diff options
Diffstat (limited to '16277.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 16277.txt | 2757 |
1 files changed, 2757 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/16277.txt b/16277.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f190c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/16277.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2757 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of New Discoveries at Jamestown +by John L. Cotter +J. Paul Hudson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: New Discoveries at Jamestown + Site of the First Successful English Settlement in America + +Author: John L. Cotter +J. Paul Hudson + +Release Date: July 13, 2005 [EBook #16277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW DISCOVERIES AT JAMESTOWN *** + + + + +Produced by Mark C. Orton, Ben Beasley and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + +New Discoveries at +JAMESTOWN + +Site of the First Successful +English Settlement in America + +By JOHN L. COTTER and J. PAUL HUDSON + +WASHINGTON, D.C., 1957 + + + + +[Illustration] + +UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR +Fred A. Seaton, Secretary + +NATIONAL PARK SERVICE +Conrad L. Wirth, Director + +[Illustration] + + +For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing + Office +Washington 25, D.C.--Price 50 cents + + + + +Preface + + +Jamestown, a name of first rank among historic names, saw the birth of +English America. Here on an island in the James River in the heart of +tidewater Virginia the English carved a settlement out of the +wilderness. It grew from a rude palisaded fort into a busy community and +then into a small town that enjoyed many of the comforts of daily +living. For 13 years (until 1620) Virginia was the only English colony +on the American mainland. Jamestown served this colony as its place of +origin and as its capital for 92 years--from 1607 to 1699. + +After its first century of prominence and leadership, "James Towne" +entered a long decline, precipitated, in 1700, by the removal of the +seat of government to Williamsburg. Its residents drifted away, its +streets grew silent, its buildings decayed, and even its lots and former +public places became cultivated fields. Time passed and much was +forgotten or obscured. So it was when it became a historic area, in +part, in 1893, and when the whole island became devoted to historical +purposes in 1934. + +Since these dates, the Association for the Preservation of Virginia +Antiquities and the National Park Service have worked toward the +preservation of all that still exists of old Jamestown, and are +dedicated to learning its story more completely. Thus the American +people can more fully understand and enjoy their historic heritage of +Jamestown. A great deal of study along many lines has been required and +much more is still needed to fill the many gaps. Libraries have been +searched for pictures, documents, and plans. Land records have been +carefully scrutinized and old existing landmarks studied. +Seventeenth-century buildings and objects still surviving in England, +America, and elsewhere have been viewed as well as museum collections. A +key part of the search has been the systematic excavation of the +townsite itself, in order to bring to light the information and objects +long buried there. This is the aspect of the broad Jamestown study that +is told in this publication, particularly as its relates to the material +things, large and small, of daily life in Jamestown in the 17th century. + +These valuable objects are a priceless part of the Jamestown that exists +today. Collectively they form one of the finest groups of such early +material that has been assembled anywhere. Although most are broken and +few are intact, they would not be traded for better preserved and more +perfect examples that do exist elsewhere. These things were the property +and the possessions of the men and women who lived, worked, and died at +Jamestown. It was because of these people, who handled and used them in +their daily living, and because of what they accomplished, that +Jamestown is one of our best remembered historic places. + +April 6, 1956 +CHARLES E. HATCH, JR. +Colonial National Historical Park + + + + +Contents + + +PART ONE. Exploration: The Ground Yields Many Things + +Churches +Mansions +Row Houses +Single Brick Houses +Frame Houses +Miscellaneous Structures +Workshop Structures +Brick Walks or Paved Areas +Brick Drains +Ice Storage Pit +Kilns +Ironworking Pits +Wells +Ditches +Refuse Pits +Roads + + +PART TWO. Daily Life at Jamestown 300 Years Ago As Revealed by Recovered + Objects + +Houses + Building Hardware + Windows + Wall and Fireplace Tile + Roofing Materials + Lime + Plaster and Mortar + Ornamental Plasterwork +House Furnishings + Furniture + Lighting Devices + Fireplace Accessories + Cooking Utensils and Accessories +Table Accessories + Knives, Forks, and Spoons + Pottery and Porcelain + Lead-glazed Earthenware + English Sgraffito-ware (a slipware) + English Slip-decorated-ware + English Redware with Marbled Slip Decoration + Italian Maiolica + Delftware + Spanish Maiolica + Salt-glazed Stoneware + Metalware Eating and Drinking Vessels + Glass Drinking Vessels + Glass Wine and Gin Bottles + Food Storage Vessels and Facilities +Clothing and Footwear +Artisans and Craftsmen + The Carpenter + The Cooper + The Woodcutter and Sawyer + The Ironworker + The Blacksmith + The Boatbuilder + The Potter + The Glassblower + The Brickmaker and Tilemaker + The Limeburner + Other Craftsmen +Home Industries + Spinning and Weaving + Malting and Brewing + Dairying and Cheesemaking + Baking + Associated Industries +Military Equipment + Polearms + Caltrop + Swords, Rapiers, and Cutlasses + Cannon + Muskets + Pistols + Light Armor and Siege Helmet +Farming +Fishing +Health +Amusements and Pastimes + Smoking + Games + Archery and Hunting + Music and Dancing +Travel + Boats and Ships + Horses, Wagons, and Carriages + Bits and Bridle Ornaments + Spurs and Stirrups + Horseshoes and Currycombs + Branding Irons + Wagons and