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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 455,
+September 20, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 455, September 20, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 5, 2004 [EBook #13962]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the PG
+Distibuted Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455
+
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Gallisin, an Unfermentable
+      Substance in Starch Sugar.
+
+      The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific Gravities of
+      Elements and Compounds.
+
+      Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means of
+      Ammonium Carbonate.
+
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Petroleum as a Fuel in
+      Locomotive Engines.--By THOMAS URQUHART.--Spray
+      injector.--Driving locomotives.--Storage of petroleum.
+
+      Improved Gas Light Buoy.--2 figures.
+
+      Project for a Roadstead at Havre.--With map and views of
+      different breakwaters.
+
+      Improved Catch Basin.--2 figures.
+
+      Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron Water
+      Pipe.--By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.--Methods of conducting water
+      and transmitting power.--Texas Creek pipe and aqueduct.--4
+      figures.
+
+      Parachute Hydraulic Motor.
+
+      Improved Shafting Lathe.--1 figure.
+
+      Power Straightening Machine.--1 figure.
+
+      Hydraulic Mining in California.--By GEO. O'BRIEN.
+
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--Emerald Green: Its Properties and
+      Manufacture.--Use in wall paper.--ROBERT GALLOWAY.
+
+      Charcoal Kilns.--Extra yield.--2 figures.
+
+
+IV.   ARCHITECTURE--Entrance, Tiddington House, Oxon.--An
+      engraving.
+
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.--The Temperature of the
+      Earth as shown by Deep Mines.
+
+      New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash Pile.--3
+      figures.
+
+      The Distribution of Electricity by Induction.--1 figure.
+
+      Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic Movements.--Apparatus
+      for the study of horizontal and vertical seismic
+      movements, etc.--8 figures.
+
+      New Accumulators.--3 figures.
+
+      Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc Accumulator.
+
+      The History of a Lightning Flash.--By W. SLINGO.
+
+      Researches on Magnetism.
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY.--The Giraffe.--With engraving.
+
+VII.  MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.--The Treatment of Cholera--By
+      Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.
+
+      Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their Relations
+      to Health.--London deaths under 1 year in July, August,
+      and part of September.
+
+      Consumption Spread by Chickens.
+
+      New Method of Reducing Fever.
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Crown Diamonds of France at the
+      Exhibition of Industrial Arts.
+
+      A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses of
+      Management in Life Insurance.--By WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GIRAFFE.
+
+
+The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of the
+Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the _Illustrated
+London News_. Hunting the giraffe has long been a favorite sport among the
+more adventurous of British sportsmen, its natural range being all the
+wooded parts of eastern, central, and southern Africa, though of late
+years it has been greatly thinned out before the settlements advancing
+from the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+[Illustration: THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE.]
+
+The characteristics of this singular animal are in some particulars those
+of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes are beautiful, extremely
+large, and so placed that the animal can see much of what is passing on
+all sides, and even behind it, so that it is approached with the greatest
+difficulty. The animal when full grown attains sometimes a height of
+fifteen to seventeen feet. It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees
+principally, its immense length of legs and height at the withers
+rendering it difficult for the animal to graze on an even surface. It is
+not easily overtaken except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run
+down it can defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is
+said, often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost
+universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder ones,
+but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch, the error
+having been caused by the great development and height of the withers, to
+give a proper base to the long neck and towering head. The color varies a
+good deal, the head being generally a reddish brown, and the neck, back,
+and sides marked with tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white
+divisions. Many specimens have been brought to this country, the animal
+being extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being
+very friendly to those who are kind to it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even with
+incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid any risk of
+fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and lighted by a current,
+the heat generated was sufficient to set fire to the paper, which burnt
+out and caused the lamp to explode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
+observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep mines, were
+presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B Dorsey. Mr. Smith
+said that the temperature of the earth varies very greatly at different
+localities and in different geological formations. There are decided
+exceptions to the general law that the temperature increased with the
+depth. At the New Almaden quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of
+about 600 feet the temperature was very high--some 115 degrees; but in the
+deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500 feet
+below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably less than 80
+degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air 1,200 feet below the
+surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet below the surface. The normal
+temperature of the earth at a depth of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the
+mean annual temperature of the air at the particular place. At the
+Comstock mines, some years since, the miners could remain but a few
+moments at a time, on account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an
+experiment; it produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better
+advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these mines,
+and drunk with apparently no bad results.
+
+Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein, Nevada, were
+exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, the thermometer
+placed in a freshly drilled hole will show 130 degrees. Very large bodies
+of water have run for years at 155 degrees, and smaller bodies at 170
+degrees. The temperature of the air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing
+in fresh air cooled over ice.
+
+Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted annually
+from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and cold air forced in,
+as equal to that generated by the combustion of 55,560 tons of anthracite
+coal or 97,700 cords of wood. Observations were then given upon
+temperature at every 100 feet in the Forman shaft of the Overman mine,
+running from 53 degrees at a depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a
+depth of 2,300 feet. The temperature increased:
+
+    100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet.
+    100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet.
+    100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.
+
+A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number of deep
+mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines or tunnels are
+in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont Cenis tunnel; and the two
+hottest are in trachyte and the "coal measures," namely, the Comstock
+mines in trachyte and the South Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey
+considered that experience showed that limestone was the coolest
+formation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.
+
+
+C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of the
+unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and have
+succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give the name
+gallisin. The method of separation and purification which they made use of
+is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch sugar were allowed to
+ferment. At a temperature of 18-20 deg. C. and with a solution containing 20
+per cent. the fermentation was complete in five to six days. It was
+filtered; the perfectly clear, almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far
+as possible on the water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into
+a good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large excess of
+absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix with the
+alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh alcohol, and again
+shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been repeated several times,
+the sirup is finally changed to a yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought
+into a large mortar, and rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether.
+After some time the whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is
+quickly filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and
+then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved in water
+and treated with bone-black. The solution is then evaporated to a sirup,
+and this poured into a mixture of equal parts of anhydrous alcohol and
+ether. In this way the new compound is obtained as a very fine, pure white
+powder which rapidly settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under
+the microscope it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much
+more rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.
+
+Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the water-bath
+gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not ferment when treated in
+water solution with fresh yeast. The analyses led to the formula
+C_{12}H_{24}O_{10}. When treated under pressure with three times its
+weight of acetic anhydride at 130-140 deg. it dissolves perfectly. From the
+solution a product was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing
+with the formula C_{12}H_{18}O_{10}(C_{2}H_{3}O)_{6}. The substance
+appears therefore to be hexacetylgallisin.
+
+Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings demonstrated
+clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor indirectly any injurious
+effect on the health.--_Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
+17, 1000; Amer. Chem. Jour._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND
+COMPOUNDS.
+
+
+Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer, of New
+York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of Gas Lighting,
+from which the _American Gas Light Journal_ gives the following:
+
+I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the elements
+and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and specific
+gravities. When the combining weight of any of these elements and
+compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor therefrom will always
+occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at 60 deg. Fahr. and 30 inches
+barometer. If we divide this constant 377.07 by the combining weight of
+any of the substances, then the quotient will be the number of cubic feet
+per pound of the same. If we divide the combining weight of any of the
+substances given in the table by 2, then the quotient will give the
+density of the same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining
+weight of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient
+will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as compared
+with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic weights which are
+now generally adopted by the majority of chemists.
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+                              |        |        |Cub. Ft.|        |
+                              |        |        |  per   |        |
+                              | Combi- |Cub. Ft.| Combi- |Specific|
+                              |  ning  |  per   |  ning  |Gravity |
+                              |Weight. | Pound. |Weight. |Air = 1.|
+------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------|
+Hydrogen (H_{2})              |   2.00 | 188.53 | 377.07 | 0.0692 |
+Carbon vapour (C_{2})         |  23.94 |  15.75 | 377.07 | 0.8292 |
+Nitrogen (N_{2})              |  28.06 |  13.43 | 377.07 | 0.9719 |
+Oxygen (O_{2})                |  31.92 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1056 |
+Chlorine (Cl_{2})             |  71.00 |   5.31 | 377.07 | 2.4593 |
+Bromine (Br_{2})              | 160.00 |   2.35 | 377.07 | 5.5420 |
+Flourine (F_{2})              |  38.00 |   9.92 | 377.07 | 1.3162 |
+Iodine (I_{2})                | 253.20 |   1.48 | 377.07 | 8.7703 |
+Sulphur (S_{2})               |  63.96 |   5.89 | 377.07 | 2.2154 |
+Phosphorus (P_{4})            | 123.84 |   3.04 | 377.07 | 4.2895 |
+Carbonic oxide (CO)           |  27.03 |  13.50 | 377.07 | 0.9674 |
+Carbonic acid (CO_{2})        |  48.89 |   8.59 | 377.07 | 1.5202 |
+Water vapour (H_{2}O)         |  17.06 |  20.99 | 377.07 | 0.6221 |
+Hydrogen sulphide (H_{2}S)    |  33.08 |  11.09 | 377.07 | 1.1770 |
+Ammonia (H_{2}N)              |  17.03 |  22.14 | 377.07 | 0.5898 |
+Sulphurous oxide (SO_{2})     |  63.90 |   5.90 | 377.07 | 2.2133 |
+Sulphuric oxide (SO_{3})      |  79.86 |   4.72 | 377.07 | 2.7662 |
+Cyanogen (C_{2}N_{2})         |  52.00 |   7.25 | 377.07 | 1.8011 |
+Bisulphide of carbon (CS_{2}) |  75.93 |   4.96 | 377.07 | 2.6300 |
+Ethyl alcohol (C_{2}H_{6}O)   |  45.90 |   8.21 | 377.07 | 1.5898 |
+Ethyl ether (C_{4}H_{10}O)    |  73.84 |   5.10 | 377.07 | 2.5576 |
+Methyl alcohol (CH_{4}O)      |  31.93 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1059 |
+Methyl chloride (CH_{3}Cl)    |  50.47 |   7.47 | 377.07 | 1.7482 |
+Carbonyl chloride (COCl_{2})  |  98.93 |   3.81 | 377.07 | 3.4267 |
+Phosphine gas (PH_{3})        |  33.96 |  11.10 | 377.07 | 1.1769 |
+Hydrochloric acid (HCl)       |  36.50 |  10.33 | 377.07 | 1.2642 |
+Methane (CH_{4})              |  15.98 |  26.61 | 377.07 | 0.5531 |
+Ethane (C_{2}H_{6})           |  29.94 |  12.50 | 377.07 | 1.0370 |
+Propane (C_{3}H_{8})          |  43.91 |   8.58 | 377.07 | 1.5209 |
+Butane (C_{4}H_{10})          |  57.88 |   6.51 | 377.07 | 2.0048 |
+Ethene (C_{2}H_{4})           |  27.94 |  13.49 | 377.07 | 0.9677 |
+Propene (C_{3}H_{6})          |  41.91 |   8.99 | 377.07 | 1.4516 |
+Butene (C_{4}H_{8})           |  55.88 |   6.74 | 377.07 | 1.9355 |
+Ethine (C_{2}H_{2})           |  25.94 |  14.53 | 377.07 | 0.8985 |
+Propine (C_{3}H_{4})          |  39.91 |   9.44 | 377.07 | 1.3824 |
+Butine (C_{4}H_{6})           |  53.88 |   6.98 | 377.07 | 1.8662 |
+Quintone (C_{5}H_{6})         |  65.85 |   5.72 | 377.07 | 2.2809 |
+Benzene (C_{6}H_{6})          |  77.82 |   4.84 | 377.07 | 2.6955 |
+Styrolene (C_{8}H_{8})        | 103.75 |   3.63 | 377.07 | 3.5936 |
+Naphtalene (C_{10}H_{8})      | 127.70 |   2.95 | 377.07 | 4.4232 |
+Turpentine (C_{10}H_{16})     | 135.70 |   2.77 | 377.07 | 4.7003 |
+Dry air                       |  28.87 |  13.06 |   --   | 1.0000 |
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This substance is also known by the name Schweinfurt green.]
+
+By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green
+(aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in many
+journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another in
+different publications, especially medical ones; there has recently
+appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The Poisonous Effect of
+Wall-paper." As some years ago I became practically acquainted with its
+properties and manufacture, a few observations on these subjects may not
+be without interest.
+
+In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous effect of
+this pigment cannot be _entirely_ due to its mere mechanical detachment
+from the paper. This writer therefore attributes the poisonous effects to
+the formation of the hydrogen compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted
+hydrogen (AsH_{3}); the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound,
+being generated, the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of
+moisture and organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls
+papers impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr.
+Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that
+arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the _fermentation_ of the starch-paste
+employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is perfectly obvious
+that the fermentation of the starch-paste must cease after a time, and
+therefore the poisonous effects of the paper must likewise cease if its
+injurious effects are caused by the fermentation. I do not think that
+arseniureted hydrogen could be formed under the _conditions_, for the
+oxygen compound of arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound
+is in a dry solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two
+elements--arsenic and hydrogen--for each other are so exceedingly weak
+that they cannot be made to unite directly except they are both set free
+at the same moment in presence of each other. Further, for the formation
+of this hydrogen compound by the fermentation of the starch, or by the
+growth of minute fungi, the _entire_ compound must be broken up, and
+therefore the pigment would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of
+copper
+
+    (3CuAs_{2}O_{4}+Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2})
+
+is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition, and is
+consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not unfrequently
+stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are due to the arsenious
+oxide volatilizing from the other constituents of the compound. This
+volatilization would likewise cause a breaking up of the entire compound,
+and would consequently cause a discoloration of the paper; but the
+volatilization of this arsenic compound is in every respect most
+improbable.
+
+The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be due to
+its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever been
+conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the wall-paper of which
+is stained with emerald-green suffer from arsenical poisoning? If it does
+occur, then the effects of what may be termed homoeopathic doses of this
+substance are totally different from the effects which arise from larger
+doses. During the packing of this substance in its dry state in the
+factory, clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had
+to do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands
+suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is any
+abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the delicate
+lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in this way it acts in
+large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as to its supposed poisonous
+effects when wall-paper is stained with it.
+
+Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the manufacture of
+this pigment, but as they do not agree in every respect with the method
+which was followed in English color factories some years ago, it will be
+as well, for the full elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to
+briefly recite some of these methods before describing the one that was,
+and probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method
+which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other, both in
+the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for producing it at a
+less cost.
+
+It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is "prepared on a
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric acetate and water. Five
+parts of verdigris are made up to a thin paste, and added to a boiling
+solution of 4 parts or rather more of arsenious acid in 50 parts of water.
+The boiling must be well kept up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a
+yellow-green color, from the formation of copper arsenite; in that case
+acetic acid must be added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer.
+The precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green
+color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal
+knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt employed in
+its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would account, in my
+opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which it is obtained in
+France than can be produced by the English method of manufacturing it.
+Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe, in England--the much cheaper
+copper salt, the sulphate, being always employed.
+
+In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by _boiling_
+solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate, and adding to the
+mixture an equal bulk of _cold_ water." Why it should be recommended to
+add _cold water_, I am at a loss to understand.
+
+In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and in the
+English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical Technology," edited by
+Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr. Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.,"
+xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated in Wagner's work: "This pigment is
+prepared by first separately dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious
+acid and neutral acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these
+solutions while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent
+olive-green colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the
+supernatant liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the
+precipitate becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a
+beautiful green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration,
+and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode of
+preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised by M.
+Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are dissolved in
+the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with a boiling and
+concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa, so prepared as to
+contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is immediately formed a dirty
+greenish-colored precipitate which is converted into Schweinfurt green by
+the addition of some 15 liters of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having
+been done, the precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."
+
+As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the manufacture of this
+pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is carried out pretty much
+according to Braconnot's method as described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one
+would infer, from reading his description of the manufacturing process,
+that the compound, aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately
+after the addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric
+temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the formation.
+Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms more readily in
+an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or cannot be formed in a
+neutral one; now both these points are important to notice in describing
+its manufacture. As regards the former I shall notice it presently, and,
+as far as my knowledge extends, the pigment will not form when the
+solution is neutral.
+
+The operation is conducted in the following manner in the factory: The
+requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in a large wooden vat,
+and hot water added to dissolve it; the requisite quantity of arsenic
+(arsenious anhydride) and carbonate of soda, the latter not in quantity
+quite sufficient to neutralize the whole of the sulphuric acid set free
+from the sulphate of copper on the precipitation of the copper as
+arsenite, are placed in another wooden vessel; water is then added, and
+the formation of the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the
+introduction of steam into the liquid. When complete solution has been
+effected the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the
+solution of the sulphate of copper, arsenite of copper being at once
+precipitated. The necessary quantity of acetic acid is afterward added. In
+_warm_ weather the formation of the aceto-arsenite soon commences after
+the addition of the vinegar; but, even in that case, it takes a week or
+more to have the whole of a big batch of arsenite converted into the
+aceto-arsenite; and perfect conversion is necessary, as the presence of a
+very minute quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of
+the emerald pigment, and a by no means large quantity renders the pigment
+unsalable, owing to its dirty yellowish-green color. In cold weather a
+much longer time is required for its complete conversion; even at the end
+of a fortnight or three weeks there frequently remains sufficient
+unconverted arsenite to affect seriously the selling price of the color;
+when this occurs the manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a
+most wasteful method viz, by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid. The
+acid of course dissolves the arsenite, but it dissolves in very much
+larger quantities the aceto-arsenite; and this costly solution is not
+utilized, but is run into the factory sewer.
+
+By my method of manufacturing it, it can be produced in winter as well as
+in summer in one or two hours, and the quantity of free acid required for
+its formation is reduced to the lowest amount. I proceed as follows: After
+having dissolved in hot water the requisite quantity of cupric sulphate, I
+decompose one-fourth of this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution
+of carbonate of soda to precipitate the copper, in that quantity of the
+sulphate, as carbonate. I then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert
+the carbonate into acetate. I have now got in solution--
+
+    3CuSO_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2},
+
+and I have to transform it into--
+
+    3CuAs_{2}O_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}.
+
+It is at once seen that I have got the requisite quantity of acetate
+formed. I next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious anhydride in
+an amount of carbonate of soda _rather less_ than is sufficient to
+neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric sulphate, and I then bring the
+solution to or near the boiling-point by introducing steam into it; the
+arsenic is dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt, but in a
+separate one. When the arsenic solution is fully heated, a small current
+of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper salts, and
+brisk stirring is kept up in the vat. The emerald green is at once formed;
+but if there should be the slightest formation of any arsenite, the flow
+of the arsenic solution is at once stopped until every trace of the
+arsenite has been converted; the arsenic solution is then allowed to flow
+in again, with the same precautions as before; in this way a large batch
+of emerald-green can he formed in one or two hours, without containing the
+slightest trace of the arsenite. I keep the arsenic solution near the
+boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the other
+vessel. By varying the proportions of water I could either make it coarse
+or fine, as I wished, which is an important matter to have complete
+control over in its manufacture.
+
+Two points of interest occurred to me during the time I was occupied with
+the research, which I had not time to complete; one was whether the
+aceto-arsenite can be formed, adopting the old method for its formation,
+if there is more than a certain quantity of water; from some experiments I
+made in this direction I was inclined to the opinion it could not. I have
+already stated that emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids,
+and that it is formed in a more or less acid solution; consequently a
+varying amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the
+supernatant liquid. To prevent to a certain extent this loss I
+precipitated the copper from it as arsenite; but I was not successful in
+the few experiments I had time to make on this part of the subject of
+reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained into the aceto-arsenite by
+the addition of acetic acid.--_Jour. of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF ZINC ASH AND CALCINED PYRITES BY MEANS OF AMMONIUM CARBONATE.
+
+
+In a recent issue of the _Chemiker Zeitung_ Dr. Kosmann has reported an
+analytical method for the examination of zinciferous products; according
+to this report, the ash and flue dust produced by the extraction of zinc
+from its ore comprise:
+
+1. Zinc dust, from the distillation of zinc,
+
+2. Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers,
+
+3. Zinc ash, of various assortments, from iron blast furnaces.
+
+Of these, zinc dust is the only ready product which is, as color or
+reducing agent, employed in analytical and technical processes. Its value,
+when serving the latter purpose, is determined by the percentage of finely
+divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained therein; of equal reducing
+power is cadmium, generally associating zinc; injurious, and therefore
+uneffective, are zinc oxide and oxides of other metals, also metallic
+lead.
+
+Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers, is employed with zinc ores in the extraction of zinc, and in
+small quantities as substitute for zinc white; its commercial value is
+similarly estimated as that of zinc ores.
+
+The various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast furnaces
+are an object for continual demand, being both a valuable material for the
+production of zinc and, in its superior qualities, a desirable pigment. In
+the regeneration of zinc the presence of foreign substances is of some
+concern; detrimental are lead, sulphur, and sulphuric acid in form of
+lead, zinc, and lime sulphate.
+
+The chemico-technical analysis of these products has until recently been
+confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by means of sodium
+sulphide (Schaffner's method). But as a remnant of sulphur, as sulphuric
+acid, in roasted blende causes a material loss during distillation, and
+otherwise being induced to produce a zinc free of lead, the estimation of
+sulphur, sulphuric acid, and lead became necessary. These impurities are
+determined by well-known methods; sulphur is oxidized and precipitated
+with barium chloride, lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol. The examination
+of zinc dust, when used for the regeneration of metal, determines the
+quantity of zinc resident therein, and employed as reducing agent, the
+quantity of metal which causes the generation of hydrogen. Cadmium,
+showing the same deportment, must also be considered as well as lead and
+arsenic.
+
+A most complete and rapidly working method for the examination of
+zinciferous products has originated with the application of neutral
+ammonium carbonate as solvent. A solution of this preparation is made,
+according to H. Rose, by dissolving 230 grm. commercial ammon carbonate in
+180 c.c. ammoniacal liquor of 0.92 s.g., and, by addition of water,
+augmenting it to one liter.
+
+This solution dissolves the metallic components, their oxides, and basic
+zinc sulphate, and transfers cadmium and lead oxide, also lead, magnesium,
+and lime sulphate, into insoluble carbonates. Iron and manganese, when
+present as protoxide, are dissolved; of iron sesquioxide but traces, and
+of cadmium oxide _in statu nascendi_ a small portion enter into solution.
+The solution of ammonium carbonate contains in each 10 c.c. 1 grm.
+ammonia, which dissolves 1.5 grm. zinc.
