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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401,
+September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8718]
+Release Date: August, 2005
+First Posted: August 3, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 401 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles
+Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of Silver Bromide
+      and Silver Chloride.
+
+      Analysis of New Zealand Coal.
+
+      On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast Iron,
+      Ferro-manganese, etc.
+
+      Manganese and its Uses.
+
+      Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A valuable
+      and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of
+      Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this
+      remarkable product.
+
+      On the Constitution of the Natural Fats.
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel
+      Traction Engine.--With two engravings.
+
+      An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one large
+      engraving.
+
+      The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas Retorts.--Siemens'
+      principle.--As operated at the Glasgow Corporation Works.--With
+      two engravings.
+
+      A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven.
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent Photographic Pictures
+      on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and full directions.
+
+      How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full directions.
+
+      Some of the Uses of Common Alum.
+
+      An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an engraving.
+
+      Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric Acid Gas.
+
+      Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic Acid in Racking
+      Beer.--With an engraving.
+
+IV.   ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the Bleaching of
+      Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of apparatus.
+
+      Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, Electrical
+      Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires.
+
+V.    ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An interesting abstract
+      from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins University), of
+      the American Astronomical Exhibition to the Caroline Islands.
+
+VI.   NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting the
+      Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of
+      certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens Institute.
+
+      The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an engraving.
+
+VII.  ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village Architecture.--
+      Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an engraving.
+
+      Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for Doors.--Several figures.
+
+VIII. ARCHÆOLOGY.--A Buried City of the Exodus.--Being an account
+      of the recent excavations and discoveries of Pithom
+      Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving.
+
+      The Moabite Manuscripts.
+
+IX.   AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen Victoria
+      Century Plant.--With an engraving.
+
+      Charred Clover.
+
+      A New Weathercock.--With one figure.
+
+X.    MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing Place
+      in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With an
+      engraving.
+
+      Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway.
+
+      Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With portrait.
+
+      The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris.
+
+      Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South Africa.--With one
+      page of engravings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.
+
+
+The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect
+a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most
+distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs.
+The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of America
+disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the Catholic
+monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise. In
+honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of Catalonia, who also
+took part in the discovery and civilization of the New World, among whom
+may be named the Treasurer Santangel, Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo
+Boyl, first patriarch of the Indies, and the twelve missionaries of
+Monserrat, who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage.
+
+In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the central
+executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous voice of
+the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don Cayetano
+Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we find in _La
+Ilustracion Española_, we give an engraving. Richness, grandeur, and
+expression, worthily combined, are the characteristics of these plans.
+The landing structure is divided into three parts, a central and two
+laterals, each of which extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater,
+in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to
+mind the two caravels, the Pinta and Niña; two great lights occupy the
+advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of
+celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble monument,
+surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the esplanade.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA,
+SPAIN.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera has not
+awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was
+offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the
+fatal grape disease. There were not less than 182 competitors for the
+prize; but none had made a discovery that filled the bill. It is said,
+however, that a Strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an
+absolutely trustworthy remedy. This liquid is poured upon the ground
+about the root of the vine, and it is said that it kills the parasites
+without hurting the grape.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE.
+
+
+Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the
+remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to Salt
+Lake:
+
+Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on the
+Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other subject at
+present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours
+so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should perhaps qualify this
+statement by deducting the hours of darkness; yet this is really a
+fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment; it seems providential
+that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting
+enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything
+sublime. Leaving Salt Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and
+populous Jordan Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the
+Valley of Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits
+of the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the
+wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after
+another of the magnificent cañons of the Wahsatch we passed, their
+mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising wild and
+rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have abundantly
+tested in other days. Parley's Cañon, the Big and Little Cottonwood, and
+most wonderful of all, the cañon of the American Fork, form a series not
+inferior to those of Boulder, Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas,
+in the front range of the Rockies.
+
+Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, we
+crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price River,
+a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in choosing this
+route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of Weber and
+Echo cañons--the only part of the Union Pacific road which tempts one
+to look out of a car window, unless one may be tempted by the boundless
+monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog. Great was my
+satisfaction, therefore, to find that this part of the new road,
+parallel with the Union Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south,
+traverses the same belt of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less
+picturesque. Castle Cañon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the
+equivalent of Echo Cañon, and is equal or superior in everything except
+color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers
+and walls of Castle Cañon are yellowish-gray. But their forms are
+incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime. The
+valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert,
+as it is further north. To be sure, this uninviting stream, a couple of
+hundred miles further south, having united with the Grande, and formed
+the Rio Colorado, does indeed, by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper
+into the sunless chasms, become at last sublime. But here it gives no
+hint of its future somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed
+Green River, to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by
+sleep. But I got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy
+water; and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the
+conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot.
+
+In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the interval
+passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the Grande, and
+ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of the Grande, the
+Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and finally a branch, flowing
+westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high divide at the head of the latter
+was laboriously surmounted; and then, one of our two engines shooting
+ahead and piloting us, we slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such
+descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the
+experience of the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is
+likely to occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down.
+
+From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the matter
+of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the Rocky
+Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the
+high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for the monument to
+the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the highest point. For all
+the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande road, between Cimarron and
+Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show.
+From an artistic stand-point, one road has crossed the ranges at the
+most tame and uninteresting point that could be found, and the other at
+the most picturesque.
+
+At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges into the
+famous Black Cañon. In length, variety, and certain elements of beauty,
+such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this cañon surpasses the Royal
+Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, however, one spot in the latter (I
+mean, of course, the point where the turbulent river fills the whole
+space between walls 2,800 ft. high, and the railroad is hung over it)
+which is superior in desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the
+Gunnison. Take them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the
+finer. I have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the
+Gunnison Cañon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one
+matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed in the
+morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty
+precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even hinting such folly
+as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark that these two cañons
+are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are; for
+they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks.
+
+Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above sea-level),
+over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over the Sangre di
+Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Elbert,
+Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other summits exceeding the
+altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is the valley of the Arkansas,
+into which and down which we pass, and so through the Royal Gorge to
+Cañon City and Pueblo, where we arrived before dark on the day after
+leaving Salt Lake.
+
+Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle Cañon, the
+Black Cañon of the Gunnison, Marshall Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas
+Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey! No
+wonder everybody who has made it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic
+urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence (and I
+know it has a great deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at
+present, crowded with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for
+those who wish on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?)
+and to visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done _en
+route_, without retracing the steps.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS.
+
+
+In the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to
+practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta, as it
+has already been employed in connection with so many other wares; but I
+have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta.
+Now this is strange, if one considers how fashionable _plaque_ and plate
+painting have become of late, and the good photographic results that
+are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt
+earth." Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are
+one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be left
+purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails to see
+that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. It was with
+something of this feeling that I was led to try and see what could be
+done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no data to go by, I had
+to use my own experience, or rather experiment on my own account.
+
+Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in the
+commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but natural I
+should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired
+results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction signally failed--the
+ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion. The
+bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo., which not only left indelible
+marks, but, despite any amount of washing, the image on a finished plate
+vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window.
+There was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my
+object. I would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful
+line of experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save
+him useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the
+method I found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent
+wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my system of
+working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion
+transfer.
+
+
+TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE.
+
+The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the surface
+to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It simply
+consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as follows:
+
+  Gelatine.                           10 grains.
+  Water.                               1 ounce.
+  A trace of chrome alum.
+
+Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless to say
+that numbers of _plaques_, plates, vases, etc., may be coated right off,
+and will then be ready for use at any time.
+
+Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, as well
+as placed it _in situ_ for reproduction, the next thing required is a
+suitable collodion, and the following will be found all that can be
+desired:
+
+  TRANSFER COLLODION.
+
+  Cotton.                      3 drachms.
+  Iodide of cadmium.          65 grains.
+  Ammonium iodide.            25   "
+  Bromide of cadmium.         19   "
+  Ammonium bromide.           11   "
+  Alcohol.                    15 ounces.
+  Ether.                      15   "
+
+The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now
+transferred to a bath, as follows:
+
+Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce.
+
+Made slightly acid with nitric acid.
+
+After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to
+the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and _quantum suff_. of
+the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image:
+
+  DEVELOPING SOLUTION.
+
+  A Winchester of water, i.e.  80 ounces.
+  Protosulphate of iron.      240 grains.
+  Citric acid.                240   "
+
+Or the following may be used:
+
+  Pyro                          3 grains\
+  Citric acid                   2   "    } per ounce of water.
+  Glacial acetic acid          30 drops /
+
+After perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a
+saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is thoroughly washed.
+
+It will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory; it
+lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters recourse is now had to
+
+
+TONING.
+
+  Gold.    1 grain.
+  Water.   5 ounces.
+
+With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture the
+result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking picture
+will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is employed richness
+at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known of instances where the
+picture needed no toning.
+
+
+OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE.
+
+This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited number
+of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and their _modus
+operandi_ is kept from the many. Now this is a pity, when one considers
+the great charm attached to a good picture on opal, with pure whites and
+rich blacks, and in many localities the demand that might be created for
+them. Apart from their beauty, another charm attaches to opals--their
+absolute permanence; and this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What,
+in fact, can be more painful to the worker who values his work, and sets
+store by it, than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion!
+A properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so
+common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as perfect
+now as they were when first taken.
+
+Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion;
+but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly applicable to
+ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, since in practice
+it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and safe. The details are
+much the same as above, and necessitate double transfer.
+
+After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass plate),
+and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the picture (and this,
+remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) then has to be loosened
+from its support, and this is done with a solution of sulphuric
+acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow
+between the image and the glass, after which perfectly wash and mount.
+When the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image,
+evened out, raised (assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite
+corners during the operation), and with the aid of the helper the
+picture is carefully centered, gently pressed out or down, and the
+transfer is so far effected. But what will happen, and does happen,
+in the case of vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture
+becomes positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply
+in the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of iodine
+dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after which, well wash
+and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash well again.
+This, by the way, is equally applicable to paper transfers; and it is
+to be remembered that the toning comes last of all. It is a rather
+difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three
+times, and acid must then be had recourse to (nitric acid is as good as
+any); but by transferring from the support on the ground surface, all
+stains are at once avoided.
+
+On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well
+cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. Then
+the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the plate is
+exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, and, when dried,
+varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with dead varnish if intended
+for chalk or water-color. This, when a good negative is used, gives a
+remarkably fine picture, not requiring a vestige of retouching, and
+having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable
+if varnished with the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective
+pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting.
+
+A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art
+matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed
+glass, said it was one of the finest productions of photography. He
+urged that negatives _ad rem_ should be taken most carefully, and that,
+like the picture I showed him, they should be full of half-tone and
+detail, and yet have plenty of vigor. They should, he said, be robust in
+the high lights, have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep
+shadows, and thus have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should
+be retouched only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness
+shall be in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now.
+
+If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine
+pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most
+artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, absolute
+permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to think of what
+may be really recommended to one's _clientèle_, and likely to meet with
+approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been
+delivered; and I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture
+most likely to meet with this general approbation.
+
+I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal
+picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched
+after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. It is pure
+photography in every sense of the word, and the resultant picture one
+hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have rather laid a stress on this
+point, well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by
+the barbarous hand of would-be artists, who by far exceed the true
+artists in number; and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight
+of, either, at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one
+in marble-like texture, or rather lack of texture, as if the face were
+devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might
+be wise to weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the
+enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice
+and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial
+measures to a decided evil.
+
+On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception should arise
+in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to clearly state that
+for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer; that is, the picture
+first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper, put in
+the right position on terra-cotta, and pressed down while wet with
+blotting-paper, left to dry, and is then so far ready.
+
+Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, ground opal
+being the best, the system I employ is as follows: After well cleaning
+the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had better not be too thick).
+When dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer,
+to which a little bromide of potassium has been added. The remainder of
+the operations is as usual. Those varnished with dead varnish can be
+tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make
+very pleasing pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be
+finished in water-colors if thought preferable.--_G. W. Martyn, in Br.
+Jour. Photo_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PAPER NEGATIVES.
+
+
+The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the
+following advantages:
+
+First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is uniform
+throughout the entire surface of each sheet.
+
+Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide
+as usually constructed.
+
+Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass.
+
+Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper.
+
+Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled
+from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand, without the
+assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus this invention does
+away with all sensitive preparations on glass, which latter is both a
+brittle and relatively heavy material, thus diminishing the bulk and
+weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling;
+it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those
+on glass, in so much that the film does not contain any grain; and,
+lastly, it admits of printing from either face of the film, as regards
+the production of positives on paper or other material, as well as
+plates for phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require
+a negative to be reversed.
+
+For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper:
+
+First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water,
+and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which it is
+attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass, and
+partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state it is allowed to
+dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat.
+
+Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion,
+containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of azotic cotton (1½
+per cent. gives very good results) and from 1½ to 2½ per cent. of castor
+oil (2 per cent. gives very good results); this coating is allowed to
+dry; and,
+
+Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, and then
+it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are
+excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of
+about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it in this position until
+the gelatine has set (say) about five minutes, with the film paper still
+attached, it is placed upright in a drying-room, where it should remain
+about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees
+Fahrenheit; and,
+
+Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure,
+development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the purpose of
+developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well; for
+the purpose of fixing, I have found that a mixture by weight, water,
+1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and powdered alum 60, produces
+excellent results, after being allowed to dry.
+
+Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be
+immediately used for producing negatives _recto_ or _verso_ as above
+mentioned.
+
+I claim as my invention:
+
+First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper
+for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the purposes above
+described; and,
+
+Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other analogous
+oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the
+paper backing as above described.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM.
+
+
+A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact, so
+much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete
+without it--is the substance known is common alum, or potash alum, being
+a double sulphate of alumina and potash; but it is interesting to note
+that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia
+alum, or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter
+of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or
+ammonia alum.
+
+Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and mechanical
+printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, it has been
+recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The silver printer
+adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working
+order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; then, again, silver
+prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, having for its object
+the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt. A very
+good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a
+saturated solution, diluted with one gallon of water, the prints being
+well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes.
+
+Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single instance
+can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to
+arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do
+instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur and
+professional, or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary
+risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and
+trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such
+individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day
+practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum, either
+before fixing, or immediately afterward. In fact, some operators have
+two alum baths in use, one a normal bath, as above mentioned, for
+immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity; and the
+other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable
+acid (such as citric) or a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use
+when there is too much printing density, since it has been found
+in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium
+thio-sulphate on the gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing)
+not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or
+pyrogallol, but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover,
+the color does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes
+when the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where
+there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a soft
+sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed emulsion worked
+in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the
+plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them
+in the acid bath.
+
+Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless
+transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, astringent
+taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60° F., and in its own
+weight of water at 212° F.; but the excess crystallizes out upon
+cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, and, when impure, usually
+contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon the addition of either caustic
+soda or potash, a white gelatinous precipitate is formed (hydrate of
+alumina), which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed. The
+precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent
+film sometimes observed on gelatine plates, when dry, which have been
+soaked in alum, and not well washed afterward.
+
+Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for instance--precipitate
+hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve in an excess of the
+reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved.
+
+Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison,
+which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube, it
+somewhat resembles thin starch paste.
+
+The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of
+hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum
+in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid ammonia; should any iron be
+present, the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over
+a sheet of white paper. Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate
+of alumina and sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto
+their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the
+community rather than the practical.--_Photo. News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.
+
+
+As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton cloths
+become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence of carrying
+on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope. The effect is
+that, together with the tension, although slight, and the drying, the
+weft partly shrinks and partly curls up, the latter, however, being
+scarcely observable to the naked eye. It may almost be said that as
+regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples
+because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to
+its gray width. The main use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not
+so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its
+normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been
+performed upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially
+useful to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a
+white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching being
+corrected before printing.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.]
+
+The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in
+a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of another stretching
+machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by Mr.
+Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of Salford, who makes a specialty of
+calico printers' and finishers' machinery. The improvements consist
+mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly
+substantial construction of the machine. The principle adopted is a
+well-known one. The selvages of the cloth, or more strictly the two
+edges of the cloth, of a width of about two inches, are caused to pass
+over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys.
+The rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they
+seize it, hence the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly
+performed. The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt
+acting against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held
+between them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by
+the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, CC, of
+which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley. The
+lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw
+for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands. The
+stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft, an
+ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to
+be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it
+without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts. The piece,
+wound upon the ordinary batch shell, is placed upon the running-off
+center, D; it is led off over the rails, EE, and then downward to the
+nip of the bands and pulleys, AA. As explained, the selvages are here
+gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are
+wider apart at the back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed
+underneath, the piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the
+back it passes over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening
+rail, G, and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be
+seen. The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills
+it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the
+driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle to
+the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as to
+separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the treatment of
+different widths of cloths. This adjustment is provided for by mounting
+the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band pulleys, CC, etc., on frames,
+BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, upon rails, at the back and front
+of the machine. The adjustment either for width of piece or for the
+angularity (extent of stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L.
+By the bevel wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the
+ends of frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space
+between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened
+out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may be
+separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously made. The
+wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use of which is
+sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a set of stretching
+pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in illustration. By a proper
+adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form, where it
+passes between the whole of them, the effect of the corrugation being
+to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally
+stretched with those near the selvages and more easily. This part of the
+machine may be used or not as required. The production, we observe, was
+about 120 yards per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted
+together, as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course
+of construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of
+considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods,
+on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small
+disturbance to the stiffening.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS.
+
+
+All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable
+fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction.
+The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in the operation, acts
+injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially during the formation of
+hydrochloric acid, with which process especially the development of an
+injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable. The best
+method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the
+moisture naturally present in the wool. The patentees find agitation of
+the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material
+assistance. The operation maybe successfully performed in two
+ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with
+constant agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For
+the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture
+at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and having apertures
+all round to allow free access of air. This cylinder rests on a hollow
+axle, closed at one end and perforated with holes, through which the
+acid gas is passed. By the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn
+through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby
+it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30°
+Cent. is best suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according
+to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the
+gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted by
+the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully saturated,
+the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are
+sufficiently friable. The treatment _in vacuo_ is as follows:
+
+The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material
+provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this false bottom
+a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a
+vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the maximum vacuum is
+attained, the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of
+40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth.
+The warmth set free (about 500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up
+by the combined water in the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a
+quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor
+streams through the second vessel at a temperature of 35° Cent.,
+penetrates the material, and passes out through the pump. After
+saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the
+second. AS soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first
+vessel is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus
+from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents gas
+passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under reduced
+pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing
+alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in
+evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after saturation by
+these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels, after
+which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles
+are friable. As soon as this occurs, the fabrics are washed. It is
+advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta,
+strontia, magnesia, or preferably lime, and subsequently to rinse in
+pure water. Phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed
+for neutralizing the acid, and the residue recovered and separated from
+the organic residues mixed with it.--"_H. J.," Journal of the Society of
+Chemical Industry._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are
+characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the results of
+numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable
+fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides
+and chlorides which, when submitted to electrolysis, permit oxygen and
+chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state.
+
+The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile
+substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only those most
+generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined
+action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the same manner,
+whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state.
+
+In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile
+materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any
+sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel
+containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the
+hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are
+capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a nascent
+state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents.
+
+The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the
+electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less
+length of time, according to the nature of the material to be bleached,
+and must, after this first operation, be washed, rinsed, and dried.
+
+The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides
+and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have been specially
+utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, the alkaline
+hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes.
+
+In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in
+presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the
+results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as
+bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and economical
+to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its
+elements from the metallic chloride itself, and from the water by means
+of which such transformation is to be effected. This is a reversal of
+the problem, and, _à propos_ thereof, we would call the attention of
+the reader to an apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for
+effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner.
+
+If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be submitted
+to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material
+to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the
+following way:
+
+2NaCl + 2 H_{2}O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H.
+
+In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results
+from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the
+chloride of sodium and water, which puts the chlorine, the metal, the
+hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in presence. The chlorine and
+oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material.
+
+While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be preferable to
+adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement.
+
+The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A,
+into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any
+electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a
+safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates with
+a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication between the
+electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in this latter is
+sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part of the vessel, A,
+by means of the tubes, G and H.
+
+The apparatus operates as follows:
+
+The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is put, is
+filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of chloride of
+sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action of an electric
+current, when, as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of
+the chloride and the water, the elements in a nascent state form
+hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total conversion of the liquid
+has been effected (this being ascertained by chlorometric tests), the
+pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, and, as a consequence, draws up
+the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower
+part of the electrolyzer, A. The hypochlorite that has formed passes
+through the tube, D (as a natural consequence of the elevation of the
+level of the liquid in A brought about by the entrance of a new supply
+of chloride), and distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it
+acts upon the textile material.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS BY ELECTRICITY.]
+
+The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, permits
+of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical
+reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution contained in the
+reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator.
+
+As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution from
+the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid conversion into
+decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt application upon the
+materials to be bleached, presents important advantages.
+
+While, in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching
+chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid,
+which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in its turn react upon
+binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with this new method, to
+utilize the chloride of sodium, which is derived from ordinary salt
+works, and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite
+by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an
+electric current.
+
+Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of
+having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a
+uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by the always known
+intensity of the current.
+
+We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time
+to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, besides, all
+chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of
+undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed
+for the same purpose. This is especially the case with the chlorides
+of potassium or barium, the bromides of strontium or calcium, and the
+iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On another hand, as sea water contains
+different chlorides, it results that it might serve directly as a raw
+material for bleaching textile fibers. Then, when the solution of
+chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis,
+there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for
+scouring fibers.--_H. Danzer, in Le Génie Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.
+
+
+Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, Hunslet, Leeds,
+England, for several years past have devoted considerable attention to
+the question of mounting traction engines on springs. The outcome of
+this is the engine in question, the front end of which is carried by a
+pair of Timmis spiral springs, resting on the center pin of the front
+axle, which is on Messrs. McLaren's principle, which enables it to
+accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any
+undue strain on the front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has
+been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur
+gearing, which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the
+cogs. This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all
+the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which will
+be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which Fig. 1 is a
+perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a detail view of the
+wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong
+T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted on. The nave of the wheel
+has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted. These spokes are
+made of the best spring steel, specially manufactured and rolled for the
+purpose, 9 inches wide and ½ inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape,
+with the narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon
+the rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places
+by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine
+comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and
+those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of the
+driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is fixed on the
+differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in Fig. 2, so that
+the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the
+engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence
+in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly
+tested it in practical work. This, we are informed, they have done, with
+the most satisfactory results, during the last five or six months; and
+they have a set of springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and
+3,000 miles, besides which there are several of these spring engines in
+daily use.--_Iron_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, AND WEIGHTS
+OF PURE COPPER WIRE.
+
+
+         DIAMETER    |         AREA
+                     |
+B.W.G  Inch. Milli-  | Circu-  Square      Square
+No.          metres  | lar     inches.     Milli-
+                     | Mils.               metres.
+                     |
+0000   .454  11.5313 | 206116  .161883     10.4435
+ 000   .425  10.795  | 180625  .141862      9.152
+  00   .38    9.6518 | 144400  .113411      7.3165
+   0   .34    8.6358 | 115600  .0907922     5.8573
+   1   .3     7.620  |  90000  .070686      4.5602
+   2   .284   7.2134 |  80656  .0633472     4.0867
+   3   .259   6.5784 |  67081  .0526854     3.3989
+   4   .238   6.0451 |  56644  .0444881     2.8701
+   5   .22    5.5879 |  48400  .0380133     2.4523
+   6   .203   5.1561 |  41209  .0323655     2.088
+   7   .18    4.5719 |  32400  .0254469     1.6417
+   8   .165   4.1909 |  27225  .0213825     1.3794
+   9   .148   3.7591 |  21904  .0172034     1.1098
+  10   .134   3.4035 |  17956  .0141026      .9096
+  11   .12    3.0479 |  14400  .0113097      .7296
+  12   .109   2.7701 |  11881  .00933133     .60199
+  13   .095   2.4129 |   9025  .0070882      .4573
+  14   .083   2.1082 |   6889  .00541062     .34906
+  15   .072   1.8288 |   5184  .00407151     .2486
+  16   .065   1.6510 |   4225  .00331831     .21407
+  17   .058   1.4732 |   3364  .0026421      .17045
+  18   .049   1.2446 |   2401  .00188574     .12165
+  19   .042   1.0668 |   1764  .00138544     .0894
+  20   .035   0.8890 |   1225  .000962115    .06207
+  21   .032   0.8128 |   1024  .00080425     .05188
+  22   .028   0.7112 |    784  .000615753    .03972
+  23   .025   0.635  |    625  .00049087     .03167
+  24   .022   0.5588 |    484  .000380133    .02452
+  25   .02    0.508  |    400  .00031416     .02027
+
+  26   .018   0.4571 |    324  .000254469    .01642
+  27   .016   0.4064 |    256  .000201062    .01297
+  28   .014   0.3556 |    196  .000153938    .00993
+  29   .013   0.3302 |    169  .000132732    .00856
+  30   .012   0.3048 |    144  .000113097    .007296
+
+LENGTH AND WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Pounds      Pounds       Pounds      Pounds      Feet       Yards        1.000 feet  Miles
+No.    per         per          per 1.000   per         per lb.    per lb.      per lb.     per lb.
+       foot.       Yard         ft.         mile.
+
+0000   .623924     1.871772     623.924     3294.32       1.60276     .534253    .00160276  .00303553
+ 000   .54676      1.64028      546.76      2886.89       1.82895     .60965     .00182895  .0034639
+  00   .437105     1.311315     437.105     2307.92       2.28777     .76259     .00228777  .004333
+   0   .349928     1.049784     349.928     1847.62       2.85773     .9525766   .00285773  .0054124
+   1   .272435      .817305     272.435     1438.43       3.6706     1.22353     .0036706   .0069519
+   2   .244151      .732453     244.151     1289.11       4.0958     1.365266    .0040958   .0077573
+   3   .203058      .609174     203.058     1072.15       4.9247     1.641566    .0049247   .009327
+   4   .171463      .514395     171.465      905.333      5.8321     1.944033    .0058321   .0110457
+   5   .14651       .43953      146.510      773.56       6.8255     2.275166    .0068255   .012927
+   6   .124742      .374226     124.742      658.638      8.0165     2.672166    .0080165   .015183
+   7   .098076      .294228      98.076      517.844     10.1962     3.39873     .0101962   .019311
+   8   .082411      .247233      82.411      435.135     12.1345     4.04483     .0121345   .022981
+   9   .066305      .198915      66.305      350.089     15.0818     5.027266    .0150818   .028564
+  10   .054354      .163062      54.354      286.99      18.398      6.13266     .018398    .034845
+  11   .04359       .13077       43.590      230.152     22.9413     7.6471      .0229413   .04345
+  12   .035964      .107892      35.964      189.893     27.805      9.2683      .027805    .05266
+  13   .027319      .081957      27.319      144.245     36.6046    12.20153     .0366046   .069326
+  14   .020853      .062559      20.853      110.1088    47.954     15.98466     .047954    .09082
+  15   .015692      .047076      15.692       82.855     63.7267    21.24223     .0637261   .12069
+  16   .012789      .038367      12.789       67.5276    78.1902    26.0634      .0781902   .14809
+  17   .0101828     .0305484     10.1828      53.7665    98.202     32.734       .098203    .18589
+  18   .00726795    .02180388     7.26796     38.3748    137.590    45.8633      .137590    .260587
+  19   .00533972    .01601916     5.33972     28.1937    187.276    62.4253      .187276    .35469
+  20   .00370815    .01112445     3.70815     19.579     269.676    89.892       .2696676   .51075
+  21   .00309972    .00929910     3.09972     16.3665    322.610   107.5366      .322610    .61100
+  22   .00237312    .00711936     2.37312     12.5301    421.384   140.4613      .421334    .798078
+  23   .0018910     .0056757      1.8919       9.9892    528.570   176.190       .528570    .100108
+  24   .0014650     .0043950      1.4650       7.7357    682.55    227.5166      .68255     .129271
+  25   .00121082    .00363246     1.21082      6.39315   825.880   275.2943      .825883    .156417
+  26   .00098077    .00294231      .98077      5.17844  1019.61    339.870      1.01961     .193108
+  27   .00077492    .00232476      .77492      4.0916   1290.44    430.1466     1.29044     .24440
+  28   .0005933     .0017799       .5933       3.13264  1685.48    561.8266     1.68548     .31922
+  29   .000511571   .001534713     .511571     2.7011   1954.76    651.5866     1.95476     .370220
+  30   .0004359     .0013077       .4359       2.30152  2294.13    764.710      2.29413     .434496
+
+LENGTH AND RESISTANCE
+
+B.W.G  Feet         Yards        1.000 feet   Miles      Ohms         Ohms          Ohms        Ohms
+No.    per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.   per foot.    per yard.     per 1.000   per mile.
+                                                                                    foot.
+
+0000   19966.5      6655.5       19.9665      3.7815     .000050684   .00156252       .050084      .264443
+ 000   17497.15     5832.3833    17.49715     3.31385    .0000571522  .0001714566     .0571522     .301763
+  00   13988.64     4662.68      13.98804     2.64925    .000071489   .000214467      .071489      .377465
+   0   11198.17     3732.7333    11.19817     2.12086    .0000893002  .0002679006     .0893002     .471505
+   1    8718.30     2906.10       8.71830     1.6512     .00011470    .0003441        .114701      .60562
+   2    7813.50     2604.50       7.81350     1.47973    .00012799    .00038397       .12799       .67580
+   3    6498.14     2166.0466     6.49814     1.23071    .00015389    .00046167       .15389       .81254
+   4    5487.107    1829.0357     5.487107    1.03923    .000182245   .000546735      .182245      .962256
+   5    4688.51     1562.8366     4.68851      .887975   .000213287   .000639861      .213287     1.12616
+   6    3991.91     1330.6366     3.99191      .756045   .000250506   .000751518      .250506     1.32267
+   7    3138.59     1046.1966     3.13859      .59443    .000318614   .000955842      .318614     1.68228
+   8    2637.29      879.0966     2.63729      .499486   .000379177   .001137531      .379177     2.00206
+   9    2121.84      707.280      2.12184      .401864   .000471289   .001413867      .471289     2.488405
+  10    1739.40      579.80       1.73940      .329432   .000574911   .001724733      .574911     3.03553
+  11    1394.93      464.9766     1.39493      .264191   .000716882   .002150646      .716882     3.78514
+  12    1150.91      383.6366     1.15091      .217976   .000868875   .002606625      .868875     4.58766
+  13     874.252     291.4173      .874252     .165578   .00114383    .00343149       1.14383     6.03945
+  14     667.338     222.446       .667338     .12639    .00149849    .00449547       1.49849     7.91203
+  15     502.175     167.39166     .502175     .095109   .00199134    .00597402       1.99134    10.5142
+  16     409.276     136.42533     .409276     .077514   .00244334    .00733002       2.44334    12.9008
+  17     325.871     108.62366     .325871     .061718   .0030687     .0092061        3.0687     16.20274
+  18     232.585      77.52833     .232585     .04405    .0042995     .0128985        4.2995     22.7014
+  19     170.879      56.95966     .170879     .032363   .0058521     .0175563        5.8521     30.8991
+  20     149.3915     49.797166    .1493915    .022475   .00842703    .02528109       8.42703    44.4947
+  21      99.195      33.065       .099195     .018787   .01008110    .03024348      10.08116    53.2285
+  22      75.9461     25.315366    .0759461    .014384   .0131672     .0395016       13.1672     69.5230
+  23      60.54377    20.181256    .06054377   .011467   .0165170     .0495510       16.5170     87.2096
+  24      46.8851     15.628356    .0468851    .0088798  .02132874    .06398622      21.32874   112.616
+  25      38.748      12.916       .038748     .0073386  .025808      .077424        25.808     136.265
+  26      31.3859     10.461966    .0313859    .0059443  .03186144    .09558432      31.86144   168.229
+  27      24.79873     8.266243    .02479873   .0046967  .0403246     .1209738       40.3246    212.914
+  28      18.98653     6.328843    .01898653   .0035959  .05266892    .15800676      52.66892   278.092
+  29      16.3710      5.4570      .0163710    .0031006  .0610834     .1832502       61.0834    322.521
+  30      13.9493      4.649766    .0139493    .0026419  .07168825    .21506475      71.68825   378.514
+
+RESISTANCE & WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Ohms           Lbs.
+No.    per lb.        per Ohm.
+
+0000      .000080272  12457.5
+ 000      .000104529   9566.7
+  00      .000163553   6114.24
+   0      .000255196   3918.58
+   1      .00042102    2375.18
+   2      .00052422    1907.59
+   3      .00075786    1319.50
+   4      .0010629      940.844
+   5      .0014558      686.911
+   6      .0020082      497.96
+   7      .00324863     307.822
+   8      .00460101     217.343
+   9      .00710791     140.689
+  10      .0105772       94.543
+  11      .0164462       60.842
+  12      .0241593       41.392
+  13      .0418692       23.8839
+  14      .0718583       13.9163
+  15      .126788         7.8872
+  16      .191045         5.2344
+  17      .301355         3.31835
+  18      .59157          1.6904
+  19     1.09596           .912445
+  20     2.27254           .44003
+  21     3.25229           .30748
+  22     5.54843           .18023
+  23     8.73035           .11454
+  24    14.5579            .068691
+  25    21.3142            .046917
+  26    32.4863            .030782
+  27    52.0367            .019217
+  28    88.7724            .011265
+  29   119.404             .008375
+  30   164.4762            .0060804
+
+PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 mil.
+foot at 60° Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, 10.32311 ohms. Upon
+these data the above Table has been calculated.
+
+The _Resistance_ of Copper varies with the temperature about 0.38 per
+cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per degree Fahrenheit.
+
+STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of
+_Stranded_ Wires, the total _weight_ is _greater_, and the _Resistance
+less_ than is a similar length of Conductor with Wires _not_ Stranded.
+
+  To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994
+              Feet to Metres            "         .3048
+              Yards to Metres           "         .9144
+              Miles to Kilometres       "         .6214
+              Pounds to Kilogrammes     "         .45359
+
+PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE MAKERS, 25,
+BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IRON FRAME GANG MILLS.
+
+
+The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid
+and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent improvements
+tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown in the iron frame
+stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East Saginaw, Mich., are
+eminently valuable. Our large engraving represents one of these mills,
+constructed to be driven by belt, friction, or direct engine, as may be
+desired. The important requisite in this class of mills is such design
+and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement
+at the highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the
+quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of thinner
+saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are among the
+advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming the necessity
+of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense in setting up, and
+avoiding the liability of decay or change of position.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.]
+
+Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation, and
+from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the
+Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and bottom slides. The top
+slides are pivoted at the top end, and the bottom ones from the bottom
+end, both being operated by one rock shaft from the center. This
+movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest
+cut yet obtained. It adds no extra weight to the sash, and avoids the
+cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints, usually weighing from
+three hundred to five hundred pounds, which have been found so
+objectionable in many other movements. The feed is continuous, and is
+made variable from ¼ to 1¼ inch to each stroke, controllable by the
+sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form
+with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special feature of
+this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests
+upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block
+or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole structure is thus increased,
+both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting
+vibrations, which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same
+part, as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use.
+
+The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws 4½ feet
+long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke 20 inches, capable
+of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank shaft is nine inches in
+diameter, of the best forged iron. The main pillow block has a base
+6½ feet long by 21 inches bearing, weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap
+is secured by two forged bolts 3½ inches in diameter, and by this
+arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is
+used with suitable counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and
+speed of sash; a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a
+forged pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes.
+The iron drive pulley is 4 to 4½ feet in diameter and 24 inches face;
+the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 pounds, turned
+off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is required, a proportionate
+increase is made in all these parts.
+
+In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; the lower
+girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without rivets, giving
+the greatest strength possible, with the least weight. The outfit also
+includes eight iron rollers for the floor, 8½ inches in diameter, with
+iron stands, and geared as live rolls when desired, a full set of
+Lippencott's steel saw hangings, and gauges for one-inch lumber. The
+weight of the machine here shown is 18½ tons. They are, however, built
+in larger or smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity
+of work desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of the
+Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and Hollanders
+with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early fruits are taken
+from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, whence they
+are carried by fast steamers to London and other English ports. But, on
+the other hand, Germany is sending into Italy large quantities of coal,
+iron, machinery, copper, and other articles of which the latter received
+nothing before. In two months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of
+paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS.
+
+
+The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in
+accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out in
+such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been applied
+with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the Glasgow
+Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a period of about
+twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens successfully adapted his
+system to the firing of retorts at the Paris Gas Works, it seems to have
+made but little progress up to the present time; for what reasons it is
+perhaps difficult to explain. It is certain, however, that so-called
+regenerator furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been
+brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the
+Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has
+received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion
+eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be
+certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an
+illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with
+its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, the electric light. Of course,
+it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative
+principle at the Paris Gas Works was attended with a degree of
+complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so
+expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies
+and gas corporations generally, when the expense as well as the
+scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying
+and utilizing heat had to be considered. Fortunately, however, Dr.
+Siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was
+no such thing as "finality" in that department of invention which he had
+made almost exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed
+his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and
+utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most
+decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements
+now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been
+immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility has in
+no way been interfered with.
+
+Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer and
+regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. Foulis, the
+general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, with the view of
+entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale
+at one of the stations under his charge. Encouraged by the hearty
+co-operation of the gas committee, two or three of whose members were
+well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very soon came to an understanding with
+Dr. Siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at
+the Dalmarnock Gas Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city,
+and the largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number
+of retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent shape
+was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, but which
+number has since been increased to eight, owing to the space occupied
+by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for
+an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" setting. For each oven or
+chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer,
+so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought
+necessary.
+
+[Illustration: GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW
+CORPORATION GAS WORKS.]
+
+In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement and the
+relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the retorts to
+each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of _sine qua non_ of the new
+method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close
+proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be
+used, and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be
+immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts, and with its top
+on a level with the working floor of the retort house. To place it
+in such a position meant a good deal of excavation, which was also
+required, however, for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried
+down to a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and
+as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted
+to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division
+walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, were
+in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a good deal
+of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas
+producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of application and
+by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements
+from time to time, as also by a determination not to be beaten, although
+often disheartened, Mr. Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete
+success. The new system of firing being made so simple that there was
+scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice
+if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+The results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens, or a
+total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith
+resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench
+of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; and all the improvements
+which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the
+four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the
+remaining eight ovens in the bench. More recently the regenerator system
+has been applied to other 22 ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the
+whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house; and during the
+very depth of the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its
+greatest height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings,
+amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition they
+still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable extension
+of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and
+summer. The reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens
+of seven retorts each, giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts; and
+to twenty ovens of five retorts each, which will become sixteen ovens,
+each having eight retorts, making 128 retorts in this division, and the
+total being 208 retorts in place of 170 in the same amount of space. It
+is confidently anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of
+the present year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working
+out the new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the
+confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the
+Glasgow Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the
+actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas
+retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are
+being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the Dawsholm
+Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of Maryhill, and some
+four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock Works in a northwestern
+direction. The station just named, which is also a very large one, will
+probably require two years for its conversion.
+
+We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted
+for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel to the
+greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing
+the cannel coal used as the source of the gas.
+
+The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in Fig. 2, is
+a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron. It is 7
+ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, which becomes reduced to 20
+in. above, where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid, which is
+continuous with the floor of the retort house. There are no firebars
+at the bottom, so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick. At the
+bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about 1 ft.
+in length by 6 in. in height. By means of these openings any clinker
+that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn.
+They also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in
+the lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a
+malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam
+boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the
+steam.
+
+The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it
+has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of
+carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made from Scotch cannel
+the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains a large percentage of
+mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon. The retorts are
+worked with three-hour charges, but the producer is only charged once in
+every six hours For each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel
+is about 18 cwt., and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from
+five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the
+top. Formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a
+furnace underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made,
+but now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced
+to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly was.
+Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the
+producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by
+way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it has been filled up
+to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the
+top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon it and driven home, thereby
+making a perfectly air-tight joint. The contents of the other three
+retorts, as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each
+alternate drawing, are taken to the coke heap in the yard. We have
+already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about 18 cwt. for each set
+of eight retorts, but in connection with that matter we should mention
+that it was formerly about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts,
+and that there is every prospect of it being increased without
+increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each
+charge.
+
+It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the
+mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air admitted at the
+several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers
+of the incandescent coke, the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid
+gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air. Among the middle and upper
+layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further
+quantity of the fixed carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic
+oxide gas (CO_{2}+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses
+considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very
+completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the producer, a
+quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide,
+the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former
+increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen associated with
+the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the
+carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of
+course absolutely useless as a generator of heat. The steam which
+we previously spoke of serves two good purposes. In contact with
+incandescent coke it suffers decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some
+of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which
+is set free passes onward, and mixes with the other gases to be
+subsequently consumed with them. The admission of the steam thus causes
+the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition
+takes place, this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion
+of the hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the
+coke in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely
+preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious
+materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke
+obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to 20 per
+cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the
+bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours.
+Referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel
+coke in one of these gas producers, we give the following typical
+analysis on the authority of Dr. William Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas
+examiner, and one of the public analysts for the city of Glasgow:
+
+                     Per cent.
+  Hydrogen             8.7
+  Carbonic oxide      28.1
+  Carbonic acid        3.5
+  Oxygen               0.4
+  Nitrogen            59.3
+                     -----
+                     100.0
+
+By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an opening is
+provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the
+mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of
+the setting and the lower by the regenerators.
+
+Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the
+arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be
+admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible
+nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper is
+occupied by eight [Inline Illustration] shaped retorts. These are 9 ft.
+long (set back to back) by 18 in. by 13 in., and they are placed on
+arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. wide. Underneath the level of the retort
+oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ
+very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr.
+Siemens to gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high
+temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In
+the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating
+system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat
+of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, the
+current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork, while
+air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated. The system
+thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part
+of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the
+currents. The regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six
+zigzag flues, three on each side of the setting. These flues run the
+whole length of the setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing
+downward in Fig. 3, the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack
+pass to and fro through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion
+of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the
+central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air necessary
+for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center, and
+then it is divided into two currents, which pass right and left into the
+central passages of the two regenerators. As the air flue is at a very
+bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it, the
+temperature of the air must be equally great, or nearly so. In its most
+improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount
+of heating surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the
+air on its way to the combustion chamber.
+
+Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the gas
+enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it meets
+the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, not by a
+number of small openings, but by one large opening on each side, and
+meets the air entering also by a large opening, the effect of which is
+to avoid the localization of intense heat, as all the retorts of the
+setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame, due to the
+combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases.
+
+There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas
+retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the extent
+of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided
+increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as it has been
+experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that, by
+increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer can be made to
+provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight
+retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel
+used will be still further reduced. Then, again, an additional retort
+can well be placed in each oven, as it occupies the position of the fire
+in ordinary settings. In the third place, by the greater heat which is
+obtained, the charges can be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges
+can be carbonized in a given space of time. When all the gains are put
+together, the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per
+cent. over any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator
+settings there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous
+fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any
+trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of
+the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but natural to
+expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which
+is really the case. Another advantage is that, as the fuel used in
+the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the flues cannot by any
+possibility arise. It is the confident opinion of Mr. Foulis that the
+system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas
+works, and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the
+summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to
+eight retorts.
+
+As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and
+regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great amount
+of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many persons have
+visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their reconstruction, in order
+to see the system in operation, and doubtless many more will go and do
+likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses,
+and which are likely to increase rather than diminish.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN.
+
+
+During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and one,
+moreover, destined to materially influence the development of the uses
+of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the guidance of Mr.
+Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, London. The experiment
+in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating
+bakers' ovens, in a manner not hitherto attempted, and such as to bring
+the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the
+smallest towns. It will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated
+muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of
+a model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in action
+at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the winter
+of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but its design
+demanded either a new structure in every case, or considerable
+alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed system, moreover,
+the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be
+necessary to meet the objections of the bakers. It is evident, however,
+that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles
+and brickwork, such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven,
+from the outside; and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel
+as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that
+in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire.
+When it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is
+of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in the
+estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to allowing a
+purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to
+fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. Consequently, when
+Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known
+in England and America, seriously addressed himself to construct, upon
+altogether new lines, a cheap and practical baker's oven, he wisely put
+the gas inside.
+
+There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after consultation with
+practical bakers and others, set himself to fulfill, the observance
+of which lends to the present Blackfriars experiment much of its
+interesting character. Thus it was observed that, while it is not
+difficult to build an oven in a given spot, and bake bread in it, this
+cannot truly be called a _baker's_ oven. By this term must be understood
+in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style
+and worked by a man with his living to get by it. Before the problem of
+extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be
+attacked from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to
+have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw
+that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting it
+inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any general
+success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be
+rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The latter seems
+a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered that the only
+improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam
+oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or three hundred pounds to
+erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible
+for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven; and in this
+respect he set himself to surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will
+not bake the common "batch" or household bread, generally the principal
+article of sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The
+peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from
+the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is found simply
+in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted
+to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the oven, and thence radiated to
+the bread. No other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves
+packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly
+soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now,
+as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and
+otherwise, this necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly
+a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of
+itself, can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas
+cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as
+formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different kind of heat is
+needed, under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion.
+Therefore, there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides
+of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames; thus
+supplanting the coal fire, but leaving the actual work of baking to be
+done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way.
+
+Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, there
+still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in the dealing
+with which lies the difference between practical success and failure.
+Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking; it is
+also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits
+of work to which the baker has been accustomed. Work in town bakeries
+begins at about midnight, or shortly after, and the condition of the
+oven must conform to the requirements of the dough, which vary from day
+to day and from season to season. In order to master all these niceties,
+as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer
+has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has
+thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has
+served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his gas heat, but in
+answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in
+an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with considerable satisfaction
+that we are enabled to declare, after duly weighing all the conditions
+as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others, that Mr.
+Booer has succeeded, upon these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas
+to be a cheap, efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the
+control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself.
+
+The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the
+bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It measures 7 feet by
+6 feet internally; being what is technically termed a 6 bushel oven. The
+alterations made by Mr. Booer consist in the first place in the removal
+of the flooring tiles, and the laying down of a new bottom, under which
+run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the
+furnace, where it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight
+pieces of ¾-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall,
+and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the
+gas-burners, which are supplied from a 1½-inch pipe led into the old
+furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted
+in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all the plant
+required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to
+different points of the side walls, and the products of combustion are
+allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose.
+A supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion
+of the gas in these flues, which would otherwise be languid. When the
+gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or
+the bottom set of burners, a long match is used to light them from
+the same point. This is effected without risk of firing back, by the
+adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the
+pattern of which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in
+a sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at
+the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the
+products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney,
+which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as might be
+expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable
+position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this case by the fact that
+the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft. Finally,
+however, the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results.
+During the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use, and the
+bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade.
+Two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven;
+the economy of its use, of course, increasing with the number of loaves
+turned out. As a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the
+oven is wanted, and about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are
+shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in
+which time it ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the
+batch is set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a
+half, according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are
+baked with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s.
+10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This cannot be
+considered costly. But the system possesses many other advantages. In
+the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; for the oven never
+requires wiping out, which is usually done with a bundle of old rope
+called a "scuffle" and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant
+odor. Then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of
+view of the Smoke Abatement Institution. More to the purpose of the
+journeyman baker, however, is the fact that there is no stoking to be
+done, and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to
+attend to the furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of
+knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to
+the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is
+no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. Loeber,
+having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning, and marked
+how they have been overcome, is content to acknowledge that even this
+first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold
+over the counter. There is a good opening in this direction, for there
+are 6,000 bakeries in London alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's
+system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his
+customers. And what may be done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic
+feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns
+where the price is lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a
+proper spirit. He has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of
+the baker; and has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a
+noteworthy success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his
+perseverance merits.--_Jour. of Gas Lighting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB.
+
+
+Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the whirlpool
+and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born at Irongate,
+near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 feet 8 inches in
+height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and weighed about 14½ stone.
+He learnt to swim when about seven years old, and was trained as a
+sailor on board the Conway training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved
+the life of a fellow seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez
+Canal and cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on
+board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the life of
+a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an hour before
+he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received a gold and
+other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but soon after he
+relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming.
+
+At long distance swimming in salt water he was _facile princeps_, but he
+did not show to such advantage in fresh water. In June, 1874, he swam
+from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a distance of 11 statute miles.
+On July 3, 1875, he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier,
+nearly 18 statute miles, in 4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same
+month he swam from Dover to Ramsgate, 19¼ statute miles, in 8 hours 45
+minutes. On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France,
+and although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the
+distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 15½ statute miles, in 6
+hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made another attempt,
+which rendered his name famous all over the English-speaking world.
+Starting from Dover, he reached the French coast at Calais, after being
+immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 minutes. He had swum over 39
+miles, or, according to another calculation, 45½ miles, without having
+touched a boat or artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam
+at the Lambeth Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at
+Boston, U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 128½ hours. Latterly he had
+suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had become much
+impaired.
+
+[Illustration: CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.]
+
+The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief
+description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from the
+boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the shouts and
+applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam leisurely down the
+river, but made good progress. He passed along the rapids at a great
+pace, and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the
+Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the bridge the river becomes
+exceedingly violent, and as the water was clear every movement of Webb
+could be seen. At one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave,
+and the next he sank into the awful hollow created. As the river became
+narrower, and still more impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a
+wave, and for a few moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose
+to the surface without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily
+increased, and he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he
+was swept into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the
+highest wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into
+the yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry
+waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the waves.
+He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more alive. Some
+days later his body was found four miles below the fatal Rapids. It bore
+tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone.
+His bathing drawers were torn to fragments, and there was a deep wound
+in his head. An inquest was held, and the jury returned a verdict of
+"Found drowned."
+
+Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a widow and
+two children. It is understood that he risked his life in this last
+fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family.--_London
+Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY.
+
+
+These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, which is
+the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. As regards
+accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized
+drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; well-lighted entrance
+halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, pantry, and scullery; on
+first floor are three good bedrooms, a bathroom, and other necessary
+accommodation; on second floor are two additional bedrooms. The basement
+contains coal-place and larder.
+
+In these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned
+and well-arranged habitations, combined with a pleasing and picturesque
+exterior, without involving a large outlay of money. The materials used
+are brick of a deep red color for facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs.
+Wilcock & Co., of Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a
+very sparing use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables
+are constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned
+together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with brickwork;
+the panels faced with cement, which, together with the cored cornice,
+are finished in vellum color. The whole of the woodwork of exterior is
+painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, forming an admirable contrast
+with the deep red of the bricks, the sashes and casements only being
+finished in cream color. The whole of the chimneypieces in the interior
+are carried out from the architect's special design; those in the
+drawing-rooms being of mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those
+in dining-rooms of oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished.
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS,
+BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.]
+
+The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have been
+erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, have cost
+£1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including the price of
+land. They have been carried out from the designs and under the
+superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., architect, of St.
+Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--_The Architect_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS.
+
+
+In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary
+precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained
+to take, it is of some interest to us, says the _Building News_, to know
+how the poor are housed in the city of Paris, which contains, more than
+any city in the world, the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence
+and of sordid, bestial poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working
+classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and
+reflect great discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough
+in the case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle
+of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. In
+1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in the city
+of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the succeeding year,
+the former had increased to 22,061, while the latter had somewhat
+diminished, being only 5,493. There was a census taken in 1881, from
+which it appeared that Paris contained 677,253 operatives and 255,604
+employes and clerks, while out of every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only
+were born in the city, and 565 came from the departments or the French
+colonies. The foreign element in the working classes has increased
+very rapidly, numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an
+addition of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75
+foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not be
+amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population is at
+the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years 1876-81, the city
+received 280,217 additional mouths. The total population of the capital
+is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are males.
+
+Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were
+estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, and
+in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the
+majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in almost any
+other great city in the world. There are two classes of lodgings for the
+poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family,
+and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the other, a single room tenanted
+for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the
+morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can. Readers will remember
+how, under the auspices of M. Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled
+down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues.
+While the work lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did
+not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation
+invaded his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that
+densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de l'Opera
+now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman into the
+already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, St. Lambert,
+Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last statistics of the
+_Annuaire_, the increase was at the rate of 415 per 1,000. Of course the
+ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also; and, from
+the reports of Dr. Brouardel and M. Muller, the number of deaths from
+typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in
+making his returns for 1881 of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that
+the most unsanitary arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and
+19th--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had
+taken place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging
+houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 inmates.
+In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, with 9,074
+lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants.
+
+It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a
+standing menace to the health of the city, but also the shocking state
+of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with. The
+owners of the property are, as happens in other places besides Paris,
+unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, and have not only divided
+and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible, but have even raised
+the rental in nearly all cases. Whole families are crowded into a small
+apartment, icy cold in winter, an oven in summer, the only air and
+daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on
+to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There
+are at the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove
+nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 rooms
+there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 with three
+children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian population has
+augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the district of poor
+lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., and the number of
+lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a law was passed in 1850
+to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property; but
+in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, although it is now active in the
+provinces and in places like Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it
+is applied, even there, in a jerky and intermittent manner.
+
+Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the
+group known as the Cité des Kroumirs, in the 13th arrondissement, which,
+by a strange irony, was built on land belonging to the Department of
+Public Assistance, which was let out by that body to a rich tenant, who
+sublet it to these lodging-house owners. This veritable den of infection
+and misery has now been demolished; but there are plenty of others quite
+as bad. Notably, there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to
+have named it after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five
+stories, which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that
+it was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages
+here. The Cité Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the
+"Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is inhabited
+by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The Cite Philippe is
+tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows what are the contents
+of the chiffonnier's basket, or _hotte_, may easily guess at the
+effluvia of that particular group of houses. A large lodging-house in
+the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted by 210 Italians, who get their living
+as models or itinerant musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to
+be unapproachable from the vermin.
+
+It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened
+the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more than one
+scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial
+dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the Credit Foncier
+for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses, which, for the
+space of twenty years, will be exempt from all taxes, such as
+octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There are also one or
+two semi-private companies, which are occupying themselves with the
+question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in
+Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There can be no doubt, says the _Engineer_, that the inventor who could
+supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give
+out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune.
+Up to the present time, however, nothing of the kind has been placed
+in the market. Gas is laid on to most houses now, and gas engines are
+plenty enough, yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may
+be made yet perhaps to supply.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC.
+
+
+To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats do not
+colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will distinguish them as a
+rumbling noise, even when their number rises as high as 132 vibrations
+per second, Rudolph Koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks,
+recently presented by President Morton to the Stevens Institute of
+Technology. The following table exhibits the number of vibrations per
+second of these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are
+sounded together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant sound:
+
+  Vibrations per second.         Ratio.        Beats.        Sounds.
+
+  3840           :4096           15:16         128            Ut_{2}
+  3904           :  "            61:64          96           Sol_{1}
+  3936           :  "           123:128         80            Mi_{1}
+  3968           :  "            31:32          64            Ut_{1}
+  3976           :  "           497:512         60            Si_{-1}
+  3989.3         :  "           187:192         53.3          La_{-1}
+  4000           :  "           125:128         48           Sol_{1}
+  4010.7         :  "            47:48          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  4016           :  "           251:256         40            Mi_{-1}
+  4024           :  "           503:512         36            Re_{-1}
+  7936           : 8192          31:32         128            Ut_{2}
+  8064           :  "            63:64          64            Ut_{1}
+  8096           :  "           253:256         48           Sol_{-1}
+  8106.7         :  "            95:96          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  8112           :  "           507:512         40            Mi_{-1}
+  8120           :  "          1015:1024        36            Re_{-4}
+  8128           :  "           127:128         32            Ut_{-4}
+
+On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard corresponds to
+a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of
+vibrations of the forks.
+
+On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the other,
+the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations whose
+number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher
+fork and the upper octave of the lower fork.
+
+Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced
+by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his researces to
+intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as may be seen from the
+above table.
+
+His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same
+phenomenon.
+
+Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing
+a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear musical sound
+is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce 32
+beats per second.
+
+Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the
+purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose
+vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose with
+eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles of
+holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of this
+instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens Institute, and of
+Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by Koenig himself.
+
+
+I.
+
+_Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect_.
+
+A.
+
+In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not deviate
+much from isochronism.
+
+If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note
+corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks.
+
+If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', and if the
+difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two notes t+t' and
+(t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t, t', and
+t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and (t+t'+t")/3.
+
+Disk No. 1 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances   t=30°
+   "   "        2 24  "       "        "          15°
+   "   "        3 36  "       "        "          10°
+   "   "        4 36  "     at irregular distances.
+   "   "        5 36  " distances t= 10½°, t'=l0°,t''=9½°
+   "   "        6 36  "   "          11°      10°     9°
+   "   "        7 36  "   "          16°      14°
+   "   "        8 36  "   "          16½°     13½°
+
+Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle No. 7 the
+same, but the low note is stronger than in 8.
+
+Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does circle 5,
+but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6.
+
+Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle 3.
+
+By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit the air
+through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance of 30° and
+directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning
+disk. If the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve
+times on the same circle, we cannot, of course, make use of the above
+arrangements of holes of the wind tube, and we must then employ one of
+the movable brass tubes, which communicate with the interior of the wind
+chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk
+1, circle 4, for example, requires the use of one of these two tubes,
+while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all
+the other circles of the same disk.
+
+B.
+
+If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note
+(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard.
+
+Disk No. 2 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes,  distances 30°
+   "   "        2 36  "       "        10°
+   "   "        3 48  "       "        7½°
+   "   "        4 60  "       "         6°
+   "   "        5 24  "       " t= 5°, t'=25°
+   "   "        6 24  "            6°     24°
+   "   "        7 24  "            7½°    22½°
+   "   "        8 24  "           10°     20°
+
+Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those of 1 and
+3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of circle 1 and of
+its sixth harmonic.
+
+C.
+
+If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; that is to
+say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n.
+
+Disk No. 3 has--
+
+                                                       Distances.
+  On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15°
+   "   "        2 24   "        "     15° & 27 holes,   13-1/3°
+   "   "        3 24   "        "     15° " 30   "      12°
+   "   "        4 24   "        "     15° " 32   "      11-1/4°
+   "   "        5 24   "        "     15° " 36   "      10°
+   "   "        6 24   "        "     15° " 40   "       9°
+   "   "        7 24   "        "     15° " 45   "       8°
+   "   "        8 24   "        "     15° " 30, 36, & 48 holes
+
+Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a third,
+circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 a perfect
+chord.
+
+
+II.
+
+_Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several
+different places to conspire in the formation of a note, provided that
+the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, and that the shocks
+are produced in the same direction_.
+
+Disk No. 4 has--
+
+  On circle 1 24 holes.
+   "    "   2 36   "
+   "    "   3 23   "
+   "    "   4 12 at an angular distance of 10° from the holes
+                  of circle 3.
+   "    "   5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20° from those of circle 3
+   "    "   6 12   "          "     "       0°        "
+   "    "   7 12   "          "     "      15°        "
+   "    "   8 12   "          "     "      15°        "
+
+1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of
+15° are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, we obtain the octave
+of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used.
+
+The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this
+experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of air
+spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button 9 we
+also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between the first.
+Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note
+corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they produce the octave,
+or the note of circle 1.
+
+2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose
+holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the same result.
+
+In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out buttons 7
+and 9.
+
+3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two
+circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these circles sounded
+simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them
+would give alone.
+
+This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and pulling out
+buttons 6 and 7.
+
+4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three
+similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance
+between two holes of the same circle, the three circles together produce
+the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single circle.
+
+Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle 2.
+
+(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the same
+experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make with
+circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain the note
+corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the notes
+corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very strongly;
+but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 disappears
+completely, and we have left only that corresponding to 36 holes.)
+
+
+III.
+
+_Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions_.
+
+1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in
+opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is very
+much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously.
+If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity of the note is
+increased.
+
+2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the same
+number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases.
+
+3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one of which
+has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the low note if
+every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other.
+
+We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave of the
+other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks.
+
+Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air currents
+are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes,
+made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All these experiments
+require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes. To make
+sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk, it
+is well to put little rods through the holes, reaching into the wind
+tubes, and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached. The
+experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly
+at the same distance from the turning disk. It is clear that
+notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect
+interference, but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear
+entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness,
+and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard
+to impulses produced in opposite directions.
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Beats_.
+
+Disk No. 6 has--
+
+8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce as many
+beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and 5, 6 and 8,
+as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but we must content
+ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result, for the
+following reasons: The disk never being rigorously plane, alternately
+approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it. No matter how
+slight this deviation is, every sound given by a single circle is heard
+with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon. This
+inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the
+circle; but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles
+(whose difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a
+single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance
+between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when the
+disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and
+intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived.
+
+Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the points to
+which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also furnishes two
+more disks.
+
+The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, 90, and
+96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will produce a perfect
+chord when the air is admitted through the 11 holes in the wind chest;
+with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained.
+
+Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose numbers are
+in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to illustrate
+harmonics. C. F. K.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER.
+
+[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.]
+
+
+To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon
+the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it is necessary to
+take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this being something that
+we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers. For we wished,
+through this voluntary omission, to stimulate their sagacity by bringing
+them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have
+succeeded in overcoming, with causes of error that they will have
+perceived, and the principal one of which is the want of absolute
+cleanliness in the water, vessels, and instruments that they may have
+used for the experiments.
+
+Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the camphor
+remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to
+be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. Their
+astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed
+the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of
+vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or tubes, pieces of
+gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., dipped into the liquid
+in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the
+objects under consideration.
+
+The instantaneously _sedative_ power of the human fingers, or of a hair,
+will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of sorcery, or of some
+diabolic art worthy of the great Albert.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR.]
+
+As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious experiments
+of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously following his
+directions, we have, in the presence of our results, that were exactly
+identical with his, almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the
+victim of some occult power, or at least of some optical illusion,
+the true cause of which remained a mystery to us. Finally, after
+many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our
+attention, the light finally dawned upon us, and then shone straight in
+our eyes.
+
+In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had
+obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor moved in the
+test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its
+gyration took place the day before, or the day before that. And yet we
+had always used the same vessels, the same water, and particles detached
+from the same lump of camphor.
+
+To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the two
+levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the
+camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that was
+satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we had
+noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous washings
+that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into
+them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been freed from
+impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and which, unbeknown
+to us, might have soiled their sides.
+
+Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, we began
+to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very dilute sulphuric
+acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed them with quantities of
+water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used
+for no other purpose; and finally we plunged them again into very clean
+water. We thus cut the Gordian knot, and were on the right track.
+
+In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with that
+minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely
+necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all the pieces of
+the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up. The
+camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or metal, and of every form,
+at all heights. The immersed bodies, such as glass tubes, table knives,
+pieces of money, etc., had lost their pretended "sedative effect" on a
+pretended "activity of the water," and on the vessels that contained
+it. The so-called phenomenon of habit "transported from physiology into
+physics," no longer existed.
+
+The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor
+upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which
+nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes
+of _Chara vulgaris_, had proved a grave error that was to be erased from
+the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire
+good faith. The true cause of _life_ had not then been unveiled, and the
+new agent designated as _diluo-electricity_ vanished before the very
+simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface
+of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly suppose that that
+volatile substance could dissolve.
+
+Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water
+is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel with which
+the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of little or no
+importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to employ a test
+glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, that terminates in a
+lower tubulure, B, above which there is a contraction, C. Upon pouring
+water into the lateral tube until the level reaches D, and placing
+a particle of camphor on its surface, the camphor will be seen to
+continually move about, even when the liquid has reached the upper
+edge of the vessel. To reduce the level to various heights, it is only
+necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to
+the tubulure. In proceeding thus, agitation or _collision_ of the water
+is avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will
+continue to move at every level of the water.
+
+But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the stoppage in the
+motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that
+are not perfectly clean? Before answering this question, let us say in
+the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due
+to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia
+that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they
+emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in
+an ælopile mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of
+a sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small
+portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms upon its
+surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but the thickness
+of which may increase in time until it becomes (especially if the vessel
+is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments
+of camphor that it imprisons, and whose evaporation it prevents. Now,
+as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate, in fact, after a
+certain length of time, the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions;
+but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that
+account that it "has _habituated_ itself to the cause which had at first
+influenced it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to
+render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present"
+(Dutrochet, _l.c._., p. 50).
+
+We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily
+layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under
+the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of sulphuric ether whose
+sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal
+the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye.
+The slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of
+vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it, produces
+effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor, that is to say, that
+in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the
+concrete volatile essence.
+
+This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the
+camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a
+few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to the upper edge
+of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid _licks_ up, so to speak,
+the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel, and this
+material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a
+layer which, in spreading over the bit of camphor itself, prevents its
+evaporation, and, consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer
+under consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by
+causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, more
+easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in
+which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the paper is
+removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, it should be
+understood), the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues
+them at all levels.
+
+The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no power to
+stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy to repeat, is
+an unquestionable proof of this.
+
+Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and afterward with
+plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a
+fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the gyration will not be
+stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in
+its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty substances that
+ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) be dipped into this
+same glass.
+
+_Movements of Camphor upon Mercury_.--In order to study the motions of
+camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a great advantage,
+and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of
+cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath. The
+vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly
+clean, but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is
+soiled by foreign bodies But it is extremely difficult to clean mercury
+completely. To do so Mr. Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and
+leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid,
+taking care to often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater
+part of the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime
+in powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes
+in its lower part.
+
+Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the motions of
+camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces of the vapors
+that escape from it, and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail
+that are endowed with very great agility. Nothing is more curious than
+to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the
+strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of
+the vessel that contains it. On raising the temperature of the metal
+slightly, the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and
+the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated.
+
+The experiments that we have just called attention to show what
+importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They
+prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists upon
+polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters
+which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find therein also a
+manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into
+which the presence of these fatty matters, that have hitherto been
+scarcely suspected, led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as
+the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis.--_N. Joly, in La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBONIC ACID IN BEER.
