stand about 20 feet south of +the plumb-bob, and on its south edge stick the small blade of a pocket +knife; place the eye close to the blade, and move the stand so as to +bring the blade, string, and polar star into line. Place the table so +that the star shall be seen very near the slat in the window. Let this +be done half an hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within +four or five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved +to the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a little +to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few alignments the +star will move along the string--down, if the elongation is west; up, if +east. On the first of June the eastern elongation occurs about half-past +two in the morning, and as daylight comes on shortly after the +observation is completed, I prefer that time of year. The time of +meridian passage or of the elongation can be found in almost any work on +surveying. Of course the observer should choose a calm night. + +In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade and +string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the elongation +is east; to the right, if west. + +Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure 200 or +300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and compute the +offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground, and drive a tack +in the usual way. + +Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1° 40', then the offset +will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 3ź inches. A minute of arc at the distance +of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and this is the most accurate +way, for the vernier will not mark so small a space accurately. + + +ANGLE OF ELONGATION. + +This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation. The +distance between the star and the pole is continually diminishing, and +on January 1, 1882, was 1° 18' 48". + +There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1, 1882, it +will be 1° 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the observer will +subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each succeeding year +for the next four or five years, no error so great as one-quarter of a +minute will be made in the position of the meridian as determined in the +summer months. If winter observations are made, the distance in January +should be used. The formula for computing the angle of elongation is +easily made by any one understanding spherical trigonometry, and is +this: + + R x sin. Polar dist. + --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation. + cos. lat. + +As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude 40°. +Then the computation being made, the angle will be found to be 1° 43' +34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude will make less than +10" difference in the angle, as one can see by trial. Any good State +or county map will give the latitude to within one or two miles--or +minutes. + +The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law, +concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent. The +longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a difference +of _six miles_ in latitude makes no appreciable error in the meridian +established as here suggested, whereas the statute requires the latitude +within _one half a second_, which is _fifty feet_. There are some other +things, besides the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past +finding out." It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as +_three_ miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the error in +his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be _five seconds_, +and a line _one mile_ long, run on a course 5" out of the way, will vary +but _an inch and a half_ from the true position. Surveyors well know +that no such accuracy is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND, + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRO-MANIA. + +By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS. + + +A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include two +distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical science, +and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions. The progress of +the first has been followed by a crop of the second from the time when +Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to bottle the supposed +fluid, and in the course of these attempts stumbled upon the "Leyden +jar." + +Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which he +obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is put into +a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that "if, while it +is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold which I hold in my +hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns my arms and shoulders." +At about the same date (the middle of the last century), Muschenbroek +stated, in a letter to Réaumur, that, on taking a shock from a thin +glass bowl, "he felt himself struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast, +so that he lost his breath, and was two days before he recovered from +the effects of the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a +second shock for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the +apparatus, it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than +many of us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to +our school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first +electrical machine. + +Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers operated +throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair and _fete_ +displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by giving shocks and +professing to cure all imaginable ailments. + +Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the +demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals were +made to display the movements of life, not only by the electricity of +the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed, by a transfer of +this mysterious agency from one animal to another. + +According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by modern +electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared frog, could be +made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with muscle and nerve of +a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic intervention. + +Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements of +electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the possibility of +reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed criminals were in +active demand; their bodies were expeditiously transferred from the +gallows or scaffold to the operating table, and their dead limbs were +made to struggle and plunge, their eyeballs to roll, and their features +to perpetrate the most horrible contortions by connecting nerves with +one pole, and muscles with the opposite pole of a battery. + +The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed that if +this could be combined with artificial respiration, and kept up for +awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored, provided the neck +was not broken. Curious tales were loudly whispered concerning gentle +hangings and strange doings at Dr. Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and +at the Hunterian Museum, in Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The +Café de l'Etoile." When a child, I lived about midway between these +celebrated schools of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of +horror that were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no +relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering people +in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies were sent to +Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that, being old and faithful +servants of the doctors, they were galvanized to life, and again set up +in their old business. + +It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism that +were published at about this period, and contrast their positive +statements of cures effected and results anticipated with the position +now attained by electricity as a curative agent. + +Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Ampčre, etc., +demonstrating the relations between electricity and magnetism, and +immediately following them a multitude of patents for electro-motors, +and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by magneto-electric +machinery. + +The following, which I copy from the _Penny Mechanic_, of June 10, 1837, +is curious, and very instructive to those who think of investing in any +of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr. Thomas Davenport, a +Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of applying magnetic and +electro-magnetic power, which we have good ground for believing will be +of immense importance to the world." This announcement is followed by +reference to Professor Silliman's _American Journal of Science and the +Arts_, for April, 1837, and extracts from American papers, of which the +following is a specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about +nine inches in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic +power of about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with +our utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in +diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and lift a +weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a battery of +still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a locomotive engine +traveling on a circular railroad with immense velocity, and rapidly +ascending an inclined plane of far greater elevation than any hitherto +ascended by steam-power. And these and various other experiments which +we saw, convinced us of the truth of the opinion expressed by Professors +Silliman, Renwick, and others, that the power of machinery may be +increased from this source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed +by these learned men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet +in diameter, with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at +least a hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would +be sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the Atlantic. +The only materials required to generate and continue this power for +such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and zinc, and a few +gallons of mineral water." + +The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with this, Sir +William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of the above fully +appreciable, I may note that three months later the magazine from which +it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of the London and Birmingham +Railway Station displaying a first-class passenger with a box seat on +the roof of the carriage, and followed by an account of the trip to +Boxmoor, the first installment of the London and North-Western Railway. +It tells us that, "the time of starting having arrived, the