+
+The sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed with an
+adequate volume of the solvent, is digested at 50-60 deg. C. until complete
+decomposition is effected. The heating of the liquid prevents the solution
+of iron, manganese, and cadmium. The content, sediment and liquid, is
+thrown on a filter and washed with hot water to which a small quantity of
+the solvent has been added. When the solution contains iron and manganese,
+it is separated by decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine
+(according to the method of Nic-Wolff) until a flocculent precipitate of
+iron sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible; it is united with
+the original residue and filtered.
+
+The filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy, boiled to expel ammonia,
+tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc, and, when freed of
+all zinc, decanted. The precipitate of zinc carbonate is filtered,
+exhausted with water, transferred into zinc oxide by ignition, and
+weighed. The gravimetric method can be substituted by the volumetric by
+introducing a solution of sodium sulphide of known strength into the
+ammoniacal filtrate. On dividing the filtered liquid into various equal
+portions other substances, arsenic and sulphuric acid, can be determined
+from the same sample. For this purpose the filtrate is concentrated;
+divided into two equal portions, one of which is acidified and treated
+with hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic, the other is
+acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of barium
+chloride. The original residue is dissolved in muriatic or acetic acid and
+filtered. The lead of the filtered liquid is thrown down by sulphuric
+acid, and alcohol, and cadmium, after dissipation of alcohol into gas,
+precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Iron, manganese, alumina, and other
+substances present in the solution are determined by known methods.
+
+It is manifest that the determination of substances--zinc, lead, and
+sulphuric acid--which are of importance in technical analysis of zinc ash,
+can be executed by this method within a comparatively short time. The
+application of ammonium carbonate as solvent has the advantage, over the
+application of ammonia, that it is a far better solvent, that it
+decomposes insoluble basic sulphates, and that the remaining carbonates
+are readily dissolved by acids.
+
+The decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively evolution of
+gas; it is therefore necessary to continue the digestion of the sample
+till no more hydrogen is given off. Zinc dust contains both metals and
+their oxides, and methods which, from the volume of hydrogen generated,
+determine indirectly the percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real
+composition of the zinc dust. For the determination of the metallic
+components the material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate,
+which dissolves zinc and cadmium; the liquid is filtered, acidified, and
+decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, or treated with a solution of ammonium
+carbonate. The use of cupric chloride is not advisable, as it corrodes
+lead, and gives rise to the formation of soluble chloride of lead, which
+complicates the separation of zinc from cadmium. The best mode of
+operation is the following: Both copper sulphate and zinc dust are weighed
+separately, the former is dissolved in water and the latter introduced
+into the solution of copper sulphate in small portions until it appears
+colorless. During the operation the vessel is freely shaken, lumps are
+comminuted with a glass rod, and a few drops of the liquid are ultimately
+tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. The remainder of zinc dust is
+then weighed, and its value deducted from the original weight. Zinc and
+cadmium of the filtrate are determined as above. On repeating this method
+several times most satisfactory results are obtained.
+
+Another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper sulphate and to
+determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate. The separation of copper
+from cadmium being difficult and laborious, and the volumetric estimation
+with potassium cyanide not practicable, it is not prudent to apply this
+method.
+
+When calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined, the estimation of
+zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of zinc ore. The sample
+is exhausted with water, filtered, and, to eliminate calcium sulphate and
+basic iron sulphate, evaporated to dryness. It is then dissolved in a
+small quantity of alcohol and water, refiltered, and the filtrate
+decomposed with ammonium carbonate. The original residue is treated with a
+solution of ammonium carbonate, which dissolves arsenious acid and basic
+zinc sulphate, filtered, and united with the first filtrate. When iron and
+manganese are present, the filtrates are treated with bromine. The united
+filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with sodium sulphide.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PETROLEUM AS FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Abstract of paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.]
+
+By Mr. THOMAS URQUHART.
+
+
+Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a theoretical
+evaporative power of 16.2 lb. of water per lb. of fuel, and the latter of
+12.2 lb., at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 lb. per square inch; hence
+petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent. higher evaporative value
+than anthracite. Now in locomotive practice a mean evaporation of from 7
+lb. to 71/2 lb. of water per lb. of anthracite is about what is generally
+obtained, thus giving about 60 per cent. efficiency, while 40 per cent. of
+the heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an evaporation
+of 12.25 lb. is practically obtained, giving 12.25/16.2 = 75 per cent.
+efficiency. Thus in the first place petroleum is theoretically 33 per
+cent. superior to anthracite in evaporative power; and secondly, its
+useful effect is 25 per cent. greater, being 75 percent. instead of 60
+percent.; while, thirdly, weight for weight, the practical evaporative
+value of petroleum must be reckoned as at least from (12.25 - 7.50)/7.50 =
+63 per cent. to (12.25 - 7.00)/7.00 = 75 per cent. higher than that of
+anthracite.
+
+_Spray injector._--Steam not superheated, being the most convenient for
+injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the furnace, it remains to be
+proved how far superheated steam or compressed air is really superior to
+ordinary saturated steam, taken from the highest point inside the boiler
+by a special internal pipe. In using several systems of spray injectors
+for locomotives, the author invariably noticed the impossibility of
+preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation of soot, and inequality of
+heating of the fire box. The work of a locomotive boiler is very different
+from that of a marine or stationary boiler, owing to the frequent changes
+of gradient on the line, and the frequent stoppages at stations. These
+conditions render firing with petroleum very difficult; and were it not
+for the part played by properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box,
+the spray jet alone would be quite inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of
+engineers have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of
+"spray injector," for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum into a
+fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to render it
+inflammable and of easy ignition. For this object nearly all the known
+spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices for petroleum as well
+as for steam; the width of the orifices does not exceed from 1/2 mm. to 2
+mm. or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and in many instances is capable of
+adjustment. With such narrow orifices it is clear that any small solid
+particles which may find their way into the spray injector along with the
+petroleum will foul the nozzle and check the fire. Hence in many of the
+steamboats on the Caspian Sea, although a single spray injector suffices
+for one furnace, two are used, in order that when one gets fouled the
+other may still work; but, of course, the fouled orifices require
+incessant cleaning out.
+
+_Locomotives._--In arranging a locomotive for burning petroleum, several
+details are required to be added in order to render the application
+convenient. In the first place, for getting up steam to begin with, a gas
+pipe of 1 inch internal diameter is fixed along the outside of the boiler,
+and at about the middle of its length it is fitted with a three-way cock
+having a screw nipple and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is
+connected to the blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to
+the spray injector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a
+shunting locomotive under steam, the spray jet is immediately started by
+the borrowed steam, by which at the same time a draught is also maintained
+in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine shed the borrowed steam would
+be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently placed and specially arranged
+for the purpose of raising steam. In practice steam can be raised from
+cold water to 3 atm. pressure--45 lb. per square inch--in twenty minutes.
+The use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
+worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm.--120 lb.--is
+thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the time the spray jet
+was first started. In daily practice, when it is only necessary to raise
+steam in boilers already full of hot water, the full pressure of 7 to 8
+atm. is obtained in from twenty to twenty-five minutes. While
+experimenting with liquid fuel for locomotives, a separate tank was placed
+on the tender for carrying the petroleum, having a capacity of about 3
+tons. But to have a separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in
+place, would be a source of danger from the possibility of its moving
+forward in case of collision. It was therefore decided, as soon as
+petroleum firing was permanently introduced, to place the tank for fuel in
+the tender between the two side compartments of the water tank, utilizing
+the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the capacity of the
+tank is 3-1/2 tons of oil--a quantity sufficient for 250 miles, with a
+train of 480 tons gross exclusive of engine and tender. In charging the
+tender tank with petroleum, it is of great importance to have strainers of
+wire cloth in the manhole of two different meshes, the outer one having
+openings, say, of 1/4 in., the inner, say 1/8 in.; these strainers are
+occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent any solid
+particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of the spray
+injector is likely to occur; and even if an obstruction should arise, the
+obstacle being of small size can easily be blown through by screwing back
+the steam cone in the spray injector far enough to let the solid particles
+pass and be blown out into the fire-box by the steam. This expedient is
+easily resorted to even when running; and no more inconvenience arises
+than an extra puff of dense smoke for a moment, in consequence of the
+sudden admission of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the
+manhole of the petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another
+strainer at the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of 1/3 in.
+holes.
+
+_Driving locomotives._--In lighting up, certain precise rules have to be
+followed, in order to prevent explosion of any gas that may have
+accumulated in the fire box. Such explosions do often take place through
+negligence; but they amount simply to a puff of gas, driving smoke out
+through the ash-pan dampers, without any disagreeably loud report. This is
+all prevented by adhering to the following simple rules: First clear the
+spray nozzle of water by letting a small quantity of steam blow through,
+with the ash-pan doors open; at the same time start the blower in the
+chimney for a few seconds, and the gas, if any, will be immediately drawn
+up the chimney. Next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece
+of cotton waste, or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum and
+burning with a flame. Then by opening first the steam valve of the spray
+injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the very first spray of oil
+coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites without any explosion
+whatever; after which the quantity of fuel can be increased at pleasure.
+By looking at the top of the chimney, the supply of petroleum can be
+regulated by observing the smoke. The general rule is to allow a
+transparent light smoke to escape, thus showing that neither too much air
+is being admitted nor too little. The combustion is quite under the
+control of the driver, and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent
+smoke altogether. While running, it is indispensable that the driver and
+fireman should act together, the latter having at his side of the engine
+the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the steam wheel and the
+petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two ash-pan door handles
+in which there are notches for regulating the air admission. Each
+alteration in the position of the reversing lever or screw, as well as in
+the degree of opening of the steam regulator or the blast pipe, requires a
+corresponding alteration of the fire. Generally the driver generally
+passes the word when he intends shutting off steam, so that the alteration
+in the firing can be effected before the steam is actually shut off; and
+in this way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually
+done together. All this care is necessary to prevent smoke, which is
+nothing less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, the train arrives
+at the top of a bank, which it has to go down with the brakes on, exactly
+at the moment of the driver shutting off the steam and shifting the
+reversing lever into full forward gear, the petroleum and steam are shut
+off from the spray injector, the ash-pan doors are closed, and if the
+incline be a long one, the revolving iron damper over the chimney top is
+moved into position, closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The
+accumulated heat is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even
+rises in pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon
+as the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again
+required, the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top; then the
+steam is turned on to the spray injector, and next a small quantity of
+petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-pan doors, a small fire
+being rendered possible by the entrance of air around the spray injector,
+as well as by possible leakage past the ash-pan doors. The spray
+immediately coming in contact with the hot chamber ignites without any
+audible explosion; and the ash-pan doors are finally opened, when
+considerable power is required, or when the air otherwise admitted is not
+sufficient to support complete combustion. By looking at the fire through
+the sight hole it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or
+dusky; in fact, with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after
+a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with petroleum. The
+better men contrive to burn less fuel than others, simply by greater care
+in attending to all the points essential to success. At present
+seventy-two locomotives are running with petroleum firing; ten of them are
+passenger engines, seventeen are eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and
+forty-five are six-wheel coupled. As might be expected, several points
+have arisen which must be dealt with in order to insure success. For
+instance, the distance ring between the plates around the firing door is
+apt to leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it, and the
+absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by having
+the brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is taken out
+altogether when the engines are in for repairs, and a flange joint is
+substituted, similar to what is now used in the engines of the London and
+Northwestern Railway. This arrangement gives better results, and occasions
+no trouble whatever.
+
+_Storage of petroleum._--The length of line now worked with petroleum is
+from Tsaritsin to Burnack, 291 miles. There is a main iron reservoir for
+petroleum at each of the four engine sheds, namely at Tsaritsin, Archeda,
+Filonoff, and Borisoglebsk. Each reservoir is 66 ft. internal diameter and
+24 ft. high, and when full holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging
+the reservoir, which stands a good way from the line, and is situated at a
+convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings, is as follows:
+On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed ten cistern cars
+full of oil, the capacity of each being about ten tons. From each of these
+cars a connection is made by a flexible India rubber pipe to one of ten
+stand pipes which project 1 ft. above the ground line. Parallel with the
+rails is laid a main pipe, with which the ten stand pipes are all
+connected, thus forming one general suction main. About the middle of the
+length of the main, which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or
+other non-conducting material, is fixed a Blake steam pump. As soon as all
+the ten connections are made with the cistern cars, the pump is set to
+work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are discharged into the
+main reservoir, the time depending of course upon the capacity of the
+pump. All the pipes used are of malleable iron, lap-welded, and of 5 in.
+internal diameter, having screwed coupling muffs for making the
+connections. At each engine shed, in addition to the main storage
+reservoir, there is a smaller distributing tank, which is erected at a
+sufficient height to supply the tenders, and very much resembles the
+ordinary water tanks. These distributing tanks are circular, about 81/2 ft.
+diameter and 6 ft. high, and of 1/4 in. plates; their inside mean area is
+calculated exactly, and a scale graduated in inches stands in the middle
+of the tank; a glass with scale is used outside in summer time. Each inch
+in height on the scale is converted into cubic feet, and then by means of
+a table is converted into Russian poods, according to the specific gravity
+at various temperatures. As it would be superfluous to graduate the table
+for each separate degree of temperature, the columns in the table show the
+weights for every 8 degrees Reaumur, which is quite sufficient: namely,
+from 24 deg. to 17 deg., from 16 deg. to 9 deg., and so on, down to -24
+deg.; the equivalent Fahrenheit range being from 86 deg. down to -22 deg.
+Suppose the filling of a tender tank draws off a height of 27 in. from the
+distributing tank, at a temperature of say -20 deg. R., these figures are
+shown by the table to correspond with 200.61 poods = 7,245 lb., or 3.23
+tons, of petroleum. This arrangement does very well in practice; both the
+quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill at the
+time of his taking in his supply.
+
+_Engines._--The engines used in the trials were built by Borsig, of
+Berlin, Schneider, of Creusot, and the Russian Mechanical and Mining
+Company, of St. Petersburg. Their main dimensions and weights were about
+the same, as follows, all of them having six wheels coupled, and 36 tons
+adhesive weight; as originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes
+for burning anthracite or wood; cylinders 18-1/8 in. diameter and 24 in.
+stroke; slide valves, outside lap 1-1/16 in., inside lap 3/32 in., maximum
+travel, 4-9/16 in.; Stephenson link motion; boiler pressure, 120 lb. per
+square inch; six wheels, all coupled, 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter; distance
+between centers of leading and middle wheels, 6 ft. 2-3/4 in.; between
+middle and trailing, 4 ft. 9-1/4 in.; total length of wheel base, 11 ft.;
+weight empty, on leading wheels, 12.041 tons; middle, 10.782 tons;
+trailing, 10.685 tons; total weight, 33.508 tons empty; weight in running
+order, on leading wheels, 12.563 tons; middle, 11.885 tons; trailing
+12.790 tons; total weight, 37.238 tons in running order. Tubes number 151;
+outside diameter, 2-1/8 in.; length between tube plates, 13 ft. 10-1/8
+in.; outside heating surface, 1,166 square feet; fire box heating surface,
+82 square feet; total heating surface, 1,248 square feet; fire grate area,
+17 square feet; tractive power =
+65 per cent. of boiler pressure x (cyl. diam.) squared x stroke / diameter of wheels
+= 0.65 x 120 x (18.125) squared x 24 / 51 = 5.383 tons. Ratio of tractive power
+to adhesion weight = 5.383 / 37.238 = 1 / 6.9.
+
+_Tender._--Contents: water, 310 cubic feet, or 1,933 gallons, or 81/2
+tons; anthracite, 600 poods, or 10 tons; or wood, 11/2 cubic sajene, or
+514 cubic feet; weight empty, 13.477 tons; weight in running order, 28.665
+tons; six wheels.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Petroleum Refuse--Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite,
+Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and Tsaritsin on Grazi and
+Tsaritsin Railway, in Winter Time._
+
+-----+---+-----+------+---+-----+------+-----------+-------------+------+------------
+     | L |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |
+     | o |     |  Train   |     |      |           | Consumption |      |
+     | c |     |  alone.  |     |      |           |  Including  |      |
+Date.| o |     |          |     |      |           | Lighting up.|      |
+1883.| m |     |----+-----|     |      |           |             | Cost |
+     | o |Train|Num-|     | Dis-| Car  |           |             |  of  |Atmospheric
+     | t |     |ber |Gross|tance|miles.|  Fuel.    |-------+-----| fuel |temperature
+     | i |     | of |load.| run.|      |           |       | Per | per  |   and
+     | v |     |Loa-|     |     |      |           | Total |train| train| weather.
+     | e |     |ded |     |     |      |           |       |mile.| mile.|
+     | . |     |cars|     |     |      |           |       |     |      |
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |   |     | No.| Tons|Miles|      |           |       |     |Pence.|
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |  8|32-23| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Anthracite.| 31799 |81.90|11.957|-17 deg. to -18 deg.
+     |   |32-23|    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+ Feb.|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      | equiv. to
+  8  |   |24-21|    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      |-6 deg. to -81/2 deg.
+     | 14|24-21| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Bituminous |37557.5|96.53|14.093|   Fah.
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | Coal.     |  lb.  | lb. |      |
+     |  7|26-29| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,830|Petroleum  | 9462  |48.77| 5.487|   Strong
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     | 24|32-23| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Anthracite.|12639.5|65.15| 9.512|-5 deg. to -9 deg.
+March|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+  6  | 21|24-21| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Wood, in   | 1071.8| 5.52| 8.5  | equiv. to
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | billets.  | c. ft.|c. ft|      | 21 deg. to 12 deg.
+     |   |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |   Fah.
+     | 23|26-27| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Petroleum  | 7228  |37.28| 4.188|   Light
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+
+Prices of fuel:
+  Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton; Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton;
+  Wood, in billets, 42s. per cubic sajene = 343 cubic feet;
+    equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic foot.
+
+Dimensions of locomotives:
+  Cylinders, 18 1/8 in. diam. and 24 in. stroke; Wheels, 4 feet 3 in. diam.;
+  Total heating surface, 1,248 sq. feet: Total adhesion weight, 36 tons;
+  Boiler pressure, 8 to 9 atm.
+
+The preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made in winter
+with different sorts of fuel, under exactly similar conditions as to type
+of engine, profile of line, and load of train. Two sets of comparative
+trials were made, both of them in winter. The three engines used were some
+of those built by Schneider. In comparison with anthracite, the economy in
+favor of petroleum refuse was 41 per cent. in weight, and 55 per cent. in
+cost. With bituminous coal there was a difference of 49 per cent. in favor
+of petroleum as to weight and 61 per cent. as to cost. As compared with
+wood petroleum was 50 per cent. cheaper. At a speed of fourteen miles an
+hour up an incline of 1 in 125 the steam pressure was easily kept up at 9
+to 91/2 atm. with a No. 9 injector feeding the boiler all the time.
+
+Up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two locomotives to
+burn petroleum; and from his own personal observations made on the foot
+plate with considerable frost he is satisfied that no other fuel can
+compare with petroleum either for locomotives or for other purposes. In
+illustration of its safety in case of accident, a photograph was exhibited
+of an accident that occurred on the author's line on 30th December, 1883,
+when a locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment,
+taking the train after it; no explosion or conflagration of any kind took
+place under such trying circumstances, thus affording some proof of the
+safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of firing. Although it is
+scarcely possible that petroleum firing will ever be of use for
+locomotives on the ordinary railways of coal-bearing England, yet the
+author is convinced chat, even in such a country, its employment would be
+an enormous boon on underground lines.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOAL KILNS.
+
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+In answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal making, we
+offer two illustrations that show a method of manufacture differing from
+that usually adopted, which is that of burning on the bare ground, and
+covering with soil or sods to exclude the air. These kilns are made of
+brick, one course being sufficient, bands of iron or timber framework
+being added to strengthen the brickwork with greater economy. The usual
+style is conical, and the size is 24 feet in diameter, with an equal
+height, holding about 40 cords of wood. The difference in price is 1-1/8
+d. per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual mounds,
+the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns, and the timber
+standing, the kiln burning costing 2-1/8 d., and the other 3-1/4 d. The
+kilns must be lined to about halfway up with fire-brick, the cost of which
+will vary with the locality, but will be about L200, and as 40 to 50
+bushels of coal have been made per cord the extra yield on good charcoal
+and the lessening of the cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on
+the cost of the kilns. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight
+for 6 feet, when it is drawn in, so as to become bluntly conical. Upon the
+top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone of an arch,
+and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn tight with screw
+bolts and nuts to strengthen it. Double doors of sheet-iron are made at
+the bottom and near the tops, by which it is either filled or emptied, and
+a few air-holes (B), which may be stopped with loose bricks, left in the
+bottom. The second figure shows a kiln of another shape made to burn 3,000
+bushels of charcoal, or about 80 cords of wood. The shape is a
+parallelogram, having an arched roof, and it is strengthened by a
+framework of timber 10 inches square. As the pressure of the gas is
+sometimes very great, the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to
+prevent their bursting. The usual size is 16 feet wide and high, and 40
+feet in length, outside measure. The time occupied in filling, burning,
+and emptying a small cone is about three weeks, and four weeks is required
+for the larger ones.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle._
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENTRANCE, TIDDINGTON HOUSE, OXON.
+
+
+Our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to Tiddington House,
+Oxfordshire, the residence of the Rev. Joshua Bennett. The house is an old
+building of the Georgian period, and though originally plain and
+unpretentious, its bold coved cornices under the eaves, its rubbed and
+shaped arches, moulded strings, and thick sash bars, made it of
+considerable interest to the admirers of the "Queen Anne" school of
+architecture, and led to the adoption of that style in the alterations and
+additions made last year, of which the work shown in our illustration
+formed a small part. Between the "entrance facade" and the wall of the
+house there is a space of some twenty feet in length, which is inclosed by
+a substantially built conservatory-like erection of Queen Anne design,
+forming an outer hall.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.--Morris &
+Stallwood--Architects.]
+
+The works were executed by Messrs. Holly & Butler, of Nettlebed. The brick
+carving was beautifully done by the late Mr. Finlay; and the architects
+were Messrs. Morris & Stallwood, of Reading.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASH PILE.