+
+
+We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' Convention in
+Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. Siebel in 1872, and
+used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. Bartholomae & Roesing, in
+Chicago. The object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid
+in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages
+from the storage vats. The importance of this measure is apparent to
+every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of
+this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the
+method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the
+beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to
+the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to the
+excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is evident that
+a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. The escape of
+carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that
+even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a
+remarkable difference in this respect. It is, therefore, evident that if
+a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off, a larger amount
+of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer. It is true that the
+racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure, but
+this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small, when compared
+with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the
+sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in
+which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form it
+has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any
+other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by
+artificial means. The apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is
+calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere,
+at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer. For this
+purpose, the beer from the store cask running through the pipe, B,
+enters the keg through a hollow copper bung, fitting light into the bung
+hole by means of a rubber washer. The air contained in the keg, being
+replaced by the beer, is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung,
+taking its course through the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is
+allowed to escape in the standpipe, C, containing a column of water,
+the height of which designates the pressure within the keg, and a
+consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or
+barrel is filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer
+showing itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the
+copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained in
+the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is then
+bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. Should
+the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time, the
+surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but will be collected in
+the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off through e.--_Chemical Review_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER CHLORIDE.
+
+
+Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of
+silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of
+gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an
+alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas called attention to six
+modifications of silver bromide. One of these, granular bromide of
+silver, obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days
+with water, he stated, was the most sensitive to light of all substances
+known; exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a
+Bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was
+for photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in
+1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in
+a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more
+sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. Today these
+observations have become of the greatest importance to practical
+photography. They have led to the preparation of the silver bromide
+gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates, which are twenty
+times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates, and have
+become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light.
+
+The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the
+more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is
+only moderately sensitive. The explanation was sought for in various
+directions, but as the result of numerous investigations it appears
+that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different
+modifications of silver bromide. From a consideration of the work
+already done on the subject, Vogel suspected that silver bromide
+precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different
+properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal
+solution. Silver bromide was prepared in many different ways. Emulsions
+were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the
+former aqueous, the latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others
+without. Part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a
+moderate temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with
+ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated silver
+bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it to settle
+completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a new portion
+of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates. Finally he
+precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence of all colloids, by
+means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted
+to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or collodion as a cement.
+The result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two
+modifications of silver bromide, the one being obtained by precipitation
+in aqueous, the other in alcoholic solutions. The first, on account of
+the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he
+calls blue sensitive, the other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive.
+
+It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in
+which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion, or
+whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of
+silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the solution is hot or
+cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or
+whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary condition is that in
+precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain
+at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From aqueous alcoholic solutions blue
+sensitive silver bromide is precipitated.
+
+Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum, these
+modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences
+in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two
+essentially different modifications of the same substance. Among these
+are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions.
+The indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a
+gelatin solution, while the blue sensitive modification does so very
+readily. 2d. Their unequal reducibility; the blue sensitive silver
+bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo
+sensitive variety. 3d. Their different action toward chemical and
+physical sensitizers. 4th. Their different action toward photographic
+developers. 5th. Their different action under the influence of heat.
+The blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness
+perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such treatment.
+
+A direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet
+been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these substances is
+incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that the more reducible
+indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light. But
+this is not the case, because it is not chemical reducibility, but the
+absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance. Now the
+blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the
+indigo sensitive variety, and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver
+chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two
+forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications. One is
+designated as ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive
+silver chloride.--_Amer. Chem. Jour_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL.
+
+[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the 28th June,
+1883.]
+
+By OTTO HEHNER
+
+
+Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of New
+Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat full
+analysis may be worthy of being placed on record.
+
+The sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish
+black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the fractures were
+conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. It was interspersed
+with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin. When powdered it
+appeared chocolate brown. It burned readily, the flame being bright and
+very smoky. Its ash was light and reddish brown.
+
+It consisted of--
+
+  Water (loss at 212° F.)        20.09
+  Organic and volatile matter    75.19
+  Ash                             4.72
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage
+composition--
+
+  Carbon                         71.26
+  Hydrogen                        5.62
+  Oxygen                         21.58
+  Nitrogen                        1.06
+  Sulphur                         0.48
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The ash was composed of--
+
+  Silica                         27.26
+  Alumina                        26.48
+  Oxide of iron                  12.98
+  Lime                           20.19
+  Magnesia                        3.42
+  Sulphuric acid                  9.47
+  Alkalies and loss               0.20
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as
+under--
+
+  Water                          20.09
+  Carbon                         53.58
+  Hydrogen                        4.23
+  Oxygen                         16.23
+  Nitrogen                        0.80
+  Sulphur                         0.36
+  Silica                          1.29
+  Alumina                         1.25
+  Oxide of iron                   0.61
+  Lime                            0.95
+  Magnesia                        0.16
+  Sulphuric acid                  0.44
+  Alkalies                        0.01
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of coke.
+
+The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very
+remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary
+temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small pieces.
+The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize
+the so called coal as a _lignite_, with which conclusion the physical
+characters of the sample are in perfect harmony.
+
+The resin to which I have referred has not been further analyzed. It was
+found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, such as alcohol, ether,
+carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, and neither attacked by
+boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali. On heating it swells up
+considerably and undergoes decomposition, but does not fuse.
+
+The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption, but
+the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as
+a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of it being really combustible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, ETC.
+
+By E. RAYMOND.
+
+
+The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and
+accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of
+peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the
+manganese to the manganous slate, and determining volumetrically, by
+means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of ferrous salt which
+has been converted into ferric. The method of rapidly precipitating
+manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act upon cast-iron or steel with
+nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions, and boil
+the mixture, the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of
+peroxide insoluble in nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of
+ferric oxide. Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous
+cast-iron containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes
+are treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr.
+1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately
+heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15
+grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric acid
+at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until the
+escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown down
+as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and the
+precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the manganese
+peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an acid solution
+of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous sulphate to 750 c.
+c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full strength). The 50 c. c. are
+poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved, and
+to which a little peroxide adheres, and it is then poured upon the
+precipitate and the filter in a Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese
+peroxide dissolves very readily, transforming its equivalent of ferrous
+sulphate into ferric sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150
+c. c. for the next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate
+formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the
+process of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter
+of water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid
+we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining
+in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of the original
+solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and determine the total
+ferrous salt.
+
+The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous
+salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. The quantity
+of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the quantity of
+manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In the case of a
+steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to
+dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the ferrous solution. Small
+Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only 0.010
+meter internal diameter, and graduated into one-twentieth c. c., which
+allows of great exactitude in the determination. For a spiegeleisen
+not more than 1 gramme of the sample should be taken, and for a
+ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MANGANESE AND ITS USES.
+
+
+Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the
+representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a metallic
+brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is so hard as to
+scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white
+heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, it should be
+preserved under naphtha.
+
+It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones;
+with this exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by
+the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat.
+
+Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., protoxide,
+sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, manganic acid, and
+permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as olive-green powder, and is
+obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen.
+Its salts are colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a strong
+tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate
+forms the mineral known as manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by
+heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition,
+dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed
+largely in calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals.
+
+The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite,
+and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as a black powder
+by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When ignited it loses
+oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts are isomorphous with
+those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It imparts a violet color to
+glass, and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a
+powerful oxidizing agent.
+
+The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native
+in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting the
+sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of the two
+preceding oxides.
+
+The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, and the
+pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most abundant of the
+manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad. Its
+commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given
+weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid, the
+quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which
+this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide.
+When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an
+evolution of chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of
+soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it
+is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of
+oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of
+gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per
+cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in the
+manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares.
+
+Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is
+formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese. The
+black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water,
+to which it communicates a green color, due to the presence of the
+manganate. From this water the salt is obtained _in vacuo_ in beautiful
+green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air, it
+rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual
+conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on
+account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name
+of mineral chameleon.
+
+Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination.
+Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet
+tint when seen by transmitted light. It is obtained by treating a
+solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid, when sulphate of
+baryta falls, and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water.
+Permanganate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is
+the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical
+chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.
+
+Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small
+quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances. It is
+always associated with iron.
+
+Various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The
+sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces
+purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile;
+and in small doses, both this salt and the carbonate have been given
+with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of
+anæmia. Manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when
+applied in lotions (as in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid
+ulcers. In connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it
+may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus
+Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air.
+
+It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used to
+correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence of
+protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively colorless
+peroxide.
+
+It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to decompose the
+oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a natural alloy of
+from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for this purpose when
+conveniently attainable.--_Glassware Reporter_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX.
+
+By WILLIAM L. LAY.
+
+ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.
+
+[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York Academy of
+Sciences.]
+
+
+There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, that
+of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it in any other part
+of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part of its
+beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally known that
+the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria long before
+it was in this country. In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the
+oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London.
+In America, the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of
+petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the
+world's history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the
+Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used
+in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a
+never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The mines of
+ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as Galicia. Near the
+city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from Cracow to Lemberg,
+is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Borislau, which is
+entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at the foot of
+the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for
+petroleum at that place. After descending about one hundred and eighty
+feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with
+a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not
+thicker than writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until
+at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or
+four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could be
+made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute for wax
+was manufactured.
+
+The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in
+America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells of
+Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The owner
+of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the miners
+three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first were whole
+farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, and at last to 1
+acre, which is a square of 209 feet.
+
+But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a
+small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the
+leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that
+the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be
+raised to sink the shaft; consequently the earth had to be transported
+to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy
+feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking
+of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the
+government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground
+that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the sides
+are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft three
+feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water
+wells, and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and
+windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many years
+no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum under the
+ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface, the miners
+were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh
+air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as
+the curbing of timber is put in place. The ozokerite is embedded in a
+very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet; below, it is
+interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were
+on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.]
+
+That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre
+than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in Poland,
+averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for
+children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working. If
+thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates the two men
+and one or two children required to work each lease. When the bucket,
+containing the earth, rock, and wax, is dumped in the little shed
+covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, who detach the
+wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners use galvanized wire
+ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to descend, they invariably
+cross themselves and utter a short prayer. The business is not free from
+danger, carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or
+the caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of deaths.
+One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one
+week there had been eight deaths from accidents.
+
+The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common cast
+iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the bottom, and
+the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed off with a ladle,
+poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, in which form it is
+sold to the refiners, for about six cents per pound. The quantity
+produced is uncertain, as the miners take care to understate it, for
+the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes, and the
+landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined. The best
+authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the quantity produced in
+fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 pounds, worth
+twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the land get
+one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is at the rate
+of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop from some two
+hundred acres of land.
+
+The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they
+should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is
+gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in that
+part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French company
+has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting
+through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they have sunk to a
+depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with water and petroleum.
+These they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines,
+worked in a scientific manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is
+about eighteen inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity.
+When first removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so
+soft that it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed
+into the space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for
+weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it
+out.
+
+I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 1860,
+have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was very
+much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petroleum
+industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the difference
+between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Borislau,
+after twenty years' work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It
+contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. None of
+its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud
+came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length.
+In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the
+houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous shops,
+where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It depends on
+a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses were generally
+one-story, built of logs and mud.
+
+On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, contained
+eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, and
+two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as deep
+with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no whisky shops where
+women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, two,
+three, four, and five stories high. Its water works cost one hundred and
+fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it did
+not contain forty houses.
+
+I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep in the
+mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform of
+straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the straw foundation
+had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. Borislau
+is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabitants;
+between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassable. For a
+third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a
+day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring
+why they did not improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the
+Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he
+could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with
+the road to Borislau.
+
+Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," wax) is
+found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the Caucasian Mountains,
+in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria; in the Apennines,
+in Italy; in Texas, California, and in the Wahsatch Mountains, in the
+United States. Commercially, it is not worked anywhere but in Austria;
+although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger deposit than in any other
+place. I made two journeys to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch
+Mountains. For a distance of forty miles, it crops out in many places,
+and on the Minnie Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found
+a stratum of sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with
+ozokerite.
+
+No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of
+ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place, and
+a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this shaft, the vein was
+about ten inches wide; and it could be traced along the slope of the
+hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite is
+seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish Cañon, which enters Salt Lake Valley
+near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the ozokerite of
+Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of white
+ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of
+yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of
+black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia
+College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made
+examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are interested
+in the subject will find the papers published in the _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ for the year 1879.
+
+A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine
+Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An
+interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was
+robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A
+short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax
+and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward suspected
+it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon after ward she
+brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the
+magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about
+twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief that
+she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods; for
+such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She was
+therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was brought
+before the court, and, when questioned, told the same story. She was a
+member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. He came,
+and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove
+her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an
+officer, to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one
+who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel,
+and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the clay
+a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once set at
+liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her dig the
+specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. The hill
+was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it had been
+forced up by gas or some power from below the surface. The quantity that
+could be gathered, by one person, laboring constantly for a week, was
+only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a
+shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was
+sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved
+in, and the shaft was abandoned.
+
+It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of
+manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of
+ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are
+several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils are
+made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, they make
+white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball,
+colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the
+yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer
+ones being waxed every day. It is a curious fact that the Catholic
+Church does not allow the use of paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles;
+at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe
+are made from ozokerite, which is a natural paraffine, made from
+petroleum in nature's laboratory. In the United States, the only
+uses made of ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the
+adulteration of beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration
+of the ruling passion strong in money making, which gives us wooden
+nutmegs, wooden hams, shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee,
+oleomargarine butter, mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax
+made without bees.
+
+After this paper was written, the following translation from a pamphlet,
+published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, in 1879, came
+to my notice. The writer's name is not published:
+
+"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts,
+is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy
+matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be
+necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by
+melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and
+these cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works,
+which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric
+centners (9,500,000 lb.).
+
+"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European
+countries, to be further refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may
+specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Russia
+as large purchasers of this article of commerce.
+
+
+"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.
+
+"The products of mineral wax, are:
+
+"(a.) _Ceresine_, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a
+product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined
+beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness,
+is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much
+used for wax candles, for waxing floors, and for dressing linen and
+colored papers. Wax crayons must be mentioned among these products. The
+house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors.
+These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and iron;
+also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and drawing.
+The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither
+by water, by acids, nor by rubbing.
+
+"Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it
+should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of
+ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was
+controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that
+the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid.
+
+"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white ceresine
+is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring
+matter (annatto).
+
+"(b.) _Paraffine_, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor.
+It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a
+protection against the action of acids, and to make casks and other
+wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, etc., for air-tight
+wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of tracing paper. There
+are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the
+Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol.
+iv., Brunswick, 1877).
+
+"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, in the
+distillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by
+hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid.
+
+"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced from
+2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 36
+to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for
+lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue.
+
+"(c.) _Mineral oils_, which are obtained at the same time with
+paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum,
+described above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils,
+besides the distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products
+with acids and alkalies.
+
+"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater part
+goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper Hungary. The common
+paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of various sizes, from
+28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina,
+Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, and form an important
+article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world.
+Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the East
+Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton."
+
+The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly
+a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its
+use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of
+yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified form, which
+had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah had already been
+shown before the Academy. There was no mystery as to its genesis in
+either region, as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of
+a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a
+great variety of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn,
+to one that is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical
+composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling a
+solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much paraffine
+that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather. The
+asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which the term "gum
+beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences in constitution have
+originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the
+petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have been derived. In Canada, as excavations
+are sunk through the asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and
+finally passes into petroleum. This is also the case in Utah.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.]
+
+[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883.
+
+
+Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also includes
+many interesting details in his account of the trip:
+
+The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the exception of a
+few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south the wind changed,
+obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to
+keep out the cold when crossing the equator. During a short stop in
+Lima the party had an opportunity of studying South American life. The
+products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women.
+The party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home
+for the admiration of their friends. The expedition really began at
+Callao, where the party embarked on the United States man-of-war
+Hartford. Few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the
+trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The
+Hartford was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific
+squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, but
+the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the
+dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed anchor for a sail
+of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches
+between Callao and their destination, Caroline Island. The southeast
+trade winds favored them, and from the first day there was actually no
+necessity for altering the position of a sail....
+
+The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according to
+the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one story
+structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in California and
+brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. The island on which
+they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly
+circular in outline. The edge, which rises from five to twenty inches
+from the water, according to the tide's phase, goes down under the water
+to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea; and is
+impossible to step on it with bare feet. At the end of this table the
+reef goes down perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable
+sea. No vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting
+matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered
+from the wind, and here, with the luck which characterized the trip, was
+found the only opening in this barrier of coral. A long cleft, perhaps
+eight feet wide, at the outer edge of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a
+mere crack near the shore. Watching a favorable chance, the boats were
+guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the
+men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as
+quickly as possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the
+surf, came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr.
+Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a succession of
+wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing the conscientious
+descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible.
+
+The members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of
+the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas,
+which afforded shade on three sides of the building. The second house
+was occupied by the sailors, while the third was left to the natives.
+These latter were sufficiently conversant with English to serve as
+excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of
+the island. This lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral
+sand, and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of
+the more delicate and elaborate kinds. These corals gave the lake a
+wonderful variety of colors, forming a picture impossible to paint or
+describe, and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole
+scene changed to new groups of color. The water was very clear, and
+in some places deep; in others so filled with coral that a boat could
+barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a
+long reef, one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their
+longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. Fish
+swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every species, if
+not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most peculiar manner. One
+variety which frequented the shallow water, where it was heated to the
+degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a pure milky white, with black
+eyes, fins, and tail.
+
+The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had steamed
+directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the Americans.
+
+It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good time,
+and the definition was particularly good. Photographs occupied the time
+of the English and French observers. Professor Holden and Dr. Dickson
+searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. Preston took the times of
+contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell devoted their attention to
+spectroscopic observations of the corona. Dr. Hastings' observations
+have led to the production of a new theory of the corona. Briefly
+stated, the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total
+eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun, but is a
+phenomenon of diffraction.
+
+From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central City,
+Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar
+corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth of this
+theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the present eclipse,
+however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. This test is based on
+the following already known phenomena: When the moon covers the face of
+the sun, an envelope of light is seen all round it; the envelope is
+not visible when the sun is shining, on account of the sun's greater
+brightness; this light is called the corona; it is extremely irregular
+in outline. According to the drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse
+of 1878, it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance
+of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite
+points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space.
+The opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending
+millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it must
+be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., which has
+been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body
+like the moon.
+
+In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a surface
+of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them. If
+an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it will judge the
+direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by
+a line at right angles with the wave front. Now suppose a body is placed
+between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ. The waves
+must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the
+wave front will have a different direction, and the organ of sense will
+conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from
+that before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves
+of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the retina of
+the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the
+waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on the eye that the
+light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The moon covers the sun
+during the eclipse and a little more, so that it can move for about five
+minutes and still cover the sun entirely. This movement is very slight,
+and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere, it should
+not change at all during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction
+is the cause of the light, then the slightest change in the relative
+positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the
+corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during
+a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum
+analysis should change.
+
+To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following instrument:
+Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter
+V, and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of
+the V was lost, and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was
+transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the V, where the
+prisms touched; here was placed a refracting prism, so that the light
+could be analyzed. This instrument was attached to the eye piece of the
+telescope, and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the
+moon just fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the
+corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came
+together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen through the
+eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse this is what Dr.
+Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided into its constituents.
+Prominent among them was a bright green line, which is designated by the
+number 1,474; to this line attention was directed. Its presence in the
+spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is
+a solar atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed
+during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this line
+should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one side of the
+corona, and longer on the other. The observation was now reduced to
+watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines.
+
+At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the
+longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably, while the
+line from the east side, shorter by about one-third at the beginning of
+the eclipse, grew longer. When the eclipse ended, the proportions of the
+lines were exactly reversed. There had been a change equal to two-thirds
+the length of the lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their
+relative positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which
+this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The
+material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are other
+discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time.
+The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the sun that the
+gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury,
+and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, but an atmosphere
+extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the
+sun's surface, especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very
+much greater than on the earth. 2. The laws of gravitation would require
+a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun, while
+the corona is enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in
+outline, which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed
+irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most
+interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the
+fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the
+sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the
+sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, as it would have
+been if it had plowed its way through a material substance. In taking
+photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of
+exposure is longer. This shows that the corona extends indefinitely, and
+it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical
+laws of diffraction. These laws involve very complicated mathematics,
+but by them alone Dr. Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction
+where the corona is, and that it must follow the same laws as those
+observed. There is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion
+of Dr. Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the
+chromosphere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, that
+nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified by
+the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for the
+perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small masses
+circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments of comets
+or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined luster is seen in
+the zodiacal light.
+
+The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now known,
+are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar appendage
+which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk. In the
+photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can
+be traced back of each other where they cross; no better proof of their
+extreme tenuity could be given.
+
+The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, the
+distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon from the
+earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. All of these
+were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one, and the
+six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often
+enjoyed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS.
+
+
+The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are given,
+have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries
+that have ever rewarded the labors of archæologists. The idea of
+founding an English society for the purpose of exploring the buried
+cities of the Delta originated with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known
+authoress of "One Thousand Miles up the Nile," and was carried into
+effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald
+Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of
+Sir Erasmus Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could
+never have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded
+and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M.
+Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for Egypt
+in January of this year with the object of conducting the explorations
+contemplated by the society. After a consultation with M. Maspero, the
+Director of Archæology in Egypt, who has throughout acted a friendly
+part toward the society's enterprise, M. Naville decided to begin his
+campaign by attacking the mounds at Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater
+Canal, a few miles from Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to
+cover some ancient city, for some sphinxes and statues had already
+been found; but what city it could be, archæologists were at a loss to
+determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, believed
+it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which the Children of
+Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started on their final Exodus.
+Any identification, however, of the sites of the Biblical cities in
+Egypt was so far merely speculative. Practically nothing definite was
+known as to the geography of the Israelite sojourn, except that the Land
+of Goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the Delta, and that
+Zoan was Tanis, whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of
+the society's operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as
+everything else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they
+crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, remained
+vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a plausible theory, in
+which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important part.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH]
+
+Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. Naville's
+skillful direction, placed all these speculations in quite a new light.
+The city under the mounds proved to be none other than Pithom, the
+"store" or "treasure city" which the Children of Israel "built for
+Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character as a store place or granary is
+seen in its construction; for the greater part of the area is covered
+with strongly built chambers, without doors, suitable for the storing of
+grain, which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor
+above, of which the ends of the beams are still visible. These curious
+chambers, unique in their appearance, are constructed of large, well
+made bricks, sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in
+the sun, and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The
+walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall which
+runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner was the
+temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum or Pithom, the
+"Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and tablets (some of which
+have been presented to the British Museum) remained to testify to its
+name and purpose; the temple itself was finally destroyed when the
+Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is shown by the position of the
+limestone fragments and of the Roman bricks. The statues, however, and
+especially a large stele, are extremely valuable, since they tell the
+history of the city during eighteen centuries. From a study of these
+monuments, M. Naville has learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut
+(Succoth) its civil, name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored
+by Shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important
+place under the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the
+founding of the city of Arsinoë in the neighborhood; was called Hero or
+Heroöpolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic _ara_,
+meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, who occupied it
+at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are also found of the
+position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites encamped before the
+passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All these data are directly
+contradictory to preconceived theories: Pithom, Succoth, Heroöpolis,
+Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally
+different positions. The identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us
+the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of
+the Exodus, and completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now
+certain that the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater
+Canal and not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first
+definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of
+Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The historical
+identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor also results
+from the monumental evidence. One short exploration has upset a hundred
+theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical
+character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of Pithom (Succoth)
+is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a series of important
+discoveries. When enough money has been collected for the proposed
+exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of the highest interest to students
+alike of the Bible and of Egyptian antiquities may, with certainty, be
+predicted.
+
+The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is
+bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers
+which the Children of Israel built more than three thousand years ago.
+In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue, the head
+and face of which are intact. The other illustration is taken from the
+temple end of the excavations. The sculptured group of Rameses the Great
+seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance;
+its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia.
+Beyond this group, and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of
+Pithom, set up by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoë, and containing a
+mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions.
+Behind this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store
+chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while on
+the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone blocks,
+already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or enlargement of
+the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. Naville, by Herr
+Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our illustrations are taken from
+these photographs, supplemented by sketches.--_S.L.P., in Illustrated
+London News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The surprises of archæology are magnificent and apparently
+inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, and
+often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether this
+or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of
+Biblical archæology is a question not to be determined offhand; but the
+interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated. There
+are now deposited in the British Museum fifteen leather slips, on the
+forty folds of which are written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy
+in a recension entirely different from that of the received text. The
+character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous
+Moabite stone and of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere
+palæographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as
+the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier than any other
+clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the Old Testament.
+The sheepskin slips are literally black with age, and are impregnated
+with a faint odor as of funeral spices; the folds are from 6 to 7 inches
+long and about 3½ inches wide, containing each about ten lines, written
+only on one side.
+
+So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two distinct
+handwritings, though the same archaic character is used throughout.
+In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in duplicate on
+distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary
+transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text. At
+first sight no writing whatever is perceptible; the surface seems to
+be covered with an oily or glutinous substance, which so completely
+obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the
+slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with
+the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the
+leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily
+visible beneath the glossy surface.
+
+These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. Shapira,
+of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities.
+Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain
+archæological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a
+manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity.
+
+The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's agency
+and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly regarded as a
+modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it is asserted that
+Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. The leathern fragments
+now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he alleges, obtained by him from
+certain Arabs near Dibon, the neighborhood where the Moabite stone was
+discovered. The agent employed by him in their purchase was an Arab
+"who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would
+probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient
+or modern sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments
+is, however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are offered
+to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily deposited for
+examination.
+
+Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant
+of £500 from the Prime Minister toward the production of his important
+work on the "Massorah" we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is
+now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and
+examining their genuineness. On this latter question we refrain from
+pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be
+able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really 2,500
+years old, or have been compiled within the last few years.
+
+No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given.
+To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill,
+as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the
+appearance and condition of the slips. But enough has been deciphered to
+show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most
+remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received
+version of the Mosaic books.
+
+In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where the
+received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, to go in
+to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the corresponding
+passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular, "Ye"
+for '"Thou," while for "_g'dôlîm_," the word translated "greater," it
+reads "_rabbîm_." But a far more complete idea of the variations of text
+and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the
+Decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of
+Deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet
+been deciphered. The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs
+as follows:
+
+"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, from
+the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall not make to
+yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is in heaven above or
+that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth.
+Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them. I am God, your God.
+Sanctify ... in six days I have made the heaven and the earth, and all
+that is therein, and rested on the seventh day, therefore rest thou
+also, thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast: I am God, thy God.
+Honor thy father and thy mother ...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not
+kill the person of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit
+adultery with the wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt
+not steal the property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not
+swear by my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon
+the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take
+my name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness
+against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the wife
+... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is his: I am
+God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart: I am God,
+thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God spake."
+
+Several points may be noted in this version. The singular refrain "I
+am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the received
+version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn ratification of
+the Divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept. If this
+be so, the first two commandments, as they are commonly reckoned, are
+here fused into one, and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which
+does not appear in the received version of the Decalogue.
+
+It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for the
+Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the familiar
+phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being replaced
+throughout by "God, thy God."
+
+On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell;
+they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show that these
+fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to
+criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as
+the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental Ireland, who, knowing the
+interest felt by scholars in variations of the Sacred Text, has set
+himself, with infinite pains and skill, to forestall a growing demand.
+Until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all
+competent scholars, no further questions need be raised. In any case
+the _primá facie_ presumption must be held to be enormously against
+the genuineness of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the
+improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries
+than any extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease
+with which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives
+to such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his
+property.
+
+All that we know of the _provenance_ of the fragments is that Mr.
+Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; and that
+Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in Moabite
+antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite stone. On the other
+hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is assuredly no clumsy and
+ignorant bungler, as the makers of the Moabite pottery were confidently
+alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness. It is, of course,
+part of his craft, and not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part,
+to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance
+of immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required to
+make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of
+Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the fabricator must have
+known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments,
+and have set himself to fulfill their expectations. In these days of
+scientific palæography and minute textual scholarship no forger of
+ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a
+scholar himself. Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of
+course; palæographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn
+of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension
+without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean
+order, while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an
+archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts
+in palæography. But the fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated
+they are, has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this.
+He has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different
+hands, both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters.
+This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost
+incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case
+it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed
+fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not only
+a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, and one
+can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him
+at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few
+piastres, and is likely, therefore, to enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We
+should expect to find, however, that his extraordinary ingenuity has at
+some point or another overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with
+the labors of modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly
+have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not
+betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. In
+any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound
+interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with the
+controversy they are certain to excite.--_London Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--_From the
+Building News_.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there has been
+much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in common with
+other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a pair of breeding
+ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they would not realize 50 l.
+
+The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage ostrich
+breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and one or two
+cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The climate of the two
+colonies is very similar, and the locality selected for the imported
+birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in dryness and temperature their
+native _habitat_.
+
+The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell
+to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we were reared,
+good-by!"
+
+One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, got into
+a slanting position. This frightened one of the two inmates, a fine
+cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage, which
+was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. Fortunately there was there
+a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches. He instantly seized
+him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury, and after
+a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in
+the hold he became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship
+with a relish.
+
+After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a
+little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are then arranged
+in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on board the vessel.
+The ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching
+hold of their bodies, and using a little gentle force.
+
+The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of
+thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by their "steward,"
+who was to accompany them to Australia. It was curious to see a bird
+swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down
+the animal's long neck. On the voyage they would be fed with maize or
+mealies, onions, apple melons, and barley. They require very little
+water; however, there were five large iron tanks on board in case they
+would feel thirsty. Our engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis
+Edwards, of Hoff Street, Capetown,
+
+[Illustration: SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were Reared.--2.
+Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. Lowering
+the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating Apple
+Melons.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW WEATHERCOCK.
+
+
+An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the majority
+of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during the day;
+but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic
+transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building.
+The different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings,
+or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the
+sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the rod has to traverse
+several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector of the Versailles
+waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system which, while
+considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, allows the
+weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This apparatus consists
+of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable. The stationary
+part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters A and B and
+by cross-hatchings. This forms the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with
+clamps, P, at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and
+is hidden, after the mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc
+covering, Z. The upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece,
+upon which rests a bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined
+outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform
+there move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a
+horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube.
+
+The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind and to
+indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and coarse
+lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at intervals with
+copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which serves as a guide for it;
+(2) of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament, O, fixed to the
+tube and resting on the balls; (3) of the vane, G, properly so called;
+and (4) of the cap, C, provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube
+and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission.
+This latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f,
+perfectly taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing
+as many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of
+the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which is
+fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings through
+small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it passes, it is
+protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the observing room there is
+affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of
+the vane.
+
+[Illustration: RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.]
+
+This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the
+Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau
+of Trappes, and it is also installed in several primary normal schools,
+where it is giving very good results.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARRED CLOVER.
+
+
+A correspondent of the _Ohio Farmer_ reports an experiment in curing
+clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn, and
+illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows:
+
+In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying season was
+not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual,
+and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls. The result was
+intense heating, and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of
+the mow. On a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty
+tons, as every load at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn
+was rather open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as
+well as at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent
+hay at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the
+center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. What
+prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since that escape
+from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so
+green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a mow too rapidly. If we
+haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing thirty hundred each, which
+will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each, we have three
+tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation.
+
+If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full, the
+principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass. To
+relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have several places of
+storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other, thus
+giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off. To facilitate this
+evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty,
+the best of ventilation is necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is
+as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is
+not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is
+returned to the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary
+amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is
+shut off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor
+at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the
+roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in,
+thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will be facilitated
+and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, as the clover is
+put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton, will make it a
+relish with stock.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT.
+
+(_Agave victoriæ-reginæ_.)
+
+
+This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I am
+happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the first time
+it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never been seen in
+flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown specimen, dense in
+habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and the leaves are arranged
+in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine. The
+circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 in., and it has 268 leaves. Its
+flower-stem appeared about the middle of June, grew rather fast till it
+was 7 ft. high, then rather slowly till it reached its full development.
+The scape is now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 6½ in. in
+circumference at the base, or 5¼ in. at a foot above the base; from
+there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The flower-spike is
+exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower or naked portion, 4
+ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by abortive flower buds, with,
+near the base, some bristle-like scales 3½ in. to 4 in. long. The
+flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three, all the three being
+equal in size and opening together; they are greenish white in color, 1½
+in. long, or, including the stamens, some 2¾ in. to 3 in. long.
+
+[Illustration: AGAVE VICTORIÆ-REGINÆ.]
+
+The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to open
+in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They remain in
+good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens wilt and drop
+down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day. On the first day
+of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by ¾ in.; on the
+second it has grown to be as long as the stamens, but it is not in
+condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day.
+Although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already
+blossomed, none of the ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping
+off, but I am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the
+spike. So great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers,
+that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups,
+and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The main
+beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass
+of bright yellow anthers. This plant, together with several smaller
+ones, was contributed to this garden by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected
+them in their native wilds--the mountains of Northern Mexico--some three
+years ago. He found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible
+locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In
+addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of
+the Agricultural Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann,
+the eminent botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece
+of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an
+old plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor
+was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this
+Agave.--_The Garden_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS.
+
+By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX.
+
+
+In the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we
+have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting.
+We find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of
+glycerin is partially correct, and that instances of a different kind of
+structure occur among the natural oils and fats.
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear to
+occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure:
+
+  C(OH)_{2}
+  CH
+  CH_{3}
+
+It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be resolved
+into:
+
+  COOH + H_{2}O
+  CH_{2}
+  CH_{3}
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, yield
+no glycerin when saponified.--_Chemical News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
+papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this
+office.
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+401, September 8, 1883, by Various
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+<html>
+<head>
+<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org">
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, September 8, 1883</title>
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white}
+img {border: 0;}
+h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;}
+.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+.ctr {text-align: center;}
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+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401,
+September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8718]
+Release Date: August, 2005
+First Posted: August 3, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 401 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles
+Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src=
+"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of
+Silver Bromide and Silver Chloride.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#2">Analysis of New Zealand Coal.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#3">On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast
+Iron, Ferro-manganese, etc.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#4">Manganese and its Uses.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#5">Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A
+valuable and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of
+Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this
+remarkable product.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#6">On the Constitution of the Natural Fats.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#7">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel
+Traction Engine.--With two engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#8">An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one
+large engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#9">The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas
+Retorts.--Siemens' principle.--As operated at the Glasgow
+Corporation Works.--With two engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#10">A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#11">TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent
+Photographic Pictures on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and
+full directions.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#12">How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full
+directions.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#13">Some of the Uses of Common Alum.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#14">An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#15">Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric
+Acid Gas.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#16">Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic
+Acid in Racking Beer.--With an engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#17">ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the
+Bleaching of Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of
+apparatus.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#18">Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths,
+Electrical Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#19">ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An
+interesting abstract from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins
+University), of the American Astronomical Exhibition to the
+Caroline Islands.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#20">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting
+the Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of
+certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens
+Institute.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#21">The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#22">ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village
+Architecture.-- Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#23">Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for
+Doors.--Several figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#24">ARCH&AElig;OLOGY.--A Buried City of the
+Exodus.--Being an account of the recent excavations and discoveries
+of Pithom Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#25">The Moabite Manuscripts.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IX.</td>
+<td><a href="#26">AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen
+Victoria Century Plant.--With an engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#27">Charred Clover.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#28">A New Weathercock.--With one figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">X.</td>
+<td><a href="#29">MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing
+Place in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With
+an engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#30">Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio
+Grande Railway.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#31">Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With
+portrait.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#32">The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#33">Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South
+Africa.--With one page of engravings.</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="29"></a></p>
+
+<h2>MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.</h2>
+
+<p>The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect
+a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most
+distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs.
+The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of
+America disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the
+Catholic monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his
+enterprise. In honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of
+Catalonia, who also took part in the discovery and civilization of
+the New World, among whom may be named the Treasurer Santangel,
+Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo Boyl, first patriarch of the
+Indies, and the twelve missionaries of Monserrat, who accompanied
+the illustrious admiral on his second voyage.</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the
+central executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous
+voice of the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don
+Cayetano Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we
+find in <i>La Ilustracion Espa&ntilde;ola</i>, we give an
+engraving. Richness, grandeur, and expression, worthily combined,
+are the characteristics of these plans. The landing structure is
+divided into three parts, a central and two laterals, each of which
+extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater, in the form of the
+bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to mind the two
+caravels, the Pinta and Ni&ntilde;a; two great lights occupy the
+advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of
+celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble
+monument, surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the
+esplanade.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src=
+"images/1b_th.jpg" alt=
+"MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT
+BARCELONA, SPAIN.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera
+has not awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand
+francs that was offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy
+or preventive for the fatal grape disease. There were not less than
+182 competitors for the prize; but none had made a discovery that
+filled the bill. It is said, however, that a Strasbourg physician
+has found in naphthaline an absolutely trustworthy remedy. This
+liquid is poured upon the ground about the root of the vine, and it
+is said that it kills the parasites without hurting the grape.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="30"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE.</h2>
+
+<p>Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the
+remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to
+Salt Lake:</p>
+
+<p>Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on
+the Denver &amp; Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other
+subject at present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of
+thirty hours so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should
+perhaps qualify this statement by deducting the hours of darkness;
+yet this is really a fortunate enhancement of the traveler's
+enjoyment; it seems providential that there is one part of the way
+just long enough and uninteresting enough to permit one to go to
+sleep without the fear of missing anything sublime. Leaving Salt
+Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and populous Jordan
+Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the Valley of
+Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits of
+the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the
+wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after
+another of the magnificent ca&ntilde;ons of the Wahsatch we passed,
+their mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising
+wild and rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have
+abundantly tested in other days. Parley's Ca&ntilde;on, the Big and
+Little Cottonwood, and most wonderful of all, the ca&ntilde;on of
+the American Fork, form a series not inferior to those of Boulder,
+Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas, in the front range of
+the Rockies.</p>
+
+<p>Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose,
+we crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price
+River, a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in
+choosing this route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved
+scenery of Weber and Echo ca&ntilde;ons--the only part of the Union
+Pacific road which tempts one to look out of a car window, unless
+one may be tempted by the boundless monotony of the plains or the
+chance of a prairie dog. Great was my satisfaction, therefore, to
+find that this part of the new road, parallel with the Union
+Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south, traverses the same belt
+of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less picturesque. Castle
+Ca&ntilde;on, on the South Fork of the Price, is the equivalent of
+Echo Ca&ntilde;on, and is equal or superior in everything except
+color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers
+and walls of Castle Ca&ntilde;on are yellowish-gray. But their
+forms are incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances
+sublime. The valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless
+sage-brush desert, as it is further north. To be sure, this
+uninviting stream, a couple of hundred miles further south, having
+united with the Grande, and formed the Rio Colorado, does indeed,
+by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper into the sunless chasms,
+become at last sublime. But here it gives no hint of its future
+somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed Green River, to
+make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by sleep. But I
+got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy water;
+and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the
+conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot.</p>
+
+<p>In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the
+interval passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the
+Grande, and ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of
+the Grande, the Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and
+finally a branch, flowing westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high
+divide at the head of the latter was laboriously surmounted; and
+then, one of our two engines shooting ahead and piloting us, we
+slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such descents that the
+unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the experience of
+the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is likely to
+occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down.</p>
+
+<p>From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the
+matter of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the
+Rocky Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent
+that the high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for
+the monument to the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the
+highest point. For all the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande
+road, between Cimarron and Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same
+longitudes has nothing to show. From an artistic stand-point, one
+road has crossed the ranges at the most tame and uninteresting
+point that could be found, and the other at the most
+picturesque.</p>
+
+<p>At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges
+into the famous Black Ca&ntilde;on. In length, variety, and certain
+elements of beauty, such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this
+ca&ntilde;on surpasses the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas. There is,
+however, one spot in the latter (I mean, of course, the point where
+the turbulent river fills the whole space between walls 2,800 ft.
+high, and the railroad is hung over it) which is superior in
+desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the Gunnison. Take
+them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the finer. I have
+usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the Gunnison
+Ca&ntilde;on. But why need the question be solved at all? This one
+matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed
+in the morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before
+the mighty precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even
+hinting such folly as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark
+that these two ca&ntilde;ons are more capable of a comparison than
+different scenes usually are; for they belong to the same
+type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks.</p>
+
+<p>Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above
+sea-level), over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over
+the Sangre di Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale,
+Princeton, Elbert, Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other
+summits exceeding the altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is
+the valley of the Arkansas, into which and down which we pass, and
+so through the Royal Gorge to Ca&ntilde;on City and Pueblo, where
+we arrived before dark on the day after leaving Salt Lake.</p>
+
+<p>Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle
+Ca&ntilde;on, the Black Ca&ntilde;on of the Gunnison, Marshall
+Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a
+catalogue for so brief a journey! No wonder everybody who has made
+it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic urgency of recommendation
+from every passenger has any influence (and I know it has a great
+deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at present, crowded
+with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for those who wish
+on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?) and to
+visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done <i>en
+route</i>, without retracing the steps.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="11"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS.</h2>
+
+<p>In the natural course of things it must necessarily have
+occurred to practical men to utilize photography in the case of
+terra-cotta, as it has already been employed in connection with so
+many other wares; but I have not to this day known of its
+successful application to terra-cotta. Now this is strange, if one
+considers how fashionable <i>plaque</i> and plate painting have
+become of late, and the good photographic results that are easily
+obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt earth."
+Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are
+one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be
+left purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails
+to see that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary.
+It was with something of this feeling that I was led to try and see
+what could be done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no
+data to go by, I had to use my own experience, or rather experiment
+on my own account.</p>
+
+<p>Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in
+the commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but
+natural I should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining
+the desired results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction
+signally failed--the ware most persistently refused to have
+anything to do with emulsion. The bugbear was the fixing agent or
+hypo., which not only left indelible marks, but, despite any amount
+of washing, the image on a finished plate vanished to nothing at
+the end of an hour's exposure in the show window. There was nothing
+left but to seek other means for the attainment of my object. I
+would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful line of
+experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save him
+useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the
+method I found best and most direct was the now old but still
+excellent wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my
+system of working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in
+collodion transfer.</p>
+
+<h3>TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE.</h3>
+
+<p>The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the
+surface to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It
+simply consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Gelatine.                           10 grains.
+  Water.                               1 ounce.
+  A trace of chrome alum.
+</pre>
+
+<p>Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless
+to say that numbers of <i>plaques</i>, plates, vases, etc., may be
+coated right off, and will then be ready for use at any time.</p>
+
+<p>Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative,
+as well as placed it <i>in situ</i> for reproduction, the next
+thing required is a suitable collodion, and the following will be
+found all that can be desired:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  TRANSFER COLLODION.
+<br>
+  Cotton.                      3 drachms.
+  Iodide of cadmium.          65 grains.
+  Ammonium iodide.            25   "
+  Bromide of cadmium.         19   "
+  Ammonium bromide.           11   "
+  Alcohol.                    15 ounces.
+  Ether.                      15   "
+</pre>
+
+<p>The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is
+now transferred to a bath, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce.</p>
+
+<p>Made slightly acid with nitric acid.</p>
+
+<p>After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and
+taken to the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and
+<i>quantum suff</i>. of the following poured into the developing
+cup to bring out the image:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  DEVELOPING SOLUTION.
+<br>
+  A Winchester of water, i.e.  80 ounces.
+  Protosulphate of iron.      240 grains.
+  Citric acid.                240   "
+</pre>
+
+<p>Or the following may be used:</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Pyro                          3 grains\
+  Citric acid                   2   "    } per ounce of water.
+  Glacial acetic acid          30 drops /
+</pre>
+
+<p>After perfect development the picture is well washed and then
+fixed in a saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is
+thoroughly washed.</p>
+
+<p>It will now be found that the picture is not altogether
+satisfactory; it lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters
+recourse is now had to</p>
+
+<h3>TONING.</h3>
+
+<pre>
+  Gold.    1 grain.
+  Water.   5 ounces.
+</pre>
+
+<p>With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture
+the result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking
+picture will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is
+employed richness at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known
+of instances where the picture needed no toning.</p>
+
+<h3>OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE.</h3>
+
+<p>This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited
+number of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and
+their <i>modus operandi</i> is kept from the many. Now this is a
+pity, when one considers the great charm attached to a good picture
+on opal, with pure whites and rich blacks, and in many localities
+the demand that might be created for them. Apart from their beauty,
+another charm attaches to opals--their absolute permanence; and
+this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What, in fact, can be more
+painful to the worker who values his work, and sets store by it,
+than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion! A
+properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so
+common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as
+perfect now as they were when first taken.</p>
+
+<p>Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of
+emulsion; but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly
+applicable to ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery,
+since in practice it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and
+safe. The details are much the same as above, and necessitate
+double transfer.</p>
+
+<p>After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass
+plate), and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the
+picture (and this, remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta)
+then has to be loosened from its support, and this is done with a
+solution of sulphuric acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of
+water--which is made to flow between the image and the glass, after
+which perfectly wash and mount. When the image is loosened a piece
+of tracing paper is put on the image, evened out, raised (assisted
+by some one else to hold the two opposite corners during the
+operation), and with the aid of the helper the picture is carefully
+centered, gently pressed out or down, and the transfer is so far
+effected. But what will happen, and does happen, in the case of
+vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture becomes
+positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply in
+the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of
+iodine dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after
+which, well wash and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium,
+and wash well again. This, by the way, is equally applicable to
+paper transfers; and it is to be remembered that the toning comes
+last of all. It is a rather difficult matter to clean a ground opal
+which has been used two or three times, and acid must then be had
+recourse to (nitric acid is as good as any); but by transferring
+from the support on the ground surface, all stains are at once
+avoided.</p>
+
+<p>On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well
+cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg.
+Then the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the
+plate is exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with,
+and, when dried, varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with
+dead varnish if intended for chalk or water-color. This, when a
+good negative is used, gives a remarkably fine picture, not
+requiring a vestige of retouching, and having likewise the
+invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable if varnished with
+the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective pictures may be
+made in oil with simply tinting.</p>
+
+<p>A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in
+all art matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on
+flushed glass, said it was one of the finest productions of
+photography. He urged that negatives <i>ad rem</i> should be taken
+most carefully, and that, like the picture I showed him, they
+should be full of half-tone and detail, and yet have plenty of
+vigor. They should, he said, be robust in the high lights, have
+perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep shadows, and thus
+have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should be retouched
+only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness shall be
+in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now.</p>
+
+<p>If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine
+pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most
+artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care,
+absolute permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to
+think of what may be really recommended to one's
+<i>client&egrave;le</i>, and likely to meet with approbation from
+strangers and friends when the picture has once been delivered; and
+I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture most likely
+to meet with this general approbation.</p>
+
+<p>I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of
+opal picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains
+untouched after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon.
+It is pure photography in every sense of the word, and the
+resultant picture one hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have
+rather laid a stress on this point, well knowing how pictures are
+at times irretrievably ruined by the barbarous hand of would-be
+artists, who by far exceed the true artists in number; and the hint
+on retouching should not be lost sight of, either, at a period when
+the tendency is to stereotype every one in marble-like texture, or
+rather lack of texture, as if the face were devoid of all
+fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might be wise to
+weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the enlightened
+public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice and made
+photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial
+measures to a decided evil.</p>
+
+<p>On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception
+should arise in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to
+clearly state that for terra-cotta recourse is had to double
+transfer; that is, the picture first taken is lifted from the
+support on tracing paper, put in the right position on terra-cotta,
+and pressed down while wet with blotting-paper, left to dry, and is
+then so far ready.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion,
+ground opal being the best, the system I employ is as follows:
+After well cleaning the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had
+better not be too thick). When dry it is exposed and developed with
+the usual oxalate developer, to which a little bromide of potassium
+has been added. The remainder of the operations is as usual. Those
+varnished with dead varnish can be tinted and worked up with
+colored crayons or black lead pencil and make very pleasing
+pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be finished
+in water-colors if thought preferable.--<i>G. W. Martyn, in Br.
+Jour. Photo</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="12"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PAPER NEGATIVES.</h2>
+
+<p>The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the
+following advantages:</p>
+
+<p>First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is
+uniform throughout the entire surface of each sheet.</p>
+
+<p>Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind
+of slide as usually constructed.</p>
+
+<p>Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on
+glass.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting
+paper.</p>
+
+<p>Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached
+or peeled from its support or backing easily and readily by the
+hand, without the assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus
+this invention does away with all sensitive preparations on glass,
+which latter is both a brittle and relatively heavy material, thus
+diminishing the bulk and weight of amateur and scientific
+photographers' luggage when traveling; it produces photographic
+negatives as fine and as transparent as those on glass, in so much
+that the film does not contain any grain; and, lastly, it admits of
+printing from either face of the film, as regards the production of
+positives on paper or other material, as well as plates for
+phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require a
+negative to be reversed.</p>
+
+<p>For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper:</p>
+
+<p>First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold
+water, and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which
+it is attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the
+glass, and partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state
+it is allowed to dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary
+collodion, containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of
+azotic cotton (1&frac12; per cent. gives very good results) and
+from 1&frac12; to 2&frac12; per cent. of castor oil (2 per cent.
+gives very good results); this coating is allowed to dry; and,</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled,
+and then it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays
+of light are excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver
+to the extent of about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it
+in this position until the gelatine has set (say) about five
+minutes, with the film paper still attached, it is placed upright
+in a drying-room, where it should remain about twelve hours exposed
+to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees Fahrenheit; and,</p>
+
+<p>Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for
+exposure, development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the
+purpose of developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers
+equally well; for the purpose of fixing, I have found that a
+mixture by weight, water, 1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and
+powdered alum 60, produces excellent results, after being allowed
+to dry.</p>
+
+<p>Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be
+immediately used for producing negatives <i>recto</i> or
+<i>verso</i> as above mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>I claim as my invention:</p>
+
+<p>First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film
+paper for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the
+purposes above described; and,</p>
+
+<p>Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other
+analogous oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the
+film from the paper backing as above described.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="13"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM.</h2>
+
+<p>A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in
+fact, so much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be
+considered complete without it--is the substance known is common
+alum, or potash alum, being a double sulphate of alumina and
+potash; but it is interesting to note that much of the commercial
+alum met with at the present time is ammonia alum, or the double
+sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter of indifference
+to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or ammonia
+alum.</p>
+
+<p>Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and
+mechanical printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films,
+it has been recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The
+silver printer adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep
+it in working order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen;
+then, again, silver prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum,
+having for its object the thorough elimination of the last traces
+of the fixing salt. A very good proportion to use for this latter
+purpose is four fluid ounces of a saturated solution, diluted with
+one gallon of water, the prints being well agitated during an
+immersion of ten minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single
+instance can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to
+arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do
+instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur
+and professional, or at least those who do net care to run any
+unnecessary risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal
+of anxiety and trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance
+doubly sure--such individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make
+it a point in every-day practice to immerse all their plates in a
+solution of alum, either before fixing, or immediately afterward.
+In fact, some operators have two alum baths in use, one a normal
+bath, as above mentioned, for immersing the plates in when of the
+ordinary printing intensity; and the other a saturated solution
+strongly acidified by means of a vegetable acid (such as citric) or
+a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use when there is too much
+printing density, since it has been found in practice that an acid
+solution of alum in contact with sodium thio-sulphate on the
+gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing) not only removes
+the color or stain caused by the alkaline or pyrogallol, but
+perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover, the color
+does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes when
+the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where
+there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a
+soft sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed
+emulsion worked in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases
+be safer to put the plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes
+previous to immersing them in the acid bath.</p>
+
+<p>Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless
+transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish,
+astringent taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60&deg; F.,
+and in its own weight of water at 212&deg; F.; but the excess
+crystallizes out upon cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper,
+and, when impure, usually contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon
+the addition of either caustic soda or potash, a white gelatinous
+precipitate is formed (hydrate of alumina), which is soluble in
+excess of the reagent employed. The precipitate thus obtained has
+much of the character of the opalescent film sometimes observed on
+gelatine plates, when dry, which have been soaked in alum, and not
+well washed afterward.</p>
+
+<p>Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for
+instance--precipitate hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve
+in an excess of the reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved.</p>
+
+<p>Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of
+divison, which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a
+test-tube, it somewhat resembles thin starch paste.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few
+drops of hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated
+solution of alum in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid
+ammonia; should any iron be present, the mixture will have a
+reddish-brown tinge when examined over a sheet of white paper.
+Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate of alumina and
+sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto their
+uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the
+community rather than the practical.--<i>Photo. News</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="14"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.</h2>
+
+<p>As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton
+cloths become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence
+of carrying on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a
+rope. The effect is that, together with the tension, although
+slight, and the drying, the weft partly shrinks and partly curls
+up, the latter, however, being scarcely observable to the naked
+eye. It may almost be said that as regards the width the shrinkage
+is due to a number of minute crumples because the cloth is easily
+streatched again by the fingers almost to its gray width. The main
+use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not so much to make the
+cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its normal or woven
+width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been performed
+upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially useful
+to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a
+white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching
+being corrected before printing.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src=
+"images/3a_th.jpg" alt=
+"IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p>The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in
+operation in a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of
+another stretching machine which had been turned out in
+considerable numbers by Mr. Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of
+Salford, who makes a specialty of calico printers' and finishers'
+machinery. The improvements consist mainly of a simplification of
+the working parts and thoroughly substantial construction of the
+machine. The principle adopted is a well-known one. The selvages of
+the cloth, or more strictly the two edges of the cloth, of a width
+of about two inches, are caused to pass over and at the same time
+are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys. The rims are further
+apart where the cloth leaves them than where they seize it, hence
+the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly performed.
+The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt acting
+against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held between
+them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by
+the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys,
+CC, of which there are a set of four provided for each stretching
+pulley. The lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up
+by a screw for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to
+the bands. The stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by
+the same shaft, an ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their
+bosses enabling them to be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to
+revolve and be driven by it without throwing any undue strain upon
+the working parts. The piece, wound upon the ordinary batch shell,
+is placed upon the running-off center, D; it is led off over the
+rails, EE, and then downward to the nip of the bands and pulleys,
+AA. As explained, the selvages are here gripped between the bands
+and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are wider apart at the
+back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed underneath, the
+piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the back it passes
+over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening rail, G,
+and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be seen.
+The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills it
+and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the
+driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle
+to the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as
+to separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the
+treatment of different widths of cloths. This adjustment is
+provided for by mounting the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band
+pulleys, CC, etc., on frames, BB, the ends of which rest, as shown,
+upon rails, at the back and front of the machine. The adjustment
+either for width of piece or for the angularity (extent of
+stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L. By the bevel
+wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the ends of
+frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space
+between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or
+opened out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may
+be separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously
+made. The wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use
+of which is sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a
+set of stretching pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in
+illustration. By a proper adjustment at the latter the piece is
+bent into a wavy form, where it passes between the whole of them,
+the effect of the corrugation being to loosen the center threads
+and to allow the piece to be more equally stretched with those near
+the selvages and more easily. This part of the machine may be used
+or not as required. The production, we observe, was about 120 yards
+per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted together,
+as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course of
+construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of
+considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods,
+on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small
+disturbance to the stiffening.--<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="15"></a></p>
+
+<h2>WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS.</h2>
+
+<p>All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from
+vegetable fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of
+acid reaction. The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in
+the operation, acts injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially
+during the formation of hydrochloric acid, with which process
+especially the development of an injuriously high temperature has
+been hitherto unavoidable. The best method of absorbing the heat
+developed is in the evaporation of the moisture naturally present
+in the wool. The patentees find agitation of the fabric and the use
+of an exhauster during the process of material assistance. The
+operation maybe successfully performed in two ways--either by
+acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with constant
+agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For the
+first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an
+aperture at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and
+having apertures all round to allow free access of air. This
+cylinder rests on a hollow axle, closed at one end and perforated
+with holes, through which the acid gas is passed. By the rotation
+of the cylinder the gas is drawn through the material and the
+latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby it gives up a quantity of
+aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30&deg; Cent. is best
+suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according to the
+supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the
+gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted
+by the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully
+saturated, the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable
+fibers are sufficiently friable. The treatment <i>in vacuo</i> is
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable
+material provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this
+false bottom a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected
+itself with a vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the
+maximum vacuum is attained, the gas is turned on through a
+three-way cock at a pressure of 40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the
+first vessel and saturates the cloth. The warmth set free (about
+500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up by the combined water in
+the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a quantity of vapor is
+formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor streams through
+the second vessel at a temperature of 35&deg; Cent., penetrates the
+material, and passes out through the pump. After saturating the
+contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the second. AS
+soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first vessel
+is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus
+from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents
+gas passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under
+reduced pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by
+passing alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat
+in evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after
+saturation by these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in
+the vessels, after which it is freely exposed to the air until the
+vegetable particles are friable. As soon as this occurs, the
+fabrics are washed. It is advantageous to add to the wash water
+powdered carbonate of baryta, strontia, magnesia, or preferably
+lime, and subsequently to rinse in pure water. Phosphate of lime
+containing carbonate may also be employed for neutralizing the
+acid, and the residue recovered and separated from the organic
+residues mixed with it.--"<i>H. J.," Journal of the Society of
+Chemical Industry.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="17"></a></p>
+
+<h2>APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE
+TEXTILE MATERIALS.</h2>
+
+<p>It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state
+are characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the
+results of numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and
+vegetable fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in
+contact with oxides and chlorides which, when submitted to
+electrolysis, permit oxygen and chlorine to disengage themselves in
+the nascent state.</p>
+
+<p>The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable
+textile substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only
+those most generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by
+the combined action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the
+same manner, whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state.</p>
+
+<p>In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile
+materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any
+sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel
+containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the
+hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that
+are capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a
+nascent state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or
+decolorizing agents.</p>
+
+<p>The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage
+of the electric current must necessarily remain therein for a
+greater or less length of time, according to the nature of the
+material to be bleached, and must, after this first operation, be
+washed, rinsed, and dried.</p>
+
+<p>The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic
+chlorides and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have
+been specially utilized for this purpose, up to the present time,
+the alkaline hypochlorites that are obtained by well known
+processes.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in
+presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the
+results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as
+bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and
+economical to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by
+borrowing all its elements from the metallic chloride itself, and
+from the water by means of which such transformation is to be
+effected. This is a reversal of the problem, and, <i>&agrave;
+propos</i> thereof, we would call the attention of the reader to an
+apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin &amp; Schneider for effecting
+such synthesis in a simple and practical manner.</p>
+
+<p>If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be
+submitted to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel
+containing the material to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite
+of soda is produced in the following way:</p>
+
+<p>2NaCl + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H.</p>
+
+<p>In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that
+results from the nascent body through the electrical double
+decomposition of the chloride of sodium and water, which puts the
+chlorine, the metal, the hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in
+presence. The chlorine and oxygen will combine their action to
+decolorize the textile material.</p>
+
+<p>While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be
+preferable to adopt Naudin &amp; Schneider's arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A,
+into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any
+electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a
+safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates
+with a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication
+between the electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in
+this latter is sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part
+of the vessel, A, by means of the tubes, G and H.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus operates as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is
+put, is filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of
+chloride of sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action
+of an electric current, when, as a consequence of the chemical
+decomposition of the chloride and the water, the elements in a
+nascent state form hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total
+conversion of the liquid has been effected (this being ascertained
+by chlorometric tests), the pump, P, is set rapidly in operation,
+and, as a consequence, draws up the chloride of sodium from the
+bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower part of the electrolyzer, A.
+The hypochlorite that has formed passes through the tube, D (as a
+natural consequence of the elevation of the level of the liquid in
+A brought about by the entrance of a new supply of chloride), and
+distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it acts upon the
+textile material.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4a.png" alt=""></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS<br>
+BY ELECTRICITY.</p>
+
+<p>The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer,
+permits of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the
+chemical reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution
+contained in the reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might
+discommode the operator.</p>
+
+<p>As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution
+from the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid
+conversion into decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt
+application upon the materials to be bleached, presents important
+advantages.</p>
+
+<p>While, in the present state of the industries that make use of
+bleaching chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into
+hydrochloric acid, which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in
+its turn react upon binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with
+this new method, to utilize the chloride of sodium, which is
+derived from ordinary salt works, and extract from it the
+constituent elements of the hypochlorite by a simple displacement
+of molecules produced under the influence of an electric
+current.</p>
+
+<p>Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that
+of having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite
+possessing a uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by
+the always known intensity of the current.</p>
+
+<p>We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length
+of time to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that,
+besides, all chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous
+are capable of undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and
+of being employed for the same purpose. This is especially the case
+with the chlorides of potassium or barium, the bromides of
+strontium or calcium, and the iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On
+another hand, as sea water contains different chlorides, it results
+that it might serve directly as a raw material for bleaching
+textile fibers. Then, when the solution of chloride of sodium has
+been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis, there remains a
+solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for scouring
+fibers.--<i>H. Danzer, in Le G&eacute;nie Civil</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="7"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.</h2>
+
+<p>Messrs. J. &amp; H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works,
+Hunslet, Leeds, England, for several years past have devoted
+considerable attention to the question of mounting traction engines
+on springs. The outcome of this is the engine in question, the
+front end of which is carried by a pair of Timmis spiral springs,
+resting on the center pin of the front axle, which is on Messrs.
+McLaren's principle, which enables it to accommodate itself to the
+inequalities of the road without throwing any undue strain on the
+front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has been to mount the
+hind end on springs without interfering with the spur gearing,
+which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the cogs.
+This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all
+the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which
+will be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which
+Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a
+detail view of the wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the
+ordinary way of strong T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted
+on. The nave of the wheel has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes
+are bolted. These spokes are made of the best spring steel,
+specially manufactured and rolled for the purpose, 9 inches wide
+and &frac12; inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape, with the
+narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon the
+rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places
+by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine
+comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and
+those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of
+the driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is
+fixed on the differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in
+Fig. 2, so that the springs have really no work to do beyond
+carrying the weight of the engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a
+certain amount of diffidence in placing their invention before the
+public until they had thoroughly tested it in practical work. This,
+we are informed, they have done, with the most satisfactory
+results, during the last five or six months; and they have a set of
+springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and 3,000 miles,
+besides which there are several of these spring engines in daily
+use.--<i>Iron</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4b.png"><img src=
+"images/4b_th.jpg" alt=
+"FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="18"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES,
+AND WEIGHTS OF PURE COPPER WIRE.</h2>
+
+<pre>
+         DIAMETER    |         AREA
+                     |
+B.W.G  Inch. Milli-  | Circu-  Square      Square
+No.          metres  | lar     inches.     Milli-
+                     | Mils.               metres.
+                     |
+0000   .454  11.5313 | 206116  .161883     10.4435
+ 000   .425  10.795  | 180625  .141862      9.152
+  00   .38    9.6518 | 144400  .113411      7.3165
+   0   .34    8.6358 | 115600  .0907922     5.8573
+   1   .3     7.620  |  90000  .070686      4.5602
+   2   .284   7.2134 |  80656  .0633472     4.0867
+   3   .259   6.5784 |  67081  .0526854     3.3989
+   4   .238   6.0451 |  56644  .0444881     2.8701
+   5   .22    5.5879 |  48400  .0380133     2.4523
+   6   .203   5.1561 |  41209  .0323655     2.088
+   7   .18    4.5719 |  32400  .0254469     1.6417
+   8   .165   4.1909 |  27225  .0213825     1.3794
+   9   .148   3.7591 |  21904  .0172034     1.1098
+  10   .134   3.4035 |  17956  .0141026      .9096
+  11   .12    3.0479 |  14400  .0113097      .7296
+  12   .109   2.7701 |  11881  .00933133     .60199
+  13   .095   2.4129 |   9025  .0070882      .4573
+  14   .083   2.1082 |   6889  .00541062     .34906
+  15   .072   1.8288 |   5184  .00407151     .2486
+  16   .065   1.6510 |   4225  .00331831     .21407
+  17   .058   1.4732 |   3364  .0026421      .17045
+  18   .049   1.2446 |   2401  .00188574     .12165
+  19   .042   1.0668 |   1764  .00138544     .0894
+  20   .035   0.8890 |   1225  .000962115    .06207
+  21   .032   0.8128 |   1024  .00080425     .05188
+  22   .028   0.7112 |    784  .000615753    .03972
+  23   .025   0.635  |    625  .00049087     .03167
+  24   .022   0.5588 |    484  .000380133    .02452
+  25   .02    0.508  |    400  .00031416     .02027
+<br>
+  26   .018   0.4571 |    324  .000254469    .01642
+  27   .016   0.4064 |    256  .000201062    .01297
+  28   .014   0.3556 |    196  .000153938    .00993
+  29   .013   0.3302 |    169  .000132732    .00856
+  30   .012   0.3048 |    144  .000113097    .007296
+</pre>
+
+<p>LENGTH AND WEIGHT</p>
+
+<pre>
+B.W.G  Pounds      Pounds       Pounds      Pounds      Feet       Yards        1.000 feet  Miles
+No.    per         per          per 1.000   per         per lb.    per lb.      per lb.     per lb.
+       foot.       Yard         ft.         mile.
