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diff --git a/old/7040110.txt b/old/7040110.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a4bad1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7040110.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4432 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, +September 8, 1883, by Various + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8718] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on August 3, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 401 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401 + + + + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of Silver Bromide + and Silver Chloride. + + Analysis of New Zealand Coal. + + On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast Iron, + Ferro-manganese, etc. + + Manganese and its Uses. + + Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A valuable + and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of + Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this + remarkable product. + + On the Constitution of the Natural Fats. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel + Traction Engine.--With two engravings. + + An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one large + engraving. + + The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas Retorts.--Siemens' + principle.--As operated at the Glasgow Corporation Works.--With + two engravings. + + A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent Photographic Pictures + on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and full directions. + + How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full directions. + + Some of the Uses of Common Alum. + + An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an engraving. + + Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric Acid Gas. + + Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic Acid in Racking + Beer.--With an engraving. + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the Bleaching of + Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of apparatus. + + Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, Electrical + Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires. + +V. ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An interesting abstract + from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins University), of + the American Astronomical Exhibition to the Caroline Islands. + +VI. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting the + Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of + certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens Institute. + + The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an engraving. + +VII. ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village Architecture.-- + Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an engraving. + + Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for Doors.--Several figures. + +VIII. ARCHAEOLOGY.--A Buried City of the Exodus.--Being an account + of the recent excavations and discoveries of Pithom + Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving. + + The Moabite Manuscripts. + +IX. AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen Victoria + Century Plant.--With an engraving. + + Charred Clover. + + A New Weathercock.--With one figure. + +X. MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing Place + in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With an + engraving. + + Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway. + + Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With portrait. + + The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris. + + Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South Africa.--With one + page of engravings. + + * * * * * + + + + +MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN. + + +The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect +a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most +distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs. +The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of America +disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the Catholic +monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise. In +honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of Catalonia, who also +took part in the discovery and civilization of the New World, among whom +may be named the Treasurer Santangel, Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo +Boyl, first patriarch of the Indies, and the twelve missionaries of +Monserrat, who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage. + +In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the central +executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous voice of +the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don Cayetano +Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we find in _La +Ilustracion Espanola_, we give an engraving. Richness, grandeur, and +expression, worthily combined, are the characteristics of these plans. +The landing structure is divided into three parts, a central and two +laterals, each of which extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater, +in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to +mind the two caravels, the Pinta and Nina; two great lights occupy the +advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of +celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble monument, +surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the esplanade. + +[Illustration: MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, +SPAIN.] + + * * * * * + +The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera has not +awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was +offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the +fatal grape disease. There were not less than 182 competitors for the +prize; but none had made a discovery that filled the bill. It is said, +however, that a Strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an +absolutely trustworthy remedy. This liquid is poured upon the ground +about the root of the vine, and it is said that it kills the parasites +without hurting the grape. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE. + + +Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the +remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to Salt +Lake: + +Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on the +Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other subject at +present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours +so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should perhaps qualify this +statement by deducting the hours of darkness; yet this is really a +fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment; it seems providential +that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting +enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything +sublime. Leaving Salt Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and +populous Jordan Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the +Valley of Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits +of the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the +wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after +another of the magnificent canons of the Wahsatch we passed, their +mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising wild and +rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have abundantly +tested in other days. Parley's Canon, the Big and Little Cottonwood, and +most wonderful of all, the canon of the American Fork, form a series not +inferior to those of Boulder, Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas, +in the front range of the Rockies. + +Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, we +crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price River, +a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in choosing this +route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of Weber and +Echo canons--the only part of the Union Pacific road which tempts one +to look out of a car window, unless one may be tempted by the boundless +monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog. Great was my +satisfaction, therefore, to find that this part of the new road, +parallel with the Union Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south, +traverses the same belt of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less +picturesque. Castle Canon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the +equivalent of Echo Canon, and is equal or superior in everything except +color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers +and walls of Castle Canon are yellowish-gray. But their forms are +incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime. The +valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert, +as it is further north. To be sure, this uninviting stream, a couple of +hundred miles further south, having united with the Grande, and formed +the Rio Colorado, does indeed, by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper +into the sunless chasms, become at last sublime. But here it gives no +hint of its future somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed +Green River, to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by +sleep. But I got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy +water; and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the +conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot. + +In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the interval +passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the Grande, and +ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of the Grande, the +Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and finally a branch, flowing +westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high divide at the head of the latter +was laboriously surmounted; and then, one of our two engines shooting +ahead and piloting us, we slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such +descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the +experience of the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is +likely to occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down. + +From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the matter +of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the Rocky +Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the +high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for the monument to +the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the highest point. For all +the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande road, between Cimarron and +Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show. +From an artistic stand-point, one road has crossed the ranges at the +most tame and uninteresting point that could be found, and the other at +the most picturesque. + +At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges into the +famous Black Canon. In length, variety, and certain elements of beauty, +such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this canon surpasses the Royal +Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, however, one spot in the latter (I +mean, of course, the point where the turbulent river fills the whole +space between walls 2,800 ft. high, and the railroad is hung over it) +which is superior in desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the +Gunnison. Take them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the +finer. I have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the +Gunnison Canon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one +matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed in the +morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty +precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even hinting such folly +as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark that these two canons +are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are; for +they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks. + +Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above sea-level), +over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over the Sangre di +Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Elbert, +Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other summits exceeding the +altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is the valley of the Arkansas, +into which and down which we pass, and so through the Royal Gorge to +Canon City and Pueblo, where we arrived before dark on the day after +leaving Salt Lake. + +Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle Canon, the +Black Canon of the Gunnison, Marshall Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas +Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey! No +wonder everybody who has made it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic +urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence (and I +know it has a great deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at +present, crowded with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for +those who wish on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?) +and to visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done _en +route_, without retracing the steps. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS. + + +In the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to +practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta, as it +has already been employed in connection with so many other wares; but I +have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta. +Now this is strange, if one considers how fashionable _plaque_ and plate +painting have become of late, and the good photographic results that +are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt +earth." Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are +one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be left +purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails to see +that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. It was with +something of this feeling that I was led to try and see what could be +done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no data to go by, I had +to use my own experience, or rather experiment on my own account. + +Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in the +commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but natural I +should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired +results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction signally failed--the +ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion. The +bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo., which not only left indelible +marks, but, despite any amount of washing, the image on a finished plate +vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window. +There was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my +object. I would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful +line of experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save +him useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the +method I found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent +wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my system of +working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion +transfer. + + +TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE. + +The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the surface +to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It simply +consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as follows: + + Gelatine. 10 grains. + Water. 1 ounce. + A trace of chrome alum. + +Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless to say +that numbers of _plaques_, plates, vases, etc., may be coated right off, +and will then be ready for use at any time. + +Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, as well +as placed it _in situ_ for reproduction, the next thing required is a +suitable collodion, and the following will be found all that can be +desired: + + TRANSFER COLLODION. + + Cotton. 3 drachms. + Iodide of cadmium. 65 grains. + Ammonium iodide. 25 " + Bromide of cadmium. 19 " + Ammonium bromide. 11 " + Alcohol. 15 ounces. + Ether. 15 " + +The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now +transferred to a bath, as follows: + +Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce. + +Made slightly acid with nitric acid. + +After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to +the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and _quantum suff_. of +the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image: + + DEVELOPING SOLUTION. + + A Winchester of water, i.e. 80 ounces. + Protosulphate of iron. 240 grains. + Citric acid. 240 " + +Or the following may be used: + + Pyro 3 grains\ + Citric acid 2 " } per ounce of water. + Glacial acetic acid 30 drops / + +After perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a +saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is thoroughly washed. + +It will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory; it +lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters recourse is now had to + + +TONING. + + Gold. 1 grain. + Water. 5 ounces. + +With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture the +result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking picture +will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is employed richness +at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known of instances where the +picture needed no toning. + + +OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE. + +This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited number +of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and their _modus +operandi_ is kept from the many. Now this is a pity, when one considers +the great charm attached to a good picture on opal, with pure whites and +rich blacks, and in many localities the demand that might be created for +them. Apart from their beauty, another charm attaches to opals--their +absolute permanence; and this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What, +in fact, can be more painful to the worker who values his work, and sets +store by it, than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion! +A properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so +common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as perfect +now as they were when first taken. + +Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion; +but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly applicable to +ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, since in practice +it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and safe. The details are +much the same as above, and necessitate double transfer. + +After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass plate), +and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the picture (and this, +remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) then has to be loosened +from its support, and this is done with a solution of sulphuric +acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow +between the image and the glass, after which perfectly wash and mount. +When the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image, +evened out, raised (assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite +corners during the operation), and with the aid of the helper the +picture is carefully centered, gently pressed out or down, and the +transfer is so far effected. But what will happen, and does happen, +in the case of vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture +becomes positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply +in the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of iodine +dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after which, well wash +and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash well again. +This, by the way, is equally applicable to paper transfers; and it is +to be remembered that the toning comes last of all. It is a rather +difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three +times, and acid must then be had recourse to (nitric acid is as good as +any); but by transferring from the support on the ground surface, all +stains are at once avoided. + +On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well +cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. Then +the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the plate is +exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, and, when dried, +varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with dead varnish if intended +for chalk or water-color. This, when a good negative is used, gives a +remarkably fine picture, not requiring a vestige of retouching, and +having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable +if varnished with the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective +pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting. + +A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art +matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed +glass, said it was one of the finest productions of photography. He +urged that negatives _ad rem_ should be taken most carefully, and that, +like the picture I showed him, they should be full of half-tone and +detail, and yet have plenty of vigor. They should, he said, be robust in +the high lights, have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep +shadows, and thus have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should +be retouched only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness +shall be in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now. + +If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine +pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most +artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, absolute +permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to think of what +may be really recommended to one's _clientele_, and likely to meet with +approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been +delivered; and I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture +most likely to meet with this general approbation. + +I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal +picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched +after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. It is pure +photography in every sense of the word, and the resultant picture one +hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have rather laid a stress on this +point, well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by +the barbarous hand of would-be artists, who by far exceed the true +artists in number; and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight +of, either, at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one +in marble-like texture, or rather lack of texture, as if the face were +devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might +be wise to weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the +enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice +and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial +measures to a decided evil. + +On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception should arise +in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to clearly state that +for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer; that is, the picture +first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper, put in +the right position on terra-cotta, and pressed down while wet with +blotting-paper, left to dry, and is then so far ready. + +Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, ground opal +being the best, the system I employ is as follows: After well cleaning +the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had better not be too thick). +When dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer, +to which a little bromide of potassium has been added. The remainder of +the operations is as usual. Those varnished with dead varnish can be +tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make +very pleasing pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be +finished in water-colors if thought preferable.--_G. W. Martyn, in Br. +Jour. Photo_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PAPER NEGATIVES. + + +The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the +following advantages: + +First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is uniform +throughout the entire surface of each sheet. + +Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide +as usually constructed. + +Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass. + +Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper. + +Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled +from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand, without the +assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus this invention does +away with all sensitive preparations on glass, which latter is both a +brittle and relatively heavy material, thus diminishing the bulk and +weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling; +it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those +on glass, in so much that the film does not contain any grain; and, +lastly, it admits of printing from either face of the film, as regards +the production of positives on paper or other material, as well as +plates for phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require +a negative to be reversed. + +For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper: + +First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water, +and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which it is +attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass, and +partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state it is allowed to +dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat. + +Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion, +containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of azotic cotton (11/2 +per cent. gives very good results) and from 11/2 to 21/2 per cent. of castor +oil (2 per cent. gives very good results); this coating is allowed to +dry; and, + +Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, and then +it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are +excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of +about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it in this position until +the gelatine has set (say) about five minutes, with the film paper still +attached, it is placed upright in a drying-room, where it should remain +about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees +Fahrenheit; and, + +Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure, +development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the purpose of +developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well; for +the purpose of fixing, I have found that a mixture by weight, water, +1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and powdered alum 60, produces +excellent results, after being allowed to dry. + +Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be +immediately used for producing negatives _recto_ or _verso_ as above +mentioned. + +I claim as my invention: + +First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper +for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the purposes above +described; and, + +Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other analogous +oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the +paper backing as above described. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM. + + +A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact, so +much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete +without it--is the substance known is common alum, or potash alum, being +a double sulphate of alumina and potash; but it is interesting to note +that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia +alum, or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter +of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or +ammonia alum. + +Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and mechanical +printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, it has been +recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The silver printer +adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working +order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; then, again, silver +prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, having for its object +the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt. A very +good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a +saturated solution, diluted with one gallon of water, the prints being +well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes. + +Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single instance +can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to +arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do +instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur and +professional, or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary +risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and +trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such +individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day +practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum, either +before fixing, or immediately afterward. In fact, some operators have +two alum baths in use, one a normal bath, as above mentioned, for +immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity; and the +other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable +acid (such as citric) or a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use +when there is too much printing density, since it has been found +in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium +thio-sulphate on the gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing) +not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or +pyrogallol, but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover, +the color does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes +when the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where +there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a soft +sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed emulsion worked +in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the +plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them +in the acid bath. + +Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless +transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, astringent +taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60 deg. F., and in its own +weight of water at 212 deg. F.; but the excess crystallizes out upon +cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, and, when impure, usually +contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon the addition of either caustic +soda or potash, a white gelatinous precipitate is formed (hydrate of +alumina), which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed. The +precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent +film sometimes observed on gelatine plates, when dry, which have been +soaked in alum, and not well washed afterward. + +Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for instance--precipitate +hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve in an excess of the +reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved. + +Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison, +which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube, it +somewhat resembles thin starch paste. + +The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of +hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum +in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid ammonia; should any iron be +present, the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over +a sheet of white paper. Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate +of alumina and sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto +their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the +community rather than the practical.--_Photo. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE. + + +As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton cloths +become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence of carrying +on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope. The effect is +that, together with the tension, although slight, and the drying, the +weft partly shrinks and partly curls up, the latter, however, being +scarcely observable to the naked eye. It may almost be said that as +regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples +because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to +its gray width. The main use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not +so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its +normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been +performed upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially +useful to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a +white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching being +corrected before printing. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.] + +The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in +a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of another stretching +machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by Mr. +Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of Salford, who makes a specialty of +calico printers' and finishers' machinery. The improvements consist +mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly +substantial construction of the machine. The principle adopted is a +well-known one. The selvages of the cloth, or more strictly the two +edges of the cloth, of a width of about two inches, are caused to pass +over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys. +The rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they +seize it, hence the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly +performed. The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt +acting against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held +between them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by +the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, CC, of +which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley. The +lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw +for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands. The +stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft, an +ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to +be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it +without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts. The piece, +wound upon the ordinary batch shell, is placed upon the running-off +center, D; it is led off over the rails, EE, and then downward to the +nip of the bands and pulleys, AA. As explained, the selvages are here +gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are +wider apart at the back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed +underneath, the piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the +back it passes over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening +rail, G, and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be +seen. The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills +it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the +driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle to +the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as to +separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the treatment of +different widths of cloths. This adjustment is provided for by mounting +the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band pulleys, CC, etc., on frames, +BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, upon rails, at the back and front +of the machine. The adjustment either for width of piece or for the +angularity (extent of stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L. +By the bevel wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the +ends of frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space +between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened +out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may be +separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously made. The +wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use of which is +sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a set of stretching +pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in illustration. By a proper +adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form, where it +passes between the whole of them, the effect of the corrugation being +to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally +stretched with those near the selvages and more easily. This part of the +machine may be used or not as required. The production, we observe, was +about 120 yards per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted +together, as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course +of construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of +considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods, +on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small +disturbance to the stiffening.--_Textile Manufacturer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS. + + +All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable +fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction. +The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in the operation, acts +injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially during the formation of +hydrochloric acid, with which process especially the development of an +injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable. The best +method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the +moisture naturally present in the wool. The patentees find agitation of +the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material +assistance. The operation maybe successfully performed in two +ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with +constant agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For +the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture +at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and having apertures +all round to allow free access of air. This cylinder rests on a hollow +axle, closed at one end and perforated with holes, through which the +acid gas is passed. By the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn +through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby +it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30 deg. +Cent. is best suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according +to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the +gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted by +the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully saturated, +the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are +sufficiently friable. The treatment _in vacuo_ is as follows: + +The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material +provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this false bottom +a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a +vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the maximum vacuum is +attained, the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of +40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth. +The warmth set free (about 500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up +by the combined water in the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a +quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor +streams through the second vessel at a temperature of 35 deg. Cent., +penetrates the material, and passes out through the pump. After +saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the +second. AS soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first +vessel is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus +from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents gas +passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under reduced +pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing +alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in +evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after saturation by +these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels, after +which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles +are friable. As soon as this occurs, the fabrics are washed. It is +advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta, +strontia, magnesia, or preferably lime, and subsequently to rinse in +pure water. Phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed +for neutralizing the acid, and the residue recovered and separated from +the organic residues mixed with it.--"_H. J.," Journal of the Society of +Chemical Industry._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE +MATERIALS. + + +It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are +characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the results of +numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable +fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides +and chlorides which, when submitted to electrolysis, permit oxygen and +chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state. + +The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile +substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only those most +generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined +action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the same manner, +whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state. + +In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile +materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any +sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel +containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the +hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are +capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a nascent +state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents. + +The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the +electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less +length of time, according to the nature of the material to be bleached, +and must, after this first operation, be washed, rinsed, and dried. + +The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides +and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have been specially +utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, the alkaline +hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes. + +In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in +presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the +results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as +bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and economical +to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its +elements from the metallic chloride itself, and from the water by means +of which such transformation is to be effected. This is a reversal of +the problem, and, _a propos_ thereof, we would call the attention of +the reader to an apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for +effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner. + +If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be submitted +to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material +to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the +following way: + +2NaCl + 2 H_{2}O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H. + +In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results +from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the +chloride of sodium and water, which puts the chlorine, the metal, the +hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in presence. The chlorine and +oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material. + +While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be preferable to +adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement. + +The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A, +into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any +electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a +safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates with +a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication between the +electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in this latter is +sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part of the vessel, A, +by means of the tubes, G and H. + +The apparatus operates as follows: + +The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is put, is +filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of chloride of +sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action of an electric +current, when, as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of +the chloride and the water, the elements in a nascent state form +hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total conversion of the liquid +has been effected (this being ascertained by chlorometric tests), the +pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, and, as a consequence, draws up +the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower +part of the electrolyzer, A. The hypochlorite that has formed passes +through the tube, D (as a natural consequence of the elevation of the +level of the liquid in A brought about by the entrance of a new supply +of chloride), and distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it +acts upon the textile material. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS BY ELECTRICITY.] + +The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, permits +of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical +reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution contained in the +reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator. + +As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution from +the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid conversion into +decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt application upon the +materials to be bleached, presents important advantages. + +While, in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching +chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid, +which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in its turn react upon +binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with this new method, to +utilize the chloride of sodium, which is derived from ordinary salt +works, and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite +by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an +electric current. + +Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of +having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a +uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by the always known +intensity of the current. + +We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time +to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, besides, all +chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of +undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed +for the same purpose. This is especially the case with the chlorides +of potassium or barium, the bromides of strontium or calcium, and the +iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On another hand, as sea water contains +different chlorides, it results that it might serve directly as a raw +material for bleaching textile fibers. Then, when the solution of +chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis, +there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for +scouring fibers.--_H. Danzer, in Le Genie Civil_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE. + + +Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, Hunslet, Leeds, +England, for several years past have devoted considerable attention to +the question of mounting traction engines on springs. The outcome of +this is the engine in question, the front end of which is carried by a +pair of Timmis spiral springs, resting on the center pin of the front +axle, which is on Messrs. McLaren's principle, which enables it to +accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any +undue strain on the front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has +been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur +gearing, which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the +cogs. This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all +the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which will +be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which Fig. 1 is a +perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a detail view of the +wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong +T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted on. The nave of the wheel +has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted. These spokes are +made of the best spring steel, specially manufactured and rolled for the +purpose, 9 inches wide and 1/2 inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape, +with the narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon +the rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places +by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine +comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and +those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of the +driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is fixed on the +differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in Fig. 2, so that +the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the +engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence +in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly +tested it in practical work. This, we are informed, they have done, with +the most satisfactory results, during the last five or six months; and +they have a set of springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and +3,000 miles, besides which there are several of these spring engines in +daily use.