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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of New Discoveries at Jamestown
+by John L. Cotter
+J. Paul Hudson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: New Discoveries at Jamestown
+       Site of the First Successful English Settlement in America
+
+Author: John L. Cotter
+J. Paul Hudson
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2005 [EBook #16277]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW DISCOVERIES AT JAMESTOWN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Mark C. Orton, Ben Beasley and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+New Discoveries at
+JAMESTOWN
+
+Site of the First Successful
+English Settlement in America
+
+By JOHN L. COTTER and J. PAUL HUDSON
+
+WASHINGTON, D.C., 1957
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
+Fred A. Seaton, Secretary
+
+NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
+Conrad L. Wirth, Director
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+  Office
+Washington 25, D.C.--Price 50 cents
+
+
+
+
+Preface
+
+
+Jamestown, a name of first rank among historic names, saw the birth of
+English America. Here on an island in the James River in the heart of
+tidewater Virginia the English carved a settlement out of the
+wilderness. It grew from a rude palisaded fort into a busy community and
+then into a small town that enjoyed many of the comforts of daily
+living. For 13 years (until 1620) Virginia was the only English colony
+on the American mainland. Jamestown served this colony as its place of
+origin and as its capital for 92 years--from 1607 to 1699.
+
+After its first century of prominence and leadership, "James Towne"
+entered a long decline, precipitated, in 1700, by the removal of the
+seat of government to Williamsburg. Its residents drifted away, its
+streets grew silent, its buildings decayed, and even its lots and former
+public places became cultivated fields. Time passed and much was
+forgotten or obscured. So it was when it became a historic area, in
+part, in 1893, and when the whole island became devoted to historical
+purposes in 1934.
+
+Since these dates, the Association for the Preservation of Virginia
+Antiquities and the National Park Service have worked toward the
+preservation of all that still exists of old Jamestown, and are
+dedicated to learning its story more completely. Thus the American
+people can more fully understand and enjoy their historic heritage of
+Jamestown. A great deal of study along many lines has been required and
+much more is still needed to fill the many gaps. Libraries have been
+searched for pictures, documents, and plans. Land records have been
+carefully scrutinized and old existing landmarks studied.
+Seventeenth-century buildings and objects still surviving in England,
+America, and elsewhere have been viewed as well as museum collections. A
+key part of the search has been the systematic excavation of the
+townsite itself, in order to bring to light the information and objects
+long buried there. This is the aspect of the broad Jamestown study that
+is told in this publication, particularly as its relates to the material
+things, large and small, of daily life in Jamestown in the 17th century.
+
+These valuable objects are a priceless part of the Jamestown that exists
+today. Collectively they form one of the finest groups of such early
+material that has been assembled anywhere. Although most are broken and
+few are intact, they would not be traded for better preserved and more
+perfect examples that do exist elsewhere. These things were the property
+and the possessions of the men and women who lived, worked, and died at
+Jamestown. It was because of these people, who handled and used them in
+their daily living, and because of what they accomplished, that
+Jamestown is one of our best remembered historic places.
+
+April 6, 1956
+CHARLES E. HATCH, JR.
+Colonial National Historical Park
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+
+
+PART ONE. Exploration: The Ground Yields Many Things
+
+Churches
+Mansions
+Row Houses
+Single Brick Houses
+Frame Houses
+Miscellaneous Structures
+Workshop Structures
+Brick Walks or Paved Areas
+Brick Drains
+Ice Storage Pit
+Kilns
+Ironworking Pits
+Wells
+Ditches
+Refuse Pits
+Roads
+
+
+PART TWO. Daily Life at Jamestown 300 Years Ago As Revealed by Recovered
+  Objects
+
+Houses
+  Building Hardware
+  Windows
+  Wall and Fireplace Tile
+  Roofing Materials
+  Lime
+  Plaster and Mortar
+  Ornamental Plasterwork
+House Furnishings
+  Furniture
+  Lighting Devices
+  Fireplace Accessories
+  Cooking Utensils and Accessories
+Table Accessories
+  Knives, Forks, and Spoons
+  Pottery and Porcelain
+    Lead-glazed Earthenware
+    English Sgraffito-ware (a slipware)
+    English Slip-decorated-ware
+    English Redware with Marbled Slip Decoration
+    Italian Maiolica
+    Delftware
+    Spanish Maiolica
+    Salt-glazed Stoneware
+  Metalware Eating and Drinking Vessels
+  Glass Drinking Vessels
+  Glass Wine and Gin Bottles
+  Food Storage Vessels and Facilities
+Clothing and Footwear
+Artisans and Craftsmen
+  The Carpenter
+  The Cooper
+  The Woodcutter and Sawyer
+  The Ironworker
+  The Blacksmith
+  The Boatbuilder
+  The Potter
+  The Glassblower
+  The Brickmaker and Tilemaker
+  The Limeburner
+  Other Craftsmen
+Home Industries
+  Spinning and Weaving
+  Malting and Brewing
+  Dairying and Cheesemaking
+  Baking
+  Associated Industries
+Military Equipment
+  Polearms
+  Caltrop
+  Swords, Rapiers, and Cutlasses
+  Cannon
+  Muskets
+  Pistols
+  Light Armor and Siege Helmet
+Farming
+Fishing
+Health
+Amusements and Pastimes
+  Smoking
+  Games
+  Archery and Hunting
+  Music and Dancing
+Travel
+  Boats and Ships
+  Horses, Wagons, and Carriages
+    Bits and Bridle Ornaments
+    Spurs and Stirrups
+    Horseshoes and Currycombs
+    Branding Irons
+    Wagons and Carriage Parts
+Trade
+  Indian Trade
+    Beads
+    Knives
+    Shears
+    Bells
+    Hatchets
+    Pots and Pans
+    Brass Casting Counters or Jettons
+    Miscellaneous Items
+  English and Foreign Trade
+    Lead Bale Clips
+    Piers and Wharfs
+Worshipping
+
+
+Select Bibliography
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: JAMESTOWN ISLAND, VIRGINIA. ON THIS SMALL ISLAND--HALF
+FOREST AND HALF MARSH--WAS PLANTED THE ENGLISH COLONY OF WHICH RALEIGH
+AND GILBERT DREAMED.]
+
+
+
+
+PART ONE
+
+Exploration: The Ground Yields Many Things
+
+By JOHN L. COTTER
+Supervising Archeologist, Colonial National Historical Park
+
+"As in the arts and sciences the first invention is of more consequence
+than all the improvements afterward, so in kingdoms, the first
+foundation, or plantation, is of more noble dignity and merit than all
+that followeth."
+
+--LORD BACON
+
+
+In the Summer of 1934 a group of archeologists set to work to explore
+the site of the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown Island,
+Va. For the next 22 years the National Park Service strove--with time
+out for wars and intervals between financial allotments--to wrest from
+the soil of Jamestown the physical evidence of 17th-century life. The
+job is not yet complete. Only 24 out of 60 acres estimated to comprise
+"James Citty" have been explored; yet a significant amount of
+information has been revealed by trowel and whiskbroom and careful
+recording.
+
+By 1956 a total of 140 structures--brick houses, frame houses with brick
+footings, outbuildings, workshops, wells, kilns, and even an ice storage
+pit--had been recorded. To help unravel the mystery of landholdings
+(sometimes marked by ditches), 96 ditches of all kinds were located, and
+hundreds of miscellaneous features from post holes to brick walls were
+uncovered. Refuse pits were explored meticulously, since before the dawn
+of history man has left his story in the objects he discarded.
+
+When archeology at Jamestown is mentioned, the question is often asked,
+why was it necessary to treat so famous a historic site as an
+archeological problem at all? Isn't the story finished with the accounts
+of John Smith's adventures, the romance of John Rolfe and Pocahontas,
+the "starving time," the Indian massacre of 1622, Nathaniel Bacon's
+rebellion against Governor Berkeley, and the establishment of the first
+legislative assembly?
+
+The archeologist's answer is that the real drama of daily life of the
+settlers--the life they knew 24 hours a day--is locked in the unwritten
+history beneath humus and tangled vegetation of the island. Here a brass
+thimble from the ruins of a cottage still retains a pellet of paper to
+keep it on a tiny finger that wore it 300 years ago. A bent halberd in
+an abandoned well, a discarded sword, and a piece of armor tell again
+the passing of terror of the unknown, after the Indians retreated
+forever into the distant hills and forests. Rust-eaten axes, wedges,
+mattocks, and saws recall the struggle to clear a wilderness. The simple
+essentials of life in the first desperate years have largely vanished
+with traces of the first fort and its frame buildings. But in later
+houses the evidence of Venetian glass, Dutch and English delftware,
+pewter, and silver eating utensils, and other comforts and little
+luxuries tell of new-found security and the beginning of wealth. In all,
+a half-million individual artifacts at the Jamestown museum represent
+the largest collection from any 17th-century colonial site in North
+America.
+
+But archeologists have found more than objects at Jamestown. They sought
+to unravel the mystery of that part of the first settlement which
+disappeared beneath the eroding current of the James River during the
+past 300 years. It has always been known that the island in the 17th
+century was connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus extending to
+Glasshouse Point, where a glassmaking venture took place in 1608. Over
+this isthmus the "Greate Road" ran, and its traces have been discovered
+on the island as far as the brick church tower. As the isthmus
+disappeared at the close of the 17th century, the river continued to
+erode the island headward and build it up at its downstream end, so that
+the western and southern shores where the first settlement had been
+built, were partly destroyed. Thus, the first fort site of 1607, of
+which no trace has been found on land, is thought to have been eaten
+away, together with the old powder magazine and much early 17th-century
+property fronting on the river.
+
+In a series of extensive tests for any possible trace of the 1607 fort
+still remaining on land, several incidental discoveries of importance
+were made. One was an Indian occupation site beneath a layer of early
+17th-century humus, which, in turn, was covered by the earthen rampart
+of a Confederate fort of 1861. This location is marked today by a
+permanent "in-place" exhibit on the shore near the old church tower.
+Here, in a cut-away earth section revealing soil zones from the present
+to the undisturbed clay, evidence of 350 years of history fades away
+into prehistory.
+
+Within the enclosure of this same Confederate fort was found a
+miraculously preserved pocket of 17th-century debris marking the site of
+the earliest known armorer's forge in British America.
+
+Just beyond, upriver, lie ruins of the Ludwell House and the Third and
+Fourth Statehouses. In 1900-01, Col. Samuel H. Yonge, a U.S. Army
+Engineer and a keen student of Jamestown history, uncovered and capped
+these foundations after building the original seawall. A strange
+discovery was made here in 1955 while the foundations were being
+examined by archeologists for measured drawings. Tests showed that no
+less than 70 human burials lay beneath the statehouse walls, and an
+estimated 200 more remain undisturbed beneath the remaining structures
+or have been lost in the James River. Here may be the earliest cemetery
+yet revealed at Jamestown--one so old that it was forgotten by the
+1660's when the Third Statehouse was erected. It is, indeed, quite
+possible that these burials, some hastily interred without coffins,
+could date from the "starving time" of 1609-10, when the settlers strove
+to dispose of their dead without disclosing their desperate condition to
+the Indians.
+
+[Illustration: JAMESTOWN EXPLORATION TRENCHES OF 1955 FROM THE AIR.
+LANDMARKS ARE THE "OLD CYPRESS" IN THE RIVER, UPPER LEFT, THE
+TERCENTENARY MONUMENT, AND THE STANDING RUIN OF THE 18TH-CENTURY AMBLER
+HOUSE.]
+
+The highlight of archeological discoveries at Jamestown is undoubtedly
+the long-forgotten buildings themselves, ranging from mansions to simple
+cottages. Since no accurate map of 17th-century "James Citty" is known
+to survive, and as only a few land tracts, often difficult to adjust to
+the ground, have come down to us, archeologists found that the best way
+to discover evidence was to cast a network of exploratory trenches over
+the area of habitation.
+
+During its whole century of existence, the settlement was never an
+integrated town. The first frame houses quickly rotted away or succumbed
+to frequent fires. Brick buildings were soon erected, but probably not
+twoscore ever stood at one time during the 17th century.
+
+Bearing in mind that the massive church tower is the only 17th-century
+structure remaining above ground today, and the only building whose
+identity was therefore never lost, you will find only one other
+identified with positive assurance--the Ludwell House--Third and Fourth
+Statehouses row. The remaining 140 structures so far discovered by
+excavating have no clear-cut identity with their owners. To complicate
+matters more, bricks from many burned or dismantled houses were salvaged
+for reuse, sometimes leaving only vague soil-shadows for the
+archeologist to ponder. From artifacts associated with foundation
+traces, relative datings and, usually, the use of the structure can be
+deduced from physical evidence. Unless a contemporaneous map is someday
+found, we shall know little more than this about the houses at Jamestown
+except for the testimony of assorted hardware, ceramics, glassware,
+metalware, and other imperishable reminders of 17-century arts and
+crafts.