Carriage Parts +Trade + Indian Trade + Beads + Knives + Shears + Bells + Hatchets + Pots and Pans + Brass Casting Counters or Jettons + Miscellaneous Items + English and Foreign Trade + Lead Bale Clips + Piers and Wharfs +Worshipping + + +Select Bibliography + + + + + +[Illustration: JAMESTOWN ISLAND, VIRGINIA. ON THIS SMALL ISLAND--HALF +FOREST AND HALF MARSH--WAS PLANTED THE ENGLISH COLONY OF WHICH RALEIGH +AND GILBERT DREAMED.] + + + + +PART ONE + +Exploration: The Ground Yields Many Things + +By JOHN L. COTTER +Supervising Archeologist, Colonial National Historical Park + +"As in the arts and sciences the first invention is of more consequence +than all the improvements afterward, so in kingdoms, the first +foundation, or plantation, is of more noble dignity and merit than all +that followeth." + +--LORD BACON + + +In the Summer of 1934 a group of archeologists set to work to explore +the site of the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown Island, +Va. For the next 22 years the National Park Service strove--with time +out for wars and intervals between financial allotments--to wrest from +the soil of Jamestown the physical evidence of 17th-century life. The +job is not yet complete. Only 24 out of 60 acres estimated to comprise +"James Citty" have been explored; yet a significant amount of +information has been revealed by trowel and whiskbroom and careful +recording. + +By 1956 a total of 140 structures--brick houses, frame houses with brick +footings, outbuildings, workshops, wells, kilns, and even an ice storage +pit--had been recorded. To help unravel the mystery of landholdings +(sometimes marked by ditches), 96 ditches of all kinds were located, and +hundreds of miscellaneous features from post holes to brick walls were +uncovered. Refuse pits were explored meticulously, since before the dawn +of history man has left his story in the objects he discarded. + +When archeology at Jamestown is mentioned, the question is often asked, +why was it necessary to treat so famous a historic site as an +archeological problem at all? Isn't the story finished with the accounts +of John Smith's adventures, the romance of John Rolfe and Pocahontas, +the "starving time," the Indian massacre of 1622, Nathaniel Bacon's +rebellion against Governor Berkeley, and the establishment of the first +legislative assembly? + +The archeologist's answer is that the real drama of daily life of the +settlers--the life they knew 24 hours a day--is locked in the unwritten +history beneath humus and tangled vegetation of the island. Here a brass +thimble from the ruins of a cottage still retains a pellet of paper to +keep it on a tiny finger that wore it 300 years ago. A bent halberd in +an abandoned well, a discarded sword, and a piece of armor tell again +the passing of terror of the unknown, after the Indians retreated +forever into the distant hills and forests. Rust-eaten axes, wedges, +mattocks, and saws recall the struggle to clear a wilderness. The simple +essentials of life in the first desperate years have largely vanished +with traces of the first fort and its frame buildings. But in later +houses the evidence of Venetian glass, Dutch and English delftware, +pewter, and silver eating utensils, and other comforts and little +luxuries tell of new-found security and the beginning of wealth. In all, +a half-million individual artifacts at the Jamestown museum represent +the largest collection from any 17th-century colonial site in North +America. + +But archeologists have found more than objects at Jamestown. They sought +to unravel the mystery of that part of the first settlement which +disappeared beneath the eroding current of the James River during the +past 300 years. It has always been known that the island in the 17th +century was connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus extending to +Glasshouse Point, where a glassmaking venture took place in 1608. Over +this isthmus the "Greate Road" ran, and its traces have been discovered +on the island as far as the brick church tower. As the isthmus +disappeared at the close of the 17th century, the river continued to +erode the island headward and build it up at its downstream end, so that +the western and southern shores where the first settlement had been +built, were partly destroyed. Thus, the first fort site of 1607, of +which no trace has been found on land, is thought to have been eaten +away, together with the old powder magazine and much early 17th-century +property fronting on the river. + +In a series of extensive tests for any possible trace of the 1607 fort +still remaining on land, several incidental discoveries of importance +were made. One was an Indian occupation site beneath a layer of early +17th-century humus, which, in turn, was covered by the earthen rampart +of a Confederate fort of 1861. This location is marked today by a +permanent "in-place" exhibit on the shore near the old church tower. +Here, in a cut-away earth section revealing soil zones from the present +to the undisturbed clay, evidence of 350 years of history fades away +into prehistory. + +Within the enclosure of this same Confederate fort was found a +miraculously preserved pocket of 17th-century debris marking the site of +the earliest known armorer's forge in British America. + +Just beyond, upriver, lie ruins of the Ludwell House and the Third and +Fourth Statehouses. In 1900-01, Col. Samuel H. Yonge, a U.S. Army +Engineer and a keen student of Jamestown history, uncovered and capped +these foundations after building the original seawall. A strange +discovery was made here in 1955 while the foundations were being +examined by archeologists for measured drawings. Tests showed that no +less than 70 human burials lay beneath the statehouse walls, and an +estimated 200 more remain undisturbed beneath the remaining structures +or have been lost in the James River. Here may be the earliest cemetery +yet revealed at Jamestown--one so old that it was forgotten by the +1660's when the Third Statehouse was erected. It is, indeed, quite +possible that these burials, some hastily