+<br>
+0000   .623924     1.871772     623.924     3294.32       1.60276     .534253    .00160276  .00303553
+ 000   .54676      1.64028      546.76      2886.89       1.82895     .60965     .00182895  .0034639
+  00   .437105     1.311315     437.105     2307.92       2.28777     .76259     .00228777  .004333
+   0   .349928     1.049784     349.928     1847.62       2.85773     .9525766   .00285773  .0054124
+   1   .272435      .817305     272.435     1438.43       3.6706     1.22353     .0036706   .0069519
+   2   .244151      .732453     244.151     1289.11       4.0958     1.365266    .0040958   .0077573
+   3   .203058      .609174     203.058     1072.15       4.9247     1.641566    .0049247   .009327
+   4   .171463      .514395     171.465      905.333      5.8321     1.944033    .0058321   .0110457
+   5   .14651       .43953      146.510      773.56       6.8255     2.275166    .0068255   .012927
+   6   .124742      .374226     124.742      658.638      8.0165     2.672166    .0080165   .015183
+   7   .098076      .294228      98.076      517.844     10.1962     3.39873     .0101962   .019311
+   8   .082411      .247233      82.411      435.135     12.1345     4.04483     .0121345   .022981
+   9   .066305      .198915      66.305      350.089     15.0818     5.027266    .0150818   .028564
+  10   .054354      .163062      54.354      286.99      18.398      6.13266     .018398    .034845
+  11   .04359       .13077       43.590      230.152     22.9413     7.6471      .0229413   .04345
+  12   .035964      .107892      35.964      189.893     27.805      9.2683      .027805    .05266
+  13   .027319      .081957      27.319      144.245     36.6046    12.20153     .0366046   .069326
+  14   .020853      .062559      20.853      110.1088    47.954     15.98466     .047954    .09082
+  15   .015692      .047076      15.692       82.855     63.7267    21.24223     .0637261   .12069
+  16   .012789      .038367      12.789       67.5276    78.1902    26.0634      .0781902   .14809
+  17   .0101828     .0305484     10.1828      53.7665    98.202     32.734       .098203    .18589
+  18   .00726795    .02180388     7.26796     38.3748    137.590    45.8633      .137590    .260587
+  19   .00533972    .01601916     5.33972     28.1937    187.276    62.4253      .187276    .35469
+  20   .00370815    .01112445     3.70815     19.579     269.676    89.892       .2696676   .51075
+  21   .00309972    .00929910     3.09972     16.3665    322.610   107.5366      .322610    .61100
+  22   .00237312    .00711936     2.37312     12.5301    421.384   140.4613      .421334    .798078
+  23   .0018910     .0056757      1.8919       9.9892    528.570   176.190       .528570    .100108
+  24   .0014650     .0043950      1.4650       7.7357    682.55    227.5166      .68255     .129271
+  25   .00121082    .00363246     1.21082      6.39315   825.880   275.2943      .825883    .156417
+  26   .00098077    .00294231      .98077      5.17844  1019.61    339.870      1.01961     .193108
+  27   .00077492    .00232476      .77492      4.0916   1290.44    430.1466     1.29044     .24440
+  28   .0005933     .0017799       .5933       3.13264  1685.48    561.8266     1.68548     .31922
+  29   .000511571   .001534713     .511571     2.7011   1954.76    651.5866     1.95476     .370220
+  30   .0004359     .0013077       .4359       2.30152  2294.13    764.710      2.29413     .434496
+</pre>
+
+<p>LENGTH AND RESISTANCE</p>
+
+<pre>
+B.W.G  Feet         Yards        1.000 feet   Miles      Ohms         Ohms          Ohms        Ohms
+No.    per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.   per foot.    per yard.     per 1.000   per mile.
+                                                                                    foot.
+<br>
+0000   19966.5      6655.5       19.9665      3.7815     .000050684   .00156252       .050084      .264443
+ 000   17497.15     5832.3833    17.49715     3.31385    .0000571522  .0001714566     .0571522     .301763
+  00   13988.64     4662.68      13.98804     2.64925    .000071489   .000214467      .071489      .377465
+   0   11198.17     3732.7333    11.19817     2.12086    .0000893002  .0002679006     .0893002     .471505
+   1    8718.30     2906.10       8.71830     1.6512     .00011470    .0003441        .114701      .60562
+   2    7813.50     2604.50       7.81350     1.47973    .00012799    .00038397       .12799       .67580
+   3    6498.14     2166.0466     6.49814     1.23071    .00015389    .00046167       .15389       .81254
+   4    5487.107    1829.0357     5.487107    1.03923    .000182245   .000546735      .182245      .962256
+   5    4688.51     1562.8366     4.68851      .887975   .000213287   .000639861      .213287     1.12616
+   6    3991.91     1330.6366     3.99191      .756045   .000250506   .000751518      .250506     1.32267
+   7    3138.59     1046.1966     3.13859      .59443    .000318614   .000955842      .318614     1.68228
+   8    2637.29      879.0966     2.63729      .499486   .000379177   .001137531      .379177     2.00206
+   9    2121.84      707.280      2.12184      .401864   .000471289   .001413867      .471289     2.488405
+  10    1739.40      579.80       1.73940      .329432   .000574911   .001724733      .574911     3.03553
+  11    1394.93      464.9766     1.39493      .264191   .000716882   .002150646      .716882     3.78514
+  12    1150.91      383.6366     1.15091      .217976   .000868875   .002606625      .868875     4.58766
+  13     874.252     291.4173      .874252     .165578   .00114383    .00343149       1.14383     6.03945
+  14     667.338     222.446       .667338     .12639    .00149849    .00449547       1.49849     7.91203
+  15     502.175     167.39166     .502175     .095109   .00199134    .00597402       1.99134    10.5142
+  16     409.276     136.42533     .409276     .077514   .00244334    .00733002       2.44334    12.9008
+  17     325.871     108.62366     .325871     .061718   .0030687     .0092061        3.0687     16.20274
+  18     232.585      77.52833     .232585     .04405    .0042995     .0128985        4.2995     22.7014
+  19     170.879      56.95966     .170879     .032363   .0058521     .0175563        5.8521     30.8991
+  20     149.3915     49.797166    .1493915    .022475   .00842703    .02528109       8.42703    44.4947
+  21      99.195      33.065       .099195     .018787   .01008110    .03024348      10.08116    53.2285
+  22      75.9461     25.315366    .0759461    .014384   .0131672     .0395016       13.1672     69.5230
+  23      60.54377    20.181256    .06054377   .011467   .0165170     .0495510       16.5170     87.2096
+  24      46.8851     15.628356    .0468851    .0088798  .02132874    .06398622      21.32874   112.616
+  25      38.748      12.916       .038748     .0073386  .025808      .077424        25.808     136.265
+  26      31.3859     10.461966    .0313859    .0059443  .03186144    .09558432      31.86144   168.229
+  27      24.79873     8.266243    .02479873   .0046967  .0403246     .1209738       40.3246    212.914
+  28      18.98653     6.328843    .01898653   .0035959  .05266892    .15800676      52.66892   278.092
+  29      16.3710      5.4570      .0163710    .0031006  .0610834     .1832502       61.0834    322.521
+  30      13.9493      4.649766    .0139493    .0026419  .07168825    .21506475      71.68825   378.514
+</pre>
+
+<p>RESISTANCE &amp; WEIGHT</p>
+
+<pre>
+B.W.G  Ohms           Lbs.
+No.    per lb.        per Ohm.
+<br>
+0000      .000080272  12457.5
+ 000      .000104529   9566.7
+  00      .000163553   6114.24
+   0      .000255196   3918.58
+   1      .00042102    2375.18
+   2      .00052422    1907.59
+   3      .00075786    1319.50
+   4      .0010629      940.844
+   5      .0014558      686.911
+   6      .0020082      497.96
+   7      .00324863     307.822
+   8      .00460101     217.343
+   9      .00710791     140.689
+  10      .0105772       94.543
+  11      .0164462       60.842
+  12      .0241593       41.392
+  13      .0418692       23.8839
+  14      .0718583       13.9163
+  15      .126788         7.8872
+  16      .191045         5.2344
+  17      .301355         3.31835
+  18      .59157          1.6904
+  19     1.09596           .912445
+  20     2.27254           .44003
+  21     3.25229           .30748
+  22     5.54843           .18023
+  23     8.73035           .11454
+  24    14.5579            .068691
+  25    21.3142            .046917
+  26    32.4863            .030782
+  27    52.0367            .019217
+  28    88.7724            .011265
+  29   119.404             .008375
+  30   164.4762            .0060804
+</pre>
+
+<p>PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1
+mil. foot at 60&deg; Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen,
+10.32311 ohms. Upon these data the above Table has been
+calculated.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Resistance</i> of Copper varies with the temperature
+about 0.38 per cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per
+degree Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<p>STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of
+<i>Stranded</i> Wires, the total <i>weight</i> is <i>greater</i>,
+and the <i>Resistance less</i> than is a similar length of
+Conductor with Wires <i>not</i> Stranded.</p>
+
+<pre>
+  To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994
+              Feet to Metres            "         .3048
+              Yards to Metres           "         .9144
+              Miles to Kilometres       "         .6214
+              Pounds to Kilogrammes     "         .45359
+</pre>
+
+<p>PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER &amp; CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE
+MAKERS, 25, BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="8"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IRON FRAME GANG MILLS.</h2>
+
+<p>The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in
+the rapid and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent
+improvements tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown
+in the iron frame stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East
+Saginaw, Mich., are eminently valuable. Our large engraving
+represents one of these mills, constructed to be driven by belt,
+friction, or direct engine, as may be desired. The important
+requisite in this class of mills is such design and proportion of
+parts as will insure durability and continued movement at the
+highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the
+quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of
+thinner saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are
+among the advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming
+the necessity of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense
+in setting up, and avoiding the liability of decay or change of
+position.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5a.png"><img src=
+"images/5a_th.jpg" alt=
+"IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.</p>
+
+<p>Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of
+oscillation, and from these the builders of this mill have adopted
+what is known as the Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and
+bottom slides. The top slides are pivoted at the top end, and the
+bottom ones from the bottom end, both being operated by one rock
+shaft from the center. This movement when properly adjusted gives
+an easy clearance and the easiest cut yet obtained. It adds no
+extra weight to the sash, and avoids the cumbrous rock shaft and
+its attendant joints, usually weighing from three hundred to five
+hundred pounds, which have been found so objectionable in many
+other movements. The feed is continuous, and is made variable from
+&frac14; to 1&frac14; inch to each stroke, controllable by the
+sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw
+form with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special
+feature of this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that
+its base rests upon an independent portion of the foundation from
+the main pillow block or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole
+structure is thus increased, both by the increased width at the
+base and the prevention of connecting vibrations, which necessarily
+communicate when resting upon the same part, as in other forms of
+such machines heretofore in use.</p>
+
+<p>The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws
+4&frac12; feet long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke
+20 inches, capable of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank
+shaft is nine inches in diameter, of the best forged iron. The main
+pillow block has a base 6&frac12; feet long by 21 inches bearing,
+weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap is secured by two forged bolts
+3&frac12; inches in diameter, and by this arrangement no unequal
+strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is used with suitable
+counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and speed of sash;
+a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a forged
+pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes.
+The iron drive pulley is 4 to 4&frac12; feet in diameter and 24
+inches face; the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700
+pounds, turned off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is
+required, a proportionate increase is made in all these parts.</p>
+
+<p>In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel;
+the lower girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without
+rivets, giving the greatest strength possible, with the least
+weight. The outfit also includes eight iron rollers for the floor,
+8&frac12; inches in diameter, with iron stands, and geared as live
+rolls when desired, a full set of Lippencott's steel saw hangings,
+and gauges for one-inch lumber. The weight of the machine here
+shown is 18&frac12; tons. They are, however, built in larger or
+smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity of work
+desired.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of
+the Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and
+Hollanders with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early
+fruits are taken from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and
+Rotterdam, whence they are carried by fast steamers to London and
+other English ports. But, on the other hand, Germany is sending
+into Italy large quantities of coal, iron, machinery, copper, and
+other articles of which the latter received nothing before. In two
+months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of paper.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="9"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS.</h2>
+
+<p>The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in
+accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out
+in such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been
+applied with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the
+Glasgow Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a
+period of about twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens
+successfully adapted his system to the firing of retorts at the
+Paris Gas Works, it seems to have made but little progress up to
+the present time; for what reasons it is perhaps difficult to
+explain. It is certain, however, that so-called regenerator
+furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been brought
+into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the
+Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has
+received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion
+eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working
+would be certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to
+put gas as an illuminating agent on a more secure footing to
+compete successfully with its modern and somewhat aggressive rival,
+the electric light. Of course, it is now admitted that the mode of
+adapting the heat regenerative principle at the Paris Gas Works was
+attended with a degree of complexity in the structural arrangements
+that was so great and so expensive as to place it practically
+beyond the reach of gas companies and gas corporations generally,
+when the expense as well as the scientific beauty and practical
+efficiency of the new mode of applying and utilizing heat had to be
+considered. Fortunately, however, Dr. Siemens was enabled two or
+three years ago to demonstrate that there was no such thing as
+"finality" in that department of invention which he had made almost
+exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed his most
+advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and
+utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most
+decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements
+now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been
+immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility
+has in no way been interfered with.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer
+and regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W.
+Foulis, the general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust,
+with the view of entering into arrangements for its adoption on an
+experimental scale at one of the stations under his charge.
+Encouraged by the hearty co-operation of the gas committee, two or
+three of whose members were well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very
+soon came to an understanding with Dr. Siemens to have the
+regenerative system put to a thorough test at the Dalmarnock Gas
+Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city, and the
+largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number of
+retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent
+shape was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts,
+but which number has since been increased to eight, owing to the
+space occupied by the furnace in the ordinary settings being
+rendered available for an additional retort in the new or "Siemens"
+setting. For each oven or chamber of eight retorts there was
+erected a separate gas-producer, so that even one set of eight
+retorts might alone be used if thought necessary.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6a.png"><img src=
+"images/6a_th.jpg" alt=
+"GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW CORPORATION GAS WORKS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW
+CORPORATION GAS WORKS.</p>
+
+<p>In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement
+and the relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the
+retorts to each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of <i>sine
+qua non</i> of the new method of firing the retorts that the
+producer should be in as close proximity as possible to the place
+where the gaseous fuel was to be used, and it was concluded that
+the most convenient situation would be immediately in front of its
+own set of eight retorts, and with its top on a level with the
+working floor of the retort house. To place it in such a position
+meant a good deal of excavation, which was also required, however,
+for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried down to a
+depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and as a
+matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted
+to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division
+walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main,
+were in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a
+good deal of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with
+these gas producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of
+application and by the adoption of modifications made here and
+there in the arrangements from time to time, as also by a
+determination not to be beaten, although often disheartened, Mr.
+Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete success. The new
+system of firing being made so simple that there was scarcely any
+possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice if it
+was superintended with but a moderate amount of care.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6b.png" alt=
+"&lt;i&gt;Fig. 3.&lt;/i&gt;"></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><i>Fig. 3.</i></p>
+
+<p>The results which were obtained in course of time with four
+ovens, or a total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that
+it was forthwith resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the
+whole of a double bench of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts;
+and all the improvements which had suggested themselves during the
+working experiments with the four ovens were adopted from the first
+in the reconstruction of the remaining eight ovens in the bench.
+More recently the regenerator system has been applied to other 22
+ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the whole of one of the
+main divisions of the retort house; and during the very depth of
+the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its greatest
+height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings,
+amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition
+they still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable
+extension of the heat regenerative system of firing during the
+ensuing spring and summer. The reconstruction of the present year
+will extend to the ovens of seven retorts each, giving in this case
+eighty gas fired retorts; and to twenty ovens of five retorts each,
+which will become sixteen ovens, each having eight retorts, making
+128 retorts in this division, and the total being 208 retorts in
+place of 170 in the same amount of space. It is confidently
+anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of the present
+year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working out the
+new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the confidence
+which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the Glasgow
+Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the
+actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas
+retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are
+being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the
+Dawsholm Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of
+Maryhill, and some four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock
+Works in a northwestern direction. The station just named, which is
+also a very large one, will probably require two years for its
+conversion.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements
+adopted for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel
+to the greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of
+carbonizing the cannel coal used as the source of the gas.</p>
+
+<p>The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in
+Fig. 2, is a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of
+malleable iron. It is 7 ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter,
+which becomes reduced to 20 in. above, where it is closed by means
+of a cast-iron lid, which is continuous with the floor of the
+retort house. There are no firebars at the bottom, so that the fuel
+rests on a floor of firebrick. At the bottom of the walls of the
+producer there are several holes about 1 ft. in length by 6 in. in
+height. By means of these openings any clinker that may form and
+the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn. They also
+allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in the
+lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a
+malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a
+steam boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed
+by the steam.</p>
+
+<p>The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal
+when it has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the
+process of carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made
+from Scotch cannel the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains
+a large percentage of mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed
+carbon. The retorts are worked with three-hour charges, but the
+producer is only charged once in every six hours For each set of
+eight retorts the charge of raw cannel is about 18 cwt., and it is
+found in practice that the coke drawn from five of the retorts is
+quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the top. Formerly a set
+of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a furnace
+underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made, but
+now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced
+to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly
+was. Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top
+of the producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched
+up a bit by way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it
+has been filled up to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft
+luting is spread over the top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon
+it and driven home, thereby making a perfectly air-tight joint. The
+contents of the other three retorts, as also the contents of the
+whole of the retorts at each alternate drawing, are taken to the
+coke heap in the yard. We have already spoken of a charge of cannel
+as being about 18 cwt. for each set of eight retorts, but in
+connection with that matter we should mention that it was formerly
+about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts, and that there is
+every prospect of it being increased without increasing the length
+of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each charge.</p>
+
+<p>It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place
+among the mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air
+admitted at the several openings previously spoken of ascends
+through the lower layers of the incandescent coke, the carbon of
+which burns to carbonic acid gas at the expense of the oxygen of
+the air. Among the middle and upper layers of the incandescent coke
+the carbonic acid gas takes up a further quantity of the fixed
+carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic oxide gas
+(CO<sub>2</sub>+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses
+considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very
+completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the
+producer, a quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the
+carbonic oxide, the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion
+as the former increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen
+associated with the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator
+passes on with the carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a
+dilutant and being of course absolutely useless as a generator of
+heat. The steam which we previously spoke of serves two good
+purposes. In contact with incandescent coke it suffers
+decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some of the fixed carbon to
+form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which is set free passes
+onward, and mixes with the other gases to be subsequently consumed
+with them. The admission of the steam thus causes the absorption of
+heat in the gas generator where the decomposition takes place, this
+heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion of the
+hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the coke
+in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely
+preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious
+materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the
+coke obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to
+20 per cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down
+below to the bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once
+in every six hours. Referring to the composition of the gaseous
+fuel obtained from cannel coke in one of these gas producers, we
+give the following typical analysis on the authority of Dr. William
+Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas examiner, and one of the public analysts for
+the city of Glasgow:</p>
+
+<pre>
+                     Per cent.
+  Hydrogen             8.7
+  Carbonic oxide      28.1
+  Carbonic acid        3.5
+  Oxygen               0.4
+  Nitrogen            59.3
+                     -----
+                     100.0
+</pre>
+
+<p>By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an
+opening is provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is
+formed into the mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is
+occupied by the retorts of the setting and the lower by the
+regenerators.</p>
+
+<p>Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the
+arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be
+admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible
+nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper
+is occupied by eight <img src="images/6c.png" alt="">
+shaped retorts. These are 9 ft. long (set back to back) by 18 in.
+by 13 in., and they are placed on arches which are 8 ft. 6 in.
+wide. Underneath the level of the retort oven there are two
+regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ very materially
+in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr. Siemens to
+gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high temperature
+furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In the case
+of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating
+system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste
+heat of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot,
+the current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of
+brickwork, while air is admitted to pass through the brickwork
+already heated. The system thus briefly described entails a certain
+amount of attention on the part of the workmen in the altering of
+the valves or dampers to reverse the currents. The regenerator now
+adopted consists of an arrangement of six zigzag flues, three on
+each side of the setting. These flues run the whole length of the
+setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing downward in Fig. 3,
+the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack pass to and fro
+through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion of their
+contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the
+central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air
+necessary for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in
+the center, and then it is divided into two currents, which pass
+right and left into the central passages of the two regenerators.
+As the air flue is at a very bright heat for a considerable
+distance before the air leaves it, the temperature of the air must
+be equally great, or nearly so. In its most improved form one of
+these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount of heating
+surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the air on
+its way to the combustion chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the
+gas enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it
+meets the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting,
+not by a number of small openings, but by one large opening on each
+side, and meets the air entering also by a large opening, the
+effect of which is to avoid the localization of intense heat, as
+all the retorts of the setting become enveloped in an intensely
+heating flame, due to the combustion of the carbonic oxide and
+hydrogen gases.</p>
+
+<p>There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas
+retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the
+extent of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further
+very decided increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as
+it has been experimentally determined within the past two or three
+weeks that, by increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer
+can be made to provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire
+two sets of eight retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the
+relative amount of fuel used will be still further reduced. Then,
+again, an additional retort can well be placed in each oven, as it
+occupies the position of the fire in ordinary settings. In the
+third place, by the greater heat which is obtained, the charges can
+be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges can be carbonized in
+a given space of time. When all the gains are put together, the
+amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per cent. over
+any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator settings
+there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous fuel
+is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any
+trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside
+of the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but
+natural to expect that there should be greater durability of the
+retorts--which is really the case. Another advantage is that, as
+the fuel used in the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the
+flues cannot by any possibility arise. It is the confident opinion
+of Mr. Foulis that the system in question can be applied with
+advantage to all sizes of gas works, and that it is certainly well
+adapted for all works where the summer consumption of gas is
+sufficiently large to give employment to eight retorts.</p>
+
+<p>As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer
+and regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great
+amount of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many
+persons have visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their
+reconstruction, in order to see the system in operation, and
+doubtless many more will go and do likewise when they learn of the
+numerous advantages which it possesses, and which are likely to
+increase rather than diminish.--<i>Engineering</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="10"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN.</h2>
+
+<p>During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and
+one, moreover, destined to materially influence the development of
+the uses of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the
+guidance of Mr. Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road,
+London. The experiment in question is nothing less than the
+application of gas for heating bakers' ovens, in a manner not
+hitherto attempted, and such as to bring the system within the
+means of the poorest tradesman in all but the smallest towns. It
+will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated muffles for
+burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of a
+model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in
+action at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the
+winter of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but
+its design demanded either a new structure in every case, or
+considerable alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed
+system, moreover, the oven was heated wholly from without--a
+condition supposed to be necessary to meet the objections of the
+bakers. It is evident, however, that there must be considerable
+waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles and brickwork, such as go
+to the construction of a common baker's oven, from the outside; and
+the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel as gas in this
+manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that in the
+usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire. When
+it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is
+of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in
+the estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to
+allowing a purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish
+is permitted to fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous.
+Consequently, when Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas
+muffle is well known in England and America, seriously addressed
+himself to construct, upon altogether new lines, a cheap and
+practical baker's oven, he wisely put the gas inside.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after
+consultation with practical bakers and others, set himself to
+fulfill, the observance of which lends to the present Blackfriars
+experiment much of its interesting character. Thus it was observed
+that, while it is not difficult to build an oven in a given spot,
+and bake bread in it, this cannot truly be called a <i>baker's</i>
+oven. By this term must be understood in particular an oven in an
+ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style and worked by a man with
+his living to get by it. Before the problem of extending gas to
+bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be attacked
+from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to have
+early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw
+that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting
+it inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any
+general success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system
+must be rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The
+latter seems a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered
+that the only improved baker's oven in practical use at the present
+day is the steam oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or
+three hundred pounds to erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the
+necessity that everything possible for a coal oven must likewise be
+performed by a gas oven; and in this respect he set himself to
+surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will not bake the common
+"batch" or household bread, generally the principal article of
+sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The
+peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds
+from the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is
+found simply in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat
+previously imparted to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the
+oven, and thence radiated to the bread. No other kind of heat will
+bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves packed in contact with one
+another--which requires to be thoroughly soaked by a radiant heat
+in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now, as a coal fire is
+eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and otherwise, this
+necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly a
+difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of itself,
+can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas
+cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion
+products as formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different
+kind of heat is needed, under conditions that would not sustain
+continuous combustion. Therefore, there is nothing for it but to
+heat the bottom and sides of the brick oven by the direct contact
+of powerful gas-flames; thus supplanting the coal fire, but leaving
+the actual work of baking to be done afterward by stored-up heat in
+the regular way.</p>
+
+<p>Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind,
+there still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in
+the dealing with which lies the difference between practical
+success and failure. Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an
+oven for bread baking; it is also necessary to heat it within the
+times and according to the habits of work to which the baker has
+been accustomed. Work in town bakeries begins at about midnight, or
+shortly after, and the condition of the oven must conform to the
+requirements of the dough, which vary from day to day and from
+season to season. In order to master all these niceties, as far as
+a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer has
+spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has
+thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work
+which has served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his
+gas heat, but in answering the innumerable objections always raised
+when a revolution in an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with
+considerable satisfaction that we are enabled to declare, after
+duly weighing all the conditions as to first cost and otherwise
+imposed by himself and others, that Mr. Booer has succeeded, upon
+these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas to be a cheap,
+efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the control and
+according to the methods of working of the baker himself.</p>
+
+<p>The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two
+in the bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It
+measures 7 feet by 6 feet internally; being what is technically
+termed a 6 bushel oven. The alterations made by Mr. Booer consist
+in the first place in the removal of the flooring tiles, and the
+laying down of a new bottom, under which run a number of flues
+radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the furnace, where
+it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight pieces of
+&frac34;-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall, and
+radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the
+gas-burners, which are supplied from a 1&frac12;-inch pipe led into
+the old furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which
+are inserted in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all
+the plant required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues
+are carried to different points of the side walls, and the products
+of combustion are allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps
+left for the purpose. A supplementary supply of heated air is
+provided to help the combustion of the gas in these flues, which
+would otherwise be languid. When the gas is turned on from the main
+cock in the furnace either to the top or the bottom set of burners,
+a long match is used to light them from the same point. This is
+effected without risk of firing back, by the adoption of a
+specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the pattern of
+which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in a
+sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at
+the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the
+products of combustion flow together through the oven to the
+chimney, which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as
+might be expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the
+most suitable position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this
+case by the fact that the other oven worked with a coal fire into
+the same shaft. Finally, however, the two flues were disconnected
+with the happiest results. During the past fortnight the oven has
+been in regular use, and the bread has been sold over the counter
+in the ordinary course of trade. Two and three batches of bread
+have been baked in one day in this oven; the economy of its use, of
+course, increasing with the number of loaves turned out. As a rule
+the gas is lighted for about an hour before the oven is wanted, and
+about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are shut and the oven
+is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in which time it
+ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the batch is
+set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a half,
+according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are baked
+with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s.
+10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This
+cannot be considered costly. But the system possesses many other
+advantages. In the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal;
+for the oven never requires wiping out, which is usually done with
+a bundle of old rope called a "scuffle" and the operation is
+attended with a most unpleasant odor. Then there is no smoke--a
+great advantage from the point of view of the Smoke Abatement
+Institution. More to the purpose of the journeyman baker, however,
+is the fact that there is no stoking to be done, and he can
+therefore take his repose at night without having to attend to the
+furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of knowing
+that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to the
+time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is
+no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr.
+Loeber, having seen his difficulties and troubles from the
+beginning, and marked how they have been overcome, is content to
+acknowledge that even this first example is capable of turning out
+bread in a condition to be sold over the counter. There is a good
+opening in this direction, for there are 6,000 bakeries in London
+alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's system might be applied
+with advantage to the tradesman and his customers. And what may be
+done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic feet may certainly be
+done to still greater advantage in many towns where the price is
+lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a proper spirit. He
+has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of the baker; and
+has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a noteworthy
+success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his
+perseverance merits.--<i>Jour. of Gas Lighting</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="31"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB.</h2>
+
+<p>Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the
+whirlpool and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born
+at Irongate, near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5
+feet 8 inches in height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and
+weighed about 14&frac12; stone. He learnt to swim when about seven
+years old, and was trained as a sailor on board the Conway
+training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved the life of a fellow
+seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez Canal and
+cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on
+board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the
+life of a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an
+hour before he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received
+a gold and other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but
+soon after he relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport
+of swimming.</p>
+
+<p>At long distance swimming in salt water he was <i>facile
+princeps</i>, but he did not show to such advantage in fresh water.
+In June, 1874, he swam from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a
+distance of 11 statute miles. On July 3, 1875, he swam from
+Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier, nearly 18 statute miles, in
+4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same month he swam from
+Dover to Ramsgate, 19&frac14; statute miles, in 8 hours 45 minutes.
+On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France, and
+although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the
+distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 15&frac12; statute
+miles, in 6 hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made
+another attempt, which rendered his name famous all over the
+English-speaking world. Starting from Dover, he reached the French
+coast at Calais, after being immersed in the water for 21 hours 44
+minutes. He had swum over 39 miles, or, according to another
+calculation, 45&frac12; miles, without having touched a boat or
+artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam at the Lambeth
+Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at Boston,
+U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 128&frac12; hours. Latterly he
+had suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had
+become much impaired.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/7a.png"><img src=
+"images/7a_th.jpg" alt="CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.</p>
+
+<p>The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief
+description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from
+the boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the
+shouts and applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam
+leisurely down the river, but made good progress. He passed along
+the rapids at a great pace, and six minutes after making the first
+plunge passed under the Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the
+bridge the river becomes exceedingly violent, and as the water was
+clear every movement of Webb could be seen. At one moment he was
+lifted high on the crest of a wave, and the next he sank into the
+awful hollow created. As the river became narrower, and still more
+impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a wave, and for a few
+moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose to the surface
+without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily increased, and
+he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he was swept
+into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the highest
+wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into the
+yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry
+waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the
+waves. He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more
+alive. Some days later his body was found four miles below the
+fatal Rapids. It bore tokens of the fearful violence of the
+struggle which he had undergone. His bathing drawers were torn to
+fragments, and there was a deep wound in his head. An inquest was
+held, and the jury returned a verdict of "Found drowned."</p>
+
+<p>Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a
+widow and two children. It is understood that he risked his life in
+this last fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his
+family.--<i>London Graphic</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="22"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY.</h2>
+
+<p>These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley,
+which is the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds.
+As regards accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises
+good-sized drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows;
+well-lighted entrance halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen,
+pantry, and scullery; on first floor are three good bedrooms, a
+bathroom, and other necessary accommodation; on second floor are
+two additional bedrooms. The basement contains coal-place and
+larder.</p>
+
+<p>In these houses an attempt has been made to produce
+conveniently-planned and well-arranged habitations, combined with a
+pleasing and picturesque exterior, without involving a large outlay
+of money. The materials used are brick of a deep red color for
+facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs. Wilcock &amp; Co., of
+Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a very sparing
+use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables are
+constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned
+together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with
+brickwork; the panels faced with cement, which, together with the
+cored cornice, are finished in vellum color. The whole of the
+woodwork of exterior is painted a neutral shade of peacock blue,
+forming an admirable contrast with the deep red of the bricks, the
+sashes and casements only being finished in cream color. The whole
+of the chimneypieces in the interior are carried out from the
+architect's special design; those in the drawing-rooms being of
+mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those in dining-rooms of
+oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src=
+"images/8a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED
+VILLAS,<br>
+BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.</p>
+
+<p>The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have
+been erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley,
+have cost &pound;1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including
+the price of land. They have been carried out from the designs and
+under the superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A.,
+architect, of St. Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--<i>The
+Architect</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="32"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS.</h2>
+
+<p>In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary
+precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are
+constrained to take, it is of some interest to us, says the
+<i>Building News</i>, to know how the poor are housed in the city
+of Paris, which contains, more than any city in the world, the
+opposite poles of luxurious magnificence and of sordid, bestial
+poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working classes in the way
+of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and reflect great
+discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough in the
+case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle of
+fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes.
+In 1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in
+the city of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the
+succeeding year, the former had increased to 22,061, while the
+latter had somewhat diminished, being only 5,493. There was a
+census taken in 1881, from which it appeared that Paris contained
+677,253 operatives and 255,604 employes and clerks, while out of
+every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only were born in the city, and 565
+came from the departments or the French colonies. The foreign
+element in the working classes has increased very rapidly,
+numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an addition
+of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75
+foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not
+be amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population
+is at the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years
+1876-81, the city received 280,217 additional mouths. The total
+population of the capital is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are
+males.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were
+estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733,
+and in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that
+the majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in
+almost any other great city in the world. There are two classes of
+lodgings for the poor--the one where the workman rents one or more
+rooms for his family, and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the
+other, a single room tenanted for the night only by the unmarried
+man who pays for his bed in the morning and gets his meals anywhere
+that he can. Readers will remember how, under the auspices of M.
+Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled down and transformed
+into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues. While the work
+lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did not like it
+quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation invaded
+his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that
+densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de
+l'Opera now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman
+into the already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare,
+St. Lambert, Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last
+statistics of the <i>Annuaire</i>, the increase was at the rate of
+415 per 1,000. Of course the ill health that always pervaded these
+quarters increased also; and, from the reports of Dr. Brouardel and
+M. Muller, the number of deaths from typhoid and diphtheria were
+doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in making his returns for 1881
+of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that the most unsanitary
+arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and 19th--precisely
+those to which the principal migrations of laborers had taken
+place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging
+houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816
+inmates. In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876,
+with 9,074 lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that
+is such a standing menace to the health of the city, but also the
+shocking state of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged
+to put up with. The owners of the property are, as happens in other
+places besides Paris, unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree,
+and have not only divided and subdivided the accommodation wherever
+possible, but have even raised the rental in nearly all cases.
+Whole families are crowded into a small apartment, icy cold in
+winter, an oven in summer, the only air and daylight which reaches
+the interior coming from a window which looks on to a dirty
+staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There are at
+the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove
+nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282
+rooms there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199
+with three children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian
+population has augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the
+district of poor lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent.,
+and the number of lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a
+law was passed in 1850 to provide for the sanitary supervision of
+this class of property; but in Paris the law is a dead letter, and,
+although it is now active in the provinces and in places like
+Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it is applied, even there,
+in a jerky and intermittent manner.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was
+the group known as the Cit&eacute; des Kroumirs, in the 13th
+arrondissement, which, by a strange irony, was built on land
+belonging to the Department of Public Assistance, which was let out
+by that body to a rich tenant, who sublet it to these lodging-house
+owners. This veritable den of infection and misery has now been
+demolished; but there are plenty of others quite as bad. Notably,
+there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to have named it
+after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five stories,
+which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that it
+was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages
+here. The Cit&eacute; Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors
+as the "Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is
+inhabited by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The
+Cite Philippe is tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows
+what are the contents of the chiffonnier's basket, or <i>hotte</i>,
+may easily guess at the effluvia of that particular group of
+houses. A large lodging-house in the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted
+by 210 Italians, who get their living as models or itinerant
+musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to be unapproachable
+from the vermin.</p>
+
+<p>It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately
+awakened the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more
+than one scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper
+industrial dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the
+Credit Foncier for the erection of a certain number of cheap
+houses, which, for the space of twenty years, will be exempt from
+all taxes, such as octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There
+are also one or two semi-private companies, which are occupying
+themselves with the question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors
+of the pestilence in Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>There can be no doubt, says the <i>Engineer</i>, that the
+inventor who could supply in a really portable form a machine or
+apparatus that could give out two or three horse power for a day
+would reap an enormous fortune. Up to the present time, however,
+nothing of the kind has been placed in the market. Gas is laid on
+to most houses now, and gas engines are plenty enough, yet they do
+not meet the want which a storage battery may be made yet perhaps
+to supply.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="20"></a></p>
+
+<h2>RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC.</h2>
+
+<p>To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats
+do not colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will
+distinguish them as a rumbling noise, even when their number rises
+as high as 132 vibrations per second, Rudolph Koenig has
+constructed a series of tuning forks, recently presented by
+President Morton to the Stevens Institute of Technology. The
+following table exhibits the number of vibrations per second of
+these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are sounded
+together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant
+sound:</p>
+
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">Vibrations per second.</th>
+<th colspan="3">Ratio.</th>
+<th>Beats.</th>
+<th>Sounds.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">3840</td>
+<td align="left">:4096</td>
+<td align="right">15</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">16</td>
+<td>128</td>
+<td>Ut<sub>2</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">3904</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">61</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">64</td>
+<td>96</td>
+<td>Sol<sub>1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">3936</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">123</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">128</td>
+<td>80</td>
+<td>Mi<sub>1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">3968</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">32</td>
+<td>64</td>
+<td>Ut<sub>1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">3976</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">497</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">512</td>
+<td>60</td>
+<td>Si<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">3989.3</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">187</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">192</td>
+<td>53.3</td>
+<td>La<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">4000</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">125</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">128</td>
+<td>48</td>
+<td>Sol<sub>1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">4010.7</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">47</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">48</td>
+<td>42.7</td>
+<td>Fa<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">4016</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">251</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">256</td>
+<td>40</td>
+<td>Mi<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">4024</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">503</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">512</td>
+<td>36</td>
+<td>Re<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">7936</td>
+<td align="left">:8192</td>
+<td align="right">31</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">32</td>
+<td>128</td>
+<td>Ut<sub>2</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">8064</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">63</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">64</td>
+<td>64</td>
+<td>Ut<sub>1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">8096</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">253</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">256</td>
+<td>48</td>
+<td>Sol<sub>-1</sub></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">8106.7</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">95</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">96</td>
+<td>42.7</td>
+<td>Fa<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">8112</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">507</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">512</td>
+<td>40</td>
+<td>Mi<sub>-1</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">8120</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">1015</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">1024</td>
+<td>36</td>
+<td>Re<sub>-4</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align="left">8128</td>
+<td align="left">: &nbsp; "</td>
+<td align="right">127</td>
+<td>:</td>
+<td align="left">128</td>
+<td>32</td>
+<td>Ut<sub>-4</sub> </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard
+corresponds to a number of vibrations equal to the difference of
+the numbers of vibrations of the forks.</p>
+
+<p>On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the
+other, the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations
+whose number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of
+the higher fork and the upper octave of the lower fork.</p>
+
+<p>Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds
+produced by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his
+researces to intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as
+may be seen from the above table.</p>
+
+<p>His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and
+the same phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of
+producing a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear
+musical sound is produced by two simple notes of sufficient
+intensity which produce 32 beats per second.</p>
+
+<p>Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for
+the purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose
+vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose
+with eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles
+of holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of
+this instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens
+Institute, and of Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter
+by Koenig himself.</p>
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not
+perfect</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A.</p>
+
+<p>In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not
+deviate much from isochronism.</p>
+
+<p>If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note
+corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks.</p>
+
+<p>If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t',
+and if the difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two
+notes t+t' and (t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are
+alternately t, t', and t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and
+(t+t'+t")/3.</p>
+
+<p>Disk No. 1 has--</p>
+
+<pre>
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances   t=30&deg;
+   "   "        2 24  "       "        "          15&deg;
+   "   "        3 36  "       "        "          10&deg;
+   "   "        4 36  "     at irregular distances.
+   "   "        5 36  " distances t= 10&frac12;&deg;, t'=l0&deg;,t''=9&frac12;&deg;
+   "   "        6 36  "   "          11&deg;      10&deg;     9&deg;
+   "   "        7 36  "   "          16&deg;      14&deg;
+   "   "        8 36  "   "          16&frac12;&deg;     13&frac12;&deg;
+</pre>
+
+<p>Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle
+No. 7 the same, but the low note is stronger than in 8.</p>
+
+<p>Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does
+circle 5, but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6.</p>
+
+<p>Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of
+circle 3.</p>
+
+<p>By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit
+the air through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance
+of 30&deg; and directing it against the corresponding circle of
+holes on the turning disk. If the arrangement of holes is not
+repeated identically twelve times on the same circle, we cannot, of
+course, make use of the above arrangements of holes of the wind
+tube, and we must then employ one of the movable brass tubes, which
+communicate with the interior of the wind chest by means of rubber
+tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk 1, circle 4, for
+example, requires the use of one of these two tubes, while the
+perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all the
+other circles of the same disk.</p>
+
+<p>B.</p>
+
+<p>If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note
+(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard.</p>
+
+<p>Disk No. 2 has--</p>
+
+<pre>
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes,  distances 30&deg;
+   "   "        2 36  "       "        10&deg;
+   "   "        3 48  "       "        7&frac12;&deg;
+   "   "        4 60  "       "         6&deg;
+   "   "        5 24  "       " t= 5&deg;, t'=25&deg;
+   "   "        6 24  "            6&deg;     24&deg;
+   "   "        7 24  "            7&frac12;&deg;    22&frac12;&deg;
+   "   "        8 24  "           10&deg;     20&deg;
+</pre>
+
+<p>Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those
+of 1 and 3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of
+circle 1 and of its sixth harmonic.</p>
+
+<p>C.</p>
+
+<p>If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts;
+that is to say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n.</p>
+
+<p>Disk No. 3 has--</p>
+
+<pre>
+                                                       Distances.
+  On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15&deg;
+   "   "        2 24   "        "     15&deg; &amp; 27 holes,   13-1/3&deg;
+   "   "        3 24   "        "     15&deg; " 30   "      12&deg;
+   "   "        4 24   "        "     15&deg; " 32   "      11-1/4&deg;
+   "   "        5 24   "        "     15&deg; " 36   "      10&deg;
+   "   "        6 24   "        "     15&deg; " 40   "       9&deg;
+   "   "        7 24   "        "     15&deg; " 45   "       8&deg;
+   "   "        8 24   "        "     15&deg; " 30, 36, &amp; 48 holes
+</pre>
+
+<p>Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a
+third, circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8
+a perfect chord.</p>
+
+<h3>II.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or
+several different places to conspire in the formation of a note,
+provided that the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact,
+and that the shocks are produced in the same direction</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Disk No. 4 has--</p>
+
+<pre>
+  On circle 1 24 holes.
+   "    "   2 36   "
+   "    "   3 23   "
+   "    "   4 12 at an angular distance of 10&deg; from the holes
+                  of circle 3.
+   "    "   5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20&deg; from those of circle 3
+   "    "   6 12   "          "     "       0&deg;        "
+   "    "   7 12   "          "     "      15&deg;        "
+   "    "   8 12   "          "     "      15&deg;        "
+</pre>
+
+<p>1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular
+distance of 15&deg; are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes,
+we obtain the octave of the note produced by the same circle if
+only one current is used.</p>
+
+<p>The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this
+experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of
+air spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button
+9 we also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between
+the first. Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce
+the same note corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they
+produce the octave, or the note of circle 1.</p>
+
+<p>2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar
+circles whose holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the
+same result.</p>
+
+<p>In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out
+buttons 7 and 9.</p>
+
+<p>3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius
+against two circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these
+circles sounded simultaneously will produce the octave of the note
+which one of them would give alone.</p>
+
+<p>This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and
+pulling out buttons 6 and 7.</p>
+
+<p>4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against
+three similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the
+distance between two holes of the same circle, the three circles
+together produce the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single
+circle.</p>
+
+<p>Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle
+2.</p>
+
+<p>(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the
+same experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make
+with circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain
+the note corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the
+notes corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very
+strongly; but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12
+disappears completely, and we have left only that corresponding to
+36 holes.)</p>
+
+<h3>III.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite
+directions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in
+opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is
+very much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes
+simultaneously. If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity
+of the note is increased.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the
+same number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two
+preceding cases.</p>
+
+<p>3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one
+of which has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the
+low note if every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave
+of the other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks.</p>
+
+<p>Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air
+currents are directed against the circles of holes through the
+movable tubes, made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All
+these experiments require great precision in the arrangement of
+these wind tubes. To make sure that the tubes are simultaneously
+before two holes of the disk, it is well to put little rods through
+the holes, reaching into the wind tubes, and to remove them only
+when the tubes are firmly attached. The experimenter should be
+careful also to place the two tubes exactly at the same distance
+from the turning disk. It is clear that notwithstanding all these
+precautions we never obtain perfect interference, but only the
+weakening of notes that ought to disappear entirely if all the
+arrangements were made with mathematical exactness, and also if the
+ear could have absolutely the same position with regard to impulses
+produced in opposite directions.</p>
+
+<h3>IV.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Beats</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Disk No. 6 has--</p>
+
+<p>8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48,
+49.</p>
+
+<p>Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce
+as many beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and
+5, 6 and 8, as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but
+we must content ourselves in these experiments with a much less
+perfect result, for the following reasons: The disk never being
+rigorously plane, alternately approaches the single wind pipe and
+recedes from it. No matter how slight this deviation is, every
+sound given by a single circle is heard with periodical intensities
+which complicate the phenomenon. This inconvenience could be
+avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the circle; but while
+we can extend the period of the holes in two circles (whose
+difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a
+single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance
+between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when
+the disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high
+enough and intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be
+easily perceived.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the
+points to which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also
+furnishes two more disks.</p>
+
+<p>The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80,
+90, and 96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will
+produce a perfect chord when the air is admitted through the 11
+holes in the wind chest; with one wind tube the entire gamut may be
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose
+numbers are in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to
+illustrate harmonics. C. F. K.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="21"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER.</h2>
+
+<p>[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.]</p>
+
+<p>To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable
+manner upon the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it
+is necessary to take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this
+being something that we have purposely neglected to mention to our
+readers. For we wished, through this voluntary omission, to
+stimulate their sagacity by bringing them face to face with
+difficulties that they will perhaps have succeeded in overcoming,
+with causes of error that they will have perceived, and the
+principal one of which is the want of absolute cleanliness in the
+water, vessels, and instruments that they may have used for the
+experiments.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the
+camphor remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had
+hoped to be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions.
+Their astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we
+noticed the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the
+influence of vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or
+tubes, pieces of gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc.,
+dipped into the liquid in which such motions were taking place
+before the immersion of the objects under consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The instantaneously <i>sedative</i> power of the human fingers,
+or of a hair, will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of
+sorcery, or of some diabolic art worthy of the great Albert.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/9a.png" alt=""></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS<br>
+OF CAMPHOR.</p>
+
+<p>As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious
+experiments of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously
+following his directions, we have, in the presence of our results,
+that were exactly identical with his, almost been tempted to
+believe ourself to be the victim of some occult power, or at least
+of some optical illusion, the true cause of which remained a
+mystery to us. Finally, after many fruitless attempts to find a key
+to the enigma that engaged our attention, the light finally dawned
+upon us, and then shone straight in our eyes.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that
+we had obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor
+moved in the test glasses at a level that was notably higher than
+that at which its gyration took place the day before, or the day
+before that. And yet we had always used the same vessels, the same
+water, and particles detached from the same lump of camphor.</p>
+
+<p>To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the
+two levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the
+camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that
+was satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we
+had noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous
+washings that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water
+poured into them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been
+freed from impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and
+which, unbeknown to us, might have soiled their sides.</p>
+
+<p>Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one,
+we began to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very
+dilute sulphuric acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed
+them with quantities of water and dried them carefully with white
+linen rags that had been used for no other purpose; and finally we
+plunged them again into very clean water. We thus cut the Gordian
+knot, and were on the right track.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with
+that minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be
+absolutely necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all
+the pieces of the scaffolding that this master had with so much
+trouble built up. The camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or
+metal, and of every form, at all heights. The immersed bodies, such
+as glass tubes, table knives, pieces of money, etc., had lost their
+pretended "sedative effect" on a pretended "activity of the water,"
+and on the vessels that contained it. The so-called phenomenon of
+habit "transported from physiology into physics," no longer
+existed.</p>
+
+<p>The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of
+camphor upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by
+means of which nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained
+in the internodes of <i>Chara vulgaris</i>, had proved a grave
+error that was to be erased from the science into which it had been
+introduced by its author with entire good faith. The true cause of
+<i>life</i> had not then been unveiled, and the new agent
+designated as <i>diluo-electricity</i> vanished before the very
+simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the
+surface of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly
+suppose that that volatile substance could dissolve.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which
+the water is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel
+with which the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of
+little or no importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to
+employ a test glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A,
+that terminates in a lower tubulure, B, above which there is a
+contraction, C. Upon pouring water into the lateral tube until the
+level reaches D, and placing a particle of camphor on its surface,
+the camphor will be seen to continually move about, even when the
+liquid has reached the upper edge of the vessel. To reduce the
+level to various heights, it is only necessary to revolve the tube
+in the cork through which it is fitted to the tubulure. In
+proceeding thus, agitation or <i>collision</i> of the water is
+avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will
+continue to move at every level of the water.</p>
+
+<p>But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the
+stoppage in the motions of the camphor on the surface of water
+contained in vessels that are not perfectly clean? Before answering
+this question, let us say in the first place that the cause of the
+motions under consideration is due to nothing else but the
+evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia that escape from all
+parts and that exert upon the body whence they emanate a recoiling
+action exactly like that which manifests itself in an &aelig;lopile
+mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of a
+sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small
+portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms
+upon its surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but
+the thickness of which may increase in time until it becomes
+(especially if the vessel is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the
+gyration of the small fragments of camphor that it imprisons, and
+whose evaporation it prevents. Now, as this layer of volatile oil
+may and does evaporate, in fact, after a certain length of time,
+the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions; but there is not the
+least reason in the world for saying on that account that it "has
+<i>habituated</i> itself to the cause which had at first influenced
+it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to render
+null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present"
+(Dutrochet, <i>l.c.</i>., p. 50).</p>
+
+<p>We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of
+this oily layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by
+introducing under the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of
+sulphuric ether whose sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold
+to instantaneously congeal the layer in question and thus render it
+perfectly visible to the eye. The slight layer of greasy matter
+that habitually lines the sides of vessels from whence no effort
+has been made to remove it, produces effects exactly like those of
+the oil of camphor, that is to say, that in measure as it becomes
+thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the concrete volatile
+essence.</p>
+
+<p>This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see
+the camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be
+raised a few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to
+the upper edge of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid
+<i>licks</i> up, so to speak, the oily layer that lines the inner
+surface of the vessel, and this material spreads over the surface
+of the water and forms thereupon a layer which, in spreading over
+the bit of camphor itself, prevents its evaporation, and,
+consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer under
+consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by
+causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and,
+more easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the
+liquid in which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the
+paper is removed (without the water being touched by the fingers,
+it should be understood), the camphor resumes its motions and
+afterward continues them at all levels.</p>
+
+<p>The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no
+power to stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy
+to repeat, is an unquestionable proof of this.</p>
+
+<p>Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and
+afterward with plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking
+glass in which a fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the
+gyration will not be stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly
+if the finger in its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty
+substances that ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer)
+be dipped into this same glass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Movements of Camphor upon Mercury</i>.--In order to study the
+motions of camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a
+great advantage, and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of
+the degree of cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed
+breath. The vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the
+mercury is perfectly clean, but forms variously shaded and more
+persistent spots if it is soiled by foreign bodies But it is
+extremely difficult to clean mercury completely. To do so Mr.
+Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and leave it for a long
+time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, taking care to
+often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater part of
+the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime in
+powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes
+in its lower part.</p>
+
+<p>Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the
+motions of camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces
+of the vapors that escape from it, and which resemble small
+tadpoles with a long tail that are endowed with very great agility.
+Nothing is more curious than to see the particle of camphor
+successively ascend and descend the strongly pronounced curves
+presented by the mercury near the sides of the vessel that contains
+it. On raising the temperature of the metal slightly, the motions
+of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and the same effects
+occur with water that has been slightly heated.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments that we have just called attention to show what
+importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They
+prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists
+upon polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty
+matters which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find
+therein also a manifest proof and a rational explanation of those
+grave errors into which the presence of these fatty matters, that
+have hitherto been scarcely suspected, led so clever and so
+distinguished a scientist as the illustrious discoverer of
+endosmosis.--<i>N. Joly, in La Nature</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="16"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CARBONIC ACID IN BEER.</h2>
+
+<p>We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers'
+Convention in Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E.
+Siebel in 1872, and used at that time in the brewery of Messrs.
+Bartholomae &amp; Roesing, in Chicago. The object of the apparatus
+is to retain as much carbonic acid in the beer as possible while
+racking the same off into smaller packages from the storage vats.
+The importance of this measure is apparent to every one who knows
+what pains are taken to preserve the presence of this constituent
+in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the method of
+racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the beer is
+forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to
+the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to
+the excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is
+evident that a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape.
+The escape of carbonic acid during the process of racking off is
+indeed so large that even a small difference in the pressure of the
+atmosphere causes a remarkable difference in this respect. It is,
+therefore, evident that if a larger pressure can be maintained
+while racking off, a larger amount of carbonic acid gas will remain
+in the beer. It is true that the racking off will take a little
+longer time if done under pressure, but this inconvenience is
+certainly insignificantly small, when compared with the other
+labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the sole
+purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in
+which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form
+it has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in
+any other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the
+beer by artificial means. The apparatus designed in the
+accompanying cut is calculated to artificially produce a higher
+pressure of the atmosphere, at least within the keg which is to be
+filled with beer. For this purpose, the beer from the store cask
+running through the pipe, B, enters the keg through a hollow copper
+bung, fitting light into the bung hole by means of a rubber washer.
+The air contained in the keg, being replaced by the beer, is forced
+out by means of the hollow copper bung, taking its course through
+the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is allowed to escape in
+the standpipe, C, containing a column of water, the height of which
+designates the pressure within the keg, and a consequently
+increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or barrel is
+filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer showing
+itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the
+copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained
+in the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is
+then bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg.
+Should the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in
+proper time, the surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but
+will be collected in the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off
+through e.--<i>Chemical Review</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10a.png" alt=""></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="1"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER
+CHLORIDE.</h2>
+
+<p>Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties
+of silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution
+of gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by
+precipitation in an alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas
+called attention to six modifications of silver bromide. One of
+these, granular bromide of silver, obtained by boiling the
+flocculent precipitate for several days with water, he stated, was
+the most sensitive to light of all substances known; exposure for
+two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a Bunsen burner
+being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was for
+photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in
+1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated
+in a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much
+more sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled.
+Today these observations have become of the greatest importance to
+practical photography. They have led to the preparation of the
+silver bromide gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin
+plates, which are twenty times more sensitive than the silver
+iodide collodion plates, and have become indispensable when
+impressions are to be taken in a dim light.</p>
+
+<p>The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin
+seemed the more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide
+in collodion is only moderately sensitive. The explanation was
+sought for in various directions, but as the result of numerous
+investigations it appears that the chief cause of the difference is
+the presence of different modifications of silver bromide. From a
+consideration of the work already done on the subject, Vogel
+suspected that silver bromide precipitated in an aqueous colloidal
+liquid would have notably different properties from silver bromide
+precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal solution. Silver bromide was
+prepared in many different ways. Emulsions were made in bromide
+solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the former aqueous, the
+latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others without. Part
+of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a moderate
+temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with
+ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated
+silver bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it
+to settle completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a
+new portion of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the
+plates. Finally he precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence
+of all colloids, by means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of
+bromides and attempted to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or
+collodion as a cement. The result of all these experiments is that
+there are essentially two modifications of silver bromide, the one
+being obtained by precipitation in aqueous, the other in alcoholic
+solutions. The first, on account of the position of the maximum of
+sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he calls blue sensitive, the
+other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive.</p>
+
+<p>It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic
+solution in which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or
+collodion, or whether the precipitation is effected with excess of
+bromide or of silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the
+solution is hot or cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated
+with ammonia or whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary
+condition is that in precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide
+the solutions must contain at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From
+aqueous alcoholic solutions blue sensitive silver bromide is
+precipitated.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar
+spectrum, these modifications of silver bromide exhibit other
+characteristic differences in properties which indicate beyond a
+doubt that they are two essentially different modifications of the
+same substance. Among these are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in
+gelatin or collodion solutions. The indigo sensitive silver bromide
+cannot be distributed through a gelatin solution, while the blue
+sensitive modification does so very readily. 2d. Their unequal
+reducibility; the blue sensitive silver bromide being reduced with
+much greater difficulty than the indigo sensitive variety. 3d.
+Their different action toward chemical and physical sensitizers.
+4th. Their different action toward photographic developers. 5th.
+Their different action under the influence of heat. The blue
+sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness
+perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>A direct transformation of one modification into the other has
+not yet been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these
+substances is incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that
+the more reducible indigo sensitive variety would be the more
+sensitive to light. But this is not the case, because it is not
+chemical reducibility, but the absorption power for light that is
+of the greatest importance. Now the blue sensitive silver bromide
+has a greater absorption power than the indigo sensitive variety,
+and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver chloride prepared by
+methods similar to those used in making the two forms of bromides
+was also found to exist in two modifications. One is designated as
+ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive silver
+chloride.--<i>Amer. Chem. Jour</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="2"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL.</h2>
+
+<p>[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the
+28th June, 1883.]</p>
+
+<h3>By OTTO HEHNER</h3>
+
+<p>Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of
+New Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat
+full analysis may be worthy of being placed on record.</p>
+
+<p>The sample to which the results refer consisted of large
+brownish black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the
+fractures were conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting.
+It was interspersed with a considerable amount of an amber colored
+resin. When powdered it appeared chocolate brown. It burned
+readily, the flame being bright and very smoky. Its ash was light
+and reddish brown.</p>
+
+<p>It consisted of--</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Water (loss at 212&deg; F.)        20.09
+  Organic and volatile matter    75.19
+  Ash                             4.72
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+</pre>
+
+<p>The organic and volatile constituents had the following
+percentage composition--</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Carbon                         71.26
+  Hydrogen                        5.62
+  Oxygen                         21.58
+  Nitrogen                        1.06
+  Sulphur                         0.48
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+<br>
+The ash was composed of--
+<br>
+  Silica                         27.26
+  Alumina                        26.48
+  Oxide of iron                  12.98
+  Lime                           20.19
+  Magnesia                        3.42
+  Sulphuric acid                  9.47
+  Alkalies and loss               0.20
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+</pre>
+
+<p>From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates
+as under--</p>
+
+<pre>
+  Water                          20.09
+  Carbon                         53.58
+  Hydrogen                        4.23
+  Oxygen                         16.23
+  Nitrogen                        0.80
+  Sulphur                         0.36
+  Silica                          1.29
+  Alumina                         1.25
+  Oxide of iron                   0.61
+  Lime                            0.95
+  Magnesia                        0.16
+  Sulphuric acid                  0.44
+  Alkalies                        0.01
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+</pre>
+
+<p>One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of
+coke.</p>
+
+<p>The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is
+very remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary
+temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small
+pieces. The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen
+characterize the so called coal as a <i>lignite</i>, with which
+conclusion the physical characters of the sample are in perfect
+harmony.</p>
+
+<p>The resin to which I have referred has not been further
+analyzed. It was found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua,
+such as alcohol, ether, carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform,
+and neither attacked by boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing
+alkali. On heating it swells up considerably and undergoes
+decomposition, but does not fuse.</p>
+
+<p>The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local
+consumption, but the large proportions of water and of oxygen
+militate against its use as a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of
+it being really combustible.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="3"></a></p>
+
+<h2>DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE,
+ETC.</h2>
+
+<h3>By E. RAYMOND.</h3>
+
+<p>The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and
+accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the
+state of peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to
+bring back the manganese to the manganous slate, and determining
+volumetrically, by means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of
+ferrous salt which has been converted into ferric. The method of
+rapidly precipitating manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act
+upon cast-iron or steel with nitric acid and potassium chlorate in
+certain proportions, and boil the mixture, the manganese is
+completely precipitated in the state of peroxide insoluble in
+nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of ferric oxide.
+Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous cast-iron
+containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes are
+treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr.
+1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately
+heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15
+grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric
+acid at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until
+the escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown
+down as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and
+the precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the
+manganese peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an
+acid solution of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous
+sulphate to 750 c. c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full
+strength). The 50 c. c. are poured into the flask in which the
+sample has been dissolved, and to which a little peroxide adheres,
+and it is then poured upon the precipitate and the filter in a
+Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese peroxide dissolves very readily,
+transforming its equivalent of ferrous sulphate into ferric
+sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150 c. c. for the
+next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate formed by
+the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the process
+of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter of
+water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid
+we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate
+remaining in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of
+the original solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and
+determine the total ferrous salt.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the
+ferrous salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide.
+The quantity of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the
+quantity of manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In
+the case of a steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it
+is convenient to dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the
+ferrous solution. Small Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the
+titration of only 0.010 meter internal diameter, and graduated into
+one-twentieth c. c., which allows of great exactitude in the
+determination. For a spiegeleisen not more than 1 gramme of the
+sample should be taken, and for a ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="4"></a></p>
+
+<h2>MANGANESE AND ITS USES.</h2>
+
+<p>Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken
+as the representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a
+metallic brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is
+so hard as to scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only
+fused at a white heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the
+atmosphere, it should be preserved under naphtha.</p>
+
+<p>It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric
+stones; with this exception it is not found native. The metal may
+be obtained by the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an
+extreme heat.</p>
+
+<p>Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz.,
+protoxide, sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide,
+manganic acid, and permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as
+olive-green powder, and is obtained by igniting carbonate of
+manganese in a current of hydrogen. Its salts are colorless, or of
+a pale rose color, and have a strong tendency to form double salts
+with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate forms the mineral known as
+manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by heating the peroxide
+with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition, dissolving the
+residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed largely in
+calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals.</p>
+
+<p>The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in
+braunite, and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as
+a black powder by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When
+ignited it loses oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts
+are isomorphous with those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It
+imparts a violet color to glass, and gives the amethyst its
+characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a powerful oxidizing
+agent.</p>
+
+<p>The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs
+native in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting
+the sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of
+the two preceding oxides.</p>
+
+<p>The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce,
+and the pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most
+abundant of the manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in
+varvicite and wad. Its commercial value depends upon the proportion
+of chlorine which a given weight of it will liberate when it is
+heated with hydrochloric acid, the quantity of chlorine being
+proportional to the excess of oxygen which this oxide contains over
+that contained in the same weight of protoxide. When mixed with
+chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an evolution of
+chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of soda and
+sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it is a
+valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of
+oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of
+gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per
+cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in
+the manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares.</p>
+
+<p>Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash
+is formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of
+manganese. The black mass which results from this operation is
+soluble in water, to which it communicates a green color, due to
+the presence of the manganate. From this water the salt is obtained
+<i>in vacuo</i> in beautiful green crystals. On allowing the
+solution to stand exposed to the air, it rapidly becomes blue,
+violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual conversion of the
+manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on account of these
+changes of color the black mass has received the name of mineral
+chameleon.</p>
+
+<p>Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of
+combination. Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears
+of a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted light. It is
+obtained by treating a solution of permanganate of baryta with
+sulphuric acid, when sulphate of baryta falls, and the permanganic
+acid remains dissolved in the water. Permanganate of potash, which
+crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is the most important of its
+salts. It is largely employed in analytical chemistry, and is the
+basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.</p>
+
+<p>Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found
+in small quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal
+substances. It is always associated with iron.</p>
+
+<p>Various preparations of manganese have been employed in
+medicine. The sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two
+drachms produces purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the
+excretion of bile; and in small doses, both this salt and the
+carbonate have been given with the intention of improving the
+condition of the blood in cases of an&aelig;mia. Manganic acid and
+permanganate of potash are of great use when applied in lotions (as
+in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid ulcers. In connection
+with the medicinal applications of manganese it may be mentioned
+that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus Smith's
+celebrated test for the impurity of the air.</p>
+
+<p>It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used
+to correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence
+of protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively
+colorless peroxide.</p>
+
+<p>It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to
+decompose the oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a
+natural alloy of from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for
+this purpose when conveniently attainable.--<i>Glassware
+Reporter</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="5"></a></p>
+
+<h2>OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX.</h2>
+
+<h3>By WILLIAM L. LAY.</h3>
+
+<h3>ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND
+AMERICA.</h3>
+
+<p>[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York
+Academy of Sciences.]</p>
+
+<p>There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in
+Austria, that of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it
+in any other part of the known world, an industry that supplies
+Europe with a part of its beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It
+may not be generally known that the mining of petroleum was a
+profitable industry in Austria long before it was in this country.
+In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the oil and had an
+exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London. In America, the
+first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of petroleum as an
+illuminator was common at a very early age in the world's history.
+In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the Crimea, and
+on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used in lamps for
+thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a
+never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The
+mines of ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as
+Galicia. Near the city of Drohabich, on the railway line running
+from Cracow to Lemberg, is a town of six thousand inhabitants,
+called Borislau, which is entirely supported by the ozokerite
+industry. It lies at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. About
+the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for petroleum at that place. After
+descending about one hundred and eighty feet, the miners found all
+the cracks in the clay or rock filled with a brown substance,
+resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not thicker than
+writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until at a
+depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or
+four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could
+be made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute
+for wax was manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in
+America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells
+of Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The
+owner of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the
+miners three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first
+were whole farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5,
+and at last to 1 acre, which is a square of 209 feet.</p>
+
+<p>But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done
+on a small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this
+country, the leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These
+were so small that the surface was not large enough to contain the
+earth that had to be raised to sink the shaft; consequently the
+earth had to be transported to a distance, and, when I saw it,
+there was a mound sixty or seventy feet high. Its weight had become
+so great that it caused a sinking of the earth, and endangered the
+shafts to such an extent that the government ordered its removal to
+a distance and its deposit on ground that was not undermined. The
+shafts are four feet square, and the sides are supported by timbers
+six inches through, which leaves a shaft three feet square. The
+miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water wells, and
+the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and
+windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many
+years no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum
+under the ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the
+surface, the miners were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by
+blowing a current of fresh air from a rotary fan through a pipe
+extending down the shaft as fast as the curbing of timber is put in
+place. The ozokerite is embedded in a very stiff blue clay for a
+depth of several hundred feet; below, it is interlaid with rock.
+[Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were on exhibition,
+through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.]</p>
+
+<p>That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the
+acre than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in
+Poland, averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten
+cents for children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the
+working. If thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it
+remunerates the two men and one or two children required to work
+each lease. When the bucket, containing the earth, rock, and wax,
+is dumped in the little shed covering the shaft, it is picked over
+by the children, who detach the wax from the clay or rock with
+knives. The miners use galvanized wire ropes and wooden buckets.
+When preparing to descend, they invariably cross themselves and
+utter a short prayer. The business is not free from danger,
+carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or the
+caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of
+deaths. One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me
+that in one week there had been eight deaths from accidents.</p>
+
+<p>The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common
+cast iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the
+bottom, and the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed
+off with a ladle, poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool,
+in which form it is sold to the refiners, for about six cents per
+pound. The quantity produced is uncertain, as the miners take care
+to understate it, for the reason that the government lays a tax
+upon all incomes, and the landowner demands his one-fourth of the
+quantity mined. The best authority is Leo Strippelman, who states
+the quantity produced in fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to
+400,000,000 pounds, worth twenty-four millions of dollars. As the
+owners of the land get one-fourth of the sum, they received six
+millions. This is at the rate of four hundred thousand a year, a
+rather valuable crop from some two hundred acres of land.</p>
+
+<p>The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as
+they should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred
+acres is gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the
+industry in that part of the deposit. In another part of the same
+field, a French company has purchased forty acres, and it is mining
+the whole tract and hoisting through one shaft by steam power. In
+that shaft they have sunk to a depth of six hundred feet, and are
+troubled with water and petroleum. These they pump out very much
+the same way as in coal and other mines, worked in a scientific
+manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is about eighteen
+inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity. When first
+removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so soft that
+it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed into the
+space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for
+weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to
+force it out.</p>
+
+<p>I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania
+since 1860, have seen all the wonderful development of the oil
+wells, and was very much interested in contrasting the Austrian
+ozokerite and petroleum industry with the American. It is a good
+illustration of the difference between the lower class of Poles and
+Jews and the Yankee. Borislau, after twenty years' work, was
+unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It contained one school
+house, but no church nor printing office. None of its streets were
+paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud came up to
+the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length. In
+places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the
+houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous
+shops, where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It
+depends on a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses
+were generally one-story, built of logs and mud.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size,
+contained eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve
+churches, and two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in
+1863, were as deep with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no
+whisky shops where women and children can drink. Many of its houses
+are of brick, two, three, four, and five stories high. Its water
+works cost one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. All this has
+been done since 1860, when it did not contain forty houses.</p>
+
+<p>I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep
+in the mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a
+platform of straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the
+straw foundation had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk
+out of sight. Borislau is three miles from Drohobich, a city of
+thirty thousand inhabitants; between the two places, in wet
+weather, the road was impassable. For a third of the way, it was in
+the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a day for the water to fall
+so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring why they did not
+improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the Arkansas
+settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he could
+not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with
+the road to Borislau.</p>
+
+<p>Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros,"
+wax) is found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the
+Caucasian Mountains, in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in
+Austria; in the Apennines, in Italy; in Texas, California, and in
+the Wahsatch Mountains, in the United States. Commercially, it is
+not worked anywhere but in Austria; although, I believe, we have in
+Utah a larger deposit than in any other place. I made two journeys
+to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch Mountains. For a distance
+of forty miles, it crops out in many places, and on the Minnie
+Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found a stratum of
+sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with
+ozokerite.</p>
+
+<p>No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of
+ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one
+place, and a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this
+shaft, the vein was about ten inches wide; and it could be traced
+along the slope of the hill, for several hundred feet. The largest
+vein of pure ozokerite is seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish
+Ca&ntilde;on, which enters Salt Lake Valley near the town of Provo.