+
+
+Churches
+
+The first church service at Jamestown was held under a piece of
+sailcloth in May 1607. The first frame church, constructed within the
+palisades, burned with the entire first fort in January 1608, and was
+eventually replaced by another frame structure after the fort was
+rebuilt. The exact date of the first church to stand on a brick
+foundation is uncertain, possibly 1639. Brick foundation traces,
+uncovered in 1901 by John Tyler, Jr., a civil engineer who volunteered
+his services for the Association for the Preservation of Virginia
+Antiquities, lie behind the free-standing brick church tower which
+remains the only standing ruin today. The modern brick structure and
+roof enclose and protect the footing evidence of the walls of two
+separate churches and a tile chancel flooring. Indication of fire among
+these foundations was noted by Tyler.
+
+[Illustration: A MANSION STRUCTURE OR PUBLIC BUILDING DATING FROM THE
+SECOND QUARTER OF THE 17TH CENTURY. REBUILT ONCE AND BURNED ABOUT THE
+TIME OF BACON'S REBELLION, 1676.]
+
+
+Mansions
+
+Despite official urgings that they build substantial town houses on
+Jamestown Island, the first successful planters often preferred to build
+on their holdings away from the capitol, once the Indian menace had
+passed. Only 2 houses at Jamestown, designed for single occupancy, have
+over 900 square feet of foundation area.
+
+One was either a stately residence or a public building (area 1,350
+square feet) located near Pitch and Tar Swamp, just east of the
+Jamestown Visitor Center. Archeological evidence indicates that this
+structure was first completed before the middle of the 17th century. It
+was later reconstructed and enlarged about the beginning of the last
+quarter, possibly during Bacon's Rebellion of 1676. Unmistakably, it
+burned.
+
+The second structure was a smaller (1,200 square feet), but imposing,
+house located near the present shoreline, considerably downriver. One of
+the features of this second mansion was a basement in the center of
+which was sunk a square, brick-lined recess, 3.3 feet on a side and 2.7
+feet deep. Among the many wine bottle fragments in this recess were 3
+bottle seals--1 with "WW" and 2 with "FN" stamped on them. Whether or
+not this mansion can be associated with Sir Francis Nicholson, the last
+governor resident at Jamestown (who moved the capital to Williamsburg),
+we do not know. Artifacts found in the refuse indicate this house was
+dismantled, not burned, shortly before or after the turn of the 17th
+century. The mystery of the little brick-lined recess is not entirely
+solved, but it is probable that here was a primitive cooler, deep below
+the house, in which perishable foods or wines were stored.
+
+[Illustration: JAMESTOWN HOUSE TYPES: SIMPLE FRAME, HALF-TIMBER, BRICK,
+AND ROW. (Conjectural sketches by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: EXCAVATED FOUNDATION OF A LATE 17TH-CENTURY PROTOTYPE OF
+THE BALTIMORE AND PHILADELPHIA ROW HOUSES. SIX FAMILIES COULD HAVE LIVED
+HERE.]
+
+
+Row Houses
+
+Although row houses--a continuous row of joined family residences on
+unit foundations--were a common city feature in 17th-century England,
+apparently they did not become popular at Jamestown. But the brick
+foundation of one true multiple-family unit has been uncovered, and two
+others approach this category, thus providing the true precedent for the
+row houses which came to characterize miles of Baltimore and
+Philadelphia streets, and are a familiar pattern of some modern duplex
+apartment units.
+
+This Jamestown row house is probably the most impressive foundation on
+the island. It is 16 feet long and 20 feet wide (inside measurement),
+situated east of the Tercentenary Monument, facing south, well back from
+the river and "the back streete." A cellar and a great fireplace
+terminate the east end, and 9 other fireplaces are evident in 4 main
+divisions, which may have housed one family or more in each division.
+Since artifact evidence relates it to the last quarter of the 17th
+century, and possibly the beginning of the 18th, there would seem little
+possibility of the row house having served as a public building or a
+tavern. There is some evidence that at least part of the structure
+burned.
+
+Two other foundations might be classed as row houses, but are less
+clearly delineated. One is the Last Statehouse Group of five units in
+the APVA grounds.[1] The other multiple house is a 3-unit building
+midway between the brick church and Orchard Run. This structure
+generally fits the description of the First Statehouse in its 3-unit
+construction and dimensions, and has long been thought to be the
+original Statehouse building. The structure, however, is as close to the
+present shoreline as the First Statehouse is recorded to have been in
+1642--a puzzling coincidence, if the factor of erosion is taken into
+consideration.
+
+[Footnote 1: After the Third Statehouse burned, it was replaced on the
+same foundations by the Fourth (and last) Statehouse built on Jamestown
+Island, which burned in 1698. The Fifth Statehouse, now reconstructed at
+Williamsburg, also burned, continuing an unhappy tradition that includes
+the destruction of the National Capitol at Washington in 1814 and the
+Virginia Statehouse at Richmond in 1865.]
+
+
+Single Brick Houses
+
+These were once supposed to have been very common at Jamestown, but are
+represented by only 12 foundations, not all of which have been
+completely excavated. Like the other excavated structures, if these
+houses can be related to the ownership of the land tracts on which they
+once stood, we may someday know more of their possible identity.
+
+
+Frame Houses
+
+Partial or even whole brick footings do not always indicate brick houses
+at Jamestown. Some 30 structures have been recorded which had brick
+footings or isolated brick fireplace foundations, the appearance of
+which suggests frame houses. These may be briefly classified as follows:
+
+  Brick, or brick-and-cobble, wall-footings with central chimney bases
+    of brick--2.
+  Brick footing and outside chimney--3.
+  Brick footing only--10.
+  Brick chimney base alone remaining--12.
+  Stone footing only--1.
+  Cellar only, presumed to belong to frame or unfinished house, or to
+    have had all bricks salvaged--1.
+  Burned earth floor area only remaining, presumed to mark a frame
+    house--1.
+
+Some of the structures encountered in the first explorations remain to
+be more fully excavated and recorded. Structures in this category total
+23.
+
+
+Miscellaneous Structures
+
+Because of the inadequacy of Jamestown remains and records, it is
+difficult to determine the purposes for which the various outbuildings
+were used. Doubtless, many outbuildings did exist for various purposes,
+and probably most of them were not substantial enough to leave a trace.
+Two clearly isolated, small structures properly called outbuildings
+(discovered in 1955) are all that will be cited here. The first is the
+large double-chimney foundation just beyond the southwest corner of the
+mansion east of the museum. Undoubtedly this belonged to a detached
+kitchen. The second is a small, but thick-walled, rectangular structure
+of brick which may have been a food storehouse or even a powder
+magazine.
+
+[Illustration: ALTHOUGH MOST JAMESTOWN WORKSHOPS WERE PROBABLY MADE OF
+FRAMEWORK AND WERE MERELY SHEDS, ONE BRICK FOUNDATION HAS THREE BRICK
+FIREBOXES AND A LARGE BRICK CHIMNEY. THIS STRUCTURE WAS PROBABLY A BREW
+HOUSE, BAKERY, OR DISTILLERY.]
+
+
+Workshop Structures
+
+Most of the early industries at Jamestown were undoubtedly housed in
+perishable wooden structures that have left the least evident traces,
+such as frame sheds for forges and wine presses, carpenters' shops, and
+buildings used by various artisans and craftsmen. So far, only two
+industrial structures are clearly recognizable (aside from kilns),
+although their precise use is not certain.
+
+One of these, on the edge of Pitch and Tar Swamp, was a nearly square,
+tile-floored workshop with a rough but substantial brick foundation
+supporting the framework of the walls. On the floor were 3 fireboxes, 2
+of which were associated with a large chimney area. What was fabricated
+here has not yet been determined, although ceramic firing, brewing,
+distilling, and even ironworking, have been suggested. Proximity of
+pottery and lime-burning kilns, and a small pit where iron may have been
+smelted, may be significant.
+
+A second, very fragmentary brick foundation close to the present
+riverbank suggests a shop rather than a house, but lacks firebox
+evidence or other identifying features. It may be 18th- rather than
+17th-century.
+
+[Illustration: NEAR THE FOUNDATION OF THE PROBABLE BAKE SHOP, A PAIR OF
+KILNS ONCE SERVED FOR SLAKING LIME, AND PERHAPS FOR FIRING POTTERY.
+BETWEEN THE KILNS WAS A FLAME-SCARRED PIT CONTAINING EVIDENCE OF
+IRONWORKING AND THE ROASTING OF BOG ORE FOR IRON.]
+
+
+Brick Walks or Paved Areas
+
+It is difficult to assign a use for certain areas which have been paved
+apparently with brick rubble, or, in more evident cases, by flatlaid
+bricks. Four such paved areas have been discovered.
+
+
+Brick Drains
+
+Three brick drains, buried beneath the humus line, are identified with
+17th-century houses.
+
+
+Ice Storage Pit
+
+So far unique on Jamestown Island is a circular unlined pit, 14 feet in
+top diameter, excavated 7 feet into a sandy substratum, and
+corresponding in general character to known 17th-and 18th-century ice
+pits in England. This pit which lies 250 feet east of the Visitor Center
+may have served a spacious house which once stood nearby. It may be
+assumed that the missing surface structure was circular, probably of
+brick, had a small door, and was roofed over with thatch or sod for
+insulation.
+
+
+Kilns
+
+Both brick and lime kilns are present in the "James Citty" area, each
+type being represented by four examples. The oldest of four brick kilns
+so far discovered on the island is a small rectangular pit near Orchard
+Run, excavated to a floor depth of 4 feet, which has been dated between
+1607 and 1625 by associated cultural objects. This small pit, without
+structural brick, was a brick-making "clamp," consisting of unfired
+brick built up over two firing chambers. There is good evidence that a
+pottery kiln was situated 30 feet west of the "industrial area."
+
+
+Ironworking Pits
+
+Also in the "industrial area" near Pitch and Tar Swamp, there is a
+circular pit in which lime, bog iron, and charcoal suggest the
+manufacture of iron. The previously mentioned pit within the area of the
+Confederate Fort yielded sword parts, gun parts, bar iron, and small
+tools, indicating a forge site, perhaps an armorer's forge.
+
+[Illustration: MAKING POTTERY AT JAMESTOWN. (Conjectural sketch by
+Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: HOW AN IRONWORKING PIT WAS USED. (From contemporary
+sources.)]
+
+[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF A BRICK-CASED WELL AT JAMESTOWN.
+(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE INTRIGUING MYSTERIES OF JAMESTOWN IS HOW THE
+LEFT LEG AND LEFT HALF OF A HUMAN PELVIS CAME TO BE THROWN WITH OTHER
+REFUSE INTO A WELL BEHIND THE ROW HOUSE. THE LOGICAL INFERENCE IS THAT A
+REBEL OR CRIMINAL HAD BEEN HANGED, DRAWN, AND QUARTERED.]
+
+
+Wells
+
+At Jamestown, wells are conspicuous features near many house locations.
+Those that have been found may be summarized as follows: wood lined--1;
+circular, brick cased--10; circular, uncased with wooden barrel at
+bottom--6; circular, uncased, incompletely excavated--4.
+
+Wells are invariably found filled with earth mixed with trash, mainly
+food animal bones. A well, located immediately north of the row house,
+had a human left leg and left half of the pelvis buried in the fill at a
+depth of 4 feet.
+
+
+Ditches
+
+The most significant feature determining landholdings are the ditches of
+the Jamestown area. During the 1954-56 explorations 63 ditches were
+added to the 33 previously discovered, thus increasing the opportunity
+to delineate property lines, many of which used to be bounded by such
+ditches.
+
+[Illustration: CAREFUL EXCAVATION WAS REQUIRED TO IDENTIFY THE FILL OF
+LONG-OBLITERATED DITCHES ONCE DRAINING FIELDS AND MARKING PROPERTY
+BOUNDARIES.]
+
+
+Refuse Pits
+
+"James Citty," like all other settlements in all ages, had to have
+places for disposal of refuse. That much refuse was disposed of by
+casting it in the James River is unlikely, since before the dawn of
+history it has been a trait of man to live on top of his own refuse
+rather than litter a shore with it. While it may be that no pits were
+dug purposely for refuse disposal, pits opened for brick or ceramic clay
+(or dug for ice houses, wells, or other purposes and later abandoned)
+were used for dumping trash. In 1955 a refuse pit almost 40 feet square
+was discovered in the "industrial area" near the workshop, ironworking
+pit, and pottery kilns. Filled with trash from the first half of the
+17th century, this pit contained such artifacts as a swepthilt rapier
+(made about 1600), a cutlass, the breastplate and backpiece of a light
+suit of armor, a number of utensils of metal, ceramics, and glass, to
+add to the collection of early 17th-century arts and crafts. Several
+smaller refuse pits were noted, and it is worth commenting that many
+ditches finally became trash accumulation areas.
+
+[Illustration: A CUTLASS IN EXCELLENT PRESERVATION AND MANY OTHER
+OBJECTS FROM 17TH-CENTURY JAMESTOWN WERE FOUND IN A LARGE CLAY BORROW
+PIT FILLED WITH REFUSE.]
+
+
+Roads
+
+Only one road identified by 17th-century references has been definitely
+located by archeologists. This is the "Maine Cart Road," sometimes
+called the "Greate Road," leading from Glasshouse Point across the
+isthmus and onto the island, where it can be traced as far as its
+passage into the main "James Citty" area just north of the brick church
+and churchyard. A trace is all that remains of a road which once ran
+east-west between parallel ditches, south of the row house.