interred without coffins, +could date from the "starving time" of 1609-10, when the settlers strove +to dispose of their dead without disclosing their desperate condition to +the Indians. + +[Illustration: JAMESTOWN EXPLORATION TRENCHES OF 1955 FROM THE AIR. +LANDMARKS ARE THE "OLD CYPRESS" IN THE RIVER, UPPER LEFT, THE +TERCENTENARY MONUMENT, AND THE STANDING RUIN OF THE 18TH-CENTURY AMBLER +HOUSE.] + +The highlight of archeological discoveries at Jamestown is undoubtedly +the long-forgotten buildings themselves, ranging from mansions to simple +cottages. Since no accurate map of 17th-century "James Citty" is known +to survive, and as only a few land tracts, often difficult to adjust to +the ground, have come down to us, archeologists found that the best way +to discover evidence was to cast a network of exploratory trenches over +the area of habitation. + +During its whole century of existence, the settlement was never an +integrated town. The first frame houses quickly rotted away or succumbed +to frequent fires. Brick buildings were soon erected, but probably not +twoscore ever stood at one time during the 17th century. + +Bearing in mind that the massive church tower is the only 17th-century +structure remaining above ground today, and the only building whose +identity was therefore never lost, you will find only one other +identified with positive assurance--the Ludwell House--Third and Fourth +Statehouses row. The remaining 140 structures so far discovered by +excavating have no clear-cut identity with their owners. To complicate +matters more, bricks from many burned or dismantled houses were salvaged +for reuse, sometimes leaving only vague soil-shadows for the +archeologist to ponder. From artifacts associated with foundation +traces, relative datings and, usually, the use of the structure can be +deduced from physical evidence. Unless a contemporaneous map is someday +found, we shall know little more than this about the houses at Jamestown +except for the testimony of assorted hardware, ceramics, glassware, +metalware, and other imperishable reminders of 17-century arts and +crafts. + + +Churches + +The first church service at Jamestown was held under a piece of +sailcloth in May 1607. The first frame church, constructed within the +palisades, burned with the entire first fort in January 1608, and was +eventually replaced by another frame structure after the fort was +rebuilt. The exact date of the first church to stand on a brick +foundation is uncertain, possibly 1639. Brick foundation traces, +uncovered in 1901 by John Tyler, Jr., a civil engineer who volunteered +his services for the Association for the Preservation of Virginia +Antiquities, lie behind the free-standing brick church tower which +remains the only standing ruin today. The modern brick structure and +roof enclose and protect the footing evidence of the walls of two +separate churches and a tile chancel flooring. Indication of fire among +these foundations was noted by Tyler. + +[Illustration: A MANSION STRUCTURE OR PUBLIC BUILDING DATING FROM THE +SECOND QUARTER OF THE 17TH CENTURY. REBUILT ONCE AND BURNED ABOUT THE +TIME OF BACON'S REBELLION, 1676.] + + +Mansions + +Despite official urgings that they build substantial town houses on +Jamestown Island, the first successful planters often preferred to build +on their holdings away from the capitol, once the Indian menace had +passed. Only 2 houses at Jamestown, designed for single occupancy, have +over 900 square feet of foundation area. + +One was either a stately residence or a public building (area 1,350 +square feet) located near Pitch and Tar Swamp, just east of the +Jamestown Visitor Center. Archeological evidence indicates that this +structure was first completed before the middle of the 17th century. It +was later reconstructed and enlarged about the beginning of the last +quarter, possibly during Bacon's Rebellion of 1676. Unmistakably, it +burned. + +The second structure was a smaller (1,200 square feet), but imposing, +house located near the present shoreline, considerably downriver. One of +the features of this second mansion was a basement in the center of +which was sunk a square, brick-lined recess, 3.3 feet on a side and 2.7 +feet deep. Among the many wine bottle fragments in this recess were 3 +bottle seals--1 with "WW" and 2 with "FN" stamped on them. Whether or +not this mansion can be associated with Sir Francis Nicholson, the last +governor resident at Jamestown (who moved the capital to Williamsburg), +we do not know. Artifacts found in the refuse indicate this house was +dismantled, not burned, shortly before or after the turn of the 17th +century. The mystery of the little brick-lined recess is not entirely +solved, but it is probable that here was a primitive cooler, deep below +the house, in which perishable foods or wines were stored. + +[Illustration: JAMESTOWN HOUSE TYPES: SIMPLE FRAME, HALF-TIMBER, BRICK, +AND ROW. (Conjectural sketches by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: EXCAVATED FOUNDATION OF A LATE 17TH-CENTURY PROTOTYPE OF +THE BALTIMORE AND PHILADELPHIA ROW HOUSES. SIX FAMILIES COULD HAVE LIVED +HERE.] + + +Row Houses + +Although row houses--a continuous row of joined family residences on +unit foundations--were a common city feature in 17th-century England, +apparently they did not become popular at Jamestown. But the brick +foundation of one true multiple-family unit has been uncovered, and two +others approach this category, thus providing the true precedent for the +row houses which came to characterize miles of Baltimore and +Philadelphia streets, and are a familiar pattern of some modern duplex +apartment units. + +This Jamestown row house is probably the most impressive foundation on +the island. It is 16 feet long and 20 feet wide (inside measurement), +situated east of the Tercentenary Monument, facing south, well back from +the river and "the back streete." A cellar and a great fireplace +terminate the east end, and 9 other fireplaces are evident in 4 main +divisions, which may have housed one family or more in each division. +Since artifact evidence relates it to the last quarter of the 17th +century, and possibly the beginning of the 18th, there would seem little +possibility of the row house having served as a public building or a +tavern. There is some evidence that at least part of the structure +burned. + +Two other foundations might be classed as row houses, but are less +clearly delineated. One is the Last Statehouse Group of five units in +the APVA grounds.