+This vein is very much like the ozokerite of Austria, and contains
+between thirty and forty per cent. of white ceresin (which
+resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of yellow
+ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of black
+petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia
+College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made
+examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are
+interested in the subject will find the papers published in the
+<i>Engineering and Mining Journal</i> for the year 1879.</p>
+
+<p>A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine
+Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An
+interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was
+robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A
+short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of
+wax and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward
+suspected it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon
+after ward she brought another lot. He had her arrested. When
+questioned by the magistrate, she said she found the wax in the
+clay on her farm, about twenty miles from the city. This story
+confirmed him in the belief that she had stolen the candles, or was
+the receiver of the stolen goods; for such a thing as a deposit of
+wax in the soil was unheard of. She was therefore remanded to jail.
+On three several days, she was brought before the court, and, when
+questioned, told the same story. She was a member of the church,
+and requested the priest to be sent for. He came, and, after an
+interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove her story,
+if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an officer,
+to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one who
+believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel,
+and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the
+clay a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at
+once set at liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I
+saw her dig the specimen and heard her tell the story as I have
+told it to you. The hill was composed of loose clay and stones. It
+appeared as if it had been forced up by gas or some power from
+below the surface. The quantity that could be gathered, by one
+person, laboring constantly for a week, was only twenty-five or
+thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a shaft; but, at a
+depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was sufficient to
+break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved in, and
+the shaft was abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of
+manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms
+of ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there
+are several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils
+are made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these,
+they make white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black
+heel-ball, colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large
+quantities of the yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the
+houses, many of the finer ones being waxed every day. It is a
+curious fact that the Catholic Church does not allow the use of
+paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles; at the same time nearly all
+the candles used in the churches in Europe are made from ozokerite,
+which is a natural paraffine, made from petroleum in nature's
+laboratory. In the United States, the only uses made of ozokerite,
+so far as I know, are chewing gum and the adulteration of beeswax.
+In this the Yankee gives another illustration of the ruling passion
+strong in money making, which gives us wooden nutmegs, wooden hams,
+shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee, oleomargarine butter,
+mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax made without
+bees.</p>
+
+<p>After this paper was written, the following translation from a
+pamphlet, published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway
+Company, in 1879, came to my notice. The writer's name is not
+published:</p>
+
+<p>"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the
+shafts, is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with
+much earthy matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks
+would be necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign
+substances by melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25
+kilos. weight, and these cakes are exported. There are now, in
+Borislau, 25 melting works, which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60
+fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric centners (9,500,000 lb.).</p>
+
+<p>"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all
+European countries, to be further refined. Outside of
+Austro-Hungary, we may specially mention Germany, England, Italy,
+France, Belgium, and Russia as large purchasers of this article of
+commerce.</p>
+
+<h3>"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>"The products of mineral wax, are:</p>
+
+<p>"(a.) <i>Ceresine</i>, also called ozocerotine or refined
+ozokerite, a product which possesses a striking resemblance to
+ordinarily refined beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its
+uses, and, by its cheapness, is employed for many purposes for
+which beeswax is too dear. It is much used for wax candles, for
+waxing floors, and for dressing linen and colored papers. Wax
+crayons must be mentioned among these products. The house of
+Offenheim &amp; Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors.
+These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and
+iron; also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and
+drawing. The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be
+effaced neither by water, by acids, nor by rubbing.</p>
+
+<p>"Concerning the technical process for the production of
+ceresine, it should be said that, when the industry was new (the
+production of ceresine has been known only about eight years, since
+1874), it was controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This
+much is known, that the color and odor are removed by fuming
+sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white
+ceresine is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition
+of coloring matter (annatto).</p>
+
+<p>"(b.) <i>Paraffine</i>, a firm, white, translucent substance,
+without odor. It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles,
+and also as a protection against the action of acids, and to make
+casks and other wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks,
+etc., for air-tight wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of
+tracing paper. There are several methods of obtaining paraffine
+from ozokerite (see the Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by
+Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol. iv., Brunswick, 1877).</p>
+
+<p>"The details of the technical process consists, in every case,
+in the distillation of the crude material, pressure of the
+distillate by hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are
+produced from 2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent.
+of naphtha, 36 to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of
+heavy oil for lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a
+residue.</p>
+
+<p>"(c.) <i>Mineral oils</i>, which are obtained at the same time
+with paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude
+petroleum, described above. The process consists, as in the natural
+rock oils, besides the distillation, in the treatment of the
+incidental products with acids and alkalies.</p>
+
+<p>"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the
+greater part goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper
+Hungary. The common paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of
+various sizes, from 28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all
+Galicia, Bukowuina, Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia,
+and form an important article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to
+all the ports of the world. Of late a considerable quantity is said
+to have been sent to the East Indies, where it is used in the
+printing of cotton."</p>
+
+<p>The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was
+undoubtedly a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public
+concerning its use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural
+brown ozokerite, of yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a
+white purified form, which had been treated by sulphuric acid.
+Specimens from Utah had already been shown before the Academy.
+There was no mystery as to its genesis in either region, as it had
+been shown to be the result of inspissation of a thick and viscid
+variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a great variety
+of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn, to one that
+is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical
+composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling
+a solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much
+paraffine that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold
+weather. The asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which
+the term "gum beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences
+in constitution have originated in the differences in the
+bituminous shales from which the petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have
+been derived. In Canada, as excavations are sunk through the
+asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and finally passes into
+petroleum. This is also the case in Utah.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.]</p>
+
+<p>[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.]</p>
+
+<p><a name="19"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883.</h2>
+
+<p>Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also
+includes many interesting details in his account of the trip:</p>
+
+<p>The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the
+exception of a few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south
+the wind changed, obliging them to call their overcoats from the
+bottom of their trunks to keep out the cold when crossing the
+equator. During a short stop in Lima the party had an opportunity
+of studying South American life. The products of this country are
+fruits and photographs of the young women. The party enjoyed both
+eating the former and bringing the latter home for the admiration
+of their friends. The expedition really began at Callao, where the
+party embarked on the United States man-of-war Hartford. Few
+circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the trip than
+the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The Hartford
+was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific
+squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel,
+but the extra accommodations provided for him and his train
+condoned the dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed
+anchor for a sail of more than four thousand miles over the blue
+ocean which stretches between Callao and their destination,
+Caroline Island. The southeast trade winds favored them, and from
+the first day there was actually no necessity for altering the
+position of a sail....</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according
+to the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one
+story structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in
+California and brought out in ships, to be erected on this island.
+The island on which they are built is about three-fourths of a mile
+in diameter and nearly circular in outline. The edge, which rises
+from five to twenty inches from the water, according to the tide's
+phase, goes down under the water to an even table of coral running
+out many feet into the sea; and is impossible to step on it with
+bare feet. At the end of this table the reef goes down
+perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable sea. No
+vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting
+matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side
+sheltered from the wind, and here, with the luck which
+characterized the trip, was found the only opening in this barrier
+of coral. A long cleft, perhaps eight feet wide, at the outer edge
+of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a mere crack near the shore.
+Watching a favorable chance, the boats were guided through the surf
+into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the men jumped on to the
+reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as quickly as
+possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the surf,
+came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr.
+Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a
+succession of wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing
+the conscientious descriptions of exact scientists to make them
+credible.</p>
+
+<p>The members of the observing party took up their abode in the
+larger of the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from
+the verandas, which afforded shade on three sides of the building.
+The second house was occupied by the sailors, while the third was
+left to the natives. These latter were sufficiently conversant with
+English to serve as excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in
+a lagoon in the center of the island. This lagoon was bordered by a
+beach of dazzling white coral sand, and all through its water
+extended reefs of living coral of the more delicate and elaborate
+kinds. These corals gave the lake a wonderful variety of colors,
+forming a picture impossible to paint or describe, and with the
+least ripple from a passing breeze the whole scene changed to new
+groups of color. The water was very clear, and in some places deep;
+in others so filled with coral that a boat could barely skim over
+the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a long reef,
+one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their
+longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath.
+Fish swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every
+species, if not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most
+peculiar manner. One variety which frequented the shallow water,
+where it was heated to the degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a
+pure milky white, with black eyes, fins, and tail.</p>
+
+<p>The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had
+steamed directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the
+Americans.</p>
+
+<p>It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good
+time, and the definition was particularly good. Photographs
+occupied the time of the English and French observers. Professor
+Holden and Dr. Dickson searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr.
+Preston took the times of contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell
+devoted their attention to spectroscopic observations of the
+corona. Dr. Hastings' observations have led to the production of a
+new theory of the corona. Briefly stated, the theory is that the
+light seen around the sun during a total eclipse is not due to a
+material substance enveloping the sun, but is a phenomenon of
+diffraction.</p>
+
+<p>From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central
+City, Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of
+the solar corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth
+of this theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the
+present eclipse, however, he devised a crucial test of his theory.
+This test is based on the following already known phenomena: When
+the moon covers the face of the sun, an envelope of light is seen
+all round it; the envelope is not visible when the sun is shining,
+on account of the sun's greater brightness; this light is called
+the corona; it is extremely irregular in outline. According to the
+drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse of 1878, it enveloped
+the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance of several minutes
+of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite points is
+extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space. The
+opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending
+millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it
+must be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e.,
+which has been bent from its regular course by the interposition of
+an opaque body like the moon.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a
+surface of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists
+them. If an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it
+will judge the direction of the waves or the direction of the
+object producing them by a line at right angles with the wave
+front. Now suppose a body is placed between the body producing the
+waves and the sensitive organ. The waves must go around this body
+and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the wave front will
+have a different direction, and the organ of sense will conceive
+the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from that
+before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves
+of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the
+retina of the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the
+course of the waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on
+the eye that the light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The
+moon covers the sun during the eclipse and a little more, so that
+it can move for about five minutes and still cover the sun
+entirely. This movement is very slight, and if the corona consists
+of light from a solar atmosphere, it should not change at all
+during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction is the cause
+of the light, then the slightest change in the relative positions
+of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the
+corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during
+a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum
+analysis should change.</p>
+
+<p>To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following
+instrument: Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the
+form of a letter V, and so arranged that all the light falling
+within the aperture of the V was lost, and that falling on the ends
+of the glass prisms was transmitted by a series of reflections to
+the apex of the V, where the prisms touched; here was placed a
+refracting prism, so that the light could be analyzed. This
+instrument was attached to the eye piece of the telescope, and the
+image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the moon just
+fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the
+corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they
+came together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen
+through the eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse
+this is what Dr. Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided
+into its constituents. Prominent among them was a bright green
+line, which is designated by the number 1,474; to this line
+attention was directed. Its presence in the spectrum has been an
+argument in favor of the view that the corona is a solar
+atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed
+during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this
+line should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one
+side of the corona, and longer on the other. The observation was
+now reduced to watching for a change in the relative length of two
+green lines.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was
+much the longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened
+notably, while the line from the east side, shorter by about
+one-third at the beginning of the eclipse, grew longer. When the
+eclipse ended, the proportions of the lines were exactly reversed.
+There had been a change equal to two-thirds the length of the
+lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their relative
+positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which this
+phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The
+material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are
+other discrepancies in the older view which have been known for
+some time. The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the
+sun that the gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an
+inch of mercury, and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch,
+but an atmosphere extending to the supposed limits would cause an
+enormous pressure at the sun's surface, especially since the force
+of gravity on the sun is very much greater than on the earth. 2.
+The laws of gravitation would require a solar atmosphere to be
+distributed symmetrically around the sun, while the corona is
+enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in outline,
+which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed
+irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most
+interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is
+the fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles
+from the sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand
+miles of the sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least,
+as it would have been if it had plowed its way through a material
+substance. In taking photographs of the corona it is seen to be
+larger as the time of exposure is longer. This shows that the
+corona extends indefinitely, and it decreases in brilliancy in
+exact accordance with the mathematical laws of diffraction. These
+laws involve very complicated mathematics, but by them alone Dr.
+Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction where the corona
+is, and that it must follow the same laws as those observed. There
+is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion of Dr.
+Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the
+chromosphere.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty,
+that nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified
+by the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for
+the perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small
+masses circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments
+of comets or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined
+luster is seen in the zodiacal light.</p>
+
+<p>The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now
+known, are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar
+appendage which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's
+disk. In the photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer
+these streamers can be traced back of each other where they cross;
+no better proof of their extreme tenuity could be given.</p>
+
+<p>The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things,
+the distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon
+from the earth, and the distance of the station from the equator.
+All of these were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the
+recent one, and the six minutes of totality gave opportunities for
+deliberate work not often enjoyed.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="24"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS.</h2>
+
+<p>The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are
+given, have resulted in some of the most interesting and important
+discoveries that have ever rewarded the labors of
+arch&aelig;ologists. The idea of founding an English society for
+the purpose of exploring the buried cities of the Delta originated
+with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known authoress of "One Thousand
+Miles up the Nile," and was carried into effect mainly by her own
+efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald Stuart Poole, of
+the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of Sir Erasmus
+Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could never
+have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded
+and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M.
+Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for
+Egypt in January of this year with the object of conducting the
+explorations contemplated by the society. After a consultation with
+M. Maspero, the Director of Arch&aelig;ology in Egypt, who has
+throughout acted a friendly part toward the society's enterprise,
+M. Naville decided to begin his campaign by attacking the mounds at
+Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater Canal, a few miles from
+Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to cover some ancient
+city, for some sphinxes and statues had already been found; but
+what city it could be, arch&aelig;ologists were at a loss to
+determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head,
+believed it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which
+the Children of Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started
+on their final Exodus. Any identification, however, of the sites of
+the Biblical cities in Egypt was so far merely speculative.
+Practically nothing definite was known as to the geography of the
+Israelite sojourn, except that the Land of Goshen was undoubtedly
+in the eastern part of the Delta, and that Zoan was Tanis, whose
+immense mounds are to form the next subject of the society's
+operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as everything
+else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they
+crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it,
+remained vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a
+plausible theory, in which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important
+part.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/13a.png"><img src=
+"images/13a_th.jpg" alt="THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH</p>
+
+<p>Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M.
+Naville's skillful direction, placed all these speculations in
+quite a new light. The city under the mounds proved to be none
+other than Pithom, the "store" or "treasure city" which the
+Children of Israel "built for Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character
+as a store place or granary is seen in its construction; for the
+greater part of the area is covered with strongly built chambers,
+without doors, suitable for the storing of grain, which would be
+introduced through trap doors in the floor above, of which the ends
+of the beams are still visible. These curious chambers, unique in
+their appearance, are constructed of large, well made bricks,
+sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in the sun,
+and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The
+walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall
+which runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner
+was the temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum
+or Pithom, the "Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and
+tablets (some of which have been presented to the British Museum)
+remained to testify to its name and purpose; the temple itself was
+finally destroyed when the Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is
+shown by the position of the limestone fragments and of the Roman
+bricks. The statues, however, and especially a large stele, are
+extremely valuable, since they tell the history of the city during
+eighteen centuries. From a study of these monuments, M. Naville has
+learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut (Succoth) its civil,
+name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored by Shishak and
+others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important place under
+the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the founding
+of the city of Arsino&euml; in the neighborhood; was called Hero or
+Hero&ouml;polis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic
+<i>ara</i>, meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans,
+who occupied it at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are
+also found of the position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites
+encamped before the passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All
+these data are directly contradictory to preconceived theories:
+Pithom, Succoth, Hero&ouml;polis, Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all
+been hypothetically placed in totally different positions. The
+identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us the first absolutely
+certain point as yet established in the route of the Exodus, and
+completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now certain that
+the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater Canal and
+not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first definite
+geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of
+Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The
+historical identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor
+also results from the monumental evidence. One short exploration
+has upset a hundred theories and furnished a wonderful illustration
+of the historical character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of
+Pithom (Succoth) is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a
+series of important discoveries. When enough money has been
+collected for the proposed exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of
+the highest interest to students alike of the Bible and of Egyptian
+antiquities may, with certainty, be predicted.</p>
+
+<p>The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is
+bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store
+chambers which the Children of Israel built more than three
+thousand years ago. In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen
+granite statue, the head and face of which are intact. The other
+illustration is taken from the temple end of the excavations. The
+sculptured group of Rameses the Great seated between divinities is
+one of a pair that adorned the entrance; its companion and the
+sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia. Beyond this group,
+and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of Pithom, set up
+by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsino&euml;, and containing a mass of
+important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions. Behind
+this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store
+chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while
+on the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone
+blocks, already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or
+enlargement of the temple. The excavations were photographed for M.
+Naville, by Herr Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our
+illustrations are taken from these photographs, supplemented by
+sketches.--<i>S.L.P., in Illustrated London News</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS.</h2>
+
+<p>The surprises of arch&aelig;ology are magnificent and apparently
+inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old,
+and often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether
+this or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest
+discovery of Biblical arch&aelig;ology is a question not to be
+determined offhand; but the interest and importance of the question
+can hardly be overrated. There are now deposited in the British
+Museum fifteen leather slips, on the forty folds of which are
+written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy in a recension entirely
+different from that of the received text. The character employed in
+the manuscript is similar to that of the famous Moabite stone and
+of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere
+pal&aelig;ographical indication should give the probable date of
+the slips as the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier
+than any other clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of
+the Old Testament. The sheepskin slips are literally black with
+age, and are impregnated with a faint odor as of funeral spices;
+the folds are from 6 to 7 inches long and about 3&frac12; inches
+wide, containing each about ten lines, written only on one
+side.</p>
+
+<p>So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two
+distinct handwritings, though the same archaic character is used
+throughout. In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in
+duplicate on distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to
+two contemporary transcriptions made by different scribes from the
+same original text. At first sight no writing whatever is
+perceptible; the surface seems to be covered with an oily or
+glutinous substance, which so completely obscures the writing
+beneath that a photograph of some of the slips--which we have had
+an opportunity of examining side by side with the slips
+themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the leather is
+moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily
+visible beneath the glossy surface.</p>
+
+<p>These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr.
+Shapira, of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in
+antiquities. Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection
+with certain arch&aelig;ological problems which have been solved by
+some scholars in a manner not altogether creditable to his
+sagacity.</p>
+
+<p>The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's
+agency and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly
+regarded as a modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it
+is asserted that Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice.
+The leathern fragments now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he
+alleges, obtained by him from certain Arabs near Dibon, the
+neighborhood where the Moabite stone was discovered. The agent
+employed by him in their purchase was an Arab "who would steal his
+mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would probably be even
+less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient or modern
+sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments is,
+however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are
+offered to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily
+deposited for examination.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a
+grant of &pound;500 from the Prime Minister toward the production
+of his important work on the "Massorah" we announced with much
+satisfaction yesterday--is now busily engaged in deciphering the
+contents of the fragments and examining their genuineness. On this
+latter question we refrain from pronouncing an opinion. When Dr.
+Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be able to judge whether these
+extraordinary fragments are really 2,500 years old, or have been
+compiled within the last few years.</p>
+
+<p>No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be
+given. To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience
+and skill, as will readily be inferred from the account we have
+given above of the appearance and condition of the slips. But
+enough has been deciphered to show that the text employed in them
+exhibits discrepancies of the most remarkable and important
+character as compared with that of the received version of the
+Mosaic books.</p>
+
+<p>In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where
+the received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day,
+to go in to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the
+corresponding passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for
+the singular, "Ye" for '"Thou," while for
+"<i>g'd&ocirc;l&icirc;m</i>," the word translated "greater," it
+reads "<i>rabb&icirc;m</i>." But a far more complete idea of the
+variations of text and signification may be obtained from a
+comparison of the text of the Decalogue as it appears in the
+received version in the sixth chapter of Deuteronomy with that
+contained in the fragments so far as they have yet been deciphered.
+The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt,
+from the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall
+not make to yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is
+in heaven above or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the
+waters under the earth. Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve
+them. I am God, your God. Sanctify ... in six days I have made the
+heaven and the earth, and all that is therein, and rested on the
+seventh day, therefore rest thou also, thou and thy cattle and all
+that thou hast: I am God, thy God. Honor thy father and thy mother
+...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not kill the person of thy
+brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit adultery with the
+wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not steal the
+property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not swear by
+my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon the
+children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take my
+name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness
+against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the
+wife ... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is
+his: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy
+heart: I am God, thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God
+spake."</p>
+
+<p>Several points may be noted in this version. The singular
+refrain "I am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the
+received version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn
+ratification of the Divine sanction given at the end of each
+separate precept. If this be so, the first two commandments, as
+they are commonly reckoned, are here fused into one, and the tenth
+place is taken by a commandment which does not appear in the
+received version of the Decalogue.</p>
+
+<p>It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for
+the Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the
+familiar phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being
+replaced throughout by "God, thy God."</p>
+
+<p>On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not
+dwell; they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show
+that these fragments present problems of the utmost importance and
+interest both to criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are
+to be regarded as the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental
+Ireland, who, knowing the interest felt by scholars in variations
+of the Sacred Text, has set himself, with infinite pains and skill,
+to forestall a growing demand. Until this preliminary question is
+resolved to the satisfaction of all competent scholars, no further
+questions need be raised. In any case the <i>prim&aacute; facie</i>
+presumption must be held to be enormously against the genuineness
+of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the improbability of
+finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries than any
+extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease with
+which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives to
+such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his
+property.</p>
+
+<p>All that we know of the <i>provenance</i> of the fragments is
+that Mr. Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character;
+and that Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade
+in Moabite antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite
+stone. On the other hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is
+assuredly no clumsy and ignorant bungler, as the makers of the
+Moabite pottery were confidently alleged to be by those who
+disputed its genuineness. It is, of course, part of his craft, and
+not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part, to give to the
+sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance of
+immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required
+to make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the
+production of Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the
+fabricator must have known what scholars would be likely to expect
+in genuine fragments, and have set himself to fulfill their
+expectations. In these days of scientific pal&aelig;ography and
+minute textual scholarship no forger of ancient manuscripts could
+hope to take in scholars unless he were a scholar himself.
+Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of course;
+pal&aelig;ographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn
+of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different
+recension without betraying ignorance or solecism requires
+scholarship of no mean order, while it is very far from an easy
+thing to write currently in an archaic and unfamiliar character in
+such a manner as to deceive experts in pal&aelig;ography. But the
+fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated they are, has
+attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this. He has in
+some cases produced two identical texts written in different hands,
+both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters.
+This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost
+incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case
+it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed
+fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not
+only a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar,
+and one can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which
+has placed him at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his
+mother-in-law for a few piastres, and is likely, therefore, to
+enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We should expect to find, however,
+that his extraordinary ingenuity has at some point or another
+overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with the labors of
+modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly have
+ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not
+betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them.
+In any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of
+profound interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with
+the controversy they are certain to excite.--<i>London
+Times</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="23"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/14a.png"><img src=
+"images/14a_th.jpg" alt=
+"SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--&lt;i&gt;From the Building News&lt;/i&gt;.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR
+DOORS.--<i>From the Building News</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="33"></a></p>
+
+<h2>SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.</h2>
+
+<p>Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there
+has been much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in
+common with other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a
+pair of breeding ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they
+would not realize 50 l.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage
+ostrich breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and
+one or two cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The
+climate of the two colonies is very similar, and the locality
+selected for the imported birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in
+dryness and temperature their native <i>habitat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding
+farewell to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we
+were reared, good-by!"</p>
+
+<p>One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold,
+got into a slanting position. This frightened one of the two
+inmates, a fine cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door
+of his cage, which was, of course, instantly lowered on deck.
+Fortunately there was there a gentleman who understood how to
+handle ostriches. He instantly seized him before he could do
+himself or the bystanders any injury, and after a brief struggle
+prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in the hold he
+became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship with a
+relish.</p>
+
+<p>After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to
+take a little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are
+then arranged in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on
+board the vessel. The ostriches are induced to move from one place
+to another by catching hold of their bodies, and using a little
+gentle force.</p>
+
+<p>The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a
+fast of thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by
+their "steward," who was to accompany them to Australia. It was
+curious to see a bird swallow a great lump and then to watch the
+lump working slowly down the animal's long neck. On the voyage they
+would be fed with maize or mealies, onions, apple melons, and
+barley. They require very little water; however, there were five
+large iron tanks on board in case they would feel thirsty. Our
+engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis Edwards, of Hoff Street,
+Capetown,</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15a.png"><img src=
+"images/15a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.<br>
+<br>
+1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were
+Reared.--2.<br>
+Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3.
+Lowering<br>
+the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating
+Apple Melons.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="28"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A NEW WEATHERCOCK.</h2>
+
+<p>An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the
+majority of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during
+the day; but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an
+automatic transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside
+of a building. The different systems employed for such a purpose
+consist of gearings, or are accompanied by a friction that notably
+diminishes the sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the
+rod has to traverse several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector
+of the Versailles waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system
+which, while considerably reducing the weight of the movable part,
+allows the weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This
+apparatus consists of two principal parts--one fixed and the other
+movable. The stationary part is designated in the accompanying
+figure by the letters A and B and by cross-hatchings. This forms
+the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with clamps, P, at its lower
+extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and is hidden, after the
+mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc covering, Z. The
+upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece, upon which rests a
+bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined outwardly to
+prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform there
+move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a horizontal
+disk movable around the stationary tube.</p>
+
+<p>The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind
+and to indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and
+coarse lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at
+intervals with copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which
+serves as a guide for it; (2) of a bronze disk covered by an
+external ornament, O, fixed to the tube and resting on the balls;
+(3) of the vane, G, properly so called; and (4) of the cap, C,
+provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube and covering the
+point of attachment of the wire of transmission. This latter
+consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f, perfectly
+taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing as
+many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of
+the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which
+is fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings
+through small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it
+passes, it is protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the
+observing room there is affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow
+reproduces all the motions of the vane.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/16a.png" alt=
+"RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK."></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.</p>
+
+<p>This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations
+that the Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs
+of the plateau of Trappes, and it is also installed in several
+primary normal schools, where it is giving very good
+results.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="27"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHARRED CLOVER.</h2>
+
+<p>A correspondent of the <i>Ohio Farmer</i> reports an experiment
+in curing clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his
+barn, and illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows:</p>
+
+<p>In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying
+season was not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little
+greener than usual, and went into the mow in large and compact
+forkfuls. The result was intense heating, and consequently very
+rapid evaporation and sweating of the mow. On a bay holding
+ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty tons, as every load
+at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn was rather
+open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as well as
+at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent hay
+at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the
+center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit.
+What prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since
+that escape from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to
+put clover in so green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a
+mow too rapidly. If we haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing
+thirty hundred each, which will shrink during the sweating process
+to one ton each, we have three tons of water to be thrown off by
+evaporation.</p>
+
+<p>If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is
+full, the principal part of that moisture must rise through the
+entire mass. To relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have
+several places of storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one
+to the other, thus giving time for a share of the moisture to pass
+off. To facilitate this evaporation and prevent the hay from
+reabsorbing it and becoming musty, the best of ventilation is
+necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is as necessary as it is
+above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is not open space and
+draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is returned to
+the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary amount of
+drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is shut
+off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor
+at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in
+the roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is
+mowed in, thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will
+be facilitated and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on,
+as the clover is put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to
+the ton, will make it a relish with stock.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="26"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT.</h2>
+
+<h3>(<i>Agave victori&aelig;-regin&aelig;</i>.)</h3>
+
+<p>This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I
+am happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the
+first time it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never
+been seen in flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown
+specimen, dense in habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and
+the leaves are arranged in spiral fashion with as much regularity
+as those of a screw pine. The circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1
+in., and it has 268 leaves. Its flower-stem appeared about the
+middle of June, grew rather fast till it was 7 ft. high, then
+rather slowly till it reached its full development. The scape is
+now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 6&frac12; in. in
+circumference at the base, or 5&frac14; in. at a foot above the
+base; from there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The
+flower-spike is exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower
+or naked portion, 4 ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by
+abortive flower buds, with, near the base, some bristle-like scales
+3&frac12; in. to 4 in. long. The flowers are regularly arranged in
+parcels of three, all the three being equal in size and opening
+together; they are greenish white in color, 1&frac12; in. long, or,
+including the stamens, some 2&frac34; in. to 3 in. long.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><img src="images/16b.png" alt=
+"AGAVE VICTORI&AElig;-REGIN&AElig;."></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">AGAVE VICTORI&AElig;-REGIN&AElig;.</p>
+
+<p>The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to
+open in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They
+remain in good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens
+wilt and drop down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth
+day. On the first day of opening the pistil is not so long as the
+stamens by &frac34; in.; on the second it has grown to be as long
+as the stamens, but it is not in condition to receive the pollen
+till after noon of the second day. Although the flowers on some
+eighteen inches of the spike have already blossomed, none of the
+ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping off, but I am
+rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the spike. So
+great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers, that
+on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups,
+and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The
+main beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense
+bottle-brush-like mass of bright yellow anthers. This plant,
+together with several smaller ones, was contributed to this garden
+by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected them in their native wilds--the
+mountains of Northern Mexico--some three years ago. He found them
+growing in a limited and rather inaccessible locality in gravelly
+and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In addition to those he
+sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of the Agricultural
+Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann, the eminent
+botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece of an
+old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an old
+plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor was
+enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this
+Agave.--<i>The Garden</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="6"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX.</h3>
+
+<p>In the course of an investigation in which we are at present
+engaged we have arrived at some results which appear to us to be
+very interesting. We find that the generally received view that the
+fats are ethers of glycerin is partially correct, and that
+instances of a different kind of structure occur among the natural
+oils and fats.</p>
+
+<p>Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear
+to occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure:</p>
+
+<p>C(OH)<sub>2</sub><br>
+ CH<br>
+ CH<sub>3</sub><br>
+</p>
+
+<p>It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be
+resolved into:</p>
+
+<p>COOH + H<sub>2</sub>O<br>
+ CH<sub>2</sub><br>
+ CH<sub>3</sub><br>
+</p>
+
+<p>Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin,
+yield no glycerin when saponified.--<i>Chemical News</i>.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important
+scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be
+had gratis at this office.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2>
+
+<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
+
+<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p>
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+
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+January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied.
+Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
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+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers,</b></p>
+
+<p><b>261 Broadway, New York, N. Y.</b></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2>
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN
+&amp; Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had
+38 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the
+world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of
+all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and
+residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given,
+public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and
+sales or introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can
+ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be
+obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for
+procuring advances on inventions. Address</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., 261 Broadway, New York.</b></p>
+
+<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+401, September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 401 ***
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401,
+September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8718]
+Release Date: August, 2005
+First Posted: August 3, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 401 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles
+Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of Silver Bromide
+      and Silver Chloride.
+
+      Analysis of New Zealand Coal.
+
+      On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast Iron,
+      Ferro-manganese, etc.
+
+      Manganese and its Uses.
+
+      Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A valuable
+      and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of
+      Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this
+      remarkable product.
+
+      On the Constitution of the Natural Fats.
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel
+      Traction Engine.--With two engravings.
+
+      An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one large
+      engraving.
+
+      The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas Retorts.--Siemens'
+      principle.--As operated at the Glasgow Corporation Works.--With
+      two engravings.
+
+      A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven.
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent Photographic Pictures
+      on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and full directions.
+
+      How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full directions.
+
+      Some of the Uses of Common Alum.
+
+      An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an engraving.
+
+      Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric Acid Gas.
+
+      Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic Acid in Racking
+      Beer.--With an engraving.
+
+IV.   ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the Bleaching of
+      Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of apparatus.
+
+      Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, Electrical
+      Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires.
+
+V.    ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An interesting abstract
+      from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins University), of
+      the American Astronomical Exhibition to the Caroline Islands.
+
+VI.   NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting the
+      Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of
+      certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens Institute.
+
+      The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an engraving.
+
+VII.  ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village Architecture.--
+      Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an engraving.
+
+      Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for Doors.--Several figures.
+
+VIII. ARCHAEOLOGY.--A Buried City of the Exodus.--Being an account
+      of the recent excavations and discoveries of Pithom
+      Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving.
+
+      The Moabite Manuscripts.
+
+IX.   AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen Victoria
+      Century Plant.--With an engraving.
+
+      Charred Clover.
+
+      A New Weathercock.--With one figure.
+
+X.    MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing Place
+      in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With an
+      engraving.
+
+      Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway.
+
+      Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With portrait.
+
+      The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris.
+
+      Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South Africa.--With one
+      page of engravings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.
+
+
+The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect
+a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most
+distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs.
+The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of America
+disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the Catholic
+monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise. In
+honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of Catalonia, who also
+took part in the discovery and civilization of the New World, among whom
+may be named the Treasurer Santangel, Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo
+Boyl, first patriarch of the Indies, and the twelve missionaries of
+Monserrat, who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage.
+
+In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the central
+executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous voice of
+the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don Cayetano
+Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we find in _La
+Ilustracion Espanola_, we give an engraving. Richness, grandeur, and
+expression, worthily combined, are the characteristics of these plans.
+The landing structure is divided into three parts, a central and two
+laterals, each of which extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater,
+in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to
+mind the two caravels, the Pinta and Nina; two great lights occupy the
+advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of
+celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble monument,
+surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the esplanade.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA,
+SPAIN.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera has not
+awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was
+offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the
+fatal grape disease. There were not less than 182 competitors for the
+prize; but none had made a discovery that filled the bill. It is said,
+however, that a Strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an
+absolutely trustworthy remedy. This liquid is poured upon the ground
+about the root of the vine, and it is said that it kills the parasites
+without hurting the grape.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE.
+
+
+Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the
+remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to Salt
+Lake:
+
+Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on the
+Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other subject at
+present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours
+so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should perhaps qualify this
+statement by deducting the hours of darkness; yet this is really a
+fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment; it seems providential
+that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting
+enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything
+sublime. Leaving Salt Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and
+populous Jordan Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the
+Valley of Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits
+of the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the
+wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after
+another of the magnificent canyons of the Wahsatch we passed, their
+mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising wild and
+rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have abundantly
+tested in other days. Parley's Canyon, the Big and Little Cottonwood, and
+most wonderful of all, the canyon of the American Fork, form a series not
+inferior to those of Boulder, Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas,
+in the front range of the Rockies.
+
+Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, we
+crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price River,
+a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in choosing this
+route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of Weber and
+Echo canyons--the only part of the Union Pacific road which tempts one
+to look out of a car window, unless one may be tempted by the boundless
+monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog. Great was my
+satisfaction, therefore, to find that this part of the new road,
+parallel with the Union Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south,
+traverses the same belt of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less
+picturesque. Castle Canyon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the
+equivalent of Echo Canyon, and is equal or superior in everything except
+color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers
+and walls of Castle Canyon are yellowish-gray. But their forms are
+incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime. The
+valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert,
+as it is further north. To be sure, this uninviting stream, a couple of
+hundred miles further south, having united with the Grande, and formed
+the Rio Colorado, does indeed, by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper
+into the sunless chasms, become at last sublime. But here it gives no
+hint of its future somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed
+Green River, to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by
+sleep. But I got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy
+water; and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the
+conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot.
+
+In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the interval
+passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the Grande, and
+ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of the Grande, the
+Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and finally a branch, flowing
+westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high divide at the head of the latter
+was laboriously surmounted; and then, one of our two engines shooting
+ahead and piloting us, we slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such
+descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the
+experience of the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is
+likely to occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down.
+
+From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the matter
+of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the Rocky
+Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the
+high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for the monument to
+the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the highest point. For all
+the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande road, between Cimarron and
+Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show.
+From an artistic stand-point, one road has crossed the ranges at the
+most tame and uninteresting point that could be found, and the other at
+the most picturesque.
+
+At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges into the
+famous Black Canyon. In length, variety, and certain elements of beauty,
+such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this canyon surpasses the Royal
+Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, however, one spot in the latter (I
+mean, of course, the point where the turbulent river fills the whole
+space between walls 2,800 ft. high, and the railroad is hung over it)
+which is superior in desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the
+Gunnison. Take them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the
+finer. I have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the
+Gunnison Canyon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one
+matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed in the
+morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty
+precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even hinting such folly
+as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark that these two canyons
+are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are; for
+they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks.
+
+Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above sea-level),
+over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over the Sangre di
+Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Elbert,
+Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other summits exceeding the
+altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is the valley of the Arkansas,
+into which and down which we pass, and so through the Royal Gorge to
+Canyon City and Pueblo, where we arrived before dark on the day after
+leaving Salt Lake.
+
+Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle Canyon, the
+Black Canyon of the Gunnison, Marshall Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas
+Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey! No
+wonder everybody who has made it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic
+urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence (and I
+know it has a great deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at
+present, crowded with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for
+those who wish on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?)
+and to visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done _en
+route_, without retracing the steps.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS.
+
+
+In the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to
+practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta, as it
+has already been employed in connection with so many other wares; but I
+have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta.
+Now this is strange, if one considers how fashionable _plaque_ and plate
+painting have become of late, and the good photographic results that
+are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt
+earth." Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are
+one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be left
+purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails to see
+that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. It was with
+something of this feeling that I was led to try and see what could be
+done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no data to go by, I had
+to use my own experience, or rather experiment on my own account.
+
+Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in the
+commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but natural I
+should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired
+results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction signally failed--the
+ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion. The
+bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo., which not only left indelible
+marks, but, despite any amount of washing, the image on a finished plate
+vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window.
+There was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my
+object. I would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful
+line of experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save
+him useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the
+method I found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent
+wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my system of
+working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion
+transfer.
+
+
+TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE.
+
+The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the surface
+to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It simply
+consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as follows:
+
+  Gelatine.                           10 grains.
+  Water.                               1 ounce.
+  A trace of chrome alum.
+
+Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless to say
+that numbers of _plaques_, plates, vases, etc., may be coated right off,
+and will then be ready for use at any time.
+
+Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, as well
+as placed it _in situ_ for reproduction, the next thing required is a
+suitable collodion, and the following will be found all that can be
+desired:
+
+  TRANSFER COLLODION.
+
+  Cotton.                      3 drachms.
+  Iodide of cadmium.          65 grains.
+  Ammonium iodide.            25   "
+  Bromide of cadmium.         19   "
+  Ammonium bromide.           11   "
+  Alcohol.                    15 ounces.
+  Ether.                      15   "
+
+The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now
+transferred to a bath, as follows:
+
+Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce.
+
+Made slightly acid with nitric acid.
+
+After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to
+the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and _quantum suff_. of
+the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image:
+
+  DEVELOPING SOLUTION.
+
+  A Winchester of water, i.e.  80 ounces.
+  Protosulphate of iron.      240 grains.
+  Citric acid.                240   "
+
+Or the following may be used:
+
+  Pyro                          3 grains\
+  Citric acid                   2   "    } per ounce of water.
+  Glacial acetic acid          30 drops /
+
+After perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a
+saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is thoroughly washed.
+
+It will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory; it
+lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters recourse is now had to
+
+
+TONING.
+
+  Gold.    1 grain.
+  Water.   5 ounces.
+
+With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture the
+result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking picture
+will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is employed richness
+at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known of instances where the
+picture needed no toning.
+
+
+OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE.
+
+This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited number
+of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and their _modus
+operandi_ is kept from the many. Now this is a pity, when one considers
+the great charm attached to a good picture on opal, with pure whites and
+rich blacks, and in many localities the demand that might be created for
+them. Apart from their beauty, another charm attaches to opals--their
+absolute permanence; and this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What,
+in fact, can be more painful to the worker who values his work, and sets
+store by it, than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion!
+A properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so
+common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as perfect
+now as they were when first taken.
+
+Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion;
+but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly applicable to
+ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, since in practice
+it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and safe. The details are
+much the same as above, and necessitate double transfer.
+
+After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass plate),
+and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the picture (and this,
+remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) then has to be loosened
+from its support, and this is done with a solution of sulphuric
+acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow
+between the image and the glass, after which perfectly wash and mount.
+When the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image,
+evened out, raised (assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite
+corners during the operation), and with the aid of the helper the
+picture is carefully centered, gently pressed out or down, and the
+transfer is so far effected. But what will happen, and does happen,
+in the case of vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture
+becomes positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply
+in the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of iodine
+dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after which, well wash
+and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash well again.
+This, by the way, is equally applicable to paper transfers; and it is
+to be remembered that the toning comes last of all. It is a rather
+difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three
+times, and acid must then be had recourse to (nitric acid is as good as
+any); but by transferring from the support on the ground surface, all
+stains are at once avoided.
+
+On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well
+cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. Then
+the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the plate is
+exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, and, when dried,
+varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with dead varnish if intended
+for chalk or water-color. This, when a good negative is used, gives a
+remarkably fine picture, not requiring a vestige of retouching, and
+having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable
+if varnished with the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective
+pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting.
+
+A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art
+matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed
+glass, said it was one of the finest productions of photography. He
+urged that negatives _ad rem_ should be taken most carefully, and that,
+like the picture I showed him, they should be full of half-tone and
+detail, and yet have plenty of vigor. They should, he said, be robust in
+the high lights, have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep
+shadows, and thus have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should
+be retouched only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness
+shall be in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now.
+
+If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine
+pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most
+artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, absolute
+permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to think of what
+may be really recommended to one's _clientele_, and likely to meet with
+approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been
+delivered; and I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture
+most likely to meet with this general approbation.
+
+I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal
+picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched
+after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. It is pure
+photography in every sense of the word, and the resultant picture one
+hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have rather laid a stress on this
+point, well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by
+the barbarous hand of would-be artists, who by far exceed the true
+artists in number; and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight
+of, either, at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one
+in marble-like texture, or rather lack of texture, as if the face were
+devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might
+be wise to weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the
+enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice
+and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial
+measures to a decided evil.
+
+On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception should arise
+in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to clearly state that
+for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer; that is, the picture
+first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper, put in
+the right position on terra-cotta, and pressed down while wet with
+blotting-paper, left to dry, and is then so far ready.
+
+Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, ground opal
+being the best, the system I employ is as follows: After well cleaning
+the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had better not be too thick).
+When dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer,
+to which a little bromide of potassium has been added. The remainder of
+the operations is as usual. Those varnished with dead varnish can be
+tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make
+very pleasing pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be
+finished in water-colors if thought preferable.--_G. W. Martyn, in Br.
+Jour. Photo_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PAPER NEGATIVES.
+
+
+The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the
+following advantages:
+
+First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is uniform
+throughout the entire surface of each sheet.
+
+Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide
+as usually constructed.
+
+Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass.
+
+Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper.
+
+Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled
+from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand, without the
+assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus this invention does
+away with all sensitive preparations on glass, which latter is both a
+brittle and relatively heavy material, thus diminishing the bulk and
+weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling;
+it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those
+on glass, in so much that the film does not contain any grain; and,
+lastly, it admits of printing from either face of the film, as regards
+the production of positives on paper or other material, as well as
+plates for phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require
+a negative to be reversed.
+
+For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper:
+
+First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water,
+and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which it is
+attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass, and
+partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state it is allowed to
+dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat.
+
+Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion,
+containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of azotic cotton (11/2
+per cent. gives very good results) and from 11/2 to 21/2 per cent. of castor
+oil (2 per cent. gives very good results); this coating is allowed to
+dry; and,
+
+Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, and then
+it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are
+excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of
+about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it in this position until
+the gelatine has set (say) about five minutes, with the film paper still
+attached, it is placed upright in a drying-room, where it should remain
+about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees
+Fahrenheit; and,
+
+Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure,
+development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the purpose of
+developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well; for
+the purpose of fixing, I have found that a mixture by weight, water,
+1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and powdered alum 60, produces
+excellent results, after being allowed to dry.
+
+Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be
+immediately used for producing negatives _recto_ or _verso_ as above
+mentioned.
+
+I claim as my invention:
+
+First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper
+for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the purposes above
+described; and,
+
+Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other analogous
+oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the
+paper backing as above described.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM.
+
+
+A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact, so
+much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete
+without it--is the substance known is common alum, or potash alum, being
+a double sulphate of alumina and potash; but it is interesting to note
+that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia
+alum, or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter
+of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or
+ammonia alum.
+
+Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and mechanical
+printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, it has been
+recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The silver printer
+adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working
+order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; then, again, silver
+prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, having for its object
+the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt. A very
+good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a
+saturated solution, diluted with one gallon of water, the prints being
+well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes.
+
+Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single instance
+can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to
+arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do
+instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur and
+professional, or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary
+risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and
+trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such
+individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day
+practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum, either
+before fixing, or immediately afterward. In fact, some operators have
+two alum baths in use, one a normal bath, as above mentioned, for
+immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity; and the
+other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable
+acid (such as citric) or a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use
+when there is too much printing density, since it has been found
+in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium
+thio-sulphate on the gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing)
+not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or
+pyrogallol, but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover,
+the color does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes
+when the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where
+there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a soft
+sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed emulsion worked
+in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the
+plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them
+in the acid bath.
+
+Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless
+transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, astringent
+taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60 deg. F., and in its own
+weight of water at 212 deg. F.; but the excess crystallizes out upon
+cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, and, when impure, usually
+contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon the addition of either caustic
+soda or potash, a white gelatinous precipitate is formed (hydrate of
+alumina), which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed. The
+precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent
+film sometimes observed on gelatine plates, when dry, which have been
+soaked in alum, and not well washed afterward.
+
+Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for instance--precipitate
+hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve in an excess of the
+reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved.
+
+Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison,
+which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube, it
+somewhat resembles thin starch paste.
+
+The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of
+hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum
+in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid ammonia; should any iron be
+present, the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over
+a sheet of white paper. Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate
+of alumina and sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto
+their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the
+community rather than the practical.--_Photo. News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.
+
+
+As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton cloths
+become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence of carrying
+on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope. The effect is
+that, together with the tension, although slight, and the drying, the
+weft partly shrinks and partly curls up, the latter, however, being
+scarcely observable to the naked eye. It may almost be said that as
+regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples
+because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to
+its gray width. The main use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not
+so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its
+normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been
+performed upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially
+useful to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a
+white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching being
+corrected before printing.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.]
+
+The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in
+a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of another stretching
+machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by Mr.
+Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of Salford, who makes a specialty of
+calico printers' and finishers' machinery. The improvements consist
+mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly
+substantial construction of the machine. The principle adopted is a
+well-known one. The selvages of the cloth, or more strictly the two
+edges of the cloth, of a width of about two inches, are caused to pass
+over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys.
+The rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they
+seize it, hence the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly
+performed. The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt
+acting against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held
+between them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by
+the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, CC, of
+which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley. The
+lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw
+for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands. The
+stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft, an
+ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to
+be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it
+without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts. The piece,
+wound upon the ordinary batch shell, is placed upon the running-off
+center, D; it is led off over the rails, EE, and then downward to the
+nip of the bands and pulleys, AA. As explained, the selvages are here
+gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are
+wider apart at the back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed
+underneath, the piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the
+back it passes over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening
+rail, G, and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be
+seen. The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills
+it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the
+driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle to
+the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as to
+separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the treatment of
+different widths of cloths. This adjustment is provided for by mounting
+the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band pulleys, CC, etc., on frames,
+BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, upon rails, at the back and front
+of the machine. The adjustment either for width of piece or for the
+angularity (extent of stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L.
+By the bevel wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the
+ends of frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space
+between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened
+out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may be
+separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously made. The
+wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use of which is
+sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a set of stretching
+pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in illustration. By a proper
+adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form, where it
+passes between the whole of them, the effect of the corrugation being
+to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally
+stretched with those near the selvages and more easily. This part of the
+machine may be used or not as required. The production, we observe, was
+about 120 yards per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted
+together, as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course
+of construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of
+considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods,
+on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small
+disturbance to the stiffening.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS.
+
+
+All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable
+fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction.
+The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in the operation, acts
+injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially during the formation of
+hydrochloric acid, with which process especially the development of an
+injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable. The best
+method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the
+moisture naturally present in the wool. The patentees find agitation of
+the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material
+assistance. The operation maybe successfully performed in two
+ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with
+constant agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For
+the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture
+at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and having apertures
+all round to allow free access of air. This cylinder rests on a hollow
+axle, closed at one end and perforated with holes, through which the
+acid gas is passed. By the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn
+through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby
+it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30 deg.
+Cent. is best suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according
+to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the
+gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted by
+the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully saturated,
+the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are
+sufficiently friable. The treatment _in vacuo_ is as follows:
+
+The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material
+provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this false bottom
+a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a
+vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the maximum vacuum is
+attained, the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of
+40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth.
+The warmth set free (about 500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up
+by the combined water in the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a
+quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor
+streams through the second vessel at a temperature of 35 deg. Cent.,
+penetrates the material, and passes out through the pump. After
+saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the
+second. AS soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first
+vessel is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus
+from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents gas
+passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under reduced
+pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing
+alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in
+evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after saturation by
+these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels, after
+which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles
+are friable. As soon as this occurs, the fabrics are washed. It is
+advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta,
+strontia, magnesia, or preferably lime, and subsequently to rinse in
+pure water. Phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed
+for neutralizing the acid, and the residue recovered and separated from
+the organic residues mixed with it.--"_H. J.," Journal of the Society of
+Chemical Industry._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are
+characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the results of
+numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable
+fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides
+and chlorides which, when submitted to electrolysis, permit oxygen and
+chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state.
+
+The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile
+substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only those most
+generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined
+action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the same manner,
+whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state.
+
+In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile
+materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any
+sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel
+containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the
+hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are
+capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a nascent
+state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents.
+
+The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the
+electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less
+length of time, according to the nature of the material to be bleached,
+and must, after this first operation, be washed, rinsed, and dried.
+
+The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides
+and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have been specially
+utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, the alkaline
+hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes.
+
+In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in
+presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the
+results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as
+bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and economical
+to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its
+elements from the metallic chloride itself, and from the water by means
+of which such transformation is to be effected. This is a reversal of
+the problem, and, _a propos_ thereof, we would call the attention of
+the reader to an apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for
+effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner.
+
+If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be submitted
+to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material
+to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the
+following way:
+
+2NaCl + 2 H_{2}O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H.
+
+In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results
+from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the
+chloride of sodium and water, which puts the chlorine, the metal, the
+hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in presence. The chlorine and
+oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material.
+
+While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be preferable to
+adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement.
+
+The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A,
+into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any
+electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a
+safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates with
+a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication between the
+electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in this latter is
+sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part of the vessel, A,
+by means of the tubes, G and H.
+
+The apparatus operates as follows:
+
+The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is put, is
+filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of chloride of
+sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action of an electric
+current, when, as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of
+the chloride and the water, the elements in a nascent state form
+hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total conversion of the liquid
+has been effected (this being ascertained by chlorometric tests), the
+pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, and, as a consequence, draws up
+the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower
+part of the electrolyzer, A. The hypochlorite that has formed passes
+through the tube, D (as a natural consequence of the elevation of the
+level of the liquid in A brought about by the entrance of a new supply
+of chloride), and distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it
+acts upon the textile material.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS BY ELECTRICITY.]
+
+The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, permits
+of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical
+reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution contained in the
+reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator.
+
+As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution from
+the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid conversion into
+decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt application upon the
+materials to be bleached, presents important advantages.
+
+While, in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching
+chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid,
+which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in its turn react upon
+binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with this new method, to
+utilize the chloride of sodium, which is derived from ordinary salt
+works, and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite
+by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an
+electric current.
+
+Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of
+having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a
+uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by the always known
+intensity of the current.
+
+We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time
+to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, besides, all
+chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of
+undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed
+for the same purpose. This is especially the case with the chlorides
+of potassium or barium, the bromides of strontium or calcium, and the
+iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On another hand, as sea water contains
+different chlorides, it results that it might serve directly as a raw
+material for bleaching textile fibers. Then, when the solution of
+chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis,
+there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for
+scouring fibers.--_H. Danzer, in Le Genie Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.
+
+
+Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, Hunslet, Leeds,
+England, for several years past have devoted considerable attention to
+the question of mounting traction engines on springs. The outcome of
+this is the engine in question, the front end of which is carried by a
+pair of Timmis spiral springs, resting on the center pin of the front
+axle, which is on Messrs. McLaren's principle, which enables it to
+accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any
+undue strain on the front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has
+been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur
+gearing, which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the
+cogs. This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all
+the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which will
+be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which Fig. 1 is a
+perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a detail view of the
+wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong
+T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted on. The nave of the wheel
+has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted. These spokes are
+made of the best spring steel, specially manufactured and rolled for the
+purpose, 9 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape,
+with the narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon
+the rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places
+by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine
+comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and
+those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of the
+driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is fixed on the
+differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in Fig. 2, so that
+the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the
+engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence
+in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly
+tested it in practical work. This, we are informed, they have done, with
+the most satisfactory results, during the last five or six months; and
+they have a set of springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and
+3,000 miles, besides which there are several of these spring engines in
+daily use.--_Iron_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, AND WEIGHTS
+OF PURE COPPER WIRE.
+
+
+         DIAMETER    |         AREA
+                     |
+B.W.G  Inch. Milli-  | Circu-  Square      Square
+No.          metres  | lar     inches.     Milli-
+                     | Mils.               metres.
+                     |
+0000   .454  11.5313 | 206116  .161883     10.4435
+ 000   .425  10.795  | 180625  .141862      9.152
+  00   .38    9.6518 | 144400  .113411      7.3165
+   0   .34    8.6358 | 115600  .0907922     5.8573
+   1   .3     7.620  |  90000  .070686      4.5602
+   2   .284   7.2134 |  80656  .0633472     4.0867
+   3   .259   6.5784 |  67081  .0526854     3.3989
+   4   .238   6.0451 |  56644  .0444881     2.8701
+   5   .22    5.5879 |  48400  .0380133     2.4523
+   6   .203   5.1561 |  41209  .0323655     2.088
+   7   .18    4.5719 |  32400  .0254469     1.6417
+   8   .165   4.1909 |  27225  .0213825     1.3794
+   9   .148   3.7591 |  21904  .0172034     1.1098
+  10   .134   3.4035 |  17956  .0141026      .9096
+  11   .12    3.0479 |  14400  .0113097      .7296
+  12   .109   2.7701 |  11881  .00933133     .60199
+  13   .095   2.4129 |   9025  .0070882      .4573
+  14   .083   2.1082 |   6889  .00541062     .34906
+  15   .072   1.8288 |   5184  .00407151     .2486
+  16   .065   1.6510 |   4225  .00331831     .21407
+  17   .058   1.4732 |   3364  .0026421      .17045
+  18   .049   1.2446 |   2401  .00188574     .12165
+  19   .042   1.0668 |   1764  .00138544     .0894
+  20   .035   0.8890 |   1225  .000962115    .06207
+  21   .032   0.8128 |   1024  .00080425     .05188
+  22   .028   0.7112 |    784  .000615753    .03972
+  23   .025   0.635  |    625  .00049087     .03167
+  24   .022   0.5588 |    484  .000380133    .02452
+  25   .02    0.508  |    400  .00031416     .02027
+
+  26   .018   0.4571 |    324  .000254469    .01642
+  27   .016   0.4064 |    256  .000201062    .01297
+  28   .014   0.3556 |    196  .000153938    .00993
+  29   .013   0.3302 |    169  .000132732    .00856
+  30   .012   0.3048 |    144  .000113097    .007296
+
+LENGTH AND WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Pounds      Pounds       Pounds      Pounds      Feet       Yards        1.000 feet  Miles
+No.    per         per          per 1.000   per         per lb.    per lb.      per lb.     per lb.
+       foot.       Yard         ft.         mile.
+
+0000   .623924     1.871772     623.924     3294.32       1.60276     .534253    .00160276  .00303553
+ 000   .54676      1.64028      546.76      2886.89       1.82895     .60965     .00182895  .0034639
+  00   .437105     1.311315     437.105     2307.92       2.28777     .76259     .00228777  .004333
+   0   .349928     1.049784     349.928     1847.62       2.85773     .9525766   .00285773  .0054124
+   1   .272435      .817305     272.435     1438.43       3.6706     1.22353     .0036706   .0069519
+   2   .244151      .732453     244.151     1289.11       4.0958     1.365266    .0040958   .0077573
+   3   .203058      .609174     203.058     1072.15       4.9247     1.641566    .0049247   .009327
+   4   .171463      .514395     171.465      905.333      5.8321     1.944033    .0058321   .0110457
+   5   .14651       .43953      146.510      773.56       6.8255     2.275166    .0068255   .012927
+   6   .124742      .374226     124.742      658.638      8.0165     2.672166    .0080165   .015183
+   7   .098076      .294228      98.076      517.844     10.1962     3.39873     .0101962   .019311
+   8   .082411      .247233      82.411      435.135     12.1345     4.04483     .0121345   .022981
+   9   .066305      .198915      66.305      350.089     15.0818     5.027266    .0150818   .028564
+  10   .054354      .163062      54.354      286.99      18.398      6.13266     .018398    .034845
+  11   .04359       .13077       43.590      230.152     22.9413     7.6471      .0229413   .04345
+  12   .035964      .107892      35.964      189.893     27.805      9.2683      .027805    .05266
+  13   .027319      .081957      27.319      144.245     36.6046    12.20153     .0366046   .069326
+  14   .020853      .062559      20.853      110.1088    47.954     15.98466     .047954    .09082
+  15   .015692      .047076      15.692       82.855     63.7267    21.24223     .0637261   .12069
+  16   .012789      .038367      12.789       67.5276    78.1902    26.0634      .0781902   .14809
+  17   .0101828     .0305484     10.1828      53.7665    98.202     32.734       .098203    .18589
+  18   .00726795    .02180388     7.26796     38.3748    137.590    45.8633      .137590    .260587
+  19   .00533972    .01601916     5.33972     28.1937    187.276    62.4253      .187276    .35469
+  20   .00370815    .01112445     3.70815     19.579     269.676    89.892       .2696676   .51075
+  21   .00309972    .00929910     3.09972     16.3665    322.610   107.5366      .322610    .61100
+  22   .00237312    .00711936     2.37312     12.5301    421.384   140.4613      .421334    .798078
+  23   .0018910     .0056757      1.8919       9.9892    528.570   176.190       .528570    .100108
+  24   .0014650     .0043950      1.4650       7.7357    682.55    227.5166      .68255     .129271
+  25   .00121082    .00363246     1.21082      6.39315   825.880   275.2943      .825883    .156417
+  26   .00098077    .00294231      .98077      5.17844  1019.61    339.870      1.01961     .193108
+  27   .00077492    .00232476      .77492      4.0916   1290.44    430.1466     1.29044     .24440
+  28   .0005933     .0017799       .5933       3.13264  1685.48    561.8266     1.68548     .31922
+  29   .000511571   .001534713     .511571     2.7011   1954.76    651.5866     1.95476     .370220
+  30   .0004359     .0013077       .4359       2.30152  2294.13    764.710      2.29413     .434496
+
+LENGTH AND RESISTANCE
+
+B.W.G  Feet         Yards        1.000 feet   Miles      Ohms         Ohms          Ohms        Ohms
+No.    per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.   per foot.    per yard.     per 1.000   per mile.
+                                                                                    foot.
+
+0000   19966.5      6655.5       19.9665      3.7815     .000050684   .00156252       .050084      .264443
+ 000   17497.15     5832.3833    17.49715     3.31385    .0000571522  .0001714566     .0571522     .301763
+  00   13988.64     4662.68      13.98804     2.64925    .000071489   .000214467      .071489      .377465
+   0   11198.17     3732.7333    11.19817     2.12086    .0000893002  .0002679006     .0893002     .471505
+   1    8718.30     2906.10       8.71830     1.6512     .00011470    .0003441        .114701      .60562
+   2    7813.50     2604.50       7.81350     1.47973    .00012799    .00038397       .12799       .67580
+   3    6498.14     2166.0466     6.49814     1.23071    .00015389    .00046167       .15389       .81254
+   4    5487.107    1829.0357     5.487107    1.03923    .000182245   .000546735      .182245      .962256
+   5    4688.51     1562.8366     4.68851      .887975   .000213287   .000639861      .213287     1.12616
+   6    3991.91     1330.6366     3.99191      .756045   .000250506   .000751518      .250506     1.32267
+   7    3138.59     1046.1966     3.13859      .59443    .000318614   .000955842      .318614     1.68228
+   8    2637.29      879.0966     2.63729      .499486   .000379177   .001137531      .379177     2.00206
+   9    2121.84      707.280      2.12184      .401864   .000471289   .001413867      .471289     2.488405
+  10    1739.40      579.80       1.73940      .329432   .000574911   .001724733      .574911     3.03553
+  11    1394.93      464.9766     1.39493      .264191   .000716882   .002150646      .716882     3.78514
+  12    1150.91      383.6366     1.15091      .217976   .000868875   .002606625      .868875     4.58766
+  13     874.252     291.4173      .874252     .165578   .00114383    .00343149       1.14383     6.03945
+  14     667.338     222.446       .667338     .12639    .00149849    .00449547       1.49849     7.91203
+  15     502.175     167.39166     .502175     .095109   .00199134    .00597402       1.99134    10.5142
+  16     409.276     136.42533     .409276     .077514   .00244334    .00733002       2.44334    12.9008
+  17     325.871     108.62366     .325871     .061718   .0030687     .0092061        3.0687     16.20274
+  18     232.585      77.52833     .232585     .04405    .0042995     .0128985        4.2995     22.7014
+  19     170.879      56.95966     .170879     .032363   .0058521     .0175563        5.8521     30.8991
+  20     149.3915     49.797166    .1493915    .022475   .00842703    .02528109       8.42703    44.4947
+  21      99.195      33.065       .099195     .018787   .01008110    .03024348      10.08116    53.2285
+  22      75.9461     25.315366    .0759461    .014384   .0131672     .0395016       13.1672     69.5230
+  23      60.54377    20.181256    .06054377   .011467   .0165170     .0495510       16.5170     87.2096
+  24      46.8851     15.628356    .0468851    .0088798  .02132874    .06398622      21.32874   112.616
+  25      38.748      12.916       .038748     .0073386  .025808      .077424        25.808     136.265
+  26      31.3859     10.461966    .0313859    .0059443  .03186144    .09558432      31.86144   168.229
+  27      24.79873     8.266243    .02479873   .0046967  .0403246     .1209738       40.3246    212.914
+  28      18.98653     6.328843    .01898653   .0035959  .05266892    .15800676      52.66892   278.092
+  29      16.3710      5.4570      .0163710    .0031006  .0610834     .1832502       61.0834    322.521
+  30      13.9493      4.649766    .0139493    .0026419  .07168825    .21506475      71.68825   378.514
+
+RESISTANCE & WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Ohms           Lbs.
+No.    per lb.        per Ohm.
+
+0000      .000080272  12457.5
+ 000      .000104529   9566.7
+  00      .000163553   6114.24
+   0      .000255196   3918.58
+   1      .00042102    2375.18
+   2      .00052422    1907.59
+   3      .00075786    1319.50
+   4      .0010629      940.844
+   5      .0014558      686.911
+   6      .0020082      497.96
+   7      .00324863     307.822
+   8      .00460101     217.343
+   9      .00710791     140.689
+  10      .0105772       94.543
+  11      .0164462       60.842
+  12      .0241593       41.392
+  13      .0418692       23.8839
+  14      .0718583       13.9163
+  15      .126788         7.8872
+  16      .191045         5.2344
+  17      .301355         3.31835
+  18      .59157          1.6904
+  19     1.09596           .912445
+  20     2.27254           .44003
+  21     3.25229           .30748
+  22     5.54843           .18023
+  23     8.73035           .11454
+  24    14.5579            .068691
+  25    21.3142            .046917
+  26    32.4863            .030782
+  27    52.0367            .019217
+  28    88.7724            .011265
+  29   119.404             .008375
+  30   164.4762            .0060804
+
+PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 mil.
+foot at 60 deg. Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, 10.32311 ohms. Upon
+these data the above Table has been calculated.
+
+The _Resistance_ of Copper varies with the temperature about 0.38 per
+cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per degree Fahrenheit.
+
+STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of
+_Stranded_ Wires, the total _weight_ is _greater_, and the _Resistance
+less_ than is a similar length of Conductor with Wires _not_ Stranded.
+
+  To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994
+              Feet to Metres            "         .3048
+              Yards to Metres           "         .9144
+              Miles to Kilometres       "         .6214
+              Pounds to Kilogrammes     "         .45359
+
+PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE MAKERS, 25,
+BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IRON FRAME GANG MILLS.
+
+
+The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid
+and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent improvements
+tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown in the iron frame
+stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East Saginaw, Mich., are
+eminently valuable. Our large engraving represents one of these mills,
+constructed to be driven by belt, friction, or direct engine, as may be
+desired. The important requisite in this class of mills is such design
+and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement
+at the highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the
+quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of thinner
+saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are among the
+advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming the necessity
+of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense in setting up, and
+avoiding the liability of decay or change of position.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.]
+
+Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation, and
+from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the
+Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and bottom slides. The top
+slides are pivoted at the top end, and the bottom ones from the bottom
+end, both being operated by one rock shaft from the center. This
+movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest
+cut yet obtained. It adds no extra weight to the sash, and avoids the
+cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints, usually weighing from
+three hundred to five hundred pounds, which have been found so
+objectionable in many other movements. The feed is continuous, and is
+made variable from 1/4 to 11/4 inch to each stroke, controllable by the
+sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form
+with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special feature of
+this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests
+upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block
+or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole structure is thus increased,
+both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting
+vibrations, which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same
+part, as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use.