+
+The foregoing has been a summary of the physical aspect of the Jamestown
+settlement from the standpoint of archeology. An account of the arts and
+crafts revealed by the artifacts found in these explorations follows.
+The whole story relating the settlers themselves to evidence they left
+in the soil of Jamestown remains to be told.
+
+
+
+
+PART TWO
+
+Daily Life at Jamestown 300 Years Ago As Revealed by Recovered Objects
+
+By J. PAUL HUDSON
+Museum Curator, Colonial National Historical Park
+
+"Hitherto they [historians] have depended too much upon manuscript
+evidences... Perhaps the day is not distant when the social historian,
+whether he is writing about the New England Puritans, or the
+Pennsylvania Germans, or the rice planters of Southern Carolina, will
+look underground, as well as in the archives, for his evidence."--DR.
+T.J. WERTENBAKER
+
+
+Archeological explorations at Jamestown, Va.--site of the first
+successful English colony in the New World--have brought to light
+thousands of colonial period artifacts which were used by the Virginia
+settlers from 1607 until 1699.
+
+A study of these ancient objects, which were buried under the soil at
+Jamestown for many decades, reveal in many ways how the English
+colonists lived on a small wilderness island over 300 years ago.
+Artifacts unearthed include pottery and glassware, clay pipes, building
+materials and handwrought hardware, tools and farm implements, weapons,
+kitchen utensils and fireplace accessories, furniture hardware, lighting
+devices, eating and drinking vessels, tableware, costume accessories and
+footwear, medical equipment, horse gear, coins and weights, and many
+items relating to household and town industries, transportation, trade,
+and fishing.
+
+These artifacts provide invaluable information concerning the everyday
+life and manners of the first Virginia settlers. A brief description of
+many of them is given on the following pages.
+
+Excavated artifacts reveal that the Jamestown colonists built their
+houses in the same style as those they knew in England, insofar as local
+materials permitted. There were differences, however, for they were in a
+land replete with vast forests and untapped natural resources close at
+hand which they used to advantage. The Virginia known to the first
+settlers was a carpenter's paradise, and consequently the early
+buildings were the work of artisans in wood. The first rude shelters,
+the split-wood fencing, the clapboard roof, puncheon floors, cupboards,
+benches, stools, and wood plows are all examples of skilled working with
+wood.
+
+
+Houses
+
+Timber at Jamestown was plentiful, so many houses, especially in the
+early years, were of frame construction. During the first decade or two,
+house construction reflected a primitive use found ready at hand, such
+as saplings for a sort of framing, and use of branches, leafage, bark,
+and animal skins. During these early years--when the settlers were
+having such a difficult time staying alive--mud walls, wattle and daub,
+and coarse marshgrass thatch were used. Out of these years of
+improvising, construction with squared posts, and later with quarterings
+(studs), came into practice. There was probably little thought of
+plastering walls during the first two decades, and when plastering was
+adopted, clay, or clay mixed with oyster-shell lime, was first used. The
+early floors were of clay, and such floors continued to be used in the
+humbler dwellings throughout the 1600's. It can be assumed that most of
+the dwellings, or shelters, of the Jamestown settlers, certainly until
+about 1630, had a rough and primitive appearance.
+
+After Jamestown had attained some degree of permanency, many houses were
+built of brick. It is quite clear from documentary records and
+archeological remains, that the colonists not only made their own
+brick, but that the process, as well as the finished products, followed
+closely the English method. Four brick kilns were discovered on
+Jamestown Island during archeological explorations.
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY JAMESTOWN HOUSE. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney
+E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: A BRICK HOUSE AT JAMESTOWN, ABOUT 1640. (Conjectural
+sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: THE MAJORITY OF THE LOCKS AND KEYS USED IN THE EARLY
+HOUSES WERE IMPORTED FROM ENGLAND.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW 17TH-CENTURY HANDWROUGHT HINGES IN THE JAMESTOWN
+COLLECTION.]
+
+
+BUILDING HARDWARE
+
+While some of the handwrought hardware found at Jamestown was made in
+the colony, most of it was imported from England. Types of building
+hardware unearthed include an excellent assortment of nails, spikes,
+staples, locks, keys, hinges, pintles, shutter fasteners, bolts, hasps,
+latches, door knockers, door pulls, footscrapers, gutter supports, wall
+anchors, and ornamental hardware. In many instances each type is
+represented by several varieties. Citing 2 examples, there are more
+than 20 kinds of nails and at least 15 different kinds of hinges in
+the collection.
+
+[Illustration: SOME NAILS, SPIKES, STAPLES, AND OTHER IRON HARDWARE USED
+AT JAMESTOWN OVER 300 YEARS AGO.]
+
+[Illustration: SOME JAMESTOWN HOUSES HAD LEADED GLAZED WROUGHT-IRON
+WINDOW CASEMENTS SIMILAR TO THE ONES SHOWN HERE. (Courtesy, The
+Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.)]
+
+It is believed that wooden hardware was used on many of the early
+houses.
+
+
+WINDOWS
+
+A few glass window panes may have been made in the Jamestown glass
+factory which was built in 1608. Most of the window glass used in the
+colony, however, was shipped from England. Many of the early panes used
+were diamond-shaped (known as "quarrels"), and were held in place by
+means of slotted lead strips (known as "cames"). The window frames used
+in a few of the Jamestown houses were handwrought iron casements. Most
+of the humbler dwellings had no glass panes in the windows. The window
+openings were closed by batten shutters, operated by hinges of wood and
+fitted with wooden fastening devices.
+
+
+WALL AND FIREPLACE TILE
+
+Most of the hand-painted tiles used at Jamestown (for decorating walls
+and fireplaces) were imported from Holland. A few were made in England.
+Made of a light-buff clay, and known as delftware, the tiles unearthed
+are decorated in blue, with a conventionalized design in each corner and
+a central picture or motif. Covered with a tin glaze, the majority of
+tiles found measure about 5 inches square by 3/8-inch thick. The edges
+are beveled, permitting them to be set very close together at the glazed
+surface. The attractively decorated tiles added a touch of beauty to a
+few Jamestown interiors.
+
+
+ROOFING MATERIALS
+
+Four kinds of roofing materials have been excavated: Plain, flat,
+earthenware tiles; curved earthenware pantiles; slate; and wooden
+shingles. The plain tiles were made in Jamestown brick kilns, and it is
+possible that some of the S-curved red pantiles were also made locally.
+Slate was brought over from England, whereas most of the shingles were
+rived from native cedar and oak logs. Other materials used in roofing
+included bark, marshgrass and reeds (thatch), and boards. Sod appears to
+have been used on some of the very early houses.
+
+
+LIME
+
+Lime for mortar, plaster, and ornamental plaster was made in crude lime
+kilns at Jamestown from calcined oyster shells. The oyster shells came
+from the James River.
+
+[Illustration: A WROUGHT-IRON WINDOW CASEMENT UNEARTHED NEAR AN EARLY
+17TH-CENTURY BUILDING SITE.]
+
+[Illustration: WALL OR FIREPLACE TILES FOUND AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE
+MADE IN HOLLAND. THE BLUE DESIGNS AND PICTURES WERE PAINTED ON A WHITE
+BACKGROUND.]
+
+[Illustration: KINDS OF ROOFING MATERIALS EXCAVATED INCLUDE FLAT TILES
+(SHOWN HERE), CURVED PANTILES, SLATE, AND SHINGLES.]
+
+[Illustration: ORNAMENTAL PLASTER WAS USED IN A FEW BUILDINGS FOR
+ENHANCING THE BEAUTY OF BOTH THE INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR.]
+
+[Illustration: THE INTERIOR OF A SMALL JAMESTOWN HOUSE, ABOUT 1650.
+ALTHOUGH THE PAINTING IS CONJECTURAL, MANY ITEMS SHOWN--POTTERY,
+GLASSWARE, FIREPLACE TOOLS, AND KITCHEN ACCESSORIES--WERE UNEARTHED ON
+THIS HISTORIC ISLAND. (Painting by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+
+PLASTER AND MORTAR
+
+Plaster and mortar have been found at Jamestown in abundance. It appears
+that the majority of brick houses and many frame structures had
+plastered walls and ceilings after 1635. Some plaster found had been
+whitewashed, while other plaster bore its natural whitish-gray color.
+Mortar was found wherever brick foundations were located. The plaster
+and mortar used at Jamestown was made from oystershell lime, sand, and
+clay.
+
+
+ORNAMENTAL PLASTERWORK
+
+Ornamental plaster was found in a few of the excavations. The
+plasterwork was done in raised ornamental designs used for enhancing the
+beauty of both the interior and exterior of a building. Designs that
+have been found include Roman numerals, letters, mottos, crests, veined
+leaves, rosettes, flowers, geometric designs, a lion, and a face or
+mask. Many fragments of molded plaster cornices have also been
+excavated. Broken oyster shells are distinguishable in the decorated
+plasterwork, indicating that the pargeting was done at Jamestown.
+
+
+House Furnishings
+
+Busy conquering a stubborn wilderness, the first Jamestown settlers had
+only a few things to make their houses cosy and cheerful. In most cases,
+their worldly goods consisted of a few cooking utensils, a change of
+clothing, a weapon or two, and a few pieces of homemade furniture.
+However, between 1607 and 1612, George Percy was generously outfitted
+with some necessities as well as much fine apparel and numerous luxury
+items (including a feather bed) by his brother the Ninth Earl of
+Northumberland, as published records of the Earl's expenditures for
+George show. Other persons of gentle birth and position quite probably
+enjoyed similar goods.
+
+After the early years of hardship had passed, the colonists began to
+acquire possessions for a more pleasant living; and by 1650 the better
+houses were equipped with most of the necessities of life of those
+times, as well as a few luxuries of comfortable living.
+
+
+FURNITURE
+
+Very little furniture was brought over from England during the early
+years of the colony. Perhaps a few chests and Bible boxes were imported,
+but most of the large pieces of furniture, such as tables, chairs,
+bedsteads, chests-of-drawers, cupboards, benches, and cradles would
+have been made in Virginia. Woods commonly used included pine, cedar,
+walnut, maple, and oak.
+
+[Illustration: FURNITURE HARDWARE AND ACCESSORIES FOUND. MUCH OF THE
+FURNITURE USED IN THE JAMESTOWN HOUSES WAS MADE IN VIRGINIA.]
+
+Furniture hardware and accessories excavated at Jamestown include
+hinges, locks, drawer pulls, chest handles, escutcheon plates,
+upholstering tacks, hasps, and finials. Most of the furniture hardware
+is of brass (probably used after 1650). Since much of it is skillfully
+decorated, it is believed that it once was attached to furniture of high
+quality. Furniture used during the first two decades of the settlement,
+however, must have been simple with little or no ornamentation.
+
+
+LIGHTING DEVICES
+
+The candle, made of either tallow or bayberry wax, was the standard
+lighting device at Jamestown. Pine torches were often used out of doors,
+and rushlights and candlewood were undoubtedly used in the humbler
+dwellings during the very early years of the settlement. Candlesticks
+unearthed at Jamestown include a large brass pricket holder, one made of
+English sgraffito-ware, several incomplete earthenware holders, and
+parts of delftware candlesticks. Many fragments of brass and iron
+candlesticks, as well as a few candle snuffers, have also been
+recovered.
+
+[Illustration: BOTH BRASS AND POTTERY CANDLESTICKS HAVE BEEN FOUND. THE
+CANDLE WAS THE STANDARD LIGHTING DEVICE DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+
+FIREPLACE ACCESSORIES
+
+The fireplace, around which the family gathered, was one of the most
+important features in the Jamestown home. Its fire offered warmth in
+winter, afforded light at night, and cooked the family meals during the
+day. An oven, usually found at the back or at one side of the fireplace,
+baked the family bread and other foods. About the fireplace, many home
+chores were carried out, including spinning and sewing; and not far from
+the glow of the burning logs the children learned their daily lessons
+and received their early religious training. Social activities were
+enjoyed about the hearth, especially during the long winter evenings;
+and when a member of the family was ill, the fireplace and its
+accessories were in constant use. The fireplace was the first place
+visited by the housewife in the early morning, and was usually the last
+place where she performed her household duties late at night.
+
+A fine assortment of fireplace tools and accessories have been found at
+Jamestown, including iron tongs, shovels, andirons, parts of brass
+warming-pans, and a large fragment from a cast-iron fireback. One early
+17th-century andiron recovered is attractively decorated with a cherub's
+head in relief.
+
+[Illustration: A FEW FIREPLACE TOOLS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY ANDIRON IN THE JAMESTOWN
+COLLECTION. NOTE THE CHERUB'S HEAD NEAR THE BASE.]
+
+
+COOKING UTENSILS AND ACCESSORIES
+
+A large and varied assortment of cooking utensils and kitchen
+accessories have been excavated, including kettles, pots, pans,
+skillets, frying pans, toasters, broilers, griddles, skimmers, skewers,
+spits, ladles, pothooks, trammels, cranes, trivets, cleavers, knives and
+forks, sieves, and colanders. While only a few are complete others are
+almost complete or at least easily recognizable.