[1] The other multiple house is a 3-unit building +midway between the brick church and Orchard Run. This structure +generally fits the description of the First Statehouse in its 3-unit +construction and dimensions, and has long been thought to be the +original Statehouse building. The structure, however, is as close to the +present shoreline as the First Statehouse is recorded to have been in +1642--a puzzling coincidence, if the factor of erosion is taken into +consideration. + +[Footnote 1: After the Third Statehouse burned, it was replaced on the +same foundations by the Fourth (and last) Statehouse built on Jamestown +Island, which burned in 1698. The Fifth Statehouse, now reconstructed at +Williamsburg, also burned, continuing an unhappy tradition that includes +the destruction of the National Capitol at Washington in 1814 and the +Virginia Statehouse at Richmond in 1865.] + + +Single Brick Houses + +These were once supposed to have been very common at Jamestown, but are +represented by only 12 foundations, not all of which have been +completely excavated. Like the other excavated structures, if these +houses can be related to the ownership of the land tracts on which they +once stood, we may someday know more of their possible identity. + + +Frame Houses + +Partial or even whole brick footings do not always indicate brick houses +at Jamestown. Some 30 structures have been recorded which had brick +footings or isolated brick fireplace foundations, the appearance of +which suggests frame houses. These may be briefly classified as follows: + + Brick, or brick-and-cobble, wall-footings with central chimney bases + of brick--2. + Brick footing and outside chimney--3. + Brick footing only--10. + Brick chimney base alone remaining--12. + Stone footing only--1. + Cellar only, presumed to belong to frame or unfinished house, or to + have had all bricks salvaged--1. + Burned earth floor area only remaining, presumed to mark a frame + house--1. + +Some of the structures encountered in the first explorations remain to +be more fully excavated and recorded. Structures in this category total +23. + + +Miscellaneous Structures + +Because of the inadequacy of Jamestown remains and records, it is +difficult to determine the purposes for which the various outbuildings +were used. Doubtless, many outbuildings did exist for various purposes, +and probably most of them were not substantial enough to leave a trace. +Two clearly isolated, small structures properly called outbuildings +(discovered in 1955) are all that will be cited here. The first is the +large double-chimney foundation just beyond the southwest corner of the +mansion east of the museum. Undoubtedly this belonged to a detached +kitchen. The second is a small, but thick-walled, rectangular structure +of brick which may have been a food storehouse or even a powder +magazine. + +[Illustration: ALTHOUGH MOST JAMESTOWN WORKSHOPS WERE PROBABLY MADE OF +FRAMEWORK AND WERE MERELY SHEDS, ONE BRICK FOUNDATION HAS THREE BRICK +FIREBOXES AND A LARGE BRICK CHIMNEY. THIS STRUCTURE WAS PROBABLY A BREW +HOUSE, BAKERY, OR DISTILLERY.] + + +Workshop Structures + +Most of the early industries at Jamestown were undoubtedly housed in +perishable wooden structures that have left the least evident traces, +such as frame sheds for forges and wine presses, carpenters' shops, and +buildings used by various artisans and craftsmen. So far, only two +industrial structures are clearly recognizable (aside from kilns), +although their precise use is not certain. + +One of these, on the edge of Pitch and Tar Swamp, was a nearly square, +tile-floored workshop with a rough but substantial brick foundation +supporting the framework of the walls. On the floor were 3 fireboxes, 2 +of which were associated with a large chimney area. What was fabricated +here has not yet been determined, although ceramic firing, brewing, +distilling, and even ironworking, have been suggested. Proximity of +pottery and lime-burning kilns, and a small pit where iron may have been +smelted, may be significant. + +A second, very fragmentary brick foundation close to the present +riverbank suggests a shop rather than a house, but lacks firebox +evidence or other identifying features. It may be 18th- rather than +17th-century. + +[Illustration: NEAR THE FOUNDATION OF THE PROBABLE BAKE SHOP, A PAIR OF +KILNS ONCE SERVED FOR SLAKING LIME, AND PERHAPS FOR FIRING POTTERY. +BETWEEN THE KILNS WAS A FLAME-SCARRED PIT CONTAINING EVIDENCE OF +IRONWORKING AND THE ROASTING OF BOG ORE FOR IRON.] + + +Brick Walks or Paved Areas + +It is difficult to assign a use for certain areas which have been paved +apparently with brick rubble, or, in more evident cases, by flatlaid +bricks. Four such paved areas have been discovered. + + +Brick Drains + +Three brick drains, buried beneath the humus line, are identified with +17th-century houses. + + +Ice Storage Pit + +So far unique on Jamestown Island is a circular unlined pit, 14 feet in +top diameter, excavated 7 feet into a sandy substratum, and +corresponding in general character to known 17th-and 18th-century ice +pits in England. This pit which lies 250 feet east of the Visitor Center +may have served a spacious house which once stood nearby. It may be +assumed that the missing surface structure was circular, probably of +brick, had a small door, and was roofed over with thatch or sod for +insulation. + + +Kilns + +Both brick and lime kilns are present in the "James Citty" area, each +type being represented by four examples. The oldest of four brick kilns +so far discovered on the island is a small rectangular pit near Orchard +Run, excavated to a floor depth