+
+The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws 41/2 feet
+long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke 20 inches, capable
+of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank shaft is nine inches in
+diameter, of the best forged iron. The main pillow block has a base
+61/2 feet long by 21 inches bearing, weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap
+is secured by two forged bolts 31/2 inches in diameter, and by this
+arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is
+used with suitable counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and
+speed of sash; a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a
+forged pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes.
+The iron drive pulley is 4 to 41/2 feet in diameter and 24 inches face;
+the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 pounds, turned
+off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is required, a proportionate
+increase is made in all these parts.
+
+In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; the lower
+girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without rivets, giving
+the greatest strength possible, with the least weight. The outfit also
+includes eight iron rollers for the floor, 81/2 inches in diameter, with
+iron stands, and geared as live rolls when desired, a full set of
+Lippencott's steel saw hangings, and gauges for one-inch lumber. The
+weight of the machine here shown is 181/2 tons. They are, however, built
+in larger or smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity
+of work desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of the
+Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and Hollanders
+with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early fruits are taken
+from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, whence they
+are carried by fast steamers to London and other English ports. But, on
+the other hand, Germany is sending into Italy large quantities of coal,
+iron, machinery, copper, and other articles of which the latter received
+nothing before. In two months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of
+paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS.
+
+
+The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in
+accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out in
+such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been applied
+with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the Glasgow
+Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a period of about
+twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens successfully adapted his
+system to the firing of retorts at the Paris Gas Works, it seems to have
+made but little progress up to the present time; for what reasons it is
+perhaps difficult to explain. It is certain, however, that so-called
+regenerator furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been
+brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the
+Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has
+received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion
+eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be
+certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an
+illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with
+its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, the electric light. Of course,
+it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative
+principle at the Paris Gas Works was attended with a degree of
+complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so
+expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies
+and gas corporations generally, when the expense as well as the
+scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying
+and utilizing heat had to be considered. Fortunately, however, Dr.
+Siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was
+no such thing as "finality" in that department of invention which he had
+made almost exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed
+his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and
+utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most
+decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements
+now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been
+immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility has in
+no way been interfered with.
+
+Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer and
+regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. Foulis, the
+general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, with the view of
+entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale
+at one of the stations under his charge. Encouraged by the hearty
+co-operation of the gas committee, two or three of whose members were
+well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very soon came to an understanding with
+Dr. Siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at
+the Dalmarnock Gas Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city,
+and the largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number
+of retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent shape
+was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, but which
+number has since been increased to eight, owing to the space occupied
+by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for
+an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" setting. For each oven or
+chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer,
+so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought
+necessary.
+
+[Illustration: GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW
+CORPORATION GAS WORKS.]
+
+In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement and the
+relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the retorts to
+each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of _sine qua non_ of the new
+method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close
+proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be
+used, and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be
+immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts, and with its top
+on a level with the working floor of the retort house. To place it
+in such a position meant a good deal of excavation, which was also
+required, however, for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried
+down to a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and
+as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted
+to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division
+walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, were
+in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a good deal
+of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas
+producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of application and
+by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements
+from time to time, as also by a determination not to be beaten, although
+often disheartened, Mr. Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete
+success. The new system of firing being made so simple that there was
+scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice
+if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+The results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens, or a
+total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith
+resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench
+of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; and all the improvements
+which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the
+four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the
+remaining eight ovens in the bench. More recently the regenerator system
+has been applied to other 22 ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the
+whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house; and during the
+very depth of the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its
+greatest height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings,
+amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition they
+still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable extension
+of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and
+summer. The reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens
+of seven retorts each, giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts; and
+to twenty ovens of five retorts each, which will become sixteen ovens,
+each having eight retorts, making 128 retorts in this division, and the
+total being 208 retorts in place of 170 in the same amount of space. It
+is confidently anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of
+the present year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working
+out the new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the
+confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the
+Glasgow Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the
+actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas
+retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are
+being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the Dawsholm
+Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of Maryhill, and some
+four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock Works in a northwestern
+direction. The station just named, which is also a very large one, will
+probably require two years for its conversion.
+
+We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted
+for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel to the
+greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing
+the cannel coal used as the source of the gas.
+
+The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in Fig. 2, is
+a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron. It is 7
+ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, which becomes reduced to 20
+in. above, where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid, which is
+continuous with the floor of the retort house. There are no firebars
+at the bottom, so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick. At the
+bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about 1 ft.
+in length by 6 in. in height. By means of these openings any clinker
+that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn.
+They also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in
+the lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a
+malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam
+boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the
+steam.
+
+The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it
+has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of
+carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made from Scotch cannel
+the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains a large percentage of
+mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon. The retorts are
+worked with three-hour charges, but the producer is only charged once in
+every six hours For each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel
+is about 18 cwt., and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from
+five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the
+top. Formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a
+furnace underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made,
+but now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced
+to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly was.
+Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the
+producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by
+way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it has been filled up
+to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the
+top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon it and driven home, thereby
+making a perfectly air-tight joint. The contents of the other three
+retorts, as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each
+alternate drawing, are taken to the coke heap in the yard. We have
+already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about 18 cwt. for each set
+of eight retorts, but in connection with that matter we should mention
+that it was formerly about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts,
+and that there is every prospect of it being increased without
+increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each
+charge.
+
+It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the
+mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air admitted at the
+several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers
+of the incandescent coke, the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid
+gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air. Among the middle and upper
+layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further
+quantity of the fixed carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic
+oxide gas (CO_{2}+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses
+considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very
+completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the producer, a
+quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide,
+the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former
+increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen associated with
+the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the
+carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of
+course absolutely useless as a generator of heat. The steam which
+we previously spoke of serves two good purposes. In contact with
+incandescent coke it suffers decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some
+of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which
+is set free passes onward, and mixes with the other gases to be
+subsequently consumed with them. The admission of the steam thus causes
+the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition
+takes place, this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion
+of the hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the
+coke in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely
+preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious
+materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke
+obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to 20 per
+cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the
+bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours.
+Referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel
+coke in one of these gas producers, we give the following typical
+analysis on the authority of Dr. William Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas
+examiner, and one of the public analysts for the city of Glasgow:
+
+                     Per cent.
+  Hydrogen             8.7
+  Carbonic oxide      28.1
+  Carbonic acid        3.5
+  Oxygen               0.4
+  Nitrogen            59.3
+                     -----
+                     100.0
+
+By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an opening is
+provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the
+mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of
+the setting and the lower by the regenerators.
+
+Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the
+arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be
+admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible
+nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper is
+occupied by eight [Inline Illustration] shaped retorts. These are 9 ft.
+long (set back to back) by 18 in. by 13 in., and they are placed on
+arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. wide. Underneath the level of the retort
+oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ
+very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr.
+Siemens to gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high
+temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In
+the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating
+system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat
+of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, the
+current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork, while
+air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated. The system
+thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part
+of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the
+currents. The regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six
+zigzag flues, three on each side of the setting. These flues run the
+whole length of the setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing
+downward in Fig. 3, the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack
+pass to and fro through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion
+of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the
+central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air necessary
+for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center, and
+then it is divided into two currents, which pass right and left into the
+central passages of the two regenerators. As the air flue is at a very
+bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it, the
+temperature of the air must be equally great, or nearly so. In its most
+improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount
+of heating surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the
+air on its way to the combustion chamber.
+
+Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the gas
+enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it meets
+the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, not by a
+number of small openings, but by one large opening on each side, and
+meets the air entering also by a large opening, the effect of which is
+to avoid the localization of intense heat, as all the retorts of the
+setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame, due to the
+combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases.
+
+There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas
+retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the extent
+of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided
+increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as it has been
+experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that, by
+increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer can be made to
+provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight
+retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel
+used will be still further reduced. Then, again, an additional retort
+can well be placed in each oven, as it occupies the position of the fire
+in ordinary settings. In the third place, by the greater heat which is
+obtained, the charges can be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges
+can be carbonized in a given space of time. When all the gains are put
+together, the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per
+cent. over any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator
+settings there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous
+fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any
+trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of
+the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but natural to
+expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which
+is really the case. Another advantage is that, as the fuel used in
+the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the flues cannot by any
+possibility arise. It is the confident opinion of Mr. Foulis that the
+system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas
+works, and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the
+summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to
+eight retorts.
+
+As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and
+regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great amount
+of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many persons have
+visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their reconstruction, in order
+to see the system in operation, and doubtless many more will go and do
+likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses,
+and which are likely to increase rather than diminish.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN.
+
+
+During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and one,
+moreover, destined to materially influence the development of the uses
+of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the guidance of Mr.
+Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, London. The experiment
+in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating
+bakers' ovens, in a manner not hitherto attempted, and such as to bring
+the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the
+smallest towns. It will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated
+muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of
+a model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in action
+at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the winter
+of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but its design
+demanded either a new structure in every case, or considerable
+alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed system, moreover,
+the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be
+necessary to meet the objections of the bakers. It is evident, however,
+that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles
+and brickwork, such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven,
+from the outside; and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel
+as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that
+in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire.
+When it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is
+of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in the
+estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to allowing a
+purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to
+fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. Consequently, when
+Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known
+in England and America, seriously addressed himself to construct, upon
+altogether new lines, a cheap and practical baker's oven, he wisely put
+the gas inside.
+
+There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after consultation with
+practical bakers and others, set himself to fulfill, the observance
+of which lends to the present Blackfriars experiment much of its
+interesting character. Thus it was observed that, while it is not
+difficult to build an oven in a given spot, and bake bread in it, this
+cannot truly be called a _baker's_ oven. By this term must be understood
+in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style
+and worked by a man with his living to get by it. Before the problem of
+extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be
+attacked from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to
+have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw
+that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting it
+inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any general
+success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be
+rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The latter seems
+a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered that the only
+improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam
+oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or three hundred pounds to
+erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible
+for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven; and in this
+respect he set himself to surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will
+not bake the common "batch" or household bread, generally the principal
+article of sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The
+peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from
+the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is found simply
+in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted
+to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the oven, and thence radiated to
+the bread. No other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves
+packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly
+soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now,
+as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and
+otherwise, this necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly
+a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of
+itself, can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas
+cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as
+formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different kind of heat is
+needed, under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion.
+Therefore, there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides
+of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames; thus
+supplanting the coal fire, but leaving the actual work of baking to be
+done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way.
+
+Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, there
+still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in the dealing
+with which lies the difference between practical success and failure.
+Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking; it is
+also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits
+of work to which the baker has been accustomed. Work in town bakeries
+begins at about midnight, or shortly after, and the condition of the
+oven must conform to the requirements of the dough, which vary from day
+to day and from season to season. In order to master all these niceties,
+as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer
+has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has
+thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has
+served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his gas heat, but in
+answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in
+an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with considerable satisfaction
+that we are enabled to declare, after duly weighing all the conditions
+as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others, that Mr.
+Booer has succeeded, upon these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas
+to be a cheap, efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the
+control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself.
+
+The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the
+bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It measures 7 feet by
+6 feet internally; being what is technically termed a 6 bushel oven. The
+alterations made by Mr. Booer consist in the first place in the removal
+of the flooring tiles, and the laying down of a new bottom, under which
+run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the
+furnace, where it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight
+pieces of 3/4-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall,
+and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the
+gas-burners, which are supplied from a 11/2-inch pipe led into the old
+furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted
+in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all the plant
+required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to
+different points of the side walls, and the products of combustion are
+allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose.
+A supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion
+of the gas in these flues, which would otherwise be languid. When the
+gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or
+the bottom set of burners, a long match is used to light them from
+the same point. This is effected without risk of firing back, by the
+adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the
+pattern of which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in
+a sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at
+the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the
+products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney,
+which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as might be
+expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable
+position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this case by the fact that
+the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft. Finally,
+however, the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results.
+During the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use, and the
+bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade.
+Two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven;
+the economy of its use, of course, increasing with the number of loaves
+turned out. As a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the
+oven is wanted, and about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are
+shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in
+which time it ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the
+batch is set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a
+half, according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are
+baked with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s.
+10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This cannot be
+considered costly. But the system possesses many other advantages. In
+the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; for the oven never
+requires wiping out, which is usually done with a bundle of old rope
+called a "scuffle" and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant
+odor. Then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of
+view of the Smoke Abatement Institution. More to the purpose of the
+journeyman baker, however, is the fact that there is no stoking to be
+done, and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to
+attend to the furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of
+knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to
+the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is
+no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. Loeber,
+having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning, and marked
+how they have been overcome, is content to acknowledge that even this
+first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold
+over the counter. There is a good opening in this direction, for there
+are 6,000 bakeries in London alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's
+system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his
+customers. And what may be done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic
+feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns
+where the price is lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a
+proper spirit. He has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of
+the baker; and has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a
+noteworthy success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his
+perseverance merits.--_Jour. of Gas Lighting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB.
+
+
+Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the whirlpool
+and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born at Irongate,
+near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 feet 8 inches in
+height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and weighed about 141/2 stone.
+He learnt to swim when about seven years old, and was trained as a
+sailor on board the Conway training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved
+the life of a fellow seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez
+Canal and cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on
+board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the life of
+a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an hour before
+he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received a gold and
+other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but soon after he
+relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming.
+
+At long distance swimming in salt water he was _facile princeps_, but he
+did not show to such advantage in fresh water. In June, 1874, he swam
+from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a distance of 11 statute miles.
+On July 3, 1875, he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier,
+nearly 18 statute miles, in 4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same
+month he swam from Dover to Ramsgate, 191/4 statute miles, in 8 hours 45
+minutes. On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France,
+and although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the
+distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 151/2 statute miles, in 6
+hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made another attempt,
+which rendered his name famous all over the English-speaking world.
+Starting from Dover, he reached the French coast at Calais, after being
+immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 minutes. He had swum over 39
+miles, or, according to another calculation, 451/2 miles, without having
+touched a boat or artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam
+at the Lambeth Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at
+Boston, U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 1281/2 hours. Latterly he had
+suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had become much
+impaired.
+
+[Illustration: CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.]
+
+The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief
+description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from the
+boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the shouts and
+applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam leisurely down the
+river, but made good progress. He passed along the rapids at a great
+pace, and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the
+Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the bridge the river becomes
+exceedingly violent, and as the water was clear every movement of Webb
+could be seen. At one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave,
+and the next he sank into the awful hollow created. As the river became
+narrower, and still more impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a
+wave, and for a few moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose
+to the surface without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily
+increased, and he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he
+was swept into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the
+highest wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into
+the yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry
+waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the waves.
+He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more alive. Some
+days later his body was found four miles below the fatal Rapids. It bore
+tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone.
+His bathing drawers were torn to fragments, and there was a deep wound
+in his head. An inquest was held, and the jury returned a verdict of
+"Found drowned."
+
+Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a widow and
+two children. It is understood that he risked his life in this last
+fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family.--_London
+Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY.
+
+
+These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, which is
+the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. As regards
+accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized
+drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; well-lighted entrance
+halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, pantry, and scullery; on
+first floor are three good bedrooms, a bathroom, and other necessary
+accommodation; on second floor are two additional bedrooms. The basement
+contains coal-place and larder.
+
+In these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned
+and well-arranged habitations, combined with a pleasing and picturesque
+exterior, without involving a large outlay of money. The materials used
+are brick of a deep red color for facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs.
+Wilcock & Co., of Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a
+very sparing use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables
+are constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned
+together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with brickwork;
+the panels faced with cement, which, together with the cored cornice,
+are finished in vellum color. The whole of the woodwork of exterior is
+painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, forming an admirable contrast
+with the deep red of the bricks, the sashes and casements only being
+finished in cream color. The whole of the chimneypieces in the interior
+are carried out from the architect's special design; those in the
+drawing-rooms being of mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those
+in dining-rooms of oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished.
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS,
+BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.]
+
+The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have been
+erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, have cost
+L1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including the price of
+land. They have been carried out from the designs and under the
+superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., architect, of St.
+Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--_The Architect_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS.
+
+
+In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary
+precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained
+to take, it is of some interest to us, says the _Building News_, to know
+how the poor are housed in the city of Paris, which contains, more than
+any city in the world, the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence
+and of sordid, bestial poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working
+classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and
+reflect great discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough
+in the case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle
+of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. In
+1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in the city
+of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the succeeding year,
+the former had increased to 22,061, while the latter had somewhat
+diminished, being only 5,493. There was a census taken in 1881, from
+which it appeared that Paris contained 677,253 operatives and 255,604
+employes and clerks, while out of every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only
+were born in the city, and 565 came from the departments or the French
+colonies. The foreign element in the working classes has increased
+very rapidly, numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an
+addition of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75
+foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not be
+amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population is at
+the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years 1876-81, the city
+received 280,217 additional mouths. The total population of the capital
+is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are males.
+
+Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were
+estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, and
+in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the
+majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in almost any
+other great city in the world. There are two classes of lodgings for the
+poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family,
+and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the other, a single room tenanted
+for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the
+morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can. Readers will remember
+how, under the auspices of M. Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled
+down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues.
+While the work lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did
+not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation
+invaded his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that
+densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de l'Opera
+now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman into the
+already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, St. Lambert,
+Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last statistics of the
+_Annuaire_, the increase was at the rate of 415 per 1,000. Of course the
+ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also; and, from
+the reports of Dr. Brouardel and M. Muller, the number of deaths from
+typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in
+making his returns for 1881 of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that
+the most unsanitary arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and
+19th--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had
+taken place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging
+houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 inmates.
+In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, with 9,074
+lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants.
+
+It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a
+standing menace to the health of the city, but also the shocking state
+of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with. The
+owners of the property are, as happens in other places besides Paris,
+unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, and have not only divided
+and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible, but have even raised
+the rental in nearly all cases. Whole families are crowded into a small
+apartment, icy cold in winter, an oven in summer, the only air and
+daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on
+to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There
+are at the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove
+nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 rooms
+there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 with three
+children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian population has
+augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the district of poor
+lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., and the number of
+lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a law was passed in 1850
+to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property; but
+in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, although it is now active in the
+provinces and in places like Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it
+is applied, even there, in a jerky and intermittent manner.
+
+Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the
+group known as the Cite des Kroumirs, in the 13th arrondissement, which,
+by a strange irony, was built on land belonging to the Department of
+Public Assistance, which was let out by that body to a rich tenant, who
+sublet it to these lodging-house owners. This veritable den of infection
+and misery has now been demolished; but there are plenty of others quite
+as bad. Notably, there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to
+have named it after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five
+stories, which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that
+it was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages
+here. The Cite Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the
+"Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is inhabited
+by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The Cite Philippe is
+tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows what are the contents
+of the chiffonnier's basket, or _hotte_, may easily guess at the
+effluvia of that particular group of houses. A large lodging-house in
+the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted by 210 Italians, who get their living
+as models or itinerant musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to
+be unapproachable from the vermin.
+
+It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened
+the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more than one
+scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial
+dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the Credit Foncier
+for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses, which, for the
+space of twenty years, will be exempt from all taxes, such as
+octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There are also one or
+two semi-private companies, which are occupying themselves with the
+question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in
+Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There can be no doubt, says the _Engineer_, that the inventor who could
+supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give
+out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune.
+Up to the present time, however, nothing of the kind has been placed
+in the market. Gas is laid on to most houses now, and gas engines are
+plenty enough, yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may
+be made yet perhaps to supply.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC.
+
+
+To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats do not
+colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will distinguish them as a
+rumbling noise, even when their number rises as high as 132 vibrations
+per second, Rudolph Koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks,
+recently presented by President Morton to the Stevens Institute of
+Technology. The following table exhibits the number of vibrations per
+second of these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are
+sounded together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant sound:
+
+  Vibrations per second.         Ratio.        Beats.        Sounds.
+
+  3840           :4096           15:16         128            Ut_{2}
+  3904           :  "            61:64          96           Sol_{1}
+  3936           :  "           123:128         80            Mi_{1}
+  3968           :  "            31:32          64            Ut_{1}
+  3976           :  "           497:512         60            Si_{-1}
+  3989.3         :  "           187:192         53.3          La_{-1}
+  4000           :  "           125:128         48           Sol_{1}
+  4010.7         :  "            47:48          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  4016           :  "           251:256         40            Mi_{-1}
+  4024           :  "           503:512         36            Re_{-1}
+  7936           : 8192          31:32         128            Ut_{2}
+  8064           :  "            63:64          64            Ut_{1}
+  8096           :  "           253:256         48           Sol_{-1}
+  8106.7         :  "            95:96          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  8112           :  "           507:512         40            Mi_{-1}
+  8120           :  "          1015:1024        36            Re_{-4}
+  8128           :  "           127:128         32            Ut_{-4}
+
+On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard corresponds to
+a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of
+vibrations of the forks.
+
+On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the other,
+the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations whose
+number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher
+fork and the upper octave of the lower fork.
+
+Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced
+by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his researces to
+intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as may be seen from the
+above table.
+
+His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same
+phenomenon.
+
+Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing
+a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear musical sound
+is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce 32
+beats per second.
+
+Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the
+purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose
+vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose with
+eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles of
+holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of this
+instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens Institute, and of
+Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by Koenig himself.
+
+
+I.
+
+_Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect_.
+
+A.
+
+In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not deviate
+much from isochronism.
+
+If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note
+corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks.
+
+If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', and if the
+difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two notes t+t' and
+(t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t, t', and
+t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and (t+t'+t")/3.
+
+Disk No. 1 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances   t=30 deg.
+   "   "        2 24  "       "        "          15 deg.
+   "   "        3 36  "       "        "          10 deg.
+   "   "        4 36  "     at irregular distances.
+   "   "        5 36  " distances t= 101/2 deg., t'=l0 deg.,t''=91/2 deg.
+   "   "        6 36  "   "          11 deg.      10 deg.     9 deg.
+   "   "        7 36  "   "          16 deg.      14 deg.
+   "   "        8 36  "   "          161/2 deg.     131/2 deg.
+
+Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle No. 7 the
+same, but the low note is stronger than in 8.
+
+Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does circle 5,
+but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6.
+
+Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle 3.
+
+By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit the air
+through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance of 30 deg. and
+directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning
+disk. If the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve
+times on the same circle, we cannot, of course, make use of the above
+arrangements of holes of the wind tube, and we must then employ one of
+the movable brass tubes, which communicate with the interior of the wind
+chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk
+1, circle 4, for example, requires the use of one of these two tubes,
+while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all
+the other circles of the same disk.
+
+B.
+
+If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note
+(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard.
+
+Disk No. 2 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes,  distances 30 deg.
+   "   "        2 36  "       "        10 deg.
+   "   "        3 48  "       "        71/2 deg.
+   "   "        4 60  "       "         6 deg.
+   "   "        5 24  "       " t= 5 deg., t'=25 deg.
+   "   "        6 24  "            6 deg.     24 deg.
+   "   "        7 24  "            71/2 deg.    221/2 deg.
+   "   "        8 24  "           10 deg.     20 deg.
+
+Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those of 1 and
+3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of circle 1 and of
+its sixth harmonic.
+
+C.
+
+If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; that is to
+say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n.
+
+Disk No. 3 has--
+
+                                                       Distances.
+  On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15 deg.
+   "   "        2 24   "        "     15 deg. & 27 holes,   13-1/3 deg.
+   "   "        3 24   "        "     15 deg. " 30   "      12 deg.
+   "   "        4 24   "        "     15 deg. " 32   "      11-1/4 deg.
+   "   "        5 24   "        "     15 deg. " 36   "      10 deg.
+   "   "        6 24   "        "     15 deg. " 40   "       9 deg.
+   "   "        7 24   "        "     15 deg. " 45   "       8 deg.
+   "   "        8 24   "        "     15 deg. " 30, 36, & 48 holes
+
+Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a third,
+circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 a perfect
+chord.
+
+
+II.
+
+_Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several
+different places to conspire in the formation of a note, provided that
+the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, and that the shocks
+are produced in the same direction_.
+
+Disk No. 4 has--
+
+  On circle 1 24 holes.
+   "    "   2 36   "
+   "    "   3 23   "
+   "    "   4 12 at an angular distance of 10 deg. from the holes
+                  of circle 3.
+   "    "   5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20 deg. from those of circle 3
+   "    "   6 12   "          "     "       0 deg.        "
+   "    "   7 12   "          "     "      15 deg.        "
+   "    "   8 12   "          "     "      15 deg.        "
+
+1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of
+15 deg. are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, we obtain the octave
+of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used.
+
+The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this
+experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of air
+spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button 9 we
+also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between the first.
+Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note
+corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they produce the octave,
+or the note of circle 1.
+
+2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose
+holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the same result.
+
+In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out buttons 7
+and 9.
+
+3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two
+circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these circles sounded
+simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them
+would give alone.
+
+This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and pulling out
+buttons 6 and 7.
+
+4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three
+similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance
+between two holes of the same circle, the three circles together produce
+the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single circle.
+
+Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle 2.
+
+(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the same
+experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make with
+circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain the note
+corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the notes
+corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very strongly;
+but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 disappears
+completely, and we have left only that corresponding to 36 holes.)
+
+
+III.
+
+_Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions_.
+
+1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in
+opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is very
+much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously.
+If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity of the note is
+increased.
+
+2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the same
+number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases.
+
+3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one of which
+has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the low note if
+every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other.
+
+We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave of the
+other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks.
+
+Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air currents
+are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes,
+made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All these experiments
+require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes. To make
+sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk, it
+is well to put little rods through the holes, reaching into the wind
+tubes, and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached. The
+experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly
+at the same distance from the turning disk. It is clear that
+notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect
+interference, but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear
+entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness,
+and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard
+to impulses produced in opposite directions.
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Beats_.
+
+Disk No. 6 has--
+
+8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce as many
+beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and 5, 6 and 8,
+as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but we must content
+ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result, for the
+following reasons: The disk never being rigorously plane, alternately
+approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it. No matter how
+slight this deviation is, every sound given by a single circle is heard
+with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon. This
+inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the
+circle; but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles
+(whose difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a
+single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance
+between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when the
+disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and
+intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived.
+
+Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the points to
+which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also furnishes two
+more disks.
+
+The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, 90, and
+96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will produce a perfect
+chord when the air is admitted through the 11 holes in the wind chest;
+with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained.
+
+Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose numbers are
+in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to illustrate
+harmonics. C. F. K.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER.
+
+[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.]
+
+
+To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon
+the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it is necessary to
+take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this being something that
+we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers. For we wished,
+through this voluntary omission, to stimulate their sagacity by bringing
+them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have
+succeeded in overcoming, with causes of error that they will have
+perceived, and the principal one of which is the want of absolute
+cleanliness in the water, vessels, and instruments that they may have
+used for the experiments.
+
+Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the camphor
+remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to
+be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. Their
+astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed
+the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of
+vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or tubes, pieces of
+gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., dipped into the liquid
+in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the
+objects under consideration.
+
+The instantaneously _sedative_ power of the human fingers, or of a hair,
+will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of sorcery, or of some
+diabolic art worthy of the great Albert.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR.]
+
+As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious experiments
+of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously following his
+directions, we have, in the presence of our results, that were exactly
+identical with his, almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the
+victim of some occult power, or at least of some optical illusion,
+the true cause of which remained a mystery to us. Finally, after
+many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our
+attention, the light finally dawned upon us, and then shone straight in
+our eyes.
+
+In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had
+obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor moved in the
+test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its
+gyration took place the day before, or the day before that. And yet we
+had always used the same vessels, the same water, and particles detached
+from the same lump of camphor.
+
+To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the two
+levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the
+camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that was
+satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we had
+noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous washings
+that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into
+them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been freed from
+impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and which, unbeknown
+to us, might have soiled their sides.
+
+Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, we began
+to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very dilute sulphuric
+acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed them with quantities of
+water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used
+for no other purpose; and finally we plunged them again into very clean
+water. We thus cut the Gordian knot, and were on the right track.
+
+In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with that
+minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely
+necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all the pieces of
+the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up. The
+camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or metal, and of every form,
+at all heights. The immersed bodies, such as glass tubes, table knives,
+pieces of money, etc., had lost their pretended "sedative effect" on a
+pretended "activity of the water," and on the vessels that contained
+it. The so-called phenomenon of habit "transported from physiology into
+physics," no longer existed.
+
+The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor
+upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which
+nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes
+of _Chara vulgaris_, had proved a grave error that was to be erased from
+the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire
+good faith. The true cause of _life_ had not then been unveiled, and the
+new agent designated as _diluo-electricity_ vanished before the very
+simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface
+of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly suppose that that
+volatile substance could dissolve.
+
+Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water
+is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel with which
+the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of little or no
+importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to employ a test
+glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, that terminates in a
+lower tubulure, B, above which there is a contraction, C. Upon pouring
+water into the lateral tube until the level reaches D, and placing
+a particle of camphor on its surface, the camphor will be seen to
+continually move about, even when the liquid has reached the upper
+edge of the vessel. To reduce the level to various heights, it is only
+necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to
+the tubulure. In proceeding thus, agitation or _collision_ of the water
+is avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will
+continue to move at every level of the water.
+
+But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the stoppage in the
+motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that
+are not perfectly clean? Before answering this question, let us say in
+the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due
+to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia
+that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they
+emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in
+an aelopile mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of
+a sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small
+portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms upon its
+surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but the thickness
+of which may increase in time until it becomes (especially if the vessel
+is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments
+of camphor that it imprisons, and whose evaporation it prevents. Now,
+as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate, in fact, after a
+certain length of time, the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions;
+but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that
+account that it "has _habituated_ itself to the cause which had at first
+influenced it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to
+render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present"
+(Dutrochet, _l.c._., p. 50).
+
+We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily
+layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under
+the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of sulphuric ether whose
+sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal
+the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye.
+The slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of
+vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it, produces
+effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor, that is to say, that
+in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the
+concrete volatile essence.
+
+This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the
+camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a
+few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to the upper edge
+of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid _licks_ up, so to speak,
+the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel, and this
+material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a
+layer which, in spreading over the bit of camphor itself, prevents its
+evaporation, and, consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer
+under consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by
+causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, more
+easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in
+which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the paper is
+removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, it should be
+understood), the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues
+them at all levels.
+
+The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no power to
+stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy to repeat, is
+an unquestionable proof of this.
+
+Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and afterward with
+plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a
+fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the gyration will not be
+stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in
+its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty substances that
+ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) be dipped into this
+same glass.
+
+_Movements of Camphor upon Mercury_.--In order to study the motions of
+camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a great advantage,
+and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of
+cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath. The
+vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly
+clean, but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is
+soiled by foreign bodies But it is extremely difficult to clean mercury
+completely. To do so Mr. Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and
+leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid,
+taking care to often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater
+part of the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime
+in powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes
+in its lower part.
+
+Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the motions of
+camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces of the vapors
+that escape from it, and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail
+that are endowed with very great agility. Nothing is more curious than
+to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the
+strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of
+the vessel that contains it. On raising the temperature of the metal
+slightly, the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and
+the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated.
+
+The experiments that we have just called attention to show what
+importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They
+prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists upon
+polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters
+which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find therein also a
+manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into
+which the presence of these fatty matters, that have hitherto been
+scarcely suspected, led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as
+the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis.--_N. Joly, in La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBONIC ACID IN BEER.
+
+
+We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' Convention in
+Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. Siebel in 1872, and
+used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. Bartholomae & Roesing, in
+Chicago. The object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid
+in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages
+from the storage vats. The importance of this measure is apparent to
+every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of
+this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the
+method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the
+beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to
+the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to the
+excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is evident that
+a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. The escape of
+carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that
+even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a
+remarkable difference in this respect. It is, therefore, evident that if
+a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off, a larger amount
+of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer. It is true that the
+racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure, but
+this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small, when compared
+with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the
+sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in
+which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form it
+has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any
+other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by
+artificial means. The apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is
+calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere,
+at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer. For this
+purpose, the beer from the store cask running through the pipe, B,
+enters the keg through a hollow copper bung, fitting light into the bung
+hole by means of a rubber washer. The air contained in the keg, being
+replaced by the beer, is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung,
+taking its course through the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is
+allowed to escape in the standpipe, C, containing a column of water,
+the height of which designates the pressure within the keg, and a
+consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or
+barrel is filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer
+showing itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the
+copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained in
+the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is then
+bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. Should
+the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time, the
+surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but will be collected in
+the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off through e.--_Chemical Review_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER CHLORIDE.
+
+
+Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of
+silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of
+gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an
+alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas called attention to six
+modifications of silver bromide. One of these, granular bromide of
+silver, obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days
+with water, he stated, was the most sensitive to light of all substances
+known; exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a
+Bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was
+for photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in
+1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in
+a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more
+sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. Today these
+observations have become of the greatest importance to practical
+photography. They have led to the preparation of the silver bromide
+gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates, which are twenty
+times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates, and have
+become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light.
+
+The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the
+more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is
+only moderately sensitive. The explanation was sought for in various
+directions, but as the result of numerous investigations it appears
+that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different
+modifications of silver bromide. From a consideration of the work
+already done on the subject, Vogel suspected that silver bromide
+precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different
+properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal
+solution. Silver bromide was prepared in many different ways. Emulsions
+were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the
+former aqueous, the latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others
+without. Part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a
+moderate temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with
+ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated silver
+bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it to settle
+completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a new portion
+of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates. Finally he
+precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence of all colloids, by
+means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted
+to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or collodion as a cement.
+The result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two
+modifications of silver bromide, the one being obtained by precipitation
+in aqueous, the other in alcoholic solutions. The first, on account of
+the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he
+calls blue sensitive, the other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive.
+
+It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in
+which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion, or
+whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of
+silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the solution is hot or
+cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or
+whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary condition is that in
+precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain
+at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From aqueous alcoholic solutions blue
+sensitive silver bromide is precipitated.
+
+Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum, these
+modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences
+in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two
+essentially different modifications of the same substance. Among these
+are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions.
+The indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a
+gelatin solution, while the blue sensitive modification does so very
+readily. 2d. Their unequal reducibility; the blue sensitive silver
+bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo
+sensitive variety. 3d. Their different action toward chemical and
+physical sensitizers. 4th. Their different action toward photographic
+developers. 5th. Their different action under the influence of heat.
+The blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness
+perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such treatment.
+
+A direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet
+been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these substances is
+incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that the more reducible
+indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light. But
+this is not the case, because it is not chemical reducibility, but the
+absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance. Now the
+blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the
+indigo sensitive variety, and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver
+chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two
+forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications. One is
+designated as ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive
+silver chloride.--_Amer. Chem. Jour_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL.
+
+[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the 28th June,
+1883.]
+
+By OTTO HEHNER
+
+
+Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of New
+Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat full
+analysis may be worthy of being placed on record.
+
+The sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish
+black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the fractures were
+conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. It was interspersed
+with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin. When powdered it
+appeared chocolate brown. It burned readily, the flame being bright and
+very smoky. Its ash was light and reddish brown.
+
+It consisted of--
+
+  Water (loss at 212 deg. F.)        20.09
+  Organic and volatile matter    75.19
+  Ash                             4.72
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage
+composition--
+
+  Carbon                         71.26
+  Hydrogen                        5.62
+  Oxygen                         21.58
+  Nitrogen                        1.06
+  Sulphur                         0.48
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The ash was composed of--
+
+  Silica                         27.26
+  Alumina                        26.48
+  Oxide of iron                  12.98
+  Lime                           20.19
+  Magnesia                        3.42
+  Sulphuric acid                  9.47
+  Alkalies and loss               0.20
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as
+under--
+
+  Water                          20.09
+  Carbon                         53.58
+  Hydrogen                        4.23
+  Oxygen                         16.23
+  Nitrogen                        0.80
+  Sulphur                         0.36
+  Silica                          1.29
+  Alumina                         1.25
+  Oxide of iron                   0.61
+  Lime                            0.95
+  Magnesia                        0.16
+  Sulphuric acid                  0.44
+  Alkalies                        0.01
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of coke.
+
+The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very
+remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary
+temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small pieces.
+The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize
+the so called coal as a _lignite_, with which conclusion the physical
+characters of the sample are in perfect harmony.
+
+The resin to which I have referred has not been further analyzed. It was
+found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, such as alcohol, ether,
+carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, and neither attacked by
+boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali. On heating it swells up
+considerably and undergoes decomposition, but does not fuse.
+
+The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption, but
+the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as
+a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of it being really combustible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, ETC.
+
+By E. RAYMOND.
+
+
+The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and
+accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of
+peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the
+manganese to the manganous slate, and determining volumetrically, by
+means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of ferrous salt which
+has been converted into ferric. The method of rapidly precipitating
+manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act upon cast-iron or steel with
+nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions, and boil
+the mixture, the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of
+peroxide insoluble in nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of
+ferric oxide. Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous
+cast-iron containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes
+are treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr.
+1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately
+heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15
+grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric acid
+at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until the
+escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown down
+as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and the
+precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the manganese
+peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an acid solution
+of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous sulphate to 750 c.
+c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full strength). The 50 c. c. are
+poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved, and
+to which a little peroxide adheres, and it is then poured upon the
+precipitate and the filter in a Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese
+peroxide dissolves very readily, transforming its equivalent of ferrous
+sulphate into ferric sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150
+c. c. for the next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate
+formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the
+process of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter
+of water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid
+we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining
+in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of the original
+solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and determine the total
+ferrous salt.
+
+The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous
+salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. The quantity
+of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the quantity of
+manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In the case of a
+steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to
+dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the ferrous solution. Small
+Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only 0.010
+meter internal diameter, and graduated into one-twentieth c. c., which
+allows of great exactitude in the determination. For a spiegeleisen
+not more than 1 gramme of the sample should be taken, and for a
+ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MANGANESE AND ITS USES.
+
+
+Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the
+representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a metallic
+brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is so hard as to
+scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white
+heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, it should be
+preserved under naphtha.
+
+It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones;
+with this exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by
+the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat.
+
+Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., protoxide,
+sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, manganic acid, and
+permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as olive-green powder, and is
+obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen.
+Its salts are colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a strong
+tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate
+forms the mineral known as manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by
+heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition,
+dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed
+largely in calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals.
+
+The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite,
+and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as a black powder
+by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When ignited it loses
+oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts are isomorphous with
+those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It imparts a violet color to
+glass, and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a
+powerful oxidizing agent.
+
+The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native
+in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting the
+sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of the two
+preceding oxides.
+
+The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, and the
+pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most abundant of the
+manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad. Its
+commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given
+weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid, the
+quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which
+this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide.
+When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an
+evolution of chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of
+soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it
+is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of
+oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of
+gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per
+cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in the
+manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares.
+
+Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is
+formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese. The
+black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water,
+to which it communicates a green color, due to the presence of the
+manganate. From this water the salt is obtained _in vacuo_ in beautiful
+green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air, it
+rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual
+conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on
+account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name
+of mineral chameleon.
+
+Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination.
+Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet
+tint when seen by transmitted light. It is obtained by treating a
+solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid, when sulphate of
+baryta falls, and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water.
+Permanganate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is
+the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical
+chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.
+
+Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small
+quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances. It is
+always associated with iron.
+
+Various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The
+sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces
+purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile;
+and in small doses, both this salt and the carbonate have been given
+with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of
+anaemia. Manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when
+applied in lotions (as in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid
+ulcers. In connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it
+may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus
+Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air.
+
+It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used to
+correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence of
+protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively colorless
+peroxide.
+
+It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to decompose the
+oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a natural alloy of
+from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for this purpose when
+conveniently attainable.--_Glassware Reporter_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX.
+
+By WILLIAM L. LAY.
+
+ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.
+
+[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York Academy of
+Sciences.]
+
+
+There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, that
+of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it in any other part
+of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part of its
+beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally known that
+the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria long before
+it was in this country. In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the
+oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London.
+In America, the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of
+petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the
+world's history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the
+Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used
+in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a
+never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The mines of
+ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as Galicia. Near the
+city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from Cracow to Lemberg,
+is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Borislau, which is
+entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at the foot of
+the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for
+petroleum at that place. After descending about one hundred and eighty
+feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with
+a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not
+thicker than writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until
+at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or
+four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could be
+made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute for wax
+was manufactured.
+
+The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in
+America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells of
+Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The owner
+of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the miners
+three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first were whole
+farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, and at last to 1
+acre, which is a square of 209 feet.
+
+But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a
+small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the
+leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that
+the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be
+raised to sink the shaft; consequently the earth had to be transported
+to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy
+feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking
+of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the
+government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground
+that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the sides
+are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft three
+feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water
+wells, and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and
+windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many years
+no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum under the
+ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface, the miners
+were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh
+air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as
+the curbing of timber is put in place. The ozokerite is embedded in a
+very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet; below, it is
+interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were
+on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.]
+
+That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre
+than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in Poland,
+averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for
+children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working. If
+thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates the two men
+and one or two children required to work each lease. When the bucket,
+containing the earth, rock, and wax, is dumped in the little shed
+covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, who detach the
+wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners use galvanized wire
+ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to descend, they invariably
+cross themselves and utter a short prayer. The business is not free from
+danger, carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or
+the caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of deaths.
+One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one
+week there had been eight deaths from accidents.
+
+The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common cast
+iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the bottom, and
+the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed off with a ladle,
+poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, in which form it is
+sold to the refiners, for about six cents per pound. The quantity
+produced is uncertain, as the miners take care to understate it, for
+the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes, and the
+landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined. The best
+authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the quantity produced in
+fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 pounds, worth
+twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the land get
+one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is at the rate
+of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop from some two
+hundred acres of land.
+
+The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they
+should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is
+gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in that
+part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French company
+has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting
+through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they have sunk to a
+depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with water and petroleum.
+These they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines,
+worked in a scientific manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is
+about eighteen inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity.
+When first removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so
+soft that it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed
+into the space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for
+weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it
+out.
+
+I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 1860,
+have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was very
+much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petroleum
+industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the difference
+between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Borislau,
+after twenty years' work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It
+contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. None of
+its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud
+came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length.
+In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the
+houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous shops,
+where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It depends on
+a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses were generally
+one-story, built of logs and mud.
+
+On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, contained
+eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, and
+two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as deep
+with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no whisky shops where
+women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, two,
+three, four, and five stories high. Its water works cost one hundred and
+fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it did
+not contain forty houses.
+
+I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep in the
+mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform of
+straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the straw foundation
+had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. Borislau
+is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabitants;
+between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassable. For a
+third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a
+day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring
+why they did not improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the
+Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he
+could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with
+the road to Borislau.
+
+Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," wax) is
+found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the Caucasian Mountains,
+in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria; in the Apennines,
+in Italy; in Texas, California, and in the Wahsatch Mountains, in the
+United States. Commercially, it is not worked anywhere but in Austria;
+although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger deposit than in any other
+place. I made two journeys to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch
+Mountains. For a distance of forty miles, it crops out in many places,
+and on the Minnie Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found
+a stratum of sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with
+ozokerite.
+
+No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of
+ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place, and
+a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this shaft, the vein was
+about ten inches wide; and it could be traced along the slope of the
+hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite is
+seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish Canyon, which enters Salt Lake Valley
+near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the ozokerite of
+Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of white
+ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of
+yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of
+black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia
+College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made
+examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are interested
+in the subject will find the papers published in the _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ for the year 1879.
+
+A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine
+Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An
+interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was
+robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A
+short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax
+and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward suspected
+it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon after ward she
+brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the
+magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about
+twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief that
+she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods; for
+such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She was
+therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was brought
+before the court, and, when questioned, told the same story. She was a
+member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. He came,
+and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove
+her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an
+officer, to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one
+who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel,
+and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the clay
+a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once set at
+liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her dig the
+specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. The hill
+was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it had been
+forced up by gas or some power from below the surface. The quantity that
+could be gathered, by one person, laboring constantly for a week, was
+only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a
+shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was
+sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved
+in, and the shaft was abandoned.
+
+It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of
+manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of
+ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are
+several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils are
+made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, they make
+white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball,
+colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the
+yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer
+ones being waxed every day. It is a curious fact that the Catholic
+Church does not allow the use of paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles;
+at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe
+are made from ozokerite, which is a natural paraffine, made from
+petroleum in nature's laboratory. In the United States, the only
+uses made of ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the
+adulteration of beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration
+of the ruling passion strong in money making, which gives us wooden
+nutmegs, wooden hams, shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee,
+oleomargarine butter, mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax
+made without bees.
+
+After this paper was written, the following translation from a pamphlet,
+published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, in 1879, came
+to my notice. The writer's name is not published:
+
+"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts,
+is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy
+matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be
+necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by
+melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and
+these cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works,
+which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric
+centners (9,500,000 lb.).
+
+"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European
+countries, to be further refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may
+specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Russia
+as large purchasers of this article of commerce.
+
+
+"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.
+
+"The products of mineral wax, are:
+
+"(a.) _Ceresine_, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a
+product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined
+beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness,
+is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much
+used for wax candles, for waxing floors, and for dressing linen and
+colored papers. Wax crayons must be mentioned among these products. The
+house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors.
+These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and iron;
+also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and drawing.
+The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither
+by water, by acids, nor by rubbing.
+
+"Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it
+should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of
+ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was
+controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that
+the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid.
+
+"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white ceresine
+is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring
+matter (annatto).
+
+"(b.) _Paraffine_, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor.
+It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a
+protection against the action of acids, and to make casks and other
+wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, etc., for air-tight
+wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of tracing paper. There
+are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the
+Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol.
+iv., Brunswick, 1877).
+
+"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, in the
+distillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by
+hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid.
+
+"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced from
+2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 36
+to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for
+lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue.
+
+"(c.) _Mineral oils_, which are obtained at the same time with
+paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum,
+described above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils,
+besides the distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products
+with acids and alkalies.
+
+"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater part
+goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper Hungary. The common
+paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of various sizes, from
+28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina,
+Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, and form an important
+article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world.
+Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the East
+Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton."
+
+The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly
+a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its
+use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of
+yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified form, which
+had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah had already been
+shown before the Academy. There was no mystery as to its genesis in
+either region, as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of
+a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a
+great variety of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn,
+to one that is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical
+composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling a
+solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much paraffine
+that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather. The
+asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which the term "gum
+beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences in constitution have
+originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the
+petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have been derived. In Canada, as excavations
+are sunk through the asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and
+finally passes into petroleum. This is also the case in Utah.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.]
+
+[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883.
+
+
+Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also includes
+many interesting details in his account of the trip:
+
+The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the exception of a
+few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south the wind changed,
+obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to
+keep out the cold when crossing the equator. During a short stop in
+Lima the party had an opportunity of studying South American life. The
+products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women.
+The party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home
+for the admiration of their friends. The expedition really began at
+Callao, where the party embarked on the United States man-of-war
+Hartford. Few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the
+trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The
+Hartford was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific
+squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, but
+the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the
+dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed anchor for a sail
+of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches
+between Callao and their destination, Caroline Island. The southeast
+trade winds favored them, and from the first day there was actually no
+necessity for altering the position of a sail....
+
+The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according to
+the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one story
+structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in California and
+brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. The island on which
+they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly
+circular in outline. The edge, which rises from five to twenty inches
+from the water, according to the tide's phase, goes down under the water
+to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea; and is
+impossible to step on it with bare feet. At the end of this table the
+reef goes down perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable
+sea. No vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting
+matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered
+from the wind, and here, with the luck which characterized the trip, was
+found the only opening in this barrier of coral. A long cleft, perhaps
+eight feet wide, at the outer edge of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a
+mere crack near the shore. Watching a favorable chance, the boats were
+guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the
+men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as
+quickly as possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the
+surf, came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr.
+Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a succession of
+wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing the conscientious
+descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible.
+
+The members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of
+the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas,
+which afforded shade on three sides of the building. The second house
+was occupied by the sailors, while the third was left to the natives.
+These latter were sufficiently conversant with English to serve as
+excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of
+the island. This lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral
+sand, and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of
+the more delicate and elaborate kinds. These corals gave the lake a
+wonderful variety of colors, forming a picture impossible to paint or
+describe, and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole
+scene changed to new groups of color. The water was very clear, and
+in some places deep; in others so filled with coral that a boat could
+barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a
+long reef, one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their
+longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. Fish
+swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every species, if
+not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most peculiar manner. One
+variety which frequented the shallow water, where it was heated to the
+degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a pure milky white, with black
+eyes, fins, and tail.
+
+The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had steamed
+directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the Americans.
+
+It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good time,
+and the definition was particularly good. Photographs occupied the time
+of the English and French observers. Professor Holden and Dr. Dickson
+searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. Preston took the times of
+contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell devoted their attention to
+spectroscopic observations of the corona. Dr. Hastings' observations
+have led to the production of a new theory of the corona. Briefly
+stated, the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total
+eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun, but is a
+phenomenon of diffraction.
+
+From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central City,
+Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar
+corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth of this
+theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the present eclipse,
+however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. This test is based on
+the following already known phenomena: When the moon covers the face of
+the sun, an envelope of light is seen all round it; the envelope is
+not visible when the sun is shining, on account of the sun's greater
+brightness; this light is called the corona; it is extremely irregular
+in outline. According to the drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse
+of 1878, it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance
+of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite
+points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space.
+The opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending
+millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it must
+be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., which has
+been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body
+like the moon.
+
+In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a surface
+of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them. If
+an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it will judge the
+direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by
+a line at right angles with the wave front. Now suppose a body is placed
+between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ. The waves
+must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the
+wave front will have a different direction, and the organ of sense will
+conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from
+that before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves
+of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the retina of
+the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the
+waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on the eye that the
+light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The moon covers the sun
+during the eclipse and a little more, so that it can move for about five
+minutes and still cover the sun entirely. This movement is very slight,
+and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere, it should
+not change at all during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction
+is the cause of the light, then the slightest change in the relative
+positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the
+corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during
+a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum
+analysis should change.
+
+To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following instrument:
+Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter
+V, and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of
+the V was lost, and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was
+transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the V, where the
+prisms touched; here was placed a refracting prism, so that the light
+could be analyzed. This instrument was attached to the eye piece of the
+telescope, and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the
+moon just fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the
+corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came
+together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen through the
+eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse this is what Dr.
+Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided into its constituents.
+Prominent among them was a bright green line, which is designated by the
+number 1,474; to this line attention was directed. Its presence in the
+spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is
+a solar atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed
+during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this line
+should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one side of the
+corona, and longer on the other. The observation was now reduced to
+watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines.
+
+At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the
+longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably, while the
+line from the east side, shorter by about one-third at the beginning of
+the eclipse, grew longer. When the eclipse ended, the proportions of the
+lines were exactly reversed. There had been a change equal to two-thirds
+the length of the lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their
+relative positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which
+this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The
+material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are other
+discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time.
+The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the sun that the
+gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury,
+and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, but an atmosphere
+extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the
+sun's surface, especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very
+much greater than on the earth. 2. The laws of gravitation would require
+a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun, while
+the corona is enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in
+outline, which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed
+irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most
+interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the
+fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the
+sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the
+sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, as it would have
+been if it had plowed its way through a material substance. In taking
+photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of
+exposure is longer. This shows that the corona extends indefinitely, and
+it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical
+laws of diffraction. These laws involve very complicated mathematics,
+but by them alone Dr. Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction
+where the corona is, and that it must follow the same laws as those
+observed. There is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion
+of Dr. Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the
+chromosphere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, that
+nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified by
+the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for the
+perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small masses
+circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments of comets
+or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined luster is seen in
+the zodiacal light.
+
+The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now known,
+are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar appendage
+which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk. In the
+photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can
+be traced back of each other where they cross; no better proof of their
+extreme tenuity could be given.
+
+The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, the
+distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon from the
+earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. All of these
+were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one, and the
+six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often
+enjoyed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS.
+
+
+The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are given,
+have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries
+that have ever rewarded the labors of archaeologists. The idea of
+founding an English society for the purpose of exploring the buried
+cities of the Delta originated with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known
+authoress of "One Thousand Miles up the Nile," and was carried into
+effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald
+Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of
+Sir Erasmus Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could
+never have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded
+and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M.
+Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for Egypt
+in January of this year with the object of conducting the explorations
+contemplated by the society. After a consultation with M. Maspero, the
+Director of Archaeology in Egypt, who has throughout acted a friendly
+part toward the society's enterprise, M. Naville decided to begin his
+campaign by attacking the mounds at Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater
+Canal, a few miles from Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to
+cover some ancient city, for some sphinxes and statues had already
+been found; but what city it could be, archaeologists were at a loss to
+determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, believed
+it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which the Children of
+Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started on their final Exodus.
+Any identification, however, of the sites of the Biblical cities in
+Egypt was so far merely speculative. Practically nothing definite was
+known as to the geography of the Israelite sojourn, except that the Land
+of Goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the Delta, and that
+Zoan was Tanis, whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of
+the society's operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as
+everything else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they
+crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, remained
+vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a plausible theory, in
+which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important part.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH]
+
+Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. Naville's
+skillful direction, placed all these speculations in quite a new light.
+The city under the mounds proved to be none other than Pithom, the
+"store" or "treasure city" which the Children of Israel "built for
+Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character as a store place or granary is
+seen in its construction; for the greater part of the area is covered
+with strongly built chambers, without doors, suitable for the storing of
+grain, which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor
+above, of which the ends of the beams are still visible. These curious
+chambers, unique in their appearance, are constructed of large, well
+made bricks, sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in
+the sun, and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The
+walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall which
+runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner was the
+temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum or Pithom, the
+"Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and tablets (some of which
+have been presented to the British Museum) remained to testify to its
+name and purpose; the temple itself was finally destroyed when the
+Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is shown by the position of the
+limestone fragments and of the Roman bricks. The statues, however, and
+especially a large stele, are extremely valuable, since they tell the
+history of the city during eighteen centuries. From a study of these
+monuments, M. Naville has learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut
+(Succoth) its civil, name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored
+by Shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important
+place under the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the
+founding of the city of Arsinoe in the neighborhood; was called Hero or
+Heroopolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic _ara_,
+meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, who occupied it
+at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are also found of the
+position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites encamped before the
+passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All these data are directly
+contradictory to preconceived theories: Pithom, Succoth, Heroopolis,
+Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally
+different positions. The identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us
+the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of
+the Exodus, and completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now
+certain that the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater
+Canal and not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first
+definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of
+Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The historical
+identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor also results
+from the monumental evidence. One short exploration has upset a hundred
+theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical
+character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of Pithom (Succoth)
+is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a series of important
+discoveries. When enough money has been collected for the proposed
+exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of the highest interest to students
+alike of the Bible and of Egyptian antiquities may, with certainty, be
+predicted.
+
+The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is
+bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers
+which the Children of Israel built more than three thousand years ago.
+In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue, the head
+and face of which are intact. The other illustration is taken from the
+temple end of the excavations. The sculptured group of Rameses the Great
+seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance;
+its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia.
+Beyond this group, and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of
+Pithom, set up by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoe, and containing a
+mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions.
+Behind this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store
+chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while on
+the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone blocks,
+already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or enlargement of
+the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. Naville, by Herr
+Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our illustrations are taken from
+these photographs, supplemented by sketches.--_S.L.P., in Illustrated
+London News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The surprises of archaeology are magnificent and apparently
+inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, and
+often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether this
+or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of
+Biblical archaeology is a question not to be determined offhand; but the
+interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated. There
+are now deposited in the British Museum fifteen leather slips, on the
+forty folds of which are written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy
+in a recension entirely different from that of the received text. The
+character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous
+Moabite stone and of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere
+palaeographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as
+the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier than any other
+clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the Old Testament.
+The sheepskin slips are literally black with age, and are impregnated
+with a faint odor as of funeral spices; the folds are from 6 to 7 inches
+long and about 31/2 inches wide, containing each about ten lines, written
+only on one side.
+
+So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two distinct
+handwritings, though the same archaic character is used throughout.
+In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in duplicate on
+distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary
+transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text. At
+first sight no writing whatever is perceptible; the surface seems to
+be covered with an oily or glutinous substance, which so completely
+obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the
+slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with
+the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the
+leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily
+visible beneath the glossy surface.
+
+These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. Shapira,
+of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities.
+Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain
+archaeological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a
+manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity.
+
+The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's agency
+and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly regarded as a
+modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it is asserted that
+Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. The leathern fragments
+now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he alleges, obtained by him from
+certain Arabs near Dibon, the neighborhood where the Moabite stone was
+discovered. The agent employed by him in their purchase was an Arab
+"who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would
+probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient
+or modern sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments
+is, however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are offered
+to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily deposited for
+examination.
+
+Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant
+of L500 from the Prime Minister toward the production of his important
+work on the "Massorah" we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is
+now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and
+examining their genuineness. On this latter question we refrain from
+pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be
+able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really 2,500
+years old, or have been compiled within the last few years.
+
+No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given.
+To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill,
+as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the
+appearance and condition of the slips. But enough has been deciphered to
+show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most
+remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received
+version of the Mosaic books.
+
+In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where the
+received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, to go in
+to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the corresponding
+passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular, "Ye"
+for '"Thou," while for "_g'dolim_," the word translated "greater," it
+reads "_rabbim_." But a far more complete idea of the variations of text
+and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the
+Decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of
+Deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet
+been deciphered. The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs
+as follows:
+
+"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, from
+the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall not make to
+yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is in heaven above or
+that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth.
+Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them. I am God, your God.
+Sanctify ... in six days I have made the heaven and the earth, and all
+that is therein, and rested on the seventh day, therefore rest thou
+also, thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast: I am God, thy God.
+Honor thy father and thy mother ...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not
+kill the person of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit
+adultery with the wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt
+not steal the property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not
+swear by my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon
+the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take
+my name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness
+against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the wife
+... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is his: I am
+God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart: I am God,
+thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God spake."
+
+Several points may be noted in this version. The singular refrain "I
+am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the received
+version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn ratification of
+the Divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept. If this
+be so, the first two commandments, as they are commonly reckoned, are
+here fused into one, and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which
+does not appear in the received version of the Decalogue.
+
+It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for the
+Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the familiar
+phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being replaced
+throughout by "God, thy God."
+
+On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell;
+they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show that these
+fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to
+criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as
+the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental Ireland, who, knowing the
+interest felt by scholars in variations of the Sacred Text, has set
+himself, with infinite pains and skill, to forestall a growing demand.
+Until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all
+competent scholars, no further questions need be raised. In any case
+the _prima facie_ presumption must be held to be enormously against
+the genuineness of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the
+improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries
+than any extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease
+with which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives
+to such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his
+property.
+
+All that we know of the _provenance_ of the fragments is that Mr.
+Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; and that
+Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in Moabite
+antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite stone. On the other
+hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is assuredly no clumsy and
+ignorant bungler, as the makers of the Moabite pottery were confidently
+alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness. It is, of course,
+part of his craft, and not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part,
+to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance
+of immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required to
+make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of
+Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the fabricator must have
+known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments,
+and have set himself to fulfill their expectations. In these days of
+scientific palaeography and minute textual scholarship no forger of
+ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a
+scholar himself. Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of
+course; palaeographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn
+of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension
+without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean
+order, while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an
+archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts
+in palaeography. But the fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated
+they are, has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this.
+He has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different
+hands, both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters.
+This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost
+incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case
+it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed
+fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not only
+a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, and one
+can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him
+at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few
+piastres, and is likely, therefore, to enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We
+should expect to find, however, that his extraordinary ingenuity has at
+some point or another overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with
+the labors of modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly
+have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not
+betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. In
+any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound
+interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with the
+controversy they are certain to excite.--_London Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--_From the
+Building News_.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there has been
+much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in common with
+other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a pair of breeding
+ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they would not realize 50 l.
+
+The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage ostrich
+breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and one or two
+cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The climate of the two
+colonies is very similar, and the locality selected for the imported
+birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in dryness and temperature their
+native _habitat_.
+
+The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell
+to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we were reared,
+good-by!"
+
+One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, got into
+a slanting position. This frightened one of the two inmates, a fine
+cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage, which
+was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. Fortunately there was there
+a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches. He instantly seized
+him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury, and after
+a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in
+the hold he became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship
+with a relish.
+
+After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a
+little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are then arranged
+in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on board the vessel.
+The ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching
+hold of their bodies, and using a little gentle force.
+
+The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of
+thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by their "steward,"
+who was to accompany them to Australia. It was curious to see a bird
+swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down
+the animal's long neck. On the voyage they would be fed with maize or
+mealies, onions, apple melons, and barley. They require very little
+water; however, there were five large iron tanks on board in case they
+would feel thirsty. Our engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis
+Edwards, of Hoff Street, Capetown,
+
+[Illustration: SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were Reared.--2.
+Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. Lowering
+the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating Apple
+Melons.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW WEATHERCOCK.
+
+
+An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the majority
+of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during the day;
+but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic
+transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building.
+The different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings,
+or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the
+sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the rod has to traverse
+several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector of the Versailles
+waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system which, while
+considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, allows the
+weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This apparatus consists
+of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable. The stationary
+part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters A and B and
+by cross-hatchings. This forms the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with
+clamps, P, at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and
+is hidden, after the mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc
+covering, Z. The upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece,
+upon which rests a bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined
+outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform
+there move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a
+horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube.
+
+The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind and to
+indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and coarse
+lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at intervals with
+copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which serves as a guide for it;
+(2) of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament, O, fixed to the
+tube and resting on the balls; (3) of the vane, G, properly so called;
+and (4) of the cap, C, provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube
+and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission.
+This latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f,
+perfectly taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing
+as many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of
+the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which is
+fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings through
+small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it passes, it is
+protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the observing room there is
+affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of
+the vane.
+
+[Illustration: RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.]
+
+This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the
+Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau
+of Trappes, and it is also installed in several primary normal schools,
+where it is giving very good results.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARRED CLOVER.
+
+
+A correspondent of the _Ohio Farmer_ reports an experiment in curing
+clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn, and
+illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows:
+
+In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying season was
+not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual,
+and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls. The result was
+intense heating, and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of
+the mow. On a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty
+tons, as every load at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn
+was rather open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as
+well as at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent
+hay at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the
+center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. What
+prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since that escape
+from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so
+green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a mow too rapidly. If we
+haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing thirty hundred each, which
+will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each, we have three
+tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation.
+
+If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full, the
+principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass. To
+relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have several places of
+storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other, thus
+giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off. To facilitate this
+evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty,
+the best of ventilation is necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is
+as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is
+not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is
+returned to the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary
+amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is
+shut off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor
+at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the
+roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in,
+thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will be facilitated
+and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, as the clover is
+put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton, will make it a
+relish with stock.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT.
+
+(_Agave victoriae-reginae_.)
+
+
+This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I am
+happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the first time
+it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never been seen in
+flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown specimen, dense in
+habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and the leaves are arranged
+in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine. The
+circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 in., and it has 268 leaves. Its
+flower-stem appeared about the middle of June, grew rather fast till it
+was 7 ft. high, then rather slowly till it reached its full development.
+The scape is now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 61/2 in. in
+circumference at the base, or 51/4 in. at a foot above the base; from
+there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The flower-spike is
+exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower or naked portion, 4
+ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by abortive flower buds, with,
+near the base, some bristle-like scales 31/2 in. to 4 in. long. The
+flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three, all the three being
+equal in size and opening together; they are greenish white in color, 11/2
+in. long, or, including the stamens, some 23/4 in. to 3 in. long.
+
+[Illustration: AGAVE VICTORIAE-REGINAE.]
+
+The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to open
+in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They remain in
+good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens wilt and drop
+down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day. On the first day
+of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by 3/4 in.; on the
+second it has grown to be as long as the stamens, but it is not in
+condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day.
+Although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already
+blossomed, none of the ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping
+off, but I am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the
+spike. So great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers,
+that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups,
+and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The main
+beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass
+of bright yellow anthers. This plant, together with several smaller
+ones, was contributed to this garden by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected
+them in their native wilds--the mountains of Northern Mexico--some three
+years ago. He found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible
+locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In
+addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of
+the Agricultural Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann,
+the eminent botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece
+of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an
+old plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor
+was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this
+Agave.--_The Garden_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS.
+
+By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX.
+
+
+In the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we
+have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting.
+We find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of
+glycerin is partially correct, and that instances of a different kind of
+structure occur among the natural oils and fats.
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear to
+occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure:
+
+  C(OH)_{2}
+  CH
+  CH_{3}
+
+It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be resolved
+into:
+
+  COOH + H_{2}O
+  CH_{2}
+  CH_{3}
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, yield
+no glycerin when saponified.--_Chemical News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
+papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this
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+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free
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+& Co.
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+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+401, September 8, 1883, by Various
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401,
+September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
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+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8718]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on August 3, 2003]
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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 401 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland,
+Charles Franks and the DP Team
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of Silver Bromide
+      and Silver Chloride.
+
+      Analysis of New Zealand Coal.
+
+      On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast Iron,
+      Ferro-manganese, etc.
+
+      Manganese and its Uses.
+
+      Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A valuable
+      and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of
+      Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this
+      remarkable product.
+
+      On the Constitution of the Natural Fats.
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel
+      Traction Engine.--With two engravings.
+
+      An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one large
+      engraving.
+
+      The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas Retorts.--Siemens'
+      principle.--As operated at the Glasgow Corporation Works.--With
+      two engravings.
+
+      A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven.
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent Photographic Pictures
+      on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and full directions.
+
+      How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full directions.
+
+      Some of the Uses of Common Alum.
+
+      An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an engraving.
+
+      Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric Acid Gas.
+
+      Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic Acid in Racking
+      Beer.--With an engraving.
+
+IV.   ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the Bleaching of
+      Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of apparatus.
+
+      Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, Electrical
+      Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires.
+
+V.    ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An interesting abstract
+      from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins University), of
+      the American Astronomical Exhibition to the Caroline Islands.