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, AND WEIGHTS +OF PURE COPPER WIRE. + + + DIAMETER | AREA + | +B.W.G Inch. Milli- | Circu- Square Square +No. metres | lar inches. Milli- + | Mils. metres. + | +0000 .454 11.5313 | 206116 .161883 10.4435 + 000 .425 10.795 | 180625 .141862 9.152 + 00 .38 9.6518 | 144400 .113411 7.3165 + 0 .34 8.6358 | 115600 .0907922 5.8573 + 1 .3 7.620 | 90000 .070686 4.5602 + 2 .284 7.2134 | 80656 .0633472 4.0867 + 3 .259 6.5784 | 67081 .0526854 3.3989 + 4 .238 6.0451 | 56644 .0444881 2.8701 + 5 .22 5.5879 | 48400 .0380133 2.4523 + 6 .203 5.1561 | 41209 .0323655 2.088 + 7 .18 4.5719 | 32400 .0254469 1.6417 + 8 .165 4.1909 | 27225 .0213825 1.3794 + 9 .148 3.7591 | 21904 .0172034 1.1098 + 10 .134 3.4035 | 17956 .0141026 .9096 + 11 .12 3.0479 | 14400 .0113097 .7296 + 12 .109 2.7701 | 11881 .00933133 .60199 + 13 .095 2.4129 | 9025 .0070882 .4573 + 14 .083 2.1082 | 6889 .00541062 .34906 + 15 .072 1.8288 | 5184 .00407151 .2486 + 16 .065 1.6510 | 4225 .00331831 .21407 + 17 .058 1.4732 | 3364 .0026421 .17045 + 18 .049 1.2446 | 2401 .00188574 .12165 + 19 .042 1.0668 | 1764 .00138544 .0894 + 20 .035 0.8890 | 1225 .000962115 .06207 + 21 .032 0.8128 | 1024 .00080425 .05188 + 22 .028 0.7112 | 784 .000615753 .03972 + 23 .025 0.635 | 625 .00049087 .03167 + 24 .022 0.5588 | 484 .000380133 .02452 + 25 .02 0.508 | 400 .00031416 .02027 + + 26 .018 0.4571 | 324 .000254469 .01642 + 27 .016 0.4064 | 256 .000201062 .01297 + 28 .014 0.3556 | 196 .000153938 .00993 + 29 .013 0.3302 | 169 .000132732 .00856 + 30 .012 0.3048 | 144 .000113097 .007296 + +LENGTH AND WEIGHT + +B.W.G Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Feet Yards 1.000 feet Miles +No. per per per 1.000 per per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. + foot. Yard ft. mile. + +0000 .623924 1.871772 623.924 3294.32 1.60276 .534253 .00160276 .00303553 + 000 .54676 1.64028 546.76 2886.89 1.82895 .60965 .00182895 .0034639 + 00 .437105 1.311315 437.105 2307.92 2.28777 .76259 .00228777 .004333 + 0 .349928 1.049784 349.928 1847.62 2.85773 .9525766 .00285773 .0054124 + 1 .272435 .817305 272.435 1438.43 3.6706 1.22353 .0036706 .0069519 + 2 .244151 .732453 244.151 1289.11 4.0958 1.365266 .0040958 .0077573 + 3 .203058 .609174 203.058 1072.15 4.9247 1.641566 .0049247 .009327 + 4 .171463 .514395 171.465 905.333 5.8321 1.944033 .0058321 .0110457 + 5 .14651 .43953 146.510 773.56 6.8255 2.275166 .0068255 .012927 + 6 .124742 .374226 124.742 658.638 8.0165 2.672166 .0080165 .015183 + 7 .098076 .294228 98.076 517.844 10.1962 3.39873 .0101962 .019311 + 8 .082411 .247233 82.411 435.135 12.1345 4.04483 .0121345 .022981 + 9 .066305 .198915 66.305 350.089 15.0818 5.027266 .0150818 .028564 + 10 .054354 .163062 54.354 286.99 18.398 6.13266 .018398 .034845 + 11 .04359 .13077 43.590 230.152 22.9413 7.6471 .0229413 .04345 + 12 .035964 .107892 35.964 189.893 27.805 9.2683 .027805 .05266 + 13 .027319 .081957 27.319 144.245 36.6046 12.20153 .0366046 .069326 + 14 .020853 .062559 20.853 110.1088 47.954 15.98466 .047954 .09082 + 15 .015692 .047076 15.692 82.855 63.7267 21.24223 .0637261 .12069 + 16 .012789 .038367 12.789 67.5276 78.1902 26.0634 .0781902 .14809 + 17 .0101828 .0305484 10.1828 53.7665 98.202 32.734 .098203 .18589 + 18 .00726795 .02180388 7.26796 38.3748 137.590 45.8633 .137590 .260587 + 19 .00533972 .01601916 5.33972 28.1937 187.276 62.4253 .187276 .35469 + 20 .00370815 .01112445 3.70815 19.579 269.676 89.892 .2696676 .51075 + 21 .00309972 .00929910 3.09972 16.3665 322.610 107.5366 .322610 .61100 + 22 .00237312 .00711936 2.37312 12.5301 421.384 140.4613 .421334 .798078 + 23 .0018910 .0056757 1.8919 9.9892 528.570 176.190 .528570 .100108 + 24 .0014650 .0043950 1.4650 7.7357 682.55 227.5166 .68255 .129271 + 25 .00121082 .00363246 1.21082 6.39315 825.880 275.2943 .825883 .156417 + 26 .00098077 .00294231 .98077 5.17844 1019.61 339.870 1.01961 .193108 + 27 .00077492 .00232476 .77492 4.0916 1290.44 430.1466 1.29044 .24440 + 28 .0005933 .0017799 .5933 3.13264 1685.48 561.8266 1.68548 .31922 + 29 .000511571 .001534713 .511571 2.7011 1954.76 651.5866 1.95476 .370220 + 30 .0004359 .0013077 .4359 2.30152 2294.13 764.710 2.29413 .434496 + +LENGTH AND RESISTANCE + +B.W.G Feet Yards 1.000 feet Miles Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms +No. per Ohm. per Ohm. per Ohm. per Ohm. per foot. per yard. per 1.000 per mile. + foot. + +0000 19966.5 6655.5 19.9665 3.7815 .000050684 .00156252 .050084 .264443 + 000 17497.15 5832.3833 17.49715 3.31385 .0000571522 .0001714566 .0571522 .301763 + 00 13988.64 4662.68 13.98804 2.64925 .000071489 .000214467 .071489 .377465 + 0 11198.17 3732.7333 11.19817 2.12086 .0000893002 .0002679006 .0893002 .471505 + 1 8718.30 2906.10 8.71830 1.6512 .00011470 .0003441 .114701 .60562 + 2 7813.50 2604.50 7.81350 1.47973 .00012799 .00038397 .12799 .67580 + 3 6498.14 2166.0466 6.49814 1.23071 .00015389 .00046167 .15389 .81254 + 4 5487.107 1829.0357 5.487107 1.03923 .000182245 .000546735 .182245 .962256 + 5 4688.51 1562.8366 4.68851 .887975 .000213287 .000639861 .213287 1.12616 + 6 3991.91 1330.6366 3.99191 .756045 .000250506 .000751518 .250506 1.32267 + 7 3138.59 1046.1966 3.13859 .59443 .000318614 .000955842 .318614 1.68228 + 8 2637.29 879.0966 2.63729 .499486 .000379177 .001137531 .379177 2.00206 + 9 2121.84 707.280 2.12184 .401864 .000471289 .001413867 .471289 2.488405 + 10 1739.40 579.80 1.73940 .329432 .000574911 .001724733 .574911 3.03553 + 11 1394.93 464.9766 1.39493 .264191 .000716882 .002150646 .716882 3.78514 + 12 1150.91 383.6366 1.15091 .217976 .000868875 .002606625 .868875 4.58766 + 13 874.252 291.4173 .874252 .165578 .00114383 .00343149 1.14383 6.03945 + 14 667.338 222.446 .667338 .12639 .00149849 .00449547 1.49849 7.91203 + 15 502.175 167.39166 .502175 .095109 .00199134 .00597402 1.99134 10.5142 + 16 409.276 136.42533 .409276 .077514 .00244334 .00733002 2.44334 12.9008 + 17 325.871 108.62366 .325871 .061718 .0030687 .0092061 3.0687 16.20274 + 18 232.585 77.52833 .232585 .04405 .0042995 .0128985 4.2995 22.7014 + 19 170.879 56.95966 .170879 .032363 .0058521 .0175563 5.8521 30.8991 + 20 149.3915 49.797166 .1493915 .022475 .00842703 .02528109 8.42703 44.4947 + 21 99.195 33.065 .099195 .018787 .01008110 .03024348 10.08116 53.2285 + 22 75.9461 25.315366 .0759461 .014384 .0131672 .0395016 13.1672 69.5230 + 23 60.54377 20.181256 .06054377 .011467 .0165170 .0495510 16.5170 87.2096 + 24 46.8851 15.628356 .0468851 .0088798 .02132874 .06398622 21.32874 112.616 + 25 38.748 12.916 .038748 .0073386 .025808 .077424 25.808 136.265 + 26 31.3859 10.461966 .0313859 .0059443 .03186144 .09558432 31.86144 168.229 + 27 24.79873 8.266243 .02479873 .0046967 .0403246 .1209738 40.3246 212.914 + 28 18.98653 6.328843 .01898653 .0035959 .05266892 .15800676 52.66892 278.092 + 29 16.3710 5.4570 .0163710 .0031006 .0610834 .1832502 61.0834 322.521 + 30 13.9493 4.649766 .0139493 .0026419 .07168825 .21506475 71.68825 378.514 + +RESISTANCE & WEIGHT + +B.W.G Ohms Lbs. +No. per lb. per Ohm. + +0000 .000080272 12457.5 + 000 .000104529 9566.7 + 00 .000163553 6114.24 + 0 .000255196 3918.58 + 1 .00042102 2375.18 + 2 .00052422 1907.59 + 3 .00075786 1319.50 + 4 .0010629 940.844 + 5 .0014558 686.911 + 6 .0020082 497.96 + 7 .00324863 307.822 + 8 .00460101 217.343 + 9 .00710791 140.689 + 10 .0105772 94.543 + 11 .0164462 60.842 + 12 .0241593 41.392 + 13 .0418692 23.8839 + 14 .0718583 13.9163 + 15 .126788 7.8872 + 16 .191045 5.2344 + 17 .301355 3.31835 + 18 .59157 1.6904 + 19 1.09596 .912445 + 20 2.27254 .44003 + 21 3.25229 .30748 + 22 5.54843 .18023 + 23 8.73035 .11454 + 24 14.5579 .068691 + 25 21.3142 .046917 + 26 32.4863 .030782 + 27 52.0367 .019217 + 28 88.7724 .011265 + 29 119.404 .008375 + 30 164.4762 .0060804 + +PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 mil. +foot at 60 deg. Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, 10.32311 ohms. Upon +these data the above Table has been calculated. + +The _Resistance_ of Copper varies with the temperature about 0.38 per +cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per degree Fahrenheit. + +STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of +_Stranded_ Wires, the total _weight_ is _greater_, and the _Resistance +less_ than is a similar length of Conductor with Wires _not_ Stranded. + + To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994 + Feet to Metres " .3048 + Yards to Metres " .9144 + Miles to Kilometres " .6214 + Pounds to Kilogrammes " .45359 + +PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE MAKERS, 25, +BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER. + + * * * * * + + + + +IRON FRAME GANG MILLS. + + +The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid +and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent improvements +tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown in the iron frame +stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East Saginaw, Mich., are +eminently valuable. Our large engraving represents one of these mills, +constructed to be driven by belt, friction, or direct engine, as may be +desired. The important requisite in this class of mills is such design +and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement +at the highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the +quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of thinner +saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are among the +advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming the necessity +of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense in setting up, and +avoiding the liability of decay or change of position. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.] + +Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation, and +from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the +Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and bottom slides. The top +slides are pivoted at the top end, and the bottom ones from the bottom +end, both being operated by one rock shaft from the center. This +movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest +cut yet obtained. It adds no extra weight to the sash, and avoids the +cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints, usually weighing from +three hundred to five hundred pounds, which have been found so +objectionable in many other movements. The feed is continuous, and is +made variable from 1/4 to 11/4 inch to each stroke, controllable by the +sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form +with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special feature of +this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests +upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block +or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole structure is thus increased, +both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting +vibrations, which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same +part, as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use. + +The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws 41/2 feet +long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke 20 inches, capable +of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank shaft is nine inches in +diameter, of the best forged iron. The main pillow block has a base +61/2 feet long by 21 inches bearing, weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap +is secured by two forged bolts 31/2 inches in diameter, and by this +arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is +used with suitable counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and +speed of sash; a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a +forged pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes. +The iron drive pulley is 4 to 41/2 feet in diameter and 24 inches face; +the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 pounds, turned +off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is required, a proportionate +increase is made in all these parts. + +In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; the lower +girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without rivets, giving +the greatest strength possible, with the least weight. The outfit also +includes eight iron rollers for the floor, 81/2 inches in diameter, with +iron stands, and geared as live rolls when desired, a full set of +Lippencott's steel saw hangings, and gauges for one-inch lumber. The +weight of the machine here shown is 181/2 tons. They are, however, built +in larger or smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity +of work desired. + + * * * * * + +It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of the +Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and Hollanders +with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early fruits are taken +from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, whence they +are carried by fast steamers to London and other English ports. But, on +the other hand, Germany is sending into Italy large quantities of coal, +iron, machinery, copper, and other articles of which the latter received +nothing before. In two months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of +paper. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS. + + +The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in +accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out in +such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been applied +with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the Glasgow +Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a period of about +twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens successfully adapted his +system to the firing of retorts at the Paris Gas Works, it seems to have +made but little progress up to the present time; for what reasons it is +perhaps difficult to explain. It is certain, however, that so-called +regenerator furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been +brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the +Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has +received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion +eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be +certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an +illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with +its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, the electric light. Of course, +it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative +principle at the Paris Gas Works was attended with a degree of +complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so +expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies +and gas corporations generally, when the expense as well as the +scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying +and utilizing heat had to be considered. Fortunately, however, Dr. +Siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was +no such thing as "finality" in that department of invention which he had +made almost exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed +his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and +utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most +decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements +now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been +immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility has in +no way been interfered with. + +Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer and +regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. Foulis, the +general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, with the view of +entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale +at one of the stations under his charge. Encouraged by the hearty +co-operation of the gas committee, two or three of whose members were +well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very soon came to an understanding with +Dr. Siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at +the Dalmarnock Gas Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city, +and the largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number +of retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent shape +was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, but which +number has since been increased to eight, owing to the space occupied +by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for +an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" setting. For each oven or +chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer, +so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought +necessary. + +[Illustration: GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW +CORPORATION GAS WORKS.] + +In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement and the +relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the retorts to +each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of _sine qua non_ of the new +method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close +proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be +used, and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be +immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts, and with its top +on a level with the working floor of the retort house. To place it +in such a position meant a good deal of excavation, which was also +required, however, for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried +down to a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and +as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted +to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division +walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, were +in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a good deal +of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas +producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of application and +by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements +from time to time, as also by a determination not to be beaten, although +often disheartened, Mr. Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete +success. The new system of firing being made so simple that there was +scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice +if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 3._] + +The results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens, or a +total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith +resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench +of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; and all the improvements +which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the +four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the +remaining eight ovens in the bench. More recently the regenerator system +has been applied to other 22 ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the +whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house; and during the +very depth of the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its +greatest height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings, +amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition they +still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable extension +of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and +summer. The reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens +of seven retorts each, giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts; and +to twenty ovens of five retorts each, which will become sixteen ovens, +each having eight retorts, making 128 retorts in this division, and the +total being 208 retorts in place of 170 in the same amount of space. It +is confidently anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of +the present year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working +out the new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the +confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the +Glasgow Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the +actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas +retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are +being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the Dawsholm +Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of Maryhill, and some +four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock Works in a northwestern +direction. The station just named, which is also a very large one, will +probably require two years for its conversion. + +We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted +for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel to the +greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing +the cannel coal used as the source of the gas. + +The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in Fig. 2, is +a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron. It is 7 +ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, which becomes reduced to 20 +in. above, where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid, which is +continuous with the floor of the retort house. There are no firebars +at the bottom, so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick. At the +bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about 1 ft. +in length by 6 in. in height. By means of these openings any clinker +that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn. +They also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in +the lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a +malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam +boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the +steam. + +The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it +has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of +carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made from Scotch cannel +the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains a large percentage of +mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon. The retorts are +worked with three-hour charges, but the producer is only charged once in +every six hours For each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel +is about 18 cwt., and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from +five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the +top. Formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a +furnace underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made, +but now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced +to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly was. +Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the +producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by +way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it has been filled up +to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the +top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon it and driven home, thereby +making a perfectly air-tight joint. The contents of the other three +retorts, as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each +alternate drawing, are taken to the coke heap in the yard. We have +already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about 18 cwt. for each set +of eight retorts, but in connection with that matter we should mention +that it was formerly about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts, +and that there is every prospect of it being increased without +increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each +charge. + +It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the +mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air admitted at the +several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers +of the incandescent coke, the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid +gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air. Among the middle and upper +layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further +quantity of the fixed carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic +oxide gas (CO_{2}+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses +considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very +completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the producer, a +quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide, +the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former +increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen associated with +the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the +carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of +course absolutely useless as a generator of heat. The steam which +we previously spoke of serves two good purposes. In contact with +incandescent coke it suffers decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some +of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which +is set free passes onward, and mixes with the other gases to be +subsequently consumed with them. The admission of the steam thus causes +the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition +takes place, this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion +of the hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the +coke in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely +preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious +materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke +obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to 20 per +cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the +bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours. +Referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel +coke in one of these gas producers, we give the following typical +analysis on the authority of Dr. William Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas +examiner, and one of the public analysts for the city of Glasgow: + + Per cent. + Hydrogen 8.7 + Carbonic oxide 28.1 + Carbonic acid 3.5 + Oxygen 0.4 + Nitrogen 59.3 + ----- + 100.0 + +By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an opening is +provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the +mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of +the setting and the lower by the regenerators. + +Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the +arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be +admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible +nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper is +occupied by eight [Inline Illustration] shaped retorts. These are 9 ft. +long (set back to back) by 18 in. by 13 in., and they are placed on +arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. wide. Underneath the level of the retort +oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ +very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr. +Siemens to gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high +temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In +the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating +system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat +of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, the +current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork, while +air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated. The system +thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part +of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the +currents. The regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six +zigzag flues, three on each side of the setting. These flues run the +whole length of the setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing +downward in Fig. 3, the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack +pass to and fro through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion +of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the +central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air necessary +for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center, and +then it is divided into two currents, which pass right and left into the +central passages of the two regenerators. As the air flue is at a very +bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it, the +temperature of the air must be equally great, or nearly so. In its most +improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount +of heating surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the +air on its way to the combustion chamber. + +Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the gas +enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it meets +the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, not by a +number of small openings, but by one large opening on each side, and +meets the air entering also by a large opening, the effect of which is +to avoid the localization of intense heat, as all the retorts of the +setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame, due to the +combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases. + +There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas +retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the extent +of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided +increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as it has been +experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that, by +increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer can be made to +provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight +retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel +used will be still further reduced. Then, again, an additional retort +can well be placed in each oven, as it occupies the position of the fire +in ordinary settings. In the third place, by the greater heat which is +obtained, the charges can be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges +can be carbonized in a given space of time. When all the gains are put +together, the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per +cent. over any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator +settings there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous +fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any +trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of +the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but natural to +expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which +is really the case. Another advantage is that, as the fuel used in +the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the flues cannot by any +possibility arise. It is the confident opinion of Mr. Foulis that the +system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas +works, and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the +summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to +eight retorts. + +As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and +regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great amount +of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many persons have +visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their reconstruction, in order +to see the system in operation, and doubtless many more will go and do +likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses, +and which are likely to increase rather than diminish.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN. + + +During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and one, +moreover, destined to materially influence the development of the uses +of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the guidance of Mr. +Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, London. The experiment +in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating +bakers' ovens, in a manner not hitherto attempted, and such as to bring +the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the +smallest towns. It will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated +muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of +a model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in action +at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the winter +of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but its design +demanded either a new structure in every case, or considerable +alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed system, moreover, +the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be +necessary to meet the objections of the bakers. It is evident, however, +that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles +and brickwork, such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven, +from the outside; and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel +as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that +in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire. +When it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is +of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in the +estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to allowing a +purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to +fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. Consequently, when +Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known +in England and America, seriously addressed himself to construct, upon +altogether new lines, a cheap and practical baker's oven, he wisely put +the gas inside. + +There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after consultation with +practical bakers and others, set himself to fulfill, the observance +of which lends to the present Blackfriars experiment much of its +interesting character. Thus it was observed that, while it is not +difficult to build an oven in a given spot, and bake bread in it, this +cannot truly be called a _baker's_ oven. By this term must be understood +in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style +and worked by a man with his living to get by it. Before the problem of +extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be +attacked from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to +have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw +that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting it +inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any general +success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be +rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The latter seems +a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered that the only +improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam +oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or three hundred pounds to +erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible +for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven; and in this +respect he set himself to surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will +not bake the common "batch" or household bread, generally the principal +article of sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The +peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from +the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is found simply +in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted +to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the oven, and thence radiated to +the bread. No other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves +packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly +soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now, +as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and +otherwise, this necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly +a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of +itself, can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas +cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as +formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different kind of heat is +needed, under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion. +Therefore, there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides +of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames; thus +supplanting the coal fire, but leaving the actual work of baking to be +done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way. + +Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, there +still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in the dealing +with which lies the difference between practical success and failure. +Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking; it is +also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits +of work to which the baker has been accustomed. Work in town bakeries +begins at about midnight, or shortly after, and the condition of the +oven must conform to the requirements of the dough, which vary from day +to day and from season to season. In order to master all these niceties, +as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer +has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has +thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has +served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his gas heat, but in +answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in +an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with considerable satisfaction +that we are enabled to declare, after duly weighing all the conditions +as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others, that Mr. +Booer has succeeded, upon these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas +to be a cheap, efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the +control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself. + +The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the +bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It measures 7 feet by +6 feet internally; being what is technically termed a 6 bushel oven. The +alterations made by Mr. Booer consist in the first place in the removal +of the flooring tiles, and the laying down of a new bottom, under which +run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the +furnace, where it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight +pieces of 3/4-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall, +and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the +gas-burners, which are supplied from a 11/2-inch pipe led into the old +furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted +in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all the plant +required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to +different points of the side walls, and the products of combustion are +allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose. +A supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion +of the gas in these flues, which would otherwise be languid. When the +gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or +the bottom set of burners, a long match is used to light them from +the same point. This is effected without risk of firing back, by the +adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the +pattern of which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in +a sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at +the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the +products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney, +which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as might be +expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable +position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this case by the fact that +the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft. Finally, +however, the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results. +During the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use, and the +bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade. +Two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven; +the economy of its use, of course, increasing with the number of loaves +turned out. As a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the +oven is wanted, and about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are +shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in +which time it ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the +batch is set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a +half, according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are +baked with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s. +10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This cannot be +considered costly. But the system possesses many other advantages. In +the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; for the oven never +requires wiping out, which is usually done with a bundle of old rope +called a "scuffle" and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant +odor. Then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of +view of the Smoke Abatement Institution. More to the purpose of the +journeyman baker, however, is the fact that there is no stoking to be +done, and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to +attend to the furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of +knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to +the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is +no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. Loeber, +having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning, and marked +how they have been overcome, is content to acknowledge that even this +first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold +over the counter. There is a good opening in this direction, for there +are 6,000 bakeries in London alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's +system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his +customers. And what may be done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic +feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns +where the price is lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a +proper spirit. He has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of +the baker; and has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a +noteworthy success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his +perseverance merits.--_Jour. of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB. + + +Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the whirlpool +and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born at Irongate, +near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 feet 8 inches in +height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and weighed about 141/2 stone. +He learnt to swim when about seven years old, and was trained as a +sailor on board the Conway training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved +the life of a fellow seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez +Canal and cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on +board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the life of +a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an hour before +he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received a gold and +other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but soon after he +relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming. + +At long distance swimming in salt water he was _facile princeps_, but he +did not show to such advantage in fresh water. In June, 1874, he swam +from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a distance of 11 statute miles. +On July 3, 1875, he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier, +nearly 18 statute miles, in 4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same +month he swam from Dover to Ramsgate, 191/4 statute miles, in 8 hours 45 +minutes. On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France, +and although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the +distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 151/2 statute miles, in 6 +hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made another attempt, +which rendered his name famous all over the English-speaking world. +Starting from Dover, he reached the French coast at Calais, after being +immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 minutes. He had swum over 39 +miles, or, according to another calculation, 451/2 miles, without having +touched a boat or artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam +at the Lambeth Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at +Boston, U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 1281/2 hours. Latterly he had +suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had become much +impaired. + +[Illustration: CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.] + +The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief +description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from the +boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the shouts and +applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam leisurely down the +river, but made good progress. He passed along the rapids at a great +pace, and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the +Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the bridge the river becomes +exceedingly violent, and as the water was clear every movement of Webb +could be seen. At one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave, +and the next he sank into the awful hollow created. As the river became +narrower, and still more impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a +wave, and for a few moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose +to the surface without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily +increased, and he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he +was swept into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the +highest wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into +the yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry +waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the waves. +He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more alive. Some +days later his body was found four miles below the fatal Rapids. It bore +tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone. +His bathing drawers were torn to fragments, and there was a deep wound +in his head. An inquest was held, and the jury returned a verdict of +"Found drowned." + +Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a widow and +two children. It is understood that he risked his life in this last +fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family.--_London +Graphic_. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY. + + +These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, which is +the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. As regards +accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized +drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; well-lighted entrance +halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, pantry, and scullery; on +first floor are three good bedrooms, a bathroom, and other necessary +accommodation; on second floor are two additional bedrooms. The basement +contains coal-place and larder. + +In these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned +and well-arranged habitations, combined with a pleasing and picturesque +exterior, without involving a large outlay of money. The materials used +are brick of a deep red color for facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs. +Wilcock & Co., of Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a +very sparing use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables +are constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned +together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with brickwork; +the panels faced with cement, which, together with the cored cornice, +are finished in vellum color. The whole of the woodwork of exterior is +painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, forming an admirable contrast +with the deep red of the bricks, the sashes and casements only being +finished in cream color. The whole of the chimneypieces in the interior +are carried out from the architect's special design; those in the +drawing-rooms being of mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those +in dining-rooms of oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, +BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.] + +The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have been +erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, have cost +L1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including the price of +land. They have been carried out from the designs and under the +superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., architect, of St. +Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--_The Architect_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS. + + +In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary +precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained +to take, it is of some interest to us, says the _Building News_, to know +how the poor are housed in the city of Paris, which contains, more than +any city in the world, the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence +and of sordid, bestial poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working +classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and +reflect great discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough +in the case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle +of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. In +1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in the city +of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the succeeding year, +the former had increased to 22,061, while the latter had somewhat +diminished, being only 5,493. There was a census taken in 1881, from +which it appeared that Paris contained 677,253 operatives and 255,604 +employes and clerks, while out of every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only +were born in the city, and 565 came from the departments or the French +colonies. The foreign element in the working classes has increased +very rapidly, numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an +addition of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75 +foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not be +amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population is at +the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years 1876-81, the city +received 280,217 additional mouths. The total population of the capital +is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are males. + +Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were +estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, and +in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the +majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in almost any +other great city in the world. There are two classes of lodgings for the +poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family, +and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the other, a single room tenanted +for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the +morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can. Readers will remember +how, under the auspices of M. Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled +down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues. +While the work lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did +not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation +invaded his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that +densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de l'Opera +now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman into the +already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, St. Lambert, +Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last statistics of the +_Annuaire_, the increase was at the rate of 415 per 1,000. Of course the +ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also; and, from +the reports of Dr. Brouardel and M. Muller, the number of deaths from +typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in +making his returns for 1881 of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that +the most unsanitary arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and +19th--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had +taken place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging +houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 inmates. +In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, with 9,074 +lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants. + +It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a +standing menace to the health of the city, but also the shocking state +of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with. The +owners of the property are, as happens in other places besides Paris, +unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, and have not only divided +and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible, but have even raised +the rental in nearly all cases. Whole families are crowded into a small +apartment, icy cold in winter, an oven in summer, the only air and +daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on +to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There +are at the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove +nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 rooms +there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 with three +children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian population has +augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the district of poor +lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., and the number of +lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a law was passed in 1850 +to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property; but +in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, although it is now active in the +provinces and in places like Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it +is applied, even there, in a jerky and intermittent manner. + +Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the +group known as the Cite des Kroumirs, in the 13th arrondissement, which, +by a strange irony, was built on land belonging to the Department of +Public Assistance, which was let out by that body to a rich tenant, who +sublet it to these lodging-house owners. This veritable den of infection +and misery has now been demolished; but there are plenty of others quite +as bad. Notably, there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to +have named it after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five +stories, which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that +it was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages +here. The Cite Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the +"Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is inhabited +by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The Cite Philippe is +tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows what are the contents +of the chiffonnier's basket, or _hotte_, may easily guess at the +effluvia of that particular group of houses. A large lodging-house in +the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted by 210 Italians, who get their living +as models or itinerant musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to +be unapproachable from the vermin. + +It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened +the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more than one +scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial +dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the Credit Foncier +for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses, which, for the +space of twenty years, will be exempt from all taxes, such as +octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There are also one or +two semi-private companies, which are occupying themselves with the +question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in +Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform. + + * * * * * + +There can be no doubt, says the _Engineer_, that the inventor who could +supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give +out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune. +Up to the present time, however, nothing of the kind has been placed +in the market. Gas is laid on to most houses now, and gas engines are +plenty enough, yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may +be made yet perhaps to supply. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC. + + +To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats do not +colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will distinguish them as a +rumbling noise, even when their number rises as high as 132 vibrations +per second, Rudolph Koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks, +recently presented by President Morton to the Stevens Institute of +Technology. The following table exhibits the number of vibrations per +second of these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are +sounded together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant sound: + + Vibrations per second. Ratio. Beats. Sounds. + + 3840 :4096 15:16 128 Ut_{2} + 3904 : " 61:64 96 Sol_{1} + 3936 : " 123:128 80 Mi_{1} + 3968 : " 31:32 64 Ut_{1} + 3976 : " 497:512 60 Si_{-1} + 3989.3 : " 187:192 53.3 La_{-1} + 4000 : " 125:128 48 Sol_{1} + 4010.7 : " 47:48 42.7 Fa_{-1} + 4016 : " 251:256 40 Mi_{-1} + 4024 : " 503:512 36 Re_{-1} + 7936 : 8192 31:32 128 Ut_{2} + 8064 : " 63:64 64 Ut_{1} + 8096 : " 253:256 48 Sol_{-1} + 8106.7 : " 95:96 42.7 Fa_{-1} + 8112 : " 507:512 40 Mi_{-1} + 8120 : " 1015:1024 36 Re_{-4} + 8128 : " 127:128 32 Ut_{-4} + +On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard corresponds to +a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of +vibrations of the forks. + +On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the other, +the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations whose +number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher +fork and the upper octave of the lower fork. + +Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced +by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his researces to +intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as may be seen from the +above table. + +His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same +phenomenon. + +Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing +a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear musical sound +is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce 32 +beats per second. + +Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the +purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose +vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose with +eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles of +holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of this +instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens Institute, and of +Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by Koenig himself. + + +I. + +_Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect_. + +A. + +In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not deviate +much from isochronism. + +If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note +corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks. + +If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', and if the +difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two notes t+t' and +(t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t, t', and +t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and (t+t'+t")/3. + +Disk No. 1 has-- + + On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances t=30 deg. + " " 2 24 " " " 15 deg. + " " 3 36 " " " 10 deg. + " " 4 36 " at irregular distances. + " " 5 36 " distances t= 101/2 deg., t'=l0 deg.,t''=91/2 deg. + " " 6 36 " " 11 deg. 10 deg. 9 deg. + " " 7 36 " " 16 deg. 14 deg. + " " 8 36 " " 161/2 deg. 131/2 deg. + +Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle No. 7 the +same, but the low note is stronger than in 8. + +Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does circle 5, +but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6. + +Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle 3. + +By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit the air +through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance of 30 deg. and +directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning +disk. If the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve +times on the same circle, we cannot, of course, make use of the above +arrangements of holes of the wind tube, and we must then employ one of +the movable brass tubes, which communicate with the interior of the wind +chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk +1, circle 4, for example, requires the use of one of these two tubes, +while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all +the other circles of the same disk. + +B. + +If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note +(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard. + +Disk No. 2 has-- + + On circle No. 1 12 holes, distances 30 deg. + " " 2 36 " " 10 deg. + " " 3 48 " " 71/2 deg. + " " 4 60 " " 6 deg. + " " 5 24 " " t= 5 deg., t'=25 deg. + " " 6 24 " 6 deg. 24 deg. + " " 7 24 " 71/2 deg. 221/2 deg. + " " 8 24 " 10 deg. 20 deg. + +Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those of 1 and +3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of circle 1 and of +its sixth harmonic. + +C. + +If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; that is to +say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n. + +Disk No. 3 has-- + + Distances. + On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15 deg. + " " 2 24 " " 15 deg. & 27 holes, 13-1/3 deg. + " " 3 24 " " 15 deg. " 30 " 12 deg. + " " 4 24 " " 15 deg. " 32 " 11-1/4 deg. + " " 5 24 " " 15 deg. " 36 " 10 deg. + " " 6 24 " " 15 deg. " 40 " 9 deg. + " " 7 24 " " 15 deg. " 45 " 8 deg. + " " 8 24 " " 15 deg. " 30, 36, & 48 holes + +Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a third, +circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 a perfect +chord. + + +II. + +_Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several +different places to conspire in the formation of a note, provided that +the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, and that the shocks +are produced in the same direction_. + +Disk No. 4 has-- + + On circle 1 24 holes. + " " 2 36 " + " " 3 23 " + " " 4 12 at an angular distance of 10 deg. from the holes + of circle 3. + " " 5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20 deg. from those of circle 3 + " " 6 12 " " " 0 deg. " + " " 7 12 " " " 15 deg. " + " " 8 12 " " " 15 deg. " + +1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of +15 deg. are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, we obtain the octave +of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used. + +The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this +experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of air +spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button 9 we +also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between the first. +Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note +corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they produce the octave, +or the note of circle 1. + +2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose +holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the same result. + +In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out buttons 7 +and 9. + +3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two +circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these circles sounded +simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them +would give alone. + +This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and pulling out +buttons 6 and 7. + +4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three +similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance +between two holes of the same circle, the three circles together produce +the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single circle. + +Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle 2. + +(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the same +experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make with +circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain the note +corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the notes +corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very strongly; +but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 disappears +completely, and we have left only that corresponding to 36 holes.) + + +III. + +_Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions_. + +1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in +opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is very +much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously. +If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity of the note is +increased. + +2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the same +number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases. + +3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one of which +has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the low note if +every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other. + +We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave of the +other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks. + +Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air currents +are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes, +made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All these experiments +require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes. To make +sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk, it +is well to put little rods through the holes, reaching into the wind +tubes, and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached. The +experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly +at the same distance from the turning disk. It is clear that +notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect +interference, but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear +entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness, +and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard +to impulses produced in opposite directions. + + +IV. + +_Beats_. + +Disk No. 6 has-- + +8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, 49. + +Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce as many +beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and 5, 6 and 8, +as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but we must content +ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result, for the +following reasons: The disk never being rigorously plane, alternately +approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it. No matter how +slight this deviation is, every sound given by a single circle is heard +with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon. This +inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the +circle; but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles +(whose difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a +single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance +between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when the +disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and +intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived. + +Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the points to +which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also furnishes two +more disks. + +The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, 90, and +96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will produce a perfect +chord when the air is admitted through the 11 holes in the wind chest; +with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained. + +Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose numbers are +in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to illustrate +harmonics. C. F. K. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER. + +[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.] + + +To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon +the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it is necessary to +take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this being something that +we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers. For we wished, +through this voluntary omission, to stimulate their sagacity by bringing +them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have +succeeded in overcoming, with causes of error that they will have +perceived, and the principal one of which is the want of absolute +cleanliness in the water, vessels, and instruments that they may have +used for the experiments. + +Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the camphor +remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to +be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. Their +astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed +the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of +vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or tubes, pieces of +gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., dipped into the liquid +in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the +objects under consideration. + +The instantaneously _sedative_ power of the human fingers, or of a hair, +will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of sorcery, or of some +diabolic art worthy of the great Albert. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR.] + +As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious experiments +of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously following his +directions, we have, in the presence of our results, that were exactly +identical with his, almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the +victim of some occult power, or at least of some optical illusion, +the true cause of which remained a mystery to us. Finally, after +many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our +attention, the light finally dawned upon us, and then shone straight in +our eyes. + +In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had +obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor moved in the +test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its +gyration took place the day before, or the day before that. And yet we +had always used the same vessels, the same water, and particles detached +from the same lump of camphor. + +To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the two +levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the +camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that was +satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we had +noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous washings +that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into +them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been freed from +impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and which, unbeknown +to us, might have soiled their sides. + +Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, we began +to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very dilute sulphuric +acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed them with quantities of +water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used +for no other purpose; and finally we plunged them again into very clean +water. We thus cut the Gordian knot, and were on the right track. + +In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with that +minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely +necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all the pieces of +the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up. The +camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or metal, and of every form, +at all heights. The immersed bodies, such as glass tubes, table knives, +pieces of money, etc., had lost their pretended "sedative effect" on a +pretended "activity of the water," and on the vessels that contained +it. The so-called phenomenon of habit "transported from physiology into +physics," no longer existed. + +The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor +upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which +nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes +of _Chara vulgaris_, had proved a grave error that was to be erased from +the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire +good faith. The true cause of _life_ had not then been unveiled, and the +new agent designated as _diluo-electricity_ vanished before the very +simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface +of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly suppose that that +volatile substance could dissolve. + +Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water +is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel with which +the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of little or no +importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to employ a test +glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, that terminates in a +lower tubulure, B, above which there is a contraction, C. Upon pouring +water into the lateral tube until the level reaches D, and placing +a particle of camphor on its surface, the camphor will be seen to +continually move about, even when the liquid has reached the upper +edge of the vessel. To reduce the level to various heights, it is only +necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to +the tubulure. In proceeding thus, agitation or _collision_ of the water +is avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will +continue to move at every level of the water. + +But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the stoppage in the +motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that +are not perfectly clean? Before answering this question, let us say in +the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due +to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia +that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they +emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in +an aelopile mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of +a sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small +portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms upon its +surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but the thickness +of which may increase in time until it becomes (especially if the vessel +is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments +of camphor that it imprisons, and whose evaporation it prevents. Now, +as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate, in fact, after a +certain length of time, the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions; +but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that +account that it "has _habituated_ itself to the cause which had at first +influenced it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to +render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present" +(Dutrochet, _l.c._., p. 50). + +We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily +layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under +the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of sulphuric ether whose +sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal +the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye. +The slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of +vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it, produces +effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor, that is to say, that +in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the +concrete volatile essence. + +This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the +camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a +few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to the upper edge +of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid _licks_ up, so to speak, +the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel, and this +material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a +layer which, in spreading over the bit of camphor itself, prevents its +evaporation, and, consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer +under consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by +causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, more +easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in +which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the paper is +removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, it should be +understood), the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues +them at all levels. + +The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no power to +stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy to repeat, is +an unquestionable proof of this. + +Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and afterward with +plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a +fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the gyration will not be +stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in +its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty substances that +ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) be dipped into this +same glass. + +_Movements of Camphor upon Mercury_.--In order to study the motions of +camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a great advantage, +and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of +cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath. The +vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly +clean, but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is +soiled by foreign bodies But it is extremely difficult to clean mercury +completely. To do so Mr. Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and +leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, +taking care to often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater +part of the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime +in powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes +in its lower part. + +Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the motions of +camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces of the vapors +that escape from it, and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail +that are endowed with very great agility. Nothing is more curious than +to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the +strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of +the vessel that contains it. On raising the temperature of the metal +slightly, the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and +the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated. + +The experiments that we have just called attention to show what +importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They +prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists upon +polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters +which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find therein also a +manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into +which the presence of these fatty matters, that have hitherto been +scarcely suspected, led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as +the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis.--_N. Joly, in La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBONIC ACID IN BEER. + + +We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' Convention in +Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. Siebel in 1872, and +used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. Bartholomae & Roesing, in +Chicago. The object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid +in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages +from the storage vats. The importance of this measure is apparent to +every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of +this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the +method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the +beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to +the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to the +excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is evident that +a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. The escape of +carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that +even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a +remarkable difference in this respect. It is, therefore, evident that if +a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off, a larger amount +of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer. It is true that the +racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure, but +this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small, when compared +with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the +sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in +which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form it +has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any +other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by +artificial means. The apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is +calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere, +at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer. For this +purpose, the beer from the store cask running through the pipe, B, +enters the keg through a hollow copper bung, fitting light into the bung +hole by means of a rubber washer. The air contained in the keg, being +replaced by the beer, is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung, +taking its course through the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is +allowed to escape in the standpipe, C, containing a column of water, +the height of which designates the pressure within the keg, and a +consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or +barrel is filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer +showing itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the +copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained in +the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is then +bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. Should +the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time, the +surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but will be collected in +the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off through e.--_Chemical Review_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER CHLORIDE. + + +Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of +silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of +gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an +alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas called attention to six +modifications of silver bromide. One of these, granular bromide of +silver, obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days +with water, he stated, was the most sensitive to light of all substances +known; exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a +Bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was +for photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in +1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in +a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more +sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. Today these +observations have become of the greatest importance to practical +photography. They have led to the preparation of the silver bromide +gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates, which are twenty +times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates, and have +become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light. + +The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the +more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is +only moderately sensitive. The explanation was sought for in various +directions, but as the result of numerous investigations it appears +that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different +modifications of silver bromide. From a consideration of the work +already done on the subject, Vogel suspected that silver bromide +precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different +properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal +solution. Silver bromide was prepared in many different ways. Emulsions +were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the +former aqueous, the latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others +without. Part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a +moderate temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with +ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated silver +bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it to settle +completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a new portion +of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates. Finally he +precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence of all colloids, by +means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted +to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or collodion as a cement. +The result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two +modifications of silver bromide, the one being obtained by precipitation +in aqueous, the other in alcoholic solutions. The first, on account of +the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he +calls blue sensitive, the other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive. + +It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in +which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion, or +whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of +silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the solution is hot or +cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or +whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary condition is that in +precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain +at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From aqueous alcoholic solutions blue +sensitive silver bromide is precipitated. + +Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum, these +modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences +in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two +essentially different modifications of the same substance. Among these +are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions. +The indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a +gelatin solution, while the blue sensitive modification does so very +readily. 2d. Their unequal reducibility; the blue sensitive silver +bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo +sensitive variety. 3d. Their different action toward chemical and +physical sensitizers. 4th. Their different action toward photographic +developers. 5th. Their different action under the influence of heat. +The blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness +perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such treatment. + +A direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet +been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these substances is +incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that the more reducible +indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light. But +this is not the case, because it is not chemical reducibility, but the +absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance. Now the +blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the +indigo sensitive variety, and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver +chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two +forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications. One is +designated as ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive +silver chloride.--_Amer. Chem. Jour_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the 28th June, +1883.] + +By OTTO HEHNER + + +Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of New +Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat full +analysis may be worthy of being placed on record. + +The sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish +black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the fractures were +conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. It was interspersed +with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin. When powdered it +appeared chocolate brown. It burned readily, the flame being bright and +very smoky. Its ash was light and reddish brown. + +It consisted of-- + + Water (loss at 212 deg. F.) 20.09 + Organic and volatile matter 75.19 + Ash 4.72 + ------ + 100.00 + +The organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage +composition-- + + Carbon 71.26 + Hydrogen 5.62 + Oxygen 21.58 + Nitrogen 1.06 + Sulphur 0.48 + ------ + 100.00 + +The ash was composed of-- + + Silica 27.26 + Alumina 26.48 + Oxide of iron 12.98 + Lime 20.19 + Magnesia 3.42 + Sulphuric acid 9.47 + Alkalies and loss 0.20 + ------ + 100.00 + +From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as +under-- + + Water 20.09 + Carbon 53.58 + Hydrogen 4.23 + Oxygen 16.23 + Nitrogen 0.80 + Sulphur 0.36 + Silica 1.29 + Alumina 1.25 + Oxide of iron 0.61 + Lime 0.95 + Magnesia 0.16 + Sulphuric acid 0.44 + Alkalies 0.01 + ------ + 100.00 + +One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of coke. + +The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very +remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary +temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small pieces. +The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize +the so called coal as a _lignite_, with which conclusion the physical +characters of the sample are in perfect harmony. + +The resin to which I have referred has not been further analyzed. It was +found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, such as alcohol, ether, +carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, and neither attacked by +boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali. On heating it swells up +considerably and undergoes decomposition, but does not fuse. + +The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption, but +the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as +a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of it being really combustible. + + * * * * * + + + + +DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, ETC. + +By E. RAYMOND. + + +The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and +accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of +peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the +manganese to the manganous slate, and determining volumetrically, by +means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of ferrous salt which +has been converted into ferric. The method of rapidly precipitating +manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act upon cast-iron or steel with +nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions, and boil +the mixture, the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of +peroxide insoluble in nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of +ferric oxide. Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous +cast-iron containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes +are treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr. +1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately +heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15 +grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric acid +at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until the +escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown down +as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and the +precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the manganese +peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an acid solution +of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous sulphate to 750 c. +c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full strength). The 50 c. c. are +poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved, and +to which a little peroxide adheres, and it is then poured upon the +precipitate and the filter in a Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese +peroxide dissolves very readily, transforming its equivalent of ferrous +sulphate into ferric sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150 +c. c. for the next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate +formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the +process of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter +of water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid +we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining +in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of the original +solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and determine the total +ferrous salt. + +The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous +salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. The quantity +of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the quantity of +manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In the case of a +steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to +dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the ferrous solution. Small +Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only 0.010 +meter internal diameter, and graduated into one-twentieth c. c., which +allows of great exactitude in the determination. For a spiegeleisen +not more than 1 gramme of the sample should be taken, and for a +ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme. + + * * * * * + + + + +MANGANESE AND ITS USES. + + +Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the +representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a metallic +brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is so hard as to +scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white +heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, it should be +preserved under naphtha. + +It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones; +with this exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by +the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat. + +Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., protoxide, +sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, manganic acid, and +permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as olive-green powder, and is +obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen. +Its salts are colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a strong +tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate +forms the mineral known as manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by +heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition, +dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed +largely in calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals. + +The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite, +and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as a black powder +by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When ignited it loses +oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts are isomorphous with +those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It imparts a violet color to +glass, and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a +powerful oxidizing agent. + +The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native +in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting the +sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of the two +preceding oxides. + +The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, and the +pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most abundant of the +manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad. Its +commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given +weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid, the +quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which +this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide. +When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an +evolution of chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of +soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it +is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of +oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of +gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per +cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in the +manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares. + +Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is +formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese. The +black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water, +to which it communicates a green color, due to the presence of the +manganate. From this water the salt is obtained _in vacuo_ in beautiful +green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air, it +rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual +conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on +account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name +of mineral chameleon. + +Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination. +Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet +tint when seen by transmitted light. It is obtained by treating a +solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid, when sulphate of +baryta falls, and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water. +Permanganate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is +the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical +chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid. + +Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small +quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances. It is +always associated with iron. + +Various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The +sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces +purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile; +and in small doses, both this salt and the carbonate have been given +with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of +anaemia. Manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when +applied in lotions (as in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid +ulcers. In connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it +may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus +Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air. + +It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used to +correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence of +protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively colorless +peroxide. + +It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to decompose the +oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a natural alloy of +from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for this purpose when +conveniently attainable.--_Glassware Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX. + +By WILLIAM L. LAY. + +ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. + +[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York Academy of +Sciences.] + + +There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, that +of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it in any other part +of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part of its +beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally known that +the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria long before +it was in this country. In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the +oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London. +In America, the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of +petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the +world's history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the +Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used +in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a +never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The mines of +ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as Galicia. Near the +city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from Cracow to Lemberg, +is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Borislau, which is +entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at the foot of +the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for +petroleum at that place. After descending about one hundred and eighty +feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with +a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not +thicker than writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until +at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or +four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could be +made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute for wax +was manufactured. + +The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in +America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells of +Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The owner +of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the miners +three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first were whole +farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, and at last to 1 +acre, which is a square of 209 feet. + +But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a +small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the +leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that +the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be +raised to sink the shaft; consequently the earth had to be transported +to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy +feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking +of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the +government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground +that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the sides +are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft three +feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water +wells, and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and +windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many years +no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum under the +ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface, the miners +were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh +air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as +the curbing of timber is put in place. The ozokerite is embedded in a +very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet; below, it is +interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were +on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.] + +That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre +than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in Poland, +averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for +children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working. If +thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates the two men +and one or two children required to work each lease. When the bucket, +containing the earth, rock, and wax, is dumped in the little shed +covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, who detach the +wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners use galvanized wire +ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to descend, they invariably +cross themselves and utter a short prayer. The business is not free from +danger, carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or +the caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of deaths. +One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one +week there had been eight deaths from accidents. + +The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common cast +iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the bottom, and +the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed off with a ladle, +poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, in which form it is +sold to the refiners, for about six cents per pound. The quantity +produced is uncertain, as the miners take care to understate it, for +the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes, and the +landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined. The best +authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the quantity produced in +fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 pounds, worth +twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the land get +one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is at the rate +of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop from some two +hundred acres of land. + +The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they +should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is +gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in that +part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French company +has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting +through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they have sunk to a +depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with water and petroleum. +These they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines, +worked in a scientific manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is +about eighteen inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity. +When first removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so +soft that it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed +into the space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for +weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it +out. + +I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 1860, +have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was very +much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petroleum +industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the difference +between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Borislau, +after twenty years' work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It +contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. None of +its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud +came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length. +In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the +houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous shops, +where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It depends on +a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses were generally +one-story, built of logs and mud. + +On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, contained +eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, and +two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as deep +with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no whisky shops where +women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, two, +three, four, and five stories high. Its water works cost one hundred and +fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it did +not contain forty houses. + +I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep in the +mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform of +straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the straw foundation +had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. Borislau +is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabitants; +between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassable. For a +third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a +day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring +why they did not improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the +Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he +could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with +the road to Borislau. + +Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," wax) is +found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the Caucasian Mountains, +in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria; in the Apennines, +in Italy; in Texas, California, and in the Wahsatch Mountains, in the +United States. Commercially, it is not worked anywhere but in Austria; +although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger deposit than in any other +place. I made two journeys to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch +Mountains. For a distance of forty miles, it crops out in many places, +and on the Minnie Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found +a stratum of sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with +ozokerite. + +No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of +ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place, and +a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this shaft, the vein was +about ten inches wide; and it could be traced along the slope of the +hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite is +seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish Canon, which enters Salt Lake Valley +near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the ozokerite of +Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of white +ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of +yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of +black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia +College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made +examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are interested +in the subject will find the papers published in the _Engineering and +Mining Journal_ for the year 1879. + +A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine +Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An +interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was +robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A +short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax +and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward suspected +it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon after ward she +brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the +magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about +twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief that +she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods; for +such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She was +therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was brought +before the court, and, when questioned, told the same story. She was a +member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. He came, +and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove +her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an +officer, to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one +who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel, +and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the clay +a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once set at +liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her dig the +specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. The hill +was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it had been +forced up by gas or some power from below the surface. The quantity that +could be gathered, by one person, laboring constantly for a week, was +only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a +shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was +sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved +in, and the shaft was abandoned. + +It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of +manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of +ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are +several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils are +made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, they make +white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball, +colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the +yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer +ones being waxed every day. It is a curious fact that the Catholic +Church does not allow the use of paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles; +at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe +are made from ozokerite, which is a natural paraffine, made from +petroleum in nature's laboratory. In the United States, the only +uses made of ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the +adulteration of beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration +of the ruling passion strong in money making, which gives us wooden +nutmegs, wooden hams, shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee, +oleomargarine butter, mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax +made without bees. + +After this paper was written, the following translation from a pamphlet, +published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, in 1879, came +to my notice. The writer's name is not published: + +"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts, +is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy +matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be +necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by +melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and +these cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works, +which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric +centners (9,500,000 lb.). + +"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European +countries, to be further refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may +specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Russia +as large purchasers of this article of commerce. + + +"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS. + +"The products of mineral wax, are: + +"(a.) _Ceresine_, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a +product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined +beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness, +is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much +used for wax candles, for waxing floors, and for dressing linen and +colored papers. Wax crayons must be mentioned among these products. The +house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors. +These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and iron; +also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and drawing. +The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither +by water, by acids, nor by rubbing. + +"Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it +should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of +ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was +controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that +the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid. + +"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white ceresine +is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring +matter (annatto). + +"(b.) _Paraffine_, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor. +It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a +protection against the action of acids, and to make casks and other +wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, etc., for air-tight +wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of tracing paper. There +are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the +Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol. +iv., Brunswick, 1877). + +"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, in the +distillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by +hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid. + +"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced from +2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 36 +to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for +lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue. + +"(c.) _Mineral oils_, which are obtained at the same time with +paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum, +described above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils, +besides the distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products +with acids and alkalies. + +"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater part +goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper Hungary. The common +paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of various sizes, from +28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina, +Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, and form an important +article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world. +Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the East +Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton." + +The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly +a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its +use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of +yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified form, which +had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah had already been +shown before the Academy. There was no mystery as to its genesis in +either region, as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of +a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a +great variety of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn, +to one that is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical +composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling a +solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much paraffine +that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather. The +asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which the term "gum +beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences in constitution have +originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the +petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have been derived. In Canada, as excavations +are sunk through the asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and +finally passes into petroleum. This is also the case in Utah. + + * * * * * + +[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.] + +[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.] + + + + +THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883. + + +Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also includes +many interesting details in his account of the trip: + +The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the exception of a +few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south the wind changed, +obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to +keep out the cold when crossing the equator. During a short stop in +Lima the party had an opportunity of studying South American life. The +products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women. +The party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home +for the admiration of their friends. The expedition really began at +Callao, where the party embarked on the United States man-of-war +Hartford. Few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the +trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The +Hartford was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific +squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, but +the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the +dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed anchor for a sail +of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches +between Callao and their destination, Caroline Island. The southeast +trade winds favored them, and from the first day there was actually no +necessity for altering the position of a sail.... + +The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according to +the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one story +structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in California and +brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. The island on which +they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly +circular in outline. The edge, which rises from five to twenty inches +from the water, according to the tide's phase, goes down under the water +to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea; and is +impossible to step on it with bare feet. At the end of this table the +reef goes down perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable +sea. No vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting +matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered +from the wind, and here, with the luck which characterized the trip, was +found the only opening in this barrier of coral. A long cleft, perhaps +eight feet wide, at the outer edge of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a +mere crack near the shore. Watching a favorable chance, the boats were +guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the +men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as +quickly as possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the +surf, came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr. +Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a succession of +wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing the conscientious +descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible. + +The members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of +the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas, +which afforded shade on three sides of the building. The second house +was occupied by the sailors, while the third was left to the natives. +These latter were sufficiently conversant with English to serve as +excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of +the island. This lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral +sand, and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of +the more delicate and elaborate kinds. These corals gave the lake a +wonderful variety of colors, forming a picture impossible to paint or +describe, and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole +scene changed to new groups of color. The water was very clear, and +in some places deep; in others so filled with coral that a boat could +barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a +long reef, one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their +longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. Fish +swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every species, if +not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most peculiar manner. One +variety which frequented the shallow water, where it was heated to the +degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a pure milky white, with black +eyes, fins, and tail. + +The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had steamed +directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the Americans. + +It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good time, +and the definition was particularly good. Photographs occupied the time +of the English and French observers. Professor Holden and Dr. Dickson +searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. Preston took the times of +contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell devoted their attention to +spectroscopic observations of the corona. Dr. Hastings' observations +have led to the production of a new theory of the corona. Briefly +stated, the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total +eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun, but is a +phenomenon of diffraction. + +From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central City, +Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar +corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth of this +theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the present eclipse, +however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. This test is based on +the following already known phenomena: When the moon covers the face of +the sun, an envelope of light is seen all round it; the envelope is +not visible when the sun is shining, on account of the sun's greater +brightness; this light is called the corona; it is extremely irregular +in outline. According to the drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse +of 1878, it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance +of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite +points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space. +The opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending +millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it must +be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., which has +been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body +like the moon. + +In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a surface +of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them. If +an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it will judge the +direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by +a line at right angles with the wave front. Now suppose a body is placed +between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ. The waves +must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the +wave front will have a different direction, and the organ of sense will +conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from +that before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves +of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the retina of +the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the +waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on the eye that the +light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The moon covers the sun +during the eclipse and a little more, so that it can move for about five +minutes and still cover the sun entirely. This movement is very slight, +and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere, it should +not change at all during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction +is the cause of the light, then the slightest change in the relative +positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the +corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during +a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum +analysis should change. + +To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following instrument: +Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter +V, and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of +the V was lost, and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was +transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the V, where the +prisms touched; here was placed a refracting prism, so that the light +could be analyzed. This instrument was attached to the eye piece of the +telescope, and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the +moon just fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the +corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came +together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen through the +eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse this is what Dr. +Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided into its constituents. +Prominent among them was a bright green line, which is designated by the +number 1,474; to this line attention was directed. Its presence in the +spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is +a solar atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed +during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this line +should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one side of the +corona, and longer on the other. The observation was now reduced to +watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines. + +At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the +longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably, while the +line from the east side, shorter by about one-third at the beginning of +the eclipse, grew longer. When the eclipse ended, the proportions of the +lines were exactly reversed. There had been a change equal to two-thirds +the length of the lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their +relative positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which +this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The +material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are other +discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time. +The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the sun that the +gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury, +and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, but an atmosphere +extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the +sun's surface, especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very +much greater than on the earth. 2. The laws of gravitation would require +a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun, while +the corona is enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in +outline, which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed +irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most +interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the +fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the +sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the +sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, as it would have +been if it had plowed its way through a material substance. In taking +photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of +exposure is longer. This shows that the corona extends indefinitely, and +it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical +laws of diffraction. These laws involve very complicated mathematics, +but by them alone Dr. Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction +where the corona is, and that it must follow the same laws as those +observed. There is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion +of Dr. Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the +chromosphere. + + * * * * * + +The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, that +nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified by +the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for the +perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small masses +circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments of comets +or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined luster is seen in +the zodiacal light. + +The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now known, +are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar appendage +which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk. In the +photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can +be traced back of each other where they cross; no better proof of their +extreme tenuity could be given. + +The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, the +distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon from the +earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. All of these +were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one, and the +six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often +enjoyed. + + * * * * * + + + + +A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS. + + +The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are given, +have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries +that have ever rewarded the labors of archaeologists. The idea of +founding an English society for the purpose of exploring the buried +cities of the Delta originated with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known +authoress of "One Thousand Miles up the Nile," and was carried into +effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald +Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of +Sir Erasmus Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could +never have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded +and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M. +Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for Egypt +in January of this year with the object of conducting the explorations +contemplated by the society. After a consultation with M. Maspero, the +Director of Archaeology in Egypt, who has throughout acted a friendly +part toward the society's enterprise, M. Naville decided to begin his +campaign by attacking the mounds at Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater +Canal, a few miles from Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to +cover some ancient city, for some sphinxes and statues had already +been found; but what city it could be, archaeologists were at a loss to +determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, believed +it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which the Children of +Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started on their final Exodus. +Any identification, however, of the sites of the Biblical cities in +Egypt was so far merely speculative. Practically nothing definite was +known as to the geography of the Israelite sojourn, except that the Land +of Goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the Delta, and that +Zoan was Tanis, whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of +the society's operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as +everything else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they +crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, remained +vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a plausible theory, in +which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important part. + +[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH] + +Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. Naville's +skillful direction, placed all these speculations in quite a new light. +The city under the mounds proved to be none other than Pithom, the +"store" or "treasure city" which the Children of Israel "built for +Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character as a store place or granary is +seen in its construction; for the greater part of the area is covered +with strongly built chambers, without doors, suitable for the storing of +grain, which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor +above, of which the ends of the beams are still visible. These curious +chambers, unique in their appearance, are constructed of large, well +made bricks, sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in +the sun, and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The +walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall which +runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner was the +temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum or Pithom, the +"Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and tablets (some of which +have been presented to the British Museum) remained to testify to its +name and purpose; the temple itself was finally destroyed when the +Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is shown by the position of the +limestone fragments and of the Roman bricks. The statues, however, and +especially a large stele, are extremely valuable, since they tell the +history of the city during eighteen centuries. From a study of these +monuments, M. Naville has learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut +(Succoth) its civil, name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored +by Shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important +place under the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the +founding of the city of Arsinoe in the neighborhood; was called Hero or +Herooepolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic _ara_, +meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, who occupied it +at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are also found of the +position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites encamped before the +passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All these data are directly +contradictory to preconceived theories: Pithom, Succoth, Herooepolis, +Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally +different positions. The identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us +the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of +the Exodus, and completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now +certain that the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater +Canal and not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first +definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of +Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The historical +identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor also results +from the monumental evidence. One short exploration has upset a hundred +theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical +character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of Pithom (Succoth) +is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a series of important +discoveries. When enough money has been collected for the proposed +exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of the highest interest to students +alike of the Bible and of Egyptian antiquities may, with certainty, be +predicted. + +The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is +bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers +which the Children of Israel built more than three thousand years ago. +In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue, the head +and face of which are intact. The other illustration is taken from the +temple end of the excavations. The sculptured group of Rameses the Great +seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance; +its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia. +Beyond this group, and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of +Pithom, set up by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoe, and containing a +mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions. +Behind this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store +chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while on +the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone blocks, +already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or enlargement of +the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. Naville, by Herr +Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our illustrations are taken from +these photographs, supplemented by sketches.--_S.L.P., in Illustrated +London News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS. + + +The surprises of archaeology are magnificent and apparently +inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, and +often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether this +or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of +Biblical archaeology is a question not to be determined offhand; but the +interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated. There +are now deposited in the British Museum fifteen leather slips, on the +forty folds of which are written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy +in a recension entirely different from that of the received text. The +character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous +Moabite stone and of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere +palaeographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as +the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier than any other +clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the Old Testament. +The sheepskin slips are literally black with age, and are impregnated +with a faint odor as of funeral spices; the folds are from 6 to 7 inches +long and about 31/2 inches wide, containing each about ten lines, written +only on one side. + +So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two distinct +handwritings, though the same archaic character is used throughout. +In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in duplicate on +distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary +transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text. At +first sight no writing whatever is perceptible; the surface seems to +be covered with an oily or glutinous substance, which so completely +obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the +slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with +the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the +leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily +visible beneath the glossy surface. + +These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. Shapira, +of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities. +Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain +archaeological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a +manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity. + +The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's agency +and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly regarded as a +modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it is asserted that +Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. The leathern fragments +now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he alleges, obtained by him from +certain Arabs near Dibon, the neighborhood where the Moabite stone was +discovered. The agent employed by him in their purchase was an Arab +"who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would +probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient +or modern sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments +is, however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are offered +to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily deposited for +examination. + +Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant +of L500 from the Prime Minister toward the production of his important +work on the "Massorah" we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is +now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and +examining their genuineness. On this latter question we refrain from +pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be +able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really 2,500 +years old, or have been compiled within the last few years. + +No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given. +To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill, +as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the +appearance and condition of the slips. But enough has been deciphered to +show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most +remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received +version of the Mosaic books. + +In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where the +received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, to go in +to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the corresponding +passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular, "Ye" +for '"Thou," while for "_g'dolim_," the word translated "greater," it +reads "_rabbim_." But a far more complete idea of the variations of text +and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the +Decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of +Deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet +been deciphered. The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs +as follows: + +"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, from +the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall not make to +yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is in heaven above or +that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth. +Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them. I am God, your God. +Sanctify ... in six days I have made the heaven and the earth, and all +that is therein, and rested on the seventh day, therefore rest thou +also, thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast: I am God, thy God. +Honor thy father and thy mother ...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not +kill the person of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit +adultery with the wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt +not steal the property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not +swear by my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon +the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take +my name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness +against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the wife +... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is his: I am +God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart: I am God, +thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God spake." + +Several points may be noted in this version. The singular refrain "I +am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the received +version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn ratification of +the Divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept. If this +be so, the first two commandments, as they are commonly reckoned, are +here fused into one, and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which +does not appear in the received version of the Decalogue. + +It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for the +Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the familiar +phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being replaced +throughout by "God, thy God." + +On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell; +they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show that these +fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to +criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as +the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental Ireland, who, knowing the +interest felt by scholars in variations of the Sacred Text, has set +himself, with infinite pains and skill, to forestall a growing demand. +Until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all +competent scholars, no further questions need be raised. In any case +the _prima facie_ presumption must be held to be enormously against +the genuineness of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the +improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries +than any extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease +with which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives +to such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his +property. + +All that we know of the _provenance_ of the fragments is that Mr. +Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; and that +Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in Moabite +antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite stone. On the other +hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is assuredly no clumsy and +ignorant bungler, as the makers of the Moabite pottery were confidently +alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness. It is, of course, +part of his craft, and not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part, +to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance +of immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required to +make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of +Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the fabricator must have +known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments, +and have set himself to fulfill their expectations. In these days of +scientific palaeography and minute textual scholarship no forger of +ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a +scholar himself. Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of +course; palaeographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn +of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension +without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean +order, while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an +archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts +in palaeography. But the fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated +they are, has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this. +He has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different +hands, both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters. +This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost +incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case +it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed +fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not only +a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, and one +can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him +at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few +piastres, and is likely, therefore, to enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We +should expect to find, however, that his extraordinary ingenuity has at +some point or another overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with +the labors of modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly +have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not +betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. In +any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound +interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with the +controversy they are certain to excite.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--_From the +Building News_.] + + * * * * * + + + + +SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA. + + +Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there has been +much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in common with +other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a pair of breeding +ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they would not realize 50 l. + +The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage ostrich +breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and one or two +cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The climate of the two +colonies is very similar, and the locality selected for the imported +birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in dryness and temperature their +native _habitat_. + +The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell +to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we were reared, +good-by!" + +One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, got into +a slanting position. This frightened one of the two inmates, a fine +cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage, which +was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. Fortunately there was there +a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches. He instantly seized +him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury, and after +a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in +the hold he became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship +with a relish. + +After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a +little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are then arranged +in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on board the vessel. +The ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching +hold of their bodies, and using a little gentle force. + +The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of +thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by their "steward," +who was to accompany them to Australia. It was curious to see a bird +swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down +the animal's long neck. On the voyage they would be fed with maize or +mealies, onions, apple melons, and barley. They require very little +water; however, there were five large iron tanks on board in case they +would feel thirsty. Our engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis +Edwards, of Hoff Street, Capetown, + +[Illustration: SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA. + +1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were Reared.--2. +Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. Lowering +the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating Apple +Melons.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW WEATHERCOCK. + + +An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the majority +of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during the day; +but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic +transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building. +The different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings, +or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the +sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the rod has to traverse +several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector of the Versailles +waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system which, while +considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, allows the +weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This apparatus consists +of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable. The stationary +part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters A and B and +by cross-hatchings. This forms the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with +clamps, P, at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and +is hidden, after the mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc +covering, Z. The upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece, +upon which rests a bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined +outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform +there move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a +horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube. + +The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind and to +indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and coarse +lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at intervals with +copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which serves as a guide for it; +(2) of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament, O, fixed to the +tube and resting on the balls; (3) of the vane, G, properly so called; +and (4) of the cap, C, provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube +and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission. +This latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f, +perfectly taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing +as many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of +the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which is +fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings through +small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it passes, it is +protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the observing room there is +affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of +the vane. + +[Illustration: RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.] + +This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the +Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau +of Trappes, and it is also installed in several primary normal schools, +where it is giving very good results.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHARRED CLOVER. + + +A correspondent of the _Ohio Farmer_ reports an experiment in curing +clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn, and +illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows: + +In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying season was +not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual, +and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls. The result was +intense heating, and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of +the mow. On a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty +tons, as every load at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn +was rather open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as +well as at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent +hay at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the +center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. What +prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since that escape +from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so +green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a mow too rapidly. If we +haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing thirty hundred each, which +will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each, we have three +tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation. + +If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full, the +principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass. To +relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have several places of +storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other, thus +giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off. To facilitate this +evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty, +the best of ventilation is necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is +as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is +not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is +returned to the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary +amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is +shut off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor +at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the +roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in, +thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will be facilitated +and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, as the clover is +put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton, will make it a +relish with stock. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT. + +(_Agave victoriae-reginae_.) + + +This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I am +happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the first time +it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never been seen in +flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown specimen, dense in +habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and the leaves are arranged +in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine. The +circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 in., and it has 268 leaves. Its +flower-stem appeared about the middle of June, grew rather fast till it +was 7 ft. high, then rather slowly till it reached its full development. +The scape is now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 61/2 in. in +circumference at the base, or 51/4 in. at a foot above the base; from +there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The flower-spike is +exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower or naked portion, 4 +ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by abortive flower buds, with, +near the base, some bristle-like scales 31/2 in. to 4 in. long. The +flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three, all the three being +equal in size and opening together; they are greenish white in color, 11/2 +in. long, or, including the stamens, some 23/4 in. to 3 in. long. + +[Illustration: AGAVE VICTORIAE-REGINAE.] + +The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to open +in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They remain in +good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens wilt and drop +down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day. On the first day +of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by 3/4 in.; on the +second it has grown to be as long as the stamens, but it is not in +condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day. +Although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already +blossomed, none of the ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping +off, but I am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the +spike. So great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers, +that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups, +and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The main +beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass +of bright yellow anthers. This plant, together with several smaller +ones, was contributed to this garden by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected +them in their native wilds--the mountains of Northern Mexico--some three +years ago. He found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible +locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In +addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of +the Agricultural Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann, +the eminent botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece +of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an +old plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor +was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this +Agave.--_The Garden_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS. + +By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX. + + +In the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we +have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting. +We find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of +glycerin is partially correct, and that instances of a different kind of +structure occur among the natural oils and fats. + +Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear to +occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure: + + C(OH)_{2} + CH + CH_{3} + +It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be resolved +into: + + COOH + H_{2}O + CH_{2} + CH_{3} + +Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, yield +no glycerin when saponified.