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diff --git a/8742.txt b/8742.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..132caa6 --- /dev/null +++ b/8742.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4813 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 392, +July 7, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 392, July 7, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8742] +Release Date: August, 2005 +First Posted: August 7, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 392 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 392 + + + + +NEW YORK, JULY 7, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 392. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.--Improved Dynamo Machine. + Eight figures. + + An Improved Manganese Battery.--By GEO. LEUCHS. + + The Cause of Evident Magnetism in Iron, Steel, and other Magnetic + Metals.--By Prof. D. E. HUGHES. Neutrality.--Superposed + Magnetism.--Elastic Nature of the Ether Surrounding the Magnetic + Molecules. 3 figures. + +II. ENGINEERING.--The Westinghouse Brake. 2 figures. + + Hydraulic Elevators and Motors.--By B. F. JONES.--Bearing + upon the Water Supply of Cities.--Cost of Water used.--Objectionable + effects on Water Works.--Best method of arranging water + supply.--Cause of Accidents.--Advantages of Water Motors over + Steam Engines.--Rates for Water Motors. + + Water Supply of Small Towns.--Process of Softening Hard + Water. Six figures. + + Improved Water Meter. Several figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Washing Machine for Wool. 1 figure. + + Increasing the Illuminating Power of Gases, etc.--By V. POPP.-- + 3 figures. + + Preventing Iron from Rusting. + + An Elastic Mass for Confectioners' Use. + + Caoutchouc. + + Photographic Action Studied Spectroscopically. + + Salt and Lime. + + Renewing Paint without Burning. + + A Green or Golden Color for all Kinds of Brass.--By E. PULCHER. + + Vinegar. + + The Preservation of Meat by Carbonic Acid. + + On the Adulteration of Soap.--By Dr. H. BRACKEBUSCH. + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--Testing Olive Oil.--By Dr. O. BACH. + + On the Theory of the Formation of Compound Ethers. + + The Alizarine Industry. + + Reduction of Oxidized Iron by Carbonic Oxide. + +V. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Bovine and Human Milk; the Difference + in its Action and Composition.--By C. HUSSON. + + Cereal Foods in their Relation to Health and Disease.--By F. R. + CAMPBELL. + + Moist Air in Living Rooms. + + The Developmental Significance of the Human Physiognomy.-- + By E. D. COPE.--Numerous illustrations. + +VI. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Diamond Fields of South Africa. + + Sponges at the Bahamas. + + Testing Fish Ova for Impregnation. + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Production of Fire. 4 figures. + + St. Blaise.--The winner of the Derby. 1 illustration. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DYNAMO MACHINE. + + +The continuous current and the alternating current generators invented +by Dr. J. Hopkinson and Dr. Alexander Muirhead are peculiarly +interesting as being probably the first in which the bobbins of the +armature were wound with copper ribbon and arranged on a disk armature +much in the same way as was afterward done by Sir William Thomson and by +Mr. Ferranti. In the Muirhead-Hopkinson machine the armature coils are +attached to a soft iron ring, whereas in the Ferranti the iron core is +dispensed with, and a gain of lightness in the armature or rotating part +effected; this advantage is of considerable importance, though Messrs. +Hopkinson and Muirhead can of course reduce the weight of this iron core +to insignificant proportions. + +[Illustration: HOPKINSON & MUIRHEAD'S DYNAMO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR.] + +The general form of this generator is clearly shown by the side and end +elevation. + +The armature is made by taking a pulley and encircling it with a rim of +sheet-iron bands, each insulated from the other by asbestos paper. On +one or both sides of the rim thus formed, radial slots are cut to admit +radial coils of insulated copper wire or ribbon, so that they lie in +planes parallel to the plane of the pulley. In the continuous current +machine coils are placed on both sides of the iron rim and arranged +alternately, that on the one side always covering the gap between two on +the other side. In this way, when a coil on one side of the rim is at +its "dead point" and yields its minimum of current, the corresponding +coil on the other side is giving out its maximum. + +The field magnets are made in a similar manner to the armature and run +in circles parallel to the rim of the latter. The cores may be built up +of wrought iron as the rim of the armature is; but it is found cheaper +to make them of solid wrought or cast iron. To stop the local induced +currents in the core, however, Messrs. Muirhead and Hopkinson cut +grooves in the faces of the iron cores, and fill them up with sheet-iron +strips insulated from each other, similar to the sheet-iron rim of the +armature. + +The coils, both in the armature and electro-magnets, are packed as +closely as they may to each other, and have thus a compressed or +quadrilateral shape. The arrangement is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, which +represent, in side view and plan, the armature pulley with the soft iron +rim and coils attached. There a is the pulley which is keyed to the +shaft of the machine, and is encircled with bands of sheet iron, b, +insulated from each other by ribbons of asbestos paper laid between +every two bands. When the rim has been built up in this way, radial +holes are drilled through it from the outer edge inward, and the whole +rim is bound together by bolts, d, inserted in the holes and secured by +cottars, e. Radial slots are then cut on each side of the rim all round, +and the coils of wire mounted on them. + +Figs. 3 and 4 show the armature of the continuous current dynamo, with +the coils on one side of the rim, half way between the coils on the +other side, so as to give a more continuous current. In the alternating +current machine the slots on the opposite faces are face to face. + +Figs. 5 and 9 illustrate the complete continuous current machine, Fig. +9 showing the internal arrangement of the field magnets, and Fig. 5 the +external frame of cast iron supporting them. In these figures a is the +armature already described, b b are the cores of the electro-magnets +with a strong cast iron backing, c c; d d are the exciting coils or +field magnets, so connected that the poles presented to the armature are +alternately north and south, thus bringing a south pole on one side of +the armature opposite a north pole on the other side. + +The commutator, e, is arranged to prevent sparking when the brushes +leave a contact piece. This is done by splitting up the brushes into +several parts and inserting resistances between the part which leaves +the contact piece last and the rest of the circuit. This resistance +checks the current ere the final rupture of contact takes place. + +Figs. 6 and 7 will explain the structure of the commutator. Here a a a +are the segments or contact pieces insulated from each other, and b' b +b are the collecting brushes carried on a spindle, c c'. One of these +brushes, b', is connected to the spindle, c, through an electrical +resistance of plumbago, arranged as shown in Fig. 7, where d e are metal +cylinders, d being in contact with the brush, b', while e is in contact +with the spindle, c. The space, f, between these two cylinders, d e, is +filled with a mixture of plumbago and lampblack of suitable resistance, +confined at the ends by ivory disks. The brush, b', is adjusted by +bending till it remains in contact with any segment of the commutator +for a short time after the other brushes have left contact with that +segment, and thus instead of sudden break of circuit and consequent +sparking, a resistance is introduced, and contact is not broken until +the current has been considerably reduced. + +The contact segments are supported at both ends by solid insulating +disks; but they are insulated from each other by the air spaces between +them, where the brushes rub upon them. + +The alternating current dynamo of Drs. Hopkinson and Muirhead differs +little in general construction from that we have described; except that +the commutator is very much simplified, and the armature bobbins are +placed opposite each other on both sides of the rim. Instead of forming +the coils into complete bobbins, Dr. Muirhead prefers to wind them in a +zigzag form round the grooved iron rim after the manner shown in Fig. 8, +which represents a plan and section of the alternating current armature. +This arrangement is simpler in construction than the bobbin winding, and +is less liable to generate self-induction current in the armature. Sir +William Thomson has adopted a similar plan in one of his dynamos. In +Fig. 8, a is the pulley fixed to the spindle of the machine, b b is +the iron rim, and c c are the zigzag coils of copper ribbon. The field +magnets are also wound in a similar manner. + +It will be seen from our description that Drs. Hopkinson and Muirhead +have scarcely had sufficient credit given them for this interesting +machine, which so closely approximates to the Ferranti. One of their +alternating dynamos has been built, and was shown at the Aquarium +Exhibition. It works well, and is capable of supporting 300 Swan lights, +while in size and appearance it resembles the Ferranti machine in a +very striking manner. Drs. Muirhead and Hopkinson have also designed +a magneto-electric alternating current machine; but as it closely +resembles the machines described, with the exception that permanent +magnets are employed as field magnets, we need not dwell upon it +further.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AN IMPROVED MANGANESE BATTERY. + +By GEORGE LEUCHS. + + +The Leclanche battery is distinguished for its simplicity, its small +internal resistance (0.7 to 1.0 Siemens unit), and that all chemical +action ceases when the current is broken, that it is not sensitive to +external influence, and by the self-renewal of the negative electrodes. +But on the opposite side the action is not very great (= 1.20 or 1.48 +D.), and the zinc as well as the sal ammoniac are converted into +products that cannot be utilized. + +I replace the solution of sal ammoniac by one of caustic potash or +soda (12 to 15 per cent.), and the thin zinc rods by zincs with larger +surfaces. In this manner, I obtain a powerful and odorless battery, +having all the valuable qualities of the Leclanche, and one that +permits of a renewal of the potash solution as well as of the negative +electrode. + +The electromotive power of this element may be as high as 1.8 D. The +same pyrolusite (binoxide of manganese) cylinder used with the same thin +rod of zinc will precipitate 75 per cent. more copper from solution in +an hour when caustic potash is used than when sal ammoniac is employed. +But by replacing the thin zinc rod by a zinc cylinder of large surface, +21/2 times as much copper is precipitated in the same time. + +The more powerful action of such a pair is explained by the stronger +excitation and more rapid regeneration that the negative electrodes +undergo from the oxidizing action of the air in the potash solution, as +well as by the fact that this solution is a better conductor than the +sal ammoniac solution. The potash solution does not crystallize easily, +hence the negative electrode remains free from crystals and does not +require filling up with water. Zinc dissolves only while in contact +with negative bodies, hence there is no unnecessary consumption of zinc +either in the open or closed circuit. + +When the potash lye has become useless, I regenerate it by removing the +zinc in the following manner: I pour the solution from the cells, put +it in a suitable vessel, where I add water to replace that already +evaporated, and then shake it up well at the ordinary temperature with +hydrated oxide of zinc (zincic hydrate). Under this treatment the +greater portion of the zinc that had been chemically dissolved by the +potash is precipitated in the form of zinc hydrate, along with +some carbonate. The liquid is now allowed to settle, and the clear +supernatant solution is poured back again into the battery cells. The +battery has rather greater electromotive force when this regenerated lye +is used, because certain foreign matters from the carbon, like sulphur, +chlorine, sulphuric acid, etc., are removed by this treatment. + +The regeneration of the (brown coal) carbon goes on of itself, beneath +the lye, through the oxidizing action of the atmospheric air; it is +advantageous to have a part of the carbon sticking out of the liquid. Of +course the regeneration takes place much more quickly if the electrodes +are taken out and exposed to the air. In this case the carbon electrode +need not be very thick, and can be flat or of tubular form. In the +former case it must have a large volume, and the massive cylindrical +form is recommended. The zinc electrode must be kept covered deeply with +potash. The cells must have free access of air, and the potash must be +replaced as soon as it is exhausted.--_Chem. Zeit_. + + * * * * * + +[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 390, page 6217.] + + + + +THE CAUSE OF EVIDENT MAGNETISM IN IRON, STEEL, AND OTHER MAGNETIC +METALS. + +[Footnote: Paper lately read before the Society of Telegraph Engineers +and Electricians.] + +By Professor D. E. HUGHES, F.R.S., Vice-President. + +NEUTRALITY. + + +The apparatus needed for researches upon evident external polarity +requires no very great skill or thought, but simply an apparatus to +measure correctly the force of the evident repulsion or attraction; in +the case of neutrality, however, the external polarity disappears, and +we consequently require special apparatus, together with the utmost care +and reflection in its use. + +From numerous researches previously made by means of the induction +balance, the results of which I have already published, I felt convinced +that in investigating the cause of magnetism and neutrality I should +have in it the aid of the most powerful instrument of research ever +brought to bear upon the molecular construction of iron, as indeed of +all metals. It neglects all forces which do not produce a change in the +molecular structure, and enables us to penetrate at once to the interior +of a magnet or piece of iron, observing only its peculiar structure +and the change which takes place during magnetization or apparent +neutrality. + +The induction balance is affected by three distinct arrangements of +molecular structure in iron and steel, by means of which we have +apparent external neutrality. + +Fig 1 shows several polar directions of the molecules as indicated +by the arrows. Poisson assumed as a necessity of his theory, that +a molecule is spherical; but Dr. Joule's experimental proof of the +elongation of iron by one seven-hundred and-twenty-thousandth of its +length when magnetized, proves at least that its form is not spherical; +and, as I am unable at present to demonstrate my own views as to its +exact form, I have simply indicated its polar direction by arrows--the +dotted oval lines merely indicating its limits of free elastic rotation. + +In Fig. 1, at A, we have neutrality by the mutual attraction of each +pair of molecules, being the shortest path in which they could satisfy +their mutual attractions. At B we have the case of superposed magnetism +of equal external value, rendering the wire or rod apparently neutral, +although a lower series of molecules are rotated in the opposite +direction to the upper series, giving to the rod opposite and equal +polarities. At C we have the molecules arranged in a circular chain +around the axis of a wire or rod through which an electric current +has passed. At D we have the evident polarity induced by the earth's +directive influence when a soft iron rod is held in the magnetic +meridian. At E we have a longitudinal neutrality produced in the same +rod when placed magnetic west, the polarity in the latter case being +transversal. + +In all these cases we have a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, and I +have not yet found a single case in well-annealed soft iron in which I +could detect a heterogeneous arrangement, as supposed by Ampere, De la +Rive, Weber, Wiedermann, and Maxwell. + +We can only study neutrality with perfectly soft Swedish iron. Hard +iron and steel retain previous magnetizations, and an apparent external +neutrality would in most cases be the superposition of one magnetism +upon another of equal external force in the opposite direction, as shown +at B, Fig. 1. Perfectly soft iron we can easily free, by vibrations, +from the slightest trace of previous magnetism, and study the neutrality +produced under varying conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +If we take a flat bar of soft iron, of 30 or more centimeters in +length, and hold it vertically (giving while thus held a few torsions, +vibrations, or, better still, a few slight blows with a wooden mallet, +in order to allow its molecules to rotate with perfect freedom), we find +its lower end to be of strong north polarity, and its upper end south. +On reversing the rod and repeating the vibrations, we find that its +lower end has precisely a similar north polarity. Thus the iron is +homogeneous, and its polarity symmetrical. If we now magnetize this rod +to produce a strong south pole at its lower portion, we can gradually +reverse this polarity, by the influence of earth's magnetism, by +slightly tapping the upper extremity with a small wooden mallet. If +we observe this rod by means of a direction needle at all parts, and +successively during its gradual passage from one polarity to the other, +there will be no sudden break into a haphazard arrangement, but a +gradual and perfectly symmetrical rotation from one direction to that of +the opposite polarity. + +If this rod is placed east and west, having first, say, a north polarity +to the right, we can gradually discharge or rotate the molecules to +zero, and as gradually reverse the polarity by simply inclining the rod +so as to be slightly influenced by earth's magnetism; and at no portion +of this passage from one polarity to neutrality, and to that of the +opposite name, will there be found a break of continuity of rotation or +haphazard arrangement. If we rotate this rod slowly, horizontally or +vertically, taking observations at each few degrees of rotation of an +entire revolution, we find still the same gradual symmetrical change +of polarity, and that its symmetry is as complete at neutrality as in +evident polarity. + +In all these cases there is no complete neutrality, the longitudinal +polarity simply becoming transversal when the rod is east and west. +F, G, H, I, J, Fig. 1, show this gradual change, H being neutral +longitudinally, but polarized transversely. If, in place of the rod, +we take a small square soft iron plate and allow its molecules freedom +under the sole influence of the earth's magnetism, then we invariably +find the polarity in the direction of the magnetic dip, no matter in +what position it be held, and a sphere of soft iron could only be +polarized in a similar direction Thus we can never obtain complete +external neutrality while the molecules have freedom and do not form an +internal closed circle of mutual attractions; and whatever theory we may +adopt as to the cause of polarity in the molecule, such as Coulomb's, +Poisson's, Ampere's, or Weber's, there can exist no haphazard +arrangement in perfectly soft iron, as long as it is free from all +external causes except the influence of the earth; consequently these +theories are wrong in one of their most essential parts. + +We can, however, produce a closed circle of mutual attraction in iron +and steel, producing complete neutrality as long as the structure is not +destroyed by some stronger external directing influence. + +Oersted discovered that an external magnetic needle places itself +perpendicular to an electric current; and we should expect that, if the +molecules of an iron wire possessed inherent polarity and could rotate, +a similar effect would take place in the interior of the wire to that +observed by Oersted. Wiedermann first remarked this effect, and it has +been known as circular magnetism. This circle, however, consists really +in each molecule having placed itself perpendicular to the current, +simply obeying Oersted's law, and thus forming a complete circle in +which the mutual attractions of the molecules forming that circle are +satisfied, as shown as C, Fig. 1. This wire becomes completely neutral, +any previous symmetrical arrangement of polarity rotating to form its +complete circle of attractions; and we can thus form in hard iron and +steel a neutrality extremely difficult to break up or destroy. We have +evident proof that this neutrality consists of a closed chain, or +circle, as by torsion we can partially deflect them on either side; thus +from a perfect externally neutral wire, producing either polarity, by +simple mechanical angular displacement of the molecules, as by right or +left handed torsion. + +If we magnetize a wire placed east and west, it will retain this +polarity until freed by vibrations, as already remarked. If we pass an +electric current through this magnetized wire, we can notice the gradual +rotation of the molecules, and the formation of the circular neutrality. +If we commence with a weak current, gradually increasing its strength, +we can rotate them as slowly as may be desired. There is no sudden break +or haphazard moment of neutrality: the movements to perfect zero are +accomplished with perfect symmetry throughout. + +We can produce a more perfect and shorter circle of attractions by the +superposition of magnetism, as at B, Fig. 1. If we magnetize a piece +of steel or iron in a given direction with a strong magnetic directing +power, the magnetism penetrates to a certain depth. If we slightly +diminish the magnetizing power, and magnetize the rod in a contrary +direction, we may reduce it to zero, by the superposition of an exterior +magnetism upon one of a contrary name existing at a greater depth; and +if we continue this operation, gradually diminishing the force at each +reversal, we can easily superpose ten or more distinct symmetrical +arrangements, and, as their mutual attractions are satisfied in a +shorter circle than in that produced by electricity, it is extremely +difficult to destroy this formation when once produced. + +The induction balance affords also some reasons for believing that the +molecules not only form a closed circle of attractions, as at B, but +that they can mutually react upon each other, so as to close a circle +of attractions as a double molecule, as shown at A. The experimental +evidence, however, is not sufficient to dwell on this point, as the +neutrality obtained by superposition is somewhat similar in its external +effects. + +We can produce a perfectly symmetrical closed circle of attractions of +the nature of the neutrality of C, Fig. 3, by forming a steel wire into +a closed circle, 10 centimeters in diameter, if this wire is well joined +at its extremities by twisting and soldering. We can then magnetize this +ring by slowly revolving it at the extremity of one pole of a strong +permanent magnet; and, to avoid consequent poles at the part last +touching the magnet, we should have a graduating wedge of wood, so that +while revolving it may be gradually removed to greater distance. This +wire will then contain no consequent points or external magnetism: it +will be found perfectly neutral in all parts of its closed circle. Its +neutrality is similar to C, Fig. 3; for if we cut this wire at any point +we find extremely strong magnetic polarity, being magnetized by this +method to saturation, and having retained (which it will indefinitely) +its circle of attractions complete. + +I have already shown that soft iron, when its molecules are allowed +perfect freedom by vibration, invariably takes the polarity of the +external directing influence, such as that of the earth, and it does so +even with greater freedom under the influence of heat. Manufacturers of +electro-magnets for telegraphic instruments are very careful to choose +the softest iron and thoroughly anneal it; but very few recognize the +importance as regards the position of the iron while annealing it under +the earth's directing influence. The fact, however, has long since been +observed. + +Dr. Hooke, 1684, remarked that steel or iron was magnetized when heated +to redness and placed in the magnetic meridian. I have slightly varied +this experiment by heating to redness three similar steel bars, two +of which had been previously magnetized to saturation, and placed +separately with contrary polarity as regards each other, the third being +neutral. Upon cooling, these three bars were found to have identical and +similar polarity. Thus the molecules of this most rigid material, cast +steel, had become free at red heat, and rotated under the earth's +magnetic influence, giving exactly the same force on each; consequently +the previous magnetization of two of these bars had neither augmented +nor weakened the inherent polarity of their molecules. Soft iron gave +under these conditions by far the greatest force, its inherent polarity +being greater than that of steel. + +I have made numerous other experiments bearing upon the question of +neutrality, but they all confirm those I have cited, which I consider +afford ample evidence of the symmetrical arrangement of neutrality. + + +SUPERPOSED MAGNETISM. + +Knowing that by torsion we can rotate or diminish magnetism, I was +anxious to obtain by its means a complete rotation from north polarity +to neutrality, and from neutrality to south polarity, or to completely +reverse magnetic polarity by a slight right or left torsion. + +I have succeeded in doing this, and in obtaining strong reversal of +polarities, by superposing one polarity given while the rod is under a +right elastic torsion, with another of the opposite polarity given under +a left elastic torsion, the neutral point then being reached when the +rod is free from torsion. The rod should be very strongly magnetized +under its first or right-hand torsion, so that its interior molecules +are rotated, or, in other words, magnetized to saturation; the second +magnetization in the contrary sense and torsion should be feebler, so +as only to magnetize the surface, or not more than one-half its depth; +these can be easily adjusted to each other so as to form a complete +polar balance of force, producing, when the rod is free from torsion, +the neutrality as shown at B, Fig. 1. + +The apparatus needed is simply a good compound horseshoe permanent +magnet, 15 centimeters long, having six or more plates, giving it a +total thickness of at least 3 centimeters. We need a sufficiently +powerful magnet, as I find that I obtain a more equal distribution of +magnetism upon a rod or strip of iron by drawing it lengthwise over a +single pole in a direction from that pole, as shown in Fig. 2; we can +then obtain saturation by repeated drawings, keeping the same molecular +symmetry in each experiment. + +In order to apply a slight elastic torsion when magnetizing rods or +wires, I have found it convenient to attach two brass clamp keys to the +extremities of the rods, or simply turn the ends at right angles, as +shown in the following diagram, by which means we can apply an elastic +twist or torsion while drawing the rod over the pole of the permanent +magnet. We can thus superpose several and opposite symmetrical +structures, producing a polar north or south as desired, greatly in +excess of that possible under a single or even double magnetization, and +by carefully adjusting the proportion of opposing magnetisms, so that +both polarities have the same external force, the rod will be at perfect +external neutrality when free from torsion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +If we now hold one end of this rod at a few centimeters distance from +a magnetic directive needle, we find it perfectly neutral when free +of torsion, but the slightest torsion right or left at once produces +violent repulsion or attraction, according to the direction of the +torsion given to the rod, the iron rod or strips of hoop-iron which +I use for this experiment being able, when at the distance of five +centimeters from the needle, to turn it instantly 90 deg. on either side of +its zero. + +The external neutrality that we can now produce at will is absolute, as +it crosses the line of two contrary polarities, being similar to the +zero of my electric sonometer, whose zero is obtained by the crossing of +two opposing electric forces. + +This rod of iron retains its peculiar powers of reversal in a remarkable +degree, a condition quite different to that of ordinary magnetization, +for the same rod, when magnetized to saturation under a single ordinary +magnetism, loses its evident magnetism by a few elastic torsions, as I +have already shown; but when it is magnetized under the double torsion +with its superposed magnetism, it is but slightly reduced by variations +or numerous torsions, and I have found it impossible to render this +rod again free from its double polar effects, except by strongly +remagnetizing it to saturation with a single polarity. The superposed +magnetism then becomes a single directive force, and we can then by a +few vibrations or torsions reduce the rod to its ordinary condition. + +The effects of superposed magnetism and its double polarity I have +produced in a variety of ways, such