+
+VI.   NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting the
+      Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of
+      certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens Institute.
+
+      The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an engraving.
+
+VII.  ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village Architecture.--
+      Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an engraving.
+
+      Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for Doors.--Several figures.
+
+VIII. ARCHAEOLOGY.--A Buried City of the Exodus.--Being an account
+      of the recent excavations and discoveries of Pithom
+      Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving.
+
+      The Moabite Manuscripts.
+
+IX.   AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen Victoria
+      Century Plant.--With an engraving.
+
+      Charred Clover.
+
+      A New Weathercock.--With one figure.
+
+X.    MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing Place
+      in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With an
+      engraving.
+
+      Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway.
+
+      Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With portrait.
+
+      The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris.
+
+      Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South Africa.--With one
+      page of engravings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.
+
+
+The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect
+a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most
+distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs.
+The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of America
+disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the Catholic
+monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise. In
+honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of Catalonia, who also
+took part in the discovery and civilization of the New World, among whom
+may be named the Treasurer Santangel, Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo
+Boyl, first patriarch of the Indies, and the twelve missionaries of
+Monserrat, who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage.
+
+In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the central
+executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous voice of
+the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don Cayetano
+Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we find in _La
+Ilustracion Espanola_, we give an engraving. Richness, grandeur, and
+expression, worthily combined, are the characteristics of these plans.
+The landing structure is divided into three parts, a central and two
+laterals, each of which extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater,
+in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to
+mind the two caravels, the Pinta and Nina; two great lights occupy the
+advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of
+celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble monument,
+surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the esplanade.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA,
+SPAIN.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera has not
+awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was
+offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the
+fatal grape disease. There were not less than 182 competitors for the
+prize; but none had made a discovery that filled the bill. It is said,
+however, that a Strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an
+absolutely trustworthy remedy. This liquid is poured upon the ground
+about the root of the vine, and it is said that it kills the parasites
+without hurting the grape.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE.
+
+
+Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the
+remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to Salt
+Lake:
+
+Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on the
+Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other subject at
+present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours
+so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should perhaps qualify this
+statement by deducting the hours of darkness; yet this is really a
+fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment; it seems providential
+that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting
+enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything
+sublime. Leaving Salt Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and
+populous Jordan Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the
+Valley of Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits
+of the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the
+wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after
+another of the magnificent canons of the Wahsatch we passed, their
+mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising wild and
+rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have abundantly
+tested in other days. Parley's Canon, the Big and Little Cottonwood, and
+most wonderful of all, the canon of the American Fork, form a series not
+inferior to those of Boulder, Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas,
+in the front range of the Rockies.
+
+Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, we
+crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price River,
+a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in choosing this
+route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of Weber and
+Echo canons--the only part of the Union Pacific road which tempts one
+to look out of a car window, unless one may be tempted by the boundless
+monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog. Great was my
+satisfaction, therefore, to find that this part of the new road,
+parallel with the Union Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south,
+traverses the same belt of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less
+picturesque. Castle Canon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the
+equivalent of Echo Canon, and is equal or superior in everything except
+color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers
+and walls of Castle Canon are yellowish-gray. But their forms are
+incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime. The
+valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert,
+as it is further north. To be sure, this uninviting stream, a couple of
+hundred miles further south, having united with the Grande, and formed
+the Rio Colorado, does indeed, by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper
+into the sunless chasms, become at last sublime. But here it gives no
+hint of its future somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed
+Green River, to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by
+sleep. But I got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy
+water; and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the
+conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot.
+
+In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the interval
+passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the Grande, and
+ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of the Grande, the
+Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and finally a branch, flowing
+westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high divide at the head of the latter
+was laboriously surmounted; and then, one of our two engines shooting
+ahead and piloting us, we slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such
+descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the
+experience of the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is
+likely to occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down.
+
+From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the matter
+of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the Rocky
+Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the
+high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for the monument to
+the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the highest point. For all
+the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande road, between Cimarron and
+Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show.
+From an artistic stand-point, one road has crossed the ranges at the
+most tame and uninteresting point that could be found, and the other at
+the most picturesque.
+
+At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges into the
+famous Black Canon. In length, variety, and certain elements of beauty,
+such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this canon surpasses the Royal
+Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, however, one spot in the latter (I
+mean, of course, the point where the turbulent river fills the whole
+space between walls 2,800 ft. high, and the railroad is hung over it)
+which is superior in desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the
+Gunnison. Take them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the
+finer. I have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the
+Gunnison Canon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one
+matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed in the
+morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty
+precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even hinting such folly
+as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark that these two canons
+are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are; for
+they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks.
+
+Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above sea-level),
+over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over the Sangre di
+Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Elbert,
+Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other summits exceeding the
+altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is the valley of the Arkansas,
+into which and down which we pass, and so through the Royal Gorge to
+Canon City and Pueblo, where we arrived before dark on the day after
+leaving Salt Lake.
+
+Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle Canon, the
+Black Canon of the Gunnison, Marshall Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas
+Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey! No
+wonder everybody who has made it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic
+urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence (and I
+know it has a great deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at
+present, crowded with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for
+those who wish on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?)
+and to visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done _en
+route_, without retracing the steps.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS.
+
+
+In the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to
+practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta, as it
+has already been employed in connection with so many other wares; but I
+have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta.
+Now this is strange, if one considers how fashionable _plaque_ and plate
+painting have become of late, and the good photographic results that
+are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt
+earth." Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are
+one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be left
+purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails to see
+that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. It was with
+something of this feeling that I was led to try and see what could be
+done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no data to go by, I had
+to use my own experience, or rather experiment on my own account.
+
+Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in the
+commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but natural I
+should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired
+results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction signally failed--the
+ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion. The
+bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo., which not only left indelible
+marks, but, despite any amount of washing, the image on a finished plate
+vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window.
+There was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my
+object. I would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful
+line of experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save
+him useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the
+method I found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent
+wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my system of
+working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion
+transfer.
+
+
+TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE.
+
+The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the surface
+to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It simply
+consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as follows:
+
+  Gelatine.                           10 grains.
+  Water.                               1 ounce.
+  A trace of chrome alum.
+
+Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless to say
+that numbers of _plaques_, plates, vases, etc., may be coated right off,
+and will then be ready for use at any time.
+
+Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, as well
+as placed it _in situ_ for reproduction, the next thing required is a
+suitable collodion, and the following will be found all that can be
+desired:
+
+  TRANSFER COLLODION.
+
+  Cotton.                      3 drachms.
+  Iodide of cadmium.          65 grains.
+  Ammonium iodide.            25   "
+  Bromide of cadmium.         19   "
+  Ammonium bromide.           11   "
+  Alcohol.                    15 ounces.
+  Ether.                      15   "
+
+The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now
+transferred to a bath, as follows:
+
+Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce.
+
+Made slightly acid with nitric acid.
+
+After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to
+the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and _quantum suff_. of
+the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image:
+
+  DEVELOPING SOLUTION.
+
+  A Winchester of water, i.e.  80 ounces.
+  Protosulphate of iron.      240 grains.
+  Citric acid.                240   "
+
+Or the following may be used:
+
+  Pyro                          3 grains\
+  Citric acid                   2   "    } per ounce of water.
+  Glacial acetic acid          30 drops /
+
+After perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a
+saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is thoroughly washed.
+
+It will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory; it
+lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters recourse is now had to
+
+
+TONING.
+
+  Gold.    1 grain.
+  Water.   5 ounces.
+
+With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture the
+result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking picture
+will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is employed richness
+at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known of instances where the
+picture needed no toning.
+
+
+OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE.
+
+This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited number
+of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and their _modus
+operandi_ is kept from the many. Now this is a pity, when one considers
+the great charm attached to a good picture on opal, with pure whites and
+rich blacks, and in many localities the demand that might be created for
+them. Apart from their beauty, another charm attaches to opals--their
+absolute permanence; and this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What,
+in fact, can be more painful to the worker who values his work, and sets
+store by it, than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion!
+A properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so
+common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as perfect
+now as they were when first taken.
+
+Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion;
+but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly applicable to
+ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, since in practice
+it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and safe. The details are
+much the same as above, and necessitate double transfer.
+
+After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass plate),
+and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the picture (and this,
+remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) then has to be loosened
+from its support, and this is done with a solution of sulphuric
+acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow
+between the image and the glass, after which perfectly wash and mount.
+When the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image,
+evened out, raised (assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite
+corners during the operation), and with the aid of the helper the
+picture is carefully centered, gently pressed out or down, and the
+transfer is so far effected. But what will happen, and does happen,
+in the case of vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture
+becomes positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply
+in the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of iodine
+dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after which, well wash
+and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash well again.
+This, by the way, is equally applicable to paper transfers; and it is
+to be remembered that the toning comes last of all. It is a rather
+difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three
+times, and acid must then be had recourse to (nitric acid is as good as
+any); but by transferring from the support on the ground surface, all
+stains are at once avoided.
+
+On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well
+cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. Then
+the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the plate is
+exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, and, when dried,
+varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with dead varnish if intended
+for chalk or water-color. This, when a good negative is used, gives a
+remarkably fine picture, not requiring a vestige of retouching, and
+having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable
+if varnished with the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective
+pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting.
+
+A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art
+matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed
+glass, said it was one of the finest productions of photography. He
+urged that negatives _ad rem_ should be taken most carefully, and that,
+like the picture I showed him, they should be full of half-tone and
+detail, and yet have plenty of vigor. They should, he said, be robust in
+the high lights, have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep
+shadows, and thus have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should
+be retouched only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness
+shall be in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now.
+
+If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine
+pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most
+artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, absolute
+permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to think of what
+may be really recommended to one's _clientele_, and likely to meet with
+approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been
+delivered; and I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture
+most likely to meet with this general approbation.
+
+I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal
+picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched
+after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. It is pure
+photography in every sense of the word, and the resultant picture one
+hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have rather laid a stress on this
+point, well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by
+the barbarous hand of would-be artists, who by far exceed the true
+artists in number; and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight
+of, either, at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one
+in marble-like texture, or rather lack of texture, as if the face were
+devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might
+be wise to weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the
+enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice
+and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial
+measures to a decided evil.
+
+On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception should arise
+in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to clearly state that
+for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer; that is, the picture
+first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper, put in
+the right position on terra-cotta, and pressed down while wet with
+blotting-paper, left to dry, and is then so far ready.
+
+Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, ground opal
+being the best, the system I employ is as follows: After well cleaning
+the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had better not be too thick).
+When dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer,
+to which a little bromide of potassium has been added. The remainder of
+the operations is as usual. Those varnished with dead varnish can be
+tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make
+very pleasing pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be
+finished in water-colors if thought preferable.--_G. W. Martyn, in Br.
+Jour. Photo_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PAPER NEGATIVES.
+
+
+The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the
+following advantages:
+
+First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is uniform
+throughout the entire surface of each sheet.
+
+Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide
+as usually constructed.
+
+Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass.
+
+Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper.
+
+Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled
+from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand, without the
+assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus this invention does
+away with all sensitive preparations on glass, which latter is both a
+brittle and relatively heavy material, thus diminishing the bulk and
+weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling;
+it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those
+on glass, in so much that the film does not contain any grain; and,
+lastly, it admits of printing from either face of the film, as regards
+the production of positives on paper or other material, as well as
+plates for phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require
+a negative to be reversed.
+
+For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper:
+
+First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water,
+and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which it is
+attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass, and
+partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state it is allowed to
+dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat.
+
+Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion,
+containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of azotic cotton (11/2
+per cent. gives very good results) and from 11/2 to 21/2 per cent. of castor
+oil (2 per cent. gives very good results); this coating is allowed to
+dry; and,
+
+Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, and then
+it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are
+excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of
+about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it in this position until
+the gelatine has set (say) about five minutes, with the film paper still
+attached, it is placed upright in a drying-room, where it should remain
+about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees
+Fahrenheit; and,
+
+Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure,
+development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the purpose of
+developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well; for
+the purpose of fixing, I have found that a mixture by weight, water,
+1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and powdered alum 60, produces
+excellent results, after being allowed to dry.
+
+Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be
+immediately used for producing negatives _recto_ or _verso_ as above
+mentioned.
+
+I claim as my invention:
+
+First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper
+for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the purposes above
+described; and,
+
+Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other analogous
+oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the
+paper backing as above described.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM.
+
+
+A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact, so
+much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete
+without it--is the substance known is common alum, or potash alum, being
+a double sulphate of alumina and potash; but it is interesting to note
+that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia
+alum, or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter
+of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or
+ammonia alum.
+
+Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and mechanical
+printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, it has been
+recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The silver printer
+adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working
+order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; then, again, silver
+prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, having for its object
+the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt. A very
+good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a
+saturated solution, diluted with one gallon of water, the prints being
+well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes.
+
+Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single instance
+can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to
+arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do
+instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur and
+professional, or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary
+risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and
+trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such
+individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day
+practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum, either
+before fixing, or immediately afterward. In fact, some operators have
+two alum baths in use, one a normal bath, as above mentioned, for
+immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity; and the
+other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable
+acid (such as citric) or a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use
+when there is too much printing density, since it has been found
+in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium
+thio-sulphate on the gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing)
+not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or
+pyrogallol, but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover,
+the color does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes
+when the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where
+there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a soft
+sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed emulsion worked
+in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the
+plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them
+in the acid bath.
+
+Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless
+transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, astringent
+taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60 deg. F., and in its own
+weight of water at 212 deg. F.; but the excess crystallizes out upon
+cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, and, when impure, usually
+contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon the addition of either caustic
+soda or potash, a white gelatinous precipitate is formed (hydrate of
+alumina), which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed. The
+precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent
+film sometimes observed on gelatine plates, when dry, which have been
+soaked in alum, and not well washed afterward.
+
+Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for instance--precipitate
+hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve in an excess of the
+reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved.
+
+Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison,
+which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube, it
+somewhat resembles thin starch paste.
+
+The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of
+hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum
+in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid ammonia; should any iron be
+present, the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over
+a sheet of white paper. Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate
+of alumina and sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto
+their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the
+community rather than the practical.--_Photo. News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.
+
+
+As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton cloths
+become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence of carrying
+on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope. The effect is
+that, together with the tension, although slight, and the drying, the
+weft partly shrinks and partly curls up, the latter, however, being
+scarcely observable to the naked eye. It may almost be said that as
+regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples
+because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to
+its gray width. The main use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not
+so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its
+normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been
+performed upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially
+useful to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a
+white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching being
+corrected before printing.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.]
+
+The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in
+a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of another stretching
+machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by Mr.
+Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of Salford, who makes a specialty of
+calico printers' and finishers' machinery. The improvements consist
+mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly
+substantial construction of the machine. The principle adopted is a
+well-known one. The selvages of the cloth, or more strictly the two
+edges of the cloth, of a width of about two inches, are caused to pass
+over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys.
+The rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they
+seize it, hence the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly
+performed. The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt
+acting against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held
+between them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by
+the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, CC, of
+which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley. The
+lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw
+for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands. The
+stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft, an
+ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to
+be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it
+without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts. The piece,
+wound upon the ordinary batch shell, is placed upon the running-off
+center, D; it is led off over the rails, EE, and then downward to the
+nip of the bands and pulleys, AA. As explained, the selvages are here
+gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are
+wider apart at the back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed
+underneath, the piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the
+back it passes over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening
+rail, G, and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be
+seen. The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills
+it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the
+driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle to
+the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as to
+separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the treatment of
+different widths of cloths. This adjustment is provided for by mounting
+the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band pulleys, CC, etc., on frames,
+BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, upon rails, at the back and front
+of the machine. The adjustment either for width of piece or for the
+angularity (extent of stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L.
+By the bevel wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the
+ends of frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space
+between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened
+out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may be
+separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously made. The
+wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use of which is
+sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a set of stretching
+pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in illustration. By a proper
+adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form, where it
+passes between the whole of them, the effect of the corrugation being
+to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally
+stretched with those near the selvages and more easily. This part of the
+machine may be used or not as required. The production, we observe, was
+about 120 yards per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted
+together, as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course
+of construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of
+considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods,
+on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small
+disturbance to the stiffening.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS.
+
+
+All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable
+fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction.
+The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in the operation, acts
+injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially during the formation of
+hydrochloric acid, with which process especially the development of an
+injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable. The best
+method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the
+moisture naturally present in the wool. The patentees find agitation of
+the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material
+assistance. The operation maybe successfully performed in two
+ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with
+constant agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For
+the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture
+at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and having apertures
+all round to allow free access of air. This cylinder rests on a hollow
+axle, closed at one end and perforated with holes, through which the
+acid gas is passed. By the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn
+through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby
+it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30 deg.
+Cent. is best suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according
+to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the
+gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted by
+the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully saturated,
+the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are
+sufficiently friable. The treatment _in vacuo_ is as follows:
+
+The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material
+provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this false bottom
+a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a
+vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the maximum vacuum is
+attained, the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of
+40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth.
+The warmth set free (about 500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up
+by the combined water in the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a
+quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor
+streams through the second vessel at a temperature of 35 deg. Cent.,
+penetrates the material, and passes out through the pump. After
+saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the
+second. AS soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first
+vessel is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus
+from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents gas
+passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under reduced
+pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing
+alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in
+evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after saturation by
+these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels, after
+which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles
+are friable. As soon as this occurs, the fabrics are washed. It is
+advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta,
+strontia, magnesia, or preferably lime, and subsequently to rinse in
+pure water. Phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed
+for neutralizing the acid, and the residue recovered and separated from
+the organic residues mixed with it.--"_H. J.," Journal of the Society of
+Chemical Industry._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are
+characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the results of
+numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable
+fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides
+and chlorides which, when submitted to electrolysis, permit oxygen and
+chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state.
+
+The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile
+substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only those most
+generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined
+action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the same manner,
+whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state.
+
+In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile
+materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any
+sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel
+containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the
+hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are
+capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a nascent
+state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents.
+
+The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the
+electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less
+length of time, according to the nature of the material to be bleached,
+and must, after this first operation, be washed, rinsed, and dried.
+
+The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides
+and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have been specially
+utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, the alkaline
+hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes.
+
+In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in
+presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the
+results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as
+bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and economical
+to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its
+elements from the metallic chloride itself, and from the water by means
+of which such transformation is to be effected. This is a reversal of
+the problem, and, _a propos_ thereof, we would call the attention of
+the reader to an apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for
+effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner.
+
+If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be submitted
+to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material
+to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the
+following way:
+
+2NaCl + 2 H_{2}O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H.
+
+In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results
+from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the
+chloride of sodium and water, which puts the chlorine, the metal, the
+hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in presence. The chlorine and
+oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material.
+
+While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be preferable to
+adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement.
+
+The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A,
+into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any
+electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a
+safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates with
+a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication between the
+electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in this latter is
+sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part of the vessel, A,
+by means of the tubes, G and H.
+
+The apparatus operates as follows:
+
+The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is put, is
+filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of chloride of
+sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action of an electric
+current, when, as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of
+the chloride and the water, the elements in a nascent state form
+hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total conversion of the liquid
+has been effected (this being ascertained by chlorometric tests), the
+pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, and, as a consequence, draws up
+the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower
+part of the electrolyzer, A. The hypochlorite that has formed passes
+through the tube, D (as a natural consequence of the elevation of the
+level of the liquid in A brought about by the entrance of a new supply
+of chloride), and distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it
+acts upon the textile material.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS BY ELECTRICITY.]
+
+The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, permits
+of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical
+reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution contained in the
+reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator.
+
+As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution from
+the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid conversion into
+decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt application upon the
+materials to be bleached, presents important advantages.
+
+While, in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching
+chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid,
+which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in its turn react upon
+binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with this new method, to
+utilize the chloride of sodium, which is derived from ordinary salt
+works, and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite
+by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an
+electric current.
+
+Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of
+having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a
+uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by the always known
+intensity of the current.
+
+We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time
+to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, besides, all
+chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of
+undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed
+for the same purpose. This is especially the case with the chlorides
+of potassium or barium, the bromides of strontium or calcium, and the
+iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On another hand, as sea water contains
+different chlorides, it results that it might serve directly as a raw
+material for bleaching textile fibers. Then, when the solution of
+chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis,
+there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for
+scouring fibers.--_H. Danzer, in Le Genie Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.
+
+
+Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, Hunslet, Leeds,
+England, for several years past have devoted considerable attention to
+the question of mounting traction engines on springs. The outcome of
+this is the engine in question, the front end of which is carried by a
+pair of Timmis spiral springs, resting on the center pin of the front
+axle, which is on Messrs. McLaren's principle, which enables it to
+accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any
+undue strain on the front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has
+been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur
+gearing, which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the
+cogs. This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all
+the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which will
+be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which Fig. 1 is a
+perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a detail view of the
+wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong
+T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted on. The nave of the wheel
+has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted. These spokes are
+made of the best spring steel, specially manufactured and rolled for the
+purpose, 9 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape,
+with the narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon
+the rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places
+by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine
+comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and
+those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of the
+driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is fixed on the
+differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in Fig. 2, so that
+the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the
+engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence
+in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly
+tested it in practical work. This, we are informed, they have done, with
+the most satisfactory results, during the last five or six months; and
+they have a set of springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and
+3,000 miles, besides which there are several of these spring engines in
+daily use.--_Iron_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, AND WEIGHTS
+OF PURE COPPER WIRE.
+
+
+         DIAMETER    |         AREA
+                     |
+B.W.G  Inch. Milli-  | Circu-  Square      Square
+No.          metres  | lar     inches.     Milli-
+                     | Mils.               metres.
+                     |
+0000   .454  11.5313 | 206116  .161883     10.4435
+ 000   .425  10.795  | 180625  .141862      9.152
+  00   .38    9.6518 | 144400  .113411      7.3165
+   0   .34    8.6358 | 115600  .0907922     5.8573
+   1   .3     7.620  |  90000  .070686      4.5602
+   2   .284   7.2134 |  80656  .0633472     4.0867
+   3   .259   6.5784 |  67081  .0526854     3.3989
+   4   .238   6.0451 |  56644  .0444881     2.8701
+   5   .22    5.5879 |  48400  .0380133     2.4523
+   6   .203   5.1561 |  41209  .0323655     2.088
+   7   .18    4.5719 |  32400  .0254469     1.6417
+   8   .165   4.1909 |  27225  .0213825     1.3794
+   9   .148   3.7591 |  21904  .0172034     1.1098
+  10   .134   3.4035 |  17956  .0141026      .9096
+  11   .12    3.0479 |  14400  .0113097      .7296
+  12   .109   2.7701 |  11881  .00933133     .60199
+  13   .095   2.4129 |   9025  .0070882      .4573
+  14   .083   2.1082 |   6889  .00541062     .34906
+  15   .072   1.8288 |   5184  .00407151     .2486
+  16   .065   1.6510 |   4225  .00331831     .21407
+  17   .058   1.4732 |   3364  .0026421      .17045
+  18   .049   1.2446 |   2401  .00188574     .12165
+  19   .042   1.0668 |   1764  .00138544     .0894
+  20   .035   0.8890 |   1225  .000962115    .06207
+  21   .032   0.8128 |   1024  .00080425     .05188
+  22   .028   0.7112 |    784  .000615753    .03972
+  23   .025   0.635  |    625  .00049087     .03167
+  24   .022   0.5588 |    484  .000380133    .02452
+  25   .02    0.508  |    400  .00031416     .02027
+
+  26   .018   0.4571 |    324  .000254469    .01642
+  27   .016   0.4064 |    256  .000201062    .01297
+  28   .014   0.3556 |    196  .000153938    .00993
+  29   .013   0.3302 |    169  .000132732    .00856
+  30   .012   0.3048 |    144  .000113097    .007296
+
+LENGTH AND WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Pounds      Pounds       Pounds      Pounds      Feet       Yards        1.000 feet  Miles
+No.    per         per          per 1.000   per         per lb.    per lb.      per lb.     per lb.
+       foot.       Yard         ft.         mile.
+
+0000   .623924     1.871772     623.924     3294.32       1.60276     .534253    .00160276  .00303553
+ 000   .54676      1.64028      546.76      2886.89       1.82895     .60965     .00182895  .0034639
+  00   .437105     1.311315     437.105     2307.92       2.28777     .76259     .00228777  .004333
+   0   .349928     1.049784     349.928     1847.62       2.85773     .9525766   .00285773  .0054124
+   1   .272435      .817305     272.435     1438.43       3.6706     1.22353     .0036706   .0069519
+   2   .244151      .732453     244.151     1289.11       4.0958     1.365266    .0040958   .0077573
+   3   .203058      .609174     203.058     1072.15       4.9247     1.641566    .0049247   .009327
+   4   .171463      .514395     171.465      905.333      5.8321     1.944033    .0058321   .0110457
+   5   .14651       .43953      146.510      773.56       6.8255     2.275166    .0068255   .012927
+   6   .124742      .374226     124.742      658.638      8.0165     2.672166    .0080165   .015183
+   7   .098076      .294228      98.076      517.844     10.1962     3.39873     .0101962   .019311
+   8   .082411      .247233      82.411      435.135     12.1345     4.04483     .0121345   .022981
+   9   .066305      .198915      66.305      350.089     15.0818     5.027266    .0150818   .028564
+  10   .054354      .163062      54.354      286.99      18.398      6.13266     .018398    .034845
+  11   .04359       .13077       43.590      230.152     22.9413     7.6471      .0229413   .04345
+  12   .035964      .107892      35.964      189.893     27.805      9.2683      .027805    .05266
+  13   .027319      .081957      27.319      144.245     36.6046    12.20153     .0366046   .069326
+  14   .020853      .062559      20.853      110.1088    47.954     15.98466     .047954    .09082
+  15   .015692      .047076      15.692       82.855     63.7267    21.24223     .0637261   .12069
+  16   .012789      .038367      12.789       67.5276    78.1902    26.0634      .0781902   .14809
+  17   .0101828     .0305484     10.1828      53.7665    98.202     32.734       .098203    .18589
+  18   .00726795    .02180388     7.26796     38.3748    137.590    45.8633      .137590    .260587
+  19   .00533972    .01601916     5.33972     28.1937    187.276    62.4253      .187276    .35469
+  20   .00370815    .01112445     3.70815     19.579     269.676    89.892       .2696676   .51075
+  21   .00309972    .00929910     3.09972     16.3665    322.610   107.5366      .322610    .61100
+  22   .00237312    .00711936     2.37312     12.5301    421.384   140.4613      .421334    .798078
+  23   .0018910     .0056757      1.8919       9.9892    528.570   176.190       .528570    .100108
+  24   .0014650     .0043950      1.4650       7.7357    682.55    227.5166      .68255     .129271
+  25   .00121082    .00363246     1.21082      6.39315   825.880   275.2943      .825883    .156417
+  26   .00098077    .00294231      .98077      5.17844  1019.61    339.870      1.01961     .193108
+  27   .00077492    .00232476      .77492      4.0916   1290.44    430.1466     1.29044     .24440
+  28   .0005933     .0017799       .5933       3.13264  1685.48    561.8266     1.68548     .31922
+  29   .000511571   .001534713     .511571     2.7011   1954.76    651.5866     1.95476     .370220
+  30   .0004359     .0013077       .4359       2.30152  2294.13    764.710      2.29413     .434496
+
+LENGTH AND RESISTANCE
+
+B.W.G  Feet         Yards        1.000 feet   Miles      Ohms         Ohms          Ohms        Ohms
+No.    per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.   per foot.    per yard.     per 1.000   per mile.
+                                                                                    foot.
+
+0000   19966.5      6655.5       19.9665      3.7815     .000050684   .00156252       .050084      .264443
+ 000   17497.15     5832.3833    17.49715     3.31385    .0000571522  .0001714566     .0571522     .301763
+  00   13988.64     4662.68      13.98804     2.64925    .000071489   .000214467      .071489      .377465
+   0   11198.17     3732.7333    11.19817     2.12086    .0000893002  .0002679006     .0893002     .471505
+   1    8718.30     2906.10       8.71830     1.6512     .00011470    .0003441        .114701      .60562
+   2    7813.50     2604.50       7.81350     1.47973    .00012799    .00038397       .12799       .67580
+   3    6498.14     2166.0466     6.49814     1.23071    .00015389    .00046167       .15389       .81254
+   4    5487.107    1829.0357     5.487107    1.03923    .000182245   .000546735      .182245      .962256
+   5    4688.51     1562.8366     4.68851      .887975   .000213287   .000639861      .213287     1.12616
+   6    3991.91     1330.6366     3.99191      .756045   .000250506   .000751518      .250506     1.32267
+   7    3138.59     1046.1966     3.13859      .59443    .000318614   .000955842      .318614     1.68228
+   8    2637.29      879.0966     2.63729      .499486   .000379177   .001137531      .379177     2.00206
+   9    2121.84      707.280      2.12184      .401864   .000471289   .001413867      .471289     2.488405
+  10    1739.40      579.80       1.73940      .329432   .000574911   .001724733      .574911     3.03553
+  11    1394.93      464.9766     1.39493      .264191   .000716882   .002150646      .716882     3.78514
+  12    1150.91      383.6366     1.15091      .217976   .000868875   .002606625      .868875     4.58766
+  13     874.252     291.4173      .874252     .165578   .00114383    .00343149       1.14383     6.03945
+  14     667.338     222.446       .667338     .12639    .00149849    .00449547       1.49849     7.91203
+  15     502.175     167.39166     .502175     .095109   .00199134    .00597402       1.99134    10.5142
+  16     409.276     136.42533     .409276     .077514   .00244334    .00733002       2.44334    12.9008
+  17     325.871     108.62366     .325871     .061718   .0030687     .0092061        3.0687     16.20274
+  18     232.585      77.52833     .232585     .04405    .0042995     .0128985        4.2995     22.7014
+  19     170.879      56.95966     .170879     .032363   .0058521     .0175563        5.8521     30.8991
+  20     149.3915     49.797166    .1493915    .022475   .00842703    .02528109       8.42703    44.4947
+  21      99.195      33.065       .099195     .018787   .01008110    .03024348      10.08116    53.2285
+  22      75.9461     25.315366    .0759461    .014384   .0131672     .0395016       13.1672     69.5230
+  23      60.54377    20.181256    .06054377   .011467   .0165170     .0495510       16.5170     87.2096
+  24      46.8851     15.628356    .0468851    .0088798  .02132874    .06398622      21.32874   112.616
+  25      38.748      12.916       .038748     .0073386  .025808      .077424        25.808     136.265
+  26      31.3859     10.461966    .0313859    .0059443  .03186144    .09558432      31.86144   168.229
+  27      24.79873     8.266243    .02479873   .0046967  .0403246     .1209738       40.3246    212.914
+  28      18.98653     6.328843    .01898653   .0035959  .05266892    .15800676      52.66892   278.092
+  29      16.3710      5.4570      .0163710    .0031006  .0610834     .1832502       61.0834    322.521
+  30      13.9493      4.649766    .0139493    .0026419  .07168825    .21506475      71.68825   378.514
+
+RESISTANCE & WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Ohms           Lbs.
+No.    per lb.        per Ohm.
+
+0000      .000080272  12457.5
+ 000      .000104529   9566.7
+  00      .000163553   6114.24
+   0      .000255196   3918.58
+   1      .00042102    2375.18
+   2      .00052422    1907.59
+   3      .00075786    1319.50
+   4      .0010629      940.844
+   5      .0014558      686.911
+   6      .0020082      497.96
+   7      .00324863     307.822
+   8      .00460101     217.343
+   9      .00710791     140.689
+  10      .0105772       94.543
+  11      .0164462       60.842
+  12      .0241593       41.392
+  13      .0418692       23.8839
+  14      .0718583       13.9163
+  15      .126788         7.8872
+  16      .191045         5.2344
+  17      .301355         3.31835
+  18      .59157          1.6904
+  19     1.09596           .912445
+  20     2.27254           .44003
+  21     3.25229           .30748
+  22     5.54843           .18023
+  23     8.73035           .11454
+  24    14.5579            .068691
+  25    21.3142            .046917
+  26    32.4863            .030782
+  27    52.0367            .019217
+  28    88.7724            .011265
+  29   119.404             .008375
+  30   164.4762            .0060804
+
+PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 mil.
+foot at 60 deg. Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, 10.32311 ohms. Upon
+these data the above Table has been calculated.
+
+The _Resistance_ of Copper varies with the temperature about 0.38 per
+cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per degree Fahrenheit.
+
+STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of
+_Stranded_ Wires, the total _weight_ is _greater_, and the _Resistance
+less_ than is a similar length of Conductor with Wires _not_ Stranded.
+
+  To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994
+              Feet to Metres            "         .3048
+              Yards to Metres           "         .9144
+              Miles to Kilometres       "         .6214
+              Pounds to Kilogrammes     "         .45359
+
+PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE MAKERS, 25,
+BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IRON FRAME GANG MILLS.
+
+
+The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid
+and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent improvements
+tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown in the iron frame
+stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East Saginaw, Mich., are
+eminently valuable. Our large engraving represents one of these mills,
+constructed to be driven by belt, friction, or direct engine, as may be
+desired. The important requisite in this class of mills is such design
+and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement
+at the highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the
+quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of thinner
+saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are among the
+advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming the necessity
+of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense in setting up, and
+avoiding the liability of decay or change of position.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.]
+
+Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation, and
+from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the
+Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and bottom slides. The top
+slides are pivoted at the top end, and the bottom ones from the bottom
+end, both being operated by one rock shaft from the center. This
+movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest
+cut yet obtained. It adds no extra weight to the sash, and avoids the
+cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints, usually weighing from
+three hundred to five hundred pounds, which have been found so
+objectionable in many other movements. The feed is continuous, and is
+made variable from 1/4 to 11/4 inch to each stroke, controllable by the
+sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form
+with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special feature of
+this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests
+upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block
+or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole structure is thus increased,
+both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting
+vibrations, which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same
+part, as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use.
+
+The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws 41/2 feet
+long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke 20 inches, capable
+of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank shaft is nine inches in
+diameter, of the best forged iron. The main pillow block has a base
+61/2 feet long by 21 inches bearing, weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap
+is secured by two forged bolts 31/2 inches in diameter, and by this
+arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is
+used with suitable counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and
+speed of sash; a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a
+forged pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes.
+The iron drive pulley is 4 to 41/2 feet in diameter and 24 inches face;
+the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 pounds, turned
+off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is required, a proportionate
+increase is made in all these parts.
+
+In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; the lower
+girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without rivets, giving
+the greatest strength possible, with the least weight. The outfit also
+includes eight iron rollers for the floor, 81/2 inches in diameter, with
+iron stands, and geared as live rolls when desired, a full set of
+Lippencott's steel saw hangings, and gauges for one-inch lumber. The
+weight of the machine here shown is 181/2 tons. They are, however, built
+in larger or smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity
+of work desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of the
+Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and Hollanders
+with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early fruits are taken
+from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, whence they
+are carried by fast steamers to London and other English ports. But, on
+the other hand, Germany is sending into Italy large quantities of coal,
+iron, machinery, copper, and other articles of which the latter received
+nothing before. In two months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of
+paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS.
+
+
+The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in
+accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out in
+such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been applied
+with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the Glasgow
+Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a period of about
+twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens successfully adapted his
+system to the firing of retorts at the Paris Gas Works, it seems to have
+made but little progress up to the present time; for what reasons it is
+perhaps difficult to explain. It is certain, however, that so-called
+regenerator furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been
+brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the
+Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has
+received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion
+eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be
+certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an
+illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with
+its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, the electric light. Of course,
+it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative
+principle at the Paris Gas Works was attended with a degree of
+complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so
+expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies
+and gas corporations generally, when the expense as well as the
+scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying
+and utilizing heat had to be considered. Fortunately, however, Dr.
+Siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was
+no such thing as "finality" in that department of invention which he had
+made almost exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed
+his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and
+utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most
+decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements
+now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been
+immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility has in
+no way been interfered with.
+
+Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer and
+regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. Foulis, the
+general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, with the view of
+entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale
+at one of the stations under his charge. Encouraged by the hearty
+co-operation of the gas committee, two or three of whose members were
+well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very soon came to an understanding with
+Dr. Siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at
+the Dalmarnock Gas Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city,
+and the largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number
+of retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent shape
+was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, but which
+number has since been increased to eight, owing to the space occupied
+by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for
+an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" setting. For each oven or
+chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer,
+so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought
+necessary.
+
+[Illustration: GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW
+CORPORATION GAS WORKS.]
+
+In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement and the
+relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the retorts to
+each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of _sine qua non_ of the new
+method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close
+proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be
+used, and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be
+immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts, and with its top
+on a level with the working floor of the retort house. To place it
+in such a position meant a good deal of excavation, which was also
+required, however, for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried
+down to a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and
+as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted
+to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division
+walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, were
+in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a good deal
+of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas
+producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of application and
+by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements
+from time to time, as also by a determination not to be beaten, although
+often disheartened, Mr. Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete
+success. The new system of firing being made so simple that there was
+scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice
+if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+The results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens, or a
+total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith
+resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench
+of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; and all the improvements
+which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the
+four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the
+remaining eight ovens in the bench. More recently the regenerator system
+has been applied to other 22 ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the
+whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house; and during the
+very depth of the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its
+greatest height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings,
+amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition they
+still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable extension
+of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and
+summer. The reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens
+of seven retorts each, giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts; and
+to twenty ovens of five retorts each, which will become sixteen ovens,
+each having eight retorts, making 128 retorts in this division, and the
+total being 208 retorts in place of 170 in the same amount of space. It
+is confidently anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of
+the present year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working
+out the new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the
+confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the
+Glasgow Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the
+actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas
+retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are
+being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the Dawsholm
+Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of Maryhill, and some
+four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock Works in a northwestern
+direction. The station just named, which is also a very large one, will
+probably require two years for its conversion.
+
+We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted
+for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel to the
+greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing
+the cannel coal used as the source of the gas.
+
+The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in Fig. 2, is
+a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron. It is 7
+ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, which becomes reduced to 20
+in. above, where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid, which is
+continuous with the floor of the retort house. There are no firebars
+at the bottom, so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick. At the
+bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about 1 ft.
+in length by 6 in. in height. By means of these openings any clinker
+that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn.
+They also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in
+the lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a
+malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam
+boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the
+steam.
+
+The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it
+has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of
+carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made from Scotch cannel
+the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains a large percentage of
+mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon. The retorts are
+worked with three-hour charges, but the producer is only charged once in
+every six hours For each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel
+is about 18 cwt., and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from
+five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the
+top. Formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a
+furnace underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made,
+but now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced
+to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly was.
+Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the
+producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by
+way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it has been filled up
+to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the
+top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon it and driven home, thereby
+making a perfectly air-tight joint. The contents of the other three
+retorts, as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each
+alternate drawing, are taken to the coke heap in the yard. We have
+already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about 18 cwt. for each set
+of eight retorts, but in connection with that matter we should mention
+that it was formerly about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts,
+and that there is every prospect of it being increased without
+increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each
+charge.
+
+It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the
+mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air admitted at the
+several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers
+of the incandescent coke, the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid
+gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air. Among the middle and upper
+layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further
+quantity of the fixed carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic
+oxide gas (CO_{2}+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses
+considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very
+completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the producer, a
+quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide,
+the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former
+increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen associated with
+the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the
+carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of
+course absolutely useless as a generator of heat. The steam which
+we previously spoke of serves two good purposes. In contact with
+incandescent coke it suffers decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some
+of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which
+is set free passes onward, and mixes with the other gases to be
+subsequently consumed with them. The admission of the steam thus causes
+the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition
+takes place, this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion
+of the hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the
+coke in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely
+preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious
+materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke
+obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to 20 per
+cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the
+bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours.
+Referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel
+coke in one of these gas producers, we give the following typical
+analysis on the authority of Dr. William Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas
+examiner, and one of the public analysts for the city of Glasgow:
+
+                     Per cent.
+  Hydrogen             8.7
+  Carbonic oxide      28.1
+  Carbonic acid        3.5
+  Oxygen               0.4
+  Nitrogen            59.3
+                     -----
+                     100.0
+
+By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an opening is
+provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the
+mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of
+the setting and the lower by the regenerators.
+
+Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the
+arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be
+admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible
+nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper is
+occupied by eight [Inline Illustration] shaped retorts. These are 9 ft.
+long (set back to back) by 18 in. by 13 in., and they are placed on
+arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. wide. Underneath the level of the retort
+oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ
+very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr.
+Siemens to gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high
+temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In
+the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating
+system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat
+of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, the
+current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork, while
+air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated. The system
+thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part
+of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the
+currents. The regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six
+zigzag flues, three on each side of the setting. These flues run the
+whole length of the setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing
+downward in Fig. 3, the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack
+pass to and fro through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion
+of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the
+central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air necessary
+for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center, and
+then it is divided into two currents, which pass right and left into the
+central passages of the two regenerators. As the air flue is at a very
+bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it, the
+temperature of the air must be equally great, or nearly so. In its most
+improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount
+of heating surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the
+air on its way to the combustion chamber.
+
+Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the gas
+enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it meets
+the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, not by a
+number of small openings, but by one large opening on each side, and
+meets the air entering also by a large opening, the effect of which is
+to avoid the localization of intense heat, as all the retorts of the
+setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame, due to the
+combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases.
+
+There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas
+retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the extent
+of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided
+increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as it has been
+experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that, by
+increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer can be made to
+provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight
+retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel
+used will be still further reduced. Then, again, an additional retort
+can well be placed in each oven, as it occupies the position of the fire
+in ordinary settings. In the third place, by the greater heat which is
+obtained, the charges can be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges
+can be carbonized in a given space of time. When all the gains are put
+together, the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per
+cent. over any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator
+settings there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous
+fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any
+trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of
+the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but natural to
+expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which
+is really the case. Another advantage is that, as the fuel used in
+the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the flues cannot by any
+possibility arise. It is the confident opinion of Mr. Foulis that the
+system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas
+works, and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the
+summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to
+eight retorts.
+
+As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and
+regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great amount
+of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many persons have
+visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their reconstruction, in order
+to see the system in operation, and doubtless many more will go and do
+likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses,
+and which are likely to increase rather than diminish.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN.
+
+
+During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and one,
+moreover, destined to materially influence the development of the uses
+of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the guidance of Mr.
+Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, London. The experiment
+in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating
+bakers' ovens, in a manner not hitherto attempted, and such as to bring
+the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the
+smallest towns. It will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated
+muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of
+a model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in action
+at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the winter
+of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but its design
+demanded either a new structure in every case, or considerable
+alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed system, moreover,
+the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be
+necessary to meet the objections of the bakers. It is evident, however,
+that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles
+and brickwork, such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven,
+from the outside; and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel
+as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that
+in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire.
+When it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is
+of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in the
+estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to allowing a
+purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to
+fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. Consequently, when
+Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known
+in England and America, seriously addressed himself to construct, upon
+altogether new lines, a cheap and practical baker's oven, he wisely put
+the gas inside.
+
+There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after consultation with
+practical bakers and others, set himself to fulfill, the observance
+of which lends to the present Blackfriars experiment much of its
+interesting character. Thus it was observed that, while it is not
+difficult to build an oven in a given spot, and bake bread in it, this
+cannot truly be called a _baker's_ oven. By this term must be understood
+in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style
+and worked by a man with his living to get by it. Before the problem of
+extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be
+attacked from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to
+have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw
+that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting it
+inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any general
+success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be
+rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The latter seems
+a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered that the only
+improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam
+oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or three hundred pounds to
+erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible
+for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven; and in this
+respect he set himself to surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will
+not bake the common "batch" or household bread, generally the principal
+article of sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The
+peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from
+the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is found simply
+in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted
+to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the oven, and thence radiated to
+the bread. No other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves
+packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly
+soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now,
+as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and
+otherwise, this necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly
+a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of
+itself, can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas
+cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as
+formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different kind of heat is
+needed, under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion.
+Therefore, there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides
+of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames; thus
+supplanting the coal fire, but leaving the actual work of baking to be
+done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way.
+
+Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, there
+still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in the dealing
+with which lies the difference between practical success and failure.
+Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking; it is
+also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits
+of work to which the baker has been accustomed. Work in town bakeries
+begins at about midnight, or shortly after, and the condition of the
+oven must conform to the requirements of the dough, which vary from day
+to day and from season to season. In order to master all these niceties,
+as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer
+has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has
+thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has
+served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his gas heat, but in
+answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in
+an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with considerable satisfaction
+that we are enabled to declare, after duly weighing all the conditions
+as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others, that Mr.
+Booer has succeeded, upon these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas
+to be a cheap, efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the
+control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself.
+
+The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the
+bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It measures 7 feet by
+6 feet internally; being what is technically termed a 6 bushel oven. The
+alterations made by Mr. Booer consist in the first place in the removal
+of the flooring tiles, and the laying down of a new bottom, under which
+run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the
+furnace, where it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight
+pieces of 3/4-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall,
+and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the
+gas-burners, which are supplied from a 11/2-inch pipe led into the old
+furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted
+in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all the plant
+required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to
+different points of the side walls, and the products of combustion are
+allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose.
+A supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion
+of the gas in these flues, which would otherwise be languid. When the
+gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or
+the bottom set of burners, a long match is used to light them from
+the same point. This is effected without risk of firing back, by the
+adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the
+pattern of which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in
+a sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at
+the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the
+products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney,
+which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as might be
+expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable
+position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this case by the fact that
+the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft. Finally,
+however, the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results.
+During the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use, and the
+bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade.
+Two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven;
+the economy of its use, of course, increasing with the number of loaves
+turned out. As a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the
+oven is wanted, and about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are
+shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in
+which time it ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the
+batch is set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a
+half, according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are
+baked with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s.
+10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This cannot be
+considered costly. But the system possesses many other advantages. In
+the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; for the oven never
+requires wiping out, which is usually done with a bundle of old rope
+called a "scuffle" and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant
+odor. Then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of
+view of the Smoke Abatement Institution. More to the purpose of the
+journeyman baker, however, is the fact that there is no stoking to be
+done, and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to
+attend to the furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of
+knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to
+the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is
+no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. Loeber,
+having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning, and marked
+how they have been overcome, is content to acknowledge that even this
+first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold
+over the counter. There is a good opening in this direction, for there
+are 6,000 bakeries in London alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's
+system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his
+customers. And what may be done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic
+feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns
+where the price is lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a
+proper spirit. He has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of
+the baker; and has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a
+noteworthy success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his
+perseverance merits.--_Jour. of Gas Lighting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB.
+
+
+Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the whirlpool
+and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born at Irongate,
+near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 feet 8 inches in
+height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and weighed about 141/2 stone.
+He learnt to swim when about seven years old, and was trained as a
+sailor on board the Conway training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved
+the life of a fellow seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez
+Canal and cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on
+board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the life of
+a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an hour before
+he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received a gold and
+other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but soon after he
+relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming.
+
+At long distance swimming in salt water he was _facile princeps_, but he
+did not show to such advantage in fresh water. In June, 1874, he swam
+from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a distance of 11 statute miles.
+On July 3, 1875, he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier,
+nearly 18 statute miles, in 4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same
+month he swam from Dover to Ramsgate, 191/4 statute miles, in 8 hours 45
+minutes. On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France,
+and although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the
+distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 151/2 statute miles, in 6
+hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made another attempt,
+which rendered his name famous all over the English-speaking world.
+Starting from Dover, he reached the French coast at Calais, after being
+immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 minutes. He had swum over 39
+miles, or, according to another calculation, 451/2 miles, without having
+touched a boat or artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam
+at the Lambeth Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at
+Boston, U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 1281/2 hours. Latterly he had
+suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had become much
+impaired.
+
+[Illustration: CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.]
+
+The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief
+description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from the
+boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the shouts and
+applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam leisurely down the
+river, but made good progress. He passed along the rapids at a great
+pace, and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the
+Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the bridge the river becomes
+exceedingly violent, and as the water was clear every movement of Webb
+could be seen. At one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave,
+and the next he sank into the awful hollow created. As the river became
+narrower, and still more impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a
+wave, and for a few moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose
+to the surface without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily
+increased, and he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he
+was swept into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the
+highest wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into
+the yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry
+waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the waves.
+He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more alive. Some
+days later his body was found four miles below the fatal Rapids. It bore
+tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone.
+His bathing drawers were torn to fragments, and there was a deep wound
+in his head. An inquest was held, and the jury returned a verdict of
+"Found drowned."
+
+Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a widow and
+two children. It is understood that he risked his life in this last
+fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family.--_London
+Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY.
+
+
+These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, which is
+the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. As regards
+accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized
+drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; well-lighted entrance
+halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, pantry, and scullery; on
+first floor are three good bedrooms, a bathroom, and other necessary
+accommodation; on second floor are two additional bedrooms. The basement
+contains coal-place and larder.
+
+In these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned
+and well-arranged habitations, combined with a pleasing and picturesque
+exterior, without involving a large outlay of money. The materials used
+are brick of a deep red color for facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs.
+Wilcock & Co., of Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a
+very sparing use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables
+are constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned
+together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with brickwork;
+the panels faced with cement, which, together with the cored cornice,
+are finished in vellum color. The whole of the woodwork of exterior is
+painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, forming an admirable contrast
+with the deep red of the bricks, the sashes and casements only being
+finished in cream color. The whole of the chimneypieces in the interior
+are carried out from the architect's special design; those in the
+drawing-rooms being of mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those
+in dining-rooms of oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished.
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS,
+BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.]
+
+The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have been
+erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, have cost
+L1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including the price of
+land. They have been carried out from the designs and under the
+superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., architect, of St.
+Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--_The Architect_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS.
+
+
+In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary
+precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained
+to take, it is of some interest to us, says the _Building News_, to know
+how the poor are housed in the city of Paris, which contains, more than
+any city in the world, the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence
+and of sordid, bestial poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working
+classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and
+reflect great discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough
+in the case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle
+of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. In
+1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in the city
+of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the succeeding year,
+the former had increased to 22,061, while the latter had somewhat
+diminished, being only 5,493. There was a census taken in 1881, from
+which it appeared that Paris contained 677,253 operatives and 255,604
+employes and clerks, while out of every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only
+were born in the city, and 565 came from the departments or the French
+colonies. The foreign element in the working classes has increased
+very rapidly, numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an
+addition of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75
+foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not be
+amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population is at
+the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years 1876-81, the city
+received 280,217 additional mouths. The total population of the capital
+is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are males.
+
+Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were
+estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, and
+in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the
+majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in almost any
+other great city in the world. There are two classes of lodgings for the
+poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family,
+and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the other, a single room tenanted
+for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the
+morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can. Readers will remember
+how, under the auspices of M. Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled
+down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues.
+While the work lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did
+not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation
+invaded his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that
+densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de l'Opera
+now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman into the
+already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, St. Lambert,
+Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last statistics of the
+_Annuaire_, the increase was at the rate of 415 per 1,000. Of course the
+ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also; and, from
+the reports of Dr. Brouardel and M. Muller, the number of deaths from
+typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in
+making his returns for 1881 of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that
+the most unsanitary arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and
+19th--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had
+taken place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging
+houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 inmates.
+In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, with 9,074
+lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants.
+
+It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a
+standing menace to the health of the city, but also the shocking state
+of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with. The
+owners of the property are, as happens in other places besides Paris,
+unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, and have not only divided
+and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible, but have even raised
+the rental in nearly all cases. Whole families are crowded into a small
+apartment, icy cold in winter, an oven in summer, the only air and
+daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on
+to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There
+are at the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove
+nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 rooms
+there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 with three
+children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian population has
+augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the district of poor
+lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., and the number of
+lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a law was passed in 1850
+to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property; but
+in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, although it is now active in the
+provinces and in places like Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it
+is applied, even there, in a jerky and intermittent manner.
+
+Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the
+group known as the Cite des Kroumirs, in the 13th arrondissement, which,
+by a strange irony, was built on land belonging to the Department of
+Public Assistance, which was let out by that body to a rich tenant, who
+sublet it to these lodging-house owners. This veritable den of infection
+and misery has now been demolished; but there are plenty of others quite
+as bad. Notably, there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to
+have named it after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five
+stories, which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that
+it was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages
+here. The Cite Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the
+"Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is inhabited
+by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The Cite Philippe is
+tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows what are the contents
+of the chiffonnier's basket, or _hotte_, may easily guess at the
+effluvia of that particular group of houses. A large lodging-house in
+the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted by 210 Italians, who get their living
+as models or itinerant musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to
+be unapproachable from the vermin.
+
+It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened
+the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more than one
+scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial
+dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the Credit Foncier
+for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses, which, for the
+space of twenty years, will be exempt from all taxes, such as
+octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There are also one or
+two semi-private companies, which are occupying themselves with the
+question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in
+Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There can be no doubt, says the _Engineer_, that the inventor who could
+supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give
+out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune.
+Up to the present time, however, nothing of the kind has been placed
+in the market. Gas is laid on to most houses now, and gas engines are
+plenty enough, yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may
+be made yet perhaps to supply.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC.
+
+
+To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats do not
+colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will distinguish them as a
+rumbling noise, even when their number rises as high as 132 vibrations
+per second, Rudolph Koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks,
+recently presented by President Morton to the Stevens Institute of
+Technology. The following table exhibits the number of vibrations per
+second of these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are
+sounded together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant sound:
+
+  Vibrations per second.         Ratio.        Beats.        Sounds.
+
+  3840           :4096           15:16         128            Ut_{2}
+  3904           :  "            61:64          96           Sol_{1}
+  3936           :  "           123:128         80            Mi_{1}
+  3968           :  "            31:32          64            Ut_{1}
+  3976           :  "           497:512         60            Si_{-1}
+  3989.3         :  "           187:192         53.3          La_{-1}
+  4000           :  "           125:128         48           Sol_{1}
+  4010.7         :  "            47:48          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  4016           :  "           251:256         40            Mi_{-1}
+  4024           :  "           503:512         36            Re_{-1}
+  7936           : 8192          31:32         128            Ut_{2}
+  8064           :  "            63:64          64            Ut_{1}
+  8096           :  "           253:256         48           Sol_{-1}
+  8106.7         :  "            95:96          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  8112           :  "           507:512         40            Mi_{-1}
+  8120           :  "          1015:1024        36            Re_{-4}
+  8128           :  "           127:128         32            Ut_{-4}
+
+On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard corresponds to
+a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of
+vibrations of the forks.
+
+On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the other,
+the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations whose
+number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher
+fork and the upper octave of the lower fork.
+
+Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced
+by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his researces to
+intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as may be seen from the
+above table.
+
+His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same
+phenomenon.
+
+Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing
+a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear musical sound
+is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce 32
+beats per second.
+
+Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the
+purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose
+vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose with
+eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles of
+holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of this
+instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens Institute, and of
+Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by Koenig himself.
+
+
+I.
+
+_Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect_.
+
+A.
+
+In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not deviate
+much from isochronism.
+
+If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note
+corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks.
+
+If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', and if the
+difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two notes t+t' and
+(t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t, t', and
+t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and (t+t'+t")/3.
+
+Disk No. 1 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances   t=30 deg.
+   "   "        2 24  "       "        "          15 deg.
+   "   "        3 36  "       "        "          10 deg.
+   "   "        4 36  "     at irregular distances.
+   "   "        5 36  " distances t= 101/2 deg., t'=l0 deg.,t''=91/2 deg.
+   "   "        6 36  "   "          11 deg.      10 deg.     9 deg.
+   "   "        7 36  "   "          16 deg.      14 deg.
+   "   "        8 36  "   "          161/2 deg.     131/2 deg.
+
+Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle No. 7 the
+same, but the low note is stronger than in 8.
+
+Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does circle 5,
+but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6.
+
+Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle 3.
+
+By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit the air
+through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance of 30 deg. and
+directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning
+disk. If the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve
+times on the same circle, we cannot, of course, make use of the above
+arrangements of holes of the wind tube, and we must then employ one of
+the movable brass tubes, which communicate with the interior of the wind
+chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk
+1, circle 4, for example, requires the use of one of these two tubes,
+while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all
+the other circles of the same disk.
+
+B.
+
+If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note
+(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard.
+
+Disk No. 2 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes,  distances 30 deg.
+   "   "        2 36  "       "        10 deg.
+   "   "        3 48  "       "        71/2 deg.
+   "   "        4 60  "       "         6 deg.
+   "   "        5 24  "       " t= 5 deg., t'=25 deg.
+   "   "        6 24  "            6 deg.     24 deg.
+   "   "        7 24  "            71/2 deg.    221/2 deg.
+   "   "        8 24  "           10 deg.     20 deg.
+
+Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those of 1 and
+3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of circle 1 and of
+its sixth harmonic.
+
+C.
+
+If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; that is to
+say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n.
+
+Disk No. 3 has--
+
+                                                       Distances.
+  On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15 deg.
+   "   "        2 24   "        "     15 deg. & 27 holes,   13-1/3 deg.
+   "   "        3 24   "        "     15 deg. " 30   "      12 deg.
+   "   "        4 24   "        "     15 deg. " 32   "      11-1/4 deg.
+   "   "        5 24   "        "     15 deg. " 36   "      10 deg.
+   "   "        6 24   "        "     15 deg. " 40   "       9 deg.
+   "   "        7 24   "        "     15 deg. " 45   "       8 deg.
+   "   "        8 24   "        "     15 deg. " 30, 36, & 48 holes
+
+Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a third,
+circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 a perfect
+chord.
+
+
+II.
+
+_Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several
+different places to conspire in the formation of a note, provided that
+the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, and that the shocks
+are produced in the same direction_.
+
+Disk No. 4 has--
+
+  On circle 1 24 holes.
+   "    "   2 36   "
+   "    "   3 23   "
+   "    "   4 12 at an angular distance of 10 deg. from the holes
+                  of circle 3.
+   "    "   5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20 deg. from those of circle 3
+   "    "   6 12   "          "     "       0 deg.        "
+   "    "   7 12   "          "     "      15 deg.        "
+   "    "   8 12   "          "     "      15 deg.        "
+
+1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of
+15 deg. are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, we obtain the octave
+of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used.
+
+The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this
+experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of air
+spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button 9 we
+also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between the first.
+Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note
+corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they produce the octave,
+or the note of circle 1.
+
+2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose
+holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the same result.
+
+In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out buttons 7
+and 9.
+
+3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two
+circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these circles sounded
+simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them
+would give alone.
+
+This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and pulling out
+buttons 6 and 7.
+
+4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three
+similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance
+between two holes of the same circle, the three circles together produce
+the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single circle.
+
+Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle 2.
+
+(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the same
+experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make with
+circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain the note
+corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the notes
+corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very strongly;
+but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 disappears
+completely, and we have left only that corresponding to 36 holes.)
+
+
+III.
+
+_Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions_.
+
+1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in
+opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is very
+much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously.
+If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity of the note is
+increased.
+
+2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the same
+number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases.
+
+3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one of which
+has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the low note if
+every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other.
+
+We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave of the
+other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks.
+
+Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air currents
+are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes,
+made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All these experiments
+require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes. To make
+sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk, it
+is well to put little rods through the holes, reaching into the wind
+tubes, and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached. The
+experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly
+at the same distance from the turning disk. It is clear that
+notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect
+interference, but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear
+entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness,
+and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard
+to impulses produced in opposite directions.
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Beats_.
+
+Disk No. 6 has--
+
+8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce as many
+beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and 5, 6 and 8,
+as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but we must content
+ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result, for the
+following reasons: The disk never being rigorously plane, alternately
+approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it. No matter how
+slight this deviation is, every sound given by a single circle is heard
+with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon. This
+inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the
+circle; but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles
+(whose difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a
+single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance
+between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when the
+disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and
+intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived.
+
+Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the points to
+which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also furnishes two
+more disks.
+
+The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, 90, and
+96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will produce a perfect
+chord when the air is admitted through the 11 holes in the wind chest;
+with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained.
+
+Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose numbers are
+in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to illustrate
+harmonics. C. F. K.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER.
+
+[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.]
+
+
+To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon
+the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it is necessary to
+take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this being something that
+we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers. For we wished,
+through this voluntary omission, to stimulate their sagacity by bringing
+them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have
+succeeded in overcoming, with causes of error that they will have
+perceived, and the principal one of which is the want of absolute
+cleanliness in the water, vessels, and instruments that they may have
+used for the experiments.
+
+Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the camphor
+remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to
+be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. Their
+astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed
+the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of
+vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or tubes, pieces of
+gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., dipped into the liquid
+in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the
+objects under consideration.
+
+The instantaneously _sedative_ power of the human fingers, or of a hair,
+will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of sorcery, or of some
+diabolic art worthy of the great Albert.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR.]
+
+As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious experiments
+of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously following his
+directions, we have, in the presence of our results, that were exactly
+identical with his, almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the
+victim of some occult power, or at least of some optical illusion,
+the true cause of which remained a mystery to us. Finally, after
+many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our
+attention, the light finally dawned upon us, and then shone straight in
+our eyes.
+
+In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had
+obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor moved in the
+test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its
+gyration took place the day before, or the day before that. And yet we
+had always used the same vessels, the same water, and particles detached
+from the same lump of camphor.
+
+To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the two
+levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the
+camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that was
+satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we had
+noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous washings
+that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into
+them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been freed from
+impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and which, unbeknown
+to us, might have soiled their sides.
+
+Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, we began
+to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very dilute sulphuric
+acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed them with quantities of
+water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used
+for no other purpose; and finally we plunged them again into very clean
+water. We thus cut the Gordian knot, and were on the right track.
+
+In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with that
+minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely
+necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all the pieces of
+the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up. The
+camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or metal, and of every form,
+at all heights. The immersed bodies, such as glass tubes, table knives,
+pieces of money, etc., had lost their pretended "sedative effect" on a
+pretended "activity of the water," and on the vessels that contained
+it. The so-called phenomenon of habit "transported from physiology into
+physics," no longer existed.
+
+The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor
+upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which
+nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes
+of _Chara vulgaris_, had proved a grave error that was to be erased from
+the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire
+good faith. The true cause of _life_ had not then been unveiled, and the
+new agent designated as _diluo-electricity_ vanished before the very
+simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface
+of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly suppose that that
+volatile substance could dissolve.
+
+Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water
+is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel with which
+the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of little or no
+importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to employ a test
+glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, that terminates in a
+lower tubulure, B, above which there is a contraction, C. Upon pouring
+water into the lateral tube until the level reaches D, and placing
+a particle of camphor on its surface, the camphor will be seen to
+continually move about, even when the liquid has reached the upper
+edge of the vessel. To reduce the level to various heights, it is only
+necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to
+the tubulure. In proceeding thus, agitation or _collision_ of the water
+is avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will
+continue to move at every level of the water.
+
+But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the stoppage in the
+motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that
+are not perfectly clean? Before answering this question, let us say in
+the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due
+to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia
+that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they
+emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in
+an aelopile mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of
+a sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small
+portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms upon its
+surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but the thickness
+of which may increase in time until it becomes (especially if the vessel
+is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments
+of camphor that it imprisons, and whose evaporation it prevents. Now,
+as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate, in fact, after a
+certain length of time, the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions;
+but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that
+account that it "has _habituated_ itself to the cause which had at first
+influenced it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to
+render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present"
+(Dutrochet, _l.c._., p. 50).
+
+We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily
+layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under
+the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of sulphuric ether whose
+sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal
+the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye.
+The slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of
+vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it, produces
+effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor, that is to say, that
+in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the
+concrete volatile essence.
+
+This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the
+camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a
+few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to the upper edge
+of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid _licks_ up, so to speak,
+the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel, and this
+material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a
+layer which, in spreading over the bit of camphor itself, prevents its
+evaporation, and, consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer
+under consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by
+causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, more
+easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in
+which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the paper is
+removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, it should be
+understood), the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues
+them at all levels.
+
+The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no power to
+stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy to repeat, is
+an unquestionable proof of this.
+
+Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and afterward with
+plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a
+fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the gyration will not be
+stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in
+its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty substances that
+ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) be dipped into this
+same glass.
+
+_Movements of Camphor upon Mercury_.--In order to study the motions of
+camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a great advantage,
+and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of
+cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath. The
+vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly
+clean, but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is
+soiled by foreign bodies But it is extremely difficult to clean mercury
+completely. To do so Mr. Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and
+leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid,
+taking care to often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater
+part of the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime
+in powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes
+in its lower part.
+
+Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the motions of
+camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces of the vapors
+that escape from it, and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail
+that are endowed with very great agility. Nothing is more curious than
+to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the
+strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of
+the vessel that contains it. On raising the temperature of the metal
+slightly, the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and
+the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated.
+
+The experiments that we have just called attention to show what
+importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They
+prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists upon
+polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters
+which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find therein also a
+manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into
+which the presence of these fatty matters, that have hitherto been
+scarcely suspected, led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as
+the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis.--_N. Joly, in La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBONIC ACID IN BEER.
+
+
+We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' Convention in
+Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. Siebel in 1872, and
+used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. Bartholomae & Roesing, in
+Chicago. The object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid
+in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages
+from the storage vats. The importance of this measure is apparent to
+every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of
+this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the
+method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the
+beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to
+the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to the
+excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is evident that
+a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. The escape of
+carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that
+even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a
+remarkable difference in this respect. It is, therefore, evident that if
+a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off, a larger amount
+of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer. It is true that the
+racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure, but
+this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small, when compared
+with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the
+sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in
+which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form it
+has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any
+other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by
+artificial means. The apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is
+calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere,
+at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer. For this
+purpose, the beer from the store cask running through the pipe, B,
+enters the keg through a hollow copper bung, fitting light into the bung
+hole by means of a rubber washer. The air contained in the keg, being
+replaced by the beer, is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung,
+taking its course through the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is
+allowed to escape in the standpipe, C, containing a column of water,
+the height of which designates the pressure within the keg, and a
+consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or
+barrel is filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer
+showing itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the
+copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained in
+the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is then
+bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. Should
+the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time, the
+surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but will be collected in
+the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off through e.--_Chemical Review_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER CHLORIDE.