doors of +the carriages are closed, and, by the assistance of the conductors, the +train is moved on a short distance toward the first bridge, where it +is met by an engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as +Chalk Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for +the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be employed +in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston Square, by +a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which was upwards of +Ł400." After describing the next change of engines, in the same matter +of course way as the changing of stage-coach horses, the narrative +proceeds to say that "entering the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect +darkness has an exceedingly novel effect." + +I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who imagine +that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than other +sources of power. I well remember making this journey to Boxmoor, and +four or five years later traveling on a circular electro-magnetic +railway. Comparing that electric railway with those now exhibiting, +and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the present work of the London and +North-Western Railway, I have no hesitation in affirming that the rate +of progress in electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been +far smaller than that of steam. + +The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the present +time to their ruinous investments is the idea that electro-motors +are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its infancy; while +gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature middle-aged business, +and therefore we are to expect a marvelous growth of the infant and no +further progress of the adult. + +These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact that +electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry Davy +exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London was still +dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting was attempted +anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, at +the beginning of the present century, was an arrangement of two +carbon pencils, between which was formed the "electric arc" by the +intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion of the particles of carbon +passing between the solid carbon electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy +was incomparably more brilliant than anything that has been lately shown +either in London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was _four inches +in length_, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad, +dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern arc +lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap of 1/3 +or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement. + +Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the gas has +achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case even when we +compare very recent progress. + +The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily +progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's +efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps having +been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a series of +spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward. + +As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the newspapers +have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or the use of an +incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or platino-iridium; +or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and other modern lights are +rival modifications. + +As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and experiments +for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's patent electric +light," the actual inventor of which was a young American, named Starr, +who died in 1847, when about 25 years of age, a victim of overwork +and disappointment in his efforts to perfect this invention and a +magneto-electric machine, intended to supply the power in accordance +with some of the "latest improvements" of 1881 and 1882. + +I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until after I +had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had no difficulty +in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light, better than any that +are shown at the Crystal Palace. + +We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned them as +Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a multitude of +forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the last "discovery" +of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this on theoretical +grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he predicted that by +charring it we should obtain a more compact stick or thread, as the +fusion of the silica would hold the carbon particles together. He +finally abandoned this and all the rest in favor of the hard deposit of +carbon which lines the inside of gas-retorts, some specimens of which we +found to be so hard that we required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into +the thin sticks. + +Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about 1/8 of +an inch across each way. It was mounted between two forceps--one holding +each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch between. The forceps were +soldered to platinum wires, one of which passed upward through the top +of the barometer tube, expanded into a lamp glass at its upper part. +This wire was sealed to the glass as it passed through. The lower wire +passed down the middle of the tube. + +The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of mercury. +Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded portion, or lamp +globe, the mercury fell below this and left a Torricellian vacuum there. +One pole of the battery, or dynamo-machine, was connected with the +mercury in the cup, and the other with the upper wire. The stick of +carbon glowed brilliantly, and with perfect steadiness. + +I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of Birmingham, +and many times at the Midland Institute. The only scientific difficulty +connected with this arrangement was that due to a slight volatilization +of the carbon, and its deposition as a brown film upon the lamp glass; +but this difficulty is not insuperable.--_Knowledge_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC. + + +The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a long +time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter powerfully +enough in this way to divide it, and since his time Messrs. Grove and +Quet have studied the effect under different conditions. In 1859, I +myself undertook numerous researches on this subject, and experimented +on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff coil, the results of these +researches having been published in the last two editions of my notes on +the Ruhmkorff apparatus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +These researches were summed up in the journal _La Lumičre Electrique_ +for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr. Pilleux has addressed to us some new +experiments on the same subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a +De Meritens alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the +same phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new +researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the arc in +which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a different +nature from all those on which, up to the present time, experiments have +been made. Such a distinction as this, however, merits a discussion. + +With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the aureola +which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge; and this +aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air containing many +particles of metal derived from the rheophores, represents exactly the +voltaic arc. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin are +alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that the +currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and that +these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then, arrested during +their passage; and, in order to collect them, it becomes necessary to +considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of the aeriform conductor +interposed in the discharge; to increase its conductivity; or to open to +the current a very resistant metallic derivation. By this latter means, +I have succeeded in isolating, one from the other, in two different +circuits, the direct induced currents and the reversed induced ones. +As only direct currents can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse +the break through which the induction spark passes, the aureola that +surrounds it may be considered as being exactly in the same conditions +as a voltaic arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible +conductor traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such +a conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all the +external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by reason +of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the action +exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo deformations that +are in relation with the laws of Ampčre. It is in this manner that I +have explained the different forms that the aureola of the induction +spark assumes when it is submitted to the action of a magnet in the +direction of its axial line, or in that of its equatorial line, or +perpendicular to these latter, or upon the magnetic poles themselves. + +Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to the +nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in alternating +current machines; but, from the experiments made with electric candles, +we are forced to admit that the current reacts as if it were alternately +reversed through the arc, since the carbons are used up to an equal +degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's experiments show that effects +analogous to those of induction coils are produced by the reaction of +magnets upon the arc. There is, then, here a doubtful point that it +would be interesting to clear up; and we believe that it is consequently +proper to introduce in this place Mr. Pilleux's note: + +"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic arc of 12 +centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed currents, and one +of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. De Meritens employs for +magneto-electric machines, I have been enabled to make the following +experiments: + +"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly approach the +voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 centimeters, the +arc became flattened so as to assume the appearance of those gas jets +called 'butterfly.' The plane of the 'butterfly' was parallel with the +pole that I presented, or, in other words, with the section of the +magnet. At the same time, the arc began to