+
+During the early years of the colony, people in England who planned to
+emigrate to Jamestown were advised to bring the following "Household
+implements: One Iron Pot, One Kettle, One large frying-pan, One
+gridiron, Two skillets, One Spit, Platters, dishes, spoones of wood."
+With the exception of the wooden items, all of the utensils listed have
+been excavated.
+
+[Illustration: A WROUGHT-IRON TRAMMEL USED FOR HANGING A POT FROM A
+FIREPLACE CRANE. THE ADJUSTABLE HOOK MADE IT POSSIBLE TO RAISE OR LOWER
+THE POT.]
+
+[Illustration: AN IRON POT AND POT FRAGMENT UNEARTHED AT
+JAMESTOWN--TYPES USED DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: MANY EARTHENWARE VESSELS FOUND WERE USED FOR COOKING
+PURPOSES, INCLUDING BAKING DISHES, THREE-LEGGED POTS, AND COVERED POTS.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW KITCHEN UTENSILS AND ACCESSORIES EXCAVATED AT
+JAMESTOWN: A LADLE, BRASS PAN, KNIFE BLADES, FORK, KETTLE FRAGMENTS,
+SPOUT, COLANDER FRAGMENTS, AND POT HOOKS.]
+
+[Illustration: A FAMILY ENJOYING A MEAL, ABOUT 1650. MANY OF THE EATING
+AND DRINKING VESSELS PORTRAYED, TOGETHER WITH MUCH OF THE TABLEWARE, ARE
+TYPES WHICH HAVE BEEN EXCAVATED. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E.
+King.)]
+
+
+Table Accessories
+
+In the small houses at Jamestown the kitchen also served as the dining
+room. During the early years, many settlers probably ate with wooden
+spoons out of wooden bowls and trenchers, and drank from mugs made of
+horn, wood, or leather. As the colony became well established, these
+crude utensils and vessels were used less frequently and were gradually
+replaced with ones made of pottery, metalware, and glassware. None of
+the perishable woodenware, horn, or leather items have been found at
+Jamestown, but a large assortment of more durable objects used at the
+table have been recovered. Space permits only brief descriptions of the
+more common types unearthed.
+
+
+KNIVES, FORKS, AND SPOONS
+
+The table knives found at Jamestown vary in length from 6-3/8 to 8-1/4
+inches. Most of them have either bone or ivory handles, although 3 have
+embossed brass handles; and 1, found in a late 17th-century well, has an
+exquisite handle of banded agate.
+
+The forks in the collection also have bone or ivory handles, the
+majority displaying 2 steel prongs, or tines. The number of prongs,
+however, is no positive identification of any particular period, as many
+English forks of the mid-17th century had 3 prongs, and a few had 4
+prongs.
+
+Types of spoons excavated include seal-heads, slipped ends, "puritans,"
+and trifids. The majority were made of either pewter or latten metal (a
+brasslike alloy), although 3 in the collection were made of silver. The
+earliest spoons found have rounded bowls and 6-sided stems (handles),
+whereas those made after 1650 usually have oval bowls and flat, 4-sided
+handles. One of the silver spoons, with rounded bowl and slipped end,
+bears the initials of its owner, "WC/E," on the slipped end of the
+handle. This spoon appears to have been made between 1600 and 1625, and
+is still in excellent condition.
+
+The most important spoon in the Jamestown collection, and one of the
+most significant objects excavated, is an incomplete pewter spoon--a
+variant of the trifid, or split-end, type common during the 1650-90
+period. Impressed on the handle (in the trefoil finial of the stem) is
+the mark of the maker, giving his name, the Virginia town where he
+worked, and the year he started business. This is the sole surviving
+"touch" or mark of an American pewterer of the 17th century. The
+complete legend, encircling a heart, reads: "IOSEPH
+COPELAND/1675/CHUCKATUCK." (Chuckatuck is a small Virginia village in
+Nansemond County, about 30 miles southeast of Jamestown.) Joseph
+Copeland later moved to Jamestown where he was caretaker of the
+statehouse from 1688-91. He may have made pewter in Virginia's first
+capital. His matchless spoon found in the old Jamestown soil is the
+oldest dated piece of American-made pewter in existence.
+
+
+POTTERY AND PORCELAIN
+
+The largest and most representative collection of 17th-century European
+and early American pottery which has been excavated in America is on
+exhibition at Jamestown. Thousands of fragments of colorful types have
+been found, and by the exercise of extreme care and patience, museum
+technicians have pieced together many early specimens. These examples
+reveal the kinds of pottery used in the wilderness settlement over three
+centuries ago. Included in this ceramic collection are pitchers, bowls,
+jugs, cups, mugs, porringers, milk pans, jars, plates and dishes, pots,
+and platters. These were used at the table, as well as for the storage
+of foods, and for other purposes.
+
+While some of the utilitarian earthenware was made at Jamestown, most of
+the pottery that has been found was imported from England. Many types
+also came from other European countries, including Germany, Holland,
+Italy, Spain, and Portugal. One kind of maiolica may have been made in
+Mexico, while the few fragments of porcelain recovered were made in
+China.
+
+Because of the great variety and importance of the ceramic collection, a
+few of the more representative types will be described briefly.
+
+[Illustration: A FEW KNIVES, FORKS, AND SPOONS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: THE PEWTER SPOON HANDLE AT THE TOP, UNEARTHED AT
+JAMESTOWN, IS THE OLDEST DATED PIECE OF AMERICAN PEWTER IN EXISTENCE. IT
+WAS MADE BY JOSEPH COPELAND OF CHUCKATUCK, VA., IN 1675. THE SPOON ON
+THE BOTTOM IS A CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF COPELAND'S SPECIMEN.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW EXAMPLES OF LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE MADE IN ENGLAND
+DURING THE 17TH CENTURY. ALL WERE UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE MADE AT JAMESTOWN
+ABOUT 1640-50.]
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH SGRAFFITO, OR SCRATCHED, WARE--ONE OF THE MOST
+COLORFUL TYPES OF POTTERY UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH SLIP-DECORATED WARE. ALTHOUGH MADE IN ENGLAND
+MAINLY FOR LOCAL CONSUMPTION, MANY ATTRACTIVE EXAMPLES WERE SHIPPED TO
+VIRGINIA DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+Lead-glazed Earthenware.--Most of these vessels were made for
+utilitarian purposes, and were usually glazed only on the inside. While
+some were made at Jamestown, the majority were imported from England.
+One type, a grit-tempered earthenware, was manufactured in North
+Devonshire. Another kind, a hard-fired earthenware, was also made in
+England. At least two distinct types of local-made earthenware have been
+found, and, as many examples have well-proportioned shapes and
+attractive designs, it is evident that they were not fashioned by a
+young apprentice, but by a trained potter who took pride in shaping his
+wares.
+
+English Sgraffito-ware (a slipware).--This colorful pottery, beautifully
+decorated with incised designs, is an English earthenware of red or buff
+clay on which a slip was applied. Before firing, a decoration was
+scratched, stippled, or cut through the slip, exposing the darker color
+of the body. The entire piece then received a transparent lead glaze,
+either clear or covered with an oxide. The English sgraffito-ware found
+at Jamestown was made near Barnstaple, in North Devonshire, probably
+after 1640. The reddish-brown floral and geometric designs which
+decorate the vessels are unusually attractive against colorful yellow
+backgrounds. Sgraffito is an Italian word meaning scratched.
+
+English Slip-decorated-ware.--This colorful English pottery, which was
+made for everyday use, is a lead-glazed earthenware decorated with a
+liquid clay or slip. The design was usually dropped or trailed upon the
+ware from the spout (or quill) of a slip cup, somewhat in the manner a
+baker decorates a cake with icing; or it may have been painted over a
+large area or placed on in molded pads. Although most of the
+slip-decorated-ware found at Jamestown was made in England, there is
+some evidence that a few vessels may have been manufactured in America
+during the late 17th century.
+
+English Redware with Marbled Slip Decoration.--On this type English
+earthenware, which usually has a red body, the liquid slip was marbled
+or combed over the surface of the vessel with a toothed instrument of
+wire or leather to produce the effect of paper-marbling. Some in the
+Jamestown collection appear to have been made as early as 1625.
+
+Italian Maiolica.--Maiolica is a word derived from a type of pottery
+made on the Spanish island of Mallorca. The 17th-century Italian
+maiolica-ware found at Jamestown is a red-body earthenware with
+scratched or incised designs--a true sgraffito-ware. Somewhat similar in
+appearance to the English sgraffito-ware, the desired design was
+scratched through the cream-colored slip, revealing the reddish-brown
+body beneath. On many examples, colorful lines were hand painted over or
+near the incised designs, usually in reds, yellows, and greens, and were
+covered with a transparent lead glaze.
+
+[Illustration: ENGLISH REDWARE WITH MARBLED SLIP DECORATION, 1625-50
+PERIOD OR EARLIER, UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: LATE 17TH-CENTURY ITALIAN MAIOLICA BOWLS EXCAVATED AT
+JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH DELFTWARE IN THE JAMESTOWN
+COLLECTION.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Delftware.--This is a soft pottery covered with an opaque white tin
+glaze, and decorated with hand-painted designs, usually in blues and
+purples. A few specimens excavated are embellished with pleasing
+patterns in polychrome colors. Most of the delftware unearthed at
+Jamestown was made in England (Lambeth, Southwark, and Bristol),
+although a few examples were imported from Holland.
+
+Spanish Maiolica.--This maiolica is a tin-glazed earthenware with a soft
+body usually buff in color and porous in texture. The colorful
+decorations were hand painted on the absorbent surface--usually in
+greens, blues, yellows, and reddish-browns, against a white background.
+Some small Spanish jugs in the collection bear very crude dark-red
+floral designs painted against a cream-colored background. A few
+examples of maiolica found at Jamestown are believed to have been made
+in Lisbon, and these usually have designs in blues and dark purples
+against a white background.
+
+Salt-glazed Stoneware.--This common but attractive type of pottery found
+in many excavations at Jamestown includes mugs, jars, bottles, tankards,
+and jugs. It is a very hard ware which was fired at high temperatures
+and finished with a salt glaze, formed by throwing common salt into the
+furnace. The surface of the body has a pitted appearance resembling an
+orange peel, and is covered with a thin, glasslike coating. Most of the
+salt-glazed stoneware unearthed was made in Germany, although a small
+amount was manufactured in England.
+
+[Illustration: COLORFUL SPANISH MAIOLICA FOUND WHICH APPEAR TO HAVE BEEN
+MADE BEFORE 1650.]
+
+[Illustration: A LARGE GERMAN STONEWARE JUG UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN. THE
+DATE "1661" APPEARS ABOVE THE MEDALLION.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW EXAMPLES OF GERMAN SALT-GLAZED STONEWARE IN THE
+JAMESTOWN COLLECTION. ALL WERE MADE DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: RECONSTRUCTED WINEGLASSES AND WINEGLASS FRAGMENTS IN THE
+JAMESTOWN COLLECTION.]
+
+[Illustration: NOTE THE MAKERS' MARKS OR SEALS ON THE WINEGLASS
+FRAGMENTS. ONLY A FEW ENGLISH WINEGLASSES BEARING 17TH-CENTURY MAKERS'
+SEALS HAVE BEEN FOUND IN AMERICA.]
+
+
+METALWARE EATING AND DRINKING VESSELS
+
+While large numbers of eating and drinking vessels made of pottery have
+been excavated on Jamestown Island, only a few fragments of utensils
+made of silver, pewter, brass, and copper were found. Metalware vessels
+were relatively scarce during the early years of the settlement, and
+their almost complete absence in the Jamestown collection may be
+attributed to the fact that not many of them were discarded, regardless
+of their worn condition. Only a few metal handles from mugs and cups,
+and a small number of pewter plate fragments, have been excavated.
+
+Although no complete specimens of domestic silver and pewter eating and
+drinking vessels were found, 17th-century records and inventories
+indicate that many Jamestown families owned such wares (especially after
+1630), including cups, beakers, dishes, salts, salvers, tankards,
+porringers, bowls, and plates.
+
+It is of interest that 2 goldsmiths, 2 refiners, and a jeweler arrived
+at Jamestown in 1608 aboard the supply ship _Phoenix_. Although John
+Smith related that these artisans "never had occasion to exercise their
+craft," it is possible that they made a few metal objects (such as
+spoons) in the capital city.
+
+
+GLASS DRINKING VESSELS
+
+Glass was made at Jamestown in 1608-09, and again in 1621-24. It was, in
+all probability, the first commodity made by the English in a "factory"
+in the New World. Many glass fragments were found at the furnace site,
+but none was large enough to reveal what specific glass objects were
+made there. It appears that drinking glasses may have been among the
+items manufactured.
+
+The majority of the glass drinking vessels unearthed at Jamestown were
+made in England, although a few were manufactured in Germany, Italy, and
+the Low Countries. In the collection are fragments from goblets,
+beakers, bowls, and wineglasses. Four of the English wineglass stems
+bear makers' seals, rare marks seldom found on English drinking vessels.