of 4 feet, which has been dated between +1607 and 1625 by associated cultural objects. This small pit, without +structural brick, was a brick-making "clamp," consisting of unfired +brick built up over two firing chambers. There is good evidence that a +pottery kiln was situated 30 feet west of the "industrial area." + + +Ironworking Pits + +Also in the "industrial area" near Pitch and Tar Swamp, there is a +circular pit in which lime, bog iron, and charcoal suggest the +manufacture of iron. The previously mentioned pit within the area of the +Confederate Fort yielded sword parts, gun parts, bar iron, and small +tools, indicating a forge site, perhaps an armorer's forge. + +[Illustration: MAKING POTTERY AT JAMESTOWN. (Conjectural sketch by +Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: HOW AN IRONWORKING PIT WAS USED. (From contemporary +sources.)] + +[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF A BRICK-CASED WELL AT JAMESTOWN. +(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE INTRIGUING MYSTERIES OF JAMESTOWN IS HOW THE +LEFT LEG AND LEFT HALF OF A HUMAN PELVIS CAME TO BE THROWN WITH OTHER +REFUSE INTO A WELL BEHIND THE ROW HOUSE. THE LOGICAL INFERENCE IS THAT A +REBEL OR CRIMINAL HAD BEEN HANGED, DRAWN, AND QUARTERED.] + + +Wells + +At Jamestown, wells are conspicuous features near many house locations. +Those that have been found may be summarized as follows: wood lined--1; +circular, brick cased--10; circular, uncased with wooden barrel at +bottom--6; circular, uncased, incompletely excavated--4. + +Wells are invariably found filled with earth mixed with trash, mainly +food animal bones. A well, located immediately north of the row house, +had a human left leg and left half of the pelvis buried in the fill at a +depth of 4 feet. + + +Ditches + +The most significant feature determining landholdings are the ditches of +the Jamestown area. During the 1954-56 explorations 63 ditches were +added to the 33 previously discovered, thus increasing the opportunity +to delineate property lines, many of which used to be bounded by such +ditches. + +[Illustration: CAREFUL EXCAVATION WAS REQUIRED TO IDENTIFY THE FILL OF +LONG-OBLITERATED DITCHES ONCE DRAINING FIELDS AND MARKING PROPERTY +BOUNDARIES.] + + +Refuse Pits + +"James Citty," like all other settlements in all ages, had to have +places for disposal of refuse. That much refuse was disposed of by +casting it in the James River is unlikely, since before the dawn of +history it has been a trait of man to live on top of his own refuse +rather than litter a shore with it. While it may be that no pits were +dug purposely for refuse disposal, pits opened for brick or ceramic clay +(or dug for ice houses, wells, or other purposes and later abandoned) +were used for dumping trash. In 1955 a refuse pit almost 40 feet square +was discovered in the "industrial area" near the workshop, ironworking +pit, and pottery kilns. Filled with trash from the first half of the +17th century, this pit contained such artifacts as a swepthilt rapier +(made about 1600), a cutlass, the breastplate and backpiece of a light +suit of armor, a number of utensils of metal, ceramics, and glass, to +add to the collection of early 17th-century arts and crafts. Several +smaller refuse pits were noted, and it is worth commenting that many +ditches finally became trash accumulation areas. + +[Illustration: A CUTLASS IN EXCELLENT PRESERVATION AND MANY OTHER +OBJECTS FROM 17TH-CENTURY JAMESTOWN WERE FOUND IN A LARGE CLAY BORROW +PIT FILLED WITH REFUSE.] + + +Roads + +Only one road identified by 17th-century references has been definitely +located by archeologists. This is the "Maine Cart Road," sometimes +called the "Greate Road," leading from Glasshouse Point across the +isthmus and onto the island, where it can be traced as far as its +passage into the main "James Citty" area just north of the brick church +and churchyard. A trace is all that remains of a road which once ran +east-west between parallel ditches, south of the row house. + +The foregoing has been a summary of the physical aspect of the Jamestown +settlement from the standpoint of archeology. An account of the arts and +crafts revealed by the artifacts found in these explorations follows. +The whole story relating the settlers themselves to evidence they left +in the soil of Jamestown remains to be told. + + + + +PART TWO + +Daily Life at Jamestown 300 Years Ago As Revealed by Recovered Objects + +By J. PAUL HUDSON +Museum Curator, Colonial National Historical Park + +"Hitherto they [historians] have depended too much upon manuscript +evidences... Perhaps the day is not distant when the social historian, +whether he is writing about the New England Puritans, or the +Pennsylvania Germans, or the rice planters of Southern Carolina, will +look underground, as well as in the archives, for his evidence."--DR. +T.J. WERTENBAKER + + +Archeological explorations at Jamestown, Va.--site of the first +successful English colony in the New World--have brought to light +thousands of colonial period artifacts which were used by the Virginia +settlers from 1607 until 1699. + +A study of these ancient objects, which were buried under the soil at +Jamestown for many decades, reveal in many ways how the English +colonists lived on a small wilderness island over 300 years ago. +Artifacts unearthed include pottery and glassware, clay pipes, building +materials and handwrought hardware, tools and farm implements, weapons, +kitchen utensils and fireplace accessories, furniture hardware, lighting +devices, eating and drinking vessels, tableware, costume accessories and +footwear, medical equipment, horse gear, coins and weights, and many +items relating to household and town industries, transportation, trade, +and fishing. + +These artifacts provide invaluable information concerning the everyday +life and manners of the first Virginia settlers. A brief description of +many of them is given on the following pages. + +Excavated artifacts reveal that the Jamestown colonists built their +houses in the same style as those they knew in England, insofar