+
+
+Since Poggendorff in 1842 thought of substituting in the Bunsen battery a
+solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for nitric acid, and
+of thus making a single liquid pile of it, in suppressing the porous
+vessel, his idea has been taken up a considerable number of times. Some
+rediscovered it simply, while others, who were better posted in regard to
+the work of their predecessors, took Poggendorff's pile as he conceived
+it, and, considering the future that was in store for it, thought only of
+modifying it in order to render it better. Among these, Mr. Grenet was one
+of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under a truly
+practical form. As long ago as 1856, in fact, he gave it the form that is
+still in use, and that is known as the bottle pile. Thus constructed, this
+pile, as is well known, presents a feeble internal resistance, and a
+greater electro-motive power than the Bunsen element. Unfortunately, its
+energy rapidly decreases, and the alteration of the liquid, as well as the
+large deposit of oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode,
+prevents its being employed in experiments of quite long duration. Mr.
+Grenet, it is true, obviated these two defects by first renewing the
+liquid slowly and continuously, and causing a current of air to bubble up
+in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in measure as the
+deposit formed. Thus improved, the bichromate pile was employed on a large
+scale in the lighting of the Comptoir d'Escompte. In an extensive
+application like this latter, the use of compressed air for renewing the
+liquid can be easily adapted to the bichromate pile, as the number of
+elements is great enough to allow of the putting in of all the piping
+necessary; but when it is only desired to use this pile for laboratory
+purposes, and when there is need of but a small number of elements, it is
+impossible to adopt Mr. Grenet's elements in the form required by an
+electric lighting installation. It becomes absolutely necessary, then, to
+come back to a simpler form, and attempt at the same time to obviate the
+defects which are inherent to its very principle. In accordance with this
+idea, it will be well to point out the arrangement adopted by Mr. Courtot
+for his bichromate of potash piles--an arrangement that is very simple,
+but, sufficiently well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a
+laboratory.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+Fig. 1 gives the most elementary form. It consists of an earthen vessel
+into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other by a copper
+ring which carries one of the terminals. In the center there is a
+cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute and feebly
+acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which dips a prism of
+zinc, which may be lifted by means of a rod when the pile ceases to
+operate. It is true that the presence of the porous vessel in the
+bichromate of potash element increases the internal resistance, but, as an
+offset, although it decreases the discharge, it secures constancy and
+quite a long duration for it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The elements thus constituted may be grouped, to the number of six, in a
+frame analogous to that shown in the engraving, and, sum total, form a
+small sized battery adapted to the current experiments of the laboratory,
+and capable of supplying two small four volt lamps for ten or twelve
+hours. We have had occasion to make use of these elements for the
+graduation of galvanometers, and, after ascertaining the constancy of the
+discharge, have found that the internal resistance of each couple is
+nearly 0.175 ohm, with an electro-motive force of two volts. As may be
+seen, these elements should, in general, all be mounted for tension, as
+they are in the figure, inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits,
+according to circumstances, of employing a variable number of them without
+changing anything. Moreover, with zincs amalgamated in a special manner,
+the attack is imperceptible, and the work in open circuit need scarcely to
+be taken into consideration.
+
+Yet, despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we have just
+described, that defect common to all bichromate of potash piles--the
+deposit of oxide of chromium upon the carbon--is not here avoided. It
+occurs quite slowly, to be sure, but it does occur, and, from this point
+of view, the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is preferable. The elements here
+are composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing, as before, the
+solution and porous vessel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the zinc and
+the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is not in operation
+the whole can be lifted from the liquid. Under such circumstances the
+deposit of oxide is notably diminished, and the duration of the discharge
+is consequently greatly increased.
+
+Fig. 3 shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting, according
+to circumstances, all the elements of the same trough or only a part of
+them. To effect this, the drum around which the chain winds that carries
+the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed upon the axle. This latter is
+actuated by a winch; and a ratchet wheel, R, joined to a click which is
+actuated by a spiral spring, prevents the ebonite plates from falling back
+when it is desired to place the bolt under the button, B, of the spring.
+
+When it is desired to put an element out of the circuit, it is only
+necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the lever, D. Under
+the action of the latter, the piece, _s_, which carries a groove for the
+passage of the screws that fix it to the upper cross-piece, takes on a
+longitudinal motion and consequently gears with the drum through the
+toothed sleeve, E. When an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be
+lifted from the liquid, and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming
+upon the carbon. As may be seen, the arrangements which we have just
+described exhibit nothing that is particularly original. The windlasses
+used for removing the elements from a pile when the circuit is open have
+been employed for a long time; the bichromate pile is itself old, and, as
+we said in the beginning, it has been modified in its details a number of
+times. In spite of this, we have thought it well to point out the mode of
+construction adopted by Mr. Courtot, since, owing to the simplicity of the
+arrangements, it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very
+great constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps, as
+well as for the most varied experiments of the laboratory.--_La Lumiere
+Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.
+
+
+There has been much said in recent times about the distribution of
+electricity by means of induction coils, and the use of this process has
+given rise to several systems that differ but little from one another in
+principle.
+
+The following are a few details in regard to a system due to a Dutch
+engineer:
+
+In the month of December, 1881, a patent relating to the distribution of
+electricity was taken out in Germany and other countries by Mr. B.
+Haitzema Enuma, whose system is based upon a series of successive
+inductions. The primary current developed by a dynamo-electric machine
+gives rise to secondary, tertiary, etc., currents. The principal line runs
+through the streets parallel with their axes, and, when the arrangement of
+the places is adapted thereto, it is closed upon the generator itself. In
+those frequent cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return
+over a path that it has already traversed, it is more advantageous to
+effect the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains
+or gas pipes as conductors. This return arrangement may likewise be
+applied to the lines of secondary, tertiary, etc., order, as may easily be
+seen.
+
+The induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior consists of
+a bundle of soft iron. The wire of the inducting current is wound directly
+around this core. The wire of the induced current is superposed upon the
+first and presents a large number of spirals. It is useless to say that
+these wires must be perfectly insulated from each other, as well as from
+the soft iron core. We shall call primary bobbins those which are
+interposed in the principal line, and secondary bobbins those in which the
+inducting current is a secondary one, and so on.
+
+It will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of continuing the
+distribution of electricity to the interior of buildings by the simple
+adjunction of one or several bobbins. Each electric apparatus, whether it
+be a lamp or other mechanism, is furnished with a special current. If the
+number of these apparatus be increased, it is only necessary to increase
+the number of bobbins in the same ratio, on condition, be it understood,
+that the intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper
+working of the apparatus in question. When such intensity diminishes to
+too great a degree, the bobbin must be replaced by a stronger one.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.]
+
+It results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in in such a
+way as to permit, of the opening and closing of the corresponding circuit.
+This arrangement, moreover, has no need of being dependent upon the
+apparatus, and may just as well be transferred to any part of this same
+circuit. As regards lighting, it is preferable to employ alternating
+current dynamo machines; yet there is nothing to prevent the use of
+continuous current ones, provided that there is an arrangement that
+permits of constantly opening and closing this same circuit. That portion
+of the line which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way
+at the places where it is necessary. As for the underground circuit and
+the induction coils connected therewith, these are protected against all
+external influence, and are at the same time insulated very economically
+by covering them with a coat of very fine silicious sand mixed with
+asphalt.
+
+It is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an accurate idea
+of this system of distribution. C represents the building in which the
+generator of electricity, D, is placed; B, the public street, and Q the
+house of a subscriber. The principal line, E, starts from the terminals,
+_a, b_, of the machine, passes through the primary bobbins, G, and is
+closed through the earth at F. It will be seen that the primary current
+communicates through _d_ and _c_ with the internal winding of the bobbins,
+G, while the secondary currents, H, are connected through _e_ and _f_ with
+the external winding. The same arrangement is repeated for the tertiary
+currents, M, and the quaternary ones, _o, p_. In the annexed example all
+the lines that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed
+through the earth, while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto
+enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit. In the interior
+of these houses the wires, as well as the induction coils, are insulated
+and applied to the walls. At Q is represented the arrangement that would
+have to be adopted in the case of a structure consisting of a vestibule,
+_r_, and two rooms, _s_, lighted by two electric lamps, R. In the portion
+of the figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed
+for insulating the line. A commencement is made by digging a ditch in the
+street and paving the bottom of it with bricks. Upon these latter there is
+laid a mixture of sand and asphalt, and then the wires and bobbins are put
+in, and the whole is finally covered with a new insulating layer.
+
+It is a simple statement that we make here, and it is therefore not for us
+to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the system. If we are to
+believe Mr. Enuma, the advantages are very numerous, to wit: (1) The
+cables have no need of being of large size; (2) the intensity is the same
+through the entire extent of the primary circuit, secondary one, etc.; (3)
+the resistance is invariable in all portions of the line; (4) the
+apparatus are independent of each other, and consequently there may be a
+disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering
+therefrom; (5) either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be produced,
+since, that depends only upon the size of the coil employed; (6) there is
+no style of lamp that may not be used, since each lamp is mounted upon a
+special circuit; (7) any number of lamps may be lighted or extinguished
+without the others being influenced thereby; (8) when a fire or other
+accident happens in a house, it in no wise interferes with the service in
+the rest of the line; (9) the system could, were it required, be connected
+with any other kind of existing line; and (10) the cost of installation is
+infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the same
+extent of ground.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.
+
+
+Italy, with her volcanic nature, has very naturally made a specialty of
+movements of the ground, or seismic perturbations. So the larger part of
+the apparatus designed for such study are due to Italians. Several of
+these instruments have already been, described in this journal, and on the
+present occasion we shall make known a few others that will serve to give
+an idea of the methods employed.
+
+For the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of the ground,
+different apparatus are required. The following is a description of those
+constructed for each of such purposes by the Brassart Brothers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC
+MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for Studying Horizontal Movements._--A lever, (Fig. 1), movable
+about a horizontal axis, carries a corrugated funnel, _i_, at one of its
+extremities. At the other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise
+which permits of its being exactly balanced, while not interfering with
+its sensitiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 2 AND 3.--DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS.]
+
+The opening of the funnel passes freely around a column, _v_ (Fig. 2),
+upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that terminates in a weight, P.
+The corrugations of the funnel carry letters indicating the four cardinal
+points, and the funnel itself is capable of revolving in such a way that
+the marked indications shall always correspond to the real position of the
+cardinal points. When a horizontal shock occurs, the weight, P, falls in a
+direction opposite thereto, and into one of the corrugations, where it
+rests, so that the direction of the shock is indicated. But, in falling,
+it causes the lever, F, to tilt, and this brings about an electric contact
+between the screw, _h_, and the column, _n_, which sends a current into
+the electro, E, so that the armature of the latter is attracted. In its
+position of rest this armature holds a series of parts, S, A, L, which
+have the effect of stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same
+apparatus. At the moment, then, that the armature is attracted the
+pendulum is set free and the clockwork is started. As the current, at the
+same time, sets a bell ringing, the observer comes and arranges the
+apparatus again to await a new shock. Knowing the hour at which the hand
+of the clock was stopped, he sees how long it has been in motion again and
+deduces therefrom the precise moment of the shock.
+
+The small rod, _f_, which is seen at the extremity of F, is for the
+purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with, if need be. In this
+case the screw, _h_, is so regulated that F descends farther, and that _f_
+may depress the armature of the magnet just as the current would have
+done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for the Study of Vertical Movements._--In this apparatus (Fig.
+4), the contact is formed between a mercury cup, T, and a weight, D. The
+cup is capable of being raised and lowered by means of a screw, so that
+the two parts approach each other very closely without touching. At the
+moment of a vertical shock a contact occurs between the mercury and
+weight, and there results a current which, acting upon the electro, E,
+frees the pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus. In this
+case, in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may be
+rung, the piece, A, upon falling, sets up a permanent contact with the
+part, _a_ (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK.]
+
+_Brassart's Seismic Clock._--This apparatus is designed for being put in
+connection at a distance with an indicator like the ones just described.
+It is a simple clock to which a few special devices have been added.
+Seismic clocks may be classed in two categories, according as they are
+stopped by the effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant
+one occurs. The Messrs. Brassart have always given preference to those of
+the second category, because there is no need of watching them during a
+seismic calm, and because they are much more easily constructed. It is to
+this class, then, that their seismic clock belongs. It is capable of being
+used for domestic purposes in place of any other clock, and of becoming a
+seismoscopic clock as soon as it is put in electric communication with the
+seismic telltales.
+
+To the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the inventors have
+added (Fig. 5) a support formed of a strip of brass, S, with whose
+extremity is jointed (at the lower part) a double lever, A. This latter is
+held in a horizontal position by a small counterpoise, _i_, so that the
+finger at the opposite extremity shall prevent the pendulum, P, from
+swinging. To keep the latter in a position of rest a bent lever, _n n'_,
+is jointed to the upper part of the support, S. The longer arm, _n'_, of
+this lever is bent forward at right angles, so that it may come into
+contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon as the lever
+has been lifted by means of a small cord which is connected with the
+larger arm, _n_, and runs up to a small hook, from whence it descends and
+makes its exit under the clock-case.
+
+In order to stop the clock, then, it is only necessary to pull on this
+cord slightly, when, by moving the pendulum to the left, it will thrust
+it against the inclined plane of the finger of the lever arm, A. It is
+clear that the extremity of the pendulum, upon striking against the
+finger, will depress it slightly and go beyond the projection against
+which it remains fixed owing to the counterpoise, _i_. The fever, _n n'_,
+is brought back to its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise
+at the extremity of the arm, _n_. When the lever, A, is depressed, the
+pendulum escapes and sets the clock running. This depression is effected
+by means of an electro-magnet, E, whose armature, which is connected with
+the rod, _t, t_, lifts the arm, _i_, of the lever, and depresses A. The
+wires of the two bobbins of the electro-magnet end in two clamps, 1 and 2.
+The second of these latter is insulated from the clock-case. Both
+communicate with the extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the
+seismic telltale that brings about a closing of the current. Having noted
+the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running, one can
+deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred that set the clock
+in motion.
+
+In addition to the parts that we have described, there are other accessory
+ones, R R_r_, and a third clamp, 3, which constitute a sort of rheotome
+that is designed to keep the circuit closed after the momentary closing
+that is produced by the telltale has occurred. This little mechanism is
+indispensable when the disturbed telltale has also to act upon an electric
+bell. This rheotome, which is very simple, is constructed as follows: A
+small brass rod, R, which is screwed to the support, S, carries at its
+left extremity a brass axis, X, which is insulated from the rod, R, by
+means of an ivory piece. Toward the center of this small rod, the bent
+lever, _r_, carries a small arm that is bent forward, and against which
+abuts the axis of the pendulum, thus causing it to be thrust toward the
+left when the pendulum is arrested by the projection of the finger, A. As
+soon as the pendulum is set free, the lever, _r_, redescends and places
+itself against the axis, X. This latter communicates with clamp 3, which
+is insulated, while the rod, R, communicates with clamp 1. The external
+communications are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is
+interposed remains definitely closed when the lever, _r_, is in contact
+with the rod, X.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.]
+
+_Rossi's Tremitoscope._--This instrument (Fig. 6) unites, upon the same
+stone base, three different arrangements for showing evidences of
+trepidations of the earth. On one side we find (protected by a glass tube)
+a weight suspended over a mercury cup by a spring, and designed to show
+vertical motions. The two other parts of the apparatus are designed for
+registering horizontal motions. The first is a pendulum which causes a
+contact with four distinct springs, and whose movements are watched with a
+spy-glass. The second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a
+heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock. This ball is provided with a
+point which is movable within a second ball, so that its motion produces
+a contact. All these different contacts are signaled or registered
+electrically.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.]
+
+_Scateni's Registering Seismograph._--This apparatus, which is shown in
+Figs. 7 and 8, consists of two parts--of a transmitter and of a
+registering device.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--REGISTERING APPARATUS.]
+
+The transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a steel point
+and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected with a pile. All
+around this circle are four strips of platinum, against one of which abuts
+the circle at every movement of the glass. Each strip of platinum
+communicates, through a special wire, with one of the electro-magnets of
+the registering device (Fig. 8). This latter consists of an ordinary clock
+that carries three concentric dials--one for minutes, one for hours, and
+one for seconds. In a direction with the radii of these dials there are
+four superposed levers, each of which is actuated by one of the electros.
+On another hand, each dial is divided into four zones that correspond to
+the four cardinal points. When a shock coming from the north, for example,
+produces a contact, the corresponding electro is affected, and its lever
+falls and marks upon each of the dials a point in its north zone. We thus
+obtain the exact hour of the shock, as well as its direction. As may be
+seen, the apparatus, as regards principle, is one of the simplest of its
+kind.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ACCUMULATORS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ARNOULD & TAMINE'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Messrs. Arnould and Tamine's accumulators, shown in Fig. 1, the
+formation is effected directly by the current, as in the Plante pile, but
+the plates are formed of wires connected horizontally at their extremities
+by soldering. These plates are held apart either by setting them into
+paraffined wooden grooves at the ends of the trough or by interposing
+between them pieces of paraffined wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--BARRIER & TOURVIELLE'S ELECTRODOCK.]
+
+In Messrs. Barrier and Tourville's _Electrodock_ (Fig. 2) the plates are
+formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a wooden cover. These tubes
+are threaded internally and externally, and the grooves thus produced are
+filled with a peculiar cement composed of litharge, powdered charcoal, and
+permanganate of potash, triturated together, sifted, and then mixed with
+glucose or sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them. This mixture forms a
+cement that is very adhesive after, as well as before, the electrolytic
+action.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden gratings
+between which is compressed red lead prepared in a peculiar manner, and
+constituting, 48 hours after formation, a compact mass with the lead. The
+tangs of the plates are widened so as to touch one another while leaving a
+proper distance between the plates themselves, and are hollowed out for
+the reception of a rod provided at its extremities with a winged nut and
+jam nut for passing them up close to one another. The plates, properly so
+called, are held apart by rubber bauds. The glass vessels are placed in
+osier baskets.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL MODEL OF THE REYNIER ZINC ACCUMULATOR.
+
+
+The three models of a secondary battery that I recently made known to the
+readers of this journal have been the object of continuous experiment.
+Conformably to the provisions of theory, the zinc accumulator has shown
+itself practically superior to the two others, and I have therefore chosen
+this type for getting up an industrial model, which is shown in the
+annexed cut. The accumulator contains four Plante positives, having a wide
+surface, and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead covered
+with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of zinc sulphate
+in which the couple is immersed. Accidental contact with the interior of
+the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to the negatives by means of
+leaden bands. The seven electrodes are carried by as many distinct
+crosspieces of paraffined wood, which rest upon the edges of the trough
+and hold the plates at a certain distance from the bottom. These various
+crosspieces, which touch one another, take the place of a cover. Each
+plate is provided with a terminal. The four positive terminals are all on
+the same side, and the three negatives are on the opposite side. Two brass
+rods ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same
+name. The trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles, one within the
+other, and having a play of several millimeters. This space is lined with
+a tight, elastic, insulating cement having tar for a base.
+
+[Illustration: REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual size.)]
+
+The careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the apparatus, and
+the purity of the metal and its amalgamation, reduce the local attack of
+the zinc to almost nothing. So the coefficient of restitution is now
+comparable with that of accumulators of the Plante type.
+
+The following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc
+accumulator.
+
+           PHYSICAL DATA.
+
+E. Electromotive force.                                   2.36 volts.
+R. Mean resistance.                                       0.02 ohm.
+I. Normal intensity of the discharge current.             25 amperes.
+i. Intensity of the charge current.                       5 to 10 amperes.
+Q. Capacity of accumulation after 200 hours' formation.   550,000 couples.
+
+       DATA CONCERNING CONSTRUCTION.
+
+Efficient surface of the 4 positive electrodes.        200 square dec.
+Efficient surface of the 3 negative electrodes.         15 square dec.
+Weight of the positive electrodes.                       8.2 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the negative electrodes.                       1.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the trough.                                    2.7 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the liquid.                                    4.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the attachments.                               0.46 kilogrammes.
+Weight, total.                                          17.16 kilogrammes.
+
+The total electric work stored up is 130,000 kilogrammeters, or 7,600
+kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator. Theory indicates that a zinc
+accumulator might store up as much as 15,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme. If the present model gives half less, it is because I have
+purposely exaggerated the solidity of the trough and the mass of the
+electrodes.
+
+It should be remarked that this capacity of 7,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator constructed
+in France. The new model possesses, then, despite the size of the
+positives and the box, a relative lightness that will permit it to take a
+place upon electric locomotives as well as in fixed installations.
+
+Independently of their use as accumulators, secondary zinc batteries may
+be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by incandescence, for
+deadening piston strokes, attenuating the irregularities in speed, and
+covering accidental stoppages.--_E. Reynier, in La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF A LIGHTNING FLASH.
+
+By W. SLINGO.
+
+
+Lately we have all felt, I doubt not, a considerable amount of interest in
+the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually heavy
+thunderstorms, accompanied, as they have been, by vivid lightning
+discharges of a more or less hurtful nature. The list of disasters
+published in _Knowledge_, No. 143, might be very materially augmented were
+we to record such damage as has been wrought since that list was compiled.
+
+There is not, I suppose, in the mind of any intelligent man at the present
+day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning flash. The
+questions to be considered are rather whence comes the electricity, and in
+what way is the thunderstorm brought about. In attempting to answer these
+questions, sight must not be lost of the fact that the very nature of
+electricity is in itself almost sufficient to baffle any effort put forth
+to ascertain from lightning, as such, its whence and its whither.
+
+It is possible, however, with the aid of our knowledge of static
+electricity, to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical nature. In
+the first place, that our sphere is a more or less electrified body is
+generally admitted. More than this, it is demonstrated that the different
+parts of the earth's surface and its enveloping atmosphere are variously
+charged. As a consequence of these varying charges, there is a constant
+series of currents flowing through the various parts of the earth, which
+show themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction
+followed by the currents. Such currents are known as earth currents, and
+present phenomena of a highly interesting nature. But, apart from these
+electrical manifestations, there is generally a difference of electrical
+condition between the various parts of the earth's surface and those
+portions of the atmosphere adjacent to or above them. Inasmuch as air is
+one of the very best insulators, this difference of condition (or
+potential) in any particular region is in most cases incapable of being
+neutralized or equilibrated by an electric flow. Consequently the air
+remains more or less continually charged. With these points admitted as
+facts, the question arises, Whence this electricity? There have been very
+many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of terrestrial
+electricity, but far the greater portion of such theories lack fundamental
+probability, and indicate causes which cannot be regarded as sufficiently
+extensive or operative to produce such tremendous effects as are
+occasionally witnessed. I take it that we may safely regard the evolution
+of electricity as one of the ways in which force exhibits itself, that, in
+other words, when work is performed electricity may result. When two
+bodies are rubbed together, electricity is produced, so also is it when
+two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is dissolved,
+or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to a higher
+temperature than the other junction. I will go further than this, so far,
+in fact, as to maintain that there is a reasonable ground for supposing
+that every movement, whether it be of the mass or among the constituent
+particles, is attended by a change of electrical distribution; and if this
+is true, it may easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of
+the universe, there must be a constant series of electrical changes. Now,
+these changes do not all operate in one direction, nor are they all of
+similar character, whence it is that not only are there earth currents of
+feeble electro-motive force, but that this E.M.F. is constantly varying,
+and that, furthermore, electricity of high E.M.F. is to be met with in
+various parts of the atmosphere.