as by the electro-magnetic influence +of coils, or in very soft iron simply by the directive influence of +the earth's magnetism, reversing the rod and torsions when held in +the magnetic meridian, these rods when placed magnetic west showing +distinctly the double polar effects. + +It is remarkable, also, that we are enabled to superpose and obtain +the maximum effects on thin strips of iron from 1/4 to 1/2 millimeter in +thickness, while in thicker rods we have far less effect, being masked +by the comparatively neutral state of the interior, the exterior +molecules then reaching upon those of the interior, allowing them to +complete in the interior their circle of attractions. + +I was anxious to obtain wires which would preserve this structure +against the destructive influence of torsion and vibrations, so that I +could constantly employ the same wires without the comparatively long +and tedious process of preparation. Soft iron soon loses the structure, +or becomes enfeebled, under the constant to and fro torsions requisite +where we desire a constant change of polarity, as described later in the +magnetic bells. Hard steel preserves its structure, but its molecular +rigidity is so great that we obtain but mere traces of any change of +polarity by torsion. I have found, however, that fine cast drill steel, +untempered, of the kind employed by watchmakers, is most suitable; +these are generally sold in straight lengths of 30 centimeters. Wires +1 millimeter in diameter should be used, and when it is desired to +increase the force, several of these wires, say, nine or ten, should be +formed into a single rod or bunch. + +The wire as sold is too rigid to give its maximum of molecular rotation +effect. We must therefore give it two entire turns or twists to the +right, and strongly magnetize it on the north pole of the magnet while +under torsion. We must again repeat this operation in the contrary +direction, after restoring the wire to its previous position, giving now +two entire turns to the left and magnetizing it on the south pole. On +restoring the wire to its original place, it will be extremely flexible, +and we may now superpose several contrary polarities under contrary +torsions, as already described. + +The power of these wires, if properly prepared, is most remarkable, +being able to reverse their polarity under torsion, as if they were +completely saturated; and they preserve this power indefinitely if not +touched by a magnet. It would be extremely difficult to explain the +action of the rotative effects obtained in these wires under any other +theory than that which I have advanced; and the absolute external +neutrality that we obtain in them when the polarities are changing, we +know, from their structure, to be perfectly symmetrical. + +I was anxious to show, upon the reading of this paper, some mechanical +movement produced by molecular rotation, consequently I have arranged +two bells that are struck alternately by a polarized armature put in +motion by the double polarized rod I have already described, but whose +position, at three centimeters distant from the axis of the armature, +remains invariably the same. The magnetic armature consists of a +horizontal light steel bar suspended by its central axle; the bells are +thin wine glasses, giving a clear musical tone loud enough, by the force +with which they are struck, to be clearly heard at some distance. The +armature does not strike these alternately by a pendulous movement, as +we may easily strike only one continuously, the friction and inertia of +the armature causing its movements to be perfectly dead beat when not +driven by some external force, and it is kept in its zero position by a +strong directive magnet placed beneath its axle. + +The mechanical power obtained is extremely evident, and is sufficient to +put the sluggish armature in rapid motion, striking the bells six times +per second, and with a power sufficient to produce tones loud enough to +be clearly heard in all parts of the hall of the Society. As this is +the first direct transformation of molecular motion into mechanical +movement, I am happy to show it on this occasion. + +There is nothing remarkable in the bells themselves, as they evidently +could be rung if the armature was surrounded by a coil, and worked by an +electric current from a few cells. The marvel, however, is in the small +steel superposed magnetic wire producing by slight elastic torsions from +a single wire, one millimeter in diameter, sufficient force from mere +molecular rotation to entirely replace the coil and electric current. + + +ELASTIC NATURE OF THE ETHER SURROUNDING THE MAGNETIC MOLECULES. + +During these researches I have remarked a peculiar property of +magnetism, viz., that not only can the molecules be rotated through any +degree of arc to its maximum, or saturation, but that, while it requires +a comparatively strong force to overcome its rigidity or resistance to +rotation, it has a small field of its own through which it can move with +excessive freedom, trembling, vibrating, or rotating through a small +degree with infinitely less force than would be required to rotate it +permanently on either side. This property is so marked and general that +we can observe it without any special iron or apparatus. + +Let us take a flat rod of ordinary hoop iron, 30 or more centimeters +in length. If, while holding this vertically, we give freedom to its +molecules by torsions, vibrations, or, better still, by a few blows with +a wooden mallet upon its upper extremity, we find, as is well known, +that its lower portion is strongly north, and its upper south. If we +reverse this rod, we now find it neutral at both extremities. We might +here suppose that the earth's directing force had rotated the molecules +to zero, or transversely, which in reality it has done, but only to the +limit of their comparatively free motion; for if we reverse the rod to +its original position, its previous strong polarity reappears at both +extremities, thus the central point of its free motion is inclined to +the rod, giving by its free motion great symmetrical inclination and +polarity in one direction, but when reversed the inclination is reduced +to zero. + +In Fig. 3, D shows the bar of iron when strongly polarized by earth's +magnetic influence, under vibrations, with a sufficient force to have +rotated its elastic center of action. C shows the same bar with its +molecules at zero, or transversal, the directing force of earth being +insufficient without the aid of mechanical vibration to allow them to +change. The dotted lines of D suppose the molecule to be in the center +of its free motion, while at C the molecules have rotated to zero, as +they are prevented from further rotation by being at the extreme end of +its free motion. + +If, now, we hold the rod vertically, as at C, giving neutrality, and +give a few slight blows with a wooden mallet to its upper extremity, we +can give just the amount of freedom required for it to produce evident +polarity, and we then have equal polarity, no matter which end of the +bar is below, the center of its free rotation here being perfect, and +the rod perfectly neutral longitudinally when held east and west. If, on +the other hand, we have given too much freedom by repeated blows of the +mallet, its center of free motion becomes inclined with the molecules, +and we arrive at its first condition, except that it is now neutral at +D and polarized at C. From this it will be seen that we can adjust +this center of action, by vibrations or blows, to any point within the +external directing influence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +We can perceive this effect of free rotation in a limited space in all +classes of iron and steel, being far greater in soft Swedish iron than +in hard iron or steel. A similar phenomenon takes place if we magnetize +a rod held vertically in the direction of earth's magnetism. It +then gives greater polarity than if magnetized east or west, and if +magnetized in a contrary sense to earth's magnetism, it is very feebly +magnetized, or, if the rod is perfectly soft, it becomes neutral after +strong magnetization. This property of comparative freedom, and the +rotation of its center of action, can be demonstrated in a variety of +ways. One remarkable example of it consists in the telephone. All those +who are thoroughly acquainted with electro-magnetism, and know that +it requires measurable time to charge an electro-magnet to saturation +(about one-fifteenth of a second for those employed in telegraphy), +were surprised that the telephone could follow the slightest change of +timbre, requiring almost innumerable changes of force per second. I +believe the free rotation I have spoken of through a limited range +explains its remarkable sensitiveness and rapidity of action, and, +according to this view, it would also explain why loud sounding +telephones can never repeat all the delicacy of timbre that is easily +done with those only requiring a force comprised in the critical limits +of its free rotation. This property, I have found, has a distinct +critical value for each class of iron, and I propose soon to publish +researches upon the molecular construction of steel and iron, in which +I have made use of this very property as a guide to the quality of the +iron itself. + +The elastic rotation (in a limited space) of a molecule differs entirely +from that known as mechanical elasticity. In perfectly soft iron we have +feeble _mechanical_ elasticity, while in tempered steel we have +that elasticity at its maximum. The contrary takes place as regards +_molecular_ elasticity. In tempered steel the molecules are extremely +rigid, and in soft iron its molecular elasticity is at its maximum. Its +free motion differs entirely from that given it by torsion or stress. We +may assume that a molecule is surrounded by continuous ether, more of +the nature of a jelly than of that of a gas; in such a medium a molecule +might freely vibrate through small arcs, but a rotation extending beyond +its critical limit would involve a much greater expenditure of force. + +The discovery of this comparatively free rotation of molecules, by means +of which, as I have shown, we can (without in any degree disturbing the +external mechanical elasticity of the mass) change the axes of their +free motion in any direction desired, has led me into a series of +researches which have only indirectly any relation with the theory of +magnetism. I was extremely desirous, however, of finding an experimental +evidence which in itself should demonstrate all portions of the theory, +and the following experiment, I believe, answers this purpose. + +Let us take a square soft iron rod, five millimeters in diameter by +thirty or more centimeters in length, and force the molecules, by aid +of blows from a wooden mallet, as previously described, to have their +centers of free motion in one direction; the rod will (as already shown) +have polarity at both ends, when held vertically; but if reversed, both +ends become completely neutral. + +If now we turn the rod to its first position, in which it shows strong +polarity, and magnetize it while held vertically, by drawing the north +pole of a sufficiently powerful permanent magnet from its upper to its +lower extremity, we find that this rod, instead of having south polarity +at its lower portion, as we should expect from the direction of the +magnetization, is completely neutral at both extremities, but if we +reverse the rod its fullest free powers of magnetization now appear in +the position where it was previously neutral. Thus, by magnetization, we +have completely rotated its free path of action, and find that we can +rotate this path as desired in any direction by the application of a +sufficient directing power. + +If we take a rod as described, with its polarities evident when held +vertically, and its neutrality also evident when its ends are reversed +in the same magnetic field, we find that its polarity is equal at both +ends, and that it is in every way symmetrical with a perfect magnet. If +we _gradually_ reverse the ends and take observations of its condition +through each degree of arc passed over, we find an equal symmetrical +diminution of evident external polarity, until we arrive at neutrality, +when it has no external trace of inherent polarity; but its inherent +polarity at once becomes evident by a simple return to its former +position. Thus the rod has passed through all the changes from polarity +to neutrality, and from neutrality to polarity, and these changes have +taken place with complete symmetry. + +The limits of this paper do not allow me to speak of the numerous +theoretical evidences as shown by the use of my induction balance. I +believe, however, that I have cited already experimental evidences to +show that what has been attributed to coercive force is really due to +molecular freedom or rigidity; that in inherent molecular polarity we +have a fact admitted by Coulomb, Poisson, Ampere, De la Rive, Weber, +Du Moncel, Wiedermann, and Maxwell; and that we have also experimental +evidence of molecular rotation and of the symmetrical character of +polarity and neutrality. + +The experiments which I have brought forward in this paper, in addition +to those mentioned in my paper read before the Royal Society, will, +I hope, justify me in having advanced a theory of magnetism which I +believe in every portion allows at least experimental evidences of its +probable truth. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE WESTINGHOUSE BRAKE. + + +Below we illustrate the main parts of the Westinghouse brake as applied +to a vehicle. The supplementary reservoir brake cylinder and triple +valve are shown in position, and as fitted upon the engine, tender, and +each vehicle of the train. Air compressed by a pump on the locomotive +to, say, 70 lb. or 80 lb. to the square inch fills the main reservoir on +the engine, and flowing through the driver's brake valve and main pipe, +also charges the supplementary reservoirs throughout the train. When +a train is running, uniform air pressure exists throughout its +length--that is to say, the main reservoir on the engine, the pipe from +end to end of train, the triple valves and supplementary reservoirs on +each vehicle, are all charged ready for work, the brake cylinders being +empty and the brakes off. The essential principle of the system is, +that maintaining the pressure keeps the brakes off, but letting the air +escape from the brake pipe, purposely or accidentally, instantly applies +them. It follows, therefore, that the brake may be applied by the driver +or any of the guards, or if necessary by a passenger, by the separation +of a coupling, or the failure or injury to a vital part of the +apparatus, whether due to an accident to the train or to the brake; and +as the brake on each vehicle is complete in itself and independent, +should the apparatus on any one carriage be torn off, the brake will +nevertheless remain applied for almost any length of time upon the rest +of the train. + +The triple valve, as will be seen, is simply a small piston, carrying +with it a slide valve, which can be moved up or down by increasing or +decreasing the pressure in the brake pipe. As soon as the air from the +main reservoir is turned into the brake pipe, by means of the driver's +valve, the piston is pushed up into the position shown, and air is +allowed to feed past it through a small groove into the reservoir. At +the same time the slide valve covers the port to the brake cylinder, and +is in such a position that the air from the latter may exhaust into the +atmosphere. The piston has now the same air pressure on both sides; but +if the pressure in the brake pipe is decreased, the piston and slide +valve are forced down, thereby uncovering the passage through which air +from the reservoir flows into the brake cylinder between the pistons, +thus applying the brakes. The brake pipe is shut off as soon as the +triple valve piston passes the groove. To release the brakes, the piston +and slide valves are again moved into the position shown, by the driver +turning air from the main reservoir into the brake pipe. The air in the +brake cylinder escapes, and at the same time the reservoir is recharged. + +[Illustration: THE WESTINGHOUSE BRAKE.] + +Fig. 2 represents two Westinghouse couplings connected. They are exactly +alike in all respects, and an air tight joint is made between them by +means of the rubber washers. These couplings are so constructed that the +air pressure within serves to tighten the joint, and they may be pushed +apart by the separation of the train without any injury. Such an +occurrence as already explained leads to the instant application of all +the brakes on the train. + +By closing the small tap shown between the brake pipe and the triple +valve, the brake on any vehicle, if out of order, can be cut out of the +system. A release valve is also placed upon each cylinder as shown, so +that in the event of the brakes being applied by the separation of +the train, or the breaking of a pipe, or when the locomotive is not +attached, they can be released by allowing the air to escape from each +brake cylinder direct. The Westinghouse brake has been made to comply +thoroughly with the Board of Trade conditions. Many people, however, do +not appear to understand all that is involved in the second requirement, +which runs as follows: In case of accident, to be instantaneously +self-acting. This clearly implies: First, that accident to the train, +or to any of its vehicles, shall cause the instant application of +the brakes to the wheels of every vehicle in the train without the +intervention of the driver or guards. Secondly, that any injury, however +caused, which may impair the efficiency of the brake apparatus, shall, +in like manner, lead to the instant application of all the brakes on +the train. It then becomes impossible for a driver to run his train in +ignorance of any defect in his brake apparatus because such defect at +once discloses itself by applying the brakes and stopping the train. +Thirdly, that each vehicle shall carry its own brake power in such a +manner that the destruction of the brake apparatus on one or more of the +carriages shall not affect the efficiency of the brakes upon any of the +others. No continuous brake which does not comply with such conditions +can ever be satisfactory.--_The Engineer_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS AND MOTORS. + +[Footnote: Read at Buffalo meeting of the American Water-Works +Association May 15,1883.] + +By B. F. JONES, Kansas City. + + +What I have to say in relation to elevators and motors will be mostly in +regard to questions that their uses necessarily bring up for settlement +at the water-works office; also to show how I have been able in a +measure to overcome some of the many difficulties that have presented +themselves, as well as to discuss and seek information as to the best +way of meeting others that still have to be dealt with. At the outset, +therefore, let me state that I am not an hydraulic engineer, nor have +I sufficient mechanical knowledge to undertake the discussion of the +construction or relative merits of either elevators or motors. This I +would respectfully suggest as a very proper and interesting topic for a +paper at some future meeting by some one of the many, eminent engineers +of this association. + +The water-works of Kansas City is comparatively young, and my experience +only dates back six or seven years, or shortly after its completion. +At this time it was deemed advisable on account of the probable large +revenue to be derived from their use, to encourage the putting in of +hydraulic elevators by low water rates. With this end in view a number +of contracts were made for their supply at low special rates for a +period of years, and our minimum meter rate was charged in all other +cases, regardless of the quantity of water consumed. In most instances +these special rates have since been found much too low, parties paying +in this way being exceedingly extravagant in the use of elevators. +However, the object sought was obtained, and now they are very +extensively used. In fact, so much has their use increased, that the +question is no longer how to encourage their more general adoption, but +how to properly govern those that must be supplied. A present our works +furnish power to about 15 passenger and 80 freight elevators, and the +number is rapidly increasing. + +Before going into details it seems proper to give at least a brief +description of our water-works, as my observations are to a great extent +local. + +On account of the peculiar topography of Kansas City (and I believe it +has more topography to the square foot than any city in the country) +two systems of water supply have been provided, the high ground being +supplied by direct pumping, and a pressure of about 90 pounds maintained +in the business portion, and the lower part of the city being supplied +by gravity, from a reservoir at an elevation of 210 feet, thus giving +the business portions of the city, on high and low ground, about the +same pressure. By an arrangement of valves, a combination of these +two systems is effected, so that the Holly machinery can furnish an +increased fire pressure at a moment's notice, into either or both pipe +systems. Thus at some points the pressure is extremely high during the +progress of fires, causing difficulties that do not exist where the +gravity system of works is used exclusively. + +Elevators have become an established institution, and in cities of any +commercial importance are regarded as a necessity, hotels, jobbing +houses, factories, and office buildings being considered as far behind +the times when not thus provided, as a city without a water supply or a +community without a "boom." The use of elevators has made it practicable +and profitable to erect buildings twice as high as were formerly thought +of. Perhaps some of the most notable examples of this are in New York +city, where such structures as the Mills building, the buildings of the +_Tribune, Evening Post_, and Western Union Telegraph Co.. tower high +above the surrounding blocks, monuments of architecture, that without +this modern invention would reflect little credit upon their designers. +It is now found less labor to go to to the fifth, sixth, or even tenth +floors of these great buildings than it was to reach the second or +third, before their use. In these days, merchants can shoot a ton of +goods to the top of their stores in less time than it would take to get +breath for the old hoist or "Yo, heave O" arrangement. Thousands of +dollars are sometimes expended on a single elevator, the cars are +miniature parlors, and the mechanism has perhaps advanced to nearly the +perfection of the modern steam engine. If then they have become such a +firmly established institution, their bearing upon the water supply of +cities is a subject to be carefully considered. + +As before intimated, there are many questions involved in the use of +hydraulic elevators, that particularly concern towns supplied by direct +pumping, and perhaps other places where the supply by gravity is +somewhat limited. In a few larger cities supplied by ample reservoirs +and mains, some of the difficulties suggested are not serious. Very +little power is necessary to perform the actual work of lifting, with +either steam or hydraulic elevators, but on account of the peculiar +application of the power, and the great amount of friction to be +overcome, a very considerable power has to be provided. It has been +estimated, by good authorities, that not more than one-quarter of the +power expended in most cases is really utilized. + +With all hydraulic elevators of which I have cognizance, as much water +is required to raise the empty cars as though they were loaded to +maximum capacity. Still, to be available for passenger purposes +elevators must have capacity of upward of 2,500 pounds, particularly in +hotels, where the cars are often arranged with separate compartments +underneath for baggage. In general use it is exceptional that passenger +elevators are fully loaded; on the contrary less than half a load is +ordinarily carried, and for this reason it would appear that no actual +benefit is derived from at least one-half of the water consumed. In this +connection it has occurred to me that passenger elevators could be built +at no great additional cost, with two cylinders, small and large, the +two piston rods of which could be connected so as to both operate the +same cable, either or both furnishing power, the smaller cylinder to be +used for light loads, the larger for heavy work, and the two together +for full capacity, this independent valve arrangement to be controlled +by a separate cable running through the car. Whether this plan is +practicable or not must be left to elevator manufacturers, but it seems +to me that with the Hale-Otis elevator for instance (which is conceded +to be one of the best) it could easily be accomplished. Certainly some +such arrangement would effect a great saving of water, and perhaps bring +water bills to a point that this class of consumers could afford to pay. + +Hydraulic elevators where the water is used over and over again, by +being pumped from the discharge to elevated tanks, cut little or no +figure in connection with a city's water supply. When fuel, first cost, +attendance of an engineer, and the poor economy of the class of pumps +usually employed to perform this work are considered, the cost of +operating such elevators is greatly in excess of what it would be if +power were supplied direct from water mains, at any reasonable rate. The +following remarks will then relate almost exclusively to that class of +hydraulic elevators supplied with power directly from the water mains. + +Let us now consider whether they are a desirable source of revenue, and +in this my knowledge does not exceed my actual experience. Few elevator +users appreciate the great quantity of water their elevators consume. +Even in Kansas City, where, on account of the high pressure carried, +much smaller cylinders than ordinarily are required, it is found that +passenger elevators frequently consume 500,000 to 800,000 gallons of +water per month, which will make a very considerable bill, at the most +liberal rates. I have, therefore, concluded that the quantity of water +was so large that, unless liberal concessions were made, it would be a +hardship to consumers to pay their water bills, and have therefore made +a special schedule, according to quantity, for elevators and motors, +these rates standing below our regular meter rates, and running to the +lowest point at which we think we can afford to furnish the water. This +schedule brings the rate below what we would receive for almost any +other legitimate use of water; and, in view of our rapidly increasing +consumption, and the probability of soon having to increase all our +facilities, it is an open question whether this will continue a +desirable source of revenue. + +In Kansas City we have elevators of various manufacture: the Hale-Otis, +Ready, Smith & Beggs, O'Keefe, Kennedy, and perhaps others, each having +its peculiarities, but alike demanding large openings in the mains +for supply. These large openings are objectionable features with any +waterworks, and especially so with direct pumping. An occurrence from +this cause, about two years ago, is an experience I should not like +repeated, but is one that might occur whenever the pressure in the mains +is depended upon to throw fire streams. In this instance a large block +of buildings occupied by jobbing houses and having three elevators was +burned down, and the elevator connections broken early in the fire, +allowing the water to pour into the cellars in the volume of about +twelve ordinary fire streams. This immense quantity of water had to be +supplied from a 6-inch main, fed from only one end, which left little +pressure available for fighting the fire, and as a matter of course +failure to subdue the fire promptly was attributed to the water-works. +We have since had up hill work to restore confidence as to our ability +to throw fire streams, although we have demonstrated the fact hundreds +of times since. + +From this time we have been gradually cutting down on the size of +openings for elevator supply, but under protest of the elevator agents, +who have always claimed that they should be allowed at least a 4-inch +opening in the mains, until we have found that under 80 to 90 pounds +pressure two to four 1-inch taps will answer the purpose, provided the +water pipes are of ample size. + +The "water hammer" produced by the quick acting valves of elevators has +always been objectionable, both in its effect at the pumping-house +and upon water mains and connections. To obviate this, Engineer G. W. +Pearson has suggested the use of very large air chambers on the elevator +supply, and still smaller openings in the mains, his theory being that +the air chambers would not only materially decrease the concussion or +"water hammer," but that they would also act as accumulators of power +(or water under pressure) to be drawn from at each trip of the elevator, +and replaced when it was at rest. This plan I have never seen put to +actual test, but believe it to be entirely practicable, and that we will +have to ultimately adopt it. + +All things considered, the plan of operating elevators from tanks in +the top of buildings, supplied by a small pipe connected with the +water-mains and arranged with a float valve to keep the tank filled, I +believe to be the best manner of supply, except for the great additional +cost of putting up such apparatus. By this arrangement the amount of +water consumed is no less, in fact it would