as local +materials permitted. There were differences, however, for they were in a +land replete with vast forests and untapped natural resources close at +hand which they used to advantage. The Virginia known to the first +settlers was a carpenter's paradise, and consequently the early +buildings were the work of artisans in wood. The first rude shelters, +the split-wood fencing, the clapboard roof, puncheon floors, cupboards, +benches, stools, and wood plows are all examples of skilled working with +wood. + + +Houses + +Timber at Jamestown was plentiful, so many houses, especially in the +early years, were of frame construction. During the first decade or two, +house construction reflected a primitive use found ready at hand, such +as saplings for a sort of framing, and use of branches, leafage, bark, +and animal skins. During these early years--when the settlers were +having such a difficult time staying alive--mud walls, wattle and daub, +and coarse marshgrass thatch were used. Out of these years of +improvising, construction with squared posts, and later with quarterings +(studs), came into practice. There was probably little thought of +plastering walls during the first two decades, and when plastering was +adopted, clay, or clay mixed with oyster-shell lime, was first used. The +early floors were of clay, and such floors continued to be used in the +humbler dwellings throughout the 1600's. It can be assumed that most of +the dwellings, or shelters, of the Jamestown settlers, certainly until +about 1630, had a rough and primitive appearance. + +After Jamestown had attained some degree of permanency, many houses were +built of brick. It is quite clear from documentary records and +archeological remains, that the colonists not only made their own +brick, but that the process, as well as the finished products, followed +closely the English method. Four brick kilns were discovered on +Jamestown Island during archeological explorations. + +[Illustration: AN EARLY JAMESTOWN HOUSE. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney +E. King.)] + +[Illustration: A BRICK HOUSE AT JAMESTOWN, ABOUT 1640. (Conjectural +sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: THE MAJORITY OF THE LOCKS AND KEYS USED IN THE EARLY +HOUSES WERE IMPORTED FROM ENGLAND.] + +[Illustration: A FEW 17TH-CENTURY HANDWROUGHT HINGES IN THE JAMESTOWN +COLLECTION.] + + +BUILDING HARDWARE + +While some of the handwrought hardware found at Jamestown was made in +the colony, most of it was imported from England. Types of building +hardware unearthed include an excellent assortment of nails, spikes, +staples, locks, keys, hinges, pintles, shutter fasteners, bolts, hasps, +latches, door knockers, door pulls, footscrapers, gutter supports, wall +anchors, and ornamental hardware. In many instances each type is +represented by several varieties. Citing 2 examples, there are more +than 20 kinds of nails and at least 15 different kinds of hinges in +the collection. + +[Illustration: SOME NAILS, SPIKES, STAPLES, AND OTHER IRON HARDWARE USED +AT JAMESTOWN OVER 300 YEARS AGO.] + +[Illustration: SOME JAMESTOWN HOUSES HAD LEADED GLAZED WROUGHT-IRON +WINDOW CASEMENTS SIMILAR TO THE ONES SHOWN HERE. (Courtesy, The +Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.)] + +It is believed that wooden hardware was used on many of the early +houses. + + +WINDOWS + +A few glass window panes may have been made in the Jamestown glass +factory which was built in 1608. Most of the window glass used in the +colony, however, was shipped from England. Many of the early panes used +were diamond-shaped (known as "quarrels"), and were held in place by +means of slotted lead strips (known as "cames"). The window frames used +in a few of the Jamestown houses were handwrought iron casements. Most +of the humbler dwellings had no glass panes in the windows. The window +openings were closed by batten shutters, operated by hinges of wood and +fitted with wooden fastening devices. + + +WALL AND FIREPLACE TILE + +Most of the hand-painted tiles used at Jamestown (for decorating walls +and fireplaces) were imported from Holland. A few were made in England. +Made of a light-buff clay, and known as delftware, the tiles unearthed +are decorated in blue, with a conventionalized design in each corner and +a central picture or motif. Covered with a tin glaze, the majority of +tiles found measure about 5 inches square by 3/8-inch thick. The edges +are beveled, permitting them to be set very close together at the glazed +surface. The attractively decorated tiles added a touch of beauty to a +few Jamestown interiors. + + +ROOFING MATERIALS + +Four kinds of roofing materials have been excavated: Plain, flat, +earthenware tiles; curved earthenware pantiles; slate; and wooden +shingles. The plain tiles were made in Jamestown brick kilns, and it is +possible that some of the S-curved red pantiles were also made locally. +Slate was brought over from England, whereas most of the shingles were +rived from native cedar and oak logs. Other materials used in roofing +included bark, marshgrass and reeds (thatch), and boards. Sod appears to +have been used on some of the very early houses. + + +LIME + +Lime for mortar, plaster, and ornamental plaster was made in crude lime +kilns at Jamestown from calcined oyster shells. The oyster shells came +from the James River. + +[Illustration: A WROUGHT-IRON WINDOW CASEMENT UNEARTHED NEAR AN EARLY +17TH-CENTURY BUILDING SITE.] + +[Illustration: WALL OR FIREPLACE TILES FOUND AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE +MADE IN HOLLAND. THE BLUE DESIGNS AND PICTURES WERE PAINTED ON A WHITE +BACKGROUND.] + +[Illustration: KINDS OF ROOFING MATERIALS EXCAVATED INCLUDE FLAT TILES +(SHOWN HERE), CURVED PANTILES, SLATE, AND SHINGLES.] + +[Illustration: ORNAMENTAL PLASTER WAS USED IN A FEW BUILDINGS FOR +ENHANCING THE BEAUTY OF BOTH THE INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR.] + +[Illustration: THE INTERIOR OF A SMALL JAMESTOWN HOUSE, ABOUT 1650. +ALTHOUGH THE PAINTING IS CONJECTURAL, MANY ITEMS SHOWN--POTTERY, +GLASSWARE, FIREPLACE