+
+With earth currents we have here very little to do. The rotation of the
+earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents, and the fact
+that they vary in strength at regular periods of the day and of the year
+enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts considerable electrical
+influence on the earth. Letting it be granted, however, that the earth is
+variously charged, how comes it that the air is also charged, and with
+electricity of greater tension than that of the earth itself? It was
+pointed out by Sir W. Grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum
+wire be placed in a candle flame, one at the bottom and the other near the
+top, an electric current will flow through the wire, indicating the
+presence of electricity. If an electrified body be heated, the electricity
+escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises. If a vessel of water be
+electrified, and the water then converted into steam, the electric charge
+will be rapidly dissipated. If a vessel containing water be electrified,
+and the water allowed to escape drop by drop, electricity will escape with
+each drop, and the vessel will soon be discharged.
+
+We regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a greater or
+less charge; whence it is safe to assume that in the process of
+evaporation which is going on all over the surface of the globe, more
+particularly in equatorial regions, every particle of water, as it rises
+into the air, carries with it its portion, however minute that portion may
+be, of the earth's electric charge. This small charge distributes itself
+over the surface of the aqueous particle, and the vapor rises higher and
+higher until it reaches that point above which the air is too rare to
+support it. It then flows away laterally, and as it approaches colder
+regions gets denser, sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface. The
+aqueous particles becoming reduced in size, the extent of their surfaces
+is proportionately reduced. It follows that as the particles and their
+surfaces are reduced, the charge is confined to a smaller surface, and
+attains, therefore, a greater "surface density," or in simpler language, a
+greater amount of electricity per unit of surface.
+
+Electricity, as above set forth, is in what is known as the "static"
+condition (to distinguish it from electricity which is being transferred
+in the form of a current), when it has the property of "repelling itself"
+to the utmost limits of any conductor upon which it may be confined. This
+will account for the charge finding its way to the surface of the water
+particles, and will furthermore account for the greater density of the
+charge as the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface
+rapidly diminished. It may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere
+varies as the cube of its radius.
+
+Returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing when the
+particles have reached their highest position in the atmosphere, we may
+imagine that they set themselves off on journeys toward either the north
+or the south pole. As they pass from the hotter to the colder regions, a
+number of particles coalesce; these again combine with others on the road
+until the vapor becomes visible as cloud. The increased density implies
+increased weight, and the cloud particles, as they sail poleward, descend
+toward the surface of the earth. Assuming that a spherical form is
+maintained throughout, the condensation of a number of particles implies a
+considerable reduction of surface. Thus, the contents of two spheres vary
+as the cubes of their radii, or eight (the cube of 2) drops on combining
+will form a drop twice the radius of one of the original drops. We may
+safely conceive hundreds and thousands of such combinations to take place
+until a cloud mass is formed, in which the constituent parts are more or
+less in contact, and, therefore, behave electrically as a single conductor
+of irregular surface, upon which is accumulated all the electricity that
+was previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of particles
+that now compose it.
+
+The tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a conductor is to
+take upon itself a position in which it may approach nearest to an equal
+and opposite charge; or, if possible, to attain neutrality. If, then, a
+cloud has a charge, and there is no other cloud above or near it, the
+charge _induces_ on the adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite
+kind. Thus, assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity,
+the subjacent earth will be in the negative state. The two
+electricities[3] exert a strong tendency to combine or to produce
+neutrality, whence there is a species of stress applied to the intervening
+air. Possibly the cloud will be drawn bodily toward the earth more or less
+rapidly, according as the charge is great or small. Or, on the other hand,
+the cloud may roll on for leagues, carrying its influence with it, so that
+the various portions of the earth underneath become successively charged
+and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey.
+
+[Footnote 3: We may speak of two electricities or two electric states
+without necessarily implying adherence either to the single or the double
+"fluid" theory. Whether electricity be of two kinds or no, the fact
+remains that there are two conditions, and all the features of this paper
+may be explained with equal facility by the supporters of either
+hypothesis.]
+
+Should the cloud be near the earth, or should it be very highly charged,
+the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to overcome the
+resistance of the intervening air; and if this resistance should prove too
+weak, what happens? How does the discharge show itself? It takes place in
+the form of a lightning flash, and passing from the one surface to the
+other--or, maybe, simultaneously from both--produces neutrality more or
+less complete.
+
+There has recently been a little discussion in these pages on the subject
+of lightning, some having stated that they discerned the discharge to take
+place upward--that is, from the earth toward the cloud. I will not venture
+so far as to say whether or not the direction of the discharge is
+discernible; possibly the flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one
+to tell; but I have never so seen it, and have always looked upon the eye
+as a deceitful member--very. "The lightning flash itself never lasts more
+than 1/100000 of a second." It is, however, just as likely that a
+discharge may travel upward as downward. What controls the discharge? Does
+the quality of the charge?--that is to say, is the positive or the
+negative more prone to break disruptively through the insulating medium?
+Investigations with Geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied
+gases have made it tolerably clear that there is a greater "tearing away"
+influence at the negative than at the positive pole, and if two equal
+balls, containing one a positive and the other a negative charge, be
+equally heated, the negative is more readily dissipated than the positive.
+But, so far as we at present know, this question enters into the
+discussion scarcely, if at all. Our knowledge seems rather to point to the
+substances upon which the charges are collected. The self-repellent nature
+of electricity compels it to manifest itself at the more prominent parts
+of the surface, the level being forsaken for the point. The tension of the
+charge, or its tendency to fly off, is proportionately increased. And if
+at a given moment the tension attains a certain intensity, the discharge
+follows, emanating from the surface which offers the greatest facilities
+for escape. The earth is generally flatter than the cloud, whence, in all
+probability, the discharge more frequently originates with the cloud.
+
+Should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct neutrality,
+it is possible that no damage will result, although this again is not
+always certain, because when the cloud charge acts inductively on the
+earth it produces the opposite (say negative) charge on the nearer parts,
+the similar (or positive) state is also produced at some place more or
+less distant. Sometimes this "freed" positive (which, by the way,
+accumulates gradually and physiologically imperceptibly) is collected at
+some portion of the earth's surface. When the negative is neutralized by
+the discharge, the freed positive is no longer confined to a particular
+region, but tends to dissipate itself, and a shock may be felt more or
+less severely by any person within the region. Or, again, a similar shock
+may be experienced by a person standing within the negative zone on the
+neutralization of the charge.
+
+I may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting and
+instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits during a
+thunderstorm. The storm may be taking place at some distance from the
+point of observation. The electrified cloud induces the opposite charge
+beneath it, the similar charge being repelled. It is noticeable that the
+needle of a galvanometer, starting from the middle position, goes
+gradually over to one side, eventually indicating a considerable
+deflection. Suddenly, owing apparently to a lightning discharge some
+distance away, the force which caused the deflection is withdrawn, and the
+needle rebounds with great violence to the opposite side. In a short time,
+the cloud becoming again charged on its under surface, and recommencing
+its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth, the needle starts again, and
+goes through the same series of movements, a violent counterthrow
+following every flash of lightning.
+
+If we can so far control our imagination, we may conceive the earth to be
+one large insulated conductor, susceptible to every influence around it.
+If then the earth, as a mass of matter, behaves as above indicated, there
+is no plausible reason for declining to regard any other large conducting
+mass in a similar light, and as a body capable of being subjected more or
+less completely to the various impulses affecting the earth. In other
+words, a large mass of conducting material, partially or perfectly
+insulated, is, during a thunderstorm, in considerable danger. With this
+portion of the subject I shall, however, deal more fully when discussing
+the merits of lightning protectors.
+
+Lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth only, but
+also, and perhaps more frequently, between too oppositely charged clouds.
+We then get atmospheric lightning, the flash often extending for miles.
+This form of lightning is harmless, and in all probability what we see is
+only a reflection of the discharge. The oft-told tale of the lightning
+flying in at the window, across the room, and out of the door, or up the
+chimney, is all moonshine, and before dealing with lightning protectors I
+intend to expose some of the fallacies concerning lightning. Were the
+discharge to pass through a house, it would infallibly leave more decided
+traces and do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now
+and again. Many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a
+thunderstorm, but it may be safely predicted that a person under a roof is
+infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level ground, and
+making himself a prominence inviting a discharge. Rain almost invariably
+accompanies the discharge, and the roof and sides of the house being wet,
+they form a more or less perfect channel of escape should a flash strike
+the building.--_Knowledge._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RESEARCHES ON MAGNETISM.
+
+By M. DUTER.
+
+
+If we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field, so that the
+lines of force of the field may be normal to the surface of the plate, we
+have a very flat magnet, the two faces of which are the two polar
+surfaces. The magnetic distribution thus obtained seems to disappear when
+the plate is no longer in the field. The following experiments show that
+this disappearance is not complete. I made use of plates of tempered steel
+of 1 millimeter in thickness, and varying in diameter from 0.040 to 0.005
+meter. With these plates I formed cylindrical batteries. In some of these
+batteries the plates are directly in contact, and in others they were
+separated by leaves of pasteboard, the thickness of which varied from that
+of the thinnest paper to 0.001 meter. The batteries were placed in the
+central portion of a very powerful magnetic field, and after they have
+been taken out they formed perfectly regular permanent magnets. The
+supporting power of these magnets was the greater the nearer its
+constituent plates were to each other. In a battery of 100 plates,
+touching each other directly, and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder,
+the portative force at each extremity rose to 30 grammes. This first
+result having been obtained, I dismounted the batteries, plate by plate,
+taking care to mark the upper and under side of each. I found then that
+each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism. Yet each of them
+still constituted a flat magnet, of which the two faces are the polar
+surfaces; for on rebuilding the battery it gave again a perfectly regular
+magnet, though weaker than it was at first. The separation of the magnet
+into its constituent plates, and its reconstruction, maybe repeated
+indefinitely.--_Comptes Rendus._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dr. T. Tommasi (_Cosmos les Mondes_) notes that the thermic constant of
+thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants of potassium and
+lead, the two metals which it most resembles in its chemical character.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED GAS LIGHT BUOY.
+
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+The accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the Pintsch's
+Patent Lighting Company for the river Humber. The chief dimensions of the
+buoy are given in the engraving, which also shows that the gas holder is
+placed within the boat in such a way as to be protected from blows likely
+to cause any leakage. The buoy has a special form to meet its requirements
+as a lightship, and the conditions of its employment is the fast tidal
+current of the river. It was designed by Mr. C. Berthon, of Westminster,
+and is intended to carry a six months' supply of gas, the burner,
+regulator, and lamp being on the well known Pintsch system. The hull is
+formed of 3/8 inch plate, 24 feet 3 inches total length, and 9 feet beam
+at the line of flotation. The laps of the plates are 4 inches wide, and
+riveted with 3/4 inch rivets, spaced 2-1/4 inch apart center to center.
+The keel and stem are both in one piece, as shown, and to this the
+garboard strake is to be fastened. The bilge pieces are riveted on to the
+bilge, and made of 9 inches by 4-1/2 inches by 9/16 inch T-iron. A wooden
+fender, 4 inches by 4 inches wood, is fitted on both sides of hull,
+running from stern to stern, by 3 inches by 3-1/2 inches by 7/16 inch
+L-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown. The hull from water line
+falls in as shown, so as to describe at midships an arc of 4 feet 6
+inches, and a circular deck of 1/8 inch plate is riveted on the hull.
+There are two man-holes, each 16 inches diameter in the clear, placed in
+end plates of the circular deck as shown, and provided with covers 3/8
+inch thick, secured by twenty screws 3/4 inch diameter. The edge of each
+manhole is stiffened by a welded iron ring. The surface of the mooring
+link that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is steeled.
+The gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side, and riveted to the
+keelson, and is prevented from rolling by four gusset plates, with two
+short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto at the ends and coming in
+contact with the holder, and at the ends by angular plates, and angle iron
+riveted on each side and riveted to the keelson. The superstructure
+consists of four legs of angle iron 2-1/2 inches by 2-1/2 inches by 5/16
+inch, the upper ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate
+for supporting the lighting apparatus. Four wooden battens of pitch pine,
+4 inches by 1-1/2 inches, and bolted on to each cant of the angle iron
+superstructure, with 7/8 inch galvanized iron bolts and nuts.
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PROJECT FOR A ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.
+
+
+The present port of Havre is absolutely insufficient to answer the ever
+increasing requirements of commerce. Its entrance, which is too narrow and
+not deep enough, does not permit steamers to go in, come out, and perform
+their evolutions with the rapidity required by our epoch. So they are
+gradually abandoning our port, and going to load and unload at Anvers and
+elsewhere. A large number of wise heads, who are anxious about the future
+of this port and our national interests, have devoted themselves to
+finding a means of enlarging it, not by dredging _new_ basins, which would
+prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years, but by installing
+a true roadstead at the entrance to the present basins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.]
+
+Upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen, under the name of
+the Little Roadstead, a vast extent of sea nearly two kilometers wide by
+three to four in length, bounded upon one side by the heights of Heve and
+St. Adresse, and upon the other by the rocky line of Eclat and of the
+heights of the roadstead (Fig. 1). This Little Roadstead, so called, in
+order to become a genuine one, would have to be protected against the
+great waves of the open sea. To thus protect it, to close it as quickly
+and as cheaply as possible--that is the problem.
+
+In 1838, Charles de Massas presented a project (the first in order of
+date), which consisted in constructing upon the Eclat reef a semi-lunate
+dike, and a breakwater at Cape Heve. Moreover, upon the emergent parts of
+the Eclat reef and heights of the roadstead he proposed to erect two
+forts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER.]
+
+The defense of the port of Havre is a very important question, and one
+that appears to be completely abandoned. Since Engineer Degaulle in 1808
+advised the erection of a fort upon the Eclat, and requests have
+periodically been made and projects drawn. The requests are forgotten, but
+the drawings are in the Ministers' portfolios, and if France should
+to-morrow have a war with a maritime power our great northern port might
+be destroyed and burned by the smallest squadron.
+
+Some years after Massas' project, two officers, Deloffre and Bleve, and an
+engineer named Renaud, received a commission to search for a means of
+closing a portion of Seine Bay. These gentlemen advised the erection of
+two dikes, one on the Eclat shoal in the very axis of this reef, and the
+other at Heve. Between these two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating
+breakwater. This project, which was submitted to Admiral de Hell in 1845,
+had a favorable reception, and the Admiral especially applauded the trial
+of breakwaters, "which were much talked of in England, although the
+effects that they might produce were not well known." Deloffre, Bleve, and
+Renauds' project comprised two forts--one to the north and the other to
+the south of the roadstead. For a long time nothing more was said about
+it, and it is only during recent years, when the peril has become imminent
+for Havre (threatened as it is of being abandoned even by the French
+transatlantics), that the question has again became the order of the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.--END VIEW.]
+
+Mr. Bert, a merchant, would protect the Little Roadstead by means of two
+jetties, 1,000 and 1,600 meters in length, built, one of them upon the
+Eclat and the other upon the eminences of the roadstead. These would be
+constructed by forming a foundation of loose rocks, and using earth and
+brick above the level of the water. Mr. Vial has likewise proposed a
+rockwork of 2,000 meters in length, to form a dike 10 meters in height and
+width, whose platform would be on a level with the highest tides.
+
+Next comes the more recent project of Mr. Coulon. Seeing that it is the
+deposits of the ocean and not those of the Seine that accumulate upon the
+estuary, Mr. Coulon advises the construction of a dike about 2,000 meters
+in length, starting from the Havre jetty, and ending at the southwest
+extremity of the shoals at the roadstead heights, and a second one
+returning toward the northwest, of from 500 to 1,000 meters. A third and
+very long one of not less than 8 kilometers would be built from Honfleur
+to the Ratier shoals.
+
+This latter one, in contracting the bay, would contribute to increase the
+force of the current, which, throwing back at the ocean its mud and
+pebbles, would give us the depths of 15 and 20 meters indicated on the map
+of Beautemps-Beaupre.
+
+This year, again, two projects have arisen; one of them due to Mr.
+Thuillard-Froideville, and the other to Mr. Hersent.
+
+According to Mr. Hersent, it would be necessary to surround the Little
+Roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky shoals, which
+would begin at Cape Heve (which it would consolidate) and end opposite the
+entrance to the port at 1,600 meters from the jetties. Through it there
+would be five passages. Afterward another dike would be constructed,
+starting from the shore and running to meet the jetty designed to inclose
+the Little Roadstead. On turning the angle at which it met the jetty it
+would be continued as far as to Berville. Finally, a third dike, running
+from Honfleur to Berville, would complete the system.
+
+Mr. Hersent's project, which is one of the most remarkable of those that
+have been proposed, has one fault, and that is that it would require
+twelve years of work, and cost 158 million francs.
+
+Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, completely renouncing masonry dikes as being
+too costly and taking too long to construct, proposes to inclose the Havre
+roadstead by means of floating breakwaters. As we have already seen, the
+use of these between Cape Heve and the Eclat shoals had already been
+proposed in 1845. As the project was abandoned, the models of these
+breakwaters are rare.
+
+In Bouniceau's "Marine Constructions" we find a curious figure, a sort of
+open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular manner, and
+surmounted by rooms for watchmen, semaphores, posts for the shipwrecked,
+etc. It is, indeed, the most complicated and most impracticable type that
+could be imagined.
+
+Mr. Lewis' model, which was exhibited last year at the International
+Fisheries Exhibition, was, on the contrary, one of the simplest. It
+consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly triangular section, the
+sharpest angle of which, being turned oceanward, was designed to cut the
+waves and cause them to break over it (Fig. 2). If, by favor of divine
+Providence, this breakwater, which presents absolutely plane surfaces to
+the shock and pressure of the waves, is not broken to fragments in the
+first tempest, it will certainly acquit itself of the _role_ for which the
+inventor destined it. When we have a system of resistance to the sea,
+anchored and facing a certain direction, and consequently not being able
+to revolve around its axis as vessels do, care must be taken not to give
+it entire surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.--MODE OF JOINING THE
+PARTS.]
+
+Mr. Froideville's breakwater consists of a framework 25 meters in length,
+and 9 in height and width, and having the form of an irregular 5-sided
+prism (Fig. 3). The smallest side of the prism is designed to serve as a
+flat keel. The axis is formed of a metallic float, from whence start radii
+that form the skeleton of the framework, and that are designed for
+connecting the center with five long spruce beams that form the angles of
+the prism. To these beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the
+openwork sides. Five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams, but not
+so strong as they, protect the cross pieces and secure them against
+breakage in the middle. All the angles of the breakwater and all points of
+juncture of the pieces are protected with iron, and it is in order to
+counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central float is
+used. Parallel with this first breakwater, there are two other and smaller
+ones, which are designed for reducing the effect of rolling as much as
+possible. Reduced to a single float, the breakwater might remain under the
+waves too long, but, owing to the two others, it rights itself, warps
+around, and always presents the spur of its sharp roof to the wave.
+
+In order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each other, they
+are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious manner. From each of
+them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar which terminates in a journal
+that permits the breakwater to oscillate. Between these two bars there is
+a sort of swivel, whose pieces, in playing upon one another, give the
+breakwaters elasticity, while always holding them apart (Fig. 4). From
+each side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which the
+anchorage chain is attached. This latter is of steel, without solderings,
+and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage need be feared. To the
+other extremity of the chain is attached an anchor having two flukes,
+which both engage with the bottom.
+
+Mr. Froideville proposes to set up two lines of these breakwaters, for a
+length of about 71/2 kilometers, starting at the north from Cape Heve,
+taking in depths of 15 meters (the best that are found in the Little
+Roadstead), passing in front of the Eclat shoal and the heights, and
+ending opposite the entrance of the present port.
+
+The first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves, and the
+second for lending its aid in times of high tempests, and stopping the
+surge that has escaped from the first.
+
+The extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its promoter to
+affirm that in a few months, and with nine millions, he can inclose the
+Havre roadstead.
+
+The Little Roadstead, being thenceforward protected, will become an
+excellent port of refuge in bad weather. In addition, a system of
+lighters, or, better, a few floats connected with the shore and forming a
+rock, will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with great rapidity.
+
+Mr. Froideville's project presents the further advantage of rendering it
+easier to put the port of Havre quickly in defense. A certain number of
+floating batteries, anchored behind the breakwaters and protecting the
+advances of torpedo boats by means of their firing, would make a
+formidable defense. Not having to perform any evolutions, they might
+without danger be invested with armor plate thicker than that of ordinary
+ironclads. In order to complete the system, there might be erected upon
+the Eclat shoal an ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of
+Portsmouth.
+
+An English chronicler of the fourteenth century, in speaking of his
+country, places it above all others, and declares that men are handsomer,
+whiter, and purer blooded there than elsewhere, and he says that this is
+so "because it is so." We would not like to imitate his naive reasoning,
+and yet, for defending the very original system proposed by Mr.
+Froideville, we have only our conviction, which we share, moreover, with a
+large number of sea-faring men and engineers. Mathematics are powerless to
+predict to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters
+will behave, but experiment remains. Let the promoter of the project,
+then, be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters, and if, as we
+suppose, the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a northwester, a
+maritime revolution will have been brought about.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.
+
+
+In 1882, M. Bacle published in _Le Genie Civil_ a study of the sewer
+systems in some of the large foreign cities. There may be found there a
+description of the Liernur system at Amsterdam, Leyden, and Dordrecht, in
+Holland, and in certain cities of Germany and the United States.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.]
+
+This system consists in the employment of two distinct systems of ducts,
+one for the discharges from water-closets and the other for household
+wastes, rain water, and the discharges from factories when sufficiently
+purified. This arrangement allows the employment of sewers of small
+section, provided that it shall be unnecessary to enter them for the
+purpose of cleansing them. It has been necessary, therefore, to provide
+inlets with a separating apparatus called "gully" or "catch basin," which
+retains as completely as possible all solid matter, mud, excrement, and
+_debris_ of every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by
+rain-water, and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the sewers,
+the choking up being followed by fermentation and the emanation of noxious
+vapors.