--_Chemical News_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8718] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on August 3, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 401 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401 + + + + +NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of Silver Bromide + and Silver Chloride. + + Analysis of New Zealand Coal. + + On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast Iron, + Ferro-manganese, etc. + + Manganese and its Uses. + + Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A valuable + and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of + Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this + remarkable product. + + On the Constitution of the Natural Fats. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel + Traction Engine.--With two engravings. + + An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one large + engraving. + + The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas Retorts.--Siemens' + principle.--As operated at the Glasgow Corporation Works.--With + two engravings. + + A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent Photographic Pictures + on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and full directions. + + How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full directions. + + Some of the Uses of Common Alum. + + An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an engraving. + + Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric Acid Gas. + + Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic Acid in Racking + Beer.--With an engraving. + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the Bleaching of + Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of apparatus. + + Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, Electrical + Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires. + +V. ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An interesting abstract + from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins University), of + the American Astronomical Exhibition to the Caroline Islands. + +VI. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting the + Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of + certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens Institute. + + The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an engraving. + +VII. ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village Architecture.-- + Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an engraving. + + Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for Doors.--Several figures. + +VIII. ARCHÆOLOGY.--A Buried City of the Exodus.--Being an account + of the recent excavations and discoveries of Pithom + Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving. + + The Moabite Manuscripts. + +IX. AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen Victoria + Century Plant.--With an engraving. + + Charred Clover. + + A New Weathercock.--With one figure. + +X. MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing Place + in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With an + engraving. + + Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway. + + Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With portrait. + + The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris. + + Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South Africa.--With one + page of engravings. + + * * * * * + + + + +MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN. + + +The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect +a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most +distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs. +The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of America +disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the Catholic +monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise. In +honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of Catalonia, who also +took part in the discovery and civilization of the New World, among whom +may be named the Treasurer Santangel, Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo +Boyl, first patriarch of the Indies, and the twelve missionaries of +Monserrat, who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage. + +In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the central +executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous voice of +the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don Cayetano +Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we find in _La +Ilustracion Española_, we give an engraving. Richness, grandeur, and +expression, worthily combined, are the characteristics of these plans. +The landing structure is divided into three parts, a central and two +laterals, each of which extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater, +in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to +mind the two caravels, the Pinta and Niña; two great lights occupy the +advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of +celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble monument, +surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the esplanade. + +[Illustration: MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, +SPAIN.] + + * * * * * + +The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera has not +awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was +offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the +fatal grape disease. There were not less than 182 competitors for the +prize; but none had made a discovery that filled the bill. It is said, +however, that a Strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an +absolutely trustworthy remedy. This liquid is poured upon the ground +about the root of the vine, and it is said that it kills the parasites +without hurting the grape. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE. + + +Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the +remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to Salt +Lake: + +Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on the +Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other subject at +present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours +so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should perhaps qualify this +statement by deducting the hours of darkness; yet this is really a +fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment; it seems providential +that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting +enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything +sublime. Leaving Salt Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and +populous Jordan Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the +Valley of Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits +of the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the +wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after +another of the magnificent cañons of the Wahsatch we passed, their +mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising wild and +rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have abundantly +tested in other days. Parley's Cañon, the Big and Little Cottonwood, and +most wonderful of all, the cañon of the American Fork, form a series not +inferior to those of Boulder, Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas, +in the front range of the Rockies. + +Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, we +crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price River, +a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in choosing this +route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of Weber and +Echo cañons--the only part of the Union Pacific road which tempts one +to look out of a car window, unless one may be tempted by the boundless +monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog. Great was my +satisfaction, therefore, to find that this part of the new road, +parallel with the Union Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south, +traverses the same belt of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less +picturesque. Castle Cañon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the +equivalent of Echo Cañon, and is equal or superior in everything except +color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers +and walls of Castle Cañon are yellowish-gray. But their forms are +incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime. The +valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert, +as it is further north. To be sure, this uninviting stream, a couple of +hundred miles further south, having united with the Grande, and formed +the Rio Colorado, does indeed, by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper +into the sunless chasms, become at last sublime. But here it gives no +hint of its future somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed +Green River, to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by +sleep. But I got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy +water; and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the +conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot. + +In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the interval +passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the Grande, and +ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of the Grande, the +Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and finally a branch, flowing +westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high divide at the head of the latter +was laboriously surmounted; and then, one of our two engines shooting +ahead and piloting us, we slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such +descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the +experience of the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is +likely to occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down. + +From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the matter +of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the Rocky +Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the +high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for the monument to +the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the highest point. For all +the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande road, between Cimarron and +Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show. +From an artistic stand-point, one road has crossed the ranges at the +most tame and uninteresting point that could be found, and the other at +the most picturesque. + +At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges into the +famous Black Cañon. In length, variety, and certain elements of beauty, +such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this cañon surpasses the Royal +Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, however, one spot in the latter (I +mean, of course, the point where the turbulent river fills the whole +space between walls 2,800 ft. high, and the railroad is hung over it) +which is superior in desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the +Gunnison. Take them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the +finer. I have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the +Gunnison Cañon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one +matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed in the +morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty +precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even hinting such folly +as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark that these two cañons +are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are; for +they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks. + +Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above sea-level), +over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over the Sangre di +Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Elbert, +Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other summits exceeding the +altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is the valley of the Arkansas, +into which and down which we pass, and so through the Royal Gorge to +Cañon City and Pueblo, where we arrived before dark on the day after +leaving Salt Lake. + +Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle Cañon, the +Black Cañon of the Gunnison, Marshall Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas +Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey! No +wonder everybody who has made it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic +urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence (and I +know it has a great deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at +present, crowded with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for +those who wish on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?) +and to visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done _en +route_, without retracing the steps. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS. + + +In the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to +practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta, as it +has already been employed in connection with so many other wares; but I +have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta. +Now this is strange, if one considers how fashionable _plaque_ and plate +painting have become of late, and the good photographic results that +are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt +earth." Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are +one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be left +purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails to see +that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. It was with +something of this feeling that I was led to try and see what could be +done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no data to go by, I had +to use my own experience, or rather experiment on my own account. + +Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in the +commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but natural I +should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired +results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction signally failed--the +ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion. The +bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo., which not only left indelible +marks, but, despite any amount of washing, the image on a finished plate +vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window. +There was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my +object. I would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful +line of experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save +him useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the +method I found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent +wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my system of +working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion +transfer. + + +TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE. + +The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the surface +to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It simply +consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as follows: + + Gelatine. 10 grains. + Water. 1 ounce. + A trace of chrome alum. + +Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless to say +that numbers of _plaques_, plates, vases, etc., may be coated right off, +and will then be ready for use at any time. + +Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, as well +as placed it _in situ_ for reproduction, the next thing required is a +suitable collodion, and the following will be found all that can be +desired: + + TRANSFER COLLODION. + + Cotton. 3 drachms. + Iodide of cadmium. 65 grains. + Ammonium iodide. 25 " + Bromide of cadmium. 19 " + Ammonium bromide. 11 " + Alcohol. 15 ounces. + Ether. 15 " + +The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now +transferred to a bath, as follows: + +Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce. + +Made slightly acid with nitric acid. + +After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to +the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and _quantum suff_. of +the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image: + + DEVELOPING SOLUTION. + + A Winchester of water, i.e. 80 ounces. + Protosulphate of iron. 240 grains. + Citric acid. 240 " + +Or the following may be used: + + Pyro 3 grains\ + Citric acid 2 " } per ounce of water. + Glacial acetic acid 30 drops / + +After perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a +saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is thoroughly washed. + +It will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory; it +lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters recourse is now had to + + +TONING. + + Gold. 1 grain. + Water. 5 ounces. + +With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture the +result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking picture +will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is employed richness +at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known of instances where the +picture needed no toning. + + +OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE. + +This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited number +of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and their _modus +operandi_ is kept from the many. Now this is a pity, when one considers +the great charm attached to a good picture on opal, with pure whites and +rich blacks, and in many localities the demand that might be created for +them. Apart from their beauty, another charm attaches to opals--their +absolute permanence; and this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What, +in fact, can be more painful to the worker who values his work, and sets +store by it, than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion! +A properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so +common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as perfect +now as they were when first taken. + +Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion; +but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly applicable to +ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, since in practice +it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and safe. The details are +much the same as above, and necessitate double transfer. + +After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass plate), +and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the picture (and this, +remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) then has to be loosened +from its support, and this is done with a solution of sulphuric +acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow +between the image and the glass, after which perfectly wash and mount. +When the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image, +evened out, raised (assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite +corners during the operation), and with the aid of the helper the +picture is carefully centered, gently pressed out or down, and the +transfer is so far effected. But what will happen, and does happen, +in the case of vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture +becomes positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply +in the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of iodine +dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after which, well wash +and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash well again. +This, by the way, is equally applicable to paper transfers; and it is +to be remembered that the toning comes last of all. It is a rather +difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three +times, and acid must then be had recourse to (nitric acid is as good as +any); but by transferring from the support on the ground surface, all +stains are at once avoided. + +On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well +cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. Then +the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the plate is +exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, and, when dried, +varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with dead varnish if intended +for chalk or water-color. This, when a good negative is used, gives a +remarkably fine picture, not requiring a vestige of retouching, and +having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable +if varnished with the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective +pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting. + +A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art +matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed +glass, said it was one of the finest productions of photography. He +urged that negatives _ad rem_ should be taken most carefully, and that, +like the picture I showed him, they should be full of half-tone and +detail, and yet have plenty of vigor. They should, he said, be robust in +the high lights, have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep +shadows, and thus have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should +be retouched only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness +shall be in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now. + +If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine +pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most +artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, absolute +permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to think of what +may be really recommended to one's _clientèle_, and likely to meet with +approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been +delivered; and I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture +most likely to meet with this general approbation. + +I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal +picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched +after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. It is pure +photography in every sense of the word, and the resultant picture one +hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have rather laid a stress on this +point, well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by +the barbarous hand of would-be artists, who by far exceed the true +artists in number; and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight +of, either, at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one +in marble-like texture, or rather lack of texture, as if the face were +devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might +be wise to weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the +enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice +and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial +measures to a decided evil. + +On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception should arise +in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to clearly state that +for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer; that is, the picture +first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper, put in +the right position on terra-cotta, and pressed down while wet with +blotting-paper, left to dry, and is then so far ready. + +Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, ground opal +being the best, the system I employ is as follows: After well cleaning +the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had better not be too thick). +When dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer, +to which a little bromide of potassium has been added. The remainder of +the operations is as usual. Those varnished with dead varnish can be +tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make +very pleasing pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be +finished in water-colors if thought preferable.--_G. W. Martyn, in Br. +Jour. Photo_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PAPER NEGATIVES. + + +The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the +following advantages: + +First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is uniform +throughout the entire surface of each sheet. + +Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide +as usually constructed. + +Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass. + +Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper. + +Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled +from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand, without the +assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus this invention does +away with all sensitive preparations on glass, which latter is both a +brittle and relatively heavy material, thus diminishing the bulk and +weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling; +it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those +on glass, in so much that the film does not contain any grain; and, +lastly, it admits of printing from either face of the film, as regards +the production of positives on paper or other material, as well as +plates for phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require +a negative to be reversed. + +For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper: + +First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water, +and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which it is +attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass, and +partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state it is allowed to +dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat. + +Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion, +containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of azotic cotton (1½ +per cent. gives very good results) and from 1½ to 2½ per cent. of castor +oil (2 per cent. gives very good results); this coating is allowed to +dry; and, + +Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, and then +it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are +excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of +about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it in this position until +the gelatine has set (say) about five minutes, with the film paper still +attached, it is placed upright in a drying-room, where it should remain +about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees +Fahrenheit; and, + +Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure, +development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the purpose of +developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well; for +the purpose of fixing, I have found that a mixture by weight, water, +1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and powdered alum 60, produces +excellent results, after being allowed to dry. + +Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be +immediately used for producing negatives _recto_ or _verso_ as above +mentioned. + +I claim as my invention: + +First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper +for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the purposes above +described; and, + +Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other analogous +oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the +paper backing as above described. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM. + + +A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact, so +much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete +without it--is the substance known is common alum, or potash alum, being +a double sulphate of alumina and potash; but it is interesting to note +that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia +alum, or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter +of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or +ammonia alum. + +Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and mechanical +printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, it has been +recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The silver printer +adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working +order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; then, again, silver +prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, having for its object +the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt. A very +good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a +saturated solution, diluted with one gallon of water, the prints being +well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes. + +Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single instance +can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to +arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do +instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur and +professional, or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary +risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and +trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such +individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day +practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum, either +before fixing, or immediately afterward. In fact, some operators have +two alum baths in use, one a normal bath, as above mentioned, for +immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity; and the +other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable +acid (such as citric) or a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use +when there is too much printing density, since it has been found +in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium +thio-sulphate on the gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing) +not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or +pyrogallol, but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover, +the color does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes +when the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where +there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a soft +sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed emulsion worked +in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the +plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them +in the acid bath. + +Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless +transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, astringent +taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60° F., and in its own +weight of water at 212° F.; but the excess crystallizes out upon +cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, and, when impure, usually +contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon the addition of either caustic +soda or potash, a white gelatinous precipitate is formed (hydrate of +alumina), which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed. The +precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent +film sometimes observed on gelatine plates, when dry, which have been +soaked in alum, and not well washed afterward. + +Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for instance--precipitate +hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve in an excess of the +reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved. + +Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison, +which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube, it +somewhat resembles thin starch paste. + +The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of +hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum +in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid ammonia; should any iron be +present, the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over +a sheet of white paper. Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate +of alumina and sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto +their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the +community rather than the practical.--_Photo. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE. + + +As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton cloths +become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence of carrying +on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope. The effect is +that, together with the tension, although slight, and the drying, the +weft partly shrinks and partly curls up, the latter, however, being +scarcely observable to the naked eye. It may almost be said that as +regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples +because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to +its gray width. The main use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not +so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its +normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been +performed upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially +useful to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a +white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching being +corrected before printing. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.] + +The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in +a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of another stretching +machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by Mr. +Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of Salford, who makes a specialty of +calico printers' and finishers' machinery. The improvements consist +mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly +substantial construction of the machine. The principle adopted is a +well-known one. The selvages of the cloth, or more strictly the two +edges of the cloth, of a width of about two inches, are caused to pass +over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys. +The rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they +seize it, hence the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly +performed. The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt +acting against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held +between them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by +the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, CC, of +which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley. The +lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw +for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands. The +stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft, an +ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to +be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it +without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts. The piece, +wound upon the ordinary batch shell, is placed upon the running-off +center, D; it is led off over the rails, EE, and then downward to the +nip of the bands and pulleys, AA. As explained, the selvages are here +gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are +wider apart at the back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed +underneath, the piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the +back it passes over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening +rail, G, and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be +seen. The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills +it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the +driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle to +the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as to +separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the treatment of +different widths of cloths. This adjustment is provided for by mounting +the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band pulleys, CC, etc., on frames, +BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, upon rails, at the back and front +of the machine. The adjustment either for width of piece or for the +angularity (extent of stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L. +By the bevel wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the +ends of frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space +between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened +out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may be +separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously made. The +wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use of which is +sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a set of stretching +pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in illustration. By a proper +adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form, where it +passes between the whole of them, the effect of the corrugation being +to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally +stretched with those near the selvages and more easily. This part of the +machine may be used or not as required. The production, we observe, was +about 120 yards per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted +together, as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course +of construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of +considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods, +on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small +disturbance to the stiffening.--_Textile Manufacturer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS. + + +All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable +fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction. +The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in the operation, acts +injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially during the formation of +hydrochloric acid, with which process especially the development of an +injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable. The best +method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the +moisture naturally present in the wool. The patentees find agitation of +the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material +assistance. The operation maybe successfully performed in two +ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with +constant agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For +the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture +at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and having apertures +all round to allow free access of air. This cylinder rests on a hollow +axle, closed at one end and perforated with holes, through which the +acid gas is passed. By the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn +through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby +it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30° +Cent. is best suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according +to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the +gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted by +the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully saturated, +the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are +sufficiently friable. The treatment _in vacuo_ is as follows: + +The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material +provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this false bottom +a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a +vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the maximum vacuum is +attained, the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of +40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth. +The warmth set free (about 500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up +by the combined water in the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a +quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor +streams through the second vessel at a temperature of 35° Cent., +penetrates the material, and passes out through the pump. After +saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the +second. AS soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first +vessel is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus +from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents gas +passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under reduced +pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing +alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in +evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after saturation by +these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels, after +which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles +are friable. As soon as this occurs, the fabrics are washed. It is +advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta, +strontia, magnesia, or preferably lime, and subsequently to rinse in +pure water. Phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed +for neutralizing the acid, and the residue recovered and separated from +the organic residues mixed with it.--"_H. J.," Journal of the Society of +Chemical Industry._ + + * * * * * + + + + +APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE +MATERIALS. + + +It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are +characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the results of +numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable +fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides +and chlorides which, when submitted to electrolysis, permit oxygen and +chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state. + +The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile +substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only those most +generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined +action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the same manner, +whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state. + +In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile +materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any +sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel +containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the +hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are +capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a nascent +state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents. + +The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the +electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less +length of time, according to the nature of the material to be bleached, +and must, after this first operation, be washed, rinsed, and dried. + +The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides +and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have been specially +utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, the alkaline +hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes. + +In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in +presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the +results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as +bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and economical +to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its +elements from the metallic chloride itself, and from the water by means +of which such transformation is to be effected. This is a reversal of +the problem, and, _à propos_ thereof, we would call the attention of +the reader to an apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for +effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner. + +If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be submitted +to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material +to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the +following way: + +2NaCl + 2 H_{2}O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H. + +In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results +from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the +chloride of sodium and water, which puts the chlorine, the metal, the +hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in presence. The chlorine and +oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material. + +While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be preferable to +adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement. + +The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A, +into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any +electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a +safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates with +a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication between the +electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in this latter is +sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part of the vessel, A, +by means of the tubes, G and H. + +The apparatus operates as follows: + +The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is put, is +filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of chloride of +sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action of an electric +current, when, as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of +the chloride and the water, the elements in a nascent state form +hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total conversion of the liquid +has been effected (this being ascertained by chlorometric tests), the +pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, and, as a consequence, draws up +the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower +part of the electrolyzer, A. The hypochlorite that has formed passes +through the tube, D (as a natural consequence of the elevation of the +level of the liquid in A brought about by the entrance of a new supply +of chloride), and distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it +acts upon the textile material. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS BY ELECTRICITY.] + +The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, permits +of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical +reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution contained in the +reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator. + +As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution from +the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid conversion into +decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt application upon the +materials to be bleached, presents important advantages. + +While, in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching +chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid, +which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in its turn react upon +binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with this new method, to +utilize the chloride of sodium, which is derived from ordinary salt +works, and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite +by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an +electric current. + +Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of +having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a +uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by the always known +intensity of the current. + +We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time +to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, besides, all +chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of +undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed +for the same purpose. This is especially the case with the chlorides +of potassium or barium, the bromides of strontium or calcium, and the +iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On another hand, as sea water contains +different chlorides, it results that it might serve directly as a raw +material for bleaching textile fibers. Then, when the solution of +chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis, +there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for +scouring fibers.--_H. Danzer, in Le Génie Civil_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE. + + +Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, Hunslet, Leeds, +England, for several years past have devoted considerable attention to +the question of mounting traction engines on springs. The outcome of +this is the engine in question, the front end of which is carried by a +pair of Timmis spiral springs, resting on the center pin of the front +axle, which is on Messrs. McLaren's principle, which enables it to +accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any +undue strain on the front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has +been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur +gearing, which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the +cogs. This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all +the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which will +be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which Fig. 1 is a +perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a detail view of the +wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong +T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted on. The nave of the wheel +has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted. These spokes are +made of the best spring steel, specially manufactured and rolled for the +purpose, 9 inches wide and ½ inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape, +with the narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon +the rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places +by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine +comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and +those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of the +driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is fixed on the +differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in Fig. 2, so that +the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the +engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence +in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly +tested it in practical work. This, we are informed, they have done, with +the most satisfactory results, during the last five or six months; and +they have a set of springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and +3,000 miles, besides which there are several of these spring engines in +daily use.