ordinarily be more than with +a direct connection with the mains, but it has the advantage of taking +the water in the least objectionable manner. Still, if this mode of +supply were generally enforced, the large first cost, an additional +expense of operating, would undoubtedly deter many from using elevators. + +Another evil in connection with the use of elevators, and which no doubt +is common, is the habit many parties have of keeping a key or wrench to +turn on and off the water at the curb. This we have sought to remedy +by embracing in our plumbers' rules the following: "All elevator +connections in addition to the curb stop for the use of the Water +Company must be provided with another valve where the pipe first enters +the building for the use of occupants of the building." Without this +extra valve it was found almost impossible to keep parties from using +the curb valve. In most cases the persons were perfectly responsible, +and as there was no intent to defraud the company by the act, they would +claim this privilege as a precaution against the pipes bursting or +freezing. This practice was very generally carried on, and was the +direct cause in at least two cases of very serious damage. In the +instances referred to, the pipes burst between the elevator and the +area wall of buildings, and the valves outside had become so worn +from frequent use that they would not operate, allowing the water to +literally deluge the basements before the water main could be turned +off. + +One of the greatest causes of waste from elevators is the wearing out of +the piston packing, this being particularly troublesome in most of the +Western cities, where the water supplied is to a large extent from +turbid streams, carrying more or less fine sand or "grit," which cuts +out the packing of the pistons very rapidly. The only practicable remedy +for this is close inspection, to see that the pistons do not allow water +to pass, a fact that can readily be determined from the noise made in +the cylinder when the elevator is in motion going upward. + +I have reserved one of the most annoying features of elevator supply for +the last, hoping to work myself into a mood to do the subject justice, +but doubt if it can be done in language proper to use before this +dignified body. I remember on one occasion the mayor of our city, in +discussing a job of plumbing, said that it seemed to him "that even a +plumber ought to know something about plumbing." Now it would seem that +even elevator agents ought to know something about elevators, but from +the following incident, which is but one of many, I am led to believe +that they are not infallible to say the least. Only a short time since, +one of these very reliable (?) agents reported at our office that he had +just attached a new indicator to the elevator of a leading hotel. He was +asked: "What does it register?" and promptly replied, "Cubic feet." +In this case our inspector had already made an examination, and had +correctly reported as follows: "Hale elevator; indicator started at zero +February 28; internal diameter of cylinder, 12 inches; travel of piston +for complete trip 301/4 feet; indicator registers for complete trip, 4." + +When it is understood that we had for a long time been assuming that +elevator agents knew about all there was to know on the subject, a +comparison of statements of this agent and our inspector is somewhat +startling. Now let us see what the difference amounted to: At the end of +the month the indicator had registered 12,994; calling it cubic feet, +this register would equal 97,195 gallons. According to our inspector, +this same register would equal 578,233 gallons, or a difference of +nearly half a million of gallons for a single month. Our experience with +the agents in Kansas City has shown that they will, if allowed, put any +kind of an indicator on the most convenient point of any sort of an +elevator, without the slightest regard as to what it was intended to +indicate; then report it as registering cubic or lineal feet, whichever +they find the indicator marked. On the same principle they could as +well change the fulcrum of a Fairbanks scale, and then claim it weighed +pounds correctly, because pounds were marked upon the bar. We have +lately prepared a blank, upon which these agents are required to make a +detailed report upon the completion of an elevator before the water +will be turned on, which it is hoped will to some extent correct this +trouble. + +I have come to regard an elevator indicator with a feeling of wonder. +Some years ago, when the "planchette" first came out, I remember that +it acquired quite a reputation as a particularly erratic piece of +mechanism, but for real mystery and _innate cussedness_, on general +principles, commend me to the indicator. Why, I have known an indicator +after registering a nice water bill, to deliberately and without +provocation commence taking it all off again, by going backward. This +crab-like maneuver the agent readily explained by saying the "ratchet +had turned over," but even he was unable to show us how to make the +bills after these peculiar gyrations. I also find that it is quite a +favorite amusement for indicators to stop entirely, like a balky horse, +after which no amount of persuasion will bring them to a realizing sense +of their duty. + +Even at the best, these indicators are very apt to get out of order, +necessitating greater watchfulness in supplying elevators than for any +other purpose for which water is furnished. + +Accidents in connection with the use of elevators are common throughout +the country, and in Kansas City had, until within a short time, become +of altogether too frequent occurrence. The great cause of this I believe +to be due to the fact that the parties who usually operate elevators +are the very ones who know least about them; the corrosion of pistons, +crystallization and oxidation of cables, and many other disorders common +to elevators, being matters they do not comprehend. The frequency +and fatality of these accidents in Kansas City finally led the city +authorities to appoint an Elevator Inspector, who is under heavy bond, +and whose duty is to examine every elevator at least once a month, and +to grant license to run only such as he deems in safe condition. Thus +far since the establishment of this office we have had no serious +accidents, which leads me to the belief that in most cases a monthly +examination will discover in time the causes of many terrible +casualties; also that it is not safe to operate elevators unless so +inspected by some competent person. + +The hatchways of elevators in large buildings are points greatly feared +by firemen. They well know that when a fire once reaches this shaft, it +takes but a moment for it to be carried from floor to floor, until the +building is soon past saving. Although this great danger is well known, +it is the exception rather than the rule to provide elevators with +fire-proof hatches. A properly constructed elevator should, it seems +to me, be provided with hatches, or better still, built within brick +fire-proof walls, with openings to be kept closed when not in use. In +this way costly buildings, valuable merchandise, and many lives would be +saved from fire every year. + +Although considerable has been said on the subject of elevators, I am +aware that the ground has not been covered, and that difficulties have +been pointed out more than remedies suggested. There is much yet to be +brought out by the engineers, to whom the subject more properly belongs. + +In the mean time, although elevators claim many of the objectionable +features in the business of water supply, most of them are not of a +nature that should condemn their use; on the contrary, I hope that +with the joining of our experience there will be an improvement in the +methods of their supply. Inasmuch as they must be furnished with water, +all that can be done is to adopt such rules and fix such rates as will +compensate in some degree for their objectionable qualities. + + +WATER MOTORS. + +My remarks on this subject I trust will be more to the have been point +than they upon the questions already discussed. Certainly my ideas are +more decided, so far at least as supplying water motors is concerned. + +In many respects I believe water motors furnish as nearly perfect power +as it is possible to attain. A motor, for instance, properly connected +and supplied by the even pressure from a reservoir is probably the most +reliable and steady power known, not excepting the most improved and +costly steam engines. The convenience and little attendance necessary in +operating make them especially desirable for many purposes. Where only +small power is required, or even where considerable power for only +occasional use is desired, they are particularly well adapted, and +can be driven at small expense. Even for greater power they possess +advantages over steam engines which, to a considerable extent, +compensate for the large water rates that ought to be paid for their +supply. These advantages are in the first cost of a motor, as compared +with a steam engine, the saving in attendance and fuel, the convenience +and cleanliness, and in some cases a saving in insurance by reason of +their being no fire risks attendant upon its use. At just what point +steam becomes preferable, however, is a question depending considerably +upon water rates, but to some extent on other circumstances, leaving +it largely a question of judgment. As with elevators, there are +difficulties involved in their supply that unless carefully guarded make +water motors anything but a desirable source of revenue. How often is +the argument advanced: "Why, I only use water for a quarter of an inch +jet!" Showing how little people who use motors or elevators or fountains +realize the quantity of water they consume. This class of consumers may +be placed on one footing, to wit, a class who, in spite of the fact that +they are supplied with water for much less than any other, feel that +they are imposed upon, and cannot be made to think otherwise. + +Though not as large as for elevator supply, water motors require liberal +openings in the mains, and frequently the fault of having too small +supply pipes is sought to be remedied by openings in the water mains +much larger than needful. A table prepared by an engineer who had given +the matter study, or by some motor manufacturer, showing the size of +taps, or openings, for the proper supply of motors, with the various +jets, under different pressures, would be of general use to water-works +people. In order to use water to the best advantage, the full pressure +in the main, so far as practicable, should be had at the jet, but in +order to accomplish this it is not necessary to use as large taps as are +ordinarily demanded, but to provide supply pipes of sufficient capacity +to deliver the water to the point of discharge with the least possible +friction. Lately this theory has been put in practice to some extent by +us, and the result has shown that in this manner we are able to supply +motors through smaller taps than beforehand with as satisfactory +results. + +It is a general practice throughout the country to make annual or +monthly rates for water motors, and from my observation I believe I can +safely venture the assertion that in three-quarters of the cases the +rates charged will not equal 50 per cent. of the lowest meter rates in +force in these places. Although the Kansas City Water-Works has not +perhaps been generally accorded the reputation of being the most liberal +"monopoly" in the country, still I have had occasion at times to make +some such claims as an inducement to its generous support. But with all +its liberality, I am free to say that we cannot begin to meet the rates +for motors that parties claim to have paid almost everywhere else. + +The St. Louis Water-Works, where the rates are substantially the same as +in Kansas City, have been quoted as having the following motor rates, +but whether correct or not my inquiries have failed to determine: + +"On the supposition that motors are to be used ten hours per day for 300 +days per year, motors are assessed for-- + + ___________________________________ + 1/4 inch jets | $120 per annum. | + 3/8 " | 198 " " | + 1/2 " | 300 " " | + ----------------+-----------------+ + +These rates based upon a charge of 50 cents per 1,000 gallons." + +From Col. Flad's Report as Engineer of Public Works, May 1, 1876, p.70, +it is found that with 42 pounds pressure a 1/2 inch orifice will discharge +2,160 gallons per hour, 21,600 gallons in 10 hours, or 6,480,000 gallons +in 300 days, which at 20 cents per 1,000 gallons would amount to $1,296, +for which they assess the rate $300. From all of which I would conclude +that there must be a lack of harmony somewhere between the engineering +and office departments. + +I have made some estimates myself for water motors, basing rates upon +the number of hours it was claimed the motors would be in use, and +afterward supplied the same motors by meter measurement; in every case +found that at least twice as much water was used as had been estimated. +Although estimates were carefully made upon what was believed to be +a reliable basis, these repeated similar results have led me to the +conclusion that the only way to supply motors is to make it an object to +the users of them to be economical. In other words, I believe the way to +supply water motors is upon an estimate that they will run 24 hours per +day and 365 days per year, or, more properly still, supply them only by +meter measurement. At all events this is henceforth my policy; or, in +other words, "on this rock I stand," believing it the only equitable way +out of this difficulty. + +That class of motors or water engines operated by water pressure in +close cylinders upon pistons as with steam in a steam engine, I believe +could be easily supplied by measurement of water without a meter. This +could be accomplished by the use of "revolution counters" or indicators, +as the amount of water required per revolution could be readily +determined, and when once computed the cylinders would measure out the +water as accurately as a meter. The only objection to this plan is the +expense of counters, which is considerable; and as to indicators, it may +have been observed that I have little faith in their reliability. With +cheap revolution this class of motors would be free from many of the +objections raised in regard to motors generally. + +The practical conclusion that I would draw from a consideration of +this subject is that the question of whether the supply of hydraulic +elevators and motors is desirable in its effects upon the water supply +is one that hinges so delicately upon their being carefully governed, +connected, and restricted, that while on the one hand they may be made +the source of large profit, and at the same time a public benefit, on +the other hand, unless all the details of their supply be carefully +guarded by the wisest rules and greatest watchfulness, their capacities +for waste are so great and the rates charged necessarily so low, that +they may become the greatest source of loss with which we have to +contend. I therefore trust that this discussion will be continued until +an interest is felt that will result in our all receiving much useful +information upon two most important factors of our business. + +As this paper has been long for the information contained, I will close +with the earnest wish that it may at least be of service in bringing +these important but often neglected subjects to the attention of the +thinking and intelligent body of men, of whom many have had much longer +and more general experience in relation to these matters, and whose +views when expressed will consequently be of more interest and have +greater weight. Thus as a result may we all derive the benefit of +whatever useful information there is to be gained by this annual +interchange of experiences in the all-important business of public water +supply. + + * * * * * + + + + +WATER SUPPLY OF SMALL TOWNS. + + +We now describe the new waterworks lately erected for supplying the town +of Cougleton, Cheshire. The population is about 12,000, and the place is +a seat of the silk manufacture. After various expensive plans had been +suggested, in the year 1879 a complete scheme for the supply of the town +with water was devised by the then borough surveyor, Mr. Wm. Blackshaw, +now borough surveyor of Stafford. These we now illustrate above by a +general drawing, and a separate drawing of the tower. With respect +to the mechanical arrangements, the Corporation called in Mr. W. H. +Thornbery, of Birmingham, consulting engineer, to decide on the best +design of those submitted, and this, with modifications made by him, was +carried out under his inspection. The water, for the supply by pumping, +is obtained from springs situated at the foot of Crossledge Hill, about +a mile from the town. It does not at present require filtering, but +space enough has been allowed for the construction of duplicate +filtering beds without in any way interfering with the present +appliances. These filter beds are shown in our perspective illustration, +but they are not yet built or required. + +[Illustration: WATER SUPPLY OF SMALL TOWNS--CONGLETON WATERWORKS.] + +The waterworks are situated very near the springs, from which they are +only separated by a road, under which the collecting pipes run. There +are two circular collecting tanks of brickwork, two pumping wells, +engine-house, boiler-house, chimney stack, and engine-driver's +dwelling-house, all inclosed by a wall. On the top of Crossledge Hill is +erected a circular brick water tower 35 ft. high to the underside of the +service tank, which is of cast iron 30 ft. internal diameter, supported +on rolled girders. The tank is capable of containing 50,000 gallons +of water, and it is provided with the usual rising and service mains, +overflow and washout pipes. There is an arrangement for pumping direct +into the mains in case the tank should require cleaning or repairing. + +The pumping machinery is in duplicate, and each set consists of a +horizontal condensing engine, with cylinder 18 in. diameter, stroke 30 +in., fitted with Meyer's expansion gear, governor, fly-wheel 12 ft. +diameter, weighing 4 tons, jet condenser with a single acting vertical +air pump, situated below the engine room floor, and between the end +of the cylinder and the main pump. Each main pump is 10 in. diameter, +horizontal, double-acting, worked by a prolongation backward of the +piston-rod. The valves and seats are of gun metal, 81/2 in. diameter. The +capacity is 350 gallons per minute, raised 206 ft. The air vessel is 21 +in. internal diameter and 6 ft. high, and is fitted with a hand pump for +renewing the supply of air if necessary. The rising main from the air +vessel to the service tank is 9 in. diameter, and 307 yards long, laid +up the steep slope of the hill on which the water tower is built. The +boilers, two in number, are of the ordinary Cornish single-flued type, 5 +ft. diameter by 18 ft. long, with flue 2 ft. 9 in. diameter, with three +Galloway tubes. They were made by Messrs. Hill & Co., of Manchester. The +engines and pumps were made by Mr. Albert Scragg, of Congleton, and the +brick, stone, and builder's work was executed by Mr. Thomas Kirk. The +waterworks were opened in the autumn of 1881, and since then have +constantly afforded an abundant supply of water. There is also an +independent gravitation system, also arranged by Mr. Blackshaw, for +supplying an outlying part of the town. The cost of the works was +exceedingly moderate, being not more than L12,000, including the water +mains for distribution. + + +PROCESS FOR SOFTENING HARD WATER. + +The available water of many villages and small towns is that of the +chalk beds, but it is invariably very hard, and should be softened. We +have received so many inquiries respecting a simple means of carrying +out Clarke's water-softening process, that the following description +of a set of apparatus devised for this purpose by Messrs. Law and +Chatterton, MM.I.C.E., may interest many besides those who contemplate +the construction of small waterworks supplied by the chalk springs. + +The apparatus, as made in various sizes by Messrs. Bowes, Scott, +and Read, of Broadway-chambers, Westminster, we illustrate by the +accompanying engravings. + +_Softening hard water_.--The disadvantages attending the use of hard +water either for drinking purposes, steam generation, lavatory purposes, +and for many manufacturing purposes, are well known, but as there are +several methods of softening waters which are hard in different degrees +by different substances, we may be pardoned if we here reproduce, for +the convenience of some of our readers, a few passages from the sixth +report of the River Pollution Commission, 1874, pages 21 and 201-16, +which give some very valuable information on the relative merits of +hard and soft waters in domestic and trade uses. "Some of the mineral +substances which occur in solution in potable waters communicate to the +latter the quality of hardness. Hard water decomposes soap, and cannot +be efficiently used for washing. The chief hardening ingredients are +salts of lime and magnesia. In the decomposition of soap these salts +form curdy and insoluble compounds containing the fatty acids of +the soap and the lime and magnesia of the salts. So long as this +decomposition goes on the soap is useless as a detergent, and it is +only after all the lime and magnesia salts have been decomposed at the +expense of the soap, that the latter begins to exert a useful effect. +As soon as this is the case, however, the slightest further addition of +soap produces a lather when the water is agitated, but this lather is +again destroyed by the addition of a further quantity of hard water. +Thus the addition of hard water to a solution of soap, or the converse +of this operation, causes the production of the insoluble curdy matter +before mentioned. These facts render intelligible the process of washing +the skin with soap and hard water. The skin is first wetted with the +water and then soap is applied; the latter decomposes the hardening +salts contained in the small quantity of water with which the skin +is covered, and there is then formed a strong solution of soap which +penetrates into the pores, and now the lather and impurities which it +has imbibed require to be removed from the skin by wiping the lather off +with a towel or by rinsing it away with water. In the former case the +pores of the skin are left filled with soap solution; in the latter they +become clogged with the greasy, curdy matter which results from the +action of the hard water upon the soap solution which had previously +gained possession of the pores of the cuticle. As the latter process of +removing the lather is the one universally adopted, the operation of +washing with soap and hard water is analogous to that used by the dyer +and calico printer for fixing pigments in calico, woolen, or silk +tissues. The pores of the skin are filled with insoluble greasy and +curdy salts of the fatty acids contained in the soap, and it is only +because the insoluble pigment produced is white, or nearly so, that so +repulsive an operation is tolerated. To those, however, who have been +accustomed to wash in soft water, the abnormal condition of skin thus +induced is for a long time extremely unpleasant. + +Of the hardening salts present in potable water, carbonate of lime is +the one most generally met with, and to obtain a numerical expression +for this quality of hardness a sample of water containing 1 lb. of +carbonate of lime, or its equivalent of other hardening salts, in +100,000 lb.--10,000 gallons--is said to have 1 deg. of hardness. Each degree +of hardness indicates the destruction and waste of 12 lb. of the best +hard soap by 10,000 gallons of water when used for washing. Hard water +frequently becomes softer after it has been boiled for some time. When +this is the case, a portion at least of the original hardening effect is +due to the bicarbonate of lime and magnesia. These salts are decomposed +by boiling into free carbonic acid, which escapes as gas, leaving +carbonates of lime and magnesia; the latter being nearly insoluble in +water, ceases to exert more than a very slight hardening effect, and +produces a precipitate. As the hardness resulting from the carbonates +of lime and magnesia is thus removable by boiling the water, it is +designated temporary hardness, while the hardening effect which is due +chiefly to the sulphates of lime and magnesia, and cannot be got rid of +by boiling, is termed permanent hardness. The total hardness of water +is therefore commonly made up of temporary and permanent hardness. +A constant supply of hot water is now almost a necessity in every +household, but great difficulties are thrown in the way of its +attainment by the supply of hard water to towns forming thick calcareous +crusts in the heating apparatus. + +Waters with much temporary hardness are most objectionable in this +respect, and the evil is so great where the heating is effected in a +coil of pipe, as practically to prevent, in towns with hard water, the +use of this most convenient method of heating water. The property of +being softened by boiling which temporarily hard water possesses is not +of much domestic use, for water is, as a rule, either not raised to a +sufficiently high temperature or not kept at it for a long enough time. +Seeing then the disadvantages attendant on the use of hard water, it +remains to be considered how best to soften it. Four processes are known +to the arts. They are: Distillation, carbonate of soda, boiling, lime. +Of these processes the first and second are the most effective, but +owing to their expense are not applicable on a large scale. The third +and fourth processes are efficient only with certain classes of water, +rendered hard by the presence of the bicarbonate of lime, magnesia, +or iron. The fourth is, however, a very cheap process, and is easily +applicable to the vast volumes of water supplied to large cities, +provided the hardening ingredients are of the character described. + +_Softening by distillation_.--By evaporation, water is completely +separated from all fixed saline matters, and consequently from all +hardening matters. Distilled water, however, has a vapid and unpleasant +taste, due partly to deficient aeration and partly to the presence of +traces of volatile organic matter; and though filtration through animal +charcoal will remove this, and the aeration can begin chemically, the +process is too expensive, except in certain cases, as on board ship, or +at military or naval stations where no potable water exists. + +_Softening by carbonate of soda_.--The hardness of water, as already +explained, being principally due to the presence in solution of +bicarbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia, can be reduced by +addition of carbonate of soda, which decomposes these salts slowly in +cold water but quickly in hot, forming insoluble compounds of lime and +magnesia, which are slowly precipitated as a fine mud, leaving the water +charged, however, with a solution of bicarbonate and sulphate of soda. +This process, on account of expense, is only applicable on a small scale +to the water for laundry purposes, as the water acquires an unpleasant +taste from the presence of the soda salts. For laundry purposes it is, +however, valuable, as it effects a great saving of soap. + +_The softening of water by boiling_.--That portion of the hardness of +water due to the presence of bicarbonate of lime, magnesia, or iron, is +corrected by boiling the water for half an hour. During ebullition the +bicarbonates, which are soluble, become carbonates, which are insoluble, +giving off their carbonic acid as gas, rendering--by the precipitate +produced, but not allowed in a boiler time to settle--the water muddy, +but incapable of decomposing soap. To raise the temperature of 1,000 +gallons of water to the boiling point and to maintain it for half an +hour requires the consumption of about 21/2 cwt. of coal, or by the +wasteful appliances found in households, probably three times that +amount. Softened by boiling, then, 1,000 gallons of water would cost +about 7s. 6d., while the cost of softening the same amount by soap is +9s., at L2 6s. 6d. per cwt. + +_The softening of water by lime_.