+
+M.C. Pieper of Berlin suggests a device for a catch basin, which appears
+to meet the requirements. It is in the form of a cylindrical metal box,
+enlarged in its upper section to receive a filtering cylinder of
+perforated sheet iron, which occupies almost the upper half of the device
+and rests upon the smaller lower part. The entire apparatus is covered by
+a movable funnel, through which enter water and any rubbish which it may
+carry with it. From one side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged,
+while a siphon placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under
+certain circumstances, as will be explained.
+
+Figure 1 represents the apparatus discharging under normal conditions. The
+heavy matter, sand, stones, etc., falls to the bottom into a receptacle
+which can be lifted out from time to time and emptied. The lighter buoyant
+matters, straw, vegetable _debris_, paper, etc., remain at the surface,
+and are retained by the filter; the water passing through the holes in the
+sheet iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which
+exists in the upper part between the two cylinders, and escapes by the
+waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level. If at a given moment the
+quantity of water flowing in is too much to be discharged through this
+waste-pipe, the level of the water mounts in the cylinder until it reaches
+the top of the siphon. Immediately the siphon comes into play and empties
+the upper part of the apparatus, and the filtered water contained in the
+annular space already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the
+perforated sheet iron, and in so doing cleans out the perforations with
+considerable energy. This second period is represented in the second
+figure.
+
+The mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket, the heavy
+matters contained in the latter are not in the least disturbed, and the
+metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents the entrance of any
+floating matters. When siphonic action ceases, the water in the short arm
+of the siphon empties itself into the main receptacle, and by so doing
+cleanses the screen. During a rain or the washing of the streets, the
+siphon can work in concurrence with the ordinary discharge-pipe. It is
+evident of course that these two--pipes can be placed on the same side of
+the apparatus, if this prove the most convenient arrangement.
+
+We will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the Liernur
+system, but also can be used for preventing the entrance of obstructions
+into sewers of the ordinary type, where the grade is small or where the
+quantity of water is insufficient; and if we adopt the system of
+"everything to the sewer," can we not find in the employment of this
+apparatus an element for the realization of the famous formula, "Always in
+circulation, and never in stagnation?"--_Le Genie Civil._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 454, page 7249.]
+
+WATER-POWER WITH HIGH PRESSURES AND WROUGHT-IRON WATER-PIPE.
+
+By HAMILTON SMITH, JR., M. Am. Soc. C.E.
+
+METHODS OF CONDUCTING WATER AND TRANSMITTING POWER.
+
+
+A description of the mode of using water-power for driving the North
+Bloomfield tunnel in California, some years since, will give a good
+illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy. This tunnel was
+originally about 8,000 feet long, through a slate highly metamorphosed,
+with its general line passing under a good-sized stream, at a depth of
+about 190 feet. There were eight working-shafts, each about 200 feet deep,
+which, with the lower entrance or portal, gave sixteen working faces.
+Diamond drills were used at the lower heading requiring power; the other
+fifteen headings were driven by hand-work. It was uncertain how much water
+would be encountered; but from the location, it was evident that a large
+quantity might be struck in any shaft, and hence it became necessary to
+have ample power at hand at each opening, in readiness for such an
+emergency. A pipe main was laid along the general line of the tunnel, with
+its pen-stock 285 feet vertical above the surface at the upper shaft, and
+549 feet above the lowest shaft. It was made of single riveted sheet-iron,
+of No. 14 (Birmingham) gauge, in lengths of 20 feet, put together
+stove-pipe fashion, with the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and
+pine wedges. This pipe had a diameter of 15 inches at the pen-stock,
+diminishing from this to 13, 11, and 7 inches at its lower end. From it,
+short branches, 7 inches in diameter, were extended to the several shafts.
+It was in one place carried across the stream by a light suspension
+bridge, some 150 feet long, the trunk of a tree on each side forming a
+convenient tower. The aggregate length of the main and branches was 9,960
+feet, with some 2,500 feet additional, for the branch to the diamond
+drills. The pipe was laid on the surface of the ground, its only
+protection being in places a couple of 11/2-inch planks tacked together, and
+placed over it; the range of temperature was from 10 degrees to 107
+degrees Fahr. (in the shade). It was inspected by the foreman of the
+tunnel-work as he daily walked over the line; besides the occasional
+driving of a few wedges and putting on a band or two, it gave no trouble
+from leakage, which probably for its entire length did not amount to more
+than an average of 3 or 4 cubic feet a minute; from time to time, a little
+sawdust was put into the pen-stock. Three stop-gates were placed on the
+main, and a separate stop-gate at each shaft, operated by a fine-threaded
+screw, so that the water could be cut off when desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Fig. 13 shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and pumping,
+which was identical at the several shafts, except that the hurdy-gurdies
+varied from 161/2 feet in diameter at the upper shaft to 21 feet at the
+lowest shaft. The water-wheel moved only in one direction; the pinion on
+the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel, to which the pitman of the pump-bob
+was attached. On the spur-wheel shaft was a friction-gear, driving the
+hoisting-reel; this reel was mounted on sliding blocks, so that hoisting
+was done by putting it in gear, the empty load being dropped by a
+friction-band. Changing the size of the water-wheel as the pressure
+increased permitted the use of the same pattern of machinery at the
+different shafts. The water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe,
+some nine feet long, having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint,
+so that at pleasure, by dropping the pipe, the machinery could be run at
+various speeds, or entirely stopped. At the end of this discharge-pipe
+was a cast tapered nozzle, about 31/2 inches in diameter, in which was
+inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having the desired diameter, and which
+was held in place by an annular screw-cap. By changing the ring, which
+only required a few moments' time, any desired amount of water, up to 3 or
+4 cubic feet a second, could be discharged against the wheel. The
+stop-gate was left wide open while the machinery was running. The pumping
+was done by eighteen pumps, of Cornish pattern; the largest amount of
+water pumped from any one shaft was something over 30 cubic feet a minute;
+the power at hand, however, was ample to pump more than twice that
+quantity. It was rather curious at, this shaft to see more water coming
+from the pumps than was used on the wheel. The two diamond drills were
+driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the rear of the drill carriage. This,
+but at another tunnel, was afterward modified by placing a separate
+hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on each drill-rod; the advance movement of the
+drill being given by hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston, thus doing
+away with all gearing. These eight sets of machinery were run for nearly
+21/2 years' time; the only break being that of a spur-wheel, doubtless
+caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it and its pinion.
+Aside from this accident, practically not a dollar was spent for repairs,
+and the machinery, including the pipe, was in about as good order when the
+tunnel was finished as when it was first erected. One man, on a twelve
+hour shift, operated the machinery at each shaft, besides dumping the
+cars; two men kept the 18 pumps on the line in order, the principal work
+being in keeping the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight; thus
+a force of 18 men was only required for the eight shafts. The cost of the
+pipe, gates, etc., when put in place, was $14,631, and of the machinery
+about $60,000.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+At the Idaho gold quartz mine, situated near Grass Valley, California,
+water-power has been introduced during the past year (1883), taking the
+place of steam. The supply main is of wrought-iron, 22 inches in diameter,
+8,764 feet long, buried in the ground below frost-line. The joints, as a
+rule, are riveted together, with occasional lead joints to admit of slight
+movements in the pipe.[4] The pipe was coated by placing each joint in a
+bath of boiling tar and asphaltum; to insure the most thorough coating, it
+is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or fifteen minutes in the boiling
+mixture. A cast-iron stop-gate is placed at the lower end of the main, and
+also one at each of the branches. Cast-iron man-holes are attached to the
+main, which, although they have given no trouble in this particular case,
+are very objectionable for high pressures, as it is difficult to avoid
+ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined, owing to the great
+difference in the elasticity of the two metals. The long seams of this
+pipe are double-riveted, and the round seams single riveted; at the lower
+end, iron of No. 6 gauge is used. From the end of the main, the water is
+led to the several wheels by branches of smaller diameter.
+
+[Footnote 4: With buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is unnecessary,
+as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the movement due to changes of
+temperature, without injury to the rivets.]
+
+The water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head of 542.6
+feet. For power and for mill uses, etc., the required supply is about 8
+cubic feet a second; this draught reduces the effective head to say 523
+feet.
+
+The work done consists in driving the following described machinery:
+
+A large air-compressor--2 cylinders, double acting, air compressed to 75
+pounds--requiring about 140 horse-power.
+
+A line of Cornish pumps, forcing the water from a depth of 1,450 feet
+vertical; 12-inch plungers for upper 800 feet, 6-inch plungers for lower
+650 feet, with 6-foot stroke, requiring from 55 to 70 horse-power.
+
+Hoisting from a double-compartment shaft--two connected winding reels,
+moving separate cages--requiring 35 horse-power, or more.
+
+A few small machine-tools and smithy forges, requiring 3 or 4 horse-power.
+
+A 35-stamp mill, with concentrating apparatus, etc., requiring about 70
+horse-power.
+
+The total amount of power required being say 320 horse-power, for which
+seven Pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed.
+
+The power in all cases is transmitted by systems of Manila rope belting;
+the rope is 2 inches in diameter; the grooves in the sheaves or pulleys
+are slightly oval, so that the rope does not go quite to the bottom; the
+ropes are horizontal, and run very slack (no tighteners), with no
+appreciable slip; the splices are made very long, to obtain uniformity in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+This method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly and has
+given excellent satisfaction. It is thought, at the Idaho, to be greatly
+preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the works were driven by
+steam (for such work as pumping or hoisting, leather or rubber belting is
+never used), besides being much cheaper in first cost.
+
+The wheel driving the air-compressor is 6 feet in diameter, running 300
+turns[5] per minute, with 1-15/18-inch nozzle; three ropes are used from
+the wheel shaft to the counter-shaft, and six ropes from the latter to the
+fly-wheel shaft.
+
+[Footnote 5: The revolutions per minute, of these wheels, as here given,
+are only approximate, as the design was to have the bucket speed=1/2
+2(gh)^{1/2}.]
+
+For driving the pumps, there are two water-wheels, set on the same shaft,
+one 5 feet and the other 7 feet in diameter, either of which can be used
+at will, thus permitting different rates of speed; two nozzles are placed
+on each wheel, so that if necessary the power can at any time be doubled.
+The smaller wheel has a 1-1/4 inch nozzle, and runs 360 turns a minute;
+the larger has 1-1/8-inch nozzle, and makes 270 turns a minute. There are
+two ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft, and four ropes to the
+fly-wheel shaft, on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel attached to
+the pitman of the pump-bob. Hoisting is done by two wheels placed side by
+side on the same shaft, the buckets and nozzle of each wheel being placed
+in opposite directions. Both wheels are 8 feet in diameter, with
+15/16-inch nozzles, and make at full speed about 225 turns a minute.
+Reversing the movement of the shaft is done by shutting off water from one
+wheel, and turning water on the other wheel; the two water-gates for these
+nozzles are quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure, afforded
+from the water main. In addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels,
+a brake is placed on the wheel-shaft, so that it can be stopped in a very
+short period of time.
+
+The shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off the water at
+these hoisting-wheels (nearly one cubic foot per second) has not
+apparently had any injurious, effect. To lessen this shock, a compensating
+balance was designed, but which is not now in use. A wheel, of small
+diameter, is used for the smithy, etc., running at a very high velocity.
+The wheel driving the stamp-mill is 6 feet in diameter, makes 300
+revolutions a minute, and is supplied through a 1-3/16 inch nozzle. The
+head of water at this point is a few feet greater than at the other
+wheels. Power is transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by
+two and four ropes, the same as with the pumping rig. The amount of work
+done, or of water used, has not been carefully determined; judging from
+the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines, the managers of the
+Idaho believe that an efficiency of fully 80 per cent. of the theoretic
+power of the water is obtained on the main driving-shafts of the
+machinery. The substitution of water for steam-power has resulted in a
+large saving of expense. Although the hills near by are covered with fine
+forests, thus making wood cheap, and although a round price is charged for
+water by the company furnishing it, the cost of the water is considerably
+less than that of the wood formerly used as fuel. The cost of attendance
+is altogether in favor of the water-wheels, which hardly require any
+attention. The cost of the change from steam to water-power was
+$46,496.32.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEXAS CREEK PIPE AND AQUEDUCT.
+
+
+A description of this work will be of interest in showing the general
+practice followed in California for carrying water across deep mountain
+gorges. In order to augment its water supply, the North Bloomfield Gravel
+Mining Company desired to conduct water from a stream known as Texas
+Creek, in Nevada County, California, across the Big Canon branch of the
+South Yuba River into the main Bloomfield flume or aqueduct, which was
+located on the side of Big Canon Creek, at a vertical elevation of 620
+feet above the bed of the latter stream. The quantity of water to be
+carried was about 32 cubic feet a second (1,250 miner's inches), which
+could be diverted from Texas Creek at a point 480 feet vertical above the
+Bloomfield flume. An aqueduct about 4,000 feet long, partly of ditch and
+partly of flume, was needed to bring the water from the catchment dam on
+the creek to the brow of the gorge. The vertical head for the pipe could
+therefore be from a maximum of 460 feet down to any lesser head; with a
+head of 460 feet, the pipe would be 4,790 feet long; and with a head of
+220 feet, the length would be 4,290 feet. Assuming a maximum tensile
+strain upon the iron of 16,500 pounds per square inch, with the formula
+for the greatest head of about
+
+d = (.359 l/h)^{1/5}, [or, v = 68 (dh/l)^{1/2}, and Q = 32],
+
+and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for the lesser
+heads, it was found, by calculation, that the least cost could be obtained
+with a head from 300 to 350 feet. The head fixed upon was 303.6 feet, with
+a length of 4,438.7 feet. A profile of the pipe, with nearly the same
+horizontal and vertical scales (horizontal scale, showing slope lengths),
+is given in Fig. 14; details are given in Figs. 15 and 16. The pipe was of
+double riveted sheet iron, made in lengths of about 20 feet, and of the
+following thicknesses:
+
+  1,349 linear feet,    0.083 inch thick.
+    220    "            0.095     "
+    240    "            0.109     "
+    250    "            0.120     "
+    320    "            0.134     "
+    610    "            0.148     "
+  1,450    "            0.165     "
+
+Some of the iron was of the very poorest quality; the pipe was made by
+contract in San Francisco, without the supervision of an inspector, as the
+contractors were a firm of good reputation; the bad quality of the iron
+was not detected until too late to have it corrected. Since then, the
+writer has always had such pipes--the mines of which he has been the
+manager using large quantities--made directly on the ground where they are
+to be used; the pipe makers, in the latter case, always reject such sheets
+as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge, and those which
+show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of iron; tests of each
+joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too much to the cost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+The maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of iron used
+was intended to be 16,500 pounds per square inch. Some of the sheets were
+below the standard gauge, so that, in reality, the tensile strain is
+sometimes as high as 18,000 pounds. The mean diameter of the pipe was
+1.416 feet. The entrance into the pen-stock was tapered, so that the
+coefficient of contraction was about 0.92. For pressures not exceeding say
+380 feet, the joints were put together stove-pipe fashion. For greater
+pressures, the joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of
+the joint, with an outer lap-welded band, as shown by Fig. 15; lead was
+run into the space between the outer band and the pipe, and then tightly
+driven up by calking-irons. The pipe was laid under the bed of the Big
+Canon Creek, a large stream when in freshet, where the head below the
+hydraulic grade line was 760 feet. Some of the lead joints leaked slightly
+at first, but this was soon remedied by more careful calking. No man-holes
+or escape-gates were used. The pipe for the larger part of the year is not
+filled at its upper end; when such is the case, the water at the inlet
+carries down the pipe a great quantity of air, for which escapes must be
+provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing, which would soon destroy the
+pipe. The escape air-valves used are shown by Fig. 16. They consist simply
+of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron, with recess for lead filling to give
+greater weight set on top the pipe, seating on a vulcanized rubber
+cushion, and swinging on a loose hinge. When the pipe is only partly
+filled with water, the valves drop down by their own weight, allowing the
+air to freely escape; when the water rises above the level of a valve, it
+is tightly closed by the resulting pressure. There are fourteen of these
+valves, those on the lower end being designed to allow air to freely enter
+the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper portion, and thus prevent
+any collapse from atmospheric pressure. The valves have answered the
+desired purposes most effectually. The pipe was hauled over a road built
+to the inlet end, and shot down the mountain side by means of a V-shaped
+trough of wood. For the lower end, the joints were hauled up the cliff
+side into place by a crab worked by horse-power. On steep inclinations,
+the pipe was held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in
+the solid rock, as shown by the sketch. The covering of earth and stone
+was 1 foot to 2 feet in depth; with steep slopes, the earth was kept from
+sliding by rough dry walls, or by cedar plank placed crosswise. The pipe
+was laid in 1878; the first year it broke twice, owing to the wretched
+quality of the iron; since then, it has given no trouble, and has required
+practically no attention. The cost of this work--ditch and flume 4,000
+feet, and pipe 4,440 feet--was $23,779.53.
+
+A comparison of the relative values of n, in the formula v = n (r s)^{1/2},
+for the foregoing ditch, flume, and pipe will be instructive. The ditch
+has a width on the bottom of 3 feet, on the top of 6 feet, with a depth of
+3 feet, and an inclination of 20 feet per mile; its sides are rough, being
+cut in part through the rock and with sharp curves, although fairly
+regular; with a flow of about 1,300 miner's inches (32.8 cubic feet per
+second) the ditch runs about full.
+
+Therefore:
+
+      6 + 3
+  a = ----- x 3 = 13.5 ;
+        2
+
+[TEX: a = \frac{6+3}{2} \times 3 = 13.5;]
+
+           a
+  r = ------------- = 1.41 ;
+      3.3 + 3 + 3.3
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{3.3 + 3 + 3.3} = 1.41;]
+
+        20       1
+  s = ------ = ----- ;
+       5280     264
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{20}{5280} = \frac{1}{264};]
+
+  Q = 32.8, hence
+
+       Q
+  v = --- = 2.43;
+       a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 2.43;]
+
+and
+
+     /              {1/2} \
+  n ( in v = n (r s)^    ) = 33.
+     \                  /
+
+[TEX: n\ (\text{in}\ v = n (r s)^\frac{1}{2}) = 33.]
+
+The flume is of unplaned boards, rectangular, 2.67 wide x 2.83 deep, with
+an inclination of 32 feet per mile. There are sharp curves, although these
+were made as regular as practicable; the boiling action of the water
+passing around these curves brought the flow line (Q = 32.8) nearly up to
+the top of the sides; with a straight flume of the same size, the water
+would have doubtless stood several inches lower.
+
+Therefore:
+
+    a = 2.67 x 2.83 = 7.56 ;
+
+                a
+    r =  -------------------- = 0.908 ;
+        2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83} = 0.908;]
+
+           32       1
+    s =  ------ = ----- ;
+          5280     165
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{32}{5280} = \frac{1}{165};]
+
+    Q = 32.8, hence
+
+         Q
+    v = --- = 4.34;
+         a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 4.34;]
+
+    and n = 59.
+
+With the pipe,[6] 1.416 diameter,
+
+         d
+    r = --- = 0.354; Q = 31.69; v = 20.13.
+         4
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{d}{4} = 0.354;\ Q = 31.69;\ v = 20.13.]
+
+[Footnote 6: _Vide_ pages 120-122, Transactions American Society of Civil
+Engineers for 1883.]
+
+Allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water, and for
+contraction,
+
+         296.1
+    s= --------; and n = 131.
+        4438.7
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{296.1}{4438.7};\ \text{and}\ n = 131.]
+
+We hence have the following values of n, in v = n (r s)^{1/2}, Q being
+constant:
+
+    Rough ditch, with sharp curves.                    33
+    Rectangular flume, with sharp curves.              59
+    Wrought-iron pipe, with easy curves, coated with
+    asphalt, but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy
+    obstructions (m = 65.5, and 2m = n)               131
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.
+
+
+The very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate herewith
+is the invention of a Russian engineer, Mr. Jagn. It is scarcely as yet
+known in Western Europe, where, however, something will probably be heard
+of it ere long. Its true field would seem to be Egypt, India, or any
+country where canals or rivers are used for irrigation, and where it is
+desired to draw water from them at particular spots in the simplest and
+cheapest manner. At present in nearly all such cases water is raised by
+hand or steam power; nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of
+the canal itself, slow though it may be, is quite sufficient to raise a
+small portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally
+needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields. Why then is it
+not employed for the purpose? The answer is obvious, when we consider the
+various hydraulic motors at present in use. Of course, motors worked by
+water pressure must here be excluded; and we are left with scarcely
+anything but the undershot wheel, the turbine, and the screw pump. All
+these require expensive buildings and erections to set them to work,
+present but a very small fraction of their surface to the water at any one
+time, and must be very large and costly if they are to draw even a very
+moderate amount of power from such a source. There is no possibility of
+adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the current or
+in the quantity of water required, nor of moving them from place to place
+should this be convenient.
+
+[Illustration: PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.]
+
+The motor of Mr. Jagn is on a totally different principle. Its essential
+features consist, as shown, of an endless rope made of hemp or aloe fiber,
+which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums mounted on a barge or
+pontoon, and then passes down the channel to return over a pulley hung
+from a floating punt, at such a depth that the whole of the rope is
+immersed in the water. Along this rope are suspended at equal intervals a
+number of parachutes made of sail cloth. The rope passes through the
+center of each of these, and to it are attached a series of strings, the
+other ends of which are connected to the outside edge of the parachute.
+Thus they act like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from
+opening too far under the pressure of the current. The parachutes must be
+placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on each, and the sum
+of the pressures forms the force which draws the rope through the water.
+The moment, however, that any parachute has passed round the return
+pulley, the current acts upon it in the opposite direction. It then shuts
+up like an umbrella, and assumes a volume so small that its resistance on
+the return journey is insignificant. After passing round the drum at the
+upper end, it at once opens afresh of its own accord, and once more
+becomes part of the moving power of the whole system. The parachutes are
+formed by first cutting out a complete circle of cloth, and then taking
+from this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area. Such
+parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the water better
+than a surface originally spherical, although the latter would be
+theoretically more correct. The motion of the drum is transmitted by spur,
+gear, or otherwise as may be required, to give the requisite speed.
+
+It will be seen that the advantages of the system are as follows: First,
+the facility it offers for obtaining a large working area, which may be
+increased or diminished at will, according to the requirements of the
+moment, by lengthening or shortening the rope. Secondly, the ease with
+which it is erected and set to work. Thirdly, the small part of the river
+section which it occupies, so as to present no obstacle to navigation.