emit a strident noise, which +became deafening when the pole of the magnet was brought to within a +distance of about 2 millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form +produced by the arc was _greatly spread out, and reduced to the +thickness of a sheet of paper_; and then it burst with violence, and +projected to a distance a great number of particles of incandescent +carbon. + +"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed it +laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then the +south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so as not to +present the same surface to each pole of the magnet." + +By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from our note +on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the aureola which +developed as a circular film from right to left at D, on the north pole +of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in an opposite direction +at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same magnet; but, between the two +poles, these two contrary actions being obliged to unite, they gave rise +in doing so to a very characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction +depended upon that of the current of discharge through the aureola, +or upon the polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the +discharge took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig. +2, the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line +above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of the +current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet. + +There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so great an +analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that induced currents +in alternating machines have, like those of the Ruhmkorff coil, a +definite direction, which would be that of currents having the greatest +tension, that is to say, that of direct currents. This hypothesis seems +to us the more plausible in that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated +that the attraction of solenoids with the currents, not straight, +of magneto-electric machines is almost as great as that of the same +solenoids with straight currents; and it is very likely that the +difference which may then exist should be so much the less in proportion +as the induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps +explain the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as +rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or alternating, by +the different calorific effects produced on these carbons, and by the +effects of electric conveyance which are a consequence of the passage of +the current through the arc. + +We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon possesses a +much higher temperature than the negative, and that its wear is about +twice greater than that of the latter. But such greater wear of the +positive carbon is especially due to the fact that combustion is greater +on it than on the negative, and also to the fact that the carbonaceous +particles carried along by the current to the positive pole are +deposited in part upon the other pole. Supposing that these polarities +of the carbons were being constantly alternately reversed, the effects +might be symmetrical from all quarters, although the only current +traversing the break were of the same direction; for, admitting that the +reverse currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the +less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been demonstrated +by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the induction spark +intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) to return discharges +through the generator, which would then have, in the metallic part of +the circuit, the same direction as the direct currents succeeding, +although they had momentarily brought about opposite polarities in the +electrodes. What might make us suppose such an interpretation of the +phenomenon to have its _raison d'etre_, is that with the induced +currents of the Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is +the hottest, but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the +deduction that it is not so much the direction of the current that +determines the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of +such current with respect to the generator. I should not be +surprised, then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of +magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of the +same direction, and which would be the one formed by the superposition +of direct currents, and if the reverse currents should cause return +discharges in the midst of the generating bobbins at the moment the +direct currents were generated.--_Th. Du Moncel_. + + * * * * * + + + + +VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES. + + +The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these important +accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as far as can at +present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies in these secondary +batteries. Among other contributions of this kind is the following, by +Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris: + +The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in +secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless resistance +to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of comparatively +small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To this end two +reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar proportions are +prepared, and their interstices are filled with granules or filaments of +lead, by preference chemically pure. These plates are then submitted to +pressure, and placed together, with strips of nonconducting material +interposed between them, in a suitable vessel containing a bath of +acidulated water. The plates being connected with wires from an electric +generator are brought for a while under the action of the current, to +peroxidize and reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to +the acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will be +understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be combined to +form a secondary battery, their number being determined by the amount +of storage required. The perforated plates of lead may be prepared by +drilling, casting, or in other convenient manner, but the apertures, of +whatever form, should be placed as closely together as possible, and +the finely divided lead to be peroxidized is pressed into the cells or +cavities so as to fill their interiors only. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND THE +MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN. + +By NELSON H. DARTON. + + +There will be many persons in the city of New York and its suburbs who +will not have the time or facilities for leaving town during the summer, +to spend a part of their time enjoying the country, but would have +sufficient time to take occasional recreation for short periods. I have +sought by this paper to show a pleasurable, and at the same time very +instructive use for the time of this latter class, and that is in +mineralogy. In the surrounding parts of New York are many mineralogical +localities, known to no others than a few professional mineralogists, +etc., and from which an excellent assortment of minerals may be +obtained, which would well grace a cabinet and afford considerable +instruction and entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting +as an incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These +localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from New +York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally very much +less. I could detail many other places further off, but will reserve +that for another paper. + +The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have purposely made +very simple, avoiding--or when using, explaining--all technical terms. +The apparatus and tests noticed are of the most rudimentary style +consistent with that which is necessary to attain the simple purpose of +distinguishment, and altogether I have prepared this paper for those +having at the present time little or no knowledge or practice in +mineralogy, while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of +the localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail +of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur +mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors to +find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good start +to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of these +discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not know the +portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain township, in which +the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in finding this, it is seldom +that the portion in which the mineral occurs, which is generally some +small inconspicuous vein or fissure, is found; and even in this it +is generally difficult to recognize and isolate the mineral from the +extraneous matter holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus: +Dana, in his text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for +a certain species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth +calespar. When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the +expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the rock +outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with quarries, +cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is rather indefinite. +To the professional mineralogist it is but an index, however, and he +may consult the authority it is quoted from--the _American Journal of +Science_, etc.