+
+
+Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of
+silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of
+gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an
+alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas called attention to six
+modifications of silver bromide. One of these, granular bromide of
+silver, obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days
+with water, he stated, was the most sensitive to light of all substances
+known; exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a
+Bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was
+for photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in
+1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in
+a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more
+sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. Today these
+observations have become of the greatest importance to practical
+photography. They have led to the preparation of the silver bromide
+gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates, which are twenty
+times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates, and have
+become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light.
+
+The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the
+more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is
+only moderately sensitive. The explanation was sought for in various
+directions, but as the result of numerous investigations it appears
+that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different
+modifications of silver bromide. From a consideration of the work
+already done on the subject, Vogel suspected that silver bromide
+precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different
+properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal
+solution. Silver bromide was prepared in many different ways. Emulsions
+were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the
+former aqueous, the latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others
+without. Part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a
+moderate temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with
+ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated silver
+bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it to settle
+completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a new portion
+of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates. Finally he
+precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence of all colloids, by
+means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted
+to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or collodion as a cement.
+The result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two
+modifications of silver bromide, the one being obtained by precipitation
+in aqueous, the other in alcoholic solutions. The first, on account of
+the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he
+calls blue sensitive, the other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive.
+
+It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in
+which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion, or
+whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of
+silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the solution is hot or
+cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or
+whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary condition is that in
+precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain
+at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From aqueous alcoholic solutions blue
+sensitive silver bromide is precipitated.
+
+Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum, these
+modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences
+in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two
+essentially different modifications of the same substance. Among these
+are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions.
+The indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a
+gelatin solution, while the blue sensitive modification does so very
+readily. 2d. Their unequal reducibility; the blue sensitive silver
+bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo
+sensitive variety. 3d. Their different action toward chemical and
+physical sensitizers. 4th. Their different action toward photographic
+developers. 5th. Their different action under the influence of heat.
+The blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness
+perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such treatment.
+
+A direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet
+been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these substances is
+incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that the more reducible
+indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light. But
+this is not the case, because it is not chemical reducibility, but the
+absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance. Now the
+blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the
+indigo sensitive variety, and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver
+chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two
+forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications. One is
+designated as ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive
+silver chloride.--_Amer. Chem. Jour_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL.
+
+[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the 28th June,
+1883.]
+
+By OTTO HEHNER
+
+
+Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of New
+Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat full
+analysis may be worthy of being placed on record.
+
+The sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish
+black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the fractures were
+conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. It was interspersed
+with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin. When powdered it
+appeared chocolate brown. It burned readily, the flame being bright and
+very smoky. Its ash was light and reddish brown.
+
+It consisted of--
+
+  Water (loss at 212 deg. F.)        20.09
+  Organic and volatile matter    75.19
+  Ash                             4.72
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage
+composition--
+
+  Carbon                         71.26
+  Hydrogen                        5.62
+  Oxygen                         21.58
+  Nitrogen                        1.06
+  Sulphur                         0.48
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The ash was composed of--
+
+  Silica                         27.26
+  Alumina                        26.48
+  Oxide of iron                  12.98
+  Lime                           20.19
+  Magnesia                        3.42
+  Sulphuric acid                  9.47
+  Alkalies and loss               0.20
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as
+under--
+
+  Water                          20.09
+  Carbon                         53.58
+  Hydrogen                        4.23
+  Oxygen                         16.23
+  Nitrogen                        0.80
+  Sulphur                         0.36
+  Silica                          1.29
+  Alumina                         1.25
+  Oxide of iron                   0.61
+  Lime                            0.95
+  Magnesia                        0.16
+  Sulphuric acid                  0.44
+  Alkalies                        0.01
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of coke.
+
+The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very
+remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary
+temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small pieces.
+The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize
+the so called coal as a _lignite_, with which conclusion the physical
+characters of the sample are in perfect harmony.
+
+The resin to which I have referred has not been further analyzed. It was
+found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, such as alcohol, ether,
+carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, and neither attacked by
+boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali. On heating it swells up
+considerably and undergoes decomposition, but does not fuse.
+
+The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption, but
+the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as
+a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of it being really combustible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, ETC.
+
+By E. RAYMOND.
+
+
+The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and
+accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of
+peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the
+manganese to the manganous slate, and determining volumetrically, by
+means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of ferrous salt which
+has been converted into ferric. The method of rapidly precipitating
+manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act upon cast-iron or steel with
+nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions, and boil
+the mixture, the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of
+peroxide insoluble in nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of
+ferric oxide. Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous
+cast-iron containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes
+are treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr.
+1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately
+heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15
+grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric acid
+at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until the
+escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown down
+as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and the
+precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the manganese
+peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an acid solution
+of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous sulphate to 750 c.
+c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full strength). The 50 c. c. are
+poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved, and
+to which a little peroxide adheres, and it is then poured upon the
+precipitate and the filter in a Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese
+peroxide dissolves very readily, transforming its equivalent of ferrous
+sulphate into ferric sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150
+c. c. for the next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate
+formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the
+process of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter
+of water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid
+we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining
+in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of the original
+solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and determine the total
+ferrous salt.
+
+The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous
+salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. The quantity
+of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the quantity of
+manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In the case of a
+steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to
+dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the ferrous solution. Small
+Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only 0.010
+meter internal diameter, and graduated into one-twentieth c. c., which
+allows of great exactitude in the determination. For a spiegeleisen
+not more than 1 gramme of the sample should be taken, and for a
+ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MANGANESE AND ITS USES.
+
+
+Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the
+representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a metallic
+brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is so hard as to
+scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white
+heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, it should be
+preserved under naphtha.
+
+It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones;
+with this exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by
+the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat.
+
+Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., protoxide,
+sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, manganic acid, and
+permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as olive-green powder, and is
+obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen.
+Its salts are colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a strong
+tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate
+forms the mineral known as manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by
+heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition,
+dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed
+largely in calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals.
+
+The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite,
+and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as a black powder
+by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When ignited it loses
+oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts are isomorphous with
+those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It imparts a violet color to
+glass, and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a
+powerful oxidizing agent.
+
+The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native
+in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting the
+sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of the two
+preceding oxides.
+
+The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, and the
+pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most abundant of the
+manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad. Its
+commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given
+weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid, the
+quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which
+this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide.
+When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an
+evolution of chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of
+soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it
+is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of
+oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of
+gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per
+cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in the
+manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares.
+
+Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is
+formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese. The
+black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water,
+to which it communicates a green color, due to the presence of the
+manganate. From this water the salt is obtained _in vacuo_ in beautiful
+green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air, it
+rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual
+conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on
+account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name
+of mineral chameleon.
+
+Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination.
+Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet
+tint when seen by transmitted light. It is obtained by treating a
+solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid, when sulphate of
+baryta falls, and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water.
+Permanganate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is
+the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical
+chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.
+
+Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small
+quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances. It is
+always associated with iron.
+
+Various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The
+sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces
+purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile;
+and in small doses, both this salt and the carbonate have been given
+with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of
+anaemia. Manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when
+applied in lotions (as in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid
+ulcers. In connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it
+may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus
+Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air.
+
+It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used to
+correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence of
+protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively colorless
+peroxide.
+
+It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to decompose the
+oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a natural alloy of
+from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for this purpose when
+conveniently attainable.--_Glassware Reporter_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX.
+
+By WILLIAM L. LAY.
+
+ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.
+
+[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York Academy of
+Sciences.]
+
+
+There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, that
+of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it in any other part
+of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part of its
+beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally known that
+the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria long before
+it was in this country. In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the
+oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London.
+In America, the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of
+petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the
+world's history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the
+Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used
+in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a
+never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The mines of
+ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as Galicia. Near the
+city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from Cracow to Lemberg,
+is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Borislau, which is
+entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at the foot of
+the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for
+petroleum at that place. After descending about one hundred and eighty
+feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with
+a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not
+thicker than writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until
+at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or
+four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could be
+made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute for wax
+was manufactured.
+
+The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in
+America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells of
+Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The owner
+of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the miners
+three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first were whole
+farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, and at last to 1
+acre, which is a square of 209 feet.
+
+But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a
+small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the
+leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that
+the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be
+raised to sink the shaft; consequently the earth had to be transported
+to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy
+feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking
+of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the
+government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground
+that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the sides
+are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft three
+feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water
+wells, and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and
+windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many years
+no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum under the
+ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface, the miners
+were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh
+air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as
+the curbing of timber is put in place. The ozokerite is embedded in a
+very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet; below, it is
+interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were
+on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.]
+
+That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre
+than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in Poland,
+averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for
+children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working. If
+thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates the two men
+and one or two children required to work each lease. When the bucket,
+containing the earth, rock, and wax, is dumped in the little shed
+covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, who detach the
+wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners use galvanized wire
+ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to descend, they invariably
+cross themselves and utter a short prayer. The business is not free from
+danger, carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or
+the caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of deaths.
+One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one
+week there had been eight deaths from accidents.
+
+The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common cast
+iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the bottom, and
+the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed off with a ladle,
+poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, in which form it is
+sold to the refiners, for about six cents per pound. The quantity
+produced is uncertain, as the miners take care to understate it, for
+the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes, and the
+landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined. The best
+authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the quantity produced in
+fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 pounds, worth
+twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the land get
+one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is at the rate
+of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop from some two
+hundred acres of land.
+
+The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they
+should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is
+gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in that
+part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French company
+has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting
+through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they have sunk to a
+depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with water and petroleum.
+These they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines,
+worked in a scientific manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is
+about eighteen inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity.
+When first removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so
+soft that it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed
+into the space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for
+weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it
+out.
+
+I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 1860,
+have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was very
+much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petroleum
+industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the difference
+between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Borislau,
+after twenty years' work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It
+contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. None of
+its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud
+came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length.
+In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the
+houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous shops,
+where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It depends on
+a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses were generally
+one-story, built of logs and mud.
+
+On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, contained
+eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, and
+two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as deep
+with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no whisky shops where
+women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, two,
+three, four, and five stories high. Its water works cost one hundred and
+fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it did
+not contain forty houses.
+
+I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep in the
+mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform of
+straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the straw foundation
+had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. Borislau
+is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabitants;
+between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassable. For a
+third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a
+day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring
+why they did not improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the
+Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he
+could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with
+the road to Borislau.
+
+Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," wax) is
+found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the Caucasian Mountains,
+in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria; in the Apennines,
+in Italy; in Texas, California, and in the Wahsatch Mountains, in the
+United States. Commercially, it is not worked anywhere but in Austria;
+although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger deposit than in any other
+place. I made two journeys to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch
+Mountains. For a distance of forty miles, it crops out in many places,
+and on the Minnie Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found
+a stratum of sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with
+ozokerite.
+
+No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of
+ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place, and
+a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this shaft, the vein was
+about ten inches wide; and it could be traced along the slope of the
+hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite is
+seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish Canon, which enters Salt Lake Valley
+near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the ozokerite of
+Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of white
+ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of
+yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of
+black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia
+College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made
+examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are interested
+in the subject will find the papers published in the _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ for the year 1879.
+
+A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine
+Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An
+interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was
+robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A
+short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax
+and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward suspected
+it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon after ward she
+brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the
+magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about
+twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief that
+she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods; for
+such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She was
+therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was brought
+before the court, and, when questioned, told the same story. She was a
+member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. He came,
+and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove
+her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an
+officer, to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one
+who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel,
+and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the clay
+a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once set at
+liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her dig the
+specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. The hill
+was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it had been
+forced up by gas or some power from below the surface. The quantity that
+could be gathered, by one person, laboring constantly for a week, was
+only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a
+shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was
+sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved
+in, and the shaft was abandoned.
+
+It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of
+manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of
+ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are
+several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils are
+made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, they make
+white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball,
+colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the
+yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer
+ones being waxed every day. It is a curious fact that the Catholic
+Church does not allow the use of paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles;
+at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe
+are made from ozokerite, which is a natural paraffine, made from
+petroleum in nature's laboratory. In the United States, the only
+uses made of ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the
+adulteration of beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration
+of the ruling passion strong in money making, which gives us wooden
+nutmegs, wooden hams, shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee,
+oleomargarine butter, mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax
+made without bees.
+
+After this paper was written, the following translation from a pamphlet,
+published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, in 1879, came
+to my notice. The writer's name is not published:
+
+"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts,
+is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy
+matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be
+necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by
+melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and
+these cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works,
+which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric
+centners (9,500,000 lb.).
+
+"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European
+countries, to be further refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may
+specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Russia
+as large purchasers of this article of commerce.
+
+
+"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.
+
+"The products of mineral wax, are:
+
+"(a.) _Ceresine_, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a
+product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined
+beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness,
+is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much
+used for wax candles, for waxing floors, and for dressing linen and
+colored papers. Wax crayons must be mentioned among these products. The
+house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors.
+These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and iron;
+also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and drawing.
+The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither
+by water, by acids, nor by rubbing.
+
+"Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it
+should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of
+ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was
+controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that
+the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid.
+
+"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white ceresine
+is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring
+matter (annatto).
+
+"(b.) _Paraffine_, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor.
+It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a
+protection against the action of acids, and to make casks and other
+wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, etc., for air-tight
+wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of tracing paper. There
+are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the
+Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol.
+iv., Brunswick, 1877).
+
+"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, in the
+distillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by
+hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid.
+
+"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced from
+2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 36
+to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for
+lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue.
+
+"(c.) _Mineral oils_, which are obtained at the same time with
+paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum,
+described above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils,
+besides the distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products
+with acids and alkalies.
+
+"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater part
+goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper Hungary. The common
+paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of various sizes, from
+28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina,
+Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, and form an important
+article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world.
+Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the East
+Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton."
+
+The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly
+a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its
+use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of
+yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified form, which
+had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah had already been
+shown before the Academy. There was no mystery as to its genesis in
+either region, as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of
+a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a
+great variety of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn,
+to one that is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical
+composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling a
+solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much paraffine
+that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather. The
+asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which the term "gum
+beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences in constitution have
+originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the
+petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have been derived. In Canada, as excavations
+are sunk through the asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and
+finally passes into petroleum. This is also the case in Utah.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.]
+
+[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883.
+
+
+Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also includes
+many interesting details in his account of the trip:
+
+The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the exception of a
+few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south the wind changed,
+obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to
+keep out the cold when crossing the equator. During a short stop in
+Lima the party had an opportunity of studying South American life. The
+products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women.
+The party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home
+for the admiration of their friends. The expedition really began at
+Callao, where the party embarked on the United States man-of-war
+Hartford. Few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the
+trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The
+Hartford was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific
+squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, but
+the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the
+dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed anchor for a sail
+of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches
+between Callao and their destination, Caroline Island. The southeast
+trade winds favored them, and from the first day there was actually no
+necessity for altering the position of a sail....
+
+The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according to
+the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one story
+structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in California and
+brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. The island on which
+they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly
+circular in outline. The edge, which rises from five to twenty inches
+from the water, according to the tide's phase, goes down under the water
+to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea; and is
+impossible to step on it with bare feet. At the end of this table the
+reef goes down perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable
+sea. No vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting
+matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered
+from the wind, and here, with the luck which characterized the trip, was
+found the only opening in this barrier of coral. A long cleft, perhaps
+eight feet wide, at the outer edge of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a
+mere crack near the shore. Watching a favorable chance, the boats were
+guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the
+men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as
+quickly as possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the
+surf, came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr.
+Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a succession of
+wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing the conscientious
+descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible.
+
+The members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of
+the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas,
+which afforded shade on three sides of the building. The second house
+was occupied by the sailors, while the third was left to the natives.
+These latter were sufficiently conversant with English to serve as
+excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of
+the island. This lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral
+sand, and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of
+the more delicate and elaborate kinds. These corals gave the lake a
+wonderful variety of colors, forming a picture impossible to paint or
+describe, and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole
+scene changed to new groups of color. The water was very clear, and
+in some places deep; in others so filled with coral that a boat could
+barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a
+long reef, one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their
+longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. Fish
+swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every species, if
+not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most peculiar manner. One
+variety which frequented the shallow water, where it was heated to the
+degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a pure milky white, with black
+eyes, fins, and tail.
+
+The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had steamed
+directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the Americans.
+
+It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good time,
+and the definition was particularly good. Photographs occupied the time
+of the English and French observers. Professor Holden and Dr. Dickson
+searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. Preston took the times of
+contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell devoted their attention to
+spectroscopic observations of the corona. Dr. Hastings' observations
+have led to the production of a new theory of the corona. Briefly
+stated, the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total
+eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun, but is a
+phenomenon of diffraction.
+
+From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central City,
+Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar
+corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth of this
+theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the present eclipse,
+however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. This test is based on
+the following already known phenomena: When the moon covers the face of
+the sun, an envelope of light is seen all round it; the envelope is
+not visible when the sun is shining, on account of the sun's greater
+brightness; this light is called the corona; it is extremely irregular
+in outline. According to the drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse
+of 1878, it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance
+of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite
+points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space.
+The opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending
+millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it must
+be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., which has
+been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body
+like the moon.
+
+In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a surface
+of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them. If
+an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it will judge the
+direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by
+a line at right angles with the wave front. Now suppose a body is placed
+between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ. The waves
+must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the
+wave front will have a different direction, and the organ of sense will
+conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from
+that before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves
+of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the retina of
+the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the
+waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on the eye that the
+light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The moon covers the sun
+during the eclipse and a little more, so that it can move for about five
+minutes and still cover the sun entirely. This movement is very slight,
+and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere, it should
+not change at all during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction
+is the cause of the light, then the slightest change in the relative
+positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the
+corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during
+a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum
+analysis should change.
+
+To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following instrument:
+Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter
+V, and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of
+the V was lost, and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was
+transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the V, where the
+prisms touched; here was placed a refracting prism, so that the light
+could be analyzed. This instrument was attached to the eye piece of the
+telescope, and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the
+moon just fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the
+corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came
+together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen through the
+eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse this is what Dr.
+Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided into its constituents.
+Prominent among them was a bright green line, which is designated by the
+number 1,474; to this line attention was directed. Its presence in the
+spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is
+a solar atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed
+during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this line
+should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one side of the
+corona, and longer on the other. The observation was now reduced to
+watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines.
+
+At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the
+longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably, while the
+line from the east side, shorter by about one-third at the beginning of
+the eclipse, grew longer. When the eclipse ended, the proportions of the
+lines were exactly reversed. There had been a change equal to two-thirds
+the length of the lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their
+relative positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which
+this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The
+material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are other
+discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time.
+The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the sun that the
+gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury,
+and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, but an atmosphere
+extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the
+sun's surface, especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very
+much greater than on the earth. 2. The laws of gravitation would require
+a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun, while
+the corona is enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in
+outline, which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed
+irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most
+interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the
+fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the
+sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the
+sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, as it would have
+been if it had plowed its way through a material substance. In taking
+photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of
+exposure is longer. This shows that the corona extends indefinitely, and
+it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical
+laws of diffraction. These laws involve very complicated mathematics,
+but by them alone Dr. Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction
+where the corona is, and that it must follow the same laws as those
+observed. There is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion
+of Dr. Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the
+chromosphere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, that
+nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified by
+the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for the
+perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small masses
+circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments of comets
+or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined luster is seen in
+the zodiacal light.
+
+The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now known,
+are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar appendage
+which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk. In the
+photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can
+be traced back of each other where they cross; no better proof of their
+extreme tenuity could be given.
+
+The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, the
+distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon from the
+earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. All of these
+were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one, and the
+six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often
+enjoyed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS.
+
+
+The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are given,
+have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries
+that have ever rewarded the labors of archaeologists. The idea of
+founding an English society for the purpose of exploring the buried
+cities of the Delta originated with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known
+authoress of "One Thousand Miles up the Nile," and was carried into
+effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald
+Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of
+Sir Erasmus Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could
+never have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded
+and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M.
+Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for Egypt
+in January of this year with the object of conducting the explorations
+contemplated by the society. After a consultation with M. Maspero, the
+Director of Archaeology in Egypt, who has throughout acted a friendly
+part toward the society's enterprise, M. Naville decided to begin his
+campaign by attacking the mounds at Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater
+Canal, a few miles from Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to
+cover some ancient city, for some sphinxes and statues had already
+been found; but what city it could be, archaeologists were at a loss to
+determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, believed
+it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which the Children of
+Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started on their final Exodus.
+Any identification, however, of the sites of the Biblical cities in
+Egypt was so far merely speculative. Practically nothing definite was
+known as to the geography of the Israelite sojourn, except that the Land
+of Goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the Delta, and that
+Zoan was Tanis, whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of
+the society's operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as
+everything else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they
+crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, remained
+vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a plausible theory, in
+which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important part.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH]
+
+Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. Naville's
+skillful direction, placed all these speculations in quite a new light.
+The city under the mounds proved to be none other than Pithom, the
+"store" or "treasure city" which the Children of Israel "built for
+Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character as a store place or granary is
+seen in its construction; for the greater part of the area is covered
+with strongly built chambers, without doors, suitable for the storing of
+grain, which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor
+above, of which the ends of the beams are still visible. These curious
+chambers, unique in their appearance, are constructed of large, well
+made bricks, sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in
+the sun, and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The
+walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall which
+runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner was the
+temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum or Pithom, the
+"Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and tablets (some of which
+have been presented to the British Museum) remained to testify to its
+name and purpose; the temple itself was finally destroyed when the
+Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is shown by the position of the
+limestone fragments and of the Roman bricks. The statues, however, and
+especially a large stele, are extremely valuable, since they tell the
+history of the city during eighteen centuries. From a study of these
+monuments, M. Naville has learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut
+(Succoth) its civil, name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored
+by Shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important
+place under the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the
+founding of the city of Arsinoe in the neighborhood; was called Hero or
+Herooepolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic _ara_,
+meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, who occupied it
+at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are also found of the
+position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites encamped before the
+passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All these data are directly
+contradictory to preconceived theories: Pithom, Succoth, Herooepolis,
+Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally
+different positions. The identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us
+the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of
+the Exodus, and completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now
+certain that the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater
+Canal and not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first
+definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of
+Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The historical
+identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor also results
+from the monumental evidence. One short exploration has upset a hundred
+theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical
+character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of Pithom (Succoth)
+is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a series of important
+discoveries. When enough money has been collected for the proposed
+exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of the highest interest to students
+alike of the Bible and of Egyptian antiquities may, with certainty, be
+predicted.
+
+The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is
+bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers
+which the Children of Israel built more than three thousand years ago.
+In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue, the head
+and face of which are intact. The other illustration is taken from the
+temple end of the excavations. The sculptured group of Rameses the Great
+seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance;
+its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia.
+Beyond this group, and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of
+Pithom, set up by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoe, and containing a
+mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions.
+Behind this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store
+chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while on
+the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone blocks,
+already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or enlargement of
+the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. Naville, by Herr
+Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our illustrations are taken from
+these photographs, supplemented by sketches.--_S.L.P., in Illustrated
+London News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The surprises of archaeology are magnificent and apparently
+inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, and
+often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether this
+or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of
+Biblical archaeology is a question not to be determined offhand; but the
+interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated. There
+are now deposited in the British Museum fifteen leather slips, on the
+forty folds of which are written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy
+in a recension entirely different from that of the received text. The
+character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous
+Moabite stone and of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere
+palaeographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as
+the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier than any other
+clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the Old Testament.
+The sheepskin slips are literally black with age, and are impregnated
+with a faint odor as of funeral spices; the folds are from 6 to 7 inches
+long and about 31/2 inches wide, containing each about ten lines, written
+only on one side.
+
+So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two distinct
+handwritings, though the same archaic character is used throughout.
+In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in duplicate on
+distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary
+transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text. At
+first sight no writing whatever is perceptible; the surface seems to
+be covered with an oily or glutinous substance, which so completely
+obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the
+slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with
+the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the
+leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily
+visible beneath the glossy surface.
+
+These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. Shapira,
+of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities.
+Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain
+archaeological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a
+manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity.
+
+The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's agency
+and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly regarded as a
+modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it is asserted that
+Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. The leathern fragments
+now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he alleges, obtained by him from
+certain Arabs near Dibon, the neighborhood where the Moabite stone was
+discovered. The agent employed by him in their purchase was an Arab
+"who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would
+probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient
+or modern sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments
+is, however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are offered
+to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily deposited for
+examination.
+
+Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant
+of L500 from the Prime Minister toward the production of his important
+work on the "Massorah" we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is
+now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and
+examining their genuineness. On this latter question we refrain from
+pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be
+able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really 2,500
+years old, or have been compiled within the last few years.
+
+No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given.
+To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill,
+as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the
+appearance and condition of the slips. But enough has been deciphered to
+show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most
+remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received
+version of the Mosaic books.
+
+In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where the
+received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, to go in
+to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the corresponding
+passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular, "Ye"
+for '"Thou," while for "_g'dolim_," the word translated "greater," it
+reads "_rabbim_." But a far more complete idea of the variations of text
+and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the
+Decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of
+Deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet
+been deciphered. The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs
+as follows:
+
+"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, from
+the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall not make to
+yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is in heaven above or
+that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth.
+Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them. I am God, your God.
+Sanctify ... in six days I have made the heaven and the earth, and all
+that is therein, and rested on the seventh day, therefore rest thou
+also, thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast: I am God, thy God.
+Honor thy father and thy mother ...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not
+kill the person of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit
+adultery with the wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt
+not steal the property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not
+swear by my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon
+the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take
+my name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness
+against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the wife
+... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is his: I am
+God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart: I am God,
+thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God spake."
+
+Several points may be noted in this version. The singular refrain "I
+am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the received
+version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn ratification of
+the Divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept. If this
+be so, the first two commandments, as they are commonly reckoned, are
+here fused into one, and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which
+does not appear in the received version of the Decalogue.
+
+It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for the
+Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the familiar
+phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being replaced
+throughout by "God, thy God."
+
+On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell;
+they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show that these
+fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to
+criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as
+the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental Ireland, who, knowing the
+interest felt by scholars in variations of the Sacred Text, has set
+himself, with infinite pains and skill, to forestall a growing demand.
+Until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all
+competent scholars, no further questions need be raised. In any case
+the _prima facie_ presumption must be held to be enormously against
+the genuineness of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the
+improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries
+than any extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease
+with which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives
+to such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his
+property.
+
+All that we know of the _provenance_ of the fragments is that Mr.
+Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; and that
+Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in Moabite
+antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite stone. On the other
+hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is assuredly no clumsy and
+ignorant bungler, as the makers of the Moabite pottery were confidently
+alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness. It is, of course,
+part of his craft, and not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part,
+to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance
+of immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required to
+make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of
+Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the fabricator must have
+known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments,
+and have set himself to fulfill their expectations. In these days of
+scientific palaeography and minute textual scholarship no forger of
+ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a
+scholar himself. Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of
+course; palaeographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn
+of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension
+without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean
+order, while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an
+archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts
+in palaeography. But the fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated
+they are, has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this.
+He has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different
+hands, both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters.
+This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost
+incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case
+it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed
+fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not only
+a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, and one
+can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him
+at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few
+piastres, and is likely, therefore, to enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We
+should expect to find, however, that his extraordinary ingenuity has at
+some point or another overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with
+the labors of modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly
+have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not
+betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. In
+any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound
+interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with the
+controversy they are certain to excite.--_London Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--_From the
+Building News_.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there has been
+much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in common with
+other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a pair of breeding
+ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they would not realize 50 l.
+
+The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage ostrich
+breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and one or two
+cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The climate of the two
+colonies is very similar, and the locality selected for the imported
+birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in dryness and temperature their
+native _habitat_.
+
+The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell
+to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we were reared,
+good-by!"
+
+One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, got into
+a slanting position. This frightened one of the two inmates, a fine
+cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage, which
+was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. Fortunately there was there
+a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches. He instantly seized
+him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury, and after
+a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in
+the hold he became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship
+with a relish.
+
+After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a
+little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are then arranged
+in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on board the vessel.
+The ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching
+hold of their bodies, and using a little gentle force.
+
+The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of
+thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by their "steward,"
+who was to accompany them to Australia. It was curious to see a bird
+swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down
+the animal's long neck. On the voyage they would be fed with maize or
+mealies, onions, apple melons, and barley. They require very little
+water; however, there were five large iron tanks on board in case they
+would feel thirsty. Our engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis
+Edwards, of Hoff Street, Capetown,
+
+[Illustration: SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were Reared.--2.
+Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. Lowering
+the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating Apple
+Melons.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW WEATHERCOCK.
+
+
+An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the majority
+of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during the day;
+but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic
+transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building.
+The different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings,
+or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the
+sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the rod has to traverse
+several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector of the Versailles
+waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system which, while
+considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, allows the
+weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This apparatus consists
+of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable. The stationary
+part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters A and B and
+by cross-hatchings. This forms the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with
+clamps, P, at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and
+is hidden, after the mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc
+covering, Z. The upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece,
+upon which rests a bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined
+outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform
+there move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a
+horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube.
+
+The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind and to
+indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and coarse
+lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at intervals with
+copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which serves as a guide for it;
+(2) of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament, O, fixed to the
+tube and resting on the balls; (3) of the vane, G, properly so called;
+and (4) of the cap, C, provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube
+and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission.
+This latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f,
+perfectly taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing
+as many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of
+the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which is
+fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings through
+small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it passes, it is
+protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the observing room there is
+affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of
+the vane.
+
+[Illustration: RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.]
+
+This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the
+Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau
+of Trappes, and it is also installed in several primary normal schools,
+where it is giving very good results.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARRED CLOVER.
+
+
+A correspondent of the _Ohio Farmer_ reports an experiment in curing
+clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn, and
+illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows:
+
+In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying season was
+not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual,
+and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls. The result was
+intense heating, and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of
+the mow. On a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty
+tons, as every load at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn
+was rather open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as
+well as at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent
+hay at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the
+center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. What
+prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since that escape
+from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so
+green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a mow too rapidly. If we
+haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing thirty hundred each, which
+will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each, we have three
+tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation.
+
+If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full, the
+principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass. To
+relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have several places of
+storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other, thus
+giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off. To facilitate this
+evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty,
+the best of ventilation is necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is
+as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is
+not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is
+returned to the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary
+amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is
+shut off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor
+at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the
+roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in,
+thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will be facilitated
+and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, as the clover is
+put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton, will make it a
+relish with stock.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT.
+
+(_Agave victoriae-reginae_.)
+
+
+This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I am
+happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the first time
+it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never been seen in
+flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown specimen, dense in
+habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and the leaves are arranged
+in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine. The
+circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 in., and it has 268 leaves. Its
+flower-stem appeared about the middle of June, grew rather fast till it
+was 7 ft. high, then rather slowly till it reached its full development.
+The scape is now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 61/2 in. in
+circumference at the base, or 51/4 in. at a foot above the base; from
+there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The flower-spike is
+exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower or naked portion, 4
+ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by abortive flower buds, with,
+near the base, some bristle-like scales 31/2 in. to 4 in. long. The
+flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three, all the three being
+equal in size and opening together; they are greenish white in color, 11/2
+in. long, or, including the stamens, some 23/4 in. to 3 in. long.
+
+[Illustration: AGAVE VICTORIAE-REGINAE.]
+
+The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to open
+in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They remain in
+good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens wilt and drop
+down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day. On the first day
+of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by 3/4 in.; on the
+second it has grown to be as long as the stamens, but it is not in
+condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day.
+Although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already
+blossomed, none of the ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping
+off, but I am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the
+spike. So great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers,
+that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups,
+and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The main
+beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass
+of bright yellow anthers. This plant, together with several smaller
+ones, was contributed to this garden by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected
+them in their native wilds--the mountains of Northern Mexico--some three
+years ago. He found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible
+locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In
+addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of
+the Agricultural Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann,
+the eminent botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece
+of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an
+old plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor
+was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this
+Agave.--_The Garden_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS.
+
+By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX.
+
+
+In the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we
+have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting.
+We find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of
+glycerin is partially correct, and that instances of a different kind of
+structure occur among the natural oils and fats.
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear to
+occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure:
+
+  C(OH)_{2}
+  CH
+  CH_{3}
+
+It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be resolved
+into:
+
+  COOH + H_{2}O
+  CH_{2}
+  CH_{3}
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, yield
+no glycerin when saponified.--_Chemical News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
+papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this
+office.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
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+1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
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+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement,
+No. 401, September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 401 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401,
+September 8, 1883, by Various
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
+copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing
+this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook.
+
+This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project
+Gutenberg file.  Please do not remove it.  Do not change or edit the
+header without written permission.
+
+Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the
+eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file.  Included is
+important information about your specific rights and restrictions in
+how the file may be used.  You can also find out about how to make a
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+**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts**
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+**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971**
+
+*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8718]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on August 3, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 401 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland,
+Charles Franks and the DP Team
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of Silver Bromide
+      and Silver Chloride.
+
+      Analysis of New Zealand Coal.
+
+      On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast Iron,
+      Ferro-manganese, etc.
+
+      Manganese and its Uses.
+
+      Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A valuable
+      and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of
+      Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this
+      remarkable product.
+
+      On the Constitution of the Natural Fats.
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel
+      Traction Engine.--With two engravings.
+
+      An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one large
+      engraving.
+
+      The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas Retorts.--Siemens'
+      principle.--As operated at the Glasgow Corporation Works.--With
+      two engravings.
+
+      A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven.
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent Photographic Pictures
+      on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and full directions.
+
+      How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full directions.
+
+      Some of the Uses of Common Alum.
+
+      An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an engraving.
+
+      Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric Acid Gas.
+
+      Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic Acid in Racking
+      Beer.--With an engraving.
+
+IV.   ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the Bleaching of
+      Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of apparatus.
+
+      Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, Electrical
+      Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires.
+
+V.    ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An interesting abstract
+      from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins University), of
+      the American Astronomical Exhibition to the Caroline Islands.
+
+VI.   NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting the
+      Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of
+      certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens Institute.
+
+      The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an engraving.
+
+VII.  ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village Architecture.--
+      Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an engraving.
+
+      Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for Doors.--Several figures.
+
+VIII. ARCHÆOLOGY.--A Buried City of the Exodus.--Being an account
+      of the recent excavations and discoveries of Pithom
+      Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving.
+
+      The Moabite Manuscripts.
+
+IX.   AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen Victoria
+      Century Plant.--With an engraving.
+
+      Charred Clover.
+
+      A New Weathercock.--With one figure.
+
+X.    MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing Place
+      in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With an
+      engraving.
+
+      Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway.
+
+      Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With portrait.
+
+      The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris.
+
+      Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South Africa.--With one
+      page of engravings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.
+
+
+The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect
+a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most
+distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs.
+The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of America
+disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the Catholic
+monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise. In
+honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of Catalonia, who also
+took part in the discovery and civilization of the New World, among whom
+may be named the Treasurer Santangel, Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo
+Boyl, first patriarch of the Indies, and the twelve missionaries of
+Monserrat, who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage.
+
+In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the central
+executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous voice of
+the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don Cayetano
+Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we find in _La
+Ilustracion Española_, we give an engraving. Richness, grandeur, and
+expression, worthily combined, are the characteristics of these plans.
+The landing structure is divided into three parts, a central and two
+laterals, each of which extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater,
+in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to
+mind the two caravels, the Pinta and Niña; two great lights occupy the
+advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of
+celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble monument,
+surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the esplanade.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA,
+SPAIN.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera has not
+awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was
+offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the
+fatal grape disease. There were not less than 182 competitors for the
+prize; but none had made a discovery that filled the bill. It is said,
+however, that a Strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an
+absolutely trustworthy remedy. This liquid is poured upon the ground
+about the root of the vine, and it is said that it kills the parasites
+without hurting the grape.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE.
+
+
+Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the
+remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to Salt
+Lake:
+
+Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on the
+Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other subject at
+present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours
+so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should perhaps qualify this
+statement by deducting the hours of darkness; yet this is really a
+fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment; it seems providential
+that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting
+enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything
+sublime. Leaving Salt Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and
+populous Jordan Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the
+Valley of Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits
+of the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the
+wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after
+another of the magnificent cañons of the Wahsatch we passed, their
+mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising wild and
+rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have abundantly
+tested in other days. Parley's Cañon, the Big and Little Cottonwood, and
+most wonderful of all, the cañon of the American Fork, form a series not
+inferior to those of Boulder, Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas,
+in the front range of the Rockies.
+
+Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, we
+crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price River,
+a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in choosing this
+route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of Weber and
+Echo cañons--the only part of the Union Pacific road which tempts one
+to look out of a car window, unless one may be tempted by the boundless
+monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog. Great was my
+satisfaction, therefore, to find that this part of the new road,
+parallel with the Union Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south,
+traverses the same belt of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less
+picturesque. Castle Cañon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the
+equivalent of Echo Cañon, and is equal or superior in everything except
+color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers
+and walls of Castle Cañon are yellowish-gray. But their forms are
+incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime. The
+valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert,
+as it is further north. To be sure, this uninviting stream, a couple of
+hundred miles further south, having united with the Grande, and formed
+the Rio Colorado, does indeed, by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper
+into the sunless chasms, become at last sublime. But here it gives no
+hint of its future somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed
+Green River, to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by
+sleep. But I got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy
+water; and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the
+conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot.
+
+In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the interval
+passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the Grande, and
+ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of the Grande, the
+Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and finally a branch, flowing
+westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high divide at the head of the latter
+was laboriously surmounted; and then, one of our two engines shooting
+ahead and piloting us, we slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such
+descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the
+experience of the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is
+likely to occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down.
+
+From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the matter
+of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the Rocky
+Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the
+high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for the monument to
+the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the highest point. For all
+the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande road, between Cimarron and
+Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show.
+From an artistic stand-point, one road has crossed the ranges at the
+most tame and uninteresting point that could be found, and the other at
+the most picturesque.
+
+At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges into the
+famous Black Cañon. In length, variety, and certain elements of beauty,
+such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this cañon surpasses the Royal
+Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, however, one spot in the latter (I
+mean, of course, the point where the turbulent river fills the whole
+space between walls 2,800 ft. high, and the railroad is hung over it)
+which is superior in desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the
+Gunnison. Take them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the
+finer. I have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the
+Gunnison Cañon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one
+matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed in the
+morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty
+precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even hinting such folly
+as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark that these two cañons
+are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are; for
+they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks.
+
+Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above sea-level),
+over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over the Sangre di
+Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Elbert,
+Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other summits exceeding the
+altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is the valley of the Arkansas,
+into which and down which we pass, and so through the Royal Gorge to
+Cañon City and Pueblo, where we arrived before dark on the day after
+leaving Salt Lake.
+
+Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle Cañon, the
+Black Cañon of the Gunnison, Marshall Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas
+Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey! No
+wonder everybody who has made it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic
+urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence (and I
+know it has a great deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at
+present, crowded with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for
+those who wish on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?)
+and to visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done _en
+route_, without retracing the steps.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS.
+
+
+In the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to
+practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta, as it
+has already been employed in connection with so many other wares; but I
+have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta.
+Now this is strange, if one considers how fashionable _plaque_ and plate
+painting have become of late, and the good photographic results that
+are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt
+earth." Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are
+one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be left
+purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails to see
+that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. It was with
+something of this feeling that I was led to try and see what could be
+done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no data to go by, I had
+to use my own experience, or rather experiment on my own account.
+
+Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in the
+commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but natural I
+should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired
+results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction signally failed--the
+ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion. The
+bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo., which not only left indelible
+marks, but, despite any amount of washing, the image on a finished plate
+vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window.
+There was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my
+object. I would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful
+line of experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save
+him useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the
+method I found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent
+wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my system of
+working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion
+transfer.
+
+
+TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE.
+
+The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the surface
+to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It simply
+consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as follows:
+
+  Gelatine.                           10 grains.
+  Water.                               1 ounce.
+  A trace of chrome alum.
+
+Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless to say
+that numbers of _plaques_, plates, vases, etc., may be coated right off,
+and will then be ready for use at any time.
+
+Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, as well
+as placed it _in situ_ for reproduction, the next thing required is a
+suitable collodion, and the following will be found all that can be
+desired:
+
+  TRANSFER COLLODION.
+
+  Cotton.                      3 drachms.
+  Iodide of cadmium.          65 grains.
+  Ammonium iodide.            25   "
+  Bromide of cadmium.         19   "
+  Ammonium bromide.           11   "
+  Alcohol.                    15 ounces.
+  Ether.                      15   "
+
+The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now
+transferred to a bath, as follows:
+
+Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce.
+
+Made slightly acid with nitric acid.
+
+After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to
+the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and _quantum suff_. of
+the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image:
+
+  DEVELOPING SOLUTION.
+
+  A Winchester of water, i.e.  80 ounces.
+  Protosulphate of iron.      240 grains.
+  Citric acid.                240   "
+
+Or the following may be used:
+
+  Pyro                          3 grains\
+  Citric acid                   2   "    } per ounce of water.
+  Glacial acetic acid          30 drops /
+
+After perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a
+saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is thoroughly washed.
+
+It will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory; it
+lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters recourse is now had to
+
+
+TONING.
+
+  Gold.    1 grain.
+  Water.   5 ounces.
+
+With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture the
+result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking picture
+will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is employed richness
+at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known of instances where the
+picture needed no toning.
+
+
+OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE.
+
+This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited number
+of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and their _modus
+operandi_ is kept from the many. Now this is a pity, when one considers
+the great charm attached to a good picture on opal, with pure whites and
+rich blacks, and in many localities the demand that might be created for
+them. Apart from their beauty, another charm attaches to opals--their
+absolute permanence; and this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What,
+in fact, can be more painful to the worker who values his work, and sets
+store by it, than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion!
+A properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so
+common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as perfect
+now as they were when first taken.
+
+Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion;
+but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly applicable to
+ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, since in practice
+it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and safe. The details are
+much the same as above, and necessitate double transfer.
+
+After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass plate),
+and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the picture (and this,
+remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) then has to be loosened
+from its support, and this is done with a solution of sulphuric
+acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow
+between the image and the glass, after which perfectly wash and mount.
+When the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image,
+evened out, raised (assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite
+corners during the operation), and with the aid of the helper the
+picture is carefully centered, gently pressed out or down, and the
+transfer is so far effected. But what will happen, and does happen,
+in the case of vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture
+becomes positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply
+in the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of iodine
+dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after which, well wash
+and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash well again.
+This, by the way, is equally applicable to paper transfers; and it is
+to be remembered that the toning comes last of all. It is a rather
+difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three
+times, and acid must then be had recourse to (nitric acid is as good as
+any); but by transferring from the support on the ground surface, all
+stains are at once avoided.
+
+On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well
+cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. Then
+the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the plate is
+exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, and, when dried,
+varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with dead varnish if intended
+for chalk or water-color. This, when a good negative is used, gives a
+remarkably fine picture, not requiring a vestige of retouching, and
+having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable
+if varnished with the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective
+pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting.
+
+A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art
+matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed
+glass, said it was one of the finest productions of photography. He
+urged that negatives _ad rem_ should be taken most carefully, and that,
+like the picture I showed him, they should be full of half-tone and
+detail, and yet have plenty of vigor. They should, he said, be robust in
+the high lights, have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep
+shadows, and thus have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should
+be retouched only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness
+shall be in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now.
+
+If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine
+pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most
+artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, absolute
+permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to think of what
+may be really recommended to one's _clientèle_, and likely to meet with
+approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been
+delivered; and I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture
+most likely to meet with this general approbation.
+
+I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal
+picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched
+after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. It is pure
+photography in every sense of the word, and the resultant picture one
+hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have rather laid a stress on this
+point, well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by
+the barbarous hand of would-be artists, who by far exceed the true
+artists in number; and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight
+of, either, at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one
+in marble-like texture, or rather lack of texture, as if the face were
+devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might
+be wise to weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the
+enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice
+and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial
+measures to a decided evil.
+
+On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception should arise
+in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to clearly state that
+for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer; that is, the picture
+first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper, put in
+the right position on terra-cotta, and pressed down while wet with
+blotting-paper, left to dry, and is then so far ready.
+
+Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, ground opal
+being the best, the system I employ is as follows: After well cleaning
+the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had better not be too thick).
+When dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer,
+to which a little bromide of potassium has been added. The remainder of
+the operations is as usual. Those varnished with dead varnish can be
+tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make
+very pleasing pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be
+finished in water-colors if thought preferable.--_G. W. Martyn, in Br.
+Jour. Photo_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PAPER NEGATIVES.
+
+
+The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the
+following advantages:
+
+First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is uniform
+throughout the entire surface of each sheet.
+
+Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide
+as usually constructed.
+
+Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass.
+
+Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper.
+
+Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled
+from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand, without the
+assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus this invention does
+away with all sensitive preparations on glass, which latter is both a
+brittle and relatively heavy material, thus diminishing the bulk and
+weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling;
+it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those
+on glass, in so much that the film does not contain any grain; and,
+lastly, it admits of printing from either face of the film, as regards
+the production of positives on paper or other material, as well as
+plates for phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require
+a negative to be reversed.
+
+For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper:
+
+First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water,
+and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which it is
+attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass, and
+partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state it is allowed to
+dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat.
+
+Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion,
+containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of azotic cotton (1½
+per cent. gives very good results) and from 1½ to 2½ per cent. of castor
+oil (2 per cent. gives very good results); this coating is allowed to
+dry; and,
+
+Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, and then
+it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are
+excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of
+about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it in this position until
+the gelatine has set (say) about five minutes, with the film paper still
+attached, it is placed upright in a drying-room, where it should remain
+about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees
+Fahrenheit; and,
+
+Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure,
+development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the purpose of
+developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well; for
+the purpose of fixing, I have found that a mixture by weight, water,
+1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and powdered alum 60, produces
+excellent results, after being allowed to dry.
+
+Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be
+immediately used for producing negatives _recto_ or _verso_ as above
+mentioned.
+
+I claim as my invention:
+
+First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper
+for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the purposes above
+described; and,
+
+Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other analogous
+oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the
+paper backing as above described.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM.
+
+
+A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact, so
+much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete
+without it--is the substance known is common alum, or potash alum, being
+a double sulphate of alumina and potash; but it is interesting to note
+that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia
+alum, or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter
+of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or
+ammonia alum.
+
+Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and mechanical
+printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, it has been
+recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The silver printer
+adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working
+order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; then, again, silver
+prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, having for its object
+the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt. A very
+good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a
+saturated solution, diluted with one gallon of water, the prints being
+well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes.
+
+Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single instance
+can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to
+arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do
+instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur and
+professional, or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary
+risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and
+trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such
+individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day
+practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum, either
+before fixing, or immediately afterward. In fact, some operators have
+two alum baths in use, one a normal bath, as above mentioned, for
+immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity; and the
+other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable
+acid (such as citric) or a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use
+when there is too much printing density, since it has been found
+in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium
+thio-sulphate on the gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing)
+not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or
+pyrogallol, but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover,
+the color does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes
+when the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where
+there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a soft
+sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed emulsion worked
+in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the
+plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them
+in the acid bath.
+
+Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless
+transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, astringent
+taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60° F., and in its own
+weight of water at 212° F.; but the excess crystallizes out upon
+cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, and, when impure, usually
+contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon the addition of either caustic
+soda or potash, a white gelatinous precipitate is formed (hydrate of
+alumina), which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed. The
+precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent
+film sometimes observed on gelatine plates, when dry, which have been
+soaked in alum, and not well washed afterward.
+
+Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for instance--precipitate
+hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve in an excess of the
+reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved.
+
+Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison,
+which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube, it
+somewhat resembles thin starch paste.
+
+The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of
+hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum
+in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid ammonia; should any iron be
+present, the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over
+a sheet of white paper. Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate
+of alumina and sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto
+their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the
+community rather than the practical.--_Photo. News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.
+
+
+As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton cloths
+become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence of carrying
+on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope. The effect is
+that, together with the tension, although slight, and the drying, the
+weft partly shrinks and partly curls up, the latter, however, being
+scarcely observable to the naked eye. It may almost be said that as
+regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples
+because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to
+its gray width. The main use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not
+so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its
+normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been
+performed upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially
+useful to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a
+white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching being
+corrected before printing.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.]
+
+The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in
+a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of another stretching
+machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by Mr.
+Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of Salford, who makes a specialty of
+calico printers' and finishers' machinery. The improvements consist
+mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly
+substantial construction of the machine. The principle adopted is a
+well-known one. The selvages of the cloth, or more strictly the two
+edges of the cloth, of a width of about two inches, are caused to pass
+over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys.
+The rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they
+seize it, hence the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly
+performed. The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt
+acting against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held
+between them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by
+the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, CC, of
+which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley. The
+lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw
+for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands. The
+stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft, an
+ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to
+be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it
+without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts. The piece,
+wound upon the ordinary batch shell, is placed upon the running-off
+center, D; it is led off over the rails, EE, and then downward to the
+nip of the bands and pulleys, AA. As explained, the selvages are here
+gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are
+wider apart at the back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed
+underneath, the piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the
+back it passes over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening
+rail, G, and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be
+seen. The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills
+it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the
+driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle to
+the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as to
+separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the treatment of
+different widths of cloths. This adjustment is provided for by mounting
+the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band pulleys, CC, etc., on frames,
+BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, upon rails, at the back and front
+of the machine. The adjustment either for width of piece or for the
+angularity (extent of stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L.
+By the bevel wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the
+ends of frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space
+between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened
+out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may be
+separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously made. The
+wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use of which is
+sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a set of stretching
+pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in illustration. By a proper
+adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form, where it
+passes between the whole of them, the effect of the corrugation being
+to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally
+stretched with those near the selvages and more easily. This part of the
+machine may be used or not as required. The production, we observe, was
+about 120 yards per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted
+together, as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course
+of construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of
+considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods,
+on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small
+disturbance to the stiffening.--_Textile Manufacturer_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS.
+
+
+All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable
+fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction.
+The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in the operation, acts
+injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially during the formation of
+hydrochloric acid, with which process especially the development of an
+injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable. The best
+method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the
+moisture naturally present in the wool. The patentees find agitation of
+the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material
+assistance. The operation maybe successfully performed in two
+ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with
+constant agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For
+the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture
+at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and having apertures
+all round to allow free access of air. This cylinder rests on a hollow
+axle, closed at one end and perforated with holes, through which the
+acid gas is passed. By the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn
+through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby
+it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30°
+Cent. is best suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according
+to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the
+gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted by
+the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully saturated,
+the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are
+sufficiently friable. The treatment _in vacuo_ is as follows:
+
+The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material
+provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this false bottom
+a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a
+vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the maximum vacuum is
+attained, the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of
+40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth.
+The warmth set free (about 500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up
+by the combined water in the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a
+quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor
+streams through the second vessel at a temperature of 35° Cent.,
+penetrates the material, and passes out through the pump. After
+saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the
+second. AS soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first
+vessel is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus
+from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents gas
+passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under reduced
+pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing
+alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in
+evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after saturation by
+these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels, after
+which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles
+are friable. As soon as this occurs, the fabrics are washed. It is
+advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta,
+strontia, magnesia, or preferably lime, and subsequently to rinse in
+pure water. Phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed
+for neutralizing the acid, and the residue recovered and separated from
+the organic residues mixed with it.--"_H. J.," Journal of the Society of
+Chemical Industry._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are
+characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the results of
+numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable
+fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides
+and chlorides which, when submitted to electrolysis, permit oxygen and
+chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state.
+
+The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile
+substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only those most
+generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined
+action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the same manner,
+whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state.
+
+In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile
+materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any
+sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel
+containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the
+hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are
+capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a nascent
+state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents.
+
+The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the
+electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less
+length of time, according to the nature of the material to be bleached,
+and must, after this first operation, be washed, rinsed, and dried.
+
+The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides
+and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have been specially
+utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, the alkaline
+hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes.
+
+In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in
+presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the
+results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as
+bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and economical
+to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its
+elements from the metallic chloride itself, and from the water by means
+of which such transformation is to be effected. This is a reversal of
+the problem, and, _à propos_ thereof, we would call the attention of
+the reader to an apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for
+effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner.
+
+If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be submitted
+to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material
+to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the
+following way:
+
+2NaCl + 2 H_{2}O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H.
+
+In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results
+from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the
+chloride of sodium and water, which puts the chlorine, the metal, the
+hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in presence. The chlorine and
+oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material.
+
+While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be preferable to
+adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement.
+
+The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A,
+into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any
+electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a
+safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates with
+a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication between the
+electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in this latter is
+sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part of the vessel, A,
+by means of the tubes, G and H.
+
+The apparatus operates as follows:
+
+The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is put, is
+filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of chloride of
+sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action of an electric
+current, when, as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of
+the chloride and the water, the elements in a nascent state form
+hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total conversion of the liquid
+has been effected (this being ascertained by chlorometric tests), the
+pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, and, as a consequence, draws up
+the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower
+part of the electrolyzer, A. The hypochlorite that has formed passes
+through the tube, D (as a natural consequence of the elevation of the
+level of the liquid in A brought about by the entrance of a new supply
+of chloride), and distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it
+acts upon the textile material.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS BY ELECTRICITY.]
+
+The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, permits
+of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical
+reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution contained in the
+reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator.
+
+As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution from
+the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid conversion into
+decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt application upon the
+materials to be bleached, presents important advantages.
+
+While, in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching
+chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid,
+which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in its turn react upon
+binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with this new method, to
+utilize the chloride of sodium, which is derived from ordinary salt
+works, and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite
+by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an
+electric current.
+
+Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of
+having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a
+uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by the always known
+intensity of the current.
+
+We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time
+to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, besides, all
+chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of
+undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed
+for the same purpose. This is especially the case with the chlorides
+of potassium or barium, the bromides of strontium or calcium, and the
+iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On another hand, as sea water contains
+different chlorides, it results that it might serve directly as a raw
+material for bleaching textile fibers. Then, when the solution of
+chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis,
+there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for
+scouring fibers.--_H. Danzer, in Le Génie Civil_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.
+
+
+Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, Hunslet, Leeds,
+England, for several years past have devoted considerable attention to
+the question of mounting traction engines on springs. The outcome of
+this is the engine in question, the front end of which is carried by a
+pair of Timmis spiral springs, resting on the center pin of the front
+axle, which is on Messrs. McLaren's principle, which enables it to
+accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any
+undue strain on the front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has
+been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur
+gearing, which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the
+cogs. This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all
+the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which will
+be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which Fig. 1 is a
+perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a detail view of the
+wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong
+T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted on. The nave of the wheel
+has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted. These spokes are
+made of the best spring steel, specially manufactured and rolled for the
+purpose, 9 inches wide and ½ inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape,
+with the narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon
+the rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places
+by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine
+comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and
+those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of the
+driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is fixed on the
+differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in Fig. 2, so that
+the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the
+engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence
+in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly
+tested it in practical work. This, we are informed, they have done, with
+the most satisfactory results, during the last five or six months; and
+they have a set of springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and
+3,000 miles, besides which there are several of these spring engines in
+daily use.--_Iron_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, AND WEIGHTS
+OF PURE COPPER WIRE.
+
+
+         DIAMETER    |         AREA
+                     |
+B.W.G  Inch. Milli-  | Circu-  Square      Square
+No.          metres  | lar     inches.     Milli-
+                     | Mils.               metres.
+                     |
+0000   .454  11.5313 | 206116  .161883     10.4435
+ 000   .425  10.795  | 180625  .141862      9.152
+  00   .38    9.6518 | 144400  .113411      7.3165
+   0   .34    8.6358 | 115600  .0907922     5.8573
+   1   .3     7.620  |  90000  .070686      4.5602
+   2   .284   7.2134 |  80656  .0633472     4.0867
+   3   .259   6.5784 |  67081  .0526854     3.3989
+   4   .238   6.0451 |  56644  .0444881     2.8701
+   5   .22    5.5879 |  48400  .0380133     2.4523
+   6   .203   5.1561 |  41209  .0323655     2.088
+   7   .18    4.5719 |  32400  .0254469     1.6417
+   8   .165   4.1909 |  27225  .0213825     1.3794
+   9   .148   3.7591 |  21904  .0172034     1.1098
+  10   .134   3.4035 |  17956  .0141026      .9096
+  11   .12    3.0479 |  14400  .0113097      .7296
+  12   .109   2.7701 |  11881  .00933133     .60199
+  13   .095   2.4129 |   9025  .0070882      .4573
+  14   .083   2.1082 |   6889  .00541062     .34906
+  15   .072   1.8288 |   5184  .00407151     .2486
+  16   .065   1.6510 |   4225  .00331831     .21407
+  17   .058   1.4732 |   3364  .0026421      .17045
+  18   .049   1.2446 |   2401  .00188574     .12165
+  19   .042   1.0668 |   1764  .00138544     .0894
+  20   .035   0.8890 |   1225  .000962115    .06207
+  21   .032   0.8128 |   1024  .00080425     .05188
+  22   .028   0.7112 |    784  .000615753    .03972
+  23   .025   0.635  |    625  .00049087     .03167
+  24   .022   0.5588 |    484  .000380133    .02452
+  25   .02    0.508  |    400  .00031416     .02027
+
+  26   .018   0.4571 |    324  .000254469    .01642
+  27   .016   0.4064 |    256  .000201062    .01297
+  28   .014   0.3556 |    196  .000153938    .00993
+  29   .013   0.3302 |    169  .000132732    .00856
+  30   .012   0.3048 |    144  .000113097    .007296
+
+LENGTH AND WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Pounds      Pounds       Pounds      Pounds      Feet       Yards        1.000 feet  Miles
+No.    per         per          per 1.000   per         per lb.    per lb.      per lb.     per lb.
+       foot.       Yard         ft.         mile.
+
+0000   .623924     1.871772     623.924     3294.32       1.60276     .534253    .00160276  .00303553
+ 000   .54676      1.64028      546.76      2886.89       1.82895     .60965     .00182895  .0034639
+  00   .437105     1.311315     437.105     2307.92       2.28777     .76259     .00228777  .004333
+   0   .349928     1.049784     349.928     1847.62       2.85773     .9525766   .00285773  .0054124
+   1   .272435      .817305     272.435     1438.43       3.6706     1.22353     .0036706   .0069519
+   2   .244151      .732453     244.151     1289.11       4.0958     1.365266    .0040958   .0077573
+   3   .203058      .609174     203.058     1072.15       4.9247     1.641566    .0049247   .009327
+   4   .171463      .514395     171.465      905.333      5.8321     1.944033    .0058321   .0110457
+   5   .14651       .43953      146.510      773.56       6.8255     2.275166    .0068255   .012927
+   6   .124742      .374226     124.742      658.638      8.0165     2.672166    .0080165   .015183
+   7   .098076      .294228      98.076      517.844     10.1962     3.39873     .0101962   .019311
+   8   .082411      .247233      82.411      435.135     12.1345     4.04483     .0121345   .022981
+   9   .066305      .198915      66.305      350.089     15.0818     5.027266    .0150818   .028564
+  10   .054354      .163062      54.354      286.99      18.398      6.13266     .018398    .034845
+  11   .04359       .13077       43.590      230.152     22.9413     7.6471      .0229413   .04345
+  12   .035964      .107892      35.964      189.893     27.805      9.2683      .027805    .05266
+  13   .027319      .081957      27.319      144.245     36.6046    12.20153     .0366046   .069326
+  14   .020853      .062559      20.853      110.1088    47.954     15.98466     .047954    .09082
+  15   .015692      .047076      15.692       82.855     63.7267    21.24223     .0637261   .12069
+  16   .012789      .038367      12.789       67.5276    78.1902    26.0634      .0781902   .14809
+  17   .0101828     .0305484     10.1828      53.7665    98.202     32.734       .098203    .18589
+  18   .00726795    .02180388     7.26796     38.3748    137.590    45.8633      .137590    .260587
+  19   .00533972    .01601916     5.33972     28.1937    187.276    62.4253      .187276    .35469
+  20   .00370815    .01112445     3.70815     19.579     269.676    89.892       .2696676   .51075
+  21   .00309972    .00929910     3.09972     16.3665    322.610   107.5366      .322610    .61100
+  22   .00237312    .00711936     2.37312     12.5301    421.384   140.4613      .421334    .798078
+  23   .0018910     .0056757      1.8919       9.9892    528.570   176.190       .528570    .100108
+  24   .0014650     .0043950      1.4650       7.7357    682.55    227.5166      .68255     .129271
+  25   .00121082    .00363246     1.21082      6.39315   825.880   275.2943      .825883    .156417
+  26   .00098077    .00294231      .98077      5.17844  1019.61    339.870      1.01961     .193108
+  27   .00077492    .00232476      .77492      4.0916   1290.44    430.1466     1.29044     .24440
+  28   .0005933     .0017799       .5933       3.13264  1685.48    561.8266     1.68548     .31922
+  29   .000511571   .001534713     .511571     2.7011   1954.76    651.5866     1.95476     .370220
+  30   .0004359     .0013077       .4359       2.30152  2294.13    764.710      2.29413     .434496
+
+LENGTH AND RESISTANCE
+
+B.W.G  Feet         Yards        1.000 feet   Miles      Ohms         Ohms          Ohms        Ohms
+No.    per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.     per Ohm.   per foot.    per yard.     per 1.000   per mile.
+                                                                                    foot.
+
+0000   19966.5      6655.5       19.9665      3.7815     .000050684   .00156252       .050084      .264443
+ 000   17497.15     5832.3833    17.49715     3.31385    .0000571522  .0001714566     .0571522     .301763
+  00   13988.64     4662.68      13.98804     2.64925    .000071489   .000214467      .071489      .377465
+   0   11198.17     3732.7333    11.19817     2.12086    .0000893002  .0002679006     .0893002     .471505
+   1    8718.30     2906.10       8.71830     1.6512     .00011470    .0003441        .114701      .60562
+   2    7813.50     2604.50       7.81350     1.47973    .00012799    .00038397       .12799       .67580
+   3    6498.14     2166.0466     6.49814     1.23071    .00015389    .00046167       .15389       .81254
+   4    5487.107    1829.0357     5.487107    1.03923    .000182245   .000546735      .182245      .962256
+   5    4688.51     1562.8366     4.68851      .887975   .000213287   .000639861      .213287     1.12616
+   6    3991.91     1330.6366     3.99191      .756045   .000250506   .000751518      .250506     1.32267
+   7    3138.59     1046.1966     3.13859      .59443    .000318614   .000955842      .318614     1.68228
+   8    2637.29      879.0966     2.63729      .499486   .000379177   .001137531      .379177     2.00206
+   9    2121.84      707.280      2.12184      .401864   .000471289   .001413867      .471289     2.488405
+  10    1739.40      579.80       1.73940      .329432   .000574911   .001724733      .574911     3.03553
+  11    1394.93      464.9766     1.39493      .264191   .000716882   .002150646      .716882     3.78514
+  12    1150.91      383.6366     1.15091      .217976   .000868875   .002606625      .868875     4.58766
+  13     874.252     291.4173      .874252     .165578   .00114383    .00343149       1.14383     6.03945
+  14     667.338     222.446       .667338     .12639    .00149849    .00449547       1.49849     7.91203
+  15     502.175     167.39166     .502175     .095109   .00199134    .00597402       1.99134    10.5142
+  16     409.276     136.42533     .409276     .077514   .00244334    .00733002       2.44334    12.9008
+  17     325.871     108.62366     .325871     .061718   .0030687     .0092061        3.0687     16.20274
+  18     232.585      77.52833     .232585     .04405    .0042995     .0128985        4.2995     22.7014
+  19     170.879      56.95966     .170879     .032363   .0058521     .0175563        5.8521     30.8991
+  20     149.3915     49.797166    .1493915    .022475   .00842703    .02528109       8.42703    44.4947
+  21      99.195      33.065       .099195     .018787   .01008110    .03024348      10.08116    53.2285
+  22      75.9461     25.315366    .0759461    .014384   .0131672     .0395016       13.1672     69.5230
+  23      60.54377    20.181256    .06054377   .011467   .0165170     .0495510       16.5170     87.2096
+  24      46.8851     15.628356    .0468851    .0088798  .02132874    .06398622      21.32874   112.616
+  25      38.748      12.916       .038748     .0073386  .025808      .077424        25.808     136.265
+  26      31.3859     10.461966    .0313859    .0059443  .03186144    .09558432      31.86144   168.229
+  27      24.79873     8.266243    .02479873   .0046967  .0403246     .1209738       40.3246    212.914
+  28      18.98653     6.328843    .01898653   .0035959  .05266892    .15800676      52.66892   278.092
+  29      16.3710      5.4570      .0163710    .0031006  .0610834     .1832502       61.0834    322.521
+  30      13.9493      4.649766    .0139493    .0026419  .07168825    .21506475      71.68825   378.514
+
+RESISTANCE & WEIGHT
+
+B.W.G  Ohms           Lbs.
+No.    per lb.        per Ohm.
+
+0000      .000080272  12457.5
+ 000      .000104529   9566.7
+  00      .000163553   6114.24
+   0      .000255196   3918.58
+   1      .00042102    2375.18
+   2      .00052422    1907.59
+   3      .00075786    1319.50
+   4      .0010629      940.844
+   5      .0014558      686.911
+   6      .0020082      497.96
+   7      .00324863     307.822
+   8      .00460101     217.343
+   9      .00710791     140.689
+  10      .0105772       94.543
+  11      .0164462       60.842
+  12      .0241593       41.392
+  13      .0418692       23.8839
+  14      .0718583       13.9163
+  15      .126788         7.8872
+  16      .191045         5.2344
+  17      .301355         3.31835
+  18      .59157          1.6904
+  19     1.09596           .912445
+  20     2.27254           .44003
+  21     3.25229           .30748
+  22     5.54843           .18023
+  23     8.73035           .11454
+  24    14.5579            .068691
+  25    21.3142            .046917
+  26    32.4863            .030782
+  27    52.0367            .019217
+  28    88.7724            .011265
+  29   119.404             .008375
+  30   164.4762            .0060804
+
+PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 mil.
+foot at 60° Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, 10.32311 ohms. Upon
+these data the above Table has been calculated.
+
+The _Resistance_ of Copper varies with the temperature about 0.38 per
+cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per degree Fahrenheit.