+Fourthly, the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind,
+and carried wherever it may be needed. Fifthly, it is not stopped, like
+all other hydraulic motors, by the appearance of ice--it has, in fact,
+already been worked under ice in the Neva. At the same time, winds and
+waves have no influence upon it.
+
+The principle of the apparatus is not altogether new. In 1872 there was
+tried on the Ohio River an arrangement termed the Brooks motor. It was
+composed of two drums, placed horizontally and parallel to each other.
+Round these there passed endless chains at equal spaces apart on the
+length of the drums, and to these chains were fixed wooden blades or arms
+of a curved form, and so jointed to the frames that they opened when
+moving in one direction, and closed down on the chain when moving in the
+other. In this machine the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to
+obtaining any large amount of power. The whole apparatus was mounted on a
+heavy wooden scaffold, which proved an impediment to the flow of the
+river. Again, the resistance due to the surface of the returning blades
+and to their stiffness was found to be far from insignificant.
+
+In the present system Mr. Jagn has found, after many experiments, that the
+best effect was obtained when the parachutes were spaced apart at twice
+their diameter, and when the rope made an angle of 8 degrees to 10 degrees
+with the current. It is found that when open and in motion the parachutes
+never touch the bottom. This was the case with a rope containing 180
+parachutes of 4 feet diameter, and working in a depth of only 6 feet. This
+is easily explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always
+diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Hence the pressure on the lower
+part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper part; but the
+former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward, while the latter
+tends to raise it to the top of the water. Thus, the latter being the
+larger, the parachute will always have a tendency to rise. In fact, it is
+necessary to sink the return pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that
+the parachutes will not emerge from the surface. For the same reason no
+intermediate supports are needed over the driving span; if any are needed
+it is for the return span, on which the parachutes are closed. Of course,
+if metal were used instead of hemp, the case would be entirely different,
+and intermediate supports would have to be used for anything but very
+moderate lengths.
+
+In practice, Mr. Jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same pair of
+drums, which are mounted upon a pontoon. The ropes are spread out from
+each other, as in Fig. 1, making an angle of about 10 degrees. The low
+specific gravity of the system enables ropes to be employed of as great a
+length as 450 yards, each of them carrying 350 parachutes of 17.2 square
+feet area. As half of these are in action at the same time, the total
+working area for the two cables is 5,860 square feet. This immense area
+furnishes a considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble
+current. Comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes
+employed, and supposing this to have only 172 square feet of working area,
+such a wheel must have a length of 46 feet, a diameter of 23 feet, and
+seventy-two floats, each 21/2 feet wide. The enormous dimensions thus
+required for a comparatively small working area point sufficiently clearly
+to the advantage which remains on the side of the parachute motor.
+
+The general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving. Behind
+the return pulleys, D D, are attached cords, A A, with some parachutes
+strung upon them. These present their openings to the current and preserve
+the tension of the connecting ropes. At the further end of each cord is a
+board, B, which is kept in a vertical plane, but lying at a slight angle
+to the direction of the current; and this acts to keep the two moving
+ropes apart from each other. The two return pulleys are, however,
+connected by a line, E, which can be shortened or lengthened from the
+pontoon, and in this way the angle of inclination between the two ropes
+can be varied if required. A grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span
+at the moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum. It is
+mounted on a screwed spindle, which is depressed by a nut, and thus makes
+the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly efficacious
+manner.
+
+The author has made a theoretical investigation of the power which may be
+developed by the system, and has worked out tables by which, when the
+velocity of the current and the other elements of the problem are known,
+the power developed by any given number of parachutes can be at once
+determined. We do not reproduce this investigation, which takes account of
+the resistance of the returning parachutes and other circumstances, but
+will content ourselves with quoting the final equation, which is as
+follows: T = 0.328 S V cubed. Here T is the work done in H.P., S is the total
+working area in sq. m., and V is the velocity of the current in m. per
+sec. Taking V = 1, and S = 1 sq. m., which is by no means an impracticable
+quantity, we have T = 0.328 H.P. per sq. m. We may check this result by
+the equation given, in English measures, by Rankine--"Applied Mechanics,"
+p. 398--for the pressure of a current upon a solid body immersed in it.
+This equation, F = 1.8 m A v squared / 2g, where m is the weight of a unit of
+volume of the fluid--say 62 lb.--A is the area exposed, and v the relative
+velocity of the current. Mr. Jagn finds that the maximum of efficiency is
+obtained when the rope moves at one-third the velocity of the stream. If
+this velocity be 3 feet per second, we shall have v = 2. and we then get F
+= 7 lb. per sq. ft. very nearly. Now 1 sq. meter = 10.76 sq. ft., and a
+speed of 1 ft. per second (which is that of the rope) is 60 ft. per
+minute. Hence the H.P. realized in the same case as that taken above will
+be 7 x 10.76 x 60 / 33,000 = 0.137 H.P. The difference between the two
+values is very large, but Rankine, of course, depends entirely on the
+value of the constant 1.8, which is quite empirical, and is for a flat
+band instead of a hollow parachute. Taking, however, his smaller figure,
+and an area of 544 square inches, which Mr. Jagn has actually employed, we
+get a gross power of = 0.137 x 544 = 7.43 H.P. Hence it will be seen that
+the amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from being
+inconsiderable.
+
+Lastly, we may point out that the durability of the apparatus will be
+considerable. There is no wear except at the moment when the rope is
+passing round the drum, and even then there need be no slipping or
+grinding. The apparatus worked in the Neva was in very good condition
+after running for four months day and night. After five months about
+one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced, but after seven months the
+hemp rope still showed no signs of wear. We think we have said enough to
+show that for certain purposes, and especially, as we have, already
+mentioned, for irrigation purposes, the new motor is well worthy of a
+careful and extended trial. It may be questioned even whether we have not
+here the germ of an idea which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the
+most interesting and important of engineering problems, viz., the
+utilization of the great store of power provided for us twice daily in the
+ebb and flow of the tide.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.
+
+
+Our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning lathes, and is
+the result of thirty years' experience in the manufacture of shafting,
+with many years' study, to perfect a machine of the greatest practical
+capacity and efficiency.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.]
+
+The principal points of difference from a common engine lathe are readily
+distinguished, among which may be mentioned the absence of centers and
+tail stock, a traveling head with hollow driving spindle, and a stationary
+tool rest and water tank. By dispensing with a tail stock a much shorter
+bed may be used, and the hollow driving spindle enables any length shaft
+to be turned, with one setting of the tools. The tool rest is so arranged
+as to allow of perfect lubrication of the tools, keeping the shaft cool,
+and at the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong; the operator
+is not required to travel the length of the bed, but remains near the
+driving belt, feed gearing, etc. Power is communicated to the driving
+spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod inside the bed, the
+driving belt and gears being at the end.
+
+The driving head, after having traveled the length of the bed and turned a
+shaft, is returned by a quick feed, and stops automatically, allowing
+nearly time enough for the operator to grind tools and be ready with
+another shaft, thus economizing the time completely.
+
+Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass., are the makers, and they say that
+with a good quality of iron they have turned three hundred feet of two
+inch iron in ten hours.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.
+
+
+The machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the bed, which
+are adjustable for different lengths of shaft, and are made to revolve by
+power applied through suitable gearing and a splined rod inside the bed;
+the bar of iron being placed on the periphery of the rolls receives a
+rotary motion by friction, and shows the crooked places in the same way
+and with the same ease as though rotating on centers in the usual manner;
+vertically adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to
+support the iron; power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at
+the back of the machine, on which is a sliding clutch connecting, at the
+will of the operator, with an eccentric; the eccentric conveys motion and
+power through a link to the elbow joint at the front of the press, which
+forces a plunger down against the iron.
+
+[Illustration: POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.]
+
+Sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by turning a
+nut at the top of the press.
+
+Any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the press on
+the bed. Any length of iron can be straightened, and the most laborious
+and disagreeable work in the process of making shafting is rendered easy
+and rapid. Made by Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA.
+
+By GEORGE O'BRIEN.
+
+
+Our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional, as we are only aware
+that from very early times the precious metal was collected and highly
+prized by them, and that they chiefly extracted the visible gold, which
+existed in prodigious quantities on or closely beneath the surface of the
+earth, and of its being particularly abundant in Asia and Africa. But we
+can draw more positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but
+effective contrivances used by them in later, but still remote, periods,
+with full evidence as to the extent of their operations, in the numerous
+perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other, over
+large areas of auriferous gravel in India, as well as from precisely
+similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also further
+demonstrations, in the abandoned "hill diggings," and shifted beds, and
+beds of rivers, in Peru South America, flowing between the sea and coast
+ranges of the Andes, descending in a northeasterly direction to the river
+Amazon, and that their much coveted and enormous productions were the
+accumulated riches of the Incas, transferred as spoils of war to their
+Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century. And for similar explorations
+in the same class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times,
+and which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded to.
+
+Thus in the year 1849, after the cession of the northern portion of Mexico
+to the United States of North America, the rich mineral district of
+California was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent bands of mining
+adventurers from all parts of the world, who, with little other means at
+their disposal but pick, shovel, and pan, soon fell on the productive bars
+of rivers and rich ravines where the gold was trapped, derived from its
+original birthplaces, where it had been sparsely disseminated, to be
+dispersed by the subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the
+mountains themselves, and deposited in a disengaged form for the first
+comer; and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations, in certain
+localities where water once streamed, that, divested of its earthy matrix,
+the cleansed pure metal was found deposited, detained by its superior
+specific gravity, on the bare rock, and only hidden from vision by a
+slight covering of vegetable mould. In this manner, as an example of such
+concentration, a "pot" or "find" (in mining parlance) to the value of
+L10,000 was collected in a space of 15 square yards, or within the limits
+of a particular "mining claim," at the foot of Mokulumne Hill, in a
+southern county of California, soon after the territorial transfer from
+Mexico. And in search of such locations we must account for the numberless
+shafts which still exist both in India and Peru, and sometimes sunk within
+a few feet of each other, passing through the alluvium to a depth of 40
+feet to the bed rock.
+
+These mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over the other
+recently acquired territories, and built Virginia City, the capital of
+Montana, with the gold derived from the alluvium of a river channel which
+they excavated; and its inhabitants were the founders of an institution
+called the Vigilance Committee, with "Lynch law," and by it ruled
+supremely for many years. But their surface diggings, by the manual
+operations alone of multitudes, were soon exhausted in every direction,
+and then their energies and powers of invention were dedicated to discover
+and explore deeper and more permanent depositions, along the western
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada, the Andes of the Western Territories, and
+which originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at
+the present time--probably 20,000 feet above the sea-level--and of which,
+or whatever superior elevation they formerly had, the greater portion of
+it has already been removed, by the continuous natural action of
+centuries, to form there, as elsewhere, the plains and prairies of the
+earth, burying and diverting by the mutation the ancient river system,
+whose sources of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of
+these altitudes. These denudations and subsequent depositions have been
+caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air, water,
+and time since the creation of the world; and powerful demonstrations of
+these transformations instruct us in all directions, if we care to observe
+them. Thus in "Little Cottonwood" ravine, in the Wahsatch range of
+mountains in Utah Territory, lie isolated in the center of the valley huge
+masses of metamorphic granite, some blocks of which weigh individually
+thousands of tons, and were dislodged from the hills--which on either side
+are of limestone formation--with no visible granite in them, having been
+undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by denudation, and
+which is the material now forming the tablelands, the foundation, of Salt
+Lake City. The blocks of granite, having alone resisted the atmospheric
+changes, were precipitated into the valley beneath, and the Mormons are
+now constructing their cathedral church from these granitic remains.
+
+The melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges of
+mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the extinguished
+channels of ancient rivers, and whose now diverted waters were also the
+powerful agent to assist in causing these marvelous alternations; and by
+the means of hydraulic mining we can advance our feeble knowledge on the
+subject.
+
+These mighty changes have gradually been accomplished, and the accumulated
+denudations of the mineral zones have defended themselves by strata of
+crystallized silicates of quartz of various thicknesses, and thus in
+places beneath such system of defense, or by their own concretion, have
+preserved in many localities a thickness of from 500 to 600 feet of
+conglomerate, but without this necessary cementation its further removal
+is very certain when again attacked by water. An example of this
+continuous process is very observable in "Death Valley," Lower California,
+where a width of about 100 miles has been filled up from the hills to the
+gulf of same name, invading and occupying its former bed; and this
+activity is still proceeding, and a temporary formation of tableland
+above it is in course of removal, although already overgrown with forest
+trees, which are toppling over the side which is being attacked. But
+eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these Sierras, and a
+period of comparative repose may be expected, as the distribution has
+already been far advanced by the excessive reduction of the mountains.
+
+The deep and extensive depositions which I now attempt to describe
+attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers, and were called
+"hill diggings," but not being properly understood were therefore not
+immediately operated upon, and remained in abeyance, while the lower,
+richer, and more manifest alluvials endured. They were designated "blue
+gravel," the color being due to the action of sulphuret of iron and other
+salts, the cementing auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate,
+and on exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet,
+losing also its firmness by oxidation.
+
+The "great blue lead" is another important mining term and designates the
+alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on the bed rock, being
+the well-worn path of an ancient river; and it is obvious that the
+material in these channels should be richer than the general mass beyond
+their limits.
+
+"Rim rock" is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel, and, like
+the bottom, is well worn and corrugated by the running water into cavities
+and "pot holes," where the force of the stream eddied. The width of these
+channels varies from 60 to 400 feet, and the cement near the rim and
+bottom is always richer than elsewhere. The wider and deeper channels
+generally course from N. to N.W. The richest and most explored belt of
+gold-bearing alluvium in California lies between the South and Middle Yuba
+Rivers, commencing near Eureka, in Nevada county, and extends downwards to
+Smartsville and Timbuctoo, in Yuba county, a distance of 40 miles; and
+from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from where the
+ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers, which are 2,000 feet
+beneath the auriferous gravel and region near Smartsville, and 2,000 feet
+above the Yuba River, where snow is unknown, and near its terminus the
+ancient river bed courses more westerly than it does above it, and crosses
+Yuba below Timbuctoo, where the auriferous depositions disappear. The
+whole distance of 40 miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers,
+and around the village of Timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful
+yield of gold, obtained chiefly in the ravines, in holes, and depressions
+in the bed rock. These hollows detained the concentrations of the
+denudated alluvium from the altitudes, and were generally closely beneath
+the surface, and by such guidance and means of discovery the miners traced
+the gold up the ravines to their sources in the lofty mounds and deposits,
+or hills of cemented conglomerate, near Eureka in Nevada county; and by
+constructing canals from a higher level began the new system of "hydraulic
+mining" and washing, and gradually extended their operations over the area
+of the metallic zone mentioned, of 40 miles long by 20 wide, using the
+Yuba River below Timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings, or
+refuse from their operations. The result in gold was considerable, but the
+system is from its violent nature difficult to control, by presuming to
+handle and remove such huge depositions in order to collect the richest
+material. The idea was bold, being an anticipation of Nature's operations;
+but the equitable disposal of the "tailings" in a cultivated country is
+impossible, as the silt runs down the rivers, creating banks and bars in
+their channels, obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements.
+
+_General Description of Hydraulic Mining._
+
+The first work to be accomplished, after calculating that the amount or
+value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient to guarantee the
+cost of the undertaking in general, is the construction of a canal or
+canals, to convey the requisite volume of water from the fountain-head,
+and of sufficient elevation to command the ground to be worked upon,
+having also in view the levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as
+outlets for the discharge of the gravel through them, these being
+engineering operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless
+after-cost.
+
+Aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed across deep
+valleys, and the speculation is at all times problematical, as the ground
+cannot be properly tested until the water arrives upon it, and disputes
+may arise between the shareholders of the canal and the mining company,
+ending frequently in the one devouring the other, unless the two interests
+be quickly amalgamated.
+
+The starting point should be the lowest level, or "bed rock," on the white
+cement in the ancient channel, which is probably the original silt
+collected in it, and is harder than the conglomerate above it, which is
+more easily removed. The courses of these beds can be easily traced by
+landmarks and undulations, and occasional exposures of the bed rock at low
+levels; also trial shafts are sunk in various places in search of it, to a
+depth of 100 feet, passing through blue gravel. The grades of these beds
+are not steep, being from 10 to 40 feet per mile as of an ordinary river,
+and the calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about 600
+feet in many places across the ridge between the South and Middle Yuba
+River across the Columbia.
+
+The power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given volume
+deposited in a reservoir, and at sufficient elevation above the points of
+discharge, as on this depends effectivity to tear down the gravel. It is
+delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of wrought iron, and laid down
+to follow the curvatures of the surface of the ground; and the pipe I now
+treat of, belonging to the Excelsior Water Company, has a diameter of 40
+inches on a length of 6,000 feet, and 20 inches on the rest of its length
+of 8,000 feet, being 9,000 feet in all; and this large pipe forms an
+inverted siphon across a valley, following on the gravel, to the top of
+the hill into the reservoir.
+
+These pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning chasms,
+and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys; being also cheaper to
+construct in general, and less liable to accidents from fire and storms,
+and have the convenience for conveying the water from point to point, as
+the work of excavation advances, necessitating the removal of portions of
+the aqueduct forward. The watershed, or reservoir, of the Excelsior
+Company embraces the valley of the South Yuba and its affluents, and the
+entire cost of its eight amalgamated canals was 750,000 dollars.
+
+The rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged 49 inches
+annually, while the medium in the same period did not exceed 20 inches in
+the plains beneath. The height of the reservoir above the tailing, or Yuba
+River, is 393 feet: and the height of the head above the floor, or outlet
+sluice-tunnel, of the Blue Gravel Mining Company was 197 feet.
+
+The exact quantity of water required to wash every class of gravel is
+difficult to estimate, but no quantity or pressure would be excessive if
+properly arranged. The measurement of water is effected by miner's
+inches, by allowing it to flow from the reservoir of the seller to the
+purchaser through a box 10 or 12 feet square, with divisions to obtain a
+quiet head, with a slide or opening capable of adjustment to any required
+measure; thus an opening of 25 inches by 2 inches, with a quiet head of 6
+inches above the middle of the orifice, would give 50 inches, or about
+89,259 cubic feet of water, flowing during ten hours per day, being an
+amount necessary for a first-class operation. The capability of the
+Excelsior Canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in twenty-four
+hours, to the various mining companies, of 21,120,000 cubic feet of water,
+or 8,000 miner's inches, and the value of the water paid for by the Blue
+Gravel Company in forty-three months ending November 9, 1867, was 157,261
+dollars, being at the rate of 15 cents of a dollar per miner's inch; and
+the proportion of water used to wash down 989,165 cubic yards of gravel
+was 17,074,758 cubic yards, or 171/4 cubic yards of water to 1 cubic yard of
+gravel; and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was 1,298
+cubic yards, and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of gravel was 5
+and 7/10 cents of a dollar. But in the face of contingencies the Blue
+Gravel Company moved 1,000,000 cubic yards of gravel in four years, or at
+the rate of 250,000 cubic yards per annum, and the cost of washing each
+cubic yard stands thus:
+
+                                                 Cents.
+  Cost of water, at 15 cents per miner's inch     5.77
+  Cost of labor, gunpowder, sluices, and
+      superintendence                            16.10
+                                                 -----
+                                                 21.87
+    Or 213/4 cents of a dollar per cubic yard.
+
+Thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of 22 cents of a dollar
+per cubic yard to cover cost, and the value of the gravel referred to
+ranged from 20 to 45 cents per cubic yard; and the cost of work done in
+shafts and tunnels, in the said Blue Gravel Company's Mining claim,
+reached 100,000 dollars. But with the cost of the necessary canals paid
+for by the Excelsior Water Company apart, the total cost amounted to about
+1,000,000 dollars, and we must note that the latter company sold water to
+other mining companies.
+
+The gross yield in gold of the Blue Gravel Company in four years was
+837,399 dollars, and in the year 1866 the returns from the Blue Gravel
+Company paid all the costs of the developments; but in 1867 assessments
+were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising from the cost of
+sinking two new shafts, and driving fresh tunnels on the lowest levels,
+which evidently contain on the bed rock the richest concentrations.
+
+In smaller mining adventures of this description, involving less capital,
+large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone treated of, by also
+not having invested in costly canals, which would not have repaid the
+latter investment; and thus it is evident that the water companies are
+dependent blindly on the prosperity of the miners.
+
+I will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations. The mining
+ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the nearest and most
+convenient ravine, so that the starting-point on the bed rock toward the
+face of the ravine shall approach the center of the material to be removed
+at a gradient of 1 in 10 to 1 in 30. The dimensions of such tunnels are
+usually 6 feet in width by 7 in height, and continuing in contact with the
+hard river-bed, for the greater ease of excavation, collection of gold,
+and conservation of quicksilver amalgam.
+
+These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile, and some
+of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in execution, at a
+cost of from 10 to 60 dollars per foot of frontage. The tunnel of the Blue
+Gravel Company, with length of 1,358 feet, cost in labor alone 70,000
+dollars, but it could now be driven for 35,000 dollars, as skilled labor
+is cheaper now than then. The grade in this tunnel is about 12 per cent.,
+and the end of the tunnel is designed to be 170 feet of elevation, and
+reaching to a point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being
+operated upon, and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed
+rock or gravel, until it intersects the tunnel.
+
+The object of this laborious operation is obvious, as the long tunnel
+becomes a sluiceway, and through the whole length of which sluice boxes
+are laid, for the double motive of carrying off the material and saving
+the gold, and for this purpose a trough of strong planks is placed in the
+tunnel, 21/2 feet wide, and with sides high enough to contain the stream.
+The pavement of the trough is generally laid of blocks of wood 6 inches in
+thickness, cut across the grain, and placed on their ends, to the width of
+the sluiceway. The wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections of
+stone pavement, the stones being set endwise, and in the interstices
+between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is distributed, and as
+much as 2 tons of this metal is required to charge a long sluice. The
+water in the canal is brought by aqueducts, or other means, to the head of
+the mining ground, having an elevation of 100 to 200 ft. above the lowest
+level of the mining ground, and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes,
+sometimes sustained on a strong incline of timber.
+
+These pipes are of sheet iron, of adequate strength, riveted at the
+joints, and measure from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, and communicate at
+the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron, on the top and sides
+of which are openings for the adaptation of flexible tubes, made of very
+strong fabric of canvas, strengthened by cording, and terminating in
+nozzles of metal of 21/2 to 3 inches in diameter. From these nozzles the
+streams of water are directed against the face of the gravel to be washed,
+exercising incredible effectivity.