--and thus find the part referred to, or by consulting +other mineralogists who happen to know. Again, the person having found +by inquiry that the part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and +as this is fully a mile long and interspersed with various prominent +looking, but veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one +in question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that. +Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the surrounding +rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein of chlorite. This +is so throughout the long and more or less complete stated lists of +mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in describing the mineral, after +explaining the conditions under which it occurs, give almost the +exact spot where I have found the same mineral myself, and have left +sufficiently fine specimens to carry away, and thus no time will be lost +in going over fruitless ground, and further, this paper is written up to +the date given at its end, insuring a necessary presence of them. + +In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not carry +off from the various localities a variety of worthless stones, etc., +which are frequently more or less attractive to an inexperienced eye, +the following hints may be salutary. + +There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very commonly met +with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical trips: they are of +calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so many modifications of +form, color, and condition that one might speedily form a cabinet of +these, if they were taken when met with, and imagine it to be of great +value. The first of these is calcite. It occurs as marble, limestone; +calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head spar, stalactites, and a number of +other forms, which are only valuable when occurring in perfect crystals +or uniquely set upon the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely +abundant at Bergen Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the +other minerals which I describe as occurring there, and even in +preference to them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and +testing it, to find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid +this and distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with +a single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up or +effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it does not do +so with any of the minerals occurring in the same locality. This acid +is prepared for use as follows: about twenty drops of muriatic acid are +procured from a druggist in a half-ounce bottle, which is then filled up +with water and kept tightly corked. It is applied by taking a drop out +on a wisp of broom or a small minim dropper, which may be obtained at +the druggist's also. I do not say that in every case this mineral should +be rejected, because it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place +in a cabinet, but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned +further on in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken +Tunnel." + +The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not so +readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, shape, +etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the localities I am +about to describe, with the exception of fine crystals on Staten Island, +are of no value and may be rejected, unless answering in detail to the +description given under Staten Island. The method of distinguishing the +quartz is by its hardness, which is generally so great that it cannot be +scratched by the point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty, +and a fragment of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is +distinguished from the other minerals occurring in the localities +discussed in this paper. + +The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This is +especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in amorphous +masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so soft as to be +readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further upon the soapstone +forms in discussing the localities on Staten Island, and the chloritic +form under the head of "Weehawken Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding +these and recognizing the others by their appearance, which is generally +the only guide used by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the +lists of the various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American +Museum of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays, +one may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going +in quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more +satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many of +the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides saving +the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals home. + +In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a mineralogical +hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold chisel with which to +detach or trim the minerals from adhering rocks, the bottle of acid +before referred to, and a three cornered file for testing hardness, +as explained further on. As I noticed before, the better plan of +distinguishing a mineral is by being familiar with its appearance, but +as this is generally impracticable, I will detail the modes used in +lieu of this to be applied on bringing the minerals home. These +distinguishments depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness, +solubility in hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the +application of each one separately, commencing with-- + +_The Specific Gravity_.--In ascertaining the specific gravity the +following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand scales with a set +of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These can be procured from the +apparatus maker, the scales for about fifty cents, and the weights for +not much over the same amount. The scales are prepared for this work by +cutting two small holes in one of the scale pans, near together, with +a pointed piece of metal, and tying a piece of silk thread about eight +inches long into these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral +to be examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the +mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred grains to +an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the piece of mineral +obtained is very large, this sized portion may be often taken from it +without injury; but it will not do to mar the beauty of a mineral to +ascertain its specific gravity, and it is generally only applicable +when a small piece is at hand. With more weights, however, a piece of a +quarter pound weight may be taken if necessary. The mineral is tied into +the loop and weighed, the weight being set down in the note book, either +in grains or decimal parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then +weighed in some water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking +care while weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same +time does not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should +be accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is +found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For +instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed in +the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: 800 +/ (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of +the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an +incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or would +break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this method of +course unattainable, and other data must be used. + +_The Comparative Hardness_.--The next characteristic of the mineral to +be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In mineralogy there is a +scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 being the hardest, the +diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. These and the intermediate +minerals fixed upon the scale are generally inaccessible to those who +may use the contents of this paper, and I will give some more familiar +materials for comparison. 8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and +diamond respectively, and as these and minerals of similar hardness will +probably not be found in any of the localities of which I make mention, +we need not become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of +sufficient hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the +file before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is +of the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of +horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of which +the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of marble; 2 of +alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be readily cut with +the finger nail. The method of using and applying these comparisons is +by having the above matters at hand, and compare them by the relative +ease with which they can be cut by running the edge of the file over +their surface. One will soon become familiar with the scale, and it +may of course then be discarded. As it is one of the most important +characteristics of some of the minerals, it should be carefully +executed, and the result carefully considered. It is of course +inapplicable under those conditions with minerals that are in very small +crystals or in a fibrous condition. + +_Action of Hot Acids_.--This very important test is never, like the +above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is reached. +From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible a portion is +chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is wrapped in a piece of +stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in contact with a solid body, +crushed finally by a blow from the hammer. A pinch of the powder so +obtained is taken up on the point of a penknife, and transferred into +a test tube. Two or more of these should be provided, about six inches +long. They may be obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some +hydrochloric, or, as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured +upon it to the depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is +then placed in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or +other vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes; +the tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then +examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral +"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none, +"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid transparent +mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent gelatinous flakes +are left, it is so termed. As this method of distinguishment is always +applicable, it is very important, and its detail and result should be +carefully noticed. Care should be taken that only a small portion of +the mineral is used, and also but little acid; the action should be +observed, and is frequently a characteristic, in the case with calcspar, +which effervesces while dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at +first, and then, if the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment +may be repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand +and two ounces are generally sufficient. + +_Action of Heat_.