+
+
+GLASS WINE AND GIN BOTTLES
+
+These comprise a large and important part of the Jamestown collection.
+Literally thousands of glass fragments from these bottles have been
+unearthed, and by diligent and patient work a few complete wine and gin
+bottles have been pieced together.
+
+The glass wine bottles were made in England. The oldest excavated, made
+between 1640 and 1660, have spherical bodies and tall necks. Those made
+between 1660 and 1680 have cup-shaped bodies with short necks. Of the
+period between 1680 and 1700 the neck is very short and the body is wide
+and squat. Insofar as is known, no glass wine bottles were used at
+Jamestown before 1640.
+
+[Illustration: GLASS WINE BOTTLES UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN RANGING IN DATE
+FROM 1640 TO 1690. THOUSANDS OF FRAGMENTS OF THESE BOTTLES HAVE BEEN
+RECOVERED.]
+
+[Illustration: AN ASSORTMENT OF GLASS BOTTLE SEALS IN THE JAMESTOWN
+COLLECTION. SOME OF THE WEALTHY PLANTERS HAD THEIR INITIALS (OR OTHER
+ORNAMENTAL DEVICE) STAMPED ON THE SHOULDERS OF THE WINE BOTTLES WHICH
+THEY ORDERED FROM ENGLAND.]
+
+[Illustration: THIS DUTCH GIN BOTTLE EXCAVATED AT JAMESTOWN WAS IMPORTED
+FROM HOLLAND.]
+
+About 1650 the practice of affixing glass seals or buttons on the
+shoulders of English wine bottles was begun. The seal was inscribed with
+a name, or initials, or a date; sometimes a coat of arms or a crest, or
+other device or ornament. Many of these glass bottle seals have been
+found at Jamestown. As a rule, only the wealthy and influential planters
+had seals stamped on their wine bottles.
+
+Gin bottles found at Jamestown are tall and square with thin glass
+sides. Imported from Holland, many were made as early as 1625. One gin
+bottle was miraculously unearthed intact, and not as much as a chip or
+crack was found on this 300-year-old fragile specimen.
+
+
+FOOD STORAGE VESSELS AND FACILITIES
+
+Many earthenware jars, pots, bowls, and jugs excavated at Jamestown were
+used for the storage of foods. Wooden and wicker containers were also
+used, although because of their perishable nature none was unearthed.
+Seventeenth-century inventories list many of these perishable storage
+items, including casks, barrels, hogsheads, tubs, bins, and baskets.
+Leather bottles are also mentioned in a few early records.
+
+[Illustration: EARTHENWARE VESSELS USED FOR THE STORAGE OF FOODS. SOME
+WERE MADE AT JAMESTOWN, SOME WERE IMPORTED FROM ENGLAND.]
+
+[Illustration: "HARVESTING" ICE, ABOUT 1650. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS
+REVEALED THAT ICEHOUSES WERE BUILT ON THE HISTORIC ISLAND OVER 300 YEARS
+AGO. (Painting by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+A brick-lined storage compartment was found in the cellar (below floor
+level) of one of the 17th-century buildings. It was used, undoubtedly,
+for the storage of such easily spoiled foods as milk, cheese, eggs, and
+cream. Wine, too, was probably kept in bottles in the cool compartment,
+as many broken bottles were found inside.
+
+An extremely important discovery was a large, deep, ice-storage pit,
+believed to be the only 17th-century ice pit which has been excavated in
+Virginia. The conjectural painting on page 48 shows its probable
+appearance when in use about 1650. Ice-storage pits held dairy products,
+meats, and other spoilable foods as well as ice. Pond ice was usually
+cut and stored in the pit in late winter. Sometimes it lasted until late
+summer or early autumn.
+
+
+Clothing and Footwear
+
+The Jamestown settlers of the middle class were usually dressed in hard
+wearing, rough clothes made of homespun material, with a slightly better
+(and perhaps more colorful) costume for Sunday and holiday wear. In 1622
+each Englishman who planned to emigrate to Jamestown was advised to
+supply himself with the following wearing apparel:
+
+    "One Monmouth cap [a flat, round cap].
+    Three falling bands [a neckband or collar of a shirt which turned
+      down over the shoulders].
+    Three shirts.
+    One waste-coate.
+    One suite of Canvase [a suit made of coarse cloth, such as cotton,
+      hemp, tow, or jute].
+    One suite of Frize [a woolen fabric with a nap].
+    One suite of Cloth.
+    Three paire of Irish stockins.
+    Foure paire of shooes.
+    One paire of garters.
+    One doozen of points [a point was a tie or string ending with an
+      anglet and used to join parts of a costume as doublet and hose]."
+
+The women wore plain frocks and petticoats, although a few of the
+wealthy ladies owned silk, satin, and velvet dresses. Bodices, as a
+rule, were long pointed, and skirts were full and long.
+
+Perhaps the most unique items of wearing apparel recovered at Jamestown
+were several leather shoe soles and two almost-complete shoes, found in
+a dirtlined well in association with artifacts of the 1625-50 period.
+
+[Illustration: FOR EVERYDAY USE THE JAMESTOWN SETTLERS WORE HARDWEARING
+CLOTHES MADE OF HOMESPUN CLOTH. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+Other objects unearthed relating to wearing apparel and costume
+accessories, include an excellent assortment of buckles, buttons, and
+brass eyelets. Items in the collection which were used in the mending of
+clothes include needles, pins, and thimbles (both brass and silver).
+
+[Illustration: A LEATHER SHOE AND SEVERAL LEATHER SHOE SOLES WERE
+UNCOVERED IN AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY WELL.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW BUCKLES AND BUTTONS IN THE JAMESTOWN COLLECTION.
+MANY ARE OVER 300 YEARS OLD.]
+
+[Illustration: HOMESPUN CLOTHES WERE SELDOM DISCARDED. THE MANY PINS,
+NEEDLES, AND THIMBLES FOUND REVEAL THAT MENDING WAS A NEVER-ENDING CHORE
+FOR THE BUSY HOUSEWIFE.]
+
+[Illustration: AN ASSORTMENT OF CARPENTERS' TOOLS UNEARTHED AT
+JAMESTOWN. MOST OF THEM WERE USED OVER THREE CENTURIES AGO.]
+
+[Illustration: THE JAMESTOWN COOPER WAS A BUSY CRAFTSMAN. MANY BARRELS,
+HOGSHEADS, AND CASKS WERE NEEDED IN THE COLONY, AND LARGE QUANTITIES OF
+BARREL STAVES WERE MADE FOR SHIPPING TO ENGLAND. (Painting by Sidney E.
+King.)]
+
+
+Artisans and Craftsmen
+
+Numerous objects recovered at Jamestown are extremely important as they
+reveal the kinds of craftsmen and artisans who worked in Virginia's
+first capital, the nature of their tools and equipment, and examples of
+their handiwork.
+
+
+THE CARPENTER
+
+Scores of tools used by the men who helped build the Jamestown houses
+have been unearthed, including chisels, augers, gouges, hammers,
+reamers, saw fragments, bits, axes and hatchets, plane blades, gimlets,
+files, calipers, compasses, scribers, nail pulls, and a saw wrest. A
+grindstone was found in a refuse pit not far from the historic church
+tower.
+
+
+THE COOPER
+
+Some tools used by the cooper, including draw shaves, adzes, plane
+irons, and race knives, have been excavated. Several barrel
+staves--probably made at Jamestown--were found in a few wells. Because
+of the great demand for barrels, casks, and hogsheads (both in Virginia
+and England) the Jamestown cooper was a busy artisan. His products were
+needed at all times, especially after 1620 when the Virginia settlers
+began shipping large quantities of tobacco to England in wooden
+hogsheads.
+
+[Illustration: TIMBERING--ONE OF THE FIRST ENGLISH INDUSTRIES IN THE NEW
+WORLD. (Painting by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY, TWO-MAN, CROSSCUT SAW.]
+
+
+THE WOODCUTTER AND SAWYER
+
+Numerous tools found on Jamestown Island relate to timbering, including
+felling axes, hewing axes, hatchets, saws, and wedges. An early
+17th-century two-man crosscut saw has been recovered almost intact.
+Records indicate that pit saws were used, although none has been
+excavated.
+
+
+THE IRONWORKER
+
+A small, primitive hearth or furnace, where small amounts of iron may
+have been smelted during the early part of the 17th century, was
+uncovered during archeological explorations in 1955. A few miles upriver
+from Jamestown, at Falling Creek, the English built their first iron
+furnace in America in 1620-21. Iron was smelted in the furnace, and a
+few tools were forged--the first iron objects made in the New World by
+the English. In 1622 the Indians massacred the ironworkers and their
+families, and destroyed the furnace. Although it was never rebuilt, its
+importance cannot be overstressed, for the Falling Creek site can
+rightfully claim the honor of being the birthplace of the American iron
+industry.
+
+[Illustration: A FEW OF MANY TOOLS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE
+USED FOR TIMBERING: FELLING AXES, A HEWING AXE, ADZE, HATCHET, WEDGE,
+AND SAW FRAGMENT.]
+
+[Illustration: MAKING "TRIALLS" OF IRON. EVIDENCES OF AN EARTH OVEN OR
+SMALL FURNACE WERE DISCOVERED AT JAMESTOWN DURING ARCHEOLOGICAL
+EXPLORATIONS. SMALL AMOUNTS OF IRON MAY HAVE BEEN SMELTED IN THE FURNACE
+DURING THE EARLY YEARS OF THE SETTLEMENT. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney
+E. King.)]
+
+
+THE BLACKSMITH
+
+In 1955, archeologists discovered the remnants of an early 17th-century
+forge. At the site, blacksmith's tools, bar iron, sword guards,
+unfinished iron objects, and slag were found. This gave evidence that a
+blacksmith once plied his trade only a few yards west of the ancient
+brick church. Many blacksmiths worked at Jamestown (there was one among
+the first group of settlers). In the Jamestown collection are many tools
+which they left behind, including pliers, pincers, chisels, punches,
+hammers, and a small anvil.
+
+
+THE BOATBUILDER
+
+Many small boats were built at Jamestown. They were built by English
+shipwrights and carpenters, who came from a long line of efficient
+craftsmen. These small vessels afforded the principal means of
+transportation through the uncharted wilderness tidewaters of Virginia.
+They were used for fishing, trade, and discovery. A few small
+handwrought iron tools used by Jamestown boatbuilders have been
+excavated on the historic island.
+
+
+THE POTTER
+
+In 1955 a pottery kiln site was discovered at Jamestown. Nearby were
+found many utilitarian earthenware vessels of the 1625-40
+period--definite evidence that pottery was made in Virginia over 300
+years ago. Although made for everyday use, many of the pieces unearthed
+are symmetrical and not entirely lacking in beauty. The unknown
+Jamestown potters were artisans, trained in the mysteries of an ancient
+craft, who first transplanted their skills to the Virginia wilderness.
+
+[Illustration: OBJECTS FOUND AT A 17TH-CENTURY FORGE SITE AT JAMESTOWN:
+BLACKSMITH'S TOOLS, BAR IRON, A FEW INCOMPLETE ITEMS, SWORD GUARDS, AND
+SLAG. IT APPEARS THAT THE FORGE WAS IN OPERATION AS EARLY AS 1625.]
+
+[Illustration: BUILDING A SMALL BOAT AT JAMESTOWN ABOUT 1650. (Painting
+by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: BOAT-BUILDING TOOLS FOUND, ALL MADE BEFORE 1700.]
+
+[Illustration: EARTHENWARE VESSELS MADE AT JAMESTOWN BETWEEN 1625 AND
+1640. THE SITE OF AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY POTTERY KILN WAS DISCOVERED ON
+THE ISLAND IN 1955.]
+
+[Illustration: MAKING POTTERY AT JAMESTOWN, ABOUT 1625-40. (Painting by
+Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: ARTIFACTS FOUND NEAR THE SITE OF THE JAMESTOWN GLASSHOUSE
+WHICH WAS IN OPERATION AS EARLY AS 1608: A SMALL MELTING POT, PART OF A
+WORKING HOLE, FRAGMENT FROM LARGE MELTING POT, CULLET (BROKEN OR REFUSE
+GLASS SHOWN IN LOWER LEFT CORNER), AND GREEN GLASS FRAGMENTS (LOWER
+CENTER AND LOWER RIGHT).]
+
+[Illustration: BLOWING GLASS AT JAMESTOWN IN 1608. (Conjectural sketch
+by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+
+THE GLASSBLOWER
+
+Glassblowers were working at Jamestown in 1608-09, and again in 1621-24.
+The trial glass they made in 1608 was sent to England--the first glass
+manufactured by Englishmen in the New World. The small glass fragments
+excavated at the furnace sites do not reveal what was produced, but
+probably nothing more complicated than window glass, bottles and vials,
+and plain drinking glasses. It is believed that the small glass factory
+at Jamestown was the first English "factory" in America.
+
+
+THE BRICKMAKER AND TILEMAKER
+
+Four brick kilns have been excavated. In two of them roofing tile and
+bricks were found. An iron spade, probably used in preparing the clay
+for brickmaking, was found in one of the kilns. The oldest kiln
+unearthed is believed to have been in use as early as 1625. Many
+brickmakers emigrated to Jamestown during the 1600's.