+
+The volume of water employed varies of course with the work to be done;
+but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting simultaneously on
+the same bank, each conveying from 100 to 600 inches of water per
+hour--1,000 miner's inches being equal to 106,600 cubic feet of water per
+hour, constantly exerting its force under a pressure of 90 to 200 pounds
+to the square inch, varying with the height of the column.
+
+Under the continuous action of this enormous force, aided by the softening
+power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass are dislodged, and
+fall with great violence, the _debris_ speedily disintegrating and
+disappearing under the resistless force of the water, and is hurried
+forward in the sluices to the mouth of the shaft, down which it is
+precipitated with the whole volume of turbid water. Bowlders of 100 to 200
+lb. in weight are dislodged and shot forward by the impetuous stream,
+accompanied by masses of the harder cement which meet in the fall, and by
+the concussion from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency
+required is found to disintegrate it. The heavy banks, of 80 feet and
+upward, are usually worked in two benches, the upper never being so rich
+as the lower, and also less firm, and therefore worked away with greater
+rapidity.
+
+The lower section is much the more compact, as this stratum on the bed
+rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure, and even sometimes
+the full force of the streams of water, until it has been loosened by
+gunpowder or other explosives. For this purpose adits are driven in on its
+foundation-point of from 40 to 70 feet and more from the face of the bank,
+and drifts are extended at right angles therefrom to a short distance on
+each side of the adit, and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder
+is placed (from 1 to 3 tons), and fired at one blast, having been
+previously built in with masonry. And in this manner the compact
+conglomerate is broken up, and then the water easily completes its work.
+Sometimes in the soft, upper strata the systems of tunnel is extended, as
+in a coal-mine, by cross alleys, leaving blocks which are afterward washed
+away, and then the whole mass settles, and is disintegrated under the
+influence of water. The wooden sluices in the tunnels already described
+are often made double for the convenience of "cleaning up" one of them,
+while the other remains in action. The process of cleaning up is performed
+according to the quantity and richness of the material worked upon, at
+intervals of twenty to forty days, and consists in removing the pavement
+and blocks from the bed of the sluice, and then gathering all the amalgam
+of gold and rich dirt collected, and replacing the locks in the same way
+as at first. Advantage is taken on this occasion to reverse the position
+of the blocks and stones when they are worn irregularly, or substitute new
+ones for those which are worn through. The mechanical action of the
+washing process on the blocks is of course very rapid and severe,
+requiring complete renewal of them once in eight to ten weeks. Some miners
+prefer a pavement of egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring,
+the gold being deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluiceways are,
+however, paved with rectangular wooden blocks, with or without stones as
+described. Standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full
+action, any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with
+astonishment, amounting almost to terror, as the muddy mass sweeps onward,
+bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders, which add their din to
+the roar of the water, the whole being precipitated down a series of
+falls, at each of which it is caught up again by new sluices of timber,
+lined like the first, and so onward and downward many hundreds of feet
+until the level of the river is reached, at a distance of about a half
+mile or more from the mouth of the first tunnel.
+
+At each of these new falls of 25 to 50 feet the process of comminution
+begun in the first shaft is carried on, and a fresh portion of gold
+obtained. Rude as this plan of saving gold appears to be, more gold is
+procured by it than by any other method of washing yet devised for this
+process of work, and the economical advantages obtained by it cannot be
+surpassed, as it would be impossible to handle such vast quantities of
+material in any other way, and we can compare the cost of washing and
+handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows:
+
+                                        Dollars.
+By manual labor with the pan              15.00
+    "       "   with rocker                3.75
+    "       "   with the long tom           .75
+By the hydraulic process                    .15
+
+But this process, even if effective or profitable as a mining operation,
+may be prejudicial to the interests of the general public, if conducted on
+a large scale, as the vast quantity of material which it so suddenly
+removes is merely shifted into the shallows beneath, to be redistributed
+by every freshet to points lower and lower down until it reaches the
+sea-coast, creating bars at the mouths of rivers in its course, and
+changing the hydrography of harbors--as it has done with the Bay of San
+Francisco by its silt.
+
+The hills behind, torn up and washed by the gold miner, are abandoned as
+desolate and irredeemable; and the costly canals, constructed with
+peculiar conveniences for mining purposes, eventually fall into disuse
+from being too expensive to maintain or alter for general agricultural
+uses.--_Journal of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA.
+
+
+From the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging the
+European medical press, we select the following from Dr. Henry A. Rawlins,
+in the _London Med. Times_, July 12. 1884:
+
+The man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by diarrhoea of
+an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his blood. This loss is one of
+simple transudation, increasing as the powers of life decrease. This
+_sudden_ loss produces intense prostration, and renders the heart
+powerless to perfect the circulation. The body, thus deprived of oxygen,
+speedily runs into decomposition, even before life is extinct. Have we any
+agent by which we can collect and press forward these scattered and
+lethargic drops of blood to the heart, and enable it to renew the
+circulation, and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body? My reply is
+emphatically--Yes! Flannel bandages from the toes to the trunk, around the
+abdomen, and from the fingers to the body, will effect this object
+perfectly. Remark that the effect is gradual, increasing with every turn
+of the roller, but would be in full force in about twenty minutes. By thus
+exposing the blood in the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted
+form, as it is in the air, instead of pure oxygen, the reaction would
+neither be too rapid nor too dangerous. In confirmation of my views, I
+have this day learned that it is the custom in India to wear a double roll
+of flannel around the abdomen, as a preventive to cholera. The other
+advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are:
+
+1. That they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor creature
+who is already in a state of refrigeration.
+
+2. By their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor muscles
+alike, they are steadied, and rendered much less likely to be affected
+with spasmodic action or cramp.
+
+3. By their steady _elastic_ pressure and support of about 160 pounds,
+they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of the blood, which
+they had previously restored.
+
+4. That the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will, I believe, prove
+quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison, and also destroy its
+effects.
+
+5. That this much can at least be claimed for their use--that they remove
+from nature a stumbling-block, which prevented her from exercising her
+marvelous recuperative powers. Diluted sulphuric acid is the best medicine
+to arrest the flux from the bowels, acting also as a tonic. It should be
+given in five-minim doses about every half hour, with rice gruel. By
+adopting this plan, the natural process is brought about, that of the
+starch being converted into grape sugar. Plenty of white of egg, well
+whipped up, so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach,
+which it will appropriate, should be given. Opium, in small quantities,
+and other stimulants, should be given according to the necessities of the
+case. May it not be well, through the medium of wet sponge over the
+thorax, to apply a continuous but gentle current of galvanism, so as to
+stimulate the heart's action, keep alive the respiratory movements, and
+thereby assist in the maintenance of the functions of the body?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND PRESSURE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO HEALTH.
+
+
+At the recent meteorological conference held at the Health Exhibition, Dr.
+J.W. Tripe read a paper of much interest on some relations of
+meteorological phenomena to health.
+
+In ages long past these relations excited much attention, but the
+knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind; and indeed, even now,
+no very great advance has been made, because it is only quite recently
+that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate record of deaths with
+observations taken at a number of reliable meteorological stations. The
+more useful and searching comparison between cases of sickness, instead of
+deaths, and meteorological phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large
+scale in this country, and especially as regards zymotic diseases. In
+Belgium there is a Society of Medical Practitioners, embracing nearly the
+whole country, that publishes a monthly record of cases of sickness, of
+deaths, and of meteorological observations; but the only attempt on a
+large scale in this country, which was started by the Society of Medical
+Officers of Health for the whole of London, failed partly from want of
+funds, and partly from irregularity in the returns. My remarks, which must
+necessarily be very brief, will refer to the relations between (1)
+meteorological phenomena and the bodily functions of man, and (2) between
+varying meteorological conditions and death-rates from certain diseases.
+
+As regards the first, I will commence with a few brief remarks on the
+effects of varying barometric pressures. A great deal too much attention
+is paid to the barometer if we regard it as indicating only, as it really
+does, variations in the weight of the column of air pressing upon our
+bodies, because, except at considerable elevations, where the barometer is
+always much lower than at sea level, these variations produce but little
+effect on health. At considerable elevations the diminished pressure
+frequently causes a great feeling of malaise, giddiness, loss of strength,
+palpitation, and even nausea; and at greater heights, as was noticed by
+Mr. Glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent, loss of sight, feeling, and
+consciousness. These were caused by a want of a sufficient supply of
+oxygen to remove effete matters from the system, and to carry on the
+organic functions necessary for the maintenance of life. On elevated
+mountain plateaus, or even in high residences among the Alps, an increased
+rapidity in the number of respirations and of the pulse, as well as
+increased evaporation from the lungs and skin, occur.
+
+For some years past, many persons suffering from consumption, gout,
+rheumatism, and anaemic affections have gone to mountain stations, chiefly
+in Switzerland, for relief, and many have derived much benefit from the
+change. It must not, however, be supposed that diminished atmospheric
+pressure was the chief cause of the improvement in health, as its
+concomitants, viz., a diminution in the quantity of oxygen and moisture
+contained in each cubic foot of air, probably the low temperature, with a
+total change in the daily habits of life, have assisted in the beneficial
+results. The diminution in the quantity of air, and consequently of
+oxygen, taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by
+an increased frequency and depth of the respirations, and a greater
+capacity of the chest. In this country, alterations in the barometric
+pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an approaching change in the
+wind, and as well as of the amount of moisture in the air; hence the
+instrument is often called "the weather glass." A sudden diminution in the
+atmospheric pressure is likely to be attended with an escape of ground air
+from the soil, and therefore to cause injury to health, especially among
+the occupants of basement rooms, unless the whole interior of the building
+be covered with concrete.
+
+_Temperature._--Experience has shown that man can bear greater variations
+of temperature than any other animal, as in the Arctic regions a
+temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit, or more than 100 degrees below
+freezing point, can be safely borne; that he can not only live but work,
+and remain in good health, in these regions provided that he be supplied
+with suitable clothing and plenty of proper food. On the other hand, man
+has existed and taken exercise in the interior of Australia when the
+thermometer showed a temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, or nearly 90
+degrees above freezing point, so that he can live and be in fairly good
+health within a range of nearly 200 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+The effects of a high temperature vary very much according to the amount
+of moisture in the air, as when the air is nearly saturated in hot
+climates, or even in summer in our own, more or less languor and malaise
+are felt, with great indisposition to bodily labor. With a dry air these
+are not so noticeable. The cause is evident; in the former case but little
+evaporation occurs from the skin, and the normal amount of moisture is not
+given off from the lungs, so that the body is not cooled down to such an
+extent as by dry air. Sunstroke is probably the result, not only of the
+direct action of the sun's rays, but partly from diminished cooling of the
+blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin.
+
+The effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the mean for
+the day, month, or year, as on the extremes, as, when the days are hot and
+the nights comparatively cool, the energy of the system becomes partially
+restored, so that a residence near the sea, or in the vicinity of high
+mountains, in hot climates is, other things being equal, less enervating
+than in the plains, as the night air is generally cooler. It is commonly
+believed that hot climates are _necessarily_ injurious to Europeans, by
+causing frequent liver derangements and diseases, dysentery, cholera, and
+fevers. This, however, is, to a certain extent, a mistake, as the recent
+medical statistical returns of our army in India show that in the new
+barracks, with more careful supervision as regards diet and clothing, the
+sickness and death-rates are much reduced. Planters and others, who ride
+about a good deal, as a rule keep in fairly good health; but the children
+of Europeans certainly degenerate, and after two or three generations die
+out, unless they intermarry with natives, and make frequent visits to
+colder climates. This fact shows that hot climates, probably by
+interfering with the due performance of the various processes concerned in
+the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues, eventually sap the
+foundations of life among Europeans; but how far this result has been
+caused by bad habits as regards food, exercise, and self-indulgence, I
+cannot say. Rapid changes of temperature in this country are often very
+injurious to the young and old, causing diarrhoea and derangements of the
+liver when great heat occurs, and inflammatory diseases of the lungs,
+colds, etc., when the air becomes suddenly colder, even in summer.
+
+The _direct_ influence of rain on man is not very marked in this country,
+except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation from the ground and
+from vegetable life, and by altering the level of ground water. This is a
+subject almost overlooked by the public, and it is therefore as well that
+it should be known that when ground water has a level persistently less
+than five feet from the surface of the soil, the locality is usually
+unhealthy, and should not, if possible, be selected for a residence.
+Fluctuations in the level of ground water, especially if great and sudden,
+generally cause ill-health among the residents. Thus, Dr. Buchanan in his
+reports to the Privy Council in 1866-1867, showed that consumption (using
+the word in its most extended sense) is more prevalent in damp than on dry
+soils, and numerous reports of medical officers of health, and others,
+which have been published since then, show that an effective drainage of
+the land, and consequent carrying away of the ground water, has been
+followed by a diminution of these diseases.
+
+Varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the health and
+comfort of man. In this country, however, it is not only the absolute but
+the relative proportions of aerial moisture which materially influence
+mankind. The quantity of aqueous vapor that a cubic foot of air can hold
+in suspension, when it is saturated, varies very much with the
+temperature. Thus at 40 degrees Fahr. it will hold 2.86 grains of water;
+at 50 degrees, 4.10 grains; at 60 degrees, 5.77 grains; at 70 degrees,
+8.01 grains; and at 90 degrees as much as 14.85 grains. If saturation be
+represented by 100, more rapid evaporation from the skin will take place
+at 70 degrees, and 75 per cent. of saturation, than at 60 degrees when
+saturated, although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is
+greater at the first named temperature than at the latter. As regards the
+lungs, however, the case is different, as the air breathed out is, if the
+respirations be regular and fairly deep, completely saturated with
+moisture at the temperature of the body. In cold climates the amount of
+moisture and of the effete matters given off from the lungs in the expired
+air is much greater than in hot climates, and the body is also cooled by
+the evaporation of water in the form of aqueous vapor. Moist air is a
+better conductor of heat than dry air, which accounts for much of the
+discomfort felt in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the
+feeling of elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather, therefore,
+moist air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, and
+colds consequently result. London fogs are injurious, not only on account
+of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal, but in
+consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated with moisture
+at a low temperature. The injuriousness of fogs and low temperatures will
+be presently dwelt upon at greater length.
+
+Variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere exert a
+considerable influence on the circulation of air contained in the soil,
+which is called ground air. As all the interstices of the ground are
+filled with air or water, the more porous the soil, the greater is the
+bulk of air. The quantity of air contained in soil varies very much
+according to the material of which the soil is composed, as it is evident
+that in a gravelly or sandy soil it must be greater than when the ground
+consists of loam or clay. The estimates vary from 3 to 30 per cent., but
+the latter is probably too high. If, therefore, a cesspool leak into the
+ground, the offensive effluvia, if in large quantities, will escape into
+the soil, and are given off at the surface of the ground, or are drawn
+into a house by the fire; but, if small, they are rendered innocuous by
+oxidation. The distance to which injurious gases and suspended or
+dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous soil is sometimes
+considerable, as I have known it pass for 130 feet along a disused drain,
+and above 30 feet through loose soil.
+
+Winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and indirectly.
+Directly, by promoting evaporation from the skin, and abstracting heat
+from the body in proportion to their dryness and rapidity of motion. Their
+indirect action is more important, as the temperature and pressure of the
+air depend to a great extent on their direction. Thus winds from the north
+in this country are usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry
+weather; in summer with a pleasant feeling, but in winter with much cold.
+Southwest winds are the most frequent here of any, as about 24 per cent.
+of the winds come from this quarter against 161/2 from the west, 111/2 from
+the east, and the same from the northeast; 101/2 from the south, 8 from the
+north, and a smaller number from the other quarters. Southwest winds are
+also those which are most frequently accompanied by rain, as about 30 per
+cent. of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds. Another set
+of observations give precisely the same order, but a considerable
+difference in their prevalence, viz., southwest 31 per cent., west 141/2,
+and northeast 111/2 per cent. Easterly winds are the most unpleasant, as
+well as the most injurious to man of all that occur in this country.
+
+I now propose discussing very briefly the known relations between
+meteorological phenomena and disease. I say the known relations, because
+it is evident that there are many unknown relations of which at present we
+have had the merest glimpse. For instance, small-pox, while of an ordinary
+type, and producing only a comparatively small proportion of deaths to
+those attacked, will sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form, and
+spread with great rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological
+conditions when it usually declines in frequency. There are, however, in
+this country known relations between the temperature and, I may say,
+almost all diseases. As far back as 1847 I began a series of elaborate
+investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at different periods of
+the year, and the relations between this disease and the heat, moisture,
+and electricity of the air. I then showed that a mean monthly temperature
+below 44.6 deg. F. was adverse to the spread of this disease, that the
+greatest relative decrease took place when the mean temperature was below
+40 deg., and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months having
+a mean temperature of between 45 deg. and 57 deg. F. Diseases of the lungs,
+excluding consumption, are fatal in proportion to the lowness of the
+temperature and the presence of excess of moisture and fog. Thus, in
+January, 1882, the mean weekly temperature fell from 43.9 deg. F. in the
+second week to 36.2 deg. in the third, with fog and mist. The number of deaths
+registered in London during the third week, which may be taken as
+corresponding with the meteorological conditions of the second week, was
+1,700, and in the next week 1,971. Unusual cold, with frequent fogs and
+little sunshine, continued for four weeks, the weekly number of deaths
+rising from 1,700 to 1,971, 2,023, 2,632, and 2,188. The deaths from
+acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were respectively 279, 481,
+566, 881, and 689, showing that a large proportion of the excessive
+mortality was caused by these diseases. At the end of November and in
+December of the same year there was a rapid fall of temperature, when the
+number of deaths from acute diseases of the lungs rose from 297 to 358,
+350, 387, 541, 553, and 389 in the respective weeks. From November 29 to
+December 9 the sun was seen only on two days for 41/2 hours, and from
+December 9 to the 18th also on two other days for less than 4 hours,
+making the total amount of sunshine 8.1 hours only in 20 days. In January
+and February the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases reached the
+large number of 504 deaths; in December it was less, the fogs not having
+been so dense, but the excess equaled 246 deaths per week.
+
+The relations between a high summer temperature and excessive mortality
+from diarrhoea have long been well known, but the immediate cause of the
+disease as an epidemic is not known. Summer diarrhoea prevails to a greater
+extent in certain localities, notably in Leicester (and has done so for
+years); and the cause has been carefully sought for, but has not been
+found out. Recent researches, however, point to a kind of bacillus as the
+immediate cause, as it has been found in the air of water-closets, in the
+traps under the pans, and in the discharges from infants and young
+children. In order to indicate more readily how intimately the mortality
+from diarrhoea depends on temperature, I now lay before you a table showing
+the mean temperature for ten weeks in summer, of seven cold and hot
+summers, the temperature of Thames water, and the death-rates of infants
+under one year per million population of London:
+
+_London.--Deaths under 1 Year, in July, August, and part of
+September, from Diarrhoea per 1,000,000 Population Living
+at all Ages, arranged in the Order of Mortality._
+
+                                      Age 0-1 year.
+           Mean       Temperature  Deaths from Diarrhoea
+Years.  temperature,   of Thames       per 1,000,000
+         10 weeks.      water.     population living at
+                                       all ages.
+1860       58.1 deg.         60.6 deg.             151
+1862       59.0          62.0              189
+1879       58.7          60.7              228
+1877       61.2          63.3              347
+1874       61.7          63.8              447
+1878       63.7          64.1              576
+1876       64.4          64.9              643
+
+As may be seen, the deaths of infants under 1 year of age from diarrhoea
+per 1,000,000 population was only 151; while the mean summer temperature
+was only 58.1 deg. F. against 189 in 1862, when the mean temperature was
+59.0 deg.. In 1879, when the mean temperature was 58.7 deg., the deaths from
+diarrhoea rose to 228 per million, but a few days were unusually hot. In
+1877 the mean temperature of the air was 61.2 deg., of the Thames water 63.3 deg.,
+and the mortality of infants from diarrhoea 347 per million population. In
+1874, when the mean temperature of the air was 61.7 deg., the mortality rose
+to 447 per million; and in the hot summers of 1878 and 1876, when the mean
+air temperatures were 64.1 deg. and 64.9 deg. respectively, the death-rates of
+infants were 576 and 642 per million population. The relations, therefore,
+between a high summer temperature and the mortality from diarrhoea in
+infants are very intimate. I have selected the mortality among infants in
+preference to that at all ages, as the deaths occur more quickly, and
+because young children suffer in greater proportion than other persons.
+
+The proportionate number of deaths at _all ages_ from diarrhoea corresponds
+pretty closely with those of infants. To prove this, I made calculations
+for three years, and ascertained that only 3.9 per cent. of all the deaths
+from this disease were registered in the weeks having a temperature of
+less than 50 deg.; 11.9 per cent. in the weeks having a temperature between
+50 deg. and 60 deg.; while in the comparatively few weeks in which the temperature
+exceeded 60 deg. F., as many as 84.2 per cent. of the total number of deaths
+was registered. In the sixteen years, 1840-56, for which many years ago I
+made a special inquiry, only 18.9 per cent. of all the deaths from
+diarrhoea occurred in winter and spring, against 81.1 per cent. in summer
+and autumn. In the twenty years, 1860-79, there were seven years in which
+the summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per 100,000
+inhabitants of London was 200; while in ten summers, during which the
+temperature was in excess by 2 deg. or less, the mortality was 317 per
+100,000. The mean temperature was largely in excess, that is to say, more
+than 2 deg. plus in three of these summers, when the mortality reached 339 per
+100,000 inhabitants.
+
+These figures show that great care should be taken in hot weather to
+prevent diarrhoea, especially among young children; by frequent washing
+with soap and water to insure cleanliness, and proper action of the skin;
+by great attention to the food, especially of infants fed from the bottle;
+free ventilation of living rooms, and especially of bedrooms; and by
+protection, as far as possible, being afforded from a hot sun, as well as
+by avoiding excessive exercise. All animal and vegetable matter should be
+removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible
+(indeed, these should be burnt instead of being put in the dust-bin), the
+drains should be frequently disinfected and well flushed out, especially
+when the mean daily temperature of the air is above 60 deg. F.
+
+Time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations between
+meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other diseases and
+affections, such as apoplexy from heat, sunstroke, liver diseases, yellow
+fever, cholera, whooping-cough, measles, etc., especially as the state of
+our knowledge on the subject is so very limited. A comparison between the
+mortality from several diseases in this and other countries shows that
+certain of these do not prevail under closely corresponding conditions.