+
+STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of
+_Stranded_ Wires, the total _weight_ is _greater_, and the _Resistance
+less_ than is a similar length of Conductor with Wires _not_ Stranded.
+
+  To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994
+              Feet to Metres            "         .3048
+              Yards to Metres           "         .9144
+              Miles to Kilometres       "         .6214
+              Pounds to Kilogrammes     "         .45359
+
+PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE MAKERS, 25,
+BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IRON FRAME GANG MILLS.
+
+
+The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid
+and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent improvements
+tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown in the iron frame
+stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East Saginaw, Mich., are
+eminently valuable. Our large engraving represents one of these mills,
+constructed to be driven by belt, friction, or direct engine, as may be
+desired. The important requisite in this class of mills is such design
+and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement
+at the highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the
+quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of thinner
+saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are among the
+advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming the necessity
+of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense in setting up, and
+avoiding the liability of decay or change of position.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.]
+
+Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation, and
+from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the
+Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and bottom slides. The top
+slides are pivoted at the top end, and the bottom ones from the bottom
+end, both being operated by one rock shaft from the center. This
+movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest
+cut yet obtained. It adds no extra weight to the sash, and avoids the
+cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints, usually weighing from
+three hundred to five hundred pounds, which have been found so
+objectionable in many other movements. The feed is continuous, and is
+made variable from ¼ to 1¼ inch to each stroke, controllable by the
+sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form
+with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special feature of
+this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests
+upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block
+or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole structure is thus increased,
+both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting
+vibrations, which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same
+part, as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use.
+
+The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws 4½ feet
+long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke 20 inches, capable
+of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank shaft is nine inches in
+diameter, of the best forged iron. The main pillow block has a base
+6½ feet long by 21 inches bearing, weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap
+is secured by two forged bolts 3½ inches in diameter, and by this
+arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is
+used with suitable counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and
+speed of sash; a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a
+forged pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes.
+The iron drive pulley is 4 to 4½ feet in diameter and 24 inches face;
+the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 pounds, turned
+off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is required, a proportionate
+increase is made in all these parts.
+
+In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; the lower
+girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without rivets, giving
+the greatest strength possible, with the least weight. The outfit also
+includes eight iron rollers for the floor, 8½ inches in diameter, with
+iron stands, and geared as live rolls when desired, a full set of
+Lippencott's steel saw hangings, and gauges for one-inch lumber. The
+weight of the machine here shown is 18½ tons. They are, however, built
+in larger or smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity
+of work desired.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of the
+Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and Hollanders
+with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early fruits are taken
+from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, whence they
+are carried by fast steamers to London and other English ports. But, on
+the other hand, Germany is sending into Italy large quantities of coal,
+iron, machinery, copper, and other articles of which the latter received
+nothing before. In two months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of
+paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS.
+
+
+The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in
+accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out in
+such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been applied
+with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the Glasgow
+Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a period of about
+twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens successfully adapted his
+system to the firing of retorts at the Paris Gas Works, it seems to have
+made but little progress up to the present time; for what reasons it is
+perhaps difficult to explain. It is certain, however, that so-called
+regenerator furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been
+brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the
+Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has
+received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion
+eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be
+certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an
+illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with
+its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, the electric light. Of course,
+it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative
+principle at the Paris Gas Works was attended with a degree of
+complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so
+expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies
+and gas corporations generally, when the expense as well as the
+scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying
+and utilizing heat had to be considered. Fortunately, however, Dr.
+Siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was
+no such thing as "finality" in that department of invention which he had
+made almost exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed
+his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and
+utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most
+decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements
+now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been
+immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility has in
+no way been interfered with.
+
+Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer and
+regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. Foulis, the
+general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, with the view of
+entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale
+at one of the stations under his charge. Encouraged by the hearty
+co-operation of the gas committee, two or three of whose members were
+well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very soon came to an understanding with
+Dr. Siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at
+the Dalmarnock Gas Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city,
+and the largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number
+of retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent shape
+was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, but which
+number has since been increased to eight, owing to the space occupied
+by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for
+an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" setting. For each oven or
+chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer,
+so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought
+necessary.
+
+[Illustration: GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW
+CORPORATION GAS WORKS.]
+
+In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement and the
+relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the retorts to
+each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of _sine qua non_ of the new
+method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close
+proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be
+used, and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be
+immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts, and with its top
+on a level with the working floor of the retort house. To place it
+in such a position meant a good deal of excavation, which was also
+required, however, for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried
+down to a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and
+as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted
+to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division
+walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, were
+in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a good deal
+of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas
+producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of application and
+by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements
+from time to time, as also by a determination not to be beaten, although
+often disheartened, Mr. Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete
+success. The new system of firing being made so simple that there was
+scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice
+if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+The results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens, or a
+total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith
+resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench
+of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; and all the improvements
+which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the
+four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the
+remaining eight ovens in the bench. More recently the regenerator system
+has been applied to other 22 ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the
+whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house; and during the
+very depth of the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its
+greatest height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings,
+amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition they
+still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable extension
+of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and
+summer. The reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens
+of seven retorts each, giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts; and
+to twenty ovens of five retorts each, which will become sixteen ovens,
+each having eight retorts, making 128 retorts in this division, and the
+total being 208 retorts in place of 170 in the same amount of space. It
+is confidently anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of
+the present year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working
+out the new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the
+confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the
+Glasgow Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the
+actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas
+retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are
+being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the Dawsholm
+Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of Maryhill, and some
+four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock Works in a northwestern
+direction. The station just named, which is also a very large one, will
+probably require two years for its conversion.
+
+We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted
+for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel to the
+greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing
+the cannel coal used as the source of the gas.
+
+The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in Fig. 2, is
+a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron. It is 7
+ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, which becomes reduced to 20
+in. above, where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid, which is
+continuous with the floor of the retort house. There are no firebars
+at the bottom, so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick. At the
+bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about 1 ft.
+in length by 6 in. in height. By means of these openings any clinker
+that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn.
+They also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in
+the lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a
+malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam
+boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the
+steam.
+
+The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it
+has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of
+carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made from Scotch cannel
+the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains a large percentage of
+mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon. The retorts are
+worked with three-hour charges, but the producer is only charged once in
+every six hours For each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel
+is about 18 cwt., and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from
+five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the
+top. Formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a
+furnace underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made,
+but now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced
+to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly was.
+Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the
+producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by
+way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it has been filled up
+to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the
+top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon it and driven home, thereby
+making a perfectly air-tight joint. The contents of the other three
+retorts, as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each
+alternate drawing, are taken to the coke heap in the yard. We have
+already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about 18 cwt. for each set
+of eight retorts, but in connection with that matter we should mention
+that it was formerly about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts,
+and that there is every prospect of it being increased without
+increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each
+charge.
+
+It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the
+mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air admitted at the
+several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers
+of the incandescent coke, the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid
+gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air. Among the middle and upper
+layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further
+quantity of the fixed carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic
+oxide gas (CO_{2}+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses
+considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very
+completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the producer, a
+quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide,
+the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former
+increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen associated with
+the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the
+carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of
+course absolutely useless as a generator of heat. The steam which
+we previously spoke of serves two good purposes. In contact with
+incandescent coke it suffers decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some
+of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which
+is set free passes onward, and mixes with the other gases to be
+subsequently consumed with them. The admission of the steam thus causes
+the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition
+takes place, this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion
+of the hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the
+coke in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely
+preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious
+materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke
+obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to 20 per
+cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the
+bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours.
+Referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel
+coke in one of these gas producers, we give the following typical
+analysis on the authority of Dr. William Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas
+examiner, and one of the public analysts for the city of Glasgow:
+
+                     Per cent.
+  Hydrogen             8.7
+  Carbonic oxide      28.1
+  Carbonic acid        3.5
+  Oxygen               0.4
+  Nitrogen            59.3
+                     -----
+                     100.0
+
+By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an opening is
+provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the
+mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of
+the setting and the lower by the regenerators.
+
+Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the
+arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be
+admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible
+nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper is
+occupied by eight [Inline Illustration] shaped retorts. These are 9 ft.
+long (set back to back) by 18 in. by 13 in., and they are placed on
+arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. wide. Underneath the level of the retort
+oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ
+very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr.
+Siemens to gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high
+temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In
+the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating
+system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat
+of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, the
+current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork, while
+air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated. The system
+thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part
+of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the
+currents. The regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six
+zigzag flues, three on each side of the setting. These flues run the
+whole length of the setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing
+downward in Fig. 3, the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack
+pass to and fro through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion
+of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the
+central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air necessary
+for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center, and
+then it is divided into two currents, which pass right and left into the
+central passages of the two regenerators. As the air flue is at a very
+bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it, the
+temperature of the air must be equally great, or nearly so. In its most
+improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount
+of heating surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the
+air on its way to the combustion chamber.
+
+Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the gas
+enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it meets
+the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, not by a
+number of small openings, but by one large opening on each side, and
+meets the air entering also by a large opening, the effect of which is
+to avoid the localization of intense heat, as all the retorts of the
+setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame, due to the
+combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases.
+
+There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas
+retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the extent
+of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided
+increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as it has been
+experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that, by
+increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer can be made to
+provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight
+retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel
+used will be still further reduced. Then, again, an additional retort
+can well be placed in each oven, as it occupies the position of the fire
+in ordinary settings. In the third place, by the greater heat which is
+obtained, the charges can be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges
+can be carbonized in a given space of time. When all the gains are put
+together, the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per
+cent. over any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator
+settings there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous
+fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any
+trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of
+the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but natural to
+expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which
+is really the case. Another advantage is that, as the fuel used in
+the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the flues cannot by any
+possibility arise. It is the confident opinion of Mr. Foulis that the
+system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas
+works, and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the
+summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to
+eight retorts.
+
+As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and
+regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great amount
+of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many persons have
+visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their reconstruction, in order
+to see the system in operation, and doubtless many more will go and do
+likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses,
+and which are likely to increase rather than diminish.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN.
+
+
+During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and one,
+moreover, destined to materially influence the development of the uses
+of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the guidance of Mr.
+Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, London. The experiment
+in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating
+bakers' ovens, in a manner not hitherto attempted, and such as to bring
+the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the
+smallest towns. It will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated
+muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of
+a model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in action
+at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the winter
+of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but its design
+demanded either a new structure in every case, or considerable
+alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed system, moreover,
+the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be
+necessary to meet the objections of the bakers. It is evident, however,
+that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles
+and brickwork, such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven,
+from the outside; and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel
+as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that
+in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire.
+When it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is
+of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in the
+estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to allowing a
+purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to
+fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. Consequently, when
+Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known
+in England and America, seriously addressed himself to construct, upon
+altogether new lines, a cheap and practical baker's oven, he wisely put
+the gas inside.
+
+There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after consultation with
+practical bakers and others, set himself to fulfill, the observance
+of which lends to the present Blackfriars experiment much of its
+interesting character. Thus it was observed that, while it is not
+difficult to build an oven in a given spot, and bake bread in it, this
+cannot truly be called a _baker's_ oven. By this term must be understood
+in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style
+and worked by a man with his living to get by it. Before the problem of
+extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be
+attacked from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to
+have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw
+that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting it
+inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any general
+success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be
+rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The latter seems
+a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered that the only
+improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam
+oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or three hundred pounds to
+erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible
+for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven; and in this
+respect he set himself to surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will
+not bake the common "batch" or household bread, generally the principal
+article of sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The
+peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from
+the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is found simply
+in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted
+to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the oven, and thence radiated to
+the bread. No other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves
+packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly
+soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now,
+as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and
+otherwise, this necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly
+a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of
+itself, can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas
+cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as
+formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different kind of heat is
+needed, under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion.
+Therefore, there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides
+of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames; thus
+supplanting the coal fire, but leaving the actual work of baking to be
+done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way.
+
+Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, there
+still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in the dealing
+with which lies the difference between practical success and failure.
+Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking; it is
+also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits
+of work to which the baker has been accustomed. Work in town bakeries
+begins at about midnight, or shortly after, and the condition of the
+oven must conform to the requirements of the dough, which vary from day
+to day and from season to season. In order to master all these niceties,
+as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer
+has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has
+thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has
+served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his gas heat, but in
+answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in
+an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with considerable satisfaction
+that we are enabled to declare, after duly weighing all the conditions
+as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others, that Mr.
+Booer has succeeded, upon these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas
+to be a cheap, efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the
+control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself.
+
+The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the
+bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It measures 7 feet by
+6 feet internally; being what is technically termed a 6 bushel oven. The
+alterations made by Mr. Booer consist in the first place in the removal
+of the flooring tiles, and the laying down of a new bottom, under which
+run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the
+furnace, where it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight
+pieces of ¾-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall,
+and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the
+gas-burners, which are supplied from a 1½-inch pipe led into the old
+furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted
+in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all the plant
+required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to
+different points of the side walls, and the products of combustion are
+allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose.
+A supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion
+of the gas in these flues, which would otherwise be languid. When the
+gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or
+the bottom set of burners, a long match is used to light them from
+the same point. This is effected without risk of firing back, by the
+adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the
+pattern of which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in
+a sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at
+the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the
+products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney,
+which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as might be
+expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable
+position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this case by the fact that
+the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft. Finally,
+however, the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results.
+During the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use, and the
+bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade.
+Two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven;
+the economy of its use, of course, increasing with the number of loaves
+turned out. As a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the
+oven is wanted, and about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are
+shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in
+which time it ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the
+batch is set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a
+half, according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are
+baked with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s.
+10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This cannot be
+considered costly. But the system possesses many other advantages. In
+the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; for the oven never
+requires wiping out, which is usually done with a bundle of old rope
+called a "scuffle" and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant
+odor. Then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of
+view of the Smoke Abatement Institution. More to the purpose of the
+journeyman baker, however, is the fact that there is no stoking to be
+done, and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to
+attend to the furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of
+knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to
+the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is
+no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. Loeber,
+having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning, and marked
+how they have been overcome, is content to acknowledge that even this
+first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold
+over the counter. There is a good opening in this direction, for there
+are 6,000 bakeries in London alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's
+system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his
+customers. And what may be done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic
+feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns
+where the price is lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a
+proper spirit. He has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of
+the baker; and has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a
+noteworthy success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his
+perseverance merits.--_Jour. of Gas Lighting_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB.
+
+
+Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the whirlpool
+and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born at Irongate,
+near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 feet 8 inches in
+height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and weighed about 14½ stone.
+He learnt to swim when about seven years old, and was trained as a
+sailor on board the Conway training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved
+the life of a fellow seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez
+Canal and cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on
+board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the life of
+a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an hour before
+he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received a gold and
+other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but soon after he
+relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming.
+
+At long distance swimming in salt water he was _facile princeps_, but he
+did not show to such advantage in fresh water. In June, 1874, he swam
+from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a distance of 11 statute miles.
+On July 3, 1875, he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier,
+nearly 18 statute miles, in 4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same
+month he swam from Dover to Ramsgate, 19¼ statute miles, in 8 hours 45
+minutes. On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France,
+and although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the
+distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 15½ statute miles, in 6
+hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made another attempt,
+which rendered his name famous all over the English-speaking world.
+Starting from Dover, he reached the French coast at Calais, after being
+immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 minutes. He had swum over 39
+miles, or, according to another calculation, 45½ miles, without having
+touched a boat or artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam
+at the Lambeth Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at
+Boston, U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 128½ hours. Latterly he had
+suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had become much
+impaired.
+
+[Illustration: CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.]
+
+The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief
+description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from the
+boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the shouts and
+applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam leisurely down the
+river, but made good progress. He passed along the rapids at a great
+pace, and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the
+Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the bridge the river becomes
+exceedingly violent, and as the water was clear every movement of Webb
+could be seen. At one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave,
+and the next he sank into the awful hollow created. As the river became
+narrower, and still more impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a
+wave, and for a few moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose
+to the surface without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily
+increased, and he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he
+was swept into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the
+highest wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into
+the yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry
+waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the waves.
+He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more alive. Some
+days later his body was found four miles below the fatal Rapids. It bore
+tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone.
+His bathing drawers were torn to fragments, and there was a deep wound
+in his head. An inquest was held, and the jury returned a verdict of
+"Found drowned."
+
+Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a widow and
+two children. It is understood that he risked his life in this last
+fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family.--_London
+Graphic_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY.
+
+
+These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, which is
+the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. As regards
+accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized
+drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; well-lighted entrance
+halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, pantry, and scullery; on
+first floor are three good bedrooms, a bathroom, and other necessary
+accommodation; on second floor are two additional bedrooms. The basement
+contains coal-place and larder.
+
+In these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned
+and well-arranged habitations, combined with a pleasing and picturesque
+exterior, without involving a large outlay of money. The materials used
+are brick of a deep red color for facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs.
+Wilcock & Co., of Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a
+very sparing use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables
+are constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned
+together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with brickwork;
+the panels faced with cement, which, together with the cored cornice,
+are finished in vellum color. The whole of the woodwork of exterior is
+painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, forming an admirable contrast
+with the deep red of the bricks, the sashes and casements only being
+finished in cream color. The whole of the chimneypieces in the interior
+are carried out from the architect's special design; those in the
+drawing-rooms being of mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those
+in dining-rooms of oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished.
+
+[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS,
+BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.]
+
+The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have been
+erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, have cost
+£1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including the price of
+land. They have been carried out from the designs and under the
+superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., architect, of St.
+Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--_The Architect_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS.
+
+
+In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary
+precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained
+to take, it is of some interest to us, says the _Building News_, to know
+how the poor are housed in the city of Paris, which contains, more than
+any city in the world, the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence
+and of sordid, bestial poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working
+classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and
+reflect great discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough
+in the case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle
+of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. In
+1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in the city
+of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the succeeding year,
+the former had increased to 22,061, while the latter had somewhat
+diminished, being only 5,493. There was a census taken in 1881, from
+which it appeared that Paris contained 677,253 operatives and 255,604
+employes and clerks, while out of every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only
+were born in the city, and 565 came from the departments or the French
+colonies. The foreign element in the working classes has increased
+very rapidly, numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an
+addition of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75
+foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not be
+amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population is at
+the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years 1876-81, the city
+received 280,217 additional mouths. The total population of the capital
+is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are males.
+
+Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were
+estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, and
+in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the
+majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in almost any
+other great city in the world. There are two classes of lodgings for the
+poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family,
+and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the other, a single room tenanted
+for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the
+morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can. Readers will remember
+how, under the auspices of M. Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled
+down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues.
+While the work lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did
+not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation
+invaded his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that
+densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de l'Opera
+now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman into the
+already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, St. Lambert,
+Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last statistics of the
+_Annuaire_, the increase was at the rate of 415 per 1,000. Of course the
+ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also; and, from
+the reports of Dr. Brouardel and M. Muller, the number of deaths from
+typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in
+making his returns for 1881 of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that
+the most unsanitary arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and
+19th--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had
+taken place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging
+houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 inmates.
+In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, with 9,074
+lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants.
+
+It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a
+standing menace to the health of the city, but also the shocking state
+of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with. The
+owners of the property are, as happens in other places besides Paris,
+unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, and have not only divided
+and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible, but have even raised
+the rental in nearly all cases. Whole families are crowded into a small
+apartment, icy cold in winter, an oven in summer, the only air and
+daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on
+to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There
+are at the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove
+nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 rooms
+there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 with three
+children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian population has
+augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the district of poor
+lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., and the number of
+lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a law was passed in 1850
+to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property; but
+in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, although it is now active in the
+provinces and in places like Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it
+is applied, even there, in a jerky and intermittent manner.
+
+Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the
+group known as the Cité des Kroumirs, in the 13th arrondissement, which,
+by a strange irony, was built on land belonging to the Department of
+Public Assistance, which was let out by that body to a rich tenant, who
+sublet it to these lodging-house owners. This veritable den of infection
+and misery has now been demolished; but there are plenty of others quite
+as bad. Notably, there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to
+have named it after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five
+stories, which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that
+it was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages
+here. The Cité Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the
+"Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is inhabited
+by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The Cite Philippe is
+tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows what are the contents
+of the chiffonnier's basket, or _hotte_, may easily guess at the
+effluvia of that particular group of houses. A large lodging-house in
+the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted by 210 Italians, who get their living
+as models or itinerant musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to
+be unapproachable from the vermin.
+
+It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened
+the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more than one
+scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial
+dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the Credit Foncier
+for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses, which, for the
+space of twenty years, will be exempt from all taxes, such as
+octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There are also one or
+two semi-private companies, which are occupying themselves with the
+question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in
+Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There can be no doubt, says the _Engineer_, that the inventor who could
+supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give
+out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune.
+Up to the present time, however, nothing of the kind has been placed
+in the market. Gas is laid on to most houses now, and gas engines are
+plenty enough, yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may
+be made yet perhaps to supply.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC.
+
+
+To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats do not
+colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will distinguish them as a
+rumbling noise, even when their number rises as high as 132 vibrations
+per second, Rudolph Koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks,
+recently presented by President Morton to the Stevens Institute of
+Technology. The following table exhibits the number of vibrations per
+second of these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are
+sounded together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant sound:
+
+  Vibrations per second.         Ratio.        Beats.        Sounds.
+
+  3840           :4096           15:16         128            Ut_{2}
+  3904           :  "            61:64          96           Sol_{1}
+  3936           :  "           123:128         80            Mi_{1}
+  3968           :  "            31:32          64            Ut_{1}
+  3976           :  "           497:512         60            Si_{-1}
+  3989.3         :  "           187:192         53.3          La_{-1}
+  4000           :  "           125:128         48           Sol_{1}
+  4010.7         :  "            47:48          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  4016           :  "           251:256         40            Mi_{-1}
+  4024           :  "           503:512         36            Re_{-1}
+  7936           : 8192          31:32         128            Ut_{2}
+  8064           :  "            63:64          64            Ut_{1}
+  8096           :  "           253:256         48           Sol_{-1}
+  8106.7         :  "            95:96          42.7          Fa_{-1}
+  8112           :  "           507:512         40            Mi_{-1}
+  8120           :  "          1015:1024        36            Re_{-4}
+  8128           :  "           127:128         32            Ut_{-4}
+
+On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard corresponds to
+a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of
+vibrations of the forks.
+
+On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the other,
+the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations whose
+number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher
+fork and the upper octave of the lower fork.
+
+Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced
+by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his researces to
+intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as may be seen from the
+above table.
+
+His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same
+phenomenon.
+
+Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing
+a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear musical sound
+is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce 32
+beats per second.
+
+Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the
+purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose
+vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose with
+eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles of
+holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of this
+instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens Institute, and of
+Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by Koenig himself.
+
+
+I.
+
+_Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect_.
+
+A.
+
+In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not deviate
+much from isochronism.
+
+If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note
+corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks.
+
+If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', and if the
+difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two notes t+t' and
+(t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t, t', and
+t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and (t+t'+t")/3.
+
+Disk No. 1 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances   t=30°
+   "   "        2 24  "       "        "          15°
+   "   "        3 36  "       "        "          10°
+   "   "        4 36  "     at irregular distances.
+   "   "        5 36  " distances t= 10½°, t'=l0°,t''=9½°
+   "   "        6 36  "   "          11°      10°     9°
+   "   "        7 36  "   "          16°      14°
+   "   "        8 36  "   "          16½°     13½°
+
+Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle No. 7 the
+same, but the low note is stronger than in 8.
+
+Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does circle 5,
+but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6.
+
+Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle 3.
+
+By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit the air
+through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance of 30° and
+directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning
+disk. If the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve
+times on the same circle, we cannot, of course, make use of the above
+arrangements of holes of the wind tube, and we must then employ one of
+the movable brass tubes, which communicate with the interior of the wind
+chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk
+1, circle 4, for example, requires the use of one of these two tubes,
+while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all
+the other circles of the same disk.
+
+B.
+
+If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note
+(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard.
+
+Disk No. 2 has--
+
+  On circle No. 1 12 holes,  distances 30°
+   "   "        2 36  "       "        10°
+   "   "        3 48  "       "        7½°
+   "   "        4 60  "       "         6°
+   "   "        5 24  "       " t= 5°, t'=25°
+   "   "        6 24  "            6°     24°
+   "   "        7 24  "            7½°    22½°
+   "   "        8 24  "           10°     20°
+
+Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those of 1 and
+3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of circle 1 and of
+its sixth harmonic.
+
+C.
+
+If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; that is to
+say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n.
+
+Disk No. 3 has--
+
+                                                       Distances.
+  On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15°
+   "   "        2 24   "        "     15° & 27 holes,   13-1/3°
+   "   "        3 24   "        "     15° " 30   "      12°
+   "   "        4 24   "        "     15° " 32   "      11-1/4°
+   "   "        5 24   "        "     15° " 36   "      10°
+   "   "        6 24   "        "     15° " 40   "       9°
+   "   "        7 24   "        "     15° " 45   "       8°
+   "   "        8 24   "        "     15° " 30, 36, & 48 holes
+
+Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a third,
+circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 a perfect
+chord.
+
+
+II.
+
+_Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several
+different places to conspire in the formation of a note, provided that
+the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, and that the shocks
+are produced in the same direction_.
+
+Disk No. 4 has--
+
+  On circle 1 24 holes.
+   "    "   2 36   "
+   "    "   3 23   "
+   "    "   4 12 at an angular distance of 10° from the holes
+                  of circle 3.
+   "    "   5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20° from those of circle 3
+   "    "   6 12   "          "     "       0°        "
+   "    "   7 12   "          "     "      15°        "
+   "    "   8 12   "          "     "      15°        "
+
+1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of
+15° are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, we obtain the octave
+of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used.
+
+The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this
+experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of air
+spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button 9 we
+also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between the first.
+Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note
+corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they produce the octave,
+or the note of circle 1.
+
+2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose
+holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the same result.
+
+In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out buttons 7
+and 9.
+
+3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two
+circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these circles sounded
+simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them
+would give alone.
+
+This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and pulling out
+buttons 6 and 7.
+
+4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three
+similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance
+between two holes of the same circle, the three circles together produce
+the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single circle.
+
+Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle 2.
+
+(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the same
+experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make with
+circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain the note
+corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the notes
+corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very strongly;
+but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 disappears
+completely, and we have left only that corresponding to 36 holes.)
+
+
+III.
+
+_Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions_.
+
+1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in
+opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is very
+much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously.
+If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity of the note is
+increased.
+
+2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the same
+number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases.
+
+3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one of which
+has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the low note if
+every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other.
+
+We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave of the
+other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks.
+
+Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air currents
+are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes,
+made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All these experiments
+require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes. To make
+sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk, it
+is well to put little rods through the holes, reaching into the wind
+tubes, and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached. The
+experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly
+at the same distance from the turning disk. It is clear that
+notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect
+interference, but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear
+entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness,
+and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard
+to impulses produced in opposite directions.
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Beats_.
+
+Disk No. 6 has--
+
+8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, 49.
+
+Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce as many
+beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and 5, 6 and 8,
+as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but we must content
+ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result, for the
+following reasons: The disk never being rigorously plane, alternately
+approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it. No matter how
+slight this deviation is, every sound given by a single circle is heard
+with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon. This
+inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the
+circle; but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles
+(whose difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a
+single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance
+between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when the
+disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and
+intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived.
+
+Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the points to
+which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also furnishes two
+more disks.
+
+The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, 90, and
+96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will produce a perfect
+chord when the air is admitted through the 11 holes in the wind chest;
+with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained.
+
+Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose numbers are
+in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to illustrate
+harmonics. C. F. K.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER.
+
+[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.]
+
+
+To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon
+the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it is necessary to
+take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this being something that
+we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers. For we wished,
+through this voluntary omission, to stimulate their sagacity by bringing
+them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have
+succeeded in overcoming, with causes of error that they will have
+perceived, and the principal one of which is the want of absolute
+cleanliness in the water, vessels, and instruments that they may have
+used for the experiments.
+
+Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the camphor
+remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to
+be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. Their
+astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed
+the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of
+vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or tubes, pieces of
+gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., dipped into the liquid
+in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the
+objects under consideration.
+
+The instantaneously _sedative_ power of the human fingers, or of a hair,
+will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of sorcery, or of some
+diabolic art worthy of the great Albert.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR.]
+
+As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious experiments
+of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously following his
+directions, we have, in the presence of our results, that were exactly
+identical with his, almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the
+victim of some occult power, or at least of some optical illusion,
+the true cause of which remained a mystery to us. Finally, after
+many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our
+attention, the light finally dawned upon us, and then shone straight in
+our eyes.
+
+In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had
+obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor moved in the
+test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its
+gyration took place the day before, or the day before that. And yet we
+had always used the same vessels, the same water, and particles detached
+from the same lump of camphor.
+
+To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the two
+levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the
+camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that was
+satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we had
+noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous washings
+that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into
+them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been freed from
+impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and which, unbeknown
+to us, might have soiled their sides.
+
+Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, we began
+to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very dilute sulphuric
+acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed them with quantities of
+water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used
+for no other purpose; and finally we plunged them again into very clean
+water. We thus cut the Gordian knot, and were on the right track.
+
+In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with that
+minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely
+necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all the pieces of
+the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up. The
+camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or metal, and of every form,
+at all heights. The immersed bodies, such as glass tubes, table knives,
+pieces of money, etc., had lost their pretended "sedative effect" on a
+pretended "activity of the water," and on the vessels that contained
+it. The so-called phenomenon of habit "transported from physiology into
+physics," no longer existed.
+
+The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor
+upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which
+nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes
+of _Chara vulgaris_, had proved a grave error that was to be erased from
+the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire
+good faith. The true cause of _life_ had not then been unveiled, and the
+new agent designated as _diluo-electricity_ vanished before the very
+simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface
+of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly suppose that that
+volatile substance could dissolve.
+
+Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water
+is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel with which
+the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of little or no
+importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to employ a test
+glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, that terminates in a
+lower tubulure, B, above which there is a contraction, C. Upon pouring
+water into the lateral tube until the level reaches D, and placing
+a particle of camphor on its surface, the camphor will be seen to
+continually move about, even when the liquid has reached the upper
+edge of the vessel. To reduce the level to various heights, it is only
+necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to
+the tubulure. In proceeding thus, agitation or _collision_ of the water
+is avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will
+continue to move at every level of the water.
+
+But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the stoppage in the
+motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that
+are not perfectly clean? Before answering this question, let us say in
+the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due
+to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia
+that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they
+emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in
+an ælopile mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of
+a sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small
+portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms upon its
+surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but the thickness
+of which may increase in time until it becomes (especially if the vessel
+is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments
+of camphor that it imprisons, and whose evaporation it prevents. Now,
+as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate, in fact, after a
+certain length of time, the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions;
+but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that
+account that it "has _habituated_ itself to the cause which had at first
+influenced it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to
+render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present"
+(Dutrochet, _l.c._., p. 50).
+
+We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily
+layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under
+the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of sulphuric ether whose
+sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal
+the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye.
+The slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of
+vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it, produces
+effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor, that is to say, that
+in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the
+concrete volatile essence.
+
+This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the
+camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a
+few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to the upper edge
+of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid _licks_ up, so to speak,
+the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel, and this
+material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a
+layer which, in spreading over the bit of camphor itself, prevents its
+evaporation, and, consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer
+under consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by
+causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, more
+easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in
+which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the paper is
+removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, it should be
+understood), the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues
+them at all levels.
+
+The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no power to
+stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy to repeat, is
+an unquestionable proof of this.
+
+Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and afterward with
+plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a
+fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the gyration will not be
+stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in
+its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty substances that
+ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) be dipped into this
+same glass.
+
+_Movements of Camphor upon Mercury_.--In order to study the motions of
+camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a great advantage,
+and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of
+cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath. The
+vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly
+clean, but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is
+soiled by foreign bodies But it is extremely difficult to clean mercury
+completely. To do so Mr. Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and
+leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid,
+taking care to often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater
+part of the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime
+in powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes
+in its lower part.
+
+Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the motions of
+camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces of the vapors
+that escape from it, and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail
+that are endowed with very great agility. Nothing is more curious than
+to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the
+strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of
+the vessel that contains it. On raising the temperature of the metal
+slightly, the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and
+the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated.
+
+The experiments that we have just called attention to show what
+importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They
+prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists upon
+polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters
+which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find therein also a
+manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into
+which the presence of these fatty matters, that have hitherto been
+scarcely suspected, led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as
+the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis.--_N. Joly, in La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CARBONIC ACID IN BEER.
+
+
+We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' Convention in
+Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. Siebel in 1872, and
+used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. Bartholomae & Roesing, in
+Chicago. The object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid
+in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages
+from the storage vats. The importance of this measure is apparent to
+every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of
+this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the
+method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the
+beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to
+the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to the
+excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is evident that
+a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. The escape of
+carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that
+even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a
+remarkable difference in this respect. It is, therefore, evident that if
+a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off, a larger amount
+of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer. It is true that the
+racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure, but
+this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small, when compared
+with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the
+sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in
+which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form it
+has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any
+other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by
+artificial means. The apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is
+calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere,
+at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer. For this
+purpose, the beer from the store cask running through the pipe, B,
+enters the keg through a hollow copper bung, fitting light into the bung
+hole by means of a rubber washer. The air contained in the keg, being
+replaced by the beer, is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung,
+taking its course through the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is
+allowed to escape in the standpipe, C, containing a column of water,
+the height of which designates the pressure within the keg, and a
+consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or
+barrel is filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer
+showing itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the
+copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained in
+the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is then
+bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. Should
+the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time, the
+surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but will be collected in
+the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off through e.--_Chemical Review_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER CHLORIDE.
+
+
+Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of
+silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of
+gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an
+alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas called attention to six
+modifications of silver bromide. One of these, granular bromide of
+silver, obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days
+with water, he stated, was the most sensitive to light of all substances
+known; exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a
+Bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was
+for photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in
+1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in
+a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more
+sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. Today these
+observations have become of the greatest importance to practical
+photography. They have led to the preparation of the silver bromide
+gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates, which are twenty
+times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates, and have
+become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light.
+
+The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the
+more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is
+only moderately sensitive. The explanation was sought for in various
+directions, but as the result of numerous investigations it appears
+that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different
+modifications of silver bromide. From a consideration of the work
+already done on the subject, Vogel suspected that silver bromide
+precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different
+properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal
+solution. Silver bromide was prepared in many different ways. Emulsions
+were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the
+former aqueous, the latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others
+without. Part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a
+moderate temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with
+ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated silver
+bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it to settle
+completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a new portion
+of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates. Finally he
+precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence of all colloids, by
+means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted
+to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or collodion as a cement.
+The result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two
+modifications of silver bromide, the one being obtained by precipitation
+in aqueous, the other in alcoholic solutions. The first, on account of
+the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he
+calls blue sensitive, the other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive.
+
+It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in
+which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion, or
+whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of
+silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the solution is hot or
+cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or
+whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary condition is that in
+precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain
+at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From aqueous alcoholic solutions blue
+sensitive silver bromide is precipitated.
+
+Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum, these
+modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences
+in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two
+essentially different modifications of the same substance. Among these
+are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions.
+The indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a
+gelatin solution, while the blue sensitive modification does so very
+readily. 2d. Their unequal reducibility; the blue sensitive silver
+bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo
+sensitive variety. 3d. Their different action toward chemical and
+physical sensitizers. 4th. Their different action toward photographic
+developers. 5th. Their different action under the influence of heat.
+The blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness
+perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such treatment.
+
+A direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet
+been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these substances is
+incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that the more reducible
+indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light. But
+this is not the case, because it is not chemical reducibility, but the
+absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance. Now the
+blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the
+indigo sensitive variety, and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver
+chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two
+forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications. One is
+designated as ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive
+silver chloride.--_Amer. Chem. Jour_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL.
+
+[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the 28th June,
+1883.]
+
+By OTTO HEHNER
+
+
+Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of New
+Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat full
+analysis may be worthy of being placed on record.
+
+The sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish
+black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the fractures were
+conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. It was interspersed
+with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin. When powdered it
+appeared chocolate brown. It burned readily, the flame being bright and
+very smoky. Its ash was light and reddish brown.
+
+It consisted of--
+
+  Water (loss at 212° F.)        20.09
+  Organic and volatile matter    75.19
+  Ash                             4.72
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage
+composition--
+
+  Carbon                         71.26
+  Hydrogen                        5.62
+  Oxygen                         21.58
+  Nitrogen                        1.06
+  Sulphur                         0.48
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+The ash was composed of--
+
+  Silica                         27.26
+  Alumina                        26.48
+  Oxide of iron                  12.98
+  Lime                           20.19
+  Magnesia                        3.42
+  Sulphuric acid                  9.47
+  Alkalies and loss               0.20
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as
+under--
+
+  Water                          20.09
+  Carbon                         53.58
+  Hydrogen                        4.23
+  Oxygen                         16.23
+  Nitrogen                        0.80
+  Sulphur                         0.36
+  Silica                          1.29
+  Alumina                         1.25
+  Oxide of iron                   0.61
+  Lime                            0.95
+  Magnesia                        0.16
+  Sulphuric acid                  0.44
+  Alkalies                        0.01
+                                ------
+                                100.00
+
+One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of coke.
+
+The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very
+remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary
+temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small pieces.
+The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize
+the so called coal as a _lignite_, with which conclusion the physical
+characters of the sample are in perfect harmony.
+
+The resin to which I have referred has not been further analyzed. It was
+found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, such as alcohol, ether,
+carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, and neither attacked by
+boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali. On heating it swells up
+considerably and undergoes decomposition, but does not fuse.
+
+The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption, but
+the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as
+a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of it being really combustible.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, ETC.
+
+By E. RAYMOND.
+
+
+The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and
+accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of
+peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the
+manganese to the manganous slate, and determining volumetrically, by
+means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of ferrous salt which
+has been converted into ferric. The method of rapidly precipitating
+manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act upon cast-iron or steel with
+nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions, and boil
+the mixture, the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of
+peroxide insoluble in nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of
+ferric oxide. Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous
+cast-iron containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes
+are treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr.
+1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately
+heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15
+grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric acid
+at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until the
+escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown down
+as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and the
+precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the manganese
+peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an acid solution
+of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous sulphate to 750 c.
+c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full strength). The 50 c. c. are
+poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved, and
+to which a little peroxide adheres, and it is then poured upon the
+precipitate and the filter in a Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese
+peroxide dissolves very readily, transforming its equivalent of ferrous
+sulphate into ferric sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150
+c. c. for the next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate
+formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the
+process of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter
+of water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid
+we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining
+in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of the original
+solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and determine the total
+ferrous salt.
+
+The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous
+salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. The quantity
+of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the quantity of
+manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In the case of a
+steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to
+dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the ferrous solution. Small
+Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only 0.010
+meter internal diameter, and graduated into one-twentieth c. c., which
+allows of great exactitude in the determination. For a spiegeleisen
+not more than 1 gramme of the sample should be taken, and for a
+ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+MANGANESE AND ITS USES.
+
+
+Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the
+representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a metallic
+brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is so hard as to
+scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white
+heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, it should be
+preserved under naphtha.
+
+It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones;
+with this exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by
+the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat.
+
+Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., protoxide,
+sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, manganic acid, and
+permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as olive-green powder, and is
+obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen.
+Its salts are colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a strong
+tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate
+forms the mineral known as manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by
+heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition,
+dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed
+largely in calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals.
+
+The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite,
+and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as a black powder
+by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When ignited it loses
+oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts are isomorphous with
+those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It imparts a violet color to
+glass, and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a
+powerful oxidizing agent.
+
+The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native
+in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting the
+sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of the two
+preceding oxides.
+
+The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, and the
+pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most abundant of the
+manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad. Its
+commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given
+weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid, the
+quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which
+this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide.
+When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an
+evolution of chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of
+soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it
+is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of
+oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of
+gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per
+cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in the
+manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares.
+
+Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is
+formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese. The
+black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water,
+to which it communicates a green color, due to the presence of the
+manganate. From this water the salt is obtained _in vacuo_ in beautiful
+green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air, it
+rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual
+conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on
+account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name
+of mineral chameleon.
+
+Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination.
+Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet
+tint when seen by transmitted light. It is obtained by treating a
+solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid, when sulphate of
+baryta falls, and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water.
+Permanganate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is
+the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical
+chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.
+
+Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small
+quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances. It is
+always associated with iron.
+
+Various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The
+sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces
+purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile;
+and in small doses, both this salt and the carbonate have been given
+with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of
+anæmia. Manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when
+applied in lotions (as in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid
+ulcers. In connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it
+may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus
+Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air.
+
+It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used to
+correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence of
+protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively colorless
+peroxide.
+
+It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to decompose the
+oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a natural alloy of
+from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for this purpose when
+conveniently attainable.--_Glassware Reporter_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX.
+
+By WILLIAM L. LAY.
+
+ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND AMERICA.
+
+[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York Academy of
+Sciences.]
+
+
+There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, that
+of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it in any other part
+of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part of its
+beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally known that
+the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria long before
+it was in this country. In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the
+oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London.
+In America, the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of
+petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the
+world's history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the
+Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used
+in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a
+never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The mines of
+ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as Galicia. Near the
+city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from Cracow to Lemberg,
+is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Borislau, which is
+entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at the foot of
+the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for
+petroleum at that place. After descending about one hundred and eighty
+feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with
+a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not
+thicker than writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until
+at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or
+four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could be
+made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute for wax
+was manufactured.
+
+The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in
+America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells of
+Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The owner
+of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the miners
+three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first were whole
+farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, and at last to 1
+acre, which is a square of 209 feet.
+
+But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a
+small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the
+leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that
+the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be
+raised to sink the shaft; consequently the earth had to be transported
+to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy
+feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking
+of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the
+government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground
+that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the sides
+are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft three
+feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water
+wells, and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and
+windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many years
+no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum under the
+ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface, the miners
+were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh
+air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as
+the curbing of timber is put in place. The ozokerite is embedded in a
+very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet; below, it is
+interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were
+on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.]
+
+That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre
+than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in Poland,
+averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for
+children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working. If
+thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates the two men
+and one or two children required to work each lease. When the bucket,
+containing the earth, rock, and wax, is dumped in the little shed
+covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, who detach the
+wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners use galvanized wire
+ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to descend, they invariably
+cross themselves and utter a short prayer. The business is not free from
+danger, carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or
+the caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of deaths.
+One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one
+week there had been eight deaths from accidents.
+
+The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common cast
+iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the bottom, and
+the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed off with a ladle,
+poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, in which form it is
+sold to the refiners, for about six cents per pound. The quantity
+produced is uncertain, as the miners take care to understate it, for
+the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes, and the
+landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined. The best
+authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the quantity produced in
+fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 pounds, worth
+twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the land get
+one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is at the rate
+of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop from some two
+hundred acres of land.
+
+The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they
+should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is
+gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in that
+part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French company
+has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting
+through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they have sunk to a
+depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with water and petroleum.
+These they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines,
+worked in a scientific manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is
+about eighteen inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity.
+When first removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so
+soft that it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed
+into the space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for
+weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it
+out.
+
+I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 1860,
+have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was very
+much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petroleum
+industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the difference
+between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Borislau,
+after twenty years' work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It
+contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. None of
+its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud
+came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length.
+In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the
+houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous shops,
+where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It depends on
+a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses were generally
+one-story, built of logs and mud.
+
+On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, contained
+eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, and
+two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as deep
+with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no whisky shops where
+women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, two,
+three, four, and five stories high. Its water works cost one hundred and
+fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it did
+not contain forty houses.
+
+I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep in the
+mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform of
+straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the straw foundation
+had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. Borislau
+is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabitants;
+between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassable. For a
+third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a
+day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring
+why they did not improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the
+Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he
+could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with
+the road to Borislau.
+
+Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," wax) is
+found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the Caucasian Mountains,
+in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria; in the Apennines,
+in Italy; in Texas, California, and in the Wahsatch Mountains, in the
+United States. Commercially, it is not worked anywhere but in Austria;
+although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger deposit than in any other
+place. I made two journeys to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch
+Mountains. For a distance of forty miles, it crops out in many places,
+and on the Minnie Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found
+a stratum of sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with
+ozokerite.
+
+No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of
+ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place, and
+a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this shaft, the vein was
+about ten inches wide; and it could be traced along the slope of the
+hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite is
+seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish Cañon, which enters Salt Lake Valley
+near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the ozokerite of
+Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of white
+ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of
+yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of
+black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia
+College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made
+examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are interested
+in the subject will find the papers published in the _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ for the year 1879.
+
+A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine
+Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An
+interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was
+robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A
+short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax
+and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward suspected
+it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon after ward she
+brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the
+magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about
+twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief that
+she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods; for
+such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She was
+therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was brought
+before the court, and, when questioned, told the same story. She was a
+member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. He came,
+and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove
+her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an
+officer, to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one
+who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel,
+and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the clay
+a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once set at
+liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her dig the
+specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. The hill
+was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it had been
+forced up by gas or some power from below the surface. The quantity that
+could be gathered, by one person, laboring constantly for a week, was
+only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a
+shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was
+sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved
+in, and the shaft was abandoned.
+
+It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of
+manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of
+ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are
+several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils are
+made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, they make
+white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball,
+colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the
+yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer
+ones being waxed every day. It is a curious fact that the Catholic
+Church does not allow the use of paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles;
+at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe
+are made from ozokerite, which is a natural paraffine, made from
+petroleum in nature's laboratory. In the United States, the only
+uses made of ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the
+adulteration of beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration
+of the ruling passion strong in money making, which gives us wooden
+nutmegs, wooden hams, shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee,
+oleomargarine butter, mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax
+made without bees.
+
+After this paper was written, the following translation from a pamphlet,
+published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, in 1879, came
+to my notice. The writer's name is not published:
+
+"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts,
+is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy
+matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be
+necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by
+melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and
+these cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works,
+which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric
+centners (9,500,000 lb.).
+
+"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European
+countries, to be further refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may
+specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Russia
+as large purchasers of this article of commerce.
+
+
+"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.
+
+"The products of mineral wax, are:
+
+"(a.) _Ceresine_, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a
+product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined
+beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness,
+is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much
+used for wax candles, for waxing floors, and for dressing linen and
+colored papers. Wax crayons must be mentioned among these products. The
+house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors.
+These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and iron;
+also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and drawing.
+The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither
+by water, by acids, nor by rubbing.
+
+"Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it
+should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of
+ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was
+controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that
+the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid.
+
+"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white ceresine
+is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring
+matter (annatto).
+
+"(b.) _Paraffine_, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor.
+It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a
+protection against the action of acids, and to make casks and other
+wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, etc., for air-tight
+wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of tracing paper. There
+are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the
+Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol.
+iv., Brunswick, 1877).
+
+"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, in the
+distillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by
+hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid.
+
+"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced from
+2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 36
+to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for
+lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue.
+
+"(c.) _Mineral oils_, which are obtained at the same time with
+paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum,
+described above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils,
+besides the distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products
+with acids and alkalies.
+
+"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater part
+goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper Hungary. The common
+paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of various sizes, from
+28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina,
+Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, and form an important
+article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world.
+Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the East
+Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton."
+
+The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly
+a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its
+use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of
+yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified form, which
+had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah had already been
+shown before the Academy. There was no mystery as to its genesis in
+either region, as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of
+a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a
+great variety of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn,
+to one that is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical
+composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling a
+solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much paraffine
+that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather. The
+asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which the term "gum
+beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences in constitution have
+originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the
+petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have been derived. In Canada, as excavations
+are sunk through the asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and
+finally passes into petroleum. This is also the case in Utah.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.]
+
+[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883.
+
+
+Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also includes
+many interesting details in his account of the trip:
+
+The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the exception of a
+few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south the wind changed,
+obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to
+keep out the cold when crossing the equator. During a short stop in
+Lima the party had an opportunity of studying South American life. The
+products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women.
+The party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home
+for the admiration of their friends. The expedition really began at
+Callao, where the party embarked on the United States man-of-war
+Hartford. Few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the
+trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The
+Hartford was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific
+squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, but
+the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the
+dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed anchor for a sail
+of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches
+between Callao and their destination, Caroline Island. The southeast
+trade winds favored them, and from the first day there was actually no
+necessity for altering the position of a sail....
+
+The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according to
+the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one story
+structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in California and
+brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. The island on which
+they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly
+circular in outline. The edge, which rises from five to twenty inches
+from the water, according to the tide's phase, goes down under the water
+to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea; and is
+impossible to step on it with bare feet. At the end of this table the
+reef goes down perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable
+sea. No vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting
+matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered
+from the wind, and here, with the luck which characterized the trip, was
+found the only opening in this barrier of coral. A long cleft, perhaps
+eight feet wide, at the outer edge of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a
+mere crack near the shore. Watching a favorable chance, the boats were
+guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the
+men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as
+quickly as possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the
+surf, came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr.
+Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a succession of
+wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing the conscientious
+descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible.
+
+The members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of
+the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas,
+which afforded shade on three sides of the building. The second house
+was occupied by the sailors, while the third was left to the natives.
+These latter were sufficiently conversant with English to serve as
+excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of
+the island. This lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral
+sand, and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of
+the more delicate and elaborate kinds. These corals gave the lake a
+wonderful variety of colors, forming a picture impossible to paint or
+describe, and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole
+scene changed to new groups of color. The water was very clear, and
+in some places deep; in others so filled with coral that a boat could
+barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a
+long reef, one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their
+longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. Fish
+swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every species, if
+not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most peculiar manner. One
+variety which frequented the shallow water, where it was heated to the
+degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a pure milky white, with black
+eyes, fins, and tail.
+
+The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had steamed
+directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the Americans.
+
+It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good time,
+and the definition was particularly good. Photographs occupied the time
+of the English and French observers. Professor Holden and Dr. Dickson
+searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. Preston took the times of
+contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell devoted their attention to
+spectroscopic observations of the corona. Dr. Hastings' observations
+have led to the production of a new theory of the corona. Briefly
+stated, the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total
+eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun, but is a
+phenomenon of diffraction.
+
+From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central City,
+Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar
+corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth of this
+theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the present eclipse,
+however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. This test is based on
+the following already known phenomena: When the moon covers the face of
+the sun, an envelope of light is seen all round it; the envelope is
+not visible when the sun is shining, on account of the sun's greater
+brightness; this light is called the corona; it is extremely irregular
+in outline. According to the drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse
+of 1878, it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance
+of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite
+points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space.
+The opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending
+millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it must
+be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., which has
+been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body
+like the moon.
+
+In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a surface
+of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them. If
+an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it will judge the
+direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by
+a line at right angles with the wave front. Now suppose a body is placed
+between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ. The waves
+must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the
+wave front will have a different direction, and the organ of sense will
+conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from
+that before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves
+of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the retina of
+the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the
+waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on the eye that the
+light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The moon covers the sun
+during the eclipse and a little more, so that it can move for about five
+minutes and still cover the sun entirely. This movement is very slight,
+and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere, it should
+not change at all during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction
+is the cause of the light, then the slightest change in the relative
+positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the
+corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during
+a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum
+analysis should change.
+
+To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following instrument:
+Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter
+V, and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of
+the V was lost, and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was
+transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the V, where the
+prisms touched; here was placed a refracting prism, so that the light
+could be analyzed. This instrument was attached to the eye piece of the
+telescope, and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the
+moon just fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the
+corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came
+together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen through the
+eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse this is what Dr.
+Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided into its constituents.
+Prominent among them was a bright green line, which is designated by the
+number 1,474; to this line attention was directed. Its presence in the
+spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is
+a solar atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed
+during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this line
+should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one side of the
+corona, and longer on the other. The observation was now reduced to
+watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines.
+
+At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the
+longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably, while the
+line from the east side, shorter by about one-third at the beginning of
+the eclipse, grew longer. When the eclipse ended, the proportions of the
+lines were exactly reversed. There had been a change equal to two-thirds
+the length of the lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their
+relative positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which
+this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The
+material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are other
+discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time.
+The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the sun that the
+gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury,
+and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, but an atmosphere
+extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the
+sun's surface, especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very
+much greater than on the earth. 2. The laws of gravitation would require
+a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun, while
+the corona is enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in
+outline, which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed
+irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most
+interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the
+fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the
+sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the
+sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, as it would have
+been if it had plowed its way through a material substance. In taking
+photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of
+exposure is longer. This shows that the corona extends indefinitely, and
+it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical
+laws of diffraction. These laws involve very complicated mathematics,
+but by them alone Dr. Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction
+where the corona is, and that it must follow the same laws as those
+observed. There is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion
+of Dr. Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the
+chromosphere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, that
+nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified by
+the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for the
+perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small masses
+circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments of comets
+or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined luster is seen in
+the zodiacal light.
+
+The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now known,
+are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar appendage
+which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk. In the
+photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can
+be traced back of each other where they cross; no better proof of their
+extreme tenuity could be given.
+
+The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, the
+distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon from the
+earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. All of these
+were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one, and the
+six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often
+enjoyed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS.
+
+
+The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are given,
+have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries
+that have ever rewarded the labors of archæologists. The idea of
+founding an English society for the purpose of exploring the buried
+cities of the Delta originated with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known
+authoress of "One Thousand Miles up the Nile," and was carried into
+effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald
+Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of
+Sir Erasmus Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could
+never have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded
+and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M.
+Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for Egypt
+in January of this year with the object of conducting the explorations
+contemplated by the society. After a consultation with M. Maspero, the
+Director of Archæology in Egypt, who has throughout acted a friendly
+part toward the society's enterprise, M. Naville decided to begin his
+campaign by attacking the mounds at Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater
+Canal, a few miles from Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to
+cover some ancient city, for some sphinxes and statues had already
+been found; but what city it could be, archæologists were at a loss to
+determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, believed
+it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which the Children of
+Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started on their final Exodus.
+Any identification, however, of the sites of the Biblical cities in
+Egypt was so far merely speculative. Practically nothing definite was
+known as to the geography of the Israelite sojourn, except that the Land
+of Goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the Delta, and that
+Zoan was Tanis, whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of
+the society's operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as
+everything else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they
+crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, remained
+vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a plausible theory, in
+which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important part.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH]
+
+Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. Naville's
+skillful direction, placed all these speculations in quite a new light.
+The city under the mounds proved to be none other than Pithom, the
+"store" or "treasure city" which the Children of Israel "built for
+Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character as a store place or granary is
+seen in its construction; for the greater part of the area is covered
+with strongly built chambers, without doors, suitable for the storing of
+grain, which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor
+above, of which the ends of the beams are still visible. These curious
+chambers, unique in their appearance, are constructed of large, well
+made bricks, sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in
+the sun, and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The
+walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall which
+runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner was the
+temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum or Pithom, the
+"Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and tablets (some of which
+have been presented to the British Museum) remained to testify to its
+name and purpose; the temple itself was finally destroyed when the
+Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is shown by the position of the
+limestone fragments and of the Roman bricks. The statues, however, and
+especially a large stele, are extremely valuable, since they tell the
+history of the city during eighteen centuries. From a study of these
+monuments, M. Naville has learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut
+(Succoth) its civil, name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored
+by Shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important
+place under the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the
+founding of the city of Arsinoë in the neighborhood; was called Hero or
+Heroöpolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic _ara_,
+meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, who occupied it
+at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are also found of the
+position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites encamped before the
+passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All these data are directly
+contradictory to preconceived theories: Pithom, Succoth, Heroöpolis,
+Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally
+different positions. The identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us
+the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of
+the Exodus, and completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now
+certain that the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater
+Canal and not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first
+definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of
+Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The historical
+identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor also results
+from the monumental evidence. One short exploration has upset a hundred
+theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical
+character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of Pithom (Succoth)
+is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a series of important
+discoveries. When enough money has been collected for the proposed
+exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of the highest interest to students
+alike of the Bible and of Egyptian antiquities may, with certainty, be
+predicted.
+
+The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is
+bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers
+which the Children of Israel built more than three thousand years ago.
+In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue, the head
+and face of which are intact. The other illustration is taken from the
+temple end of the excavations. The sculptured group of Rameses the Great
+seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance;
+its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia.
+Beyond this group, and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of
+Pithom, set up by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoë, and containing a
+mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions.
+Behind this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store
+chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while on
+the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone blocks,
+already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or enlargement of
+the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. Naville, by Herr
+Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our illustrations are taken from
+these photographs, supplemented by sketches.--_S.L.P., in Illustrated
+London News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS.
+
+
+The surprises of archæology are magnificent and apparently
+inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, and
+often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether this
+or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of
+Biblical archæology is a question not to be determined offhand; but the
+interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated. There
+are now deposited in the British Museum fifteen leather slips, on the
+forty folds of which are written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy
+in a recension entirely different from that of the received text. The
+character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous
+Moabite stone and of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere
+palæographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as
+the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier than any other
+clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the Old Testament.
+The sheepskin slips are literally black with age, and are impregnated
+with a faint odor as of funeral spices; the folds are from 6 to 7 inches
+long and about 3½ inches wide, containing each about ten lines, written
+only on one side.
+
+So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two distinct
+handwritings, though the same archaic character is used throughout.
+In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in duplicate on
+distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary
+transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text. At
+first sight no writing whatever is perceptible; the surface seems to
+be covered with an oily or glutinous substance, which so completely
+obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the
+slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with
+the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the
+leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily
+visible beneath the glossy surface.
+
+These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. Shapira,
+of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities.
+Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain
+archæological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a
+manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity.
+
+The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's agency
+and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly regarded as a
+modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it is asserted that
+Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. The leathern fragments
+now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he alleges, obtained by him from
+certain Arabs near Dibon, the neighborhood where the Moabite stone was
+discovered. The agent employed by him in their purchase was an Arab
+"who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would
+probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient
+or modern sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments
+is, however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are offered
+to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily deposited for
+examination.
+
+Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant
+of £500 from the Prime Minister toward the production of his important
+work on the "Massorah" we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is
+now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and
+examining their genuineness. On this latter question we refrain from
+pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be
+able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really 2,500
+years old, or have been compiled within the last few years.
+
+No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given.
+To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill,
+as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the
+appearance and condition of the slips. But enough has been deciphered to
+show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most
+remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received
+version of the Mosaic books.
+
+In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where the
+received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, to go in
+to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the corresponding
+passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular, "Ye"
+for '"Thou," while for "_g'dôlîm_," the word translated "greater," it
+reads "_rabbîm_." But a far more complete idea of the variations of text
+and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the
+Decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of
+Deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet
+been deciphered. The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs
+as follows:
+
+"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, from
+the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall not make to
+yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is in heaven above or
+that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth.
+Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them. I am God, your God.
+Sanctify ... in six days I have made the heaven and the earth, and all
+that is therein, and rested on the seventh day, therefore rest thou
+also, thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast: I am God, thy God.
+Honor thy father and thy mother ...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not
+kill the person of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit
+adultery with the wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt
+not steal the property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not
+swear by my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon
+the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take
+my name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness
+against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the wife
+... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is his: I am
+God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart: I am God,
+thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God spake."
+
+Several points may be noted in this version. The singular refrain "I
+am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the received
+version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn ratification of
+the Divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept. If this
+be so, the first two commandments, as they are commonly reckoned, are
+here fused into one, and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which
+does not appear in the received version of the Decalogue.
+
+It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for the
+Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the familiar
+phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being replaced
+throughout by "God, thy God."
+
+On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell;
+they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show that these
+fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to
+criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as
+the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental Ireland, who, knowing the
+interest felt by scholars in variations of the Sacred Text, has set
+himself, with infinite pains and skill, to forestall a growing demand.
+Until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all
+competent scholars, no further questions need be raised. In any case
+the _primá facie_ presumption must be held to be enormously against
+the genuineness of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the
+improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries
+than any extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease
+with which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives
+to such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his
+property.
+
+All that we know of the _provenance_ of the fragments is that Mr.
+Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; and that
+Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in Moabite
+antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite stone. On the other
+hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is assuredly no clumsy and
+ignorant bungler, as the makers of the Moabite pottery were confidently
+alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness. It is, of course,
+part of his craft, and not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part,
+to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance
+of immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required to
+make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of
+Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the fabricator must have
+known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments,
+and have set himself to fulfill their expectations. In these days of
+scientific palæography and minute textual scholarship no forger of
+ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a
+scholar himself. Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of
+course; palæographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn
+of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension
+without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean
+order, while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an
+archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts
+in palæography. But the fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated
+they are, has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this.
+He has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different
+hands, both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters.
+This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost
+incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case
+it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed
+fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not only
+a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, and one
+can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him
+at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few
+piastres, and is likely, therefore, to enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We
+should expect to find, however, that his extraordinary ingenuity has at
+some point or another overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with
+the labors of modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly
+have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not
+betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. In
+any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound
+interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with the
+controversy they are certain to excite.--_London Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--_From the
+Building News_.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+
+Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there has been
+much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in common with
+other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a pair of breeding
+ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they would not realize 50 l.
+
+The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage ostrich
+breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and one or two
+cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The climate of the two
+colonies is very similar, and the locality selected for the imported
+birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in dryness and temperature their
+native _habitat_.
+
+The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell
+to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we were reared,
+good-by!"
+
+One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, got into
+a slanting position. This frightened one of the two inmates, a fine
+cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage, which
+was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. Fortunately there was there
+a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches. He instantly seized
+him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury, and after
+a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in
+the hold he became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship
+with a relish.
+
+After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a
+little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are then arranged
+in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on board the vessel.
+The ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching
+hold of their bodies, and using a little gentle force.
+
+The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of
+thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by their "steward,"
+who was to accompany them to Australia. It was curious to see a bird
+swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down
+the animal's long neck. On the voyage they would be fed with maize or
+mealies, onions, apple melons, and barley. They require very little
+water; however, there were five large iron tanks on board in case they
+would feel thirsty. Our engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis
+Edwards, of Hoff Street, Capetown,
+
+[Illustration: SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.
+
+1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were Reared.--2.
+Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. Lowering
+the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating Apple
+Melons.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW WEATHERCOCK.
+
+
+An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the majority
+of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during the day;
+but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic
+transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building.
+The different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings,
+or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the
+sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the rod has to traverse
+several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector of the Versailles
+waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system which, while
+considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, allows the
+weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This apparatus consists
+of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable. The stationary
+part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters A and B and
+by cross-hatchings. This forms the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with
+clamps, P, at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and
+is hidden, after the mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc
+covering, Z. The upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece,
+upon which rests a bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined
+outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform
+there move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a
+horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube.
+
+The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind and to
+indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and coarse
+lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at intervals with
+copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which serves as a guide for it;
+(2) of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament, O, fixed to the
+tube and resting on the balls; (3) of the vane, G, properly so called;
+and (4) of the cap, C, provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube
+and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission.
+This latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f,
+perfectly taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing
+as many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of
+the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which is
+fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings through
+small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it passes, it is
+protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the observing room there is
+affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of
+the vane.
+
+[Illustration: RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.]
+
+This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the
+Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau
+of Trappes, and it is also installed in several primary normal schools,
+where it is giving very good results.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARRED CLOVER.
+
+
+A correspondent of the _Ohio Farmer_ reports an experiment in curing
+clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn, and
+illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows:
+
+In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying season was
+not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual,
+and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls. The result was
+intense heating, and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of
+the mow. On a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty
+tons, as every load at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn
+was rather open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as
+well as at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent
+hay at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the
+center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. What
+prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since that escape
+from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so
+green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a mow too rapidly. If we
+haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing thirty hundred each, which
+will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each, we have three
+tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation.
+
+If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full, the
+principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass. To
+relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have several places of
+storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other, thus
+giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off. To facilitate this
+evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty,
+the best of ventilation is necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is
+as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is
+not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is
+returned to the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary
+amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is
+shut off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor
+at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the
+roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in,
+thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will be facilitated
+and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, as the clover is
+put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton, will make it a
+relish with stock.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT.
+
+(_Agave victoriæ-reginæ_.)
+
+
+This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I am
+happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the first time
+it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never been seen in
+flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown specimen, dense in
+habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and the leaves are arranged
+in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine. The
+circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 in., and it has 268 leaves. Its
+flower-stem appeared about the middle of June, grew rather fast till it
+was 7 ft. high, then rather slowly till it reached its full development.
+The scape is now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 6½ in. in
+circumference at the base, or 5¼ in. at a foot above the base; from
+there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The flower-spike is
+exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower or naked portion, 4
+ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by abortive flower buds, with,
+near the base, some bristle-like scales 3½ in. to 4 in. long. The
+flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three, all the three being
+equal in size and opening together; they are greenish white in color, 1½
+in. long, or, including the stamens, some 2¾ in. to 3 in. long.
+
+[Illustration: AGAVE VICTORIÆ-REGINÆ.]
+
+The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to open
+in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They remain in
+good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens wilt and drop
+down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day. On the first day
+of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by ¾ in.; on the
+second it has grown to be as long as the stamens, but it is not in
+condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day.
+Although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already
+blossomed, none of the ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping
+off, but I am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the
+spike. So great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers,
+that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups,
+and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The main
+beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass
+of bright yellow anthers. This plant, together with several smaller
+ones, was contributed to this garden by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected
+them in their native wilds--the mountains of Northern Mexico--some three
+years ago. He found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible
+locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In
+addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of
+the Agricultural Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann,
+the eminent botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece
+of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an
+old plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor
+was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this
+Agave.--_The Garden_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS.
+
+By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX.
+
+
+In the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we
+have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting.
+We find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of
+glycerin is partially correct, and that instances of a different kind of
+structure occur among the natural oils and fats.
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear to
+occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure:
+
+  C(OH)_{2}
+  CH
+  CH_{3}
+
+It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be resolved
+into:
+
+  COOH + H_{2}O
+  CH_{2}
+  CH_{3}
+
+Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, yield
+no glycerin when saponified.--_Chemical News_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement,
+No. 401, September 8, 1883, by Various
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