--The economy which carbonate of +soda exhibits in comparison with soap as a softening material is far +surpassed by the use of lime. Lime costs about 8d. per cwt., and this +weight of lime will soften the same volume of water as would require the +use of 201/4 cwt. of soap. From the above it is evident--so soon as it is +conceded that there is an advantage in using soft water--that the lime +process is by far the most economical. Besides the chemical action +affecting the hardness, it has another most important mechanical action, +in consequence of the weight of each particle composing the precipitate +produced by it. These particles during subsidence become attached to the +almost microscopical organic impurities present in all river water, and +drag them down to the bottom of the settling tank, whereby the water is +rendered, after some eight hours, clear as crystal. The average cost of +the water supplied by the leading metropolitan water companies is L10 +10s. 93/4d. per million gallons. The charge made by the companies to +consumers is about 6d. per 1,000 gallons, or L25 per million gallons. +It has been found that water can on a large scale be softened from 14 deg. +hardness to 5 deg. at a cost of 20s. per million gallons--that is, 10 per +cent. on the cost of the water to the companies, or 4 per cent. as the +price charged to consumers. This estimate does not take into account the +value of the precipitated chalk, which has a market price, and is used +for many purposes, being, in fact, whiting of the purest quality. The +operations necessary in Clarke's process are four in number: (1) The +preparation of milk of lime; (2) the preparation of a saturated solution +of lime; (3) the mixture of this solution with the water to be softened; +(4) the classification of the softened water by the separation of +the precipitated substances Messrs. Law and Chatterton effect these +processes by simple mechanical means which are so far automatic that +they only require the presence of a person, without technical knowledge, +once in each twenty-four hours. No filtering medium whatever is +required, which is a great advantage for the following reasons: (1) +Filtering materials require periodical cleaning and renewal, which +not only occasion much trouble and mess, but are also frequently +inefficiently performed. (2) Experience has shown that the filtering +material, whether cloth, charcoal, or other substance, is extremely +liable to become mouldy or musty, which makes the wafer both unwholesome +and unpalatable. This system is especially adapted for small water +supplies and for use in country houses, there being no operation to +perform requiring either technical, chemical, or mechanical knowledge, +nor producing dust or dirt. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--LAW AND CHATTERTON'S WATER-SOFTENING APPARTUS.] + +The following is a description of this apparatus as fitted at the +Hoo, Luton, Bedfordshire, for the supply of Mr. Gerard Leigh's house, +grounds, and home farm. The mixing of the lime and the subsequent +stirring of the water is effected by water power obtained from a +turbine. The whole of the apparatus and tanks occupy a space 60 ft. +square, 3,600 ft. area, and soften a daily supply of 50,000 gallons. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +A pump driven from the turbine forces the water to a reservoir in the +park and on to the house, an ingenious automatic arrangement worked by +the overflow from the cistern throwing the pump out of gear when the +tank is full. A, B, and C. Figs. 1 to 6 herewith, are three tanks in +which the water remains to be softened, each capable of holding one +day's supply. D and E are two smaller tanks in which the lime water is +prepared; X is the automatic valve apparatus by which the connections +between the several tanks are effected in the order and at the times +required; H and H show the positions in which two pumps should be +placed, the former for pumping unsoftened water into the tanks, the +latter to pump the softened water into the supply cistern. J is the pipe +from the well or other source of supply--in case the supply is at a +higher level, one pump can be dispensed with. The operation consists in +adding to the water to be softened a certain quantity of lime water, +depending upon the degree of hardness, and in then allowing the mixture +to rest in a state of perfect quiescence until the whole of the lime has +been deposited and the water has become perfectly clear. The tank, A, +has been filled with unsoftened water. Tank B contains the water +and lime in process of clarification by subsidence after mechanical +agitation by the screw. Tank C contains the softened water--and the +precipitate--in process of removal for consumption. The mode of working +is as follows: The milk of lime, prepared by slaking new lime in a +"Michele mixer"--not shown. One of the tanks, D, having been filled with +softened water, run by gravity from one of the tanks, A, B, or C, the +requisite amount of milk of lime is allowed to flow into it from the +lining machine, and the whole having been thoroughly mixed by the patent +agitator, G, is left in a quiescent state for some hours, when the +superabundant lime falls to the bottom, and the tank contains a +perfectly clear and saturated solution of lime. The requisite quantity +of lime water is then suffered to flow by gravity into whichever of the +three tanks is empty. In the mean while, the softened water is being +withdrawn by pumping or gravitation, as the case may be, from the tank +C, until, upon the water being lowered to within a certain distance of +the bottom, an automatic arrangement shifts the valve, X, so that the +supply then commences from B, the unsoftened water flows into C, and +the water is in process of clarification in A, and thus the operation +proceeds continuously. Where the water can be supplied by gravitation, +and the tanks can be placed at a sufficient elevation to command the +service cistern, no pumps are required, the softening process, in fact, +in no way necessitating pumping. The space occupied by the whole of the +tanks and apparatus is 60 ft. square, 3,600 ft. area, and softens 50,000 +gallons per day. For the daily softening of quantities less than 1,000 +gallons, the tanks are made of galvanized sheet iron, and the whole +apparatus and tanks are self-contained, so as only to require the making +of the necessary connections with the existing supply and delivery +pipes, and fixing in place. No expensive foundations are required, and +the entire cost of an apparatus--see Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6--capable of +softening 500 gallons per day is about L75. Annexed is a more detailed +description of the manner of fixing and working the smaller apparatus. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + +The tank must, of course, be set up perfectly level. The pipe from the +source of supply--in the present case from the hydraulic ram--must +be attached to the upper three way cock at A, on the accompanying +engravings, and the pipe to supply softened water is to be connected +to the lower three-way cock at B, and should be led into the elevated +cistern with a ball cock so as to keep it always filled. The three ball +cocks in C, D, and E should be adjusted to allow the tanks to fill to +within 3 in. of the top. The nuts at the upper extremity of the three +rods, F, G, and H, should be so adjusted that when the water in the +several tanks has been drawn down to within 15 in. of the bottom the +rocking shaft, I I, is drawn down and the vertical rod, J, lifted so as +to allow the wheel, K, and spindle, L, to revolve by the action of the +weight, M. The length of the chain is such that when the weight, M, +rests upon the floor the face of the raised rim on the wheel, K, should +not quite touch the rod, J, and if necessary, a thin packing should be +put for the weight to drop upon. The lime to be used should be pure +chalk lime free from clay, mixed with water to a smooth, creamy +consistency, and then poured into the small tank, N. This tank should +then be filled with water to within 3 in. of the top, and the small air +pump worked until the lime has become thoroughly mixed and diffused +throughout the water. Care must be taken that previous to filling the +tank the float, O, is raised up, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 3. +After the lime has been thoroughly mixed it should be left for at +least eight hours for the superabundant lime to subside, leaving the +supernatant fluid a perfectly clear saturated solution of lime. At the +end of this time the float, O, should be lowered, so that it may float +upon the lime water, and the three-way cock, P, should be turned in such +a position as to allow the contents of the tank, N, run into the +tank, Q, until the necessary quantity has been supplied, the mode of +determining which is hereinafter described. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4] + +The spindle, L, should then be turned into the position which allows the +water from the source of supply to be discharged into the tank, Q, the +float, R, having first been raised into the position shown in Figs. 2 +and 5. A second quantity of the lime should now be added to the tank, N, +mixed with water, and after agitation, another eight hours allowed for +the contents of both the tanks, Q and N, to subside. At the end of +this time the three-way cock, P, should be turned through a third of +a circle, so as to discharge the lime water into the tank, S; and the +spindle, L, should be turned in the contrary direction to the hands of a +watch through the third of a circle, so as to allow the water from the +source of supply to be discharged into the tank, S, care being taken as +before to raise the float, T, out of the water. A third quantity of lime +must be added to the tank, N, and now mixed with water to be drawn from +the tank, Q, by the tap, U, and after agitation again left for eight +hours to subside. The float, R, may now be lowered into the water in the +tank, Q, when it will be found that the clear softened water contained +in the tank, Q, will be discharged through the pipe attached to the +bottom of the three way tap, B. The weight, M, must now be lifted about +5 in., so as to allow the ring at the end of the chain to be moved back +to the next stud on the wheel, K. The lime water in the tank, N, must +next be discharged into the tank, V, and then another quantity of lime +must be added to the tank, N, and filled up with softened water from the +tank, S, by means of the tap, W, and after being duly agitated and left +to subside. As soon as the softened water from the tank, Q, has been +drawn down to within 15 in. of the bottom, the rod, H, will move the +rocking shaft, I, and lift the rod, J, so releasing the wheel, K, and +allowing the weight, M, to descend and turn the spindle, L, and the +upper and lower three-way cocks through a third of a circle; the effect +of which movement will be to continue the supply of softened water from +the tank, S, and to fill up the tank, V, with water from the source of +supply. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + +The apparatus will now be in the condition to afford a regular supply +of softened water; all that will be necessary to insure its continuous +action will be that at certain stated intervals dependent upon the +rapidity with which the water is used--but which interval should not +be less than eight hours--the following things should be done: (1) The +float must be raised out of the tank last emptied. (2) The float must be +lowered into the tank last filled. (3) The weight, M, must be raised, +and the ring of the chain shifted to the next stud on the wheel, K. (4) +The clear lime water found in the tank, N, must be turned into the tank +last emptied. (5) The requisite quantity of lime must be put into the +tank, N. (6) The requisite quantity of water must be drawn off from the +tank last filled into the tank, N. (7) The contents of tank, N, must be +thoroughly mixed by means of the air pump. The quantity of lime to be +used for each tankful of water must depend upon the hardness of the +water, 3/4 oz. being required for each tankful for each degree of +hardness. It is desirable, however, always to have an excess of lime in +the tank, N, so as to insure obtaining a saturated solution of lime. +When first mixed the contents of the tank, N, will have a creamy +appearance, but when the superabundant lime has subsided the supernatant +liquid will be a perfectly clear saturated solution of lime. Therefore, +in the first instance, 3 lb. of lime should be put into the tank, N, and +subsequently each time such a quantity of lime should be added as is +found to be necessary by the method hereinafter described. The quantity +of the saturated lime water to be run into each of the softening tanks, +Q, S, and V, will depend upon the hardness of the water. For every +degree of temporary hardness a depth of 1-6/10 in. of the contents of +the tank, N, will be required; so that if the water has 14 deg. of +temporary hardness, then 221/2 in. in depth of lime water must be run off +into each of the tanks, Q, S, and V. In the first instance an excess of +lime may be used, and the softened water tested by means of nitrate of +silver in the following manner: A solution of 1 oz. of nitrate of silver +in a pint of twice distilled water should be obtained. Having let two +or three drops of this solution fall on the bottom of a white tea cup, +slowly add the softened water; then if there be any excess of lime, a +yellow color will show itself, and the quantity of lime water used must +be reduced until only the faintest trace of color is perceptible.--_The +Engineer_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6] + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED WATER METER. + + +We annex illustrations of a meter designed by Mr. A. Schmid, of Zuerich, +and which, according to _Engineering_, is now considerably used on +the Continent, not only for measuring water, but the sirup in sugar +factories, in breweries, etc. It consists of a cast iron body containing +two gun-metal-lined cylinders, and connected by an intermediate chamber. +Round the body are formed two channels, one for the entrance and the +other for the discharge of the water, etc., to be measured. Within the +cylinder are placed two long pistons, provided with openings in such +a way that each piston serves as a slide valve to the other, the flow +being maintained through the ports in the connecting chamber. The +arrangement of openings in the piston is shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, and the +intermediate passages in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. To the upper side of each +piston is attached a cross-head working on a disk placed at each end of +a horizontal shaft. To one of the disks is added a short connecting rod +that drives the spindle of a counter. + +[Illustration: SCHMID'S WATER METER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +WASHING MACHINE FOR WOOL. + + +The washing machines in use for wool on the rake principle have during +the last few years experienced many improvements in the details of +their arrangement, which we have illustrated at different times in our +columns. The introduction of these improvements and alterations shows +that the washing of wool has attracted more attention on the part of +observant manufacturers and machine makers, and demonstrated at the same +time that the machines hitherto in use, with all their advantages, left +much to be desired in other respects. The main difficulty with all +washing machines for wool has been the avoidance of felting of the wool, +which tendency is increased by the use of warm water for washing and by +the agitation that some consider necessary for a thorough cleansing of +the wool and removal of the adhering impurities, but which agitation is +deprecated by others. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED WOOL WASHING MACHINE.] + +Referring to our different illustrations of improvements in this +direction, our subscribers will observe that the tendency of all these +has been to keep the wool floating in the water, and to apply all +mechanical appliances required for its cleansing and pressing as much as +possible while it is in this suspended condition. The success which the +different appliances and improvements mentioned by us have had when used +for the class of wool for which they are intended, has induced us to +look up any attempts in a similar direction which have been made on the +Continent, where the subject has attracted attention, as well as with +us. We therefore give the annexed illustration of a machine invented by +a German woolen manufacturer, which in many respects is a wide departure +from the acknowledged type in use in this country. As with the English +machines, the wool enters from a creeper at one end, passes through a +long trough, filled with water or lye, ascends an inclined plane, and +passes out through a pair of squeezing rollers. The invention mentioned +applies to the treatment in the trough which latter is shown in our +illustration at K. It has a second bottom, a little distance from a +false one, at K. The false bottom is traversed in its whole length by +an air pipe, communicating with the atmospheric air outside the trough. +From this longitudinal pipe other pipes branch off at right angles at +stated intervals, as shown in section in Fig. 2. These smaller pipes +contain a number of small perforations on their upper part, through +which the air ascends into the water in innumerable small bubbles. This +is one of the principal aims of the invention, for in ascending the +bubbles lift the wool more or less to the surface and tend to open it +out without the risk of doing so by any mechanical means liable to +produce felting. This is the same effect that is produced in many cases +so successfully in boiling. Instead of rakes the inventor has placed +four hexagonal drums into the trough, marked D, E, F, G. The flat parts +of these drums are made of perforated metal and set back a little. This +produces an alternate passing of the water into and out of them during +their revolution and consequent sucking and repulsing of the wool, which +also likewise agitates it. These drums are made wide at the entrance end +of the trough and gradually narrower toward the delivery end. The pipe, +V V, is the usual steam pipe for heating the water. + +We have said before that the improvements introduced into the wool +washing machines nearer home have been of advantage for the wools for +which they are intended, and possibly the invention just described will +also be valuable in some cases.--_Tex. Manuf._ + + * * * * * + + + + +INCREASING THE ILLUMINATING POWER OF GASES, ETC. + +By V. POPP, of Paris. + + +This invention relates to lighting by mixing air or other gaseous +supporter of combustion with illuminating or other hydrocarbon gas or +vapor, and burning the mixture (at a suitable pressure) in a burner of +special construction, shown in the accompanying illustrations. + +[Illustration] + +The burner is constructed as shown in Figs 1 and 2. It consists of a +central tube, i, screwing upon the pipe by which the gaseous mixture is +supplied. Upon this tube is screwed a cup, k, of metal or refractory +material which supports a cap, l, of fire-clay in the shape of a thimble +(or of other form, according to the intended use of the burner). The +flanged base of this cap is perforated with a ring of holes, m, as small +and numerous as possible, and the sides of the cap are pierced with +oblique perforations, n. The top of the tube, i, is provided with four +small projections, upon which rests a copper cone, o, soldered to the +tube at a point below the perforations in the base of the thimble. The +cone is perforated at its lower end with small holes, p, the sum of +whose areas is at least equal to the area of the tube. The thimble, +l, is surrounded by an envelope, q, of platinum wire netting or other +refractory material of the same form. The gaseous mixture arriving by +the pipe, i, escapes at the upper orifices, r, and passes down against +the interior surface of the cone, o, out at the orifices, p, and escapes +through the orifices in the cap, l, at which it is burned. The cap is +thereby raised to a high temperature; and the platinum wire sheath +becoming incandescent radiates the light. The gaseous mixture, by coming +first in contact with the copper cone and then with the refractory cap, +becomes raised to an exceedingly high temperature before it is consumed. + +In the modified burner represented in Fig. 3, the metal cone and the +fire-cap are truncated. The tube, i, is provided with a number of small +perforations, r, at its upper end, the sum of whose areas is at least +equal to the area of the tube, and by which the gaseous mixture is +distributed within the chamber, k. Upon the upper closed end of the tube +is fixed a cup or inverted thimble, o, of fire-clay. A refractory cone, +l, surrounds this cup and rests by its base upon the cup. This flanged +base is perforated with small vertical holes, m, and upon it is fixed a +platinum wire cage or envelope, q. An annular space is left between the +cone and cup for the passage of the gaseous mixture, which, on escaping +from the orifices, r, passes over the exterior surface of o, the +interior of which is already heated by the flame which has not passed +through the wire gauze, and has been forced by the pressure of the +mixture into the interior of o. The gaseous mixture before passing +through the annular space thus attains such a temperature that on +escaping from the orifice its combustion is greatly promoted. + + * * * * * + + + + +PREVENTING IRON FROM RUSTING. + + +In the present state of civilization the use of iron has reached a very +wide extension, and in a great number of cases iron is used where wood +or stone was formerly used. It is certainly an important question how +this metal can be protected under all circumstances against rust or +oxidation, so that the many costly iron structures may retain their +usefulness and strength, and be handed down uninjured to posterity. + +Wherever bright iron comes into contact with air and moisture it +immediately begins to rust, and this rust is not content to continually +rob it of its substance in its persistent progress by scaling off the +surface, but at the same time it injures the remainder of the iron by +making it brittle. Attempts have hitherto been made to protect the iron +by covering it with other and less easily oxidizable metals. For this +purpose tin was first selected, then lead and zinc, and recently nickel. +Furthermore, earthy glazings and enamels, such as are used on stone +ware, have been applied to iron vessels, and they have already found +extensive use in the household. In most cases these coatings, either +metallic or vitreous, are inapplicable, either because they cannot be +applied or are too expensive, so that on a large scale recourse must be +had to paints made by mixing oils with metallic oxides, earths, etc., +for protecting the surface of the iron from air and moisture. + +It has been observed that iron does not rust in _dry_ air, not even in +dry oxygen. In like manner it frequently happens that unpainted iron, +such as weather vanes, fences, etc., is exposed to the air for a century +with very little injury, being covered with a thin coating of the +magnetic oxide (proto-sesquioxide), which acts as a protection and +prevents farther action. Hence it has been proposed to produce a layer +of this magnetic oxide on the surface artificially, and it was found +that superheated steam furnished the means for doing this. But it is not +to be supposed that such a process would find use on a large scale, and +besides this protection could only serve for iron tolerably exposed to +the open air and not for that in direct contact with carbonic acid and +water. + +An interesting observation has been made on railways that the iron +rails, ties, bolts, etc., rust until the road begins to be used. Here we +must assume that anything made of iron is more inclined to rust when at +rest than if occasionally caused to vibrate, when an electrical action +probably comes into play and decreases the affinity of iron for oxygen. + +In tearing down old masonry iron bonds and clamps are often found which +are as free from rust, so far as they are covered with mortar, as they +were the day they left the blacksmith's hands. A French engineer met +with such a phenomenon when he uncovered the anchor plates of several +chain bridges which had been built about thirty years. Where the anchors +were covered with the fatty lime mortar of the masonry they showed no +traces of rust, but the prolongations of the anchors in empty spaces +were rusted to such an extent that they were only one-third of their +original thickness. + +It has been repeatedly observed that iron does not rust in water in +which are dissolved small quantities of caustic alkalies or alkaline +earths, which neutralize every trace of acid. It seems that these +experiences are the basis of A. Riegelmann's (Hanau) new protection +against rust. The paint that he uses contains caustic alkaline earths +(baryta, strontia, etc.), so that the iron is in a condition similar to +the iron anchors of the chain bridges that were embedded in lime mortar. +Although a paint is not thick enough to inclose so much alkali as the +masonry did that the iron was embedded in, nevertheless the alkaline +action will make itself felt as long as the coating has a certain +consistence. Under all circumstances, however, these new paints will +be free from active acids, which is more than can be said of our iron +paints hitherto in use. Besides this, the rust protector has such +a composition that it could serve its intended purpose without the +addition of any alkali. If experience confirms this claim, it will be an +interesting step forward in the preservation of iron, and contribute to +an extension in the use of iron.--_Polytechn. Notizblatt_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN DECOTATIVE ART.--A CUPBOARD IN ITALIAN +WALNUT WITH DARKER PANELING.--_From The Workshop_.] + + * * * * * + + + + +AN ELASTIC MASS FOR CONFECTIONERS' USE. + + +It should be made in a well glazed earthen crock; metallic vessels are +not good, as the gelatine burns too easily on the sides, and dries +out where it gets too hot. Nor is a water bath to be recommended for +dissolving the gelatine, for the sides get too hot and dry out the +gelatine. + +A quart of water is put in the crock and heated to boiling; it is then +taken off the open fire and two pounds of the finest gelatine stirred +in, a little at a time. After the gelatine is completely dissolved there +is to be added eight or ten pounds (according to the quality of the +gelatine) of the finest white sirup previously warmed, and constantly +stirred. The mass must not boil, as it would easily burn, or turn brown +and acquire a bad color. + +Thirty or forty pounds of a beautiful white elastic mass can be made by +this recipe in an hour at a cost of ten or twelve cents. Its chief use +is for making figures and ornaments to put on bridal cakes and other +fanciful productions of the confectioner. It contains no harmful +ingredients and can be eaten without danger. If coloring is added, +cochineal, plant green (chlorophyl), and turmeric are safer than aniline +colors. + + * * * * * + + + + +CAOUTCHOUC. + + +A. Levy contributes the following brief account of this subject to the +_Moniteur Scientifique_: + +The crude gum cut in irregular strips is passed five or six times +between two strong rolls sixteen inches in diameter, and making two +or three revolutions per minute. These rolls are kept wet by water +trickling on them. This broad strip of gum is perforated with foreign +substances and looks like a sieve. It is next put in the cutting +machine, a horizontal drum provided with an axle having knives on it. So +much heat is produced by this cutting that the water would soon boil if +it were not renewed. A second machine of this kind completes the cutting +and subdividing, and expels the air and water from it. The mass is then +pressed in round or quadrangular blocks. + +The vulcanization of thin articles from one twenty-fifth to +one-sixteenth inch thick, is done by Parkes' patented process, that is, +dipping it in carbon disulphide for a short time, to which chloride or +bromide of sulphur has been added, and when the solvent has evaporated +the sulphur remains behind. Balls, ornamental articles, and surgical +apparatus are dipped into melted sulphur at 275 deg. or 300 deg. Fahr. + +The third most important process consists in mixing in the sulphur +mechanically with the gum in the cutting machine. + +After the pieces have received the form they are to have they are heated +with steam or hot air to 275 deg. Flat articles are vulcanized between +press plates heated by steam. This vulcanization is said to have been +discovered accidentally by searching different colored stuffs, some of +which were dyed yellow with sulphur; the latter stood well. + +Hard rubber contains more sulphur, and is heated longer and higher. +Small or fine tubes and hose are made by a continuous machine that +presses it through a hole with a core to it. Large hose is made by +wrapping strips around iron rods or tubes. The little air balloons +are made in Paris (their value is $300,000) by Brissonet from English +Mackintosh cloth. Powdered soapstone is strewed over it in cutting. The +edges are united by hammering on a horn anvil, or by machinery through +simple adhesion, and the cut surfaces are smooth. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTOGRAPHIC ACTION STUDIED SPECTROSCOPICALLY. + + +At the last meeting of the Chemical Society Captain Abney gave a lecture +on the above subject to a large audience. We may premise by saying that +the demonstrations he gave were carried out principally by means of +experiments on paper, to enable his hearers to understand the different +points he wished to enforce. The lecture was commenced by insisting on +the fact that all photographic action took place within the molecules of +the compound acted upon and not on the molecule itself, and from this +he deduced that the absorption of radiation which take place by such +compounds is principally caused by the atoms composing the molecule. +This was found to be the case in the organic liquids, which the lecturer +to some extent had investigated, where he had further traced the +absorption to the vibrating atoms of hydrogen in those bodies. In +order to properly investigate the action of light it was necessary to +ascertain which components of light in the spectrum were the chief +agents in causing it, and this led him to consider the means to be +employed to obtain a spectrum. + +The effects of diffraction gratings were first discussed, and in two +which were shown it was found that in some spectra the visible portions +were dimmed; in others the ultra-violet and the infra-red were almost +entirely absent. It thus became necessary to investigate the condition +of a grating before placing any confidence in the results obtained. This +was the first pitfall into which an experimentalist was liable to fall. +If prisms were used for obtaining the spectrum, then precautions had +also to be taken, since all glass absorbed a portion of the ultra-violet +rays and some the infra-red. On the whole, he considered that the best +glass to use was pure white flint glass for the collimator, the prisms, +and the camera lens. Another inquiry that was necessary was the +source of radiation which it was proposed to use. Diagrams showed the +unsatisfactory nature of solar radiation, and a photograph of the whole +spectrum, taken with it under certain atmospheric conditions in which +the effect of the green rays were almost _nil_, demonstrated the false +conclusions that might be deduced as to the sensitiveness of any +particular compound. + +Captain Abney also showed the satisfactory conditions which existed in +using the crater of the positive pole of the electric arc light as a +source, and by diagrams illustrated the inferiority of an incandescent +light for the purpose, owing to the deficiency of violet and +ultra-violet rays. Having thus settled the source of illumination and +the kind of apparatus to employ, he next considered the conditions under +which the sensitive salts were to be exposed. The action of ordinary +sensitizers was explained and demonstrated by experiments, from which +point the results of certain colored sensitizers were considered. Thus, +various aniline dyes were proved to be bromine absorbents, and likewise, +more or less, to be capable of being acted upon by light in those +regions of the spectrum they absorbed. The result of the two effects was +to produce a developable image of the spectrum just in those parts to +which the salt of silver was sensitive, and also in the parts where the +dye itself was acted upon. The latter effect was traced to the organic +matter being oxidized in the presence of the sensitive silver salt. + +The sensitizing effect of one silver compound upon another was then gone +into, and experiments and photographs showed where two salts of silver +were in contact with one another, and without an energetic sensitizer +being at hand, that the one when acted upon by light absorbed the +halogen liberated from the other through the same cause and that a new +molecule was formed. This was of importance, since in photographic +spectroscopic researches a conclusion might be arrived at that a +body suffered absorption in those regions of the spectrum where this +interesting reaction took place, whereas in reality the phenomenon might +be due to the silver salts employed. This was another pitfall for the +unwary. Again, it became necessary in studying photographic action to +make sure that the effect of radiation was only a reducing action, and +that the results were not vitiated by some other action. + +The destruction by oxidizing agents of the effect produced by light was +then experimentally demonstrated, and photographs of the spectrum showed +that this effect was increased by the action of light itself. Thus, when +immersing a plate sensitive to all radiations, visible and invisible, +in a very dilute solution of nitric acid, bichromate of potash, or +hydroxyl, it was shown that if the plate were exposed to light, first +the parts acted upon by the red rays were reduced before the parts not +acted upon at all by the spectrum, thus conclusively proving that light +itself helped forward the oxidation or so-called solarization of the +image. It thus became a struggle, under ordinary circumstances, between +the reducing action on the normal salt and the oxidizing action on the +altered salt as to which should gain the mastery. If the reducing action +of any particular ray were the most active, then a negative image +resulted, whereas if the oxidizing action were in the ascendant, a +positive image resulted. Thus, in determining the action of light on +a particular salt, this antagonism had to be taken into account, and +exposure made with such precautions that no oxidizing action could +occur, as would be the case if an inorganic sensitizer, such as sulphite +of soda, were used. + +The reversal of the image by soluble haloid salts, such as bromide of +potassium, was then dwelt upon with experimental demonstration. It was +shown that the merest trace of soluble haloid would reverse an image +by the extraction of bromine from it, and the fact that the most +refrangible part of the spectrum was principally efficacious in +completing this action showed how necessary it was to avoid falling +into error when analyzing photographic action by the spectroscope. A +reference was next made to gelatine plates, in which, owing to their +preparation, reversal through the above cause was most likely to take +place, and a plate soaked in sulphite of soda and exposed in the camera +for a couple of minutes--a time largely in excess of that necessary to +give a reversal under ordinary circumstances--proved the efficacy of +the oxygen absorber, the image remaining in its normal condition after +development. + +The lecturer closed his remarks by showing the different molecular +states of iodide, bromide, and chloride of silver, as produced by +different modes of preparation. The color of the film by transmitted +light in every case indicated the effect which was likely to be produced +on them, and the photographed spectrum in each of them showed the +remarkable differences that were found. The points raised by Captain +Abney at different times are well worthy the study of scientific +photographers, since strict attention to the modes of exposure to the +spectrum, to the instruments employed, and to the source of light used +can alone insure accuracy in comparative experiments.--_Br. Jour. of +Photo_. + + * * * * * + + + + +SALT AND LIME. + + +M.F.K. communicates the following interesting circumstance to _Neueste +Erfindung_.: A few years ago it was decided to whitewash the walls +and ceiling of a small cellar to make it lighter. For this purpose a +suitable quantity of lime was slaked. A workman who had to carry a +vessel of common salt for some other purpose stumbled over the lime +cask and spilled some of his salt into it. To conceal all traces of his +mishap he stirred in the salt as quickly as possible. The circumstance +came to my knowledge afterward, and this unintentional addition of salt +to the lime excited my liveliest curiosity, for the whitewash was not +only blameless, but hard as cement, and would not wash off. + +After this experience I employed a mixture of milk of lime and salt +(about three parts of stone lime to one part of salt), for a court or +light well. To save the trouble and expense of a scaffold to work on, I +had it applied with a hand fire engine (garden syringe?) to the opposite +walls. The results were most satisfactory. For four years the weather +has had no effect upon it, and I have obtained a good and cheap means of +lighting the court in this way. + + * * * * * + + + + +RENEWING PAINT WITHOUT BURNING. + + +It is stated in the _Gewerbeblatte fur Hessen_ that paint can be renewed +and refreshed in the following manner: + +When cracks and checks appear in the paint on wooden articles, this +usually indicates that the varnish has cracked. If this is the case, the +article can easily be prepared for a fresh coat by sponging it over with +strong ammonia water, and two or three minutes later scraping off the +varnish with the broad end of a spatula before the ammonia has dried up. + +In this way the first coat is removed. If it is necessary to remove the +next coating, the same operation is repeated. After the last coat +has been scraped off that is to be removed, it must be washed with +sufficient water to render the ammonia inactive, and then the surface is +rubbed with pulverized pumice to make it smooth. Any desired paint or +varnish can be applied to a surface prepared in this way. + + * * * * * + + + + +TESTING OLIVE OIL. + +By DR. O. BACH. + + +There is no department in analytical chemistry in which so little +success has been attained as in the testing of commercial fats and oils. +All methods that have been proposed for distinguishing and recognizing +the separate oils, alone or mixed, bear upon them the stamp of +uncertainty. + +The facts observed by J. Koenig, and described by him in his excellent +book entitled "_Die Menschlichen Nahrungs und Genussmittel_" (p. 248), +excited great expectations; viz., that the quantity of glycerine in +vegetable fats was much less than the amount required to combine with +all the fatty acids, and that the quantity of oleic acid in the oils +that he examined exhibited essential differences. Koenig himself asserts +that the fats have hitherto been too little investigated to found upon +it a method for distinguishing them, but that nevertheless it may +possibly do good service in some cases. + +My own estimation of the amount of glycerine in different olive oils, by +Koenig's method, has shown, unfortunately, that the percentage may vary +from 1.6 to 4.68, according to the origin and quality of the oil. In +like manner the estimation of the oleic acid, which was conducted +essentially in the manner proposed by Koenig, showed that the amount of +oleic acid in different olive oils varied from 45 to 54 per cent. But +since cotton seed oil, for example, which is most frequently used to +adulterate olive oil, contains 5 per cent. of glycerine, and 59.5 per +cent. of oleic acid, it is easy to see an admixture of cotton seed oil +cannot be detected by this method, which appeared to be so exact. + +The method of analysis that I am about to describe is based chiefly upon +the determination of the melting point of the fatty acids contained in +the oils, and upon their solubility in a mixture of alcohol and acetic +acid. + +The oils employed in adulterating olive oil, and to which regard must be +had in testing it, are the following: Cotton seed oil, sesame, peanut, +sun flower, rape, and castor oils. The tests for the two last named +have hitherto never presented any difficulty, as rape seed is easily +detected, owing to the sulphur in it, by saponifying it in a silver +dish, and castor oil by its solubility in alcohol. But in recent times +another product has come into the market called sulphur oil or pulpa +oil, obtained by extracting the pressed olive cake with sulphide of +carbon. This also gives a sulphur reaction when saponified, while it +resembles castor oil by its solubility in alcohol. When this oil is +mixed with ordinary olive oil, it can easily deceive any one who uses +the ordinary tests. + +My method of testing olive oil is as follows: + +First, the so-called elaidine test is made, and then the test with +nitric acid. About 5 c. c. (a teaspoonful) of the oil is mixed in a test +tube with its own volume of nitric acid, spec. gr. 1.30, and shaken +violently for one minute. At the expiration of this time the oils will +have acquired the following colors: Olive oil, pale green; cotton seed +oil, yellowish brown; sesame, white; sun flower, dirty white; peanut, +rape, and castor oils, pale pink or rose. + +As soon as the color has been observed, the test glass is put in a water +bath at the full boiling temperature and left there five minutes. It was +found that the action of nitric acid upon cotton seed and sesame oil was +the most violent, sometimes so violent as to throw the oil out of the +glass. At the end of another five minutes after the test tube is taken +out of the water bath, the following colors are seen: olive and rape +oils are red; castor oil is golden yellow; sun flower oil, reddish +yellow; sesame and peanut, brownish yellow; cotton seed, reddish brown. + +After standing 12 to 18 hours at about 60 deg. Fahr. the olive, rape, and +peanut oils will have solidified; sun flower, castor, and cotton seed +will be like salve (sticky), while sesame will remain perfectly liquid. +Mixtures of olive oil with small quantities of cotton seed or sesame are +distinguished by this characteristic--that, although the whole mass, +which is darker in color than olive oil, solidifies at first, at the end +of 24 or 36 hours a brown oil will be found floating upon the surface of +the solid mass, while the lower strata exhibit the yellow color of pure +olive oil. Oil of rosemary has no effect when shaken with cold nitric +acid, and imparts to it only a slightly darker color on heating. Oils +treated with lye act just like pure oils. + +Far the purpose of determining the melting point of the fatty acids, 10 +grammes of oil were saponified with 5 grammes of caustic potash on the +water bath; some water and alcohol being added. After all the alcohol +had been expelled the soap was dissolved in hot water, and the fatty +acids separated from the clear solution by adding hydrochloric acid. +After prolonged heating these acids will swim on the salt solution as +a perfectly clear oil, a portion of which is then put into a little, +narrow, thin walled tube and allowed to solidify. The point at with it +melts and solidifies is determined by putting this tube in a beaker +glass filled with water and warming with a small flame. A thermometer +is placed _in_ the fatty acids and moved gently about during the +observation, and the point accurately observed at which the whole mass +becomes perfectly clear, and also when the mercury bulb begins to be +clouded. It was found that the acids from pure olive oil melt between +261/2 and 281/2 deg. C. (= 80 deg. to 83 deg. Fahr.) and solidify at a point not lower +than 22 deg. C. (72 deg. Fahr.). The melting point of the fatty acids in the +oils used to adulterate olive oil differs considerably from this. The +melting and solidifying points of the acids in cotton seed, sesame, +and peanut oils lie considerably higher, those of sunflower, rape, and +castor oils decidedly lower than those of olive oil. + +The melting and solidifying points of these acids are as follows: + + Cotton seed melts at 38.0 deg.C. solidifies 35.0 deg.C. + Sesame do. 35.0 do. do. 32.5 do. + Peanut do. 33.0 do. do. 31.0 do. + Sunflower do. 23.0 do. do. 17.0 do. + Rape do. 20.7 do. do. 15.0 do. + Castor oil do. 13.0 do. do. 2.0 do. + +The above figures differ so much from those of olive oil, that +adulteratious carried to the extent that they are in trade can easily +be detected by the aid of an estimation of the melting point, for a +Gallipoli olive oil, mixed with 20 per cent. of sunflower oil, melted at +24 deg. C. and solidified at 18 deg. C. (of course, the fatty acids are meant). +A Nizza oil, mixed with 20 per cent. cotton seed oil, melted at 311/2 deg. C. +and solidified at 28 deg. C. A Gallipoli oil with 33-1/3 per cent. of rape +oil melted at 231/2 deg. C. and solidified at 161/2 deg. C. When 0.50 per cent. of +rape is added, it melts as low as 20 deg. and solidifies at 131/2 deg. C., etc. + +In testing the solubility of the fatty acids in alcohol and acetic acid, +I employ the method proposed by David (in _Comptes Rendus_, 1878, p. +1416) for estimating stearic acid. + +It depends upon the principle that when acetic acid is poured drop by +drop into an alcoholic solution of oleic acid, there comes a time when +all the oleic acid separates, but stearic acid, which is insoluble in +a mixture of alcohol and acetic acid, remains insoluble if the mixture +contains oleic acid. + +The following manipulations are adopted in testing olive oil: Equal +parts of glacial acetic acid and water are mixed in a bottle. Then 1 +c.c. of pure oleic acid, 3 c.c. of 95 per cent. alcohol, and 2 c.c. +of acetic acid are put in a small tube graduated in tenths of cubic +centimeters. The solution should remain clear; on adding another +one-tenth c.c. of acetic acid it becomes turbid, and when 1 c.c. of +oleic acid (or at first even more) floats on the mixture of acid and +alcohol, the liquid is ready for use. If this is not the case, the +proportions (of acetic acid and alcohol?) must be varied until the +addition of one-tenth c.c. of the former will cause all the oleic +acid to separate. The proportions having been ascertained from +these preliminary experiments, the alcohol and acid are then mixed +accordingly, e.g., 300 of alcohol to 225 of acid. One or two grammes +of stearic acid are added to the alcoholic acetic acid, and the clear +supernatant liquid used for the experiments. + +One cubic centimeter of the oil (acids) to be tested is put in the tube, +and 15 c.c. of alcoholic acetic acid added, well shaken, and the whole +left to stand quietly at 15 deg. C. (60 deg. Fahr). If the olive oil is pure, +the acids dissolve to a clear solution that remains so. Cotton seed +oil is insoluble, and the solution obtained by heating the solution +solidifies at 60 deg. Fahr. to a white jelly. Sesame and peanut oil react +in a similar manner. Sunflower oil dissolves, but at 60 deg. a granular +precipitate falls. Rape oil is entirely insoluble and floats like oil on +the surface. Castor oil on the contrary dissolves completely, just like +olive oil, and hence cannot be detected therein by this method. To +detect this oil we must take the melting point of the acids along with +the solubility of the oil itself in alcohol. + +Olive oil when mixed with 25 per cent. of cotton seed oil yields a +granular precipitate, and so does 25 per cent. of sesame. Smaller +quantities cannot be detected by these methods. For rape oil the limit +is 50 per cent., and in smaller quantities the oil does not collect on +the alcoholic solution. The decided lowering of the melting point of +the fatty acids in combination with the sulphur reaction, and the +insolubility of the oil in alcohol, also furnish a method of detecting +when present in smaller quantities in olive oil. + +Although I am well aware that I am making public a research that is by +no means free from objections, I nevertheless believe that it may be of +use to those who have to undertake the ticklish and intricate analyses +of commercial fats.--_Translated from the Chemiker Zeitung_, p. 355. + +Leipsic, Jan., 1883. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND ETHERS. + + +In a note presented to the Industrial Society of Mulhouse, A. Pabst +discusses the different stages in the formation of compound ethers, as +Williamson has explained the production of ordinary ethers by the action +of sulphuric acid upon alcohol. Pabst has observed that the compound +ethers are formed in an analogous manner. If alcohol, sulphuric acid, +and acetic acid are heated together, acetic ether, we know, is formed. + +Pabst has shown that it takes place in three stages. In the first stage, +ethyl sulphuric acid and water are formed; in the second, acetate of +ethyl with the reproduction of sulphuric acid, which again converts a +fresh quantity of alcohol into ethyl sulphuric acid. + + (1) C_{2}H_{5}OH+HO,SO_{2}OH = C_{2}H_{5}O,SO_{2}OH+H_{2}O. + (Alcohol.) (Sulphuric acid.) (Ethyl sulphuric acid.) + + (2) C_{2}H_{5}O,SO_{2}OH+C_{2}H_{3}O,OH = + (Ethyl sulphuric acid.) (Acetic acid.) + + C_{2}H_{5}O,C_{2}H_{3}O+HO,SO_{2}HO. + (Acetate of ethyl.) (Sulphuric acid.) + +Pabst proved this by letting methyl sulphuric acid act upon a mixture of +acetic acid and ethyl alcohol. He obtained by this process acetate +of methyl and ethyl sulphuric acid. By the continued action of ethyl +alcohol and acetic acid upon this mixture, of course, acetate of ethyl +was formed. At the conclusion of the operation there was no longer any +methyl sulphuric acid present in the liquid. + +In the course of his investigations, Pabst was led to a very practical +method for preparing acetate of methyl, which consists in heating ethyl +sulphuric acid to 135 deg. or 140 deg. C, and allowing a mixture of equal +molecules of strong alcohol and acetic acid to flow into it. + +The details of his experiments and the method of purification will be +published by the society. + + * * * * * + + + + +A GREEN OR GOLDEN COLOR FOR ALL KINDS OF BRASS. + +By E. PULCHER. + + +The French brass castings and articles of sheet brass are made of cheap, +light colored brass, and possess a fine golden color which is not +produced by gold varnish, but by a coating of copper. This gives them a +finer appearance, so that they sell better. + +This golden color can be easily produced at very little expense and with +but little trouble by the following process. Fifty grammes of caustic +soda and 40 grammes of milk sugar are dissolved in a liter of water +and boiled for a quarter of an hour. The solution is clear as water at +first, but acquires a dark yellow color. The vessel is next taken +from the fire, placed on a wooden support, and 40 grammes of a cold +concentrated solution of blue vitriol stirred in. A red precipitate of +suboxide of copper is at once formed, and by the time the mixture cools +to 167 deg. Fahr., the precipitate will have settled. + +A suitable wooden sieve is placed in the vessel, and on this the +polished articles are laid. In about one minute the sieve is lifted up +to see how far the operation has gone, and at the end of the second +minute the golden color is dark enough. + +The sieve and articles are now taken out, and the latter are washed +and then dried in sawdust. If the brass is left longer in the copper +solution, in a short time a fine green luster is produced, becoming +yellow at first and then bluish green. After it turns green, then the +well-known iridescent colors finally appear. To obtain uniform colors +it is necessary that they be produced slowly, which is attained at +temperatures between 135 deg. and 170 deg. Fahr. + +The copper bath can be used repeatedly and can be kept a long time if +bottled up tightly without change. After it is exhausted it can be +renewed by adding 10 grammes of caustic soda, replacing the water that +has evaporated, heating to boiling, and adding 25 grammes of a cold +solution of blue vitriol. + +Similar operations with other well known reducing agents, such as +tartrate of soda, glycerine, etc., do not give such good colors, because +they do not precipitate the copper solution so rapidly and at so low a +temperature. + +If the rinsed and pickled brasses are dipped for five minutes in a three +per cent. neutral solution of cocoa nut oil soap, and then washed with +water again before they dry, the coating gains in permanence. + +Brass articles that have to be cleaned frequently should be covered with +oil of turpentine, or thin English copal varnish.--_Neueste Erfind_. + + * * * * * + + + + +VINEGAR. + + +Hermann Kratzer, of Leipsic, communicates the following practical +information on the clarification and purification of vinegar to the +_Neueste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen_: + +If vinegar has an unpleasant odor, which is rarer now that the vinegar +manufacture has reached such a state of perfection, it may be removed as +follows: Well burned and finely pulverized wood charcoal is put into +the bottles containing the vinegar, the proportions being 8 grammes of +charcoal to a liter of vinegar, or one ounce to the gallon. It is shaken +several times very thoroughly, then left standing three or four days, +and the vinegar filtered through a linen cloth. Vinegar treated in this +manner will be found to have completely lost its unpleasant odor. + +I have found that when I used blood charcoal or bone coal in place of +wood coal it was still more efficient; but it must be mentioned that +when they are used they must be purified as follows before using: +Charcoal from blood contains potash and hence it is necessary to wash it +with distilled water and dry it before using it. Bone coal (also called +bone black, animal charcoal, etc.) contains on an average 10 per cent. +of nitrogenous and hydrogenated carbon, 8 per cent. of carbonate of +lime, 78 per cent. of phosphate of lime, besides phosphate of magnesia, +sulphate of lime, soluble salts, etc. Before using, it should be treated +with dilute hydrochloric acid until it does not effervesce any more. The +bone coal is then left to stand for 24 or 30 hours and at the end of +this time is washed with distilled water until the wash water no longer +reddens a blue piece of litmus paper, i.e., until every trace of +hydrochloric acid has been removed from the bone coal. Wood charcoal +may be treated in like manner. When this coal is perfectly dry it is +employed in the same proportions as the other, 8 to 1,000, the operation +being exactly the same. + +He turns next to the clarification of the vinegar. + +It happens everywhere that vinegar instead of being clear is sometimes +turbid. This is due to particles of yeast dissolved in the vinegar that +have not yet settled. To remove this kind of turbidity it is customary +to use oak or beech shavings that have been washed in hot water and then +dried. These shavings, which must be very long and extremely thin, are +put in a barrel with a second and perforated bottom, to a depth of 12 +to 34 inches. The vinegar that runs through them deposits its slimy +constituents on the shavings and becomes perfectly clear, and presents +to the eye a pleasing appearance. + +To this generally known method I would add a few more: + +1. I take a 1/2 kilo of well pulverized _animal charcoal_ (black burned +bones) to 7/8 of a hectoliter of vinegar (1 lb. to 20 gallons), and stir +it well with a wooden rod; or, if the vinegar is in bottles, I shake it +a long time after putting the animal charcoal in the bottle, and repeat +it several times. After three or four days I finally filter the vinegar +through linen, when the filtrate will exhibit the desired clearness. + +2. The best way to clarify vinegar is with _isinglass_. It is first +broken up, then swelled for a day in vinegar (17 or 18 grammes to the +liter), then 2 liters of vinegar are added and the mass boiled until the +isinglass is completely dissolved. Such a solution as this (1/2 ounce to +3 quarts) is mixed with 101/4 hectoliters (250 gallons) of turbid vinegar +and well stirred through it. After the expiration of five or six weeks +vinegar treated in this way has a beautifully clear appearance. + +3. _Albumen_ can likewise be used to clarify it. The vinegar is boiled +with the albumen until the latter is completely coagulated, and then the +vinegar is filtered. + +4. And finally _milk_ may be employed. For this purpose the milk is +skimmed, and 1 quart of milk added for every 68 quarts of vinegar, +the mixture well stirred and shaken. After the caseous portion has +coagulated (curdled) it is filtered as before, and in this case, too, +the product is a fine, clear vinegar. + +We believe that these few experiments, so easily performed, and at so +small an expense, will prove useful to our readers in enabling them to +put their product in the market in an excellent condition and nicely +clarified. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ALIZARINE INDUSTRY. + + +At a recent meeting of the Manchester section of the Society of Chemical +Industry, Mr. Ivan Levinstein described the history and progress of the +manufacture of alizarine, from which are produced fast red, purple, +brown, and black dyes. He said alizarine was, until very recently, made +only from the root of the madder plant, of which the yearly crop was +70,000 tons, and represented an annual value of L3,150,000, of which +the United Kingdom consumed 23,000 tons, representing a value of nearly +L1,000,000. + +Madder is now no longer grown for this purpose. The German chemists +found that alizarine produced from madder in undergoing certain +treatment gave a substance identical with anthracine, one of the +constituents of coal tar, and in 1869 the same chemists announced to +the world that they had accomplished the synthesis of alizarine from +anthracine. The effect of this discovery was to throw madder out of +cultivation. + +Mr. Perkin, an English chemist, and Messrs. Graebe and Liebermann, +German chemists, almost simultaneously applied for patents in 1869, +in England, and as their methods were nearly identical they arranged +priorities by the exchanging of licenses. The German license became the +property of the Badische Aniline Company, and the English license became +the property of the predecessors of the North British Alizarine Company. +These patents expire in about two months, and the lecturer explained +that an attempt made by the German manufacturers to further monopolize +this industry (even after the expiry of the patent) proved abortive. He +also stated that alizarine, 20 per cent. quality, is sold to-day at 2s +6d. per lb., but that if the price were reduced by one-half there will +still be a handsome profit to makers, and that the United Kingdom is the +largest consumer, absorbing one-third of the entire production, and that +England possesses advantages over all other countries for manufacturing +alizarine--first, by having a splendid supply of the raw material, +anthracine; secondly, cheaper caustic soda in England than in Germany by +fully L4 per ton; thirdly, cheaper fuel; fourthly, large consumption at +our own doors; and, fifthly, special facilities for exporting. + +The advantages derived from the development of the alizarine manufacture +here, it was stated, will benefit other collateral industries, such +as manufacture of soda, of ordinary sulphuric acid, bichromatic, and +chlorate of potash, articles used in this manufacture. The lecturer +considered that the difficulties attending the manufacture of alizarine +were now overcome, and with sufficient capital and competent chemists +English manufacturers must be successful. + +He then proceeded to explain the source from which nearly all the +artificial coloring matters are derived, viz., gas tar; showing the +principal products of this wonderful, complex mixture, of which one +is anthracine. Alizarine manufacturers originally found scarcity of +anthracine; at present the supply is in excess of the demand, and the +price during the last 18 months has fallen from 3s. 6d. to 1s. per unit, +and the probabilities are that the supply will increase. The quantity of +gas tar now obtained the lecturer estimated at 500,000 tons per annum, +and the coal carbonized for gas making, 10,000,000 tons. This quantity +of tar suffices to produce 9,000 tons of 20 per cent. alizarine. + +The lecturer then reviewed, in case of an increased demand for +anthracine, the probable new sources of obtaining increased supplies of +coal tar: (1) The destructive distillation of petroleum; (2) coke +ovens and blast furnaces; (8) the carbonization of coal for general +manufacturing purposes, using the coal and gas as fuel, and giving tar, +benzine, and ammonia as residues; and (4) distillation of coal with the +object of obtaining the principal products, tar and benzine, and as the +residual product, gas. This part of the lecture was important to dyers +and printers, the lecturer showing also, in a very interesting way, +in what manner manufacturers may very considerably economize their +consumption of coal. + +The lecturer explained that while from one ton of coal there was +obtained on an average about 17 oz. of benzine, by the new method about +thirty times that amount can be got from the same quantity of coal. +He also considered in great detail the different processes of the +carbonization of coal, and of increasing the production of the different +important residual products of gas tar, and also the best method of +extracting the benzine. He showed samples of benzine which he produced +from gas obtained at the Rochdale Road Gasworks, and, further, +nitro-benzine, aniline, and coloring matters, which he had made from +this gas benzine. + +The lecturer also discussed the effect of the probable increased +production of tar, ammonia, benzine, etc., as affecting gas companies, +and said it was anticipated they either would raise the price of gas or +change the present system of manufacture, which he considered probable. +The enormous increase in the production of ammonia, of which the larger +portion at present, as sulphate of ammonia, was used as a fertilizer, +would no doubt considerably reduce its value. It might even replace soda +for many purposes, and thus react on our alizarine industry. + +He then proceeded to consider the manufacture of alizarine purpurine, +and divided its manufacture into four stages: 1, the purification of +crude anthracine; 2, the conversion of the purified anthracine into +anthraquinone; and 3, the production of sulpho acid of anthraquinone and +the conversion of this sulpho-acid into alizarine and purpurine. This +part of the lecture comprised a detailed explanation of the various +kinds of apparatus required, to be used which were beautifully got up, +complete working models having been prepared for the occasion. The +lecturer was of opinion that large consumers would be benefited if +makers would offer for sale only three distinct coloring matters--iso +or anthrapurpurine, and flavo-purpurine, leaving it to the dyers and +printers to produce for themselves the intermediate shades by mixing the +three colors; and he showed that by reason of the fastness of the shades +produced by these coloring agents varying considerably, the blue shade +(alizarine) being much faster then the orange shade (flavo-purpurine), +consumers were in many instances losers by using mixtures of alizarine +and flavo-purpurine. + +In the course of the lecture many interesting specimens of various +products were produced and dilated upon, the lecturer fully describing +the process of purifying the crude anthracine and of the conversion of +the purified anthracine into anthraquinone. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY CARBONIC ACID. + + +Since 1874, when Professor Kolbe, of Leipsic, first published his +results on the antiseptic action of salicylic acid, he has made many +efforts to apply this acid to the preservation of meat, but he has +invariably found that after the lapse of a few days an unpleasant flavor +has been developed, which is not that of putridity. If putrid changes be +noticed, it is a sign that salicylic acid is in insufficient quantity, +for where it has turned putrid the meat is found to be no longer acid, +but alkaline. This leads to the assumption that meat is protected from +change by acids, even by gases of that kind; and in fact it was noticed +that beef--from 2 to 5 kilos. being taken--when placed in an earthen +vessel and loosely covered with a wooden cover, was long preserved from +putridity if the bottom of the vessel contained some hydrochloric acid, +nitric acid, or aqueous sulphurous acid. The meat, however, no longer +had the taste of fresh meat, but of such as had long lain in ice. +Experiments were therefore made with carbonic acid, and these proved +highly successful. The meat was placed in a cylinder of metal plate, and +suspended from a rod which crossed the upper part and the lower part. +A small tube serves to admit a current of carbonic acid from a Kipp's +apparatus. The lid, which rested in a circular trough of glycerine, +was traversed by a similar tube in its center, and both tubes could be +closed with India-rubber tubing and screw taps as soon as sufficient +carbonic acid gas had traversed the apparatus. At the end of seven, +fourteen, and twenty-one days it was found that the meat was still quite +good, and the soup prepared from it was in every respect excellent. At +the end of the fourth or fifth week the meat thus preserved in the gas +was still quite free from all putridity; but the broth prepared from it +no longer tasted so well as fresh bouillon. The experiments were not +extended over a longer time. Carbonic acid is thus shown to be an +excellent means of preserving beef from putridity and of causing it to +retain its good taste for several weeks. Mutton does not preserve so +well. In eight days it had become putrid; and veal is by no means so +well preserved as beef. The comportment of beef in an atmosphere of +carbonic acid, to which carbonic oxide has been added, is curious. A +number of cylinders were filled in the usual way with such a mixture and +opened at the end of two or three weeks; in each case the flesh had the +smell and taste of good, pure meat, but it was not of the gray color +which meat preserved in carbonic acid gas gradually takes, but appeared +in the interior, as well as on the outside, of a bright flesh-red color, +and on the surface here and there, there were white round masses of +fungoid growth of the size of a 20-pfenning piece, which were removed +with the slightest rubbing. The flesh lying just below these was found +to have the same bright red color as that already described. Meat which +had been for three weeks in such a gas mixture gave a broth which, +in good taste and freshness, could hardly be distinguished from +freshly-made bouillon; and the boiled meats could not be distinguished +either in appearance or taste. The property of carbonic acid to preserve +meat suggests a use for the large supplies of this gas evolved from the +earth in many localities. And it is as interesting to determine in +how far the gas could be of service as an antiseptic during surgical +operations. + + * * * * * + + + + +REDUCTION OF OXIDIZED IRON BY CARBONIC OXIDE. + + +IT is well known that when the heat is sufficient, carbonic oxide +reduces the oxide of iron to metal with the production of carbon dioxide +(carbonic acid). On the other hand, at lower temperatures carbon dioxide +oxidizes metallic iron, forming carbonic oxide. J. Lowthian Bell's +celebrated researches (see SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, p. 199, March 31, 1883) +established the point of equilibrium where in the presence of both +monoxide and dioxide the reducing action of the one just counterbalances +the oxidizing action of the other. + +At the suggestion of Prof. R. Akermann, of Stockholm, C.G. Saernstrom has +conducted a similar series of forty-five experiments, the expense being +borne by the Jernkontor. About 1 gramme of oxide of iron was placed in a +porcelain boat, and slid in a porcelain tube 18 millimeters (3/4 inch) in +diameter and 635 millimeters long (25 inches). This was exposed to the +action of a current of mixed carbon dioxide and monoxide made by heating +oxalic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid. It was mixed with carbon +dioxide as required, then analyzed, and preserved in gasometers holding +66 liters. Before using, it is passed over phosphorus and chloride of +calcium, and through sulphuric acid. The porcelain tube and boat were +heated to from 300 deg. to 600 deg. C. (572 deg. to 1,652 deg. Fahr.) while the gases +were passing, and then the state of oxidation determined. It was found +that the larger the quantity of dioxide the higher the degree of +oxidation, and the larger the proportion of monoxide the lower the +degree of oxidation. + +The details of the experiment indicate that a saving of fuel in the +blast furnace could best be accomplished by the use of a very hot blast, +introducing some carbon monoxide into the blast, provided, of course, +that this gas can be made outside of the blast furnace more cheaply than +inside of it. Nevertheless, 643 lb. of carbon must be burned to +every 1,000 lb. of iron reduced, if carbonic oxide is exclusively +employed.--_Stahl und Eisen_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE ADULTERATION OF SOAP. + +By Dr. H. BRACKEBUSCH. + + +The importance of soap as an indispensable article in the household has +not restrained the adulterators from making it a favorite object of +their operations, and at the present day soap is only very rarely what +it should be, the alkaline salt of a fatty acid with about 15 per cent. +of water, which may be increased in case of soft soaps to 30 per cent. +at most. The amount of moisture is an immediate signal for adulteration. +Of all substances that can be used to adulterate soap, water is of +course the cheapest, and as it is also harmless, this was the first +point where manufacturers made use of their knowledge. The percentage of +water was raised to 26 or 28 per cent., and now nearly all the ordinary +soaps contain that amount when they leave the factory. At first the +retailers objected to this method, because they had to suffer the loss +so far as it dried out and lost weight in the store. + +The next point was to find some substance that would prevent this rapid +drying, and it was very soon discovered that those soaps that contained +an excess of lye retained moisture longer. Henceforth it was only +necessary to use lyes of extra strength so as to obtain a large yield of +soap containing an excess of water. The results of this ingenious method +are before us; in the shops of the soap dealers the bars of soap become +coated with a crust of white crystals, which is nothing but soda. If a +few drops of corrosive sublimate be dropped on these crystals, a red +spot will at once be produced by the formation of mercuric oxide. In +addition to the deception of the public who buy such soaps, this alkali +destroys clothes washed with it, as the fiber of the tissues is directly +attacked by it, while the proper action of the soap depends on its +enveloping the particles of dirt and carrying them off. + +Soap is subject to another kind of adulteration called filling, or +weighting. Soapstone and similar mineral substances are added to the +finished soap to increase its weight. But it may be added that this +fraudulent weighting is rare. Large establishments cannot take the risk +of being detected in such avaricious practices, and small ones scarcely +have the apparatus at their disposal for making a uniform mixture which +will not arouse suspicion. + +Now soaps are frequently found in the market that scarcely deserve this +name. Mineral soap, cold water soap, etc., are the names inscribed on +the placards behind which is buried a preparation consisting for the +greater part of water-glass. The well-known water-glass is a silicate of +soda or potash dissolved in free or caustic soda, or potash. There was +a time when it excited great hopes, and its introduction into the +household for washing was dreamed of, but it was soon found that +its caustic properties made their appearance at a relatively low +temperature. Hence we often find the notice, "TO BE USED COLD," printed +in bold letters on the wrappers. This product is obtained by thickening +water-glass with stearine, oleine, or any other easily saponifiable fat. +As it takes but very little of the substances named to make an article +closely resembling soap, of course the product is very cheap. There does +not seem to be any limit to the amount of water in it; at least the +author found in one kind of mineral soap from Berlin 58 per cent. of +water. Water-glass soaps do not dissolve readily in water, they make but +little suds, and render the skin hard and unpliable. Admitting that they +are suitable for many purposes, nothing can be said against their sale +so long as they appear under names which preclude their being confounded +with other soaps. Nevertheless, there is always this danger--that +water-glass may come into general use in making soap, and this is to be +deplored. Water-glass soaps are easily recognized by their insolubility +in moderately strong alcohol, the water-glass remaining behind in a +gelatinous form. + +Great deception has been practiced under such names as "almond soap," +etc. Fortunately the difference between various kinds of fat are not +very great from a chemical point of view, although it is always an +unpleasant thought that the fat from animals that have died may return +to the house in the form of soap. A white or yellow soap having a good +smell is not made from bad fat, and hence is more appetizing. + +A method formerly much in use consisted in mixing green soap with starch +paste, a mixture that could not be detected by the naked eye, especially +if colored with caramel. On attempting to dissolve it in ordinary +burning alcohol, a white coagulum forms. + +From the foregoing it is sufficiently evident that those who buy soap +to sell again have every reason to keep a sharp lookout on those who +furnish them with soap.--_Polyt. Notiz._ + + * * * * * + + + + +BOVINE AND HUMAN MILK: THE DIFFERENCE IN ITS ACTION AND COMPOSITION. + +By C. HUSSON. + + +M. Meynet, in a remarkable report upon condensed milk, has raised a +question which it is important to have solved in the interests of +infants. This is my excuse for presenting to the French Society of +Hygiene certain observations on this subject. + +Is woman's milk richer in fatty matters and sugar in proportion to the +caseine than that of the cow? Is the affirmative, sustained by a large +number of chemists, a mistake that ought to be corrected? + +Such is the question that needs to be answered. + +In my last work on milk, my aim was to report new experiments, and hence +I gave only the analysis of M. Colawell. By the side of the essays of +MM. Doyere, Millon, Commaille, and Wurtz, I put those of Liebig, and +quoted an interesting chapter written on this question by M. Caulier, +in Dechambre's Encyclopedic Dictionary. These are the authorities upon +which to base any opposition to the analyses of Boussingault, Regnault, +Littre, and Simon, savants of no less renown. + +The differences are easily explained. + +Woman's milk is rarely to be had in sufficient abundance to make a +complete analysis of it. In the country especially a few precious drops, +obtained with difficulty, are carried off in a thimble to be placed +under a microscope, where the number of fat globules are counted, and it +is examined to see if they are not mixed with globules of colostrum. + +It will be necessary at the outset to know whether the analyses given +refer to milk drawn from the breast before nursing, or at the end. In +the former case there will be an excess of caseine, in the second an +excess of fat present. This is the reason that in nursing infants the +intervals should not be too long, or the child will not be able to empty +the breast completely, and it will obtain a milk too rich in caseine, +too poor in butter, and one that it cannot digest. + +This is the first proof of the importance of fatty matters for the +alimentation of babes. + +Let us turn to the second. + +At birth, when the milk is still in a state of colostrum, the fluid +contains a variable quantity of albumen coagulable by heat, much less +caseine, and an excess of butter and sugar. + +Cow's milk, immediately after calving, contains more butter and less +caseine than milk produced some time later, when the specific character +of ruminants begins to appear in the calf, that is to say, when it +commences to graze the milk coagulates in the stomach. As in other +mammals, an excess of fat helps digestion by subdividing the caseine and +emulsifying it. But the milk of an animal recently calved is reserved +for its young, and it is not until the time of weaning that the lacteal +fluid is offered for human consumption. + +Thus it is that the nursling of a day receives milk many months old and +heavily loaded with caseine. This milk it cannot digest because the +emulsifying element, the fat, is not present in it in sufficient +quantity in proportion to the coagulable matter. We must not forget +either that the difference in coagulation holds also with respect to +difference in the age and in the kind of animal. Just so the rennet of a +sucking calf has a greater power of coagulating cow's milk than that of +a sheep, and _vice versa_. + +"Clinical observation," says Dr. Condereau, "shows that all young +infants digest human milk very easily and cow's milk very imperfectly. +When it is fed on the latter, in the excreta will be found numerous +fragments, sometimes very bulky, of undigested caseine. In most cases +this caseine suffers more or less decomposition in the alimentary +canal, which gives to the feces a tainted odor recalling that of putrid +Roquefort cheese. + +"The excrement vary in appearance as much as they do in odor. Frequently +the caseous clots are not to be seen, and the stool has a clammy look +reminding one of glazier's putty, while the color varies from dirty +white to pale grayish yellow. That is due to the fact that the +composition of the milk from different animals is far from being +constant. + +"The proportions of albumen to those of caseine are especially varied. +For woman's milk the proportions are as 100 to 122.72. In goat's milk +the proportions are 100 to 173.09. In cow's milk it is as 100 to 289.20. + +"The conclusion is this: Caseine is not a food at all for the new born +during a space of time, the duration of which is to be determined +experimentally. + +"This substance is a harmful burden that interferes with the regular +action of the digestive organs. It is a premature food, and the more +abundant the more injurious. + +"Albumen on the contrary remains fluid in the presence of the gastric +juice; it is separated from the other aliments by coagulation of the +caseine. It is absorbed entire either in its natural state or in form of +peptone." + +According to clinical observation, it is still the fats that give to +milk its hygienic value, and the excess of caseine is an obstacle to its +digestion. + +However, if cow's milk is not easily digested by children, experience +proves that there are other kinds of milk, from other animals, which +young stomachs are able to bear more easily. There are many proofs of +this fact. + +M. Tarnier, speaking before the Academy of Medicine on the artificial +nourishment of the new born, reports that the milk of cows and goats, +pure or diluted in different ways, that of condensed milk and Biedert's +cream, have always given disastrous results at the Maternite in Paris, +but that the mortality of the new born was considerably reduced from the +day when ass's milk was introduced as food. + +Ass's milk was given pure for six weeks or two months; then cow's milk +diluted with one-half water until six months old, followed by pure cow's +milk. This is the most rational course of artificial feeding. + +Prof. Parrot reports analogous results obtained at the nursery opened at +the Hospice des Enfants Assistes. By the aid of ass's milk he saved a +number of the little syphilitics. + +The following are the numerical results: 86 infants with hereditary +taint of syphilis have been at the nursery. Of 6 fed exclusively on +cow's milk, only 1 survived and the other 5 died. Forty-two were suckled +by goats, of which 8 lived, 34 are dead, which is equal to a mortality +of 80.9 per cent. Thirty-eight were suckled by an ass, of which 28 lived +and 10 died; a mortality of 26.3 per cent. + +Certainly these figures prove eloquently enough what chemical analysis +shows, that ass's milk, being better borne by the infant's stomach, +ought to have a composition resembling that of woman's milk. This +analogy is not found to consist in the quantity of fat, but in the small +amounts of dry residue (total solids) and of caseine. + +Let us now examine the objections raised by M. Meynet. + +Food has a considerable influence upon the composition of milk; this +fact, stated by M. Riche in his treatise on chemistry, seem to be +accepted by all. + +The milk of carnivorae is excessively rich in caseine; that of herbivorae +much less. + +The food of woman, who enjoys a mixed alimentation, ought to have a +composition intermediate between these two, and consequently ought to +contain more caseine than that of the plant eaters. This is the logical +deduction. + +At first this reasoning misleads one, but numerous objections present +themselves. + +The food, no doubt, has some influence upon the composition of the milk +of animals of the same species, but every animal can secrete something +independent of any food, just as one kind secretes musk, another +castor, etc. Yet it would not be an anomaly if an excess of caseine +in proportion to the other substances was a true characteristic of +ruminants. + +But we admit that the milk of all mammals ought to have identically the +same composition if their food suffered no modifications. + +What is the food of ruminants? Without doubt it is essentially +vegetable, and the plants of the field constitute the element par +excellence of their nurture. These plants contain a large excess of +carbohydrates in proportion to the nitrogenous. + +But what are these other substances? What role do they play in +digestion? + +They are composed in great part of fibers and cells that suffer no +change in the animal economy, and which are not acted upon by the +gastric juice, as proved by their occurrence in excreta. The carbon is +found almost unchanged, so that the excrements of herbivoiae, when dried, +form a valuable fuel. Ruminants are compelled, in order to obtain +nourishment from the plants that they eat, to extract their juices by +repeated pressure (as in chewing the cud); and what do these soluble +juices contain? Some saccharine substances, a little fat, but mostly +albumen and vegetable caseine, that is to say, the substance which +predominates in their lacteal secretions. + +What, on the contrary, is the food of woman? + +No doubt she gains much strength from the lean, muscular flesh that she +eats, but besides this she has butter, oil, fats of all kinds, sugar, +starches, and alcoholic beverages, all of which are favorable to the +production of butter in the milk. Hence, aside from her physical +constitution, the food of woman alone explains the relative excess of +non-nitrogeneous substances. + +Nitrogenous articles of food are expensive, while the other forms of +nutriment are to be had in the form of potatoes, beans, and bread, +products sold at a reasonable price. Yet logic demands that there shall +be an excess of butter in proportion to caseine in the milk. + +The discrepancies in analyses of woman's milk are easily explained by +the mobile and impressible character of woman. + +If bad treatment and bee stings are able to modify the composition of +cow's milk, how much more ought the emotions of all sorts, which disturb +the heart and head of woman, to change the composition of her milk? + +But if new analyses seem to be needed, they ought to be made. This +question is too important to rest in suspense. The mean composition +of human milk for the first two months after delivery ought to be +established. In chemistry, as in mathematics, figures alone are +convincing. But from what has been said it is logical to conclude that +an excess of caseine in milk is unfavorable to good digestion, while +an excess of butter is favorable to it.--_Translated from Journal +d'Hygiene, March 1, 1883_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CEREAL FOODS IN THEIR RELATION TO HEALTH AND DISEASE. + +By F.R. CAMPBELL, A.B., M.D. + + +The cereals are subject to many diseases which retard their development, +rendering them unfit for food, and even poisonous. The relation of +unwholesome foods to the diseases of the animal body are now being +thoroughly studied, recent advances in chemistry and microscopy +contributing valuable aid to the prosecution of such investigations. +Some enthusiastic advocates of the germ theory of disease believe that +many, if not all, the so-called disease germs may be transplanted into +the human system with the food ingested. But whatever may be the real +truth in regard to this subject, it has been positively demonstrated +that many diseases of the human body may be produced by unwholesome +food. The specific symptoms produced in man by the various grain +diseases are not accurately known, consequently our remarks upon this +subject must be of a very general character. + +Pappenheim divides the diseases of the cereals into two classes, +internal and external. The internal diseases are those depending upon +conditions of soil, climate, cultivation, etc., and may be neglected in +our discussion, as they produce no special disease of the body, only +impairing the nutritive value of the grain. + +The external diseases are of much greater importance, as they probably +produce some of the most fatal maladies to which the human race is +subject. These external diseases of the cereals are due to parasites, +which may be either of an animal or vegetable nature. Among the animal +parasites may be mentioned the _weevil, vibrio tritici_, which feeds +upon the starch cells of the grain. Grain attacked by this parasite was +at one time supposed to be injurious to health. + +In 1844 the French Commission appointed to examine grain condemned a +large quantity imported with this parasite, but afterward reconsidered +their decision and permitted its sale, concluding that it was deficient +in nutritive properties, but not otherwise unwholesome. Rust is the most +common disease of the cereals, produced by vegetable parasites. Like +the other diseases of this class, it is most prevalent in warm, damp +seasons. + +Prof. Hensboro is of the opinion that rust is but an earlier stage of +mildew or blight, the one form of parasite being capable of development +into the other, and the fructification characteristic of the two +supposed genera having been evolved on one and the same individual. + +Blight is a term loosely applied to a number of parasitic diseases. +In it are included mildew, cories, and even rust and smut. The fungi +producing these diseases attack the plant and seed at various stages of +its growth. The whole kernel is affected, and not merely the external +coat, as is sometimes maintained. When blighted grain is sown, the +disease recurs the following year, often making it necessary to import +new seed before the disease can be eradicated. Various remedies have +been used to destroy the spores of these fungi, but all are uncertain +and some are dangerous to health. Special machinery and methods have +been employed in the mills to separate the mildew from the grain. Some +of these succeed in removing the fungi and discoloration from the +surface of the grain, but have no effects upon the parts within. +Blighted grain is soft, and has an unpleasant taste and smell, and bread +made of it is liable to be heavy and sodden. + +It is undeniable that the use of blighted grain as food is exceeding +dangerous to health. It is a well known fact that vegetable parasites +may attack animals; the silk worm disease produced by the _Botrytis +baniana_, being an example. It is stated that the same vegetable +parasites which produce plant diseases, when transmitted to the animal +body produce special affections, the form and appearance of the germs +being altered by their environments. The same germs developed under +different conditions of temperature and surrounding medium, assume forms +so various that they have been supposed to belong to different species +and even different genera. If there is any truth, then, in the germ +theory of disease, it is not so very improbable that a fungus which +will produce blight in grain may cause cholera or tetanoid fever in an +animal. + +Hallier, the famous physiological botanist, observed in 1867 that there +was a peculiar disease of the rice plant associated with an epidemic of +cholera. Rice plants fertilized with the discharges of cholera patients +were affected with blight. A concentrated infusion of the blighted grain +would produce changes in all animal substances, blood and albumen being +converted into thin odorless products resembling in every respect the +material found in the kidneys of cholera patients. + +The most formidable of the diseases attributed to the use of diseased +grain is cerebro-spinal meningitis, commonly known as spotted or blanoid +fever. The disease is rare in England, but is frequently epidemic in the +United States, in Ireland, and on the Continent. In 1873, in the State +of Massachusetts alone, 747 persons died of it, and other epidemics even +more fatal have lately occurred in New York and Michigan. The disease is +a nervous fever attended with convulsions, the pathological lesion being +congestion and inflammation of the membrane of the spinal cord and +brain. Dr. Richardson in writing on the nature and causes of spotted +fever concludes that it is due to the use of diseased vegetable +substances, especially grain, and from a careful analysis of the +statistics of this disease reported by the Michigan State Board of +Health considers it demonstrated that "under favoring condition for its +action diseased grain received as a food is the primary cause of the +phenomena which characterize the disease." These views are substantiated +by the experiments of Dr. H. Day, who found that by feeding rabbits on +unsound grain, spasmodic affections were produced, due to inflammation +of the membranes of the spinal cord and brain. + +In warm climates, pellagra or Italian leprosy is said to be produced by +eating diseased maize, which forms the principal article of food among +the poorer classes of the rural districts. Pellagra is epidemic in +northern Italy and the south of France. The disease is manifested by a +redness and discoloration of the exposed parts of the body. It is most +active during the hot weather, the inflammation subsiding in the winter, +leaving a pigmentation of the skin. Each year the symptoms become more +alarming, nervous disorders finally setting in, and a large number die +insane. The disease is most prevalent in the country. In the towns, +where maize is supplemented by other articles of food, it does not +exist. + +Ergot is a very common disease of the cereals. The fungus producing it +was discovered in 1853, but for centuries previous its injurious effects +upon the human body were recognized, and it was observed that ergot of +rye was the most poisonous. Taken in large doses, ergot will produce +nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, headache, and weakness of the heart. In +small repeated doses it will produce contraction of all the unstriped +muscles, as those of the blood vessels, the womb, and intestines. +Ergotium is the name given to the disease produced by the continued use +of grain affected by this fungus. Aitken describes it as "a train of +morbid symptoms produced by the slow and cumulative action of a specific +poison peculiar to wheat and rye, which produces convulsions, gangrene +of the extremities, and death. In countries where rye bread is much used +ergotium is sometimes epidemic. This was a frequent calamity before +the introduction of suitable purifiers into the mills. There are two +varieties of the disease, the convulsive and the gangrenous. The +convulsive form begins with tingling of the extremities, drowsiness, and +headache, followed by pain in the joints, violent muscular contractions, +and death. The gangrenous variety begins with coldness and weakness +of the extremities followed by gangrene and sloughing. This form is +somewhat more fatal than the convulsive, the mortality of those affected +being about 90 per cent. + +Mouldy grain and bread have also caused poisoning. Prof. Varnell states +that "six horses died in three days from eating mouldy oats. There was a +large amount of matted mycelium, and this when given to other horses for +experiment, killed them within thirty-six hours." The writer has himself +seen seven hogs die within a few days while being fed on mouldy corn. +Flour which has become stale may produce similar injurious effects, +although most of the germs are destroyed in the process of baking. It is +quite probable, however, that a poisonous substance is generated by the +mould fungus, which cannot be destroyed in this way.