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, AND WEIGHTS +OF PURE COPPER WIRE. + + + DIAMETER | AREA + | +B.W.G Inch. Milli- | Circu- Square Square +No. metres | lar inches. Milli- + | Mils. metres. + | +0000 .454 11.5313 | 206116 .161883 10.4435 + 000 .425 10.795 | 180625 .141862 9.152 + 00 .38 9.6518 | 144400 .113411 7.3165 + 0 .34 8.6358 | 115600 .0907922 5.8573 + 1 .3 7.620 | 90000 .070686 4.5602 + 2 .284 7.2134 | 80656 .0633472 4.0867 + 3 .259 6.5784 | 67081 .0526854 3.3989 + 4 .238 6.0451 | 56644 .0444881 2.8701 + 5 .22 5.5879 | 48400 .0380133 2.4523 + 6 .203 5.1561 | 41209 .0323655 2.088 + 7 .18 4.5719 | 32400 .0254469 1.6417 + 8 .165 4.1909 | 27225 .0213825 1.3794 + 9 .148 3.7591 | 21904 .0172034 1.1098 + 10 .134 3.4035 | 17956 .0141026 .9096 + 11 .12 3.0479 | 14400 .0113097 .7296 + 12 .109 2.7701 | 11881 .00933133 .60199 + 13 .095 2.4129 | 9025 .0070882 .4573 + 14 .083 2.1082 | 6889 .00541062 .34906 + 15 .072 1.8288 | 5184 .00407151 .2486 + 16 .065 1.6510 | 4225 .00331831 .21407 + 17 .058 1.4732 | 3364 .0026421 .17045 + 18 .049 1.2446 | 2401 .00188574 .12165 + 19 .042 1.0668 | 1764 .00138544 .0894 + 20 .035 0.8890 | 1225 .000962115 .06207 + 21 .032 0.8128 | 1024 .00080425 .05188 + 22 .028 0.7112 | 784 .000615753 .03972 + 23 .025 0.635 | 625 .00049087 .03167 + 24 .022 0.5588 | 484 .000380133 .02452 + 25 .02 0.508 | 400 .00031416 .02027 + + 26 .018 0.4571 | 324 .000254469 .01642 + 27 .016 0.4064 | 256 .000201062 .01297 + 28 .014 0.3556 | 196 .000153938 .00993 + 29 .013 0.3302 | 169 .000132732 .00856 + 30 .012 0.3048 | 144 .000113097 .007296 + +LENGTH AND WEIGHT + +B.W.G Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Feet Yards 1.000 feet Miles +No. per per per 1.000 per per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. + foot. Yard ft. mile. + +0000 .623924 1.871772 623.924 3294.32 1.60276 .534253 .00160276 .00303553 + 000 .54676 1.64028 546.76 2886.89 1.82895 .60965 .00182895 .0034639 + 00 .437105 1.311315 437.105 2307.92 2.28777 .76259 .00228777 .004333 + 0 .349928 1.049784 349.928 1847.62 2.85773 .9525766 .00285773 .0054124 + 1 .272435 .817305 272.435 1438.43 3.6706 1.22353 .0036706 .0069519 + 2 .244151 .732453 244.151 1289.11 4.0958 1.365266 .0040958 .0077573 + 3 .203058 .609174 203.058 1072.15 4.9247 1.641566 .0049247 .009327 + 4 .171463 .514395 171.465 905.333 5.8321 1.944033 .0058321 .0110457 + 5 .14651 .43953 146.510 773.56 6.8255 2.275166 .0068255 .012927 + 6 .124742 .374226 124.742 658.638 8.0165 2.672166 .0080165 .015183 + 7 .098076 .294228 98.076 517.844 10.1962 3.39873 .0101962 .019311 + 8 .082411 .247233 82.411 435.135 12.1345 4.04483 .0121345 .022981 + 9 .066305 .198915 66.305 350.089 15.0818 5.027266 .0150818 .028564 + 10 .054354 .163062 54.354 286.99 18.398 6.13266 .018398 .034845 + 11 .04359 .13077 43.590 230.152 22.9413 7.6471 .0229413 .04345 + 12 .035964 .107892 35.964 189.893 27.805 9.2683 .027805 .05266 + 13 .027319 .081957 27.319 144.245 36.6046 12.20153 .0366046 .069326 + 14 .020853 .062559 20.853 110.1088 47.954 15.98466 .047954 .09082 + 15 .015692 .047076 15.692 82.855 63.7267 21.24223 .0637261 .12069 + 16 .012789 .038367 12.789 67.5276 78.1902 26.0634 .0781902 .14809 + 17 .0101828 .0305484 10.1828 53.7665 98.202 32.734 .098203 .18589 + 18 .00726795 .02180388 7.26796 38.3748 137.590 45.8633 .137590 .260587 + 19 .00533972 .01601916 5.33972 28.1937 187.276 62.4253 .187276 .35469 + 20 .00370815 .01112445 3.70815 19.579 269.676 89.892 .2696676 .51075 + 21 .00309972 .00929910 3.09972 16.3665 322.610 107.5366 .322610 .61100 + 22 .00237312 .00711936 2.37312 12.5301 421.384 140.4613 .421334 .798078 + 23 .0018910 .0056757 1.8919 9.9892 528.570 176.190 .528570 .100108 + 24 .0014650 .0043950 1.4650 7.7357 682.55 227.5166 .68255 .129271 + 25 .00121082 .00363246 1.21082 6.39315 825.880 275.2943 .825883 .156417 + 26 .00098077 .00294231 .98077 5.17844 1019.61 339.870 1.01961 .193108 + 27 .00077492 .00232476 .77492 4.0916 1290.44 430.1466 1.29044 .24440 + 28 .0005933 .0017799 .5933 3.13264 1685.48 561.8266 1.68548 .31922 + 29 .000511571 .001534713 .511571 2.7011 1954.76 651.5866 1.95476 .370220 + 30 .0004359 .0013077 .4359 2.30152 2294.13 764.710 2.29413 .434496 + +LENGTH AND RESISTANCE + +B.W.G Feet Yards 1.000 feet Miles Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms +No. per Ohm. per Ohm. per Ohm. per Ohm. per foot. per yard. per 1.000 per mile. + foot. + +0000 19966.5 6655.5 19.9665 3.7815 .000050684 .00156252 .050084 .264443 + 000 17497.15 5832.3833 17.49715 3.31385 .0000571522 .0001714566 .0571522 .301763 + 00 13988.64 4662.68 13.98804 2.64925 .000071489 .000214467 .071489 .377465 + 0 11198.17 3732.7333 11.19817 2.12086 .0000893002 .0002679006 .0893002 .471505 + 1 8718.30 2906.10 8.71830 1.6512 .00011470 .0003441 .114701 .60562 + 2 7813.50 2604.50 7.81350 1.47973 .00012799 .00038397 .12799 .67580 + 3 6498.14 2166.0466 6.49814 1.23071 .00015389 .00046167 .15389 .81254 + 4 5487.107 1829.0357 5.487107 1.03923 .000182245 .000546735 .182245 .962256 + 5 4688.51 1562.8366 4.68851 .887975 .000213287 .000639861 .213287 1.12616 + 6 3991.91 1330.6366 3.99191 .756045 .000250506 .000751518 .250506 1.32267 + 7 3138.59 1046.1966 3.13859 .59443 .000318614 .000955842 .318614 1.68228 + 8 2637.29 879.0966 2.63729 .499486 .000379177 .001137531 .379177 2.00206 + 9 2121.84 707.280 2.12184 .401864 .000471289 .001413867 .471289 2.488405 + 10 1739.40 579.80 1.73940 .329432 .000574911 .001724733 .574911 3.03553 + 11 1394.93 464.9766 1.39493 .264191 .000716882 .002150646 .716882 3.78514 + 12 1150.91 383.6366 1.15091 .217976 .000868875 .002606625 .868875 4.58766 + 13 874.252 291.4173 .874252 .165578 .00114383 .00343149 1.14383 6.03945 + 14 667.338 222.446 .667338 .12639 .00149849 .00449547 1.49849 7.91203 + 15 502.175 167.39166 .502175 .095109 .00199134 .00597402 1.99134 10.5142 + 16 409.276 136.42533 .409276 .077514 .00244334 .00733002 2.44334 12.9008 + 17 325.871 108.62366 .325871 .061718 .0030687 .0092061 3.0687 16.20274 + 18 232.585 77.52833 .232585 .04405 .0042995 .0128985 4.2995 22.7014 + 19 170.879 56.95966 .170879 .032363 .0058521 .0175563 5.8521 30.8991 + 20 149.3915 49.797166 .1493915 .022475 .00842703 .02528109 8.42703 44.4947 + 21 99.195 33.065 .099195 .018787 .01008110 .03024348 10.08116 53.2285 + 22 75.9461 25.315366 .0759461 .014384 .0131672 .0395016 13.1672 69.5230 + 23 60.54377 20.181256 .06054377 .011467 .0165170 .0495510 16.5170 87.2096 + 24 46.8851 15.628356 .0468851 .0088798 .02132874 .06398622 21.32874 112.616 + 25 38.748 12.916 .038748 .0073386 .025808 .077424 25.808 136.265 + 26 31.3859 10.461966 .0313859 .0059443 .03186144 .09558432 31.86144 168.229 + 27 24.79873 8.266243 .02479873 .0046967 .0403246 .1209738 40.3246 212.914 + 28 18.98653 6.328843 .01898653 .0035959 .05266892 .15800676 52.66892 278.092 + 29 16.3710 5.4570 .0163710 .0031006 .0610834 .1832502 61.0834 322.521 + 30 13.9493 4.649766 .0139493 .0026419 .07168825 .21506475 71.68825 378.514 + +RESISTANCE & WEIGHT + +B.W.G Ohms Lbs. +No. per lb. per Ohm. + +0000 .000080272 12457.5 + 000 .000104529 9566.7 + 00 .000163553 6114.24 + 0 .000255196 3918.58 + 1 .00042102 2375.18 + 2 .00052422 1907.59 + 3 .00075786 1319.50 + 4 .0010629 940.844 + 5 .0014558 686.911 + 6 .0020082 497.96 + 7 .00324863 307.822 + 8 .00460101 217.343 + 9 .00710791 140.689 + 10 .0105772 94.543 + 11 .0164462 60.842 + 12 .0241593 41.392 + 13 .0418692 23.8839 + 14 .0718583 13.9163 + 15 .126788 7.8872 + 16 .191045 5.2344 + 17 .301355 3.31835 + 18 .59157 1.6904 + 19 1.09596 .912445 + 20 2.27254 .44003 + 21 3.25229 .30748 + 22 5.54843 .18023 + 23 8.73035 .11454 + 24 14.5579 .068691 + 25 21.3142 .046917 + 26 32.4863 .030782 + 27 52.0367 .019217 + 28 88.7724 .011265 + 29 119.404 .008375 + 30 164.4762 .0060804 + +PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 mil. +foot at 60° Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, 10.32311 ohms. Upon +these data the above Table has been calculated. + +The _Resistance_ of Copper varies with the temperature about 0.38 per +cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per degree Fahrenheit. + +STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of +_Stranded_ Wires, the total _weight_ is _greater_, and the _Resistance +less_ than is a similar length of Conductor with Wires _not_ Stranded. + + To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994 + Feet to Metres " .3048 + Yards to Metres " .9144 + Miles to Kilometres " .6214 + Pounds to Kilogrammes " .45359 + +PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE MAKERS, 25, +BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER. + + * * * * * + + + + +IRON FRAME GANG MILLS. + + +The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid +and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent improvements +tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown in the iron frame +stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East Saginaw, Mich., are +eminently valuable. Our large engraving represents one of these mills, +constructed to be driven by belt, friction, or direct engine, as may be +desired. The important requisite in this class of mills is such design +and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement +at the highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the +quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of thinner +saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are among the +advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming the necessity +of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense in setting up, and +avoiding the liability of decay or change of position. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.] + +Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation, and +from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the +Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and bottom slides. The top +slides are pivoted at the top end, and the bottom ones from the bottom +end, both being operated by one rock shaft from the center. This +movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest +cut yet obtained. It adds no extra weight to the sash, and avoids the +cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints, usually weighing from +three hundred to five hundred pounds, which have been found so +objectionable in many other movements. The feed is continuous, and is +made variable from ¼ to 1¼ inch to each stroke, controllable by the +sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form +with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special feature of +this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests +upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block +or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole structure is thus increased, +both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting +vibrations, which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same +part, as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use. + +The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws 4½ feet +long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke 20 inches, capable +of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank shaft is nine inches in +diameter, of the best forged iron. The main pillow block has a base +6½ feet long by 21 inches bearing, weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap +is secured by two forged bolts 3½ inches in diameter, and by this +arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is +used with suitable counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and +speed of sash; a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a +forged pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes. +The iron drive pulley is 4 to 4½ feet in diameter and 24 inches face; +the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 pounds, turned +off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is required, a proportionate +increase is made in all these parts. + +In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; the lower +girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without rivets, giving +the greatest strength possible, with the least weight. The outfit also +includes eight iron rollers for the floor, 8½ inches in diameter, with +iron stands, and geared as live rolls when desired, a full set of +Lippencott's steel saw hangings, and gauges for one-inch lumber. The +weight of the machine here shown is 18½ tons. They are, however, built +in larger or smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity +of work desired. + + * * * * * + +It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of the +Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and Hollanders +with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early fruits are taken +from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, whence they +are carried by fast steamers to London and other English ports. But, on +the other hand, Germany is sending into Italy large quantities of coal, +iron, machinery, copper, and other articles of which the latter received +nothing before. In two months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of +paper. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS. + + +The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in +accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out in +such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been applied +with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the Glasgow +Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a period of about +twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens successfully adapted his +system to the firing of retorts at the Paris Gas Works, it seems to have +made but little progress up to the present time; for what reasons it is +perhaps difficult to explain. It is certain, however, that so-called +regenerator furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been +brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the +Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has +received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion +eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be +certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an +illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with +its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, the electric light. Of course, +it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative +principle at the Paris Gas Works was attended with a degree of +complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so +expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies +and gas corporations generally, when the expense as well as the +scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying +and utilizing heat had to be considered. Fortunately, however, Dr. +Siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was +no such thing as "finality" in that department of invention which he had +made almost exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed +his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and +utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most +decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements +now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been +immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility has in +no way been interfered with. + +Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer and +regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. Foulis, the +general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, with the view of +entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale +at one of the stations under his charge. Encouraged by the hearty +co-operation of the gas committee, two or three of whose members were +well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very soon came to an understanding with +Dr. Siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at +the Dalmarnock Gas Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city, +and the largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number +of retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent shape +was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, but which +number has since been increased to eight, owing to the space occupied +by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for +an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" setting. For each oven or +chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer, +so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought +necessary. + +[Illustration: GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW +CORPORATION GAS WORKS.] + +In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement and the +relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the retorts to +each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of _sine qua non_ of the new +method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close +proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be +used, and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be +immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts, and with its top +on a level with the working floor of the retort house. To place it +in such a position meant a good deal of excavation, which was also +required, however, for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried +down to a depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and +as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted +to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division +walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, were +in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a good deal +of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas +producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of application and +by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements +from time to time, as also by a determination not to be beaten, although +often disheartened, Mr. Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete +success. The new system of firing being made so simple that there was +scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice +if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 3._] + +The results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens, or a +total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith +resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench +of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; and all the improvements +which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the +four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the +remaining eight ovens in the bench. More recently the regenerator system +has been applied to other 22 ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the +whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house; and during the +very depth of the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its +greatest height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings, +amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition they +still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable extension +of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and +summer. The reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens +of seven retorts each, giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts; and +to twenty ovens of five retorts each, which will become sixteen ovens, +each having eight retorts, making 128 retorts in this division, and the +total being 208 retorts in place of 170 in the same amount of space. It +is confidently anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of +the present year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working +out the new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the +confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the +Glasgow Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the +actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas +retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are +being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the Dawsholm +Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of Maryhill, and some +four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock Works in a northwestern +direction. The station just named, which is also a very large one, will +probably require two years for its conversion. + +We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted +for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel to the +greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing +the cannel coal used as the source of the gas. + +The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in Fig. 2, is +a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron. It is 7 +ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, which becomes reduced to 20 +in. above, where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid, which is +continuous with the floor of the retort house. There are no firebars +at the bottom, so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick. At the +bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about 1 ft. +in length by 6 in. in height. By means of these openings any clinker +that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn. +They also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in +the lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a +malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam +boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the +steam. + +The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it +has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of +carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made from Scotch cannel +the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains a large percentage of +mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon. The retorts are +worked with three-hour charges, but the producer is only charged once in +every six hours For each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel +is about 18 cwt., and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from +five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the +top. Formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a +furnace underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made, +but now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced +to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly was. +Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the +producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by +way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it has been filled up +to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the +top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon it and driven home, thereby +making a perfectly air-tight joint. The contents of the other three +retorts, as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each +alternate drawing, are taken to the coke heap in the yard. We have +already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about 18 cwt. for each set +of eight retorts, but in connection with that matter we should mention +that it was formerly about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts, +and that there is every prospect of it being increased without +increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each +charge. + +It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the +mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air admitted at the +several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers +of the incandescent coke, the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid +gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air. Among the middle and upper +layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further +quantity of the fixed carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic +oxide gas (CO_{2}+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses +considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very +completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the producer, a +quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide, +the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former +increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen associated with +the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the +carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of +course absolutely useless as a generator of heat. The steam which +we previously spoke of serves two good purposes. In contact with +incandescent coke it suffers decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some +of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which +is set free passes onward, and mixes with the other gases to be +subsequently consumed with them. The admission of the steam thus causes +the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition +takes place, this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion +of the hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the +coke in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely +preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious +materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke +obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to 20 per +cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the +bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours. +Referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel +coke in one of these gas producers, we give the following typical +analysis on the authority of Dr. William Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas +examiner, and one of the public analysts for the city of Glasgow: + + Per cent. + Hydrogen 8.7 + Carbonic oxide 28.1 + Carbonic acid 3.5 + Oxygen 0.4 + Nitrogen 59.3 + ----- + 100.0 + +By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an opening is +provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the +mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of +the setting and the lower by the regenerators. + +Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the +arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be +admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible +nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper is +occupied by eight [Inline Illustration] shaped retorts. These are 9 ft. +long (set back to back) by 18 in. by 13 in., and they are placed on +arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. wide. Underneath the level of the retort +oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ +very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr. +Siemens to gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high +temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In +the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating +system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat +of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, the +current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork, while +air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated. The system +thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part +of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the +currents. The regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six +zigzag flues, three on each side of the setting. These flues run the +whole length of the setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing +downward in Fig. 3, the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack +pass to and fro through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion +of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the +central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air necessary +for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center, and +then it is divided into two currents, which pass right and left into the +central passages of the two regenerators. As the air flue is at a very +bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it, the +temperature of the air must be equally great, or nearly so. In its most +improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount +of heating surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the +air on its way to the combustion chamber. + +Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the gas +enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it meets +the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, not by a +number of small openings, but by one large opening on each side, and +meets the air entering also by a large opening, the effect of which is +to avoid the localization of intense heat, as all the retorts of the +setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame, due to the +combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases. + +There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas +retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the extent +of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided +increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as it has been +experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that, by +increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer can be made to +provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight +retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel +used will be still further reduced. Then, again, an additional retort +can well be placed in each oven, as it occupies the position of the fire +in ordinary settings. In the third place, by the greater heat which is +obtained, the charges can be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges +can be carbonized in a given space of time. When all the gains are put +together, the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per +cent. over any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator +settings there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous +fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any +trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of +the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but natural to +expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which +is really the case. Another advantage is that, as the fuel used in +the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the flues cannot by any +possibility arise. It is the confident opinion of Mr. Foulis that the +system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas +works, and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the +summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to +eight retorts. + +As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and +regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great amount +of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many persons have +visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their reconstruction, in order +to see the system in operation, and doubtless many more will go and do +likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses, +and which are likely to increase rather than diminish.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN. + + +During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and one, +moreover, destined to materially influence the development of the uses +of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the guidance of Mr. +Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, London. The experiment +in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating +bakers' ovens, in a manner not hitherto attempted, and such as to bring +the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the +smallest towns. It will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated +muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of +a model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in action +at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the winter +of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but its design +demanded either a new structure in every case, or considerable +alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed system, moreover, +the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be +necessary to meet the objections of the bakers. It is evident, however, +that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles +and brickwork, such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven, +from the outside; and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel +as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that +in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire. +When it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is +of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in the +estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to allowing a +purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to +fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. Consequently, when +Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known +in England and America, seriously addressed himself to construct, upon +altogether new lines, a cheap and practical baker's oven, he wisely put +the gas inside. + +There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after consultation with +practical bakers and others, set himself to fulfill, the observance +of which lends to the present Blackfriars experiment much of its +interesting character. Thus it was observed that, while it is not +difficult to build an oven in a given spot, and bake bread in it, this +cannot truly be called a _baker's_ oven. By this term must be understood +in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style +and worked by a man with his living to get by it. Before the problem of +extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be +attacked from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to +have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw +that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting it +inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any general +success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be +rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The latter seems +a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered that the only +improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam +oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or three hundred pounds to +erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible +for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven; and in this +respect he set himself to surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will +not bake the common "batch" or household bread, generally the principal +article of sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The +peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from +the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is found simply +in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted +to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the oven, and thence radiated to +the bread. No other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves +packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly +soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now, +as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and +otherwise, this necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly +a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of +itself, can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas +cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as +formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different kind of heat is +needed, under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion. +Therefore, there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides +of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames; thus +supplanting the coal fire, but leaving the actual work of baking to be +done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way. + +Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, there +still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in the dealing +with which lies the difference between practical success and failure. +Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking; it is +also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits +of work to which the baker has been accustomed. Work in town bakeries +begins at about midnight, or shortly after, and the condition of the +oven must conform to the requirements of the dough, which vary from day +to day and from season to season. In order to master all these niceties, +as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer +has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has +thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has +served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his gas heat, but in +answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in +an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with considerable satisfaction +that we are enabled to declare, after duly weighing all the conditions +as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others, that Mr. +Booer has succeeded, upon these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas +to be a cheap, efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the +control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself. + +The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the +bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It measures 7 feet by +6 feet internally; being what is technically termed a 6 bushel oven. The +alterations made by Mr. Booer consist in the first place in the removal +of the flooring tiles, and the laying down of a new bottom, under which +run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the +furnace, where it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight +pieces of ¾-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall, +and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the +gas-burners, which are supplied from a 1½-inch pipe led into the old +furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted +in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all the plant +required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to +different points of the side walls, and the products of combustion are +allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose. +A supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion +of the gas in these flues, which would otherwise be languid. When the +gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or +the bottom set of burners, a long match is used to light them from +the same point. This is effected without risk of firing back, by the +adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the +pattern of which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in +a sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at +the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the +products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney, +which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as might be +expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable +position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this case by the fact that +the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft. Finally, +however, the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results. +During the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use, and the +bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade. +Two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven; +the economy of its use, of course, increasing with the number of loaves +turned out. As a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the +oven is wanted, and about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are +shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in +which time it ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the +batch is set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a +half, according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are +baked with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s. +10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This cannot be +considered costly. But the system possesses many other advantages. In +the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; for the oven never +requires wiping out, which is usually done with a bundle of old rope +called a "scuffle" and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant +odor. Then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of +view of the Smoke Abatement Institution. More to the purpose of the +journeyman baker, however, is the fact that there is no stoking to be +done, and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to +attend to the furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of +knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to +the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is +no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. Loeber, +having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning, and marked +how they have been overcome, is content to acknowledge that even this +first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold +over the counter. There is a good opening in this direction, for there +are 6,000 bakeries in London alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's +system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his +customers. And what may be done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic +feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns +where the price is lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a +proper spirit. He has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of +the baker; and has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a +noteworthy success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his +perseverance merits.--_Jour. of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB. + + +Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the whirlpool +and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born at Irongate, +near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 feet 8 inches in +height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and weighed about 14½ stone. +He learnt to swim when about seven years old, and was trained as a +sailor on board the Conway training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved +the life of a fellow seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez +Canal and cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on +board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the life of +a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an hour before +he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received a gold and +other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but soon after he +relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming. + +At long distance swimming in salt water he was _facile princeps_, but he +did not show to such advantage in fresh water. In June, 1874, he swam +from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a distance of 11 statute miles. +On July 3, 1875, he swam from Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier, +nearly 18 statute miles, in 4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same +month he swam from Dover to Ramsgate, 19¼ statute miles, in 8 hours 45 +minutes. On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France, +and although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the +distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 15½ statute miles, in 6 +hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made another attempt, +which rendered his name famous all over the English-speaking world. +Starting from Dover, he reached the French coast at Calais, after being +immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 minutes. He had swum over 39 +miles, or, according to another calculation, 45½ miles, without having +touched a boat or artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam +at the Lambeth Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at +Boston, U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 128½ hours. Latterly he had +suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had become much +impaired. + +[Illustration: CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.] + +The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief +description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from the +boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the shouts and +applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam leisurely down the +river, but made good progress. He passed along the rapids at a great +pace, and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the +Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the bridge the river becomes +exceedingly violent, and as the water was clear every movement of Webb +could be seen. At one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave, +and the next he sank into the awful hollow created. As the river became +narrower, and still more impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a +wave, and for a few moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose +to the surface without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily +increased, and he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he +was swept into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the +highest wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into +the yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry +waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the waves. +He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more alive. Some +days later his body was found four miles below the fatal Rapids. It bore +tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone. +His bathing drawers were torn to fragments, and there was a deep wound +in his head. An inquest was held, and the jury returned a verdict of +"Found drowned." + +Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a widow and +two children. It is understood that he risked his life in this last +fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family.--_London +Graphic_. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY. + + +These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, which is +the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. As regards +accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized +drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; well-lighted entrance +halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, pantry, and scullery; on +first floor are three good bedrooms, a bathroom, and other necessary +accommodation; on second floor are two additional bedrooms. The basement +contains coal-place and larder. + +In these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned +and well-arranged habitations, combined with a pleasing and picturesque +exterior, without involving a large outlay of money. The materials used +are brick of a deep red color for facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs. +Wilcock & Co., of Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a +very sparing use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables +are constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned +together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with brickwork; +the panels faced with cement, which, together with the cored cornice, +are finished in vellum color. The whole of the woodwork of exterior is +painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, forming an admirable contrast +with the deep red of the bricks, the sashes and casements only being +finished in cream color. The whole of the chimneypieces in the interior +are carried out from the architect's special design; those in the +drawing-rooms being of mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those +in dining-rooms of oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, +BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.] + +The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have been +erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, have cost +£1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including the price of +land. They have been carried out from the designs and under the +superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., architect, of St. +Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--_The Architect_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS. + + +In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary +precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained +to take, it is of some interest to us, says the _Building News_, to know +how the poor are housed in the city of Paris, which contains, more than +any city in the world, the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence +and of sordid, bestial poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working +classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and +reflect great discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough +in the case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle +of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. In +1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in the city +of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the succeeding year, +the former had increased to 22,061, while the latter had somewhat +diminished, being only 5,493. There was a census taken in 1881, from +which it appeared that Paris contained 677,253 operatives and 255,604 +employes and clerks, while out of every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only +were born in the city, and 565 came from the departments or the French +colonies. The foreign element in the working classes has increased +very rapidly, numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an +addition of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75 +foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not be +amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population is at +the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years 1876-81, the city +received 280,217 additional mouths. The total population of the capital +is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are males. + +Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were +estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, and +in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the +majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in almost any +other great city in the world. There are two classes of lodgings for the +poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family, +and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the other, a single room tenanted +for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the +morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can. Readers will remember +how, under the auspices of M. Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled +down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues. +While the work lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did +not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation +invaded his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that +densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de l'Opera +now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman into the +already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, St. Lambert, +Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last statistics of the +_Annuaire_, the increase was at the rate of 415 per 1,000. Of course the +ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also; and, from +the reports of Dr. Brouardel and M. Muller, the number of deaths from +typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in +making his returns for 1881 of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that +the most unsanitary arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and +19th--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had +taken place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging +houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 inmates. +In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, with 9,074 +lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants. + +It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a +standing menace to the health of the city, but also the shocking state +of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with. The +owners of the property are, as happens in other places besides Paris, +unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, and have not only divided +and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible, but have even raised +the rental in nearly all cases. Whole families are crowded into a small +apartment, icy cold in winter, an oven in summer, the only air and +daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on +to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There +are at the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove +nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 rooms +there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 with three +children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian population has +augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the district of poor +lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., and the number of +lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a law was passed in 1850 +to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property; but +in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, although it is now active in the +provinces and in places like Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it +is applied, even there, in a jerky and intermittent manner. + +Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the +group known as the Cité des Kroumirs, in the 13th arrondissement, which, +by a strange irony, was built on land belonging to the Department of +Public Assistance, which was let out by that body to a rich tenant, who +sublet it to these lodging-house owners. This veritable den of infection +and misery has now been demolished; but there are plenty of others quite +as bad. Notably, there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to +have named it after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five +stories, which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that +it was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages +here. The Cité Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the +"Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is inhabited +by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The Cite Philippe is +tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows what are the contents +of the chiffonnier's basket, or _hotte_, may easily guess at the +effluvia of that particular group of houses. A large lodging-house in +the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted by 210 Italians, who get their living +as models or itinerant musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to +be unapproachable from the vermin. + +It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened +the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more than one +scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial +dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the Credit Foncier +for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses, which, for the +space of twenty years, will be exempt from all taxes, such as +octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There are also one or +two semi-private companies, which are occupying themselves with the +question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in +Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform. + + * * * * * + +There can be no doubt, says the _Engineer_, that the inventor who could +supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give +out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune. +Up to the present time, however, nothing of the kind has been placed +in the market. Gas is laid on to most houses now, and gas engines are +plenty enough, yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may +be made yet perhaps to supply. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC. + + +To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats do not +colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will distinguish them as a +rumbling noise, even when their number rises as high as 132 vibrations +per second, Rudolph Koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks, +recently presented by President Morton to the Stevens Institute of +Technology. The following table exhibits the number of vibrations per +second of these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are +sounded together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant sound: + + Vibrations per second. Ratio. Beats. Sounds. + + 3840 :4096 15:16 128 Ut_{2} + 3904 : " 61:64 96 Sol_{1} + 3936 : " 123:128 80 Mi_{1} + 3968 : " 31:32 64 Ut_{1} + 3976 : " 497:512 60 Si_{-1} + 3989.3 : " 187:192 53.3 La_{-1} + 4000 : " 125:128 48 Sol_{1} + 4010.7 : " 47:48 42.7 Fa_{-1} + 4016 : " 251:256 40 Mi_{-1} + 4024 : " 503:512 36 Re_{-1} + 7936 : 8192 31:32 128 Ut_{2} + 8064 : " 63:64 64 Ut_{1} + 8096 : " 253:256 48 Sol_{-1} + 8106.7 : " 95:96 42.7 Fa_{-1} + 8112 : " 507:512 40 Mi_{-1} + 8120 : " 1015:1024 36 Re_{-4} + 8128 : " 127:128 32 Ut_{-4} + +On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard corresponds to +a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of +vibrations of the forks. + +On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the other, +the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations whose +number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher +fork and the upper octave of the lower fork. + +Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced +by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his researces to +intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as may be seen from the +above table. + +His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same +phenomenon. + +Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing +a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear musical sound +is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce 32 +beats per second. + +Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the +purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose +vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose with +eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles of +holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of this +instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens Institute, and of +Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by Koenig himself. + + +I. + +_Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect_. + +A. + +In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not deviate +much from isochronism. + +If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note +corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks. + +If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', and if the +difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two notes t+t' and +(t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t, t', and +t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and (t+t'+t")/3. + +Disk No. 1 has-- + + On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances t=30° + " " 2 24 " " " 15° + " " 3 36 " " " 10° + " " 4 36 " at irregular distances. + " " 5 36 " distances t= 10½°, t'=l0°,t''=9½° + " " 6 36 " " 11° 10° 9° + " " 7 36 " " 16° 14° + " " 8 36 " " 16½° 13½° + +Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle No. 7 the +same, but the low note is stronger than in 8. + +Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does circle 5, +but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6. + +Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle 3. + +By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit the air +through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance of 30° and +directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning +disk. If the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve +times on the same circle, we cannot, of course, make use of the above +arrangements of holes of the wind tube, and we must then employ one of +the movable brass tubes, which communicate with the interior of the wind +chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk +1, circle 4, for example, requires the use of one of these two tubes, +while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all +the other circles of the same disk. + +B. + +If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note +(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard. + +Disk No. 2 has-- + + On circle No. 1 12 holes, distances 30° + " " 2 36 " " 10° + " " 3 48 " " 7½° + " " 4 60 " " 6° + " " 5 24 " " t= 5°, t'=25° + " " 6 24 " 6° 24° + " " 7 24 " 7½° 22½° + " " 8 24 " 10° 20° + +Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those of 1 and +3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of circle 1 and of +its sixth harmonic. + +C. + +If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; that is to +say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n. + +Disk No. 3 has-- + + Distances. + On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15° + " " 2 24 " " 15° & 27 holes, 13-1/3° + " " 3 24 " " 15° " 30 " 12° + " " 4 24 " " 15° " 32 " 11-1/4° + " " 5 24 " " 15° " 36 " 10° + " " 6 24 " " 15° " 40 " 9° + " " 7 24 " " 15° " 45 " 8° + " " 8 24 " " 15° " 30, 36, & 48 holes + +Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a third, +circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 a perfect +chord. + + +II. + +_Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several +different places to conspire in the formation of a note, provided that +the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, and that the shocks +are produced in the same direction_. + +Disk No. 4 has-- + + On circle 1 24 holes. + " " 2 36 " + " " 3 23 " + " " 4 12 at an angular distance of 10° from the holes + of circle 3. + " " 5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20° from those of circle 3 + " " 6 12 " " " 0° " + " " 7 12 " " " 15° " + " " 8 12 " " " 15° " + +1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of +15° are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, we obtain the octave +of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used. + +The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this +experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of air +spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button 9 we +also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between the first. +Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note +corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they produce the octave, +or the note of circle 1. + +2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose +holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the same result. + +In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out buttons 7 +and 9. + +3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two +circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these circles sounded +simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them +would give alone. + +This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and pulling out +buttons 6 and 7. + +4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three +similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance +between two holes of the same circle, the three circles together produce +the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single circle. + +Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle 2. + +(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the same +experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make with +circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain the note +corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the notes +corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very strongly; +but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 disappears +completely, and we have left only that corresponding to 36 holes.) + + +III. + +_Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions_. + +1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in +opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is very +much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously. +If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity of the note is +increased. + +2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the same +number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases. + +3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one of which +has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the low note if +every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other. + +We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave of the +other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks. + +Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air currents +are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes, +made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All these experiments +require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes. To make +sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk, it +is well to put little rods through the holes, reaching into the wind +tubes, and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached. The +experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly +at the same distance from the turning disk. It is clear that +notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect +interference, but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear +entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness, +and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard +to impulses produced in opposite directions. + + +IV. + +_Beats_. + +Disk No. 6 has-- + +8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, 49. + +Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce as many +beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and 5, 6 and 8, +as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but we must content +ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result, for the +following reasons: The disk never being rigorously plane, alternately +approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it. No matter how +slight this deviation is, every sound given by a single circle is heard +with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon. This +inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the +circle; but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles +(whose difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a +single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance +between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when the +disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and +intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived. + +Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the points to +which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also furnishes two +more disks. + +The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, 90, and +96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will produce a perfect +chord when the air is admitted through the 11 holes in the wind chest; +with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained. + +Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose numbers are +in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to illustrate +harmonics. C. F. K. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER. + +[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.] + + +To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon +the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it is necessary to +take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this being something that +we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers. For we wished, +through this voluntary omission, to stimulate their sagacity by bringing +them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have +succeeded in overcoming, with causes of error that they will have +perceived, and the principal one of which is the want of absolute +cleanliness in the water, vessels, and instruments that they may have +used for the experiments. + +Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the camphor +remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to +be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. Their +astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed +the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of +vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or tubes, pieces of +gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., dipped into the liquid +in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the +objects under consideration. + +The instantaneously _sedative_ power of the human fingers, or of a hair, +will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of sorcery, or of some +diabolic art worthy of the great Albert. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR.] + +As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious experiments +of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously following his +directions, we have, in the presence of our results, that were exactly +identical with his, almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the +victim of some occult power, or at least of some optical illusion, +the true cause of which remained a mystery to us. Finally, after +many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our +attention, the light finally dawned upon us, and then shone straight in +our eyes. + +In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had +obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor moved in the +test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its +gyration took place the day before, or the day before that. And yet we +had always used the same vessels, the same water, and particles detached +from the same lump of camphor. + +To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the two +levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the +camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that was +satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we had +noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous washings +that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into +them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been freed from +impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and which, unbeknown +to us, might have soiled their sides. + +Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, we began +to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very dilute sulphuric +acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed them with quantities of +water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used +for no other purpose; and finally we plunged them again into very clean +water. We thus cut the Gordian knot, and were on the right track. + +In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with that +minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely +necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all the pieces of +the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up. The +camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or metal, and of every form, +at all heights. The immersed bodies, such as glass tubes, table knives, +pieces of money, etc., had lost their pretended "sedative effect" on a +pretended "activity of the water," and on the vessels that contained +it. The so-called phenomenon of habit "transported from physiology into +physics," no longer existed. + +The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor +upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which +nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes +of _Chara vulgaris_, had proved a grave error that was to be erased from +the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire +good faith. The true cause of _life_ had not then been unveiled, and the +new agent designated as _diluo-electricity_ vanished before the very +simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface +of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly suppose that that +volatile substance could dissolve. + +Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water +is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel with which +the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of little or no +importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to employ a test +glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, that terminates in a +lower tubulure, B, above which there is a contraction, C. Upon pouring +water into the lateral tube until the level reaches D, and placing +a particle of camphor on its surface, the camphor will be seen to +continually move about, even when the liquid has reached the upper +edge of the vessel. To reduce the level to various heights, it is only +necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to +the tubulure. In proceeding thus, agitation or _collision_ of the water +is avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will +continue to move at every level of the water. + +But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the stoppage in the +motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that +are not perfectly clean? Before answering this question, let us say in +the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due +to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia +that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they +emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in +an ælopile mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of +a sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small +portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms upon its +surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but the thickness +of which may increase in time until it becomes (especially if the vessel +is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments +of camphor that it imprisons, and whose evaporation it prevents. Now, +as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate, in fact, after a +certain length of time, the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions; +but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that +account that it "has _habituated_ itself to the cause which had at first +influenced it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to +render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present" +(Dutrochet, _l.c._., p. 50). + +We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily +layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under +the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of sulphuric ether whose +sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal +the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye. +The slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of +vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it, produces +effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor, that is to say, that +in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the +concrete volatile essence. + +This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the +camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a +few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to the upper edge +of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid _licks_ up, so to speak, +the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel, and this +material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a +layer which, in spreading over the bit of camphor itself, prevents its +evaporation, and, consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer +under consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by +causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, more +easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in +which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the paper is +removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, it should be +understood), the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues +them at all levels. + +The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no power to +stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy to repeat, is +an unquestionable proof of this. + +Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and afterward with +plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a +fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the gyration will not be +stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in +its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty substances that +ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) be dipped into this +same glass. + +_Movements of Camphor upon Mercury_.--In order to study the motions of +camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a great advantage, +and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of +cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath. The +vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly +clean, but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is +soiled by foreign bodies But it is extremely difficult to clean mercury +completely. To do so Mr. Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and +leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, +taking care to often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater +part of the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime +in powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes +in its lower part. + +Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the motions of +camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces of the vapors +that escape from it, and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail +that are endowed with very great agility. Nothing is more curious than +to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the +strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of +the vessel that contains it. On raising the temperature of the metal +slightly, the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and +the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated. + +The experiments that we have just called attention to show what +importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They +prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists upon +polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters +which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find therein also a +manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into +which the presence of these fatty matters, that have hitherto been +scarcely suspected, led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as +the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis.--_N. Joly, in La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBONIC ACID IN BEER. + + +We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' Convention in +Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. Siebel in 1872, and +used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. Bartholomae & Roesing, in +Chicago. The object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid +in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages +from the storage vats. The importance of this measure is apparent to +every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of +this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the +method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the +beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to +the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to the +excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is evident that +a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. The escape of +carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that +even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a +remarkable difference in this respect. It is, therefore, evident that if +a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off, a larger amount +of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer. It is true that the +racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure, but +this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small, when compared +with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the +sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in +which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form it +has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any +other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by +artificial means. The apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is +calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere, +at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer. For this +purpose, the beer from the store cask running through the pipe, B, +enters the keg through a hollow copper bung, fitting light into the bung +hole by means of a rubber washer. The air contained in the keg, being +replaced by the beer, is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung, +taking its course through the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is +allowed to escape in the standpipe, C, containing a column of water, +the height of which designates the pressure within the keg, and a +consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or +barrel is filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer +showing itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the +copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained in +the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is then +bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. Should +the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time, the +surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but will be collected in +the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off through e.--_Chemical Review_. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER CHLORIDE. + + +Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of +silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of +gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an +alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas called attention to six +modifications of silver bromide. One of these, granular bromide of +silver, obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days +with water, he stated, was the most sensitive to light of all substances +known; exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a +Bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was +for photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in +1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in +a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more +sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. Today these +observations have become of the greatest importance to practical +photography. They have led to the preparation of the silver bromide +gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates, which are twenty +times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates, and have +become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light. + +The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the +more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is +only moderately sensitive. The explanation was sought for in various +directions, but as the result of numerous investigations it appears +that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different +modifications of silver bromide. From a consideration of the work +already done on the subject, Vogel suspected that silver bromide +precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different +properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal +solution. Silver bromide was prepared in many different ways. Emulsions +were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the +former aqueous, the latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others +without. Part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a +moderate temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with +ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated silver +bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it to settle +completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a new portion +of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates. Finally he +precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence of all colloids, by +means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted +to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or collodion as a cement. +The result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two +modifications of silver bromide, the one being obtained by precipitation +in aqueous, the other in alcoholic solutions. The first, on account of +the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he +calls blue sensitive, the other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive. + +It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in +which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion, or +whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of +silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the solution is hot or +cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or +whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary condition is that in +precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain +at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From aqueous alcoholic solutions blue +sensitive silver bromide is precipitated. + +Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum, these +modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences +in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two +essentially different modifications of the same substance. Among these +are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions. +The indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a +gelatin solution, while the blue sensitive modification does so very +readily. 2d. Their unequal reducibility; the blue sensitive silver +bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo +sensitive variety. 3d. Their different action toward chemical and +physical sensitizers. 4th. Their different action toward photographic +developers. 5th. Their different action under the influence of heat. +The blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness +perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such treatment. + +A direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet +been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these substances is +incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that the more reducible +indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light. But +this is not the case, because it is not chemical reducibility, but the +absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance. Now the +blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the +indigo sensitive variety, and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver +chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two +forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications. One is +designated as ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive +silver chloride.--_Amer. Chem. Jour_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the 28th June, +1883.] + +By OTTO HEHNER + + +Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of New +Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat full +analysis may be worthy of being placed on record. + +The sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish +black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the fractures were +conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. It was interspersed +with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin. When powdered it +appeared chocolate brown. It burned readily, the flame being bright and +very smoky. Its ash was light and reddish brown. + +It consisted of-- + + Water (loss at 212° F.) 20.09 + Organic and volatile matter 75.19 + Ash 4.72 + ------ + 100.00 + +The organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage +composition-- + + Carbon 71.26 + Hydrogen 5.62 + Oxygen 21.58 + Nitrogen 1.06 + Sulphur 0.48 + ------ + 100.00 + +The ash was composed of-- + + Silica 27.26 + Alumina 26.48 + Oxide of iron 12.98 + Lime 20.19 + Magnesia 3.42 + Sulphuric acid 9.47 + Alkalies and loss 0.20 + ------ + 100.00 + +From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as +under-- + + Water 20.09 + Carbon 53.58 + Hydrogen 4.23 + Oxygen 16.23 + Nitrogen 0.80 + Sulphur 0.36 + Silica 1.29 + Alumina 1.25 + Oxide of iron 0.61 + Lime 0.95 + Magnesia 0.16 + Sulphuric acid 0.44 + Alkalies 0.01 + ------ + 100.00 + +One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of coke. + +The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very +remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary +temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small pieces. +The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize +the so called coal as a _lignite_, with which conclusion the physical +characters of the sample are in perfect harmony. + +The resin to which I have referred has not been further analyzed. It was +found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, such as alcohol, ether, +carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, and neither attacked by +boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali. On heating it swells up +considerably and undergoes decomposition, but does not fuse. + +The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption, but +the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as +a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of it being really combustible. + + * * * * * + + + + +DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, ETC. + +By E. RAYMOND. + + +The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and +accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of +peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the +manganese to the manganous slate, and determining volumetrically, by +means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of ferrous salt which +has been converted into ferric. The method of rapidly precipitating +manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act upon cast-iron or steel with +nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions, and boil +the mixture, the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of +peroxide insoluble in nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of +ferric oxide. Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous +cast-iron containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes +are treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr. +1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately +heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15 +grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric acid +at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until the +escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown down +as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and the +precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the manganese +peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an acid solution +of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous sulphate to 750 c. +c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full strength). The 50 c. c. are +poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved, and +to which a little peroxide adheres, and it is then poured upon the +precipitate and the filter in a Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese +peroxide dissolves very readily, transforming its equivalent of ferrous +sulphate into ferric sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150 +c. c. for the next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate +formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the +process of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter +of water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid +we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining +in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of the original +solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and determine the total +ferrous salt. + +The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous +salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. The quantity +of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the quantity of +manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In the case of a +steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to +dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the ferrous solution. Small +Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only 0.010 +meter internal diameter, and graduated into one-twentieth c. c., which +allows of great exactitude in the determination. For a spiegeleisen +not more than 1 gramme of the sample should be taken, and for a +ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme. + + * * * * * + + + + +MANGANESE AND ITS USES. + + +Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the +representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a metallic +brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is so hard as to +scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only fused at a white +heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, it should be +preserved under naphtha. + +It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones; +with this exception it is not found native. The metal may be obtained by +the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat. + +Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., protoxide, +sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, manganic acid, and +permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as olive-green powder, and is +obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen. +Its salts are colorless, or of a pale rose color, and have a strong +tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate +forms the mineral known as manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by +heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition, +dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed +largely in calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals. + +The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite, +and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as a black powder +by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When ignited it loses +oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts are isomorphous with +those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It imparts a violet color to +glass, and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a +powerful oxidizing agent. + +The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs native +in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting the +sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of the two +preceding oxides. + +The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, and the +pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most abundant of the +manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad. Its +commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given +weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid, the +quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which +this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide. +When mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an +evolution of chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of +soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it +is a valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of +oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of +gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per +cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in the +manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares. + +Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash is +formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese. The +black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water, +to which it communicates a green color, due to the presence of the +manganate. From this water the salt is obtained _in vacuo_ in beautiful +green crystals. On allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air, it +rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual +conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on +account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name +of mineral chameleon. + +Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination. +Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears of a dark violet +tint when seen by transmitted light. It is obtained by treating a +solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid, when sulphate of +baryta falls, and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water. +Permanganate of potash, which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is +the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical +chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid. + +Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found in small +quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances. It is +always associated with iron. + +Various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The +sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces +purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile; +and in small doses, both this salt and the carbonate have been given +with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of +anæmia. Manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when +applied in lotions (as in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid +ulcers. In connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it +may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus +Smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air. + +It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used to +correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence of +protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively colorless +peroxide. + +It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to decompose the +oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a natural alloy of +from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for this purpose when +conveniently attainable.--_Glassware Reporter_. + + * * * * * + + + + +OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX. + +By WILLIAM L. LAY. + +ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. + +[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York Academy of +Sciences.] + + +There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in Austria, that +of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it in any other part +of the known world, an industry that supplies Europe with a part of its +beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It may not be generally known that +the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in Austria long before +it was in this country. In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the +oil and had an exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London. +In America, the first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of +petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the +world's history. In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the +Crimea, and on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used +in lamps for thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a +never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The mines of +ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as Galicia. Near the +city of Drohabich, on the railway line running from Cracow to Lemberg, +is a town of six thousand inhabitants, called Borislau, which is +entirely supported by the ozokerite industry. It lies at the foot of +the Carpathian Mountains. About the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for +petroleum at that place. After descending about one hundred and eighty +feet, the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with +a brown substance, resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not +thicker than writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until +at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or +four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could be +made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute for wax +was manufactured. + +The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in +America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells of +Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The owner +of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the miners +three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first were whole +farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, and at last to 1 +acre, which is a square of 209 feet. + +But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done on a +small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this country, the +leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These were so small that +the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be +raised to sink the shaft; consequently the earth had to be transported +to a distance, and, when I saw it, there was a mound sixty or seventy +feet high. Its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking +of the earth, and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the +government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground +that was not undermined. The shafts are four feet square, and the sides +are supported by timbers six inches through, which leaves a shaft three +feet square. The miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water +wells, and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and +windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many years +no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum under the +ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface, the miners +were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh +air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as +the curbing of timber is put in place. The ozokerite is embedded in a +very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet; below, it is +interlaid with rock. [Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were +on exhibition, through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.] + +That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre +than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in Poland, +averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for +children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working. If +thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it remunerates the two men +and one or two children required to work each lease. When the bucket, +containing the earth, rock, and wax, is dumped in the little shed +covering the shaft, it is picked over by the children, who detach the +wax from the clay or rock with knives. The miners use galvanized wire +ropes and wooden buckets. When preparing to descend, they invariably +cross themselves and utter a short prayer. The business is not free from +danger, carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or +the caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of deaths. +One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one +week there had been eight deaths from accidents. + +The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common cast +iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the bottom, and +the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed off with a ladle, +poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, in which form it is +sold to the refiners, for about six cents per pound. The quantity +produced is uncertain, as the miners take care to understate it, for +the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes, and the +landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined. The best +authority is Leo Strippelman, who states the quantity produced in +fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to 400,000,000 pounds, worth +twenty-four millions of dollars. As the owners of the land get +one-fourth of the sum, they received six millions. This is at the rate +of four hundred thousand a year, a rather valuable crop from some two +hundred acres of land. + +The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as they +should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is +gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the industry in that +part of the deposit. In another part of the same field, a French company +has purchased forty acres, and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting +through one shaft by steam power. In that shaft they have sunk to a +depth of six hundred feet, and are troubled with water and petroleum. +These they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines, +worked in a scientific manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is +about eighteen inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity. +When first removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so +soft that it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed +into the space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for +weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it +out. + +I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania since 1860, +have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells, and was very +much interested in contrasting the Austrian ozokerite and petroleum +industry with the American. It is a good illustration of the difference +between the lower class of Poles and Jews and the Yankee. Borislau, +after twenty years' work, was unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It +contained one school house, but no church nor printing office. None of +its streets were paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud +came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length. +In places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the +houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous shops, +where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It depends on +a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses were generally +one-story, built of logs and mud. + +On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, contained +eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve churches, and +two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in 1863, were as deep +with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no whisky shops where +women and children can drink. Many of its houses are of brick, two, +three, four, and five stories high. Its water works cost one hundred and +fifty thousand dollars. All this has been done since 1860, when it did +not contain forty houses. + +I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep in the +mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a platform of +straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the straw foundation +had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk out of sight. Borislau +is three miles from Drohobich, a city of thirty thousand inhabitants; +between the two places, in wet weather, the road was impassable. For a +third of the way, it was in the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a +day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring +why they did not improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the +Arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he +could not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with +the road to Borislau. + +Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," wax) is +found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the Caucasian Mountains, +in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria; in the Apennines, +in Italy; in Texas, California, and in the Wahsatch Mountains, in the +United States. Commercially, it is not worked anywhere but in Austria; +although, I believe, we have in Utah a larger deposit than in any other +place. I made two journeys to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch +Mountains. For a distance of forty miles, it crops out in many places, +and on the Minnie Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found +a stratum of sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with +ozokerite. + +No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of +ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place, and +a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this shaft, the vein was +about ten inches wide; and it could be traced along the slope of the +hill, for several hundred feet. The largest vein of pure ozokerite is +seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish Cañon, which enters Salt Lake Valley +near the town of Provo. This vein is very much like the ozokerite of +Austria, and contains between thirty and forty per cent. of white +ceresin (which resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of +yellow ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of +black petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia +College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made +examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are interested +in the subject will find the papers published in the _Engineering and +Mining Journal_ for the year 1879. + +A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine +Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An +interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was +robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A +short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax +and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward suspected +it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon after ward she +brought another lot. He had her arrested. When questioned by the +magistrate, she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm, about +twenty miles from the city. This story confirmed him in the belief that +she had stolen the candles, or was the receiver of the stolen goods; for +such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of. She was +therefore remanded to jail. On three several days, she was brought +before the court, and, when questioned, told the same story. She was a +member of the church, and requested the priest to be sent for. He came, +and, after an interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove +her story, if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an +officer, to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one +who believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel, +and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the clay +a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at once set at +liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I saw her dig the +specimen and heard her tell the story as I have told it to you. The hill +was composed of loose clay and stones. It appeared as if it had been +forced up by gas or some power from below the surface. The quantity that +could be gathered, by one person, laboring constantly for a week, was +only twenty-five or thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a +shaft; but, at a depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was +sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved +in, and the shaft was abandoned. + +It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of +manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of +ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there are +several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils are +made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, they make +white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black heel-ball, +colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large quantities of the +yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses, many of the finer +ones being waxed every day. It is a curious fact that the Catholic +Church does not allow the use of paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles; +at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in Europe +are made from ozokerite, which is a natural paraffine, made from +petroleum in nature's laboratory. In the United States, the only +uses made of ozokerite, so far as I know, are chewing gum and the +adulteration of beeswax. In this the Yankee gives another illustration +of the ruling passion strong in money making, which gives us wooden +nutmegs, wooden hams, shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee, +oleomargarine butter, mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax +made without bees. + +After this paper was written, the following translation from a pamphlet, +published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway Company, in 1879, came +to my notice. The writer's name is not published: + +"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts, +is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with much earthy +matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks would be +necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by +melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 kilos. weight, and +these cakes are exported. There are now, in Borislau, 25 melting works, +which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric +centners (9,500,000 lb.). + +"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all European +countries, to be further refined. Outside of Austro-Hungary, we may +specially mention Germany, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Russia +as large purchasers of this article of commerce. + + +"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS. + +"The products of mineral wax, are: + +"(a.) _Ceresine_, also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite, a +product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined +beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its uses, and, by its cheapness, +is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear. It is much +used for wax candles, for waxing floors, and for dressing linen and +colored papers. Wax crayons must be mentioned among these products. The +house of Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors. +These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and iron; +also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and drawing. +The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither +by water, by acids, nor by rubbing. + +"Concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine, it +should be said that, when the industry was new (the production of +ceresine has been known only about eight years, since 1874), it was +controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This much is known, that +the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid. + +"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white ceresine +is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring +matter (annatto). + +"(b.) _Paraffine_, a firm, white, translucent substance, without odor. +It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, and also as a +protection against the action of acids, and to make casks and other +wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, etc., for air-tight +wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of tracing paper. There +are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite (see the +Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol. +iv., Brunswick, 1877). + +"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, in the +distillation of the crude material, pressure of the distillate by +hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric acid. + +"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are produced from +2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. of naphtha, 36 +to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of heavy oil for +lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a residue. + +"(c.) _Mineral oils_, which are obtained at the same time with +paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum, +described above. The process consists, as in the natural rock oils, +besides the distillation, in the treatment of the incidental products +with acids and alkalies. + +"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the greater part +goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper Hungary. The common +paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of various sizes, from +28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all Galicia, Bukowuina, +Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, and form an important +article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world. +Of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the East +Indies, where it is used in the printing of cotton." + +The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly +a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public concerning its +use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite, of +yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a white purified form, which +had been treated by sulphuric acid. Specimens from Utah had already been +shown before the Academy. There was no mystery as to its genesis in +either region, as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of +a thick and viscid variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a +great variety of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn, +to one that is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical +composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling a +solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much paraffine +that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather. The +asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which the term "gum +beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences in constitution have +originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the +petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have been derived. In Canada, as excavations +are sunk through the asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and +finally passes into petroleum. This is also the case in Utah. + + * * * * * + +[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.] + +[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.] + + + + +THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883. + + +Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also includes +many interesting details in his account of the trip: + +The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the exception of a +few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south the wind changed, +obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to +keep out the cold when crossing the equator. During a short stop in +Lima the party had an opportunity of studying South American life. The +products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women. +The party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home +for the admiration of their friends. The expedition really began at +Callao, where the party embarked on the United States man-of-war +Hartford. Few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the +trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The +Hartford was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific +squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, but +the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the +dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed anchor for a sail +of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches +between Callao and their destination, Caroline Island. The southeast +trade winds favored them, and from the first day there was actually no +necessity for altering the position of a sail.... + +The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according to +the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one story +structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in California and +brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. The island on which +they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly +circular in outline. The edge, which rises from five to twenty inches +from the water, according to the tide's phase, goes down under the water +to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea; and is +impossible to step on it with bare feet. At the end of this table the +reef goes down perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable +sea. No vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting +matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered +from the wind, and here, with the luck which characterized the trip, was +found the only opening in this barrier of coral. A long cleft, perhaps +eight feet wide, at the outer edge of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a +mere crack near the shore. Watching a favorable chance, the boats were +guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the +men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as +quickly as possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the +surf, came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr. +Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a succession of +wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing the conscientious +descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible. + +The members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of +the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas, +which afforded shade on three sides of the building. The second house +was occupied by the sailors, while the third was left to the natives. +These latter were sufficiently conversant with English to serve as +excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of +the island. This lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral +sand, and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of +the more delicate and elaborate kinds. These corals gave the lake a +wonderful variety of colors, forming a picture impossible to paint or +describe, and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole +scene changed to new groups of color. The water was very clear, and +in some places deep; in others so filled with coral that a boat could +barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a +long reef, one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their +longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. Fish +swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every species, if +not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most peculiar manner. One +variety which frequented the shallow water, where it was heated to the +degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a pure milky white, with black +eyes, fins, and tail. + +The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had steamed +directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the Americans. + +It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good time, +and the definition was particularly good. Photographs occupied the time +of the English and French observers. Professor Holden and Dr. Dickson +searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. Preston took the times of +contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell devoted their attention to +spectroscopic observations of the corona. Dr. Hastings' observations +have led to the production of a new theory of the corona. Briefly +stated, the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total +eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun, but is a +phenomenon of diffraction. + +From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central City, +Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar +corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth of this +theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the present eclipse, +however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. This test is based on +the following already known phenomena: When the moon covers the face of +the sun, an envelope of light is seen all round it; the envelope is +not visible when the sun is shining, on account of the sun's greater +brightness; this light is called the corona; it is extremely irregular +in outline. According to the drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse +of 1878, it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance +of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite +points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space. +The opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending +millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it must +be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., which has +been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body +like the moon. + +In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a surface +of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them. If +an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it will judge the +direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by +a line at right angles with the wave front. Now suppose a body is placed +between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ. The waves +must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the +wave front will have a different direction, and the organ of sense will +conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from +that before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves +of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the retina of +the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the +waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on the eye that the +light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The moon covers the sun +during the eclipse and a little more, so that it can move for about five +minutes and still cover the sun entirely. This movement is very slight, +and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere, it should +not change at all during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction +is the cause of the light, then the slightest change in the relative +positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the +corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during +a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum +analysis should change. + +To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following instrument: +Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter +V, and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of +the V was lost, and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was +transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the V, where the +prisms touched; here was placed a refracting prism, so that the light +could be analyzed. This instrument was attached to the eye piece of the +telescope, and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the +moon just fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the +corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came +together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen through the +eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse this is what Dr. +Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided into its constituents. +Prominent among them was a bright green line, which is designated by the +number 1,474; to this line attention was directed. Its presence in the +spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is +a solar atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed +during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this line +should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one side of the +corona, and longer on the other. The observation was now reduced to +watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines. + +At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the +longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably, while the +line from the east side, shorter by about one-third at the beginning of +the eclipse, grew longer. When the eclipse ended, the proportions of the +lines were exactly reversed. There had been a change equal to two-thirds +the length of the lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their +relative positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which +this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The +material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are other +discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time. +The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the sun that the +gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury, +and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, but an atmosphere +extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the +sun's surface, especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very +much greater than on the earth. 2. The laws of gravitation would require +a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun, while +the corona is enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in +outline, which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed +irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most +interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the +fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the +sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the +sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, as it would have +been if it had plowed its way through a material substance. In taking +photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of +exposure is longer. This shows that the corona extends indefinitely, and +it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical +laws of diffraction. These laws involve very complicated mathematics, +but by them alone Dr. Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction +where the corona is, and that it must follow the same laws as those +observed. There is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion +of Dr. Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the +chromosphere. + + * * * * * + +The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, that +nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified by +the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for the +perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small masses +circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments of comets +or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined luster is seen in +the zodiacal light. + +The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now known, +are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar appendage +which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk. In the +photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can +be traced back of each other where they cross; no better proof of their +extreme tenuity could be given. + +The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, the +distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon from the +earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. All of these +were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one, and the +six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often +enjoyed. + + * * * * * + + + + +A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS. + + +The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are given, +have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries +that have ever rewarded the labors of archæologists. The idea of +founding an English society for the purpose of exploring the buried +cities of the Delta originated with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known +authoress of "One Thousand Miles up the Nile," and was carried into +effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald +Stuart Poole, of the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of +Sir Erasmus Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could +never have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded +and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M. +Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for Egypt +in January of this year with the object of conducting the explorations +contemplated by the society. After a consultation with M. Maspero, the +Director of Archæology in Egypt, who has throughout acted a friendly +part toward the society's enterprise, M. Naville decided to begin his +campaign by attacking the mounds at Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater +Canal, a few miles from Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to +cover some ancient city, for some sphinxes and statues had already +been found; but what city it could be, archæologists were at a loss to +determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, believed +it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which the Children of +Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started on their final Exodus. +Any identification, however, of the sites of the Biblical cities in +Egypt was so far merely speculative. Practically nothing definite was +known as to the geography of the Israelite sojourn, except that the Land +of Goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the Delta, and that +Zoan was Tanis, whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of +the society's operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as +everything else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they +crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, remained +vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a plausible theory, in +which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important part. + +[Illustration: THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH] + +Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. Naville's +skillful direction, placed all these speculations in quite a new light. +The city under the mounds proved to be none other than Pithom, the +"store" or "treasure city" which the Children of Israel "built for +Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character as a store place or granary is +seen in its construction; for the greater part of the area is covered +with strongly built chambers, without doors, suitable for the storing of +grain, which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor +above, of which the ends of the beams are still visible. These curious +chambers, unique in their appearance, are constructed of large, well +made bricks, sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in +the sun, and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The +walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall which +runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner was the +temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum or Pithom, the +"Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and tablets (some of which +have been presented to the British Museum) remained to testify to its +name and purpose; the temple itself was finally destroyed when the +Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is shown by the position of the +limestone fragments and of the Roman bricks. The statues, however, and +especially a large stele, are extremely valuable, since they tell the +history of the city during eighteen centuries. From a study of these +monuments, M. Naville has learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut +(Succoth) its civil, name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored +by Shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important +place under the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the +founding of the city of Arsinoë in the neighborhood; was called Hero or +Heroöpolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic _ara_, +meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, who occupied it +at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are also found of the +position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites encamped before the +passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All these data are directly +contradictory to preconceived theories: Pithom, Succoth, Heroöpolis, +Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally +different positions. The identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us +the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of +the Exodus, and completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now +certain that the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater +Canal and not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first +definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of +Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The historical +identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor also results +from the monumental evidence. One short exploration has upset a hundred +theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical +character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of Pithom (Succoth) +is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a series of important +discoveries. When enough money has been collected for the proposed +exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of the highest interest to students +alike of the Bible and of Egyptian antiquities may, with certainty, be +predicted. + +The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is +bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers +which the Children of Israel built more than three thousand years ago. +In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue, the head +and face of which are intact. The other illustration is taken from the +temple end of the excavations. The sculptured group of Rameses the Great +seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance; +its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia. +Beyond this group, and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of +Pithom, set up by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoë, and containing a +mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions. +Behind this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store +chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while on +the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone blocks, +already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or enlargement of +the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. Naville, by Herr +Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our illustrations are taken from +these photographs, supplemented by sketches.--_S.L.P., in Illustrated +London News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS. + + +The surprises of archæology are magnificent and apparently +inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, and +often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether this +or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of +Biblical archæology is a question not to be determined offhand; but the +interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated. There +are now deposited in the British Museum fifteen leather slips, on the +forty folds of which are written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy +in a recension entirely different from that of the received text. The +character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous +Moabite stone and of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere +palæographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as +the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier than any other +clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the Old Testament. +The sheepskin slips are literally black with age, and are impregnated +with a faint odor as of funeral spices; the folds are from 6 to 7 inches +long and about 3½ inches wide, containing each about ten lines, written +only on one side. + +So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two distinct +handwritings, though the same archaic character is used throughout. +In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in duplicate on +distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary +transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text. At +first sight no writing whatever is perceptible; the surface seems to +be covered with an oily or glutinous substance, which so completely +obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the +slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with +the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the +leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily +visible beneath the glossy surface. + +These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. Shapira, +of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities. +Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain +archæological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a +manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity. + +The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's agency +and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly regarded as a +modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it is asserted that +Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. The leathern fragments +now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he alleges, obtained by him from +certain Arabs near Dibon, the neighborhood where the Moabite stone was +discovered. The agent employed by him in their purchase was an Arab +"who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would +probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient +or modern sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments +is, however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are offered +to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily deposited for +examination. + +Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant +of £500 from the Prime Minister toward the production of his important +work on the "Massorah" we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is +now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and +examining their genuineness. On this latter question we refrain from +pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be +able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really 2,500 +years old, or have been compiled within the last few years. + +No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given. +To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill, +as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the +appearance and condition of the slips. But enough has been deciphered to +show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most +remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received +version of the Mosaic books. + +In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where the +received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, to go in +to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the corresponding +passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular, "Ye" +for '"Thou," while for "_g'dôlîm_," the word translated "greater," it +reads "_rabbîm_." But a far more complete idea of the variations of text +and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the +Decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of +Deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet +been deciphered. The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs +as follows: + +"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, from +the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall not make to +yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is in heaven above or +that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth. +Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them. I am God, your God. +Sanctify ... in six days I have made the heaven and the earth, and all +that is therein, and rested on the seventh day, therefore rest thou +also, thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast: I am God, thy God. +Honor thy father and thy mother ...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not +kill the person of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit +adultery with the wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt +not steal the property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not +swear by my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon +the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take +my name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness +against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the wife +... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is his: I am +God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart: I am God, +thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God spake." + +Several points may be noted in this version. The singular refrain "I +am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the received +version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn ratification of +the Divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept. If this +be so, the first two commandments, as they are commonly reckoned, are +here fused into one, and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which +does not appear in the received version of the Decalogue. + +It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for the +Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the familiar +phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being replaced +throughout by "God, thy God." + +On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell; +they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show that these +fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to +criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are to be regarded as +the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental Ireland, who, knowing the +interest felt by scholars in variations of the Sacred Text, has set +himself, with infinite pains and skill, to forestall a growing demand. +Until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all +competent scholars, no further questions need be raised. In any case +the _primá facie_ presumption must be held to be enormously against +the genuineness of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the +improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries +than any extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease +with which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives +to such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his +property. + +All that we know of the _provenance_ of the fragments is that Mr. +Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; and that +Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in Moabite +antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite stone. On the other +hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is assuredly no clumsy and +ignorant bungler, as the makers of the Moabite pottery were confidently +alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness. It is, of course, +part of his craft, and not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part, +to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance +of immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required to +make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of +Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the fabricator must have +known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments, +and have set himself to fulfill their expectations. In these days of +scientific palæography and minute textual scholarship no forger of +ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a +scholar himself. Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of +course; palæographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn +of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension +without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean +order, while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an +archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts +in palæography. But the fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated +they are, has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this. +He has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different +hands, both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters. +This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost +incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case +it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed +fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not only +a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, and one +can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him +at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few +piastres, and is likely, therefore, to enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We +should expect to find, however, that his extraordinary ingenuity has at +some point or another overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with +the labors of modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly +have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not +betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. In +any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound +interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with the +controversy they are certain to excite.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--_From the +Building News_.] + + * * * * * + + + + +SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA. + + +Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there has been +much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in common with +other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a pair of breeding +ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they would not realize 50 l. + +The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage ostrich +breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and one or two +cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The climate of the two +colonies is very similar, and the locality selected for the imported +birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in dryness and temperature their +native _habitat_. + +The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell +to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we were reared, +good-by!" + +One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, got into +a slanting position. This frightened one of the two inmates, a fine +cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage, which +was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. Fortunately there was there +a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches. He instantly seized +him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury, and after +a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in +the hold he became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship +with a relish. + +After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a +little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are then arranged +in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on board the vessel. +The ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching +hold of their bodies, and using a little gentle force. + +The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of +thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by their "steward," +who was to accompany them to Australia. It was curious to see a bird +swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down +the animal's long neck. On the voyage they would be fed with maize or +mealies, onions, apple melons, and barley. They require very little +water; however, there were five large iron tanks on board in case they +would feel thirsty. Our engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis +Edwards, of Hoff Street, Capetown, + +[Illustration: SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA. + +1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were Reared.--2. +Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. Lowering +the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating Apple +Melons.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW WEATHERCOCK. + + +An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the majority +of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during the day; +but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic +transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building. +The different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings, +or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the +sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the rod has to traverse +several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector of the Versailles +waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system which, while +considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, allows the +weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This apparatus consists +of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable. The stationary +part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters A and B and +by cross-hatchings. This forms the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with +clamps, P, at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and +is hidden, after the mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc +covering, Z. The upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece, +upon which rests a bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined +outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform +there move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a +horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube. + +The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind and to +indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and coarse +lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at intervals with +copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which serves as a guide for it; +(2) of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament, O, fixed to the +tube and resting on the balls; (3) of the vane, G, properly so called; +and (4) of the cap, C, provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube +and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission. +This latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f, +perfectly taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing +as many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of +the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which is +fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings through +small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it passes, it is +protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the observing room there is +affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of +the vane. + +[Illustration: RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.] + +This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the +Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau +of Trappes, and it is also installed in several primary normal schools, +where it is giving very good results.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHARRED CLOVER. + + +A correspondent of the _Ohio Farmer_ reports an experiment in curing +clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn, and +illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows: + +In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying season was +not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual, +and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls. The result was +intense heating, and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of +the mow. On a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty +tons, as every load at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn +was rather open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as +well as at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent +hay at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the +center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. What +prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since that escape +from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so +green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a mow too rapidly. If we +haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing thirty hundred each, which +will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each, we have three +tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation. + +If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full, the +principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass. To +relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have several places of +storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other, thus +giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off. To facilitate this +evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty, +the best of ventilation is necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is +as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is +not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is +returned to the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary +amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is +shut off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor +at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the +roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in, +thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will be facilitated +and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, as the clover is +put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton, will make it a +relish with stock. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT. + +(_Agave victoriæ-reginæ_.) + + +This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I am +happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the first time +it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never been seen in +flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown specimen, dense in +habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and the leaves are arranged +in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine. The +circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 in., and it has 268 leaves. Its +flower-stem appeared about the middle of June, grew rather fast till it +was 7 ft. high, then rather slowly till it reached its full development. +The scape is now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 6½ in. in +circumference at the base, or 5¼ in. at a foot above the base; from +there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The flower-spike is +exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower or naked portion, 4 +ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by abortive flower buds, with, +near the base, some bristle-like scales 3½ in. to 4 in. long. The +flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three, all the three being +equal in size and opening together; they are greenish white in color, 1½ +in. long, or, including the stamens, some 2¾ in. to 3 in. long. + +[Illustration: AGAVE VICTORIÆ-REGINÆ.] + +The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to open +in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They remain in +good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens wilt and drop +down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day. On the first day +of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by ¾ in.; on the +second it has grown to be as long as the stamens, but it is not in +condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day. +Although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already +blossomed, none of the ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping +off, but I am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the +spike. So great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers, +that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups, +and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The main +beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass +of bright yellow anthers. This plant, together with several smaller +ones, was contributed to this garden by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected +them in their native wilds--the mountains of Northern Mexico--some three +years ago. He found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible +locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In +addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of +the Agricultural Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann, +the eminent botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece +of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an +old plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor +was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this +Agave.--_The Garden_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS. + +By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX. + + +In the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we +have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting. +We find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of +glycerin is partially correct, and that instances of a different kind of +structure occur among the natural oils and fats. + +Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear to +occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure: + + C(OH)_{2} + CH + CH_{3} + +It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be resolved +into: + + COOH + H_{2}O + CH_{2} + CH_{3} + +Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, yield +no glycerin when saponified.--_Chemical News_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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