+
+
+THE LIMEBURNER
+
+Four lime kilns were unearthed on the historic island, where oyster
+shells from the James River were burned and converted into lime by the
+limeburner. As early as 1610 "lymeburners" emigrated to Virginia, and
+thereafter many such workers came to the colony from England.
+
+[Illustration: FOUR BRICK KILNS HAVE BEEN EXCAVATED. THE ONE SHOWN HAD
+FIVE FIRING CHAMBERS. ROOFING TILES WERE ALSO MADE IN THE JAMESTOWN
+BRICK KILNS.]
+
+[Illustration: A 17TH-CENTURY LIME KILN EXCAVATED AT JAMESTOWN. IN IT
+OYSTER SHELLS FROM THE JAMES RIVER WERE BURNED FOR MAKING LIME. THE IRON
+HOOPS WHICH SUPPORTED THE ARCHED TOP OF THE KILN BUCKLED FROM THE
+INTENSE HEAT.]
+
+[Illustration: MAKING LIME FROM OYSTER SHELLS IN A KILN, ABOUT 1625.
+(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+
+OTHER CRAFTSMEN
+
+Contemporary records, confirmed by certain objects found at Jamestown
+(especially small tools), reveal that pewterers, silversmiths colliers,
+wheelwrights, calkers, bricklayers, millwrights, shoemakers, masons,
+cordage makers, tanners, tobacco pipemakers, armorers, gunmakers,
+braziers, and others worked in the capital city at various periods
+between 1607 and 1699.
+
+[Illustration: A SILVERSMITH WEIGHING CLIPPED COINS. (Conjectural sketch
+by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: BRASS WEIGHTS AND A PIECE OF SCRAP BRASS UNEARTHED AT
+JAMESTOWN. RECORDS INDICATE THAT MANY METALWORKERS EMIGRATED TO VIRGINIA
+DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+
+Home Industries
+
+During archeological explorations many artifacts relating to household
+and town industries were recovered. It is believed that many of these
+small industries were home activities carried on in the houses at
+Jamestown. A few of these activities, and the products of them are
+mentioned briefly.
+
+
+SPINNING AND WEAVING
+
+A few metal parts from spinning wheels and looms have been
+excavated--reminders that the pioneer housewife who spun the thread and
+yarn, and wove the cloth for her large family, was seldom idle.
+
+
+MALTING AND BREWING
+
+One Jamestown building or house (whose brick foundations were discovered
+in 1955) appears to have been used for malting and brewing beer and ale,
+or carrying out some activity requiring distillation. A few pieces of
+lead were found which may have been part of a lead cistern for holding
+barley. The three brick ovens that were uncovered may have been used
+as drying kilns. A handle from a copper kettle was found near one of the
+ovens, and pieces of copper and lead pipes were unearthed not far from
+the building. The structure itself appears to have been used between
+1625 and 1660.
+
+[Illustration: SPINNING THREAD OR YARN AND WEAVING CLOTH WERE ENDLESS
+CHORES FOR THE WOMEN LIVING IN THE SMALL WILDERNESS SETTLEMENT.
+(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: BREWING BEER AT JAMESTOWN. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney
+E. King.)]
+
+
+DAIRYING AND CHEESEMAKING
+
+Earthenware milk pans, bowls and pots, iron hoops (from wooden vessels),
+an earthenware funnel, and parts of skimmers, sieves, and ladles have
+been excavated. All these are evidence that dairying was an important
+household industry. This activity was usually carried on in a
+brick-paved room (with slatted windows) located on the northwest side of
+the house. Cheese, as well as butter, was probably made in the same
+room.
+
+[Illustration: LEAD AND COPPER PIPES, KETTLE FRAGMENTS, A BRASS SPIGOT,
+AND OTHER ITEMS FOUND WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN USED FOR BREWING OR DISTILLING
+PURPOSES.]
+
+
+BAKING
+
+One of the largest objects that has been found is an earthenware baking
+oven, which was unearthed in an old ditch near the site of the
+May-Hartwell House. Restored from over 200 fragments, the oven was
+probably used between 1650 and 1690. It may have been made at Jamestown,
+molded of native clay and fired in a pottery kiln. In use, heated stones
+were placed inside the oven and left until the walls were hot enough for
+baking. Sometimes, however, the oven may have been placed directly on
+the embers of the fire. It undoubtedly was used out of doors, near a
+small house.
+
+
+ASSOCIATED INDUSTRIES
+
+A few artifacts that have been recovered are associated with millers,
+drapers, basketmakers, cutlers, tailors, barbers, netmakers, and
+glovers. These tradesmen usually worked in or near their homes.
+
+[Illustration: EARTHENWARE MILK PAN, BRASS LADLE, FUNNEL FRAGMENT, AND
+OTHER ITEMS FOUND WHICH RELATE TO DAIRYING AND CHEESEMAKING.]
+
+[Illustration: BAKING BREAD IN AN OUTDOOR BAKING OVEN ABOUT 1650.
+(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: IN THIS OVEN A JAMESTOWN WOMAN BAKED BREAD OVER 300 YEARS
+AGO. IT APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN IN USE BETWEEN 1650 AND 1690.]
+
+[Illustration: JAMESTOWN SOLDIERS CARRYING POLEARMS (A HALBERD AND A
+BILL). (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+
+Military Equipment
+
+The vast assemblage of military equipment that has been unearthed
+(probably the largest collection of late 16th-and 17th-century English
+weapons used in America) emphasizes the important part which firearms
+and other weapons played during the early years of the settlement. They
+helped the colonists to protect themselves from the ever-menacing Indian
+and from the Spaniards who might at anytime have sailed up the James
+River to attack the small colony. They were also the means of providing
+the settlers with much of their food.
+
+During the early years of the colony each Englishman who planned to
+emigrate to Virginia was advised to supply himself with the following
+"Armes":
+
+    "One Armour compleat, light.
+    One long Peece, five foot or five and a halfe, neere
+      Musket bore.
+    One sword.
+    One bandaleere [a bandoleer was a belt worn to carry the
+      cases which held the powder charges].
+    Twenty pound of powder.
+    Sixty pound of shot or lead, Pistoll and Goose shot."
+
+Most of the kinds of arms listed have been found at Jamestown and will
+be described briefly along with other types of weapons which were
+unearthed.
+
+
+POLEARMS
+
+Parts from several polearms, including bills, pikes, and a halberd, have
+been excavated. The recovered halberd (a polearm with sharp cutting
+edges and a spearlike point) is typical of the late 16th century, and
+may have been made as early as 1575. A few bills were unearthed, all
+dating around 1600. (A bill is a polearm, having a long staff
+terminating in a hook-shaped blade, usually with spikes at the back and
+top.) Two pike butts were also unearthed.
+
+[Illustration: TWO EARLY 17TH-CENTURY POLEARMS--A BILL AND
+HALBERD--UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN. BOTH WEAPONS HAD LONG WOODEN HANDLES.]
+
+[Illustration: THE CALTROP UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN. THIS SHARP-POINTED
+INSTRUMENT WAS THROWN ON THE GROUND TO IMPEDE AN ENEMY'S INFANTRY AND
+CAVALRY.]
+
+
+CALTROP
+
+This small item unearthed at Jamestown is an instrument with 4 iron
+points, so arranged that no matter how it lands, 1 point always projects
+upward, to impede the progress of an enemy's cavalry and to prevent
+surprise attacks.
+
+
+SWORDS, RAPIERS, AND CUTLASSES
+
+Types of swords that have been found include broadswords, cutlasses or
+back swords, and rapiers. Three examples are complete, or nearly so--a
+cutlass, a broadsword, and a swept-hilt rapier. Many basket hilts were
+unearthed together with guards from other type swords, pommels, and
+blade fragments. A number of these edged weapons were made between 1600
+and 1625. Several basket-hilted guards and blade fragments were found at
+the site of an early 17th-century forge, which may have been an
+armorer's workshop.
+
+
+CANNON
+
+One small cannon barrel fragment, possibly from a light cannon known as
+a robinet, has been unearthed (the bore at the end of the barrel is only
+1-1/4 inches across). A varied assortment of 17th-century cannon balls
+have also been found, appropriate sizes for such ordnance as
+demiculverines, sakers, minions, and falcons.
+
+[Illustration: FIRING A DEMICULVERINE FROM A BASTION AT "JAMES FORT."
+(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: HILT AND PORTION OF BLADE OF A SWEPT-HILT RAPIER
+EXCAVATED AT JAMESTOWN OF THE 1600-1610 PERIOD.]
+
+
+MUSKETS
+
+An excellent assemblage of 17th-century musket barrels and gun parts
+have been recovered from the Jamestown soil, reminiscent of times when
+Indians attempted to wipe out the small settlement.
+
+Among the gunlocks found are matchlocks, wheel-locks, snaphaunces,
+"doglocks," and flintlocks. The first settlers were equipped with both
+wheel-lock and matchlock muskets. Some of the muskets were so heavy,
+they required a forked ground-rest to shoot (parts of two forked
+ground-rests have been excavated). Other muskets, like the caliver, were
+light, and could be fired without the use of a support.
+
+The standard musket during the early years of the settlement was the
+matchlock. By 1625, however, the picture had changed, for the
+wheel-lock, snaphaunce, and "doglock," were being used in large numbers,
+and the matchlock had become obsolete.
+
+
+PISTOLS
+
+Only a few pistol barrels and parts have been unearthed. One pistol
+barrel is attractively ornamented with silver bands.
+
+
+LIGHT ARMOR AND SIEGE HELMET
+
+A breastplate and backpiece from a light suit of armor (probably a
+pikeman's suit) were found in a refuse pit. These interesting specimens
+were probably made in England during the 1600-20 period.
+
+In 1953, Sgt. Floyd E. Painter found an English siege helmet (1600-40
+period) 4 miles down the river from Jamestown Island.
+
+[Illustration: A JAMESTOWN SENTRY ON DUTY SHOULDERING HIS HEAVY
+MATCHLOCK MUSKET. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: EARLY MUSKET BARREL AND GUN PARTS EXCAVATED AT
+JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: BREASTPLATE FROM A LIGHT SUIT OF ARMOR FOUND IN A REFUSE
+PIT. THIS WAS ONE TYPE USED BETWEEN 1600 AND 1640.]
+
+[Illustration: A HEAVY SIEGE HELMET FOUND 4 MILES DOWNRIVER FROM
+JAMESTOWN. WEIGHING OVER 8 POUNDS, IT WAS ONE TYPE USED IN EUROPE DURING
+THE EARLY YEARS OF THE 17TH CENTURY.]
+
+[Illustration: THE EARLY JAMESTOWN SETTLERS WERE ADVISED TO EQUIP
+THEMSELVES WITH "ONE ARMOUR COMPLEAT, LIGHT." (Conjectural sketch by
+Sidney E. King.)]
+
+
+Farming
+
+The first settlers brought seeds from England, and planted wheat 2 weeks
+after landing at Jamestown.
+
+The early Virginians successfully grew many kinds of crops: grains
+(wheat, Indian corn, barley, oats, and rye), vegetables (peas, beans,
+turnips, parsley, onions, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots,
+parsnips, lettuce, and others), and fruits (apples, peaches, apricots,
+quince, figs, grapes, and melons).
+
+The colonists planted Indian corn as early as 1609, and cultivated many
+other Indian foods, including pumpkins, beans, and squash. They
+cultivated tobacco (an Indian plant) as early as 1612, and during the
+remainder of the century it was the most profitable crop grown. For many
+years it was the economic salvation of the struggling colony.
+
+Attempts were made by the early colonists to grow other crops which, for
+various reasons, did not thrive at Jamestown. Some plants, like bananas,
+pineapple, citrus fruits, and pomegranates, could not withstand the cold
+Virginia winters. Other plants, including rice, cotton, indigo,
+sugarcane, flax, hemp, and olives, did not grow vigorously for one
+reason or another, and repeated efforts to cultivate them usually
+resulted in failure. Mulberry trees grew well at Jamestown (the leaves
+were used to feed silk worms), but attempts to make silk were not
+successful commercially.
+
+[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO OVER 300 YEARS
+AGO. THESE TOOLS--HOE, BILLHOOK, AND CUTTING KNIVES--WERE EXCAVATED AT
+JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: CULTIVATING A SMALL GARDEN IN VIRGINIA. (Conjectural
+sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW FARM TOOLS USED BY AN EARLY SETTLER FOR CULTIVATING
+HIS NEWLY CLEARED LAND.]
+
+[Illustration: FISHING PROVIDED FOOD AS WELL AS RECREATION FOR THE
+COLONISTS. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW OF THE MANY ARTIFACTS RELATING TO FISHING UNEARTHED
+AT JAMESTOWN: FISHHOOKS, FISH-GIGS, AND LEAD NET WEIGHTS.]
+
+Handtools used by the Jamestown farmers during the 17th-century have
+been found in abundance. These include axes, picks, billhooks,
+pitchforks, spades, rakes, mattocks, sickles, scythes, broad hoes,
+narrow hoes, and shovels.