--_Milling World_. + + * * * * * + + + + +MOIST AIR IN LIVING ROOMS. + + +The injurious effect of dry heat in inhabited rooms is quite generally +known, and different methods have been suggested for moistening the +air. To test the effectiveness of these methods, J. Melikow, of St. +Petersburg, has estimated the quantity of moisture in the air of +different rooms by means of August's psychrometer, and also tested +the different methods of increasing the moisture. He arrived at the +following results, which are of decided practical value: + +1. When large and small open vessels filled with water are placed in the +room, they do not increase the moisture of the air at all. + +2. Tubs of water of the same temperature as the room and parlor +fountains have very little effect. + +3. When hot air is used, open vessels of water placed over the pipes +have no effect at all. + +4. Wolpert's revolving wheel increases the moisture but slightly. + +5. The Russian tea machine and the steam pulverizer (atomizer) are +effective but only for a short time. + +6. Wet hand towels suspended in a room are insufficient. + +7. Of all the methods tested, the most efficient seemed to be to hang up +a number of wet cloths on a winch or some contrivance that permits +of turning them, so as to hasten their giving out moisture to the +air.--_Med. Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + +[The following article is from the June number of the _American +Naturalist_, edited by Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., and Prof. E. D. Cope. +Published by McCalla & Stavely, Philadelphia, Pa.] + + + + +THE DEVELOPMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN PHYSIOGNOMY. + +[Footnote: Abstract of a lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute +of Philadelphia, Jan. 20.1881, in exposition of principles laid down in +The Hypothesis of Evolution, New Haven, 1870, p. 31.] + +By E. D. COPE. + + +The ability to read character in the form of the human face and figure +is a gift possessed by comparatively few persons, although most +people interpret, more or less correctly, the salient points of human +expression. The transient appearances of the face reveal temporary +phases of feeling which are common to all men; but the constant +qualities of the mind should be expressed, if at all, in the permanent +forms of the executive instrument of the mind, the body. To detect the +peculiarities of the mind by external marks has been the aim of the +physiognomist of all times; but it is only in the light of modern +evolutionary science that much progress in this direction can be made. +The mind, as a function of part of the body, partakes of its perfections +and its defects, and exhibits parallel types of development. Every +peculiarity of the body has probably some corresponding significance in +the mind; and the causes of the former are the remoter causes of the +latter. Hence, before a true physiognomy can be attempted, the origin +of the features of the face and general form must be known. Not that +a perfect physiognomy will ever be possible. A mental constitution so +complex as that of man cannot be expected to exhibit more than its +leading features in the body; but these include, after all, most of what +it is important for us to be able to read, from a practical point of +view. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of skull of adult orang-outang _(Simia +satyrus)_. FIG. 2.--Section of skull of young orang, showing relatively +shorter jaws and more prominent cerebral region.] + +The present essay will consider the probable origin of the structural +points which constitute the permanent expression. These may be divided +into three heads, viz.: + +1. Those of the general form or figure. + +2. Those of the surface or integument of the body, with its appendages. + +3. Those of the forms of the head and face. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Figure of infant at birth; _a_, front of face. +(The eye is too far posterior in this figure.)] + +The principal points to be considered under each of these heads are the +following: + + +I. THE GENERAL FORM. + +1. The size of the head. + +2. The squareness or slope of the shoulders. + +3. The length of the arms. + +4. The constriction of the waist. + +5. The width of the hips. + +6. The length of the leg, principally of the thigh. + +7. The sizes of the hands and feet. + +8. The relative sizes of the muscles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Portrait of a girl at five years of age.] + + +II. THE SURFACES. + +9. The structure of the hair (whether curled or not). + +10. The length and position of the hair. + +11. The size and shape of the nails. + +12. The smoothness of the skin. + +13. The color of the skin, hair, and irides. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Portrait of the same at seventeen years, showing +the elongation of the facial region, and less protuberance of the +cerebral.] + + +III. THE HEAD AND FACE. + +14. The relative size of the cerebral to the facial regions. + +15. The prominence of the forehead. + +16. The prominence of the superciliary (eyebrow) ridges. + +17. The prominence of the alveolar borders (jaws). + +18. The prominence and width of the chin. + +19. The relation of length to width of skull. + +20. The prominence of the malar (cheek) bones. + +21. The form of the nose. + +22. The relative size of the orbits and eyes. + +23. The size of the mouth and lips. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Profile of a Luchatze negro woman, showing +deficient bridge of nose and chin, and elongate facial region and +prognathism.] + +The significance of these, as of the more important structural +characters of man and the lower animals, must be considered from two +standpoints, the paleontological and the embryological. The immediate +paleontological history of man is unknown, but may be easily inferred +from the characteristics displayed by his nearest relatives of the order +Quadrumana. If we compare these animals with man, we find the following +general differences. The numbers correspond to those of the list above +given: + +I. _As to General Form_.--(3) In the apes the arms are longer; (8) the +extensor muscles of the leg are smaller. + +II. _As to Surface_.--(9) The body is covered with hair which is not +crisp or woolly; (10) the hair of the head is short; (18) the color of +the skin, etc., is dark. + +III. _As to Head and Face_.--(14) The facial region of the skull is +large as compared with the cerebral; (15) the forehead is not prominent, +and is generally retreating; (16) the superciliary ridges are more +prominent; (17) the edges of the jaws are more prominent; (18) the chin +is less prominent; (20) the cheek bones are more prominent; (21) the +nose is without bridge, and with short and flat cartilages; (22) the +orbits and eyes are smaller (except in Nyctipithecus); (24) the mouth is +small and the lips are thin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Face of another negro, showing flat nose, less +prognathism and larger cerebral region. From Serpa Pinto.] + +It is evident that the possession of any one of the above +characteristics by a man approximates him more to the monkeys, so far +as it goes. He retains features which have been obliterated in other +persons in the process of evolution. + +[Illustration: FIG.8.--Portrait of Satanta, a late chief of the Kiowas +(from the Red river of Texas), from a photograph. The predominance of +the facial region, and especially of the malar bones, and the absence of +beard, are noteworthy.] + +In considering the physiognomy of man from an embryological standpoint, +we must consider the peculiarities of the infant at birth. The numbers +of the following list correspond with those already used (Fig. 3). + +I. _As to the General Form_.--(1) The head of the infant is relatively +much larger than in the adult; (3) the arms are relatively longer; +(4) there is no waist; (6) the leg, and especially the thigh, is much +shorter. + +II. _As to the Surfaces_.--(10) The body is covered with fine hair, and +that of the head is short. + +III. _The Head and Face_.--(14) The cerebral part of the skull greatly +predominates over the facial; (16) the superciliary ridges are not +developed; (17) the alveolar borders are not prominent; (20) the malar +bones are not prominent; (21) the nose is without bridge and the +cartilages are flat and generally short; (22) the eyes are larger. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Australian native (from Brough Smyth), showing +small development of muscles of legs and prognathism.] + +It is evident that persons who present any of the characters cited in +the above list are more infantile or embryonic in those respects than +are others; and that those who lack them have left them behind in +reaching maturity. + +We have now two sets of characters in which men may differ from each +other. In the one set the characters are those of monkeys, in the other +they are those of infants. Let us see whether there be any identities in +the two lists, i. e., whether there be any of the monkey-like characters +which are also infantile. We find the following to be such: + +I. _As to General Form_.--(3) The arms are longer. + +II. _Surface_.--(10) The hair of the head is short, and the hair on the +body is more distributed. + +III. _As to Head and Face_.--(21) The nose is without bridge and the +cartilages are short and flat. + +Three characters only out of twenty-three. On the other hand, the +following characters of monkey-like significance are the opposites of +those included in the embryonic list: (14) The facial region of the +skull is large as compared with the cerebral; (15) the forehead is not +prominent; (16) the superciliary ridges are more prominent; (17) the +edges of the jaws are more prominent. Four characters, all of the face +and head. It is thus evident that in attaining maturity man resembles +more and more the apes in some important parts of his facial expression. + +[Illustration: Esequibo Indian woman, showing the following +peculiarities: deficient bridge of nose, prognathism, no waist, and +(the right hand figure) deficiency of stature through short femur. From +photographs by Endlich.] + +It must be noted here that the difference between the young and +embryonic monkeys and the adults is quite the same as those just +mentioned as distinguishing the young from the adult of man (Figs. 1 and +2). The change, however, in the case of the monkeys is greater than +in the case of man. That is, in the monkeys the jaws and superciliary +ridges become still more prominent than in man. As these characters +result from a fuller course of growth from the infant, it is evident +that in these respects the apes are more fully developed than man. +Man stops short in the development of the face, and is in so far more +embryonic.[1] The prominent forehead and reduced jaws of man are +characters of "retardation." The characters of the prominent nose with +its elevated bridge, is a result of "acceleration," since it is a +superaddition to the quadrumanous type from both the standpoints of +paleontology and embryology.[2] The development of the bridge of the +nose is no doubt directly connected with the development of the front of +the cerebral part of the skull and ethmoid bone, which sooner or later +carries the nasal bones with it. + +[Footnote 1: This fact has been well stated by C. S. Minot in the +_Naturalist_ for 1882, p. 511.] + +[Footnote 2: See Cope, The Hypothesis of Evolution, New Haven, 1870, p. +31.] + +[Illustration: The Venus of the Capitol (Rome). The form and face +present the characteristic peculiarities of the female of the +Indo-European race.] + +If we now examine the leading characters of the physiognomy of three +of the principal human sub-species, the Negro, the Mongolian, and the +Indo-European, we can readily observe that it is in the two first named +that there is a predominance of the quadrumanous features which are +retarded in man; and that the embryonic characters which predominate are +those in which man is accelerated. In race description the prominence +of the edges of the jaws is called prognathism, and its absence +orthognathism. The significance of the two lower race characters as +compared with those of the Indo-European is as follows: + +_Negro_.--Hair crisp (a special character), short (quadrum. accel.); +prognathous (quadrum. accel.); nose flat, without bridge (quadrum. +retard)[1]; malar bones prominent (quadrum. accel.); beard short +(quadrum. retard.); arms longer (quadrum. accel.); extensor muscles of +legs small (quadrum. retard.). + +[Footnote 1: In the Bochimans, the flat nasal bones are co-ossified with +the adjacent elements as in the apes (Thulie).] + +_Mongolian_.--Hair straight, long (accel.); jaws prognathous (quadrum. +accel.); nose flat or prominent with or without bridge; malar bones +prominent (quadrum. accel.); beard none (embryonic); arms shorter +(retard.); extensor muscles of leg smaller (quad. retard.). + +_Indo-European_.--Hair long (accel.); jaws orthognathous (embryonic +retard.); nose (generally) prominent with bridge (accel.); malar bones +reduced (retard.); beard long (accel.); arms shorter (retard.); extensor +muscles of the leg large (accel.). + +The Indo-European race is then the highest by virtue of the acceleration +of growth in the development of the muscles by which the body is +maintained in the erect position (extensors of the leg), and in those +important elements of beauty, a well-developed nose and beard. It is +also superior in these points in which it is more embryonic than the +other races, viz., the want of prominence of the jaws and cheekbones, +since these are associated with a greater predominance of the cerebral +part of the skull, increased size of cerebral hemispheres, and greater +intellectual power. + +A comparison between the two sexes of the Indo-Europeans expresses their +physical and mental relations in a definite way. I select the sexes of +the most civilized races, since it is in these, according to Broca and +Topinard, that the sex characters are most pronounced. They may be +contrasted as follows. The numbers are those of the list already used. +I first consider those which are used in the tables of embryonic, +quadrumanous, and race characters: + + MALE. FEMALE. + I. _The General Form_. + 2. Shoulders square. Shoulders slope. + 4. Waist less constricted. Waist more constricted. + 5. Hips narrower. Hips wider. + 6. Legs longer. Legs shorter (very frequently). + 8. Muscles larger. Muscles smaller. + + II. _The Integuments, etc_. + 10. More hair on body, that Less hair on body, that of head + of head shorter; beard. longer; no beard. + 12. Skin rougher (generally). Skin smoother. + + III. _The Head and Face_. + 16. Superciliary ridges more Superciliary ridges low. + prominent. + 22. Eyes often smaller. Eyes often larger. + +[Illustration: The Wrestler; original in the Vatican. This figure +displays the characters of the male Indo-European, except the beard.] + +The characters in which the male is the most like the infant are two, +viz., the narrow hips and short hair. Those in which the female is most +embryonic are five, viz., the shorter legs, smaller muscles, absence of +beard, low superciliary ridges, and frequently larger eyes. To these may +be added two others not mentioned in the above lists; these are 1, the +high pitched voice, which never falls an octave, as does that of the +male; and 2, the structure of the generative organs, which in all +mammalia more nearly resemble the embryo and the lower vertebrata in the +female than in the male. Nevertheless, as Bischoff has pointed out, one +of the most important distinctions between man and the apes is to be +found in the external reproductive organs of the female. + +From the preceding rapid sketch the reader will be able to explain the +meaning of most of the peculiarities of face and form which he will +meet with. Many persons possess at least one quadrumanous or embryonic +character. The strongly convex upper lip frequently seen among the lower +classes of the Irish is a modified quadrumanous character. Many people, +especially those of the Sclavic races, have more or less embryonic +noses. A retreating chin is a marked monkey character. Shortness +of stature is mostly due to shortness of the femur, or thigh; the +inequalities of people sitting are much less than those of people +standing. A short femur is embryonic; so is a very large head. The faces +of some people are always partially embryonic, in having a short face +and light lower jaw. Such faces are still more embryonic when the +forehead and eyes are protuberant. Retardation of this kind is +frequently seen in children, and less frequently in women. The length of +the arms would appear to have grown less in comparatively recent times. +Thus the humerus in most of the Greek statues, including the Apollo +Belvidere, is longer than those of modern Europeans, according to a +writer in the Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie of Paris, and +resembles more nearly that of the modern Nubians than any other people. +This is a quadrumanous approximation. The miserably developed calves of +many of the savages of Australia, Africa, and America are well known. +The fine, swelling gastroenemius and soleus muscles characterize the +highest races, and are most remote from the slender shanks of the +monkeys. The gluteus muscles developed in the lower races as well as +in the higher distinguish them well from the monkeys with their flat +posterior outline. + +It must be borne in mind that the quadrumanous indications are found in +the lower classes of the most developed races. The status of a race or +family is determined by the percentage of its individuals who do and do +not present the features in question. Some embryonic characters may +also appear in individuals of any race, as a consequence of special +circumstances. Such are, however, as important to the physiognomist as +the more normal variations. + +Some of these features have a purely physical significance, but the +majority of them are, as already remarked, intimately connected with +the development of the mind, either as a cause or as a necessary +coincidence. I will examine these relations in a future article. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRODUCTION OF FIRE. + + +In 1867 the Abbe Bourgeois found at Thenay, near Pont-levoy +(Loir-et-Cher), in a marly bank belonging to the most ancient part of +the middle Tertiary formation, fragments of silex which bore traces of +the action of fire. This fire had not been lighted by accidental causes, +for, says Mr. DeMortillet (_Le Prehistorique_, p. 90), the causes of +instantaneous conflagrations can be only volcanic fires, fermentations, +and lightning. "Now, in the entire region there is no trace of volcanic +action, and neither are there any traces of turfy or vegetable deposits +capable of giving rise to spontaneous inflammations--phenomena that +are always very rare and very exceptional, as are also conflagrations +started by lightning. Well, in the Thenay marls, the pieces of silex +that had undergone the action of fire were found disseminated at +different levels, and this could not have been a simple accident, but +was evidently something that had been done intentionally. There existed, +then, during the Aquitanian epoch, a being who was acquainted with fire +and knew how to produce it." + +Mr. De Mortillet supposes that this being was an animal intermediate +between man and the monkey, which he calls the _anthropopithecus_. + +This precursor of man made use of fire for splitting silex and +manufacturing from it instruments whose cutting edge he perfected by +means of a series of retouchings produced by slight percussions upon one +of the surfaces only. + +I shall not enter in this place upon a discussion as to the existence +of an anthropopithecus or Tertiary man, whom every one does not as yet +accept, but will confine myself to giving the facts as to the use of +fire in the remotest epochs, incontestable proofs of which exist from +the time at which Quaternary man made his appearance. How this was +discovered is indicated, according to Aryan tradition, by the Vedic +hymns. The ancestors of the Aryans, these tell us, had seen the lighting +dart forth from the shock of black clouds. They had seen the spark that +fired the forests issue from the friction of dry branches agitated by +the storm. They took a branch of soft wood, _arani_, and passing a thong +around a branch of hard wood, _pramontha_, they caused it to revolve +rapidly in a cavity in the _arani_, and thus evoked the god _Agni_, whom +they nourished with libations of clarified butter, _soma_. + +The _Pramontha_, became the _Prometheus_ of the Greeks, the Titan who +stole the fire, and it is from the Sanscrit _Agni_ that is derived the +Latin _Ignis_, "fire," and the Greek [Greek: Agnos], "pure," and the +_Agnus Dei_ of the Christians, who purifies all. + +Orientalists generally agree that the sign which is seen under the forms +[inline illustration], [inline illustration], or [inline illustration], +on a large number of objects of Aryan origin is a sort of sacred +hieroglyphic, representing the _arani_ or _svastika_, formed of two +pieces of soft wood fixed by four pins in such a way as not to revolve +under the pressure of the Pramontha. + +This process of producing fire is also found among a host of more or +less savage peoples, and especially in India, where, during the last +month of the great feast of sacrifices, the sacred fire must always be +kindled three hundred and sixty times a day with nine different kinds of +wood that are prescribed by the rite. + +Fig. 1 shows the arrangement in use among the Eskimos, and Fig. 2 that +employed by the Indians of North America. + +In 1828 there still existed at Essen, in Hanover, an analogous apparatus +designed to produce an alarm fire. This was a large, horizontal, round +wooden bar whose extremities pivoted in two apertures formed in vertical +posts, and which was provided with a cord that was wound around it +several times. Several persons, by pulling on the ends of this cord, +caused the bar to revolve alternately in one direction and the other, +and the heat developed by the friction lighted some tow that had +previously been inserted in one of the apertures in the post. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ESKIMO PRODUCING FIRE BY FRICTION.] + +It is certain that the alternate motion must have been produced directly +by hand before being effected by cords. This simpler process is still in +use in Tasmania, Australia, Polynesia, Kamtschatka, Thibet, Mexico, and +among the Guanches of the Canary Isles, who are supposed to be the last +representatives of the inhabitants of Atlantis, which sank under the +waters at the close of the Quaternary epoch. + +Chamisso, who accompanied Kotzebue in his voyage, describes it as +follows: "In the Caroline Islands, they rest a vertical piece of +roundish wood, terminating in a point, and about a foot and a half in +length and one inch in diameter, upon a second one fixed in the ground, +and then give it a rotary motion by acting with the palms of the +hands. This motion, which is at first slow and measured, is at length +accelerated, while at the same time the pressure becomes stronger, +whereupon the dust from the wood which has formed by friction and +accumulated around the point of the movable piece begins to carbonize. +This dust, which, after a fashion, constitutes a match, soon bursts into +flame. The women of Eap are wonderfully dexterous in their use of this +process." + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PROCESS EMPLOYED IN NORTH AMERICA FOR PRODUCING +FIRE.] + +Fig. 3 shows another manner of obtaining fire by rotation which is +employed by the Guachos, a half savage, pastoral people who inhabit the +pampas of South America. Longitudinal friction must have preceded that +obtained by rotation. It is still in use in most of the islands of +Oceanica (Fig. 4), and especially in Tahiti and in the Sandwich Islands. + +In these latter, says again Chamisso, upon the fixed piece of wood they +place another piece of the same kind, about the length of the palm, and +press it obliquely at an angle of about 30 degrees. The extremity that +touches the fixed piece is blunt, and the other extremity is held with +the two hands, the two thumbs downward, in order to allow of a surer +pressure. The piece is given an alternating motion, and in such a way +that it shall always remain in the same plane inclined at an angle of 30 +degrees, and form, through friction, a small groove from six to eight +centimeters in length. When the dust thus produced begins to carbonize, +the pressure and velocity are increased. Wood of a homogeneous texture, +neither too hard nor too soft, is the best for the purpose. + +The Malays operate as follows: A dry bamboo rod, about a foot in length, +is split longitudinally, and the pith which lines the inside is scraped +off, pressed, and made into a small ball which is afterward placed in +the center of the cavity of one of the halves of the tube. This latter +half is then fixed to the ground in such a way that the cavity and ball +face downward. The operator next fashions the other half of the tube +into a straight cutting instrument like a knife-blade, which he applies +transversely to the fixed half and gives an alternating motion so as to +produce a sort of sawing. After a certain length of time, a groove, and +finally a hole, is produced. The cutting edge of the instrument is then +so hot that it sets on fire the ball with which it has come in contact. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--GAUCHO OBTAINING FIRE.] + +Some peoples, the Fuegians especially, procure fire by striking together +two flints. In the Aleutian Islands these latter, having been previously +covered with sulphur, are struck against each other over a small saucer +of dry moss dusted with sulphur. The Eskimos employ for this purpose +pieces of quartz and iron pyrites. + +In the Sandwich Islands recourse is had to a process that necessitates +much skill. There is arranged in a large dry leaf, rolled into the +shape of a funnel, a certain number of flints along with some easily +combustible twigs. On attaching the leaf to the end of a rod, and +revolving the latter rapidly, it is said that fire is produced. + +Processes that are based upon the clashing of two flint stones must be +much more inconvenient of application than we would be led to suppose. +We are, in fact, accustomed to see the flint and steel used, but here +the spark is a bit of iron raised to red heat through a mechanical +action that has violently detached it from the mass under the form of +a small sliver. In the case of two flint stones, the light that +is perceived is of an entirely different nature, for it is a +phosphorescence which is produced, even by a very slight friction, not +only between two pieces of silex, but also between two pieces of quartz, +porcelain, or sugar; and that the heat developed is but slight is proved +by the fact that the phenomenon may occur under water. Of course, +fragments of stones may be raised to a red heat through percussion; but +this does not often occur, so for this reason the Fuegians keep up with +the greatest care the fires that they have lighted, and it is this very +peculiarity that has given their country a characteristic aspect and +caused it to be named Terra del Fuego (land of fire). When they change +their residence they always carry with them a few lighted embers which +rest in their canoes upon a bed of pebbles or ashes. + +The same thing occurs, moreover, among the Australians and Tasmanians, +who employ, as we have just seen, the rotary process. There are women +among these peoples whose special mission it is to carry day and night +lighted torches or cones made of a substance that burns slowly like +punk. When, through accident, the fire happens to get extinguished in a +tribe, these people often prefer to undertake a long voyage in order to +obtain another light from a neighboring tribe rather than have recourse +to a direct production of it. + +We can understand from what is still taking place in these distant +countries why the worship of fire should have existed among our +ancestors, and why sacerdotal associations, such as the Brahmins of +India, the Guebers of Persia, the Vestals of Rome, the priests of Baal +in Chaldea and Phenicia should have been specially instituted for +producing and preserving it. + +Plutarch narrates (Numa, chap. ii.) that when the sacred fire happened +to go out, there was employed for relighting it a brass mirror that +had the form of a cone generated by the hypothenuse of an isosceles +rectangular triangle revolving around one of the sides of the right +angle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--NATIVE OF OCEANICA OBTAINING FIRE BY FRICTION.] + +In a poem upon stones attributed to Orpheus, it is said that the sacred +fire was also lighted by a bit of crystal which concentrated the rays of +the sun upon the material to be inflamed. This process must have been +the one that was most usually employed before fire became common. In +fact, a plano-convex crystal lens has been found among the ruins of +Nineveh. Aristophanes, in the _Clouds_, puts on the stage a coarse +personage named Strepsiades, who points out to Socrates how he must +manage so as not to pay his debts: + +"Streps.--Hast thou seen among druggists that beautiful transparent +stone that they employ for lighting a fire? + +"Socr.--Thou meanest glass. + +"Streps.--Yes. + +"Socr.--Well! what wouldst thou do with it? + +"Streps.--When the registrar shall have made out his summons against me, +I will take the glass, and, placing myself thus in the sun, will cause +his writing to melt." + +As well known, writing was then traced on waxen tablets. Servius (in +_AEn_., xii., 200) affirms that men of ancient times, instead of lighting +fire upon the altar themselves, in their sacrifices, caused it to +descend from heaven. He adds, according to Pliny, Titus Livius, and +several old Latin historians, that Numa, who was initiated into all the +wisdom of Etruria, practiced this art with success, but that Tullius +Hostilius, having desired to repeat the evocation, guided only by the +books of Numa, did not accomplish all the formalities prescribed by the +rite and was struck dead by lightning. + +Is it not curious that twenty-four centuries afterward, in 1753, +the physicist Reichman was killed by lightning in trying to repeat +Franklin's experiment? This coincidence, however, is not the only one. +Pliny (ii., 53) recounts that lightning was evoked by King Porsenna at +the time when a monster named _Volta_, who was ravaging the country, was +directing himself toward the capital, Volsinies. + +If we return to the Vedas, who had the habit of personifying all +phenomena, we shall find that the fire Agni was the son of the carpenter +who had manufactured the instrument by which it was produced, and of +_Maya_ (magic). He took the name of Akta (anointed, [Greek: christos]) +when, nourished by libations of butter, he had acquired his full +development. The Persians attributed likewise to Zoroaster the power +of causing fire to descend from heaven through magic. Saint Clement of +Alexandria (_Recog_., lib. iv.) and Gregory of Tours (_Hist. de Fr._, +i., 5) speak of this. However this may be, the marvelous art was lost +at an early date, for it was at such a date that priests began to have +recourse to tricks that were more or less ingenious for lighting their +sacred fireplaces in an apparently supernatural manner.--_A. De Rochas, +in La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ST. BLAISE, THE WINNER OF THE DERBY. + + +St. Blaise, the property of Sir Frederick Johnstone, was bred by Lord +Alington, and is by Hermit from Fusee. This is an unexceptionable +pedigree, for Hermit is now as successful and fashionable a sire as was +even Stockwell in his palmiest days, while Fusee was far more than an +average performer on the turf, and won several Queen's Plates and other +races over a distance of ground. St. Blaise is by no means a big colt, +standing considerably under sixteen hands. His color is about his worst +point, as he is a light, washy chestnut, with a bald face and three +white heels. He has a good head and neck, and very powerful back and +muscular quarters, added to which his legs and feet are well shaped and +thoroughly sound. His first appearance was made in the Twenty-fourth +Stockbridge Biennial at the Bibury Club Meeting, when he won easily +enough; but there were only four moderate animals behind him. A +walk-over for the Troy Stakes followed, and then Macheath beat him +easily enough for the Hurstbourne Stakes, though he finished in front +of Adriana and Tyndrum. For the Molecomb Stakes at Goodwood, he ran a +dead-heat with Elzevir, to whom he was giving 7 lb.; and Bonny Jean, +in receipt of 10 lb., was unplaced. A 7 lb. penalty seemed to put him +completely out of the Dewhurst Plate; but he must then have been out +of form, as, on the following day, it took him all his time to defeat +Pebble by a neck in the Troy Stakes. This season he has only run twice. +His fourth in the Two Thousand was by no means a bad performance, +considering that he was palpably backward; and his victory of last week +is too recent to need further allusion. Porter, his trainer, can boast +of several other successes in the great race at Epsom; but Charles Wood +had never previously ridden a Derby winner. St. Blaise was unfortunately +omitted from the entries for the St. Leger, but has several valuable +engagements at Ascot next week, and appears to have the Grand Prize of +Paris, on Sunday, at his mercy.--_Illustrated London News_. + +[Illustration: ST. BLAISE, THE WINNER OF THE DERBY.] + + * * * * * + +[NATURE.] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN CHINA AND JAPAN. + + +Various steps in the progress of China, and Japan in the adoption of +Western science and educational methods have from time to time been +noticed in these columns. To the popular mind the names of the two +countries are synonymous with rigid, unreasoning conservatism and with +rapid change, respectively. The grave, dignified Chinese, who maintains +his own dress and habits even when isolated among strangers, and whose +motto appears to be, _Stare super mas antiquas_, is popularly believed +to be animated by a sullen, obstinate hostility toward any introduction +from the West, however plain its value may be; while his gayer and more +mercurial neighbor, the Japanese, is regarded as the true child of the +old age of the West, following assiduously in its parent's footsteps, +and pursuing obediently the path marked out by European experience. +There is considerable misconception in this, as indeed there is at +all times in the English popular mind with regard to strange peoples. +Broadly speaking, it is no doubt correct to say that, Japan has adopted +Western inventions and scientific appliances with avidity; that she +has shown a desire for change which is abnormal, and a disposition to +destroy her charts and sail away into unsurveyed seas, while China +remains pretty much where she always was. She is now, with some +exceptions, what she was twenty, two hundred, perhaps two thousand years +ago, while a new Japan has been created in fifteen years. All this, we +say, is true, but it is not the whole truth. China also has had her +changes; not indeed so marked or rapid, not so much in the nature of a +_volte-face_ on all her past as those of her neighbor. + +The radical difference between the two countries in this respect we take +to be this: that while Japan loves change for the sake of change, China +dislikes it, and will only adopt it when it is clearly demonstrated to +her that change is absolutely necessary. To the Japanese change appears +to be a delightful excitement, to the Chinese a distasteful necessity; +to the former whatever is must be wrong, to the latter whatever is is +right. As a consequence of this difference between the two peoples, when +China once makes a step forward it is generally after much deliberation, +and is never retraced. Japan is constantly undertaking new schemes +with little care or thought for the morrow, but with the applause of +injudicious foreign friends. In a short time she discovers that she has +underrated the expense or exaggerated the results, and her projects +are straightway abandoned as rapidly and thoughtlessly as they were +commenced. Swift suggested as a suitable subject for a philosophical +writer a history of human projects which were never carried out; the +historian of modern Japan finds these at every turn. Where, for example, +are the results of the great surveys, trigonometrical and others, which +were commenced in Yezo and the main island about ten years ago? A large, +expensive, but highly competent foreign staff was engaged, and worked +for a few years; but suddenly the whole survey department was swept +away, and the valuable instruments are, or were recently, lying rusting +in a warehouse in Tokio. The same story may be told of scores of other +scientific or educational undertakings in Japan. An able and careful +writer, Col. H.S. Palmer, R.E., who has recently, with a friendly and +sympathetic eye, examined the whole field of recent Japanese progress, +in the _British_ _Quarterly Review_ is forced to acknowledge this. "Once +having recognized," says this officer, "that progress is essential to +welfare, and having resolved, first among the nations of the East, to +throw off past traditions and mould their civilization after that of +Western countries, it was not in the nature of the lively and impulsive +Japanese to advance along the path of reform with the calmness and +circumspection that might have been possible to a people of less active +temperament. Without doubt many foreign institutions were at first +adopted rather too hastily, and the passing difficulties which now beset +Japan are to some extent the inevitable result." It would be blindness +to deny that the net result of the Japanese efforts is progress of a +very remarkable kind, but it is a progress which in many respects lacks +the firm and abiding characteristics of Chinese movements. + +The proverb, _Chi va piano va sano_, which was recommended ten years ago +to Japanese attention by an eminent English official, and apparently +disregarded by them, has been adopted by their continental neighbors. +To the blandishments of pushing diplomatists or acute promoters, the +Chinese are deaf. However we may felicitate ourselves on our inventions, +scientific appliances, "the railway and the steamship and the thoughts +that shake mankind," our progress, the newspapers, the penny post, and +what not, China will not adopt them simply because _we_ have found +their value and are proud of them. But if, within the range of her own +experience, she finds the advantage of these things, she will employ +them with a rapidity and decision surpassing those of the Japanese. A +conspicuous instance of this will be found in her recent action with +respect to telegraphs. For years the Chinese steadily refused to have +anything to do with them; the small land line which connected the +foreign community of Shanghai with the outer world, was maintained +against the violent protests of the local authorities, and the cable +companies experienced some difficulty in getting permission to land +their cables. But during the winter of 1870-80, when war with Russia +was threatened, the value of telegraphs was demonstrated to the Peking +government. The Peiho at Tientsin was closed by ice against steamers, +and news could only be carried to the capital by overland couriers from +Shanghai. Before a year elapsed a land line of telegraph was being +constructed between this port and Tientsin; in a few months the line +was in working order, and the Chinese metropolis is now in telegraphic +communication with every capital in Europe. + +This conservatism, respect for antiquity, conceit, prejudice, call it +what we will, has something in it that extorts our respect. Let us +imagine a dignified and cultivated Chinese official conversing with +a pushing Manchester or Birmingham manufacturer, who descants on the +benefits of our modern inventions. He would probably commune with +himself in this wise, whatever reply Oriental politeness would dictate +to his interviewer: "China has got on very well for some tens of +centuries without the curious things of which this foreigner speaks; she +has produced in this time statesmen, poets, philosophers, soldiers; her +people appear to have had their share of affliction, but not more than +those of Europe; why should we now turn round at the bidding of a +handful of strangers who know little of us or our country, and make +violent changes in our life and habits? A railway in a province will +throw thousands of coolies and boatmen out of employment and bring +on them misery and starvation. This foreigner says that railways and +telegraphs have been found beneficial in his country; good, let his +countrymen have them if they please, but let us rest as we are for the +present. Moreover, past events have not given us such faith in Europeans +that we should take all they say for wisdom and justice." A day will +undoubtedly come when China also will have her great mechanical and +scientific enterprises; but what we contend for here is that nothing +we can say or do will bring that time an hour nearer. European public +opinion is to China a dead letter; she refuses to plead before that +tribunal. Each step of her advance along our path must be the result of +her own reflection and experience; and our wisest policy would be to +leave her to herself to advance on it as she deems best. SINENSIS. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DIAMOND FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA. + + +At a recent meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, the paper +read was "On the Diamond Fields and Mines of South Africa," by Mr. James +N. Paxman, Asoc. M. Inst. C.E. + +The author commenced by stating that Kimberley was situated in +Griqualand West, above 700 miles northeast from Table Bay, and 450 miles +inland from Port Elizabeth and Natal on the east coast. Lines of railway +were in course of construction from Table Bay and Port Elizabeth to +Kimberley, and were about half completed. In Griqualand there were +several diamond mines, the principal of which were Kimberley, De Beer's, +Du Toit's Pan, and Bultfontein. + +In the Orange Free States there were also two mines, viz., Jagersfontein +and Koffeyfontein, the first of which produced fine white stones. The +mines were all divided into claims, the greatest number of which were to +be found in the Du Toit's Pan mine. Bultfontein came next. + +The deepest and most regularly worked was the Kimberley mine. The next +deepest was De Beer's, which, however, was very unevenly worked. Then +followed Du Toit's Pan and Bultfontein. The Du Toit's Pan mine ranked +next in importance to Kimberley mine. Diamonds were first discovered in +1867 by Mr. O'Reilley, a trader and hunter, who visited a colonist named +van Niekirk, residing in Griqua. The first diamond, on being sent to the +authorities, was valued at 500_l_. Considerable excitement was caused +throughout the colony, and the natives commenced to look for diamonds, +and many were found, among which was one of eighty-three and a half +carats, valued at 15,000_l_. In 1868 many enterprising colonists made +their way up the Vaal River, and were successful in finding a good +number of diamonds. The center of the river diggings on the Transvaal +side was Klipdrift, and on the opposite side Pniel. In all there were +fourteen river diggings. Du Toit's Pan and Bultfontein mines were +discovered in 1870 at a distance of twenty-four miles from the river +diggings. The diggers took possession of these places. Licenses were +granted giving the first diggers a right to work. In 1871 De Beer's +and Kimberley mines were discovered, and in 1872, Mr. Spalding's great +diamond of 2821/2 carats was found at the river diggings. + +The mines were of irregular shape, and were surrounded by reef. The top +reef was a loose shale, and had given great trouble from the frequent +slips. Below this were strata of trachitic breccia and augite; the +formation was then seamy to an unknown depth. + +Within the reef, the surface soil was red, and of a sandy nature. The +next stratum was of a loose, yellow, gravelly lime, and the third blue, +of a hard, slaty nature. This last was the real diamantiferous soil. +Large stones had been found in the "yellow," but the working of this +generally did not pay. Kimberley mine, however, had paid very well all +through. The method of working in deep ground was determined by roadways +running north and south. The soil was hauled up to these roadways, +and taken to the sorting tables. The roadways decaying shortly after +exposure to the atmosphere, a system of hand windlass was adopted, which +worked very well for a time until horsewhims were adopted in 1873. +The depths of the mines increasing, horsewhims had to give way to +steam-engines in 1876. + +The first diggers treated on an average ten loads per day each party. At +the present time the least taken out by any engine, when fully employed, +was 250 loads per day. The cost of working, with present appliances, the +first one hundred feet in depth, was 3s. 6d. per load; the second one +hundred feet (mostly blue) 5s.; the third one hundred feet 8s.; and +the fourth one hundred feet 11s. Through scarcity of water a system +of dry-sorting had to be resorted to for several years; but it was +superseded by the introduction of washing machinery, which was now +generally employed. + +At the commencement, through inexperience, many serious mistakes were +made. When the first diggers reached the bottom of the red sand, they +thought no diamonds would be found in the next stratum. When, however, +diamonds were found in the second stratum, the diggers had again to +remove the debris, and so also when the "blue" was reached. Some of the +claims in the Du Toit's Pan and Bultfontein mines were irregular in +shape. The other mines, however, had been properly and regularly laid +out. One or two shafts had been connected with the mines by underground +galleries. These galleries were convenient in the case of falls of reef. +Labor, at first, was cheap; but from 20s. per month, wages rose to 30s. +per week, and food. The yellow soil offered no difficulty in working, +being loose and broken, but the blue soil required blasting. + +Several methods were adopted for extracting the soil and carrying it +from the mine before steam was introduced. The cost of wood for heating +purposes was a serious item, but good coal had now been found at 160 +miles from Kimberley, costing 13l. per ton; another serious item of +expense was the transport over natural roads only, costing from 18_l_. +to 30_l_. per ton. + +The machinery designed by the author for this industry was described. +A sixteen horse-power direct-acting winding engine was introduced for +hauling up loads at the rate of about one thousand feet per minute, and +a twenty-five horse-power geared engine, for hauling up heavier loads at +the rate of from six hundred feet to seven hundred feet per minute. + +Water was dear, and water-heaters were fitted to each engine, by which +thirty-three per cent. of the water was again used, thus saving one +third. The boilers were of the locomotive type, mostly of steel, to save +weight, and thus reduce the cost of transit. The fire-boxes were also +made of steel of very soft and ductile quality. A semi-portable engine +was made for driving the wash mill. The engine was so arranged that it +might be removed from the boiler and placed separately. The boiler was +made to work at a pressure of 140 pounds per square inch. Automatic cut +off gear was fixed to each engine, and the governors were provided with +a spiral spring for adjusting the speed. A screen, or cylinder wash mill +and elevator, were used for dealing with the diamantiferous soil, and +were described. Standing wires were fixed at the back of the machinery, +and passed over a frame fixed at the top of the mine, the end of the +mine being secured to strong wooden posts. After the blue soil had been +blasted and collected into trucks, it was placed in tubs, which ascended +the standing wires. It was then emptied into the depositing box. The +yellow soil might be put into the wash mill direct, also that portion of +the blue which had passed through the screen fixed over the depositing +box. The remainder of the blue, which was spread out to a thickness of +four inches or six inches on the depositing ground, some distance from +the mine to dry, was delivered into the upper part of the screen. The +return water from the elevator, with a portion of fresh water, was also +discharged at this point, and operations were thus greatly facilitated, +the soil becoming thoroughly saturated, and passing more easily down the +shoots. The large pieces which would not drop through the meshes of the +screen were discharged into trucks at the lower end and carried away. +The smaller pieces with water, in the form of sludge, fell through into +a shoot, and thus were conveyed into the wash mill pan, and there kept +in constant rotating motion by agitators. The diamonds and other pieces +of high specific gravity sank to the deepest part of the pan, and the +remainder of the sludge was forced over the inner ledge to the elevator. +The sludge was then lifted and thrown upon an inclined screen and down +the shoot over the side of the bank. The residue left in the pan at the +end of the day's work was passed through a pulsator, in which, by the +force of water, the mud and lighter particles were carried away, leaving +behind the diamonds, agates, garnets, and other heavy stones. It was the +practice occasionally to put a few inferior stones in the soil, to test +the efficiency of the machinery. + +In 1881 the author paid a visit to Kimberley, and found the industry a +large one. The Post Office return showed the value of diamonds passed +through the office in one year to be 3,685,000_l_. Illicit diamond +traffic had hitherto been a source of great trouble at the fields. It +was a question whether this industry would ever cease; in any case there +was no doubt but that it would last for over a century. It was believed +that the main bed of diamonds had not yet been reached, and that the +mines in operation were merely shafts leading to it. Now that the water +works were finished, with a bountiful supply of water, coupled with +the great boon of railways to the Fields, and the advantage of a law +recently passed for the prevention of illicit buying, a great and +prosperous future was in store for the Diamond Fields. + + * * * * * + + + + +SPONGES AT THE BAHAMAS. + + +Within the last few decades the sponge industry of the Bahama Islands +has increased at such a rate that to-day it is the second in importance +on the island. Although the product is not of such excellent quality +as that from the Mediterranean, it sells well and is in demand both in +England and in America. + +For sponge fishing little boats of ten tons burden are employed and +manned by from six to twelve men. The sponges that are washed upon the +rocks and reefs are taken with iron rakes fastened to long poles, or +are brought to the surface by divers and spread out on the deck of the +vessel. This kills their soft, slimy organisms, which are black as tar. +The sponges are then repeatedly beaten with sticks to remove this black +slime, and afterward well washed. + +The sponges are then sorted and softened for several hours in lime +water, dried in the sun, and bleached. They are finally pressed by +machinery into 100 lb. balls and then packed for shipping. + +A rich and very extensive "sponge field" was recently discovered near +Eleuthera, but as the water there has a considerable depth, five or six +fathoms, fishing is attended with difficulty. In fact, it is rendered +impossible wherever the "segler" or sailor fish are found, for the mud +which these tiny creatures stir up completely veils the sponges from the +eye of the fisherman. + +In 1881 the export amounted to $150,000, of which three-fourths came to +America.--_Chem. Zeit_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TESTING FISH OVA FOR IMPREGNATION. + + +The development of the eyes of game fishes (salmonoids), as is well +known, is relatively far advanced before the fish culturist is +positively assured that embryos are developing normally in the egg. +A method, therefore, which would enable us to shorten this period of +probation would not only be desirable, but be also of value under +certain circumstances, since it is certainly annoying after having had +them in water for four or five weeks, spending time and care over them, +to eventually find, when the "eye spots" do not develop, that all our +trouble was wasted and that no development at all took place. + +It is true one may, with proper preparations and with the help of the +pocket lens or microscope, follow the development while there may be no +external signs of the process evident. This method of making the +test is, however, not adapted to the purposes of the practical fish +culturist, who will have better success by the following method: + +If fertilized fish ova are placed in a 50 per cent. solution of wine +vinegar [any ordinary vinegar will probably be found to answer just +as well--_Tr_.] the embryo, even during the very first stages of +development, will become apparent to the eye lying on the transparent +yelk. The acetic acid contained in the mixture, one part water to +one part wine vinegar, causes the material of the embryo proper to +coagulate, while the yelk remains clear. + +A short time after the ova are laid in this mixture, and during the +first week after impregnation, a white circle at one pole of the +egg should become apparent, and in the course of the second week a +cylindrical white streak running from the edge of the circle toward its +center should be evident. If these features are not developed by the +test, the eggs have not been fertilized, and are, therefore, worthless. + +We will not complicate the application of the method by describing other +details of the development, but would merely suggest that when a lot of +ova are fertilized a small portion should be left unimpregnated. These +could then be tested in comparison with the fertilized ova from day to +day, using say three eggs at a time of each lot. The observant culturist +could by this means construct for himself a scale of development +covering the period embraced by his experiments. At a lower temperature +the development is slower than at a higher one. The difference of +appearance between fertilized and unfertilized ova treated by the method +will demonstrate its utility. Whoever does not trust to the method for +the evidence of death of the eggs until after five weeks subsequent to +impregnation, must of course wait. + +Director Tiefenthaler, of Koelzen, has had the kindness to test the +method practically, and finds it useful to fish culturists.--_Prof. +Nussbaum_. + +[A very little practice, it seems to the translator, would serve to +enable any person of ordinary intelligence to apply this method, or +several others which might be suggested. Other substances which would +answer the same purpose would be dilute solutions of picric or chromic +acid, of not more than one to one-half per cent., or one part to two +hundred of water. Vinegar or acetic acid of the shops may also be used; +the last to be diluted in the proportions of about one part in ten of +water. The acids cited will coagulate and cause the germ disk to turn +white or yellow in a few hours. Chromic is better than picric acid, as +it coagulates the yelk also, but turns the latter much darker than the +embryo or embryonic disk.--_Tr_.] + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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