--This is, perhaps, the most important characteristic, +and, when taken with the preceding data, will identify any of the +minerals found in any one locality, which I will describe, from each +other. The heat is applied to the mineral by means of a candle and +blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, and an ordinary japanned tin +blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will serve the purpose. The substance +to be examined is held on a loop of platinum wire about one inch to the +left and just below the top of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here +it is steadily held, as is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle +bent over upon it, and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and +strong current of air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the +mouth and supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the +table. The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to +the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it consists +in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced out by +pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not from the lungs. +This can be practiced while not using the blow-pipe, and may readily +be accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks distended with air and +breathing at the same time. + +This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has been +kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to convince one +of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. The first two +are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; the last, by +inspecting it before and after the heating with a magnifying glass; +sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then said to "intumesce;" or, +if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." Upon the first it is further +heated; but in the latter case, a new splinter of mineral must be broken +off from the mass and heated upon the wire very cautiously until quite +hot, when it may then be readily heated further without fear of loss. +For holding the splinter of mineral, which should well represent the +mass and be quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the +thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten cents at +the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown in Fig. 2, +and the mineral placed in the loop. + +Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention further +on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to redness, and +plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused upon it by heating. +Some more is accumulated in the same manner, until the loop is filled +with a fair-sized globule. A small quantity of the mineral, which had +been crushed as for the acid test, is caused to adhere to it while it is +molten, and then the heat of the blast directed upon it for some time +until either the small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively +refuse to do so. After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as +to color, transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount +of the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being sufficient. + +I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be able +to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral in hand, +especially as they are from certain parts, where all the minerals +occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the characteristics +so that they will serve to isolate from all that possibly could be found +in that locality. + +The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This comprises +the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen Point and running +up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the part opposite about +Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes close to the river, and from +there along the river to the north for a long distance, known as the +Palisades. It is about a mile wide on an average, and from a few feet to +about two hundred feet in height. The mineralogical localities in and +upon it are at the following parts, commencing at the south: First +Pennsylvania Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about +completed; then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made +Bergen Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not +since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to the +general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, in which +many fine specimens were secured, and is also inaccessible; and last, +but far from being least, is the Ontario Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as +it is the only practicable part besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a +number of surface outcrops which I will mention, I will commence with +that. + +_The Weehawken Tunnel_--This tunnel is now being cut through the +trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western Railroad, and will +be completed in a few months, but will, probably, be available as a +mineralogical locality for a year to come. It is located about half a +mile south of the Weehawken Ferry from Forty-second Street, New York +city, and the place where to climb upon the hill to get to the shafts +leading to it is made prominent by the large body of light-colored rock +on the dump, a few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The +western end is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern +Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass is +necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be procured +from the office of the company, between the third and fourth shafts to +the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store just to the north of +the tramway connecting the shafts on the surface. As it will not be +necessary to go down in any of the shafts besides the first and second +in order to fulfill the objects of this paper, no difficulty need be +encountered in procuring the pass if this is stated. + +These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one hundred and +seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of access to the +tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is included in the +descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water tight boots are +necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one is to engage in +any active exploration below; candles should also be provided, as the +electric lights, at the face of the headings, give but little light, and +remind one very forcibly of a dim flash light with a foliaged tree in +front of it. The electric wires for supplying these arrangements run +along the north side of the tunnel for those on the east headings, and +on the south side for the west. They are excellent things to keep clear +of, as they have sufficient current passing through them to knock one +down; thus their position can be readily ascertained. + +_Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals_.--In general, the greater number +of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel occur in veins +generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of little or no value, +as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of the same mineral. A +few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body of rock, and in which +condition they are seldom of value. The greater abundance are in the +veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, and some few in horizontal beds. +The minerals are found in the first condition by examining all the veins +running from floor to ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first +mentioned are very conspicuous, they being white in the dense black +rock. They may be chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of +them exposed in each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined +to see if anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop +of acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further on. +The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a dark-green +color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or hammer, they may +be recognized by their softness, or by its dull glistening appearance. +They are comparatively few, but from an inch to three feet wide; and +minerals are found by digging it out with a stick or a three-foot drill, +to be had at the headings. Where the most minerals occur in the chlorite +is when plenty of veins of calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges +near the trap are dry and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are +found in this crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the +faces of the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough +and uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in +diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The beds +of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be mentioned +under the head of the minerals occurring in them. Besides, in the tunnel +there are generally more or less perfect minerals upon the main dump +over the edge of the bluff toward the river. Here many specimens that +have escaped the eyes of the miners may be found among the loose rock, +being constantly strewn out by the incline of the bed; in fact, this is +the only place in which quite a number of the incident minerals may be +found; but I will not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it +under the minerals individually. + +The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their +descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest abundance: + +_Calcite_.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and about the +tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms occurring there, +the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, after Fig. 3. It can +generally be obtained, however, in excellent crystals, which, although +perfect in form, are opaque, but often large and beautiful. It is always +packed with a thousand or its multiple of other crystals into veins of a +few inches thick; and crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with +edge of the cold chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown. +As the masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked +from the piles of _débris_ around the shafts and the dumps, and afford +some little instruction as to the manner in which a mineral is built up +by crystallization, and may be subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of +the same shape exactly, but infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth +preserving should be about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is +attainable. + +Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what is called +dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They occur in clear +wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half an inch in length; +they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable sizes, but generally +two and a half inches in diameter, and which, when carefully broken in +half, showed beautiful grottoes of these crystals. The few of these that +I have found were in the four-foot vein of chlorite down the Shaft No. +1, to the west of the shaft about one hundred and fifty feet, and on +the south wall; it may be readily found by probing for it, and then the +geodes by digging in. There need be no difficulty in finding this vein +if these conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners +be asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be +distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on coming +in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an intense (almost +unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, but not fusing. +Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and hardness about 3, or +equal to ordinary unpolished white marble. + +_Natrolite_.