+
+Only a few parts belonging to heavy farming implements have been
+unearthed, including a few ploughshares and small metal fragments from
+wagons, carts, and harrows.
+
+
+Fishing
+
+When the first settlers planted their small colony at Jamestown, the
+tidewater rivers and bays and the Atlantic Ocean bordering the Virginia
+coast teemed with many kinds of fish and shellfish which were both
+edible and palatable. Varieties which the colonists soon learned to eat
+included sheepshead, shad, sturgeon, herring, sole, white salmon, bass,
+flounder, pike, bream, perch, rock, and drum, as well as oysters,
+crabs, and mussels. Seafood was an important source of food for the
+colonists, and at times, especially during the early years of the
+settlement, it was the main source.
+
+Those in England who planned to go to Virginia were always advised to
+provide themselves (among other items) with nets, fishhooks, and lines.
+
+During archeological explorations, fishhooks, lead net weights,
+fish-gigs, and small anchors were uncovered. These are reminders of a
+day when fish and shellfish were abundant in every tidewater Virginia
+creek, river, and bay.
+
+
+Health
+
+Keeping well and healthy, even managing to stay alive in the unfamiliar
+Virginia wilderness during the first two decades of the Jamestown
+settlement, was no easy matter. In the group of 105 original settlers,
+67 died during the first 8 months. During the hard winter of 1609-10
+(known as the "starving time"), the population dwindled from 500 to
+about 60 as a result of sickness, Indian attacks, and famine.
+
+One of the members of the first colony was a surgeon, William Wilkinson
+by name. As the colony grew, other surgeons, physicians, and
+apothecaries, emigrated to Virginia. Their lot was not easy, for it
+appears that they were seldom idle in an island community having more
+than its share of "cruell diseases, Swellings, Flixes, Burning Fevers,
+warres and meere famine."
+
+During archeological explorations, drug jars, ointment pots, bleeding
+bowls, mortars and pestles, small bottles and vials, and parts of
+surgical instruments were recovered. These, undoubtedly, were used
+countless times at Jamestown by unknown "chirurgions," doctors of
+"physickes," and apothecaries--men who tried to keep the colonists well
+with their limited medical equipment and scant supply of drugs.
+
+
+Amusements and Pastimes
+
+The difficult and time-consuming job of conquering the Virginia
+wilderness (clearing the land, building homes, planting and harvesting
+crops, and warding off Indian attacks) left few hours for leisure and
+amusements. There were times, however (especially after the first few
+hard years had passed), when a colonist could enjoy himself by smoking
+his pipe, playing a game, practicing archery, bowling, playing a musical
+instrument, singing a ballad, or taking part in a lively dance.
+Excavated artifacts reveal that the settlers enjoyed at least these few
+amusements and pastimes.
+
+[Illustration: A PHYSICIAN BLEEDING A PATIENT. (Conjectural sketch by
+Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW ITEMS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE USED BY
+DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES. INCLUDED ARE DRUG JARS, OINTMENT POT, BLEEDING
+BOWL, MORTAR AND PESTLE FRAGMENTS, GLASS VIALS, AND PORTIONS OF SURGICAL
+INSTRUMENTS.]
+
+[Illustration: ENJOYING A SMOKE IN A TAVERN, ABOUT 1625. (Conjectural
+sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW OF THOUSANDS OF CLAY PIPE FRAGMENTS UNEARTHED AT
+JAMESTOWN. THE ONES SHOWN RANGE IN DATE FROM 1600 TO 1700. DURING THIS
+100-YEAR PERIOD, PIPES DEVELOPED FROM SMALL BOWLS TO FAIRLY LARGE
+ONES.]
+
+
+SMOKING
+
+The first colonists were quite familiar with the use of tobacco, and it
+is believed that many of them smoked clay pipes. Evidently there was
+some demand for tobacco pipes by the early planters as one of the men,
+Robert Cotten, who reached Jamestown in January 1608, was a tobacco
+pipemaker.
+
+In 1611-12 John Rolfe had experimented with tobacco plants in Virginia
+(he used Virginia plants as well as varieties from the West Indies and
+South America), and was successful in developing a sweet-scented leaf.
+It became popular overnight, and for many years was the staple crop of
+the infant colony. There was a prompt demand for the new leaf in
+England, and its introduction there was an important factor in
+popularizing the use of clay pipes. After 1620 the manufacture of white
+clay pipes in England increased by leaps and bounds.
+
+It is estimated that there are over 50,000 clay pipe bowls and stem
+fragments in the Jamestown collection--perhaps the largest assemblage of
+its kind extant. Pipe bowls and stem fragments were found wherever
+excavations were made, indicating that the smoking of clay pipes was an
+extremely popular custom at Jamestown.
+
+During the 1607-1700 period, pipe-bowls developed in size from small to
+fairly large. In most examples that have been found, the early pipes
+have larger stem-holes than pipes made during the latter years of the
+century.
+
+Although the majority of pipes found at Jamestown were imported from
+England, some were made in Holland. Some of the colonists made their
+pipes in Virginia from local clay, either by pipemaking machines or by
+handmolding. The English and Dutch pipes were white in color, whereas
+the local product was brown. As they were fragile, not a single complete
+pipe has been unearthed at Jamestown.
+
+[Illustration: HARVESTING TOBACCO AT JAMESTOWN, ABOUT 1650. (Painting by
+Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: CHILDRENS' GAMES DEPICTED ON DUTCH DELFTWARE FIREPLACE
+TILES ARE VERY SIMILAR TO THE GAMES CHILDREN PLAY TODAY. THE TILES WERE
+MADE IN HOLLAND ALMOST 300 YEARS AGO.]
+
+
+GAMES
+
+A few ivory fragments that have been excavated appear to be parts of
+dice and chessmen. Chess was popular during the 17th century, and many
+dice games, including even and odd, hazard, passage, mumchance, and
+novem were played.
+
+Other games which undoubtedly were played in many Jamestown homes were
+tick-tack, backgammon, Irish, and cards. Card games were popular,
+especially primero, trump, piquet, saint, and decoy.
+
+Many 17th-century fireplace tiles in the Jamestown collection are
+decorated with charming little pictures depicting children's games.
+Activities portrayed include skating, bowling, spinning tops, fishing,
+rolling hoops, using a yo-yo, swinging, wrestling, skipping rope,
+shooting, playing skittles, riding a hobby horse, sledding, boxing, and
+playing musical instruments. These pictures remind us that games played
+by boys and girls today are very similar to those enjoyed by children
+three centuries ago.
+
+[Illustration: ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS REVEALED THAT THE COLONISTS
+ENJOYED ARCHERY. THE IRON LEVER SHOWN, KNOWN AS A "GOAT'S FOOT," WAS
+USED FOR SETTING THE STRING OF A LIGHT HUNTING CROSSBOW. IT WAS FOUND 4
+MILES FROM JAMESTOWN. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING THE USE OF A "GOAT'S FOOT"
+FROM _Weapons, A Pictorial History_ BY EDWIN TUNIS.]
+
+
+ARCHERY AND HUNTING
+
+One interesting item relating to archery has been found 4 miles from
+Jamestown. Known as a "goat's foot," it is an iron lever which was used
+for pulling back and setting the string of a light hunting crossbow.
+
+Contemporary records indicate that hunting game birds and animals was a
+popular New World diversion. Such sport served a twofold purpose, as it
+offered recreation to the settler and helped provide food for his table.
+Parts of early fowling pieces and numerous lead birdshot (called goose
+or swan shot during the early years of the 17th century) have been
+recovered.
+
+
+MUSIC AND DANCING
+
+A large assortment of iron and brass Jew's harps (also known as Jew's
+trumps) have been found. This small instrument is lyre-shaped, and when
+placed between the teeth gives tones from a bent metal tongue when
+struck by the finger. Modulation of tone is produced by changing the
+size and shape of the mouth cavity.
+
+As there is no record of spinets, or virginals, having been used at
+Jamestown, we have no way of knowing whether such wire-stringed,
+keyboard instruments were used in the homes of the more prosperous
+planters, together with other musical instruments of the period.
+
+It is quite certain, however, that the Jamestown settlers knew the songs
+and ballads which were sung in Great Britain in those days. They were
+also familiar with English, Irish, Welsh, and Scotch dances. A few
+contemporary accounts reveal that the Virginia colonists enjoyed merry
+tunes and ditties, as well as lively dances. Although living in a
+wilderness, there were times when they could enjoy a few leisure-hour
+activities and amusements, including singing and dancing.
+
+[Illustration: PLAYING A JEW'S HARP--ENJOYING A LITTLE MUSIC IN THE
+VIRGINIA WILDERNESS. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+[Illustration: AN ASSORTMENT OF JEW'S HARPS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW OBJECTS RECOVERED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE ONCE USED
+ON 17TH-CENTURY BOATS--REMINDERS OF A DAY WHEN TRAVEL IN VIRGINIA WAS
+LARGELY BY WATER.]
+
+
+Travel
+
+During the 17th century, travel in Virginia was mainly by boat. As the
+roads leading from Jamestown to the nearby settlements were usually in
+deplorable condition, especially after heavy rains, the settlers
+preferred to travel by water whenever possible. As the colony grew, and
+roads were improved somewhat, travel by horse became more common,
+especially for short trips. After 1650 the use of wagons increased, and
+records indicate that a few of the more prosperous planters imported
+fine carriages from England.
+
+
+BOATS AND SHIPS
+
+Boats used by the settlers varied in size from small flat-bottom boats
+to fairly large sailing vessels, and included such types as small
+rowboats, pinnaces, barks, bilanders, schooners, ketches, and sloops.
+Living on a river, and in a tidewater area of innumerable creeks, bays,
+and rivers, practically all of the colonists were familiar with
+handling boats of one type or another.
+
+However, only a few objects relating to boats and ships have been
+unearthed at Jamestown: small anchors, chains, oar locks, ship bolts and
+spikes, and tools used by shipwrights and ships' carpenters.
+
+[Illustration: SOME BITS AND BRIDLE ORNAMENTS IN THE JAMESTOWN
+COLLECTION. THE ARTISTIC DESIGNS ON MANY BRIDLE BOSSES ARE SYMBOLIC OF
+BEAUTIFUL HANDIWORK PERFORMED BY CRAFTSMEN OF A BYGONE DAY.]
+
+
+HORSES, WAGONS, AND CARRIAGES
+
+The first English-built road in America (in use by 1608) ran 1 mile from
+Jamestown Island to Glasshouse Point. Later, as the colony grew, the
+road was extended to Governor Berkeley's plantation, about 4 miles from
+Jamestown, and other nearby settlements. There is some evidence that it
+was known as the "Old Road" or "Greate Road."
+
+[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY SPUR AND STIRRUP EXCAVATED AT
+JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: THIS BRANDING IRON WAS USED BY ONE OF THE COLONISTS
+DURING THE EARLY DAYS OF THE SETTLEMENT.]
+
+As early as 1609 "six mares and two horses" were brought to Jamestown.
+In 1611, 17 horses and mares arrived, and in 1614, Capt. Samuel Argall
+brought several more. Six years later in 1620, 20 horses were shipped
+from England. It is most surprising, therefore, that the census of 1625
+recorded only 1 horse for the entire colony! By 1649, however, it was
+estimated that there were 300 horses in Virginia, and most of the
+successful farmers and wealthy planters owned them after 1650. During
+the following years, the number of horses increased greatly.
+
+Many well-preserved metal objects relating to horse equipment and riding
+gear have been unearthed.
+
+Bits and Bridle Ornaments.--Most bits are of the snaffle variety,
+although a few curb bits have been recovered. In those days many bits
+had brass bosses attached to their cheek bars, and many of these
+attractive ornaments have been unearthed. Some bosses are decorated with
+raised designs while others are plain. The majority are made of brass,
+although a few iron bosses have been excavated.
+
+Spurs and Stirrups.--A few complete spurs have been excavated. While the
+majority are plain iron some brass spurs in the collection are
+decorated with very attractive incised or embossed designs. Two or three
+of the highly decorated brass spurs are probably of Spanish origin. One
+of them, in excellent condition, was found near an early brick kiln.
+
+[Illustration: WROUGHT-IRON HORSESHOES AND CURRYCOMBS USED PRIOR TO
+1650.]
+
+[Illustration: SETTLERS TRADING WITH THE INDIANS--BARTERING CASTING
+COUNTERS AND OTHER TRADE GOODS FOR FURS. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney
+E. King.)]
+
+All stirrups unearthed are made of wrought iron. Some of the steps or
+stirrup bars are solid, while others have a single slot.
+
+Horseshoes and Currycombs.--Horseshoes found vary considerably in size,
+although the majority are relatively small. Many shoes have both toe and
+heel calks, and in most examples the calks are well worn. The many small
+shoes that have been excavated may indicate that the horses used in
+Virginia three centuries ago were much smaller than the 20th-century
+breeds.
+
+All currycombs found are handwrought, and many have pleasing designs on
+the backs, formed by the curved iron strips which extend from the handle
+prong to the back of the comb.
+
+Branding Irons.--Parts of several branding irons were found including a
+complete example with initials "TR."