+Thus the curves of mortality from whooping-cough, typhoid fever, and
+scarlet fever do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both
+London and New York, and the same may be said of diarrhoea in India. It is
+therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying
+temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased death-rate
+from these diseases. The subject is of great importance, and I do not
+despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the agents through which
+meteorological phenomena act in the production of increased and decreased
+death rates from certain diseases, and the means by which, to a certain
+extent, these injurious effects on man may be presented.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+P. Rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide diminishes
+the sensibility of the cortical substance of the cerebrum to electric
+excitement, while, the excitability of the underlying white substance
+remains unaltered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONSUMPTION SPREAD BY CHICKENS.
+
+
+In a village, C., near Weimar, where for many years no case of tubercular
+phthisis had taken place, two years ago several families suddenly
+discovered one of their members to be suffering from the disease. After a
+long inquiry, it was discovered by accident that all these families had
+been buying their spring chickens from one and the same place, viz., from
+a private hospital in the neighborhood. A medical student brought the
+livers of two such chickens to Prof. Johne, in Dresden. The student, whose
+own sister had become affected with consumption, had lived during his
+vacation at home with his parents, in C., and he had there at dinner
+observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens.
+
+On examination, both organs were found to be full of tubercular bacilli. A
+thorough investigation was at once instituted, and it was then that the
+fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the families, members of
+which had been affected with tuberculosis, had all been brought from the
+institution mentioned. On further inquiry at the latter place the
+following facts were elicited:
+
+At about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in the
+village, an inmate or the hospital, Mrs. R., had died of the disease.
+Before her death, Mrs. R. used to feed the chickens raised there; she was
+often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it to the chickens.
+Further, the spittoons were emptied on a place in the yard where the
+chickens generally came to pick up any stray corn.
+
+As none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in the
+neighborhood--the hospital being situated at a considerable distance from
+the village--as no disease had happened among them until the arrival of
+Mrs. R., when soon after an epidemic seemed to break out among them, and
+many died, there is no doubt that they contracted the disease from Mrs.
+R., and in return infected those who ate their flesh.
+
+The case is very interesting, first, as it proves how such animals may
+become affected, then how they may spread the disease, and lastly, that
+some kind of a disposition must exist in the person infected; for here, of
+many who had eaten of the diseased flesh, only a few contracted the
+malady. The whole report teaches us how careful we have to be, and how
+necessary is the appointment of skillful experts by the State to inspect
+all food offered for sale.--_Med. and Surg. Reporter._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF REDUCING FEVER.
+
+
+For many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly through the
+vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by means of which the high
+temperature often prevailing in typhoid, malarial, and other fevers might
+be reduced with rapidity and safety to the patient. A few substances have
+been found which produce a decline in temperature when administered in
+enormous and frequently repeated doses; but such administration has often
+been found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient, producing not
+infrequently serious injury to the stomach, kidneys, and sometimes the
+nervous system. So great is the danger of such injurious results, few
+careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic "antipyretic"
+medication recommended by experimenters, preferring to allow their
+patients to burn with fever, mitigated only by such simple means as are
+commonly employed by nurses, than to require them to combat the poisonous
+influences of a drug in addition to the morbid element of the disease.
+
+Happily, however, it is not necessary to leave the patient to the unaided
+efforts of nature. By cool sponging of the surface, persistently and
+thoroughly applied; by large, cool compresses placed over the abdomen and
+chest, or even the whole front of the body, and changed as often as warm,
+or every three to five minutes; by frequently repeated cool packs; by cold
+water drinking; by ice-packs to the spine; by constant application of ice
+or frozen compresses to the head; by forcing perspiration by copious hot
+drinks and a warm blanket pack--by any or all of these means the
+temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every case. However,
+cases will now and then occur in which the temperature remains dangerously
+high, notwithstanding the thorough application of the above means. What
+shall be done?
+
+Several years ago our attention was called to a series of experiments made
+by Dr. Winternitz, Professor of Hydropathy in the Medical University of
+Vienna, for the purpose of determining the influence upon temperature of
+enemas of water of different temperature in cases of fever. The results
+claimed by Prof. Winternitz were so striking that we improved the first
+opportunity to repeat his experiments, and with such results as have
+justified the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in
+fever, in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient. The
+only objection we have found to the method has been the inconvenience to
+the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the bed-pan. In a recent
+case in which we found it necessary to resort to this method, the nurse
+observed that if the tin can of the fountain syringe used in administering
+the enema happened to be lowered below the level of the bed on which the
+patient lay, water which had previously been introduced into the rectum
+returned readily through the tube into the can. On learning this fact, the
+attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way. From one to
+two pints of water, of 70 deg. or 75 deg. F. temperature, were allowed to pass
+into the bowels; and after being retained for five or ten minutes, or
+until the patient experienced uncomfortable sensations, it was made to
+pass out through the tube by simply lowering the reservoir to the level of
+the floor. A new supply of water of a proper temperature being introduced
+into the reservoir, it was again raised to the proper height, and the
+operation so continued until six quarts of water had been used. Then the
+patient was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour, according to the
+height of the fever, and the same process was repeated. Careful record was
+made of the temperature of the patient just before the treatment and
+immediately after. It was found to be invariably reduced from one to one
+and a half degrees by each treatment. The temperature, which had been
+exceedingly obstinate previous to the employment of this method, ranging
+from 104 deg. to 105 deg., during the intervals between the treatments would, of
+course, rise somewhat; but each time it stopped short of the point reached
+during the previous interval, so that in the course of a few hours the
+fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature. The
+temperature of the water, when taken after passing through the bowels, was
+found to have risen each time from 10 deg. to 13 deg..
+
+The great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of the most
+useful of all substances for lowering the temperature; and it is readily
+apparent that, by the means described, heat may be abstracted from the
+body almost _ad libitum_, and the temperature may thus be controlled with
+a rapidity and a degree of certainty which cannot be approached by any
+other method. In a still more recent case, in which the same treatment was
+employed, the temperature of the patient had reached 106 deg. F., in spite of
+the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment, such as cold
+compresses, etc.; but it was, in four or five hours, brought down to
+nearly 100 deg. by the use of the cold enemas.
+
+The advantages of this method are: 1. It may be employed without wetting
+or moving the patient; very frequently a patient will sleep continuously
+during the administration of the treatment. 2. It seldom causes
+chilliness, which is frequently a disturbing symptom, especially in fevers
+of a low type, and even, when the temperature is alarmingly high, causing
+the patient to dread the employment of sponging with cool or tepid water.
+3. It is not necessary to employ cold water, a temperature of 80 deg. or even
+85 deg. being thoroughly efficient. In the majority of cases, however, water
+of 70 deg. or even 60 deg. may be employed without danger. The water comes in such
+immediate contact with surfaces filled with large blood-vessels that a
+temperature but a few degrees below that of the body is more effective
+than very much colder water applied to the surface.
+
+In cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by chilliness,
+this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by the application of a
+hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the pit of the stomach.
+
+The simple measures of treatment we have described will be found more
+effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other remedies which
+have ever been recommended for this purpose.--_Good Health._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE EXHIBITION
+OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.]
+
+According to a recent law of Parliament, a large part of the crown jewels
+of France is destined to be sold. The exhibit that has been made of these
+riches for the last two months at the National Exhibition of the
+Industrial Arts, in the State Hall of the Louvre, has excited a lively
+interest among the visitors. Here are to be seen, heaped up in a large
+octagonal show-case, incomparable treasures, whose value exceeds quite a
+number of millions. According to the inventory of 1818, the 52,000
+precious stones of the crown of France were estimated as worth more than
+20 million francs ($4,000,000); but since that epoch the stones have
+increased in number, and money has singularly diminished in value, so that
+the total at present would be much less.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)]
+
+In order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was necessary to
+take precautions against thieves and fire, and this was done in a very
+sure and ingenious manner. The collection of crown jewels is distributed
+over the eight faces of an octagonal truncated cone, which is supported by
+a framework about three feet in height at the lower part. The stand is
+exhibited every day, at ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening,
+under an elegant octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of
+Fortune by Barbedienne. The whole is covered with a canopy, as shown in
+Fig. 1.
+
+A force of guardians of the Treasury is detailed to watch over the crown
+jewels, and it is to them that is confided the care of operating in the
+morning and evening the safety mechanism that we shall describe. The
+object of this mechanism is to lower into and lift out of the strong-box
+the entire stand with all its jewels.
+
+A winch, shown at A to the right of the engraving, sets in motion a system
+of gear wheels keyed at an angle, at B and C, upon intermediate shafts
+that transmit motion to the four vertical threaded rods of the frame, D.
+All these shaftings are 11/2 inch in diameter, and the cog-wheels, twenty in
+number, are about 5 inches in diameter.
+
+The well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick, and is 20 inches
+thick and 6 feet high. In the center of this masonry is embedded very
+thick iron plate. The bottom of the well is isolated from the flooring of
+the Exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler plate, by a filling of tire
+bricks, and finally by a second thickness of boiler plate. The well is
+closed by means of a large plate of iron 6 inches thick, 10 feet in
+length, and 88 feet in width. The winch which maneuvers this mass is
+placed at E. It actuates a system of bevel wheels, keyed at F, which
+transmit motion to two horizontal screws (hidden under the stage) that
+actuate the plate, H. This latter is provided with two parallel series of
+five rollers each that revolve over long and strong pieces of wood covered
+with rails. Electric alarms are located near the winches.
+
+A fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen feet of the
+exhibition building.
+
+A committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has been
+appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to indicate such as
+should be withheld from sale on account of their scientific, artistic, or
+historic interest. The members of the committee propose to preserve the
+following objects:
+
+1. The "Regent" (Fig. 2), by reason of its mineralogical value, the
+perfection of its cutting, the purity of its water, its incomparable
+luster, and its great size, it being the largest brilliant as yet known.
+
+2. The military sword of Charles the Tenth's coronation, the hilt of which
+is entirely of brilliants mounted by Bapst with wonderful art.
+
+3. The jewel called the "Reliquary," of the 15th century.
+
+To these riches must be added the following interesting objects: the Dey
+of Algiers' watch; the Elephant of Denmark; the decorations, etc., of
+foreign orders; crowns and diadems of sapphire; rubies; pearls that afford
+curious specimens of French art at the beginning of our century; one of
+the Mazarins bequeathed by the celebrated Cardinal; and lots of colored
+stones destined for our national museums.
+
+The same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other
+collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over in
+silence, such as the exhibit of the French diamond mines of the Cape,
+where one may see all the details of this prosperous exploitation by means
+of photographs and specimens. The art bronzes, the objects of jewelry, of
+goldsmith's work, and of morocco work, the music boxes, Trouve's and
+Aboilard's electric jewelry, and the retrospective art collections
+especially attracted the attention of the public.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW MODE OF TESTING THE ECONOMY OF THE EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT IN
+LIFE INSURANCE.
+
+
+How to determine the general ratios of the expenses of management of life
+insurance companies has hitherto been an unsettled question, and I think
+no serious attempt has been made before my own to study this question
+exhaustively, and reach a scientific conclusion.
+
+Believing that, one is contained in the following statement, I
+respectfully submit it to the criticism of others.
+
+It has generally been taken for granted that the measure of economy of
+life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single ratio of expenses
+to one feature of the business, such as the premium income, or the total
+income (premium and interest), or the mean amount of all policies
+outstanding. But this is not the case. No exhaustive reason has been shown
+for preferring one of these bases of ratio to another, and, indeed, no
+reason well supported by argument has been shown for employing either. On
+the other hand, no better evidence is needed of the importance of
+establishing a uniform and demonstrably sound basis, than the fact that it
+is common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior
+economy, and totally confuse the public, by opposing ratios found in one
+way by ratios found in another--that one of two companies which appears
+the most economical according to one test being apparently the least so
+according to another.
+
+The economy of the expense of any transaction, or work, can only be
+intelligently judged by the value of the _result_. This truth is too well
+recognized to need illustration, and it only needs to be called to mind,
+to perceive both the error of ratios of expense based on premium, which is
+not the result but the _raw material_, so to speak, of insurance
+transactions; and what, on the contrary, the true basis is.
+
+It is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must be judged,
+not by comparison with the premiums paid, but by comparison specifically
+with the resulting advantages in fact secured by such payments. Now these
+are of two kinds: which may be called the _insurance advantage_ and the
+_investment advantage_.
+
+(1) Each death claim paid is an insurance advantage, though it is so only
+to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy which has become a
+claim over its premium reserve, or value, for the latter being the balance
+(with interest) of the policy holder's own premium money, could have been
+left or secured to his representatives without the intervention of the
+policy and company.
+
+It is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not consist in
+adding anything to the wealth of a company, but only consists in drawing
+from the premiums paid into its treasury by the policy holders generally,
+to meet each death claim which arises; or can only be called an _advantage
+of distribution_, or process of collecting aid from the living members, to
+assist the representatives or dependents of the deceased ones; but it is
+not the less on this account an advantage worth _same expense_ in
+securing.
+
+(2) Interest realized by the investment of premium while it is in the
+keeping of a company is an advantage; in every sense so, since it comes
+wholly from outside sources, and accrues proportionally to all members; it
+may be called, as above, the investment advantage, and of course justifies
+some _expense_ to secure it.
+
+Hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given; time must be
+divided into two parts, one being the expense incidental to insurance, and
+the other that incidental to investment, which parts are to be compared
+respectively with the insurance claims met, and interest receipts of the
+company for the same time; or what is equivalent in the latter case, the
+net rate of interest earned after deducting the incidental investment
+expense may be found.
+
+When this process shows that one company has earned a higher rate of
+interest than another, at the same time that its insurance expenses bear a
+lower ratio to its insurance claims paid, _there is no escape from the
+conclusion that during the period under observation it has served its
+policy-holders more economically_, and the test is therefore scientific.
+Though, if one company shows a higher rate of interest, while the other
+shows a lower ratio of insurance expense, it will still be necessary, to
+complete the test, to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of
+insurance expense (it does not practically matter which), and note how
+this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the other score.
+
+To be exact, if the average vitality of the members of the two companies
+differ (other things being equal, it is always cheapest to belong to that
+company which has the lowest death rate), the ratios of insurance expense
+to expected, as well as actual, claims of each must be found, and equated.
+
+The science of this procedure, or mode of testing expenses, and also its
+practical simplicity, may be more clearly perceived by reference to its
+practical application in the following table:
+
+_Table Exhibiting Ratio of Expense, Determined by the New Mode, of Companies
+Doing Business in Massachusetts during the Year 1883._
+___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |         |           |           |
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |Expense  |           |           |Net Rate
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |per $100 |           |           |   of
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |of claims|           |           |interest
+                   |     |   Death   |Estimated |Difference |Expense    |paid.    | Interest  |  Expense  | earned.
+Name of Company.   |Loca-|   claims  |Premiums. | or Net    | on the    |---------| Receipts. |  on the   |--------
+                   |tion.|   paid.   | Reserve  |Insurance  |score of   | R   | R |           | score of  | R  | R
+                   |     |           | thereon. |furnished. |Insurance. | a   | a |           |investment.| a  | a
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | t   | n |           |           | t  | n
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | e.  | k.|           |           | e. | k.
+-------------------+-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------|----|---
+Berkshire          |Mass.|   $208,147|   $46,605|   $161,524|   $122,779| 75.4| 14|   $194,067|    $15,809|5.25| 16
+[1]John Hancock    |  "  |    169,604|    25,117|    144,487| [8]228,566|158.2| 24|    135,597|     11,686|3.65| 26
+Mass. Mutual       |  "  |    426,995|    86,215|    340,780|    232,400| 68.2| 10|    428,255|     33,176|6.03|  7
+N. England Mutual  |  "  |  1,039,694|   235,630|    804,064|    311,879| 38.8|  3|    995,883|     69,908|6.40|  4
+State Mutual       |  "  |    121,969|    22,493|     99,476|     98,839| 99.4| 19|    143,751|     13,057|4.51| 24
+AEtna               |Conn.|  1,302,807|   364,510|    938,297|    460,014| 49.0|  6|  1,760,372|    118,962|6.22|  5
+Connecticut General|  "  |     87,639|    15,624|     72,015|     46,113| 64.0|  9|     95,580|      5,407|7.03|  1
+     "      Mutual |  "  |  2,867,489|   881,600|  1,985,889|    622,941| 31.4|  1|  3,041,125|    238,944|5.70| 10
+Equitable          | N.Y.|  3,072,232|   483,950|  2,588,282|  1,884,108| 72.8| 12|  2,743,024|    216,725|5.42| 12
+Germania           |  "  |    606,072|   149,950|    456,122|    325,662| 71.4| 11|    508,702|     47,193|4.85| 22
+Home               |  "  |    205,921|    48,603|    157,318|    155,192| 98.6| 18|    260,506|     19,917|4.86| 21
+Homoeopathic       |  "  |     35,610|     6,340|     29,270|     48,734|166.5| 25|     42,814|      2,935|6.20|  6
+Manhattan          |  "  |    687,171|   183,450|    503,721|    266,305| 44.9|  5|    627,628|     44,081|5.82|  8
+[7]Metropolitan    |  "  |    638,639|    18,322|    620,317|  1,161,893|187.3| 26|    106,916|      9,098|4.90| 20
+Mutual Life        |  "  |  5,172,275| 1,407,700|  3,764,575|  1,480,198| 39.3|  4|  5,042,964|    466,739|5.01| 19
+Mutual Benefit     | N.J.|  2,160,991|   550,890|  1,610,101|    521,829| 32.4|  2|  2,072,629|    169,913|5.61| 11
+National           | Vt. |    174,767|    29,127|    145,640|     77,861| 53.5|  7|    149,010|     10,100|5.26| 15
+New York Life      | N.Y.|  2,408,636|   574,150|  1,834,484|  1,995,102|108.8| 21|  2,676,592|    236,884|5.03| 18
+Northwest'n Mutual | Wis.|    990,692|   190,500|    800,192|    630,582| 78.8| 15|  1,200,001|     88,527|5.80|  9
+Penn. Mutual       |Penn.|    601,625|   107,600|    494,025|    309,858| 62.7|  8|    463,567|     37,131|5.38| 13
+Provident Life and |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+   Trust           |  "  |    280,817|    49,865|    230,952|    222,665| 96.4| 17|    340,115|     33,294|4.26| 25
+Provident Savings  | N.Y.|     24,875|     1,828|     23,047|     51,608|233.9| 27|      4,955|      2,579|1.70| 27
+Travelers'         |Conn.|    235,001|    42,243|    192,758|    144,621| 75.0| 13|    331,623|     22,476|6.42|  3
+Union Mutual       |Maine|    377,547|    88,520|    289,027|    237,913| 82.3| 16|    301,499|     28,754|4.66| 23
+United States      | N.Y.|    283,304|    69,245|    214,059|    277,919|129.8| 23|    271,594|     23,460|5.09| 17
+Vermont            | Vt. |     13,000|     1,542|     11,458|     13,613|118.8| 22|     12,917|        822|5.33| 14
+Washington         | N.Y.|    356,289|    71,820|    284,469|    289,461|101.8| 20|    446,998|     32,249|6.78|  2
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+                   +-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------+----+---
+   Totals          |     |$24,549,808|$5,753,439|$18,796,369|$12,177,655| 64.8|   |$24,398,684| $1,999,826|5.42|
+
+_Collective Business of Assessment Societies Doing Business in the State (excepting Secret Societies_).
+
+46 Societies       |     |   $735,383|          |           |   $237,770| 32.3|   |           |           |    |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[Footnote 7: Including industrial business.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Includes $18.867 depreciation.]
+
+The figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual report of
+the Insurance Commissioner of Massachusetts, excepting the premium reserve
+on death claims, which, as well as the division of the total expenses of
+each company into insurance and investment expenses, I have estimated on a
+uniform rule. This was for lack of the actual data in these particulars,
+which the report did not give, as it is desirable that future ones may.
+
+This, however, does not injure the value of the table for illustrating the
+mode of procedure, for which purpose mainly it is presented. The companies
+whose figures I have used, moreover, have no occasion to complain of this,
+as my estimate certainly gives all ratios of insurance expense lower than
+they would appear if I had known, and used, the exact actual premium
+reserve on death claims, and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to
+each other as they would in that case.
+
+As the object of this statement is to explain the new method, and not to
+defend my particular estimates in applying it, I forbear to state on what
+rules I have made them. Expense which is not ascribed to insurance must be
+ascribed to investment, and as in comparing any two companies, their two
+ratios of one kind or the other must be equated, to decide the question of
+economy between them, it may well be left to any company to say what the
+fair division of its own expenses is.
+
+Moreover, there can be but little motive to make a false division; for to
+successfully compete for business, a company having large investments has
+as much need to show a high net rate of interest earned as a low rate of
+insurance expense. Again, it is not my purpose to pass judgment on the
+economy or extravagance of any ratio of expense shown in the table. It is
+not a fact exhibited for the first time by my figures, that the ratios of
+some companies are more than double those of others. The same fact would
+be displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium income,
+or any other incorrect basis. Custom, the balance of opinions, and
+competition may well be left to decide what ratios of expense are high,
+and what are average, or low. And their decision is to be gathered only
+from _statistics_.
+
+What I do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein explained is
+the only intelligible and scientific one, and the only one proper to
+employ in _statistical tabulations_ and _investigations_.
+
+As such, it calls attention to the fact that the amount of insurance
+claims met, and of interest receipts, _are limits_ which the corresponding
+expenses cannot exceed, certainly for a series of years together, without
+making the _expense_ more than the _advantage_ of the business. To keep
+this fact in view, _as a preventive of extravagance_, is not the least
+valuable service the new mode may render. It may be seen that there are
+eight cases in the table, in which the ratio of insurance expense points
+to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in the same time, yet the
+reader need not hasten to conclude that the same companies will
+permanently show similar ratios, or have no good reasons to give for the
+ones which now appear. I may remark, however, that it is an evidence of
+the scientific mode in which the figures are presented, that it
+facilitates such explanations as are pertinent of any of the ratios.
+
+For instance, some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the fact that
+the claims for the year of the company in question have been exceptionally
+high or low, or that the company (being of recent organization perhaps)
+has just incurred exceptional expense to increase its business, the
+advantage of which will appear later, etc. But I leave to the companies
+themselves to show to what extent such circumstances have affected their
+ratios; except that, in regard to the several net rates of interest
+earned, it is proper to say that in all cases in which they considerably
+exceed the average of 5.42 per cent. it will be found, by referring to the
+details of interest receipts reported to the Commissioner, that the excess
+is owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks, or
+recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss.
+
+WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+Medford, Mass., Sept., 1884.
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