--The finest specimens of this mineral that have ever been +found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in this tunnel, having +in its original form, before it was cut out by the tunnel passing +through, over one hundred square feet, and from one-half to two and a +half and even three inches in thickness; it was in all possible shapes +and forms--all extremely rare and beautiful. A large part of one end +of this bed still remains, and, by careful cutting, fine masses may be +obtained. This bed may be readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in +its center about four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half +an inch thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences +about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, but +there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the rock +above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or similar +instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but perfect +crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a quarter to +an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of a pure white +color; they may be readily recognized by their form, and occurring in +this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be ascertained owing to the +delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and the specific gravity 2.2. +This is readily found, but is no distinction; its reaction before the +blowpipe, however, is characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent +globule, clear and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with +acids. The bed holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in +confused matted masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts +of the shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present +that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine specimens to +be easily obtained. + +_Pectolite_, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky spar."--This +mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of the great beauty +and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but still of great +uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its peculiar appearance, as +is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen that it is in groups of +fine delicate fibers about an inch long, diverging from a point into +fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very tightly packed together, as are +also the groups; they are very tough individually, and have a hardness +of 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling +with acid, and a fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame, +yielding a transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking +characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of the +others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of pectolite +may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. 1, and +especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to distinguish from the +calcite, as they are almost identical in color, and many of the calcite +veins are partly of pectolite--in fact, every third or fourth vein will +contain more or less of it. There is, however, a very fine vein of +pectolite about twenty-five feet further east from the natrolite bed; it +runs from the floor to ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness; +some specimens of which I took from these were unusually unique in both +size and appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet, +and should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the +mineral. + +_Datholite_.--This mineral has been found very frequently in the tunnel, +it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the chlorite, and also +in the latter, generally at a depth of one hundred and fifty feet from +the surface, and consequently near the ceiling of the tunnel. All that +has been found of any great beauty has been in the western end of the +Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite +soft; here it is found nearly every day in greater or less quantity, and +from this some may generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein +of chlorite which I mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar, +considerable may be obtained in it and on its western edge near the +ceiling. A ladder about thirteen feet long is used for attending the +lights, and may generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder +of this pocket thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in +appearance, and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite +occurring near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals; +they are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and +generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a little +over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as a druse +upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is seldom +attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive characteristic in +another test: this is the blowpipe, under which it at first intumesces +and then fuses to a transparent globule, and the flame, after playing +upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric acid must be used to boil it +up with, and with it it may be readily gelatinized. This last test will +seldom be necessary, however, and may be dispensed with if the hardness +and blowpipe reactions may be ascertained. + +_Apopholite_.--This beautiful mineral has been found in fair abundance +at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and seldom in place, most of +it being taken from the loose stone at the mouth of the shaft, and it +may generally be found on the dump. It is readily mistaken for calcite +by the miners and those unskilled in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will +quickly show the difference. The sizes of the crystals are very various, +from an eighth of an inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and +a half. The colors have been varied from white to nearly all tints, +including pink, purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however, +the most abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals +are generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart as +heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. Sometimes, +as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the pyramidal +terminations, and are then right square prisms. The fracture being at +perfect right angles, distinguishes it from calcite. Its hardness is +generally fully 5, the specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5; it is +difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, but is finally fused into an +opaque globule. Upon heating with nitric acid it partly dissolves, and +the remainder becomes flaky and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite +rare, now may be bought from the men, or at least one of the engineers +of Shaft No. 2's elevator, and generally at low terms. + +_Phrenite_.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 and 2, in +very small masses, incrustations, and even in small crystals. It +occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also with calcite and +apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at the southwest side of +an opening through the pile of drift rock under the trestle work of the +tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the dump, and within a few feet of a +number of wooden vats sunk into the ground seen just before descending +the hills and near the edge. Here on a number of blocks of trap it may +be found, a greenish white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade; +it also may be found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates +one-eighth of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its +easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, with +which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 to 7. +It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never perfectly +transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is 2.9, and it is +readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. It partly dissolves +in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky residue; it is a beautiful +mineral when in masses or crystals of a dark green color, but the best +place in the vicinity to secure specimens of this kind is, as I will +detail hereafter, at Paterson, N. J. + +_Iron and Copper Pyrites_.--Both of these common but frequently +beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great +abundance. The crystals are generally about one-fourth of an inch in +diameter, and groups of these may be frequently obtained on the dump in +the shafts, especially No. 1 and 2, and where the rock is being cleared +away for the eastern entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other +very much; the iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the +great hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant +and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other +forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a +piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The form +of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as before noted, +in cubes, more or less modified. + +_Stilbite_.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral have been found +in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square feet in area, but +quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. This bed was about one +hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in the center of the heading +when it was at that point. It has been encountered since in small +quantities, and it would do well to look out for it in the fresh +tunneled portion after the date appended to this paper. It generally +occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, grouped very similarly to natrolite, +and being right upon the rock or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are +generally half an inch long, but often less. The modifications of the +above form, which are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of +the resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive +scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific gravity +2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a long +boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and fuses to a +transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite may often be +found on the dumps. + +_Laumonite_ occurs in very small quantities on calcite or apopholite, +and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but as it might be +found, I will detail some of its characteristics. Hardness 4, specific +gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small crystals, but more frequently +in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it becomes upon exposure to the air. +The crystals are generally transparent and frequently tinged yellow in +color. It gelatinizes by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before +the blowpipe, fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in +crystals from crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic +varnish or in a gum-arabic solution. + +_Heulandite_.