+
+Wagon and Carriage Parts.--Archeologists unearthed only a few metal
+parts from wagons and carriages--reminders of a day when horses and oxen
+were indispensable animals in the Virginia settlements.
+
+
+Trade
+
+Some interesting objects recovered at Jamestown relate to early trade.
+These include items used in trade with the Indians, as well as an
+excellent assortment of lead bale clips. These clips are decorated discs
+which were often attached to bales of goods (especially woolen cloth)
+imported from England. One object, the heaviest unearthed at Jamestown,
+relates indirectly to trade. It is a 1,300-pound iron piledriver which
+was once used to build wharfs and piers.
+
+
+INDIAN TRADE
+
+One reason why the colonists selected a site for Jamestown some miles up
+the James River was to develop the Indian trade over an extensive area.
+During the early years of the colony, trade with the natives was
+encouraged. It is clear from the early records that the settlers
+bartered such items as beads, cloth, penny knives, shears, bells, glass
+toys, whistles, hatchets, pots and pans, brass casting counters, and
+similar objects in exchange for Indian corn (and other vegetables),
+fish, game, fruits and berries, and furs.
+
+Many examples of English trade goods used for bartering with the Indians
+have been found on the island, but these can be described only briefly.
+
+Beads.--The majority of glass beads were shipped from England, although
+some may have been made in Italy, probably in Venice. As no glass beads
+were found at or near the site of the glass factory, it is doubtful
+whether any were made there. Most beads in the collection are round or
+oval, a few are cylindrical having been cut from colored glass rods. All
+beads excavated are of one or more colors, with the exception of 2 or 3
+that are colorless. After three centuries the attractive colors still
+persist; and looking at the colorful beads today you can understand the
+charm they held for the Indians.
+
+Knives.--Small, inexpensive knives called penny knives, were often used
+for trading purposes during the years at Jamestown. A few folding knives
+and blade fragments (which may also have been penny knives) have been
+recovered.
+
+Shears.--Several shears and scissors, highly prized by the Indians, were
+found on the island. A few are almost complete.
+
+Bells.--Brass and iron bells of types which were used for bartering with
+the Indians have been excavated. A few days after the colonists reached
+Jamestown one of them recorded that "our captaine ... presented [to an
+Indian chief] gyftes of dyvers sortes, as penny knyves, sheeres, belles,
+beades, glass toyes &c. more amply then before."
+
+[Illustration: BRASS CASTING COUNTERS EXCAVATED ON JAMESTOWN ISLAND.
+MANY WERE MADE IN GERMANY BEFORE 1575 FOR USE BY MERCHANTS ON COUNTING
+BOARDS. IN THE NEW WORLD THEY WERE USED FOR THE INDIAN TRADE.]
+
+[Illustration: A FEW OBJECTS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE USED FOR
+TRADING WITH THE INDIANS. SHOWN ARE GLASS BEADS, SCISSORS, IRON KNIVES,
+A HATCHET, AND BELL FRAGMENTS.]
+
+
+Hatchets.--Many fine specimens of handwrought hatchets have been found.
+These were valuable items during the early years of the settlement, and
+much sought after by the Indians, so that a large number were used in
+trading with them. But hatchets were used primarily by the carpenter,
+cooper, and other artisans.
+
+Pots and Pans.--A pot or pan made of brass or copper was almost worth
+its weight in gold for trading purposes. A few complete examples,
+together with numerous fragments, have been recovered.
+
+Brass Casting Counters or Jettons.--Most of these thin brass tokens or
+counters (similar in appearance to coins) were made in Germany during
+the second half of the 16th century. In Europe they were used on
+counting boards for making mathematical calculations, but in the New
+World it is believed that they were used in the Indian trade.
+Approximately a dozen have been found at Jamestown. Three were also
+found on Roanoke Island (site of Raleigh's ill-fated "Lost Colony") and
+one was recovered in an Indian shell mound near Cape Hatteras, not too
+distant from Croatoan Island (known today as Ocracoke Island). Many of
+the counters in the Jamestown collection were made by Hans Schultes and
+Hans Laufer of Nuremberg, who manufactured such jettons between 1550 and
+1574, at which time Nuremberg was a center for the making of casting
+counters. Some of the counters have holes punched through them,
+indicating that the Indians may have worn them around their necks like
+pendants, suspended from leather thongs.
+
+Miscellaneous Items.--Other objects which the English used in trade with
+the Indians were colored cloth, glass toys, and whistles; but no
+examples of these have been recovered during archeological explorations.
+
+[Illustration: A WHARF SCENE--ARRIVAL OF A SHIP FROM THE MOTHER COUNTRY.
+(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)]
+
+
+ENGLISH AND FOREIGN TRADE
+
+During the 17th century, active trade was carried on between the
+Virginia colony and the mother country. Local commodities of timber,
+wood products, soap ashes, iron ore, tobacco, pitch, tar, furs,
+minerals, salt, sassafras, and other New World raw materials were
+shipped to England. In exchange, English merchants sold to the
+colonists, tools, farm implements, seeds, stock and poultry, furniture
+and household accessories, clothing, weapons, hardware, kitchen
+utensils, pottery, metalware, glassware, and certain foods and drinks.
+
+There is also good evidence that some trade was carried on with Holland,
+Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Mexico, and the West Indies.
+Many artifacts unearthed (especially pottery) were made in the countries
+mentioned. It is believed that certain commodities were acquired by
+direct trade with the country where made, in spite of the strict laws by
+which the Colonial Powers sought to monopolize the colonial trade for
+the benefit of the mother country.
+
+Lead Bale Clips.--A series of decorated lead clips which relate to
+17th-century trade have been found at several places on Jamestown
+Island. As their name implies, these lead clips, or seals, were attached
+to bales of English goods, usually woolen cloth, to attest that the
+goods were of an approved quality and length, and of a given amount.
+Each clip usually consisted of two discs connected by a narrow band, and
+when used for marking cloth the name or initials of the maker of the
+material was often incised on one of the discs. The clips, too, were
+often embossed with a decorative device such as a coat of arms, crest,
+crown, name or initials of a king, numerals, king's head, royal arms,
+animal, or flower. Over a dozen of these small lead clips have been
+unearthed, and serve as reminders of a past day when majestic English
+merchantmen sailed to Jamestown laden with bales of goods from the
+mother country.
+
+[Illustration: LEAD BALE CLIPS USED FOR SEALING BALES OF WOOLEN CLOTH
+AND OTHER GOODS. ONCE A CLIP HAD BEEN ATTACHED TO A BALE IT ATTESTED
+THAT THE GOODS WERE OF AN APPROVED QUALITY AND LENGTH OR AMOUNT.]
+
+[Illustration: THIS 1,300-POUND IRON PILEDRIVER USED FOR DRIVING PILES
+IN THE BUILDING OF SMALL WHARVES WAS FOUND AT JAMESTOWN.]
+
+[Illustration: BUILDING A WHARF, ABOUT 1650. (Conjectural sketch by
+Sidney E. King.)]
+
+Piers and Wharfs.--In order to accommodate such large sailing vessels,
+piers and wharfs had to be built at Jamestown. A 1,300-pound iron
+piledriver was found in the basement of a 17th-century building in 1955.
+It was probably used three centuries ago for driving piles in the James
+River during construction of a small wharf.
+
+
+Worshipping
+
+The Jamestown colonists were, for the most part, religious and
+God-fearing people. The majority were members of the Church of England.
+One of the first settlers, the Rev. Robert Hunt, was an ordained
+minister of that church. Whenever possible, services were held every
+morning and evening, and sermons delivered twice on Sundays.
+
+A few ornamental brass book clasps excavated near Jamestown may have
+been used on early Bibles and Prayer Books. Under the care of Bruton
+Parish Episcopal Church in Willamsburg are four pieces of communion
+silver which were used in the church at Jamestown. Two pieces, an
+exquisite chalice and paten, were donated to the Jamestown church by Lt.
+Gov. Francis Morrison (or Moryson) in 1661. Inscribed on both is the
+legend: "Mixe not holy thinges with profane." A second paten, made in
+London in 1691-92, was given to the Jamestown Church by Gov. Edmund
+Andros in 1694. Another paten, or a collection plate (also made in
+London), bears the inscription: "For the use of James City Parish
+Church."
+
+[Illustration: DECORATED BRASS BOOK CLASPS FOUND NEAR JAMESTOWN WHICH
+MAY HAVE BEEN USED ON AN EARLY BIBLE OR PRAYER BOOK]
+
+The officials of the Virginia Company of London, admonishing the first
+settlers to serve and fear God in order to plant a successful and
+prosperous colony, advised:
+
+     Lastly and chiefly the way to prosper and achieve good success is
+     to make yourselves all of one mind for the good of your country and
+     your own, and to serve and fear God the Giver of all Goodness, for
+     every plantation which our Heavenly Father hath not planted shall
+     be rooted out.
+
+Seemingly the advice was carried out, for from the small settlement on a
+tiny island in the James River grew a great and mighty nation.
+
+[Illustration: COMMUNION SILVER USED IN THE JAMESTOWN CHURCH AFTER 1661.
+BOTH THE CHALICE AND PATEN WERE MADE IN LONDON, AND DONATED TO THE
+CHURCH BY LT. GOV. FRANCIS MORRISON (OR MORYSON) IN 1661. ON BOTH PIECES
+IS THE LEGEND: "MIXE NOT HOLY THINGES WITH PROFANE."]
+
+
+
+
+Select Bibliography
+
+
+BAILEY, WORTH. "Concerning Jamestown Pottery--Past and Present."
+  _Ceramic Age_, pp. 101-104. October 1937.
+----. "Joseph Copeland, 17th Century Pewterer." _The Magazine Antiques_,
+  pp. 188-190. April 1938.
+----. "Lime Preparation at Jamestown in the Seventeenth Century."
+  _William and Mary College Quarterly_, pp. 1-12. January 1938.
+----. "Notes on the Use of Pewter in Virginia During the Seventeenth
+  Century." _William and Mary College Quarterly_, pp. 227-241. April
+  1938.
+
+BRUCE, PHILLIP ALEXANDER. _Economic History of Virginia in the
+  Seventeenth Century_. 2 Vols. New York. Peter Smith. 1935.
+
+FORMAN, HENRY CHANDLER. _Jamestown and St. Mary's_. Baltimore. The Johns
+  Hopkins Press. 1938.
+----. "The Old Hardware of James Town." _The Magazine Antiques_, pp.
+  30-32. January 1941.
+
+HARRINGTON, J.C. _Glassmaking at Jamestown._ Richmond, Va. The Dietz
+  Press, Inc. 1952.
+----. "Seventeenth Century Brickmaking and Tilemaking at Jamestown,
+  Virginia." _The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography_, pp.
+  16-39. January 1950.
+----. "Some Delft Tiles Found at Jamestown." _The Magazine Antiques_,
+  pp. 36-37. January 1951.
+----. "Tobacco Pipes from Jamestown." _Quarterly Bulletin Archeological
+  Society of Virginia_, June 1951.
+
+HONEY, WILLIAM B. _European Ceramic Art from the end of the Middle Ages
+  to about 1815_. New York. 1949.
+----. _Glass: A Handbook and a Guide to the Museum Collection_. Victoria
+  and Albert Museum, London. 1946.
+
+HUDSON, J. PAUL. "The Story of Iron at Jamestown, Virginia--Where Iron
+  Objects Were Wrought by Englishmen Almost 350 Years Ago." _The Iron
+  Worker_, pp. 2-14. Summer 1956.
+----and C. Malcolm Watkins. "How Pottery Was Made at Jamestown,
+  Virginia--Where Englishmen First Made Earthenware Vessels in the New
+  World Over Three Hundred Years Ago." _The Magazine Antiques_. January
+  1957.
+
+INNOCENT, C.F. _Development of English Building Construction_.
+  University Press. Cambridge, England. 1916.
+
+LANE, ARTHUR. _A Guide to the Collection of Tiles_. Victoria and Albert
+  Museum. London. 1939.
+
+PETERSON, CHARLES E. "Some Recent Discoveries at Jamestown." _The
+  Magazine Antiques_, pp. 192-194. May 1936.
+
+PETERSON, HAROLD L. _Arms and Armor in Colonial America_. Stackpole
+  Company. Harrisburg, Pa. 1956.
+
+SONN, ALBERT H. _Early American Wrought Iron_. 3 Vols. Charles
+  Scribner's Sons. New York. 1928.
+
+WATKINS, C. MALCOLM. "The Lamps of Colonial America." _The Magazine
+  Antiques_, pp. 187-191. October 1937.
+
+
+
+
+OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE RELATING TO JAMESTOWN
+
+FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING
+OFFICE, WASHINGTON 25, D.C.
+
+
+Jamestown, Virginia, the Townsite and Its Story (Historical Handbook
+Series No. 2) 25 cents.
+
+James Towne in the Words of Contemporaries (Source Book Series No. 5) 20
+cents.
+
+America's Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses
+(Interpretive Series No. 2) 25 cents.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of New Discoveries at Jamestown
+by John L. Cotter
+J. Paul Hudson
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW DISCOVERIES AT JAMESTOWN ***
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