--This rare mineral has been found under the same +conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be met with, +and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, sometimes +transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the blowpipe, and +dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, specific gravity +2.2. + +The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly rare as +not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is impossible +to detail the localities, as they generally occur as minute druses or +incrustations upon other minerals with which they may be confounded, and +have been removed as soon as discovered. The minerals referred to are +analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and finally, the mineral which I first +found in this formation, Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which +I only obtained sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in +regard to its locality, etc., maybe found in the _American Journal of +Sciences_ for June, page 458. I will now sum up the characteristics of +these several minerals of this locality in the table: + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | | | + Name. | H. |Sp.|Action of |Action of |Color.|Appearance. + | |Gr.|Blowpipe. |hot acid. | | +----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+--------------- + | | | | | | +Calcite | 3 |2.6|Infusible, |Soluble with |White |Like Fig. + | | |but glows |effervescence | |3 and 4. + | | | | | | +Natrolite | 5 |2.2|Readily fused |Forms a jelly | do. |Like Fig 5. + | | |to clear globule | | | + | | | | | | +Pectolite | 4 |2.5| do. | do. do. | do. |Divergent + | | | | | |fibers, Fig. 6. + | | | | | | +Datholite | 5 |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly |Color-|Small, nearly + | | |to clear globule,| |less |spherical, etc. + | | |gives green flame| |white | + | | | | | | +Apopholite| 5 |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble |Tinted|Like Fig. 7. + | | |to opaque globule|in nitric acid | | + | | | | | | +Phrenite | 6 |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble |Green-|In tables and + |to 7 | |to clear globule |in nitric acid, |ish |incrustations. + | | | |leaving flakes | | + | | | | | | +Iron | 6 |5.0|Burns and yields | |Brass |Cubical. +pyrites |to 7 | |a black globule, | | | + | | |decrepitates | | | + | | | | | | +Copper | 3 |4.2| do. do. | | do. |Tetrahedronal. +pyrites |to 4 | | | | | + | | | | | | +Stilbite | 4 |2.2|Intumesces and |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8. + | | |fuses readily |on long boiling | | + | | | |with nitric acid.| | + | | | | | | +Laumonite | 4 |2.3|Intumesces and |Readily | do. |Generally + |to 0 | |fuses to frothy |gelatinizes | |chalky. + | | |mass | | | + | | | | | | +Heulandite| 4 |2.2|Intumesces and |Soluble, no | do. |In right + | | |readily fuses |jelly | |rhomboidal + | | | | | |prisms. + | | | | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +_To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the other_.--Calcite +by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon it. Natrolite resembles +stilbite, but may be distinguished by gelatinizing readily with +hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing when heated before the +blowpipe; from the other minerals by the form of the crystals and their +setting, also the locality in the tunnel in which it was found. + +Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be readily +distinguished by its _tough_ long fibers, not brittle like natrolite. +Datholite may generally be distinguished by the form of its crystals and +their glassy appearance, with great hardness, and by tingeing the flame +from the blowpipe of a true green color. Apopholite is distinguished +from calcite, as noticed under that species, and from the others by its +form, difficult fusibility, and part solubility. + +Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, occurrence, +and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its brassy metallic +aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its aspect from the other +minerals, and from iron pyrites by its inferior hardness and less +gravity. + +Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, and +intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned under that +species. + +Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a probable +failure in finding it. + +Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and perfect +solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals. + +In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten Island. + +July 1, 1882. (_To be continued_.) + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTISEPTICS. + + +The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to destroy +the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the microphytes most +easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, and micrococci, and if +they suffice at least to arrest the development of these organisms in +liquids favorable to their multiplication. His results with phenol, +thymol, and salicylic acid have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid +and zinc chloride also failed to destroy all the germs of infection. +Chlorine, bromine, and mercuric chloride gave the best results; +solutions of mercuric chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part +in 1,000 destroy spores in ten minutes.--_R. Koch_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON. + +By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of Cleveland. + +[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.] + + +The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific +definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization and +its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will be of +interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I shall not +only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, but try to +treat it somewhat technologically. + +Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the +conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various +chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of time and +bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but will perhaps +subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I think you will +agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are imperfect, and I can +assure you that the pleasure of watching their formation fully repays +one for the trouble, if for no other reason than the mere gratification +of the senses. From the earliest times and by all races of men, the +crystal has been admired and imitated, or improved by cutting and +polishing into faces of various substances. I have also procured +specimens of steel and iron which show the effect of crystallization, +which was produced (perhaps) under known conditions, so that the +conclusions which we arrive at from their study will have a fair chance +of being logical, at least, and perhaps of some practical value. + +When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of matter, +_fluid_ and _solid_. These two divisions may be subdivided into, the +former gaseous and liquid, the latter amorphous and crystalline; but +whether one or the other of these divisions be considered, their +ultimate and common division will be the ATOM. By the atom we understand +that portion of matter which admits of no further division, which, +though as inconceivable for minuteness as space is for extent, has still +definite weight, form, and volume; which under favorable circumstances, +has that power or force called cohesion, the intensity of which +constitutes strength of material, which every engineer is supposed to +understand, but which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for +comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron +filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular order, +having considerable strength in one direction, and very little or none +in any other. Now, although we understand very little about the force +which holds these particles in position, we do know that it is actual +force applied from without and maintained at the expense of some of the +known sources of force. But the force or power or property of cohesion +seems to be a quality stored within the atom itself, in many cases +similar to magnetism, having powerful attraction in some directions +and very little or none in others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or +gypsum may be divided to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult +to even break. This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion +and crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances, +such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, almost +every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary temperatures +has effects which may be favorable to the crystallization of some +substances, and at the same time unfavorable to others; so it will be +seen that it is impossible to lay down any rule for it except for named +substances, like substances requiring like conditions, to bring its +atoms into that state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur. +If we examine crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here +provided geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces +of polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most skillful +lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever circumstances a +crystal may have been formed, whether in the laboratory of the chemist +or the workshop of nature, in the bodies of animals or the tissues of +plants, up in the sky or in the depths of the earth, whether so rapidly +that we may literally see its growth, or by the slow aggregation of its +molecules during perhaps thousands of years, we always find that the +arrangement of the faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find +also that a crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly +developed when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as +when it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically +that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz +being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, and is +estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at Grafton, N. +H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, and weighs not +less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect specimens are of small +size, as some accident is sure to overtake the larger ones before they +acquire their growth, to interfere with their symmetry or transparency. +This you will see abundantly illustrated by the examples which I have +prepared, as also the constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically +speaking, the crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never +be a mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the +science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has +demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a +definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there is +no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. I +hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol would be +Al_{2}O_{3},3SO_{3}+KO,SO_{3}+24H_{2}O. If we knew its weight and wished +to know its ultimate component parts, we could calculate them more +readily than we could acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the +elements of this quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed. +Then we may define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein +the chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient polarized +force to arrange themselves about a central attracting point in definite +geometrical forms. + +Fresenius defines it thus: "_Every operation, or process, whereby bodies +are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, and to assume_ +certain fixed, _mathematically definable, regular forms_." It would be +folly for me to attempt to criticise Fresenius, but I give you both +definitions, and you can take your choice. The definition of Fresenius, +however, will not suit our present purpose, because the crystallization +of wrought iron occurs, or seems to, _after_ the iron has acquired a +_solid state_. + +Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast or +crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in +chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, as +constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from 1 to +5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese (e.g. +spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of these have +some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, but whatever +crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of solidification, or +between that and a red heat, and varies much, according to the time +occupied in cooling, as to its composition. My own experience leads me +to think that a cast iron having about 3 per cent. of carbon, a small +per centage of phosphorus, say about ˝ of 1 per cent., and very small +quantities of silicium, the less the better, and traces of manganese +(the two latter substances _slagging_ out almost entirely during the +process of remelting for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the +general use of the founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even +grained, dark gray iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose +fracture will be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this +instance gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not +seem to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two +elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. These +give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily recognized by +an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate the sparkling +brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and replace them with +very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, and the iron breaks +more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur in appreciable quantities +gives a striated crystalline texture similar to chilled iron, and very +brittle. Phosphorus in very large quantities acts similarly. The form of +the crystal in cast iron is the octahedron, so that right angles with +sharp corners should be avoided as much as possible in castings, as the +most likely position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along +the line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, _must_ be made +of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur _must_ not exist, except +in the most minute quantities, or the metal is worthless. If either of +these substances be present in a bar of steel, its structure will +be coarse, crystalline and weak. The reason of this is unknown, but +probably their presence reduces the power of cohesion; and, that being +reduced, gives the molecules of steel greater freedom to arrange +themselves in conformity with their polarity, and this in its turn again +weakens the mass by the tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain +directions. Carbon is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast +iron, but is frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said +to be, though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is +a chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of good +soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the same piece +hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure or one very +finely crystalline, which would indicate that the crystals had been +broken up by the action of heat, and that they had not had sufficient +time to return to their original position on account of the sudden +cooling. The tendency of the molecules of steel after hardening to +assume their natural position when cold seems to be very great, for we +have often seen large pieces of steel burst asunder after hardening, +though lying untouched, and sometimes with such force as to hurl the +fragments to some distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright +yellow or white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman +says it is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well +enough to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt +unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of course +be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; but we find +nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by careful heating, +hammering and hardening, be returned to its former excellence. Then what +change has taken place? I should say that two modifications have been +made, one physical, the other chemical. The change chemically is that +of a chemical compound to a mixture of carbon and iron, so that in a +chemical sense it resembles cast iron. The change physically is that of +crystallization, being due partly to chemical change and partly to the +effect of heat. I have procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully +the effect of overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece +of Park Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has +been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the other is +what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at intervals +of about 1˝ inches, showing the transition from amorphous or proper +hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." Malleable or wrought iron +is or should be pure iron. Of course in practice it is seldom such, but +generally nearly so, being usually 98, 99, or even more per cent. It is +exceedingly prone to crystallization, the purer varieties being as much +subject to it as others, except those contaminated with phosphorus, +which affects it similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross +and tensile strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any +except one specimen, a bar of 1˝ round, which literally fell to pieces +when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. of phosphorus +and was very crystalline, though the crystals were not very large. Iron +which has been, when first made, quite fibrous, when subjected to a +series of shocks for a greater or less period, according to their +intensity, when subjected to intense currents of electricity, or when +subjected to high temperatures, or has by mechanical force been pushed +together, or, as it is called, upset, becomes extremely crystalline. +Under all of these circumstances it is subjected to one physical +phenomenon, that of motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were +struck, the blow would shake the whole mass, and consequently the +relative position of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the +case. When the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for +the effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if the +distance is great. This shows that a small force is communicated from +particle to particle independently along the whole mass, and that each +atom actually moves independently of its neighbor. Then, if there be +any attraction at the time tending to arrange it differently, it will +conform to it. So much for theory with regard to this important matter. +It looks well on paper, but do the facts of the case correspond? If +practically demonstrated and systematically executed, experiments fail +to corroborate the theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no +necessity for the theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong, +or, at least, imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality +imparted to iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent +of crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent +brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as +"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative cohesion" +or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are +pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the celebrated mines of Dannemora. +Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same bolt, which, after some months' use +on a "heading machine" in a bolt and nut works, where it was subjected +to numerous and violent shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day), +it broke short off, as you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline +fracture. To test whether this structure continued through the bolt, I +had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen +shows that it is still stronger at that point than at the point where +it is actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same +crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh +bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a +crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed in +the iron of both from the beginning. + +I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful annealing, +taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it is a 1-1/8 bolt +and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to break it, although bent +cold through an arc of 90°, and probably would have doubled upon itself +if we had had the means to have forced it. Now what does this show? Have +the crystals been obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only +their cleavage been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of +showing brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous +looking mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which +I admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to the +belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished above a +bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they are formed +and have whatever characteristics circumstances may confer upon them, +modified by the action of agencies heretofore mentioned. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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