TOOLS, AND KITCHEN ACCESSORIES--WERE UNEARTHED ON +THIS HISTORIC ISLAND. (Painting by Sidney E. King.)] + + +PLASTER AND MORTAR + +Plaster and mortar have been found at Jamestown in abundance. It appears +that the majority of brick houses and many frame structures had +plastered walls and ceilings after 1635. Some plaster found had been +whitewashed, while other plaster bore its natural whitish-gray color. +Mortar was found wherever brick foundations were located. The plaster +and mortar used at Jamestown was made from oystershell lime, sand, and +clay. + + +ORNAMENTAL PLASTERWORK + +Ornamental plaster was found in a few of the excavations. The +plasterwork was done in raised ornamental designs used for enhancing the +beauty of both the interior and exterior of a building. Designs that +have been found include Roman numerals, letters, mottos, crests, veined +leaves, rosettes, flowers, geometric designs, a lion, and a face or +mask. Many fragments of molded plaster cornices have also been +excavated. Broken oyster shells are distinguishable in the decorated +plasterwork, indicating that the pargeting was done at Jamestown. + + +House Furnishings + +Busy conquering a stubborn wilderness, the first Jamestown settlers had +only a few things to make their houses cosy and cheerful. In most cases, +their worldly goods consisted of a few cooking utensils, a change of +clothing, a weapon or two, and a few pieces of homemade furniture. +However, between 1607 and 1612, George Percy was generously outfitted +with some necessities as well as much fine apparel and numerous luxury +items (including a feather bed) by his brother the Ninth Earl of +Northumberland, as published records of the Earl's expenditures for +George show. Other persons of gentle birth and position quite probably +enjoyed similar goods. + +After the early years of hardship had passed, the colonists began to +acquire possessions for a more pleasant living; and by 1650 the better +houses were equipped with most of the necessities of life of those +times, as well as a few luxuries of comfortable living. + + +FURNITURE + +Very little furniture was brought over from England during the early +years of the colony. Perhaps a few chests and Bible boxes were imported, +but most of the large pieces of furniture, such as tables, chairs, +bedsteads, chests-of-drawers, cupboards, benches, and cradles would +have been made in Virginia. Woods commonly used included pine, cedar, +walnut, maple, and oak. + +[Illustration: FURNITURE HARDWARE AND ACCESSORIES FOUND. MUCH OF THE +FURNITURE USED IN THE JAMESTOWN HOUSES WAS MADE IN VIRGINIA.] + +Furniture hardware and accessories excavated at Jamestown include +hinges, locks, drawer pulls, chest handles, escutcheon plates, +upholstering tacks, hasps, and finials. Most of the furniture hardware +is of brass (probably used after 1650). Since much of it is skillfully +decorated, it is believed that it once was attached to furniture of high +quality. Furniture used during the first two decades of the settlement, +however, must have been simple with little or no ornamentation. + + +LIGHTING DEVICES + +The candle, made of either tallow or bayberry wax, was the standard +lighting device at Jamestown. Pine torches were often used out of doors, +and rushlights and candlewood were undoubtedly used in the humbler +dwellings during the very early years of the settlement. Candlesticks +unearthed at Jamestown include a large brass pricket holder, one made of +English sgraffito-ware, several incomplete earthenware holders, and +parts of delftware candlesticks. Many fragments of brass and iron +candlesticks, as well as a few candle snuffers, have also been +recovered. + +[Illustration: BOTH BRASS AND POTTERY CANDLESTICKS HAVE BEEN FOUND. THE +CANDLE WAS THE STANDARD LIGHTING DEVICE DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.] + + +FIREPLACE ACCESSORIES + +The fireplace, around which the family gathered, was one of the most +important features in the Jamestown home. Its fire offered warmth in +winter, afforded light at night, and cooked the family meals during the +day. An oven, usually found at the back or at one side of the fireplace, +baked the family bread and other foods. About the fireplace, many home +chores were carried out, including spinning and sewing; and not far from +the glow of the burning logs the children learned their daily lessons +and received their early religious training. Social activities were +enjoyed about the hearth, especially during the long winter evenings; +and when a member of the family was ill, the fireplace and its +accessories were in constant use. The fireplace was the first place +visited by the housewife in the early morning, and was usually the last +place where she performed her household duties late at night. + +A fine assortment of fireplace tools and accessories have been found at +Jamestown, including iron tongs, shovels, andirons, parts of brass +warming-pans, and a large fragment from a cast-iron fireback. One early +17th-century andiron recovered is attractively decorated with a cherub's +head in relief. + +[Illustration: A FEW FIREPLACE TOOLS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY ANDIRON IN THE JAMESTOWN +COLLECTION. NOTE THE CHERUB'S HEAD NEAR THE BASE.] + + +COOKING UTENSILS AND ACCESSORIES + +A large and varied assortment of cooking utensils and kitchen +accessories have been excavated, including kettles, pots, pans, +skillets, frying pans, toasters, broilers, griddles, skimmers, skewers, +spits, ladles, pothooks, trammels, cranes, trivets, cleavers, knives and +forks, sieves, and colanders. While only a few are complete others are +almost complete or at least easily recognizable. + +During the early years of the colony, people in England who planned to +emigrate to Jamestown were advised to bring the following "Household +implements: One Iron Pot, One Kettle, One large frying-pan, One +gridiron, Two skillets, One Spit, Platters, dishes, spoones of wood." +With the exception of the wooden items, all of the utensils listed have +been excavated. + +[Illustration: A WROUGHT-IRON TRAMMEL USED FOR HANGING A POT FROM A +FIREPLACE CRANE. THE ADJUSTABLE HOOK MADE IT POSSIBLE TO RAISE OR LOWER +THE POT.] + +[Illustration: AN IRON POT AND POT FRAGMENT UNEARTHED AT +JAMESTOWN--TYPES USED DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.] + +[Illustration: MANY EARTHENWARE VESSELS FOUND WERE USED FOR COOKING +PURPOSES, INCLUDING BAKING DISHES, THREE-LEGGED POTS, AND COVERED POTS.] + +[Illustration: A FEW KITCHEN UTENSILS AND ACCESSORIES EXCAVATED AT +JAMESTOWN: A LADLE, BRASS PAN, KNIFE BLADES, FORK, KETTLE FRAGMENTS, +SPOUT, COLANDER FRAGMENTS, AND POT HOOKS.] + +[Illustration: A FAMILY ENJOYING A MEAL, ABOUT 1650. MANY OF THE EATING +AND DRINKING VESSELS PORTRAYED, TOGETHER WITH MUCH OF THE TABLEWARE, ARE +TYPES WHICH HAVE BEEN EXCAVATED. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. +King.)] + + +Table Accessories + +In the small houses at Jamestown the kitchen also served as the dining +room. During the early years, many settlers probably ate with wooden +spoons out of wooden bowls and trenchers, and drank from mugs made of +horn, wood, or leather. As the colony became well established, these +crude utensils and vessels were used less frequently and were gradually +replaced with ones made of pottery, metalware, and glassware. None of +the perishable woodenware, horn, or leather items have been found at +Jamestown, but a large assortment of more durable objects used at the +table have been recovered. Space permits only brief descriptions of the +more common types unearthed. + + +KNIVES, FORKS, AND SPOONS + +The table knives found at Jamestown vary in length from 6-3/8 to 8-1/4 +inches. Most of them have either bone or ivory handles, although 3 have +embossed brass handles; and 1, found in a late 17th-century well, has an +exquisite handle of banded agate. + +The forks in the collection also have bone or ivory handles, the +majority displaying 2 steel prongs, or tines. The number of prongs, +however, is no positive identification of any particular period, as many +English forks of the mid-17th century had 3 prongs, and a few had 4 +prongs. + +Types of spoons excavated include seal-heads, slipped ends, "puritans," +and trifids. The majority were made of either pewter or latten metal (a +brasslike alloy), although 3 in the collection were made of silver. The +earliest spoons found have rounded bowls and 6-sided stems (handles), +whereas those made after 1650 usually have oval bowls and flat, 4-sided +handles. One of the silver spoons, with rounded bowl and slipped end, +bears the initials of its owner, "WC/E," on the slipped end of the +handle. This spoon appears to have been made between 1600 and 1625, and +is still in excellent condition. + +The most important spoon in the Jamestown collection, and one of the +most significant objects excavated, is an incomplete pewter spoon--a +variant of the trifid, or split-end, type common during the 1650-90 +period. Impressed on the handle (in the trefoil finial of the stem) is +the mark of the maker, giving his name, the Virginia town where he +worked, and the year he started business. This is the sole surviving +"touch" or mark of an American pewterer of the 17th century. The +complete legend, encircling a heart, reads: "IOSEPH +COPELAND/1675/CHUCKATUCK." (Chuckatuck is a small Virginia village in +Nansemond County, about 30 miles southeast of Jamestown.) Joseph +Copeland later moved to Jamestown where he was caretaker of the +statehouse from 1688-91. He may have made pewter in Virginia's first +capital. His matchless spoon found in the old Jamestown soil is the +oldest dated piece of American-made pewter in existence. + + +POTTERY AND PORCELAIN + +The largest and most representative collection of 17th-century European +and early American pottery which has been excavated in America is on +exhibition at Jamestown. Thousands of fragments of colorful types have +been found, and by the exercise of extreme care and patience, museum +technicians have pieced together many early specimens. These examples +reveal the kinds of pottery used in the wilderness settlement over three +centuries ago. Included in this ceramic collection are pitchers, bowls, +jugs, cups, mugs, porringers, milk pans, jars, plates and dishes, pots, +and platters. These were used at the table, as well as for the storage +of foods, and for other purposes. + +While some of the utilitarian earthenware was made at Jamestown, most of +the pottery that has been found was imported from England. Many types +also came from other European countries, including Germany, Holland, +Italy, Spain, and Portugal. One kind of maiolica may have been made in +Mexico, while the few fragments of porcelain recovered were made in +China. + +Because of the great variety and importance of the ceramic collection, a +few of the more representative types will be described briefly. + +[Illustration: A FEW KNIVES, FORKS, AND SPOONS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: THE PEWTER SPOON HANDLE AT THE TOP, UNEARTHED AT +JAMESTOWN, IS THE OLDEST DATED PIECE OF AMERICAN PEWTER IN EXISTENCE. IT +WAS MADE BY JOSEPH COPELAND OF CHUCKATUCK, VA., IN 1675. THE SPOON ON +THE BOTTOM IS A CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF COPELAND'S SPECIMEN.] + +[Illustration: A FEW EXAMPLES OF LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE MADE IN ENGLAND +DURING THE 17TH CENTURY. ALL WERE UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE MADE AT JAMESTOWN +ABOUT 1640-50.] + +[Illustration: ENGLISH SGRAFFITO, OR SCRATCHED, WARE--ONE OF THE MOST +COLORFUL TYPES OF POTTERY UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: ENGLISH SLIP-DECORATED WARE. ALTHOUGH MADE IN ENGLAND +MAINLY FOR LOCAL CONSUMPTION, MANY ATTRACTIVE EXAMPLES WERE SHIPPED TO +VIRGINIA DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.] + +Lead-glazed Earthenware.--Most of these vessels were made for +utilitarian purposes, and were usually glazed only on the inside. While +some were made at Jamestown, the majority were imported from England. +One type, a grit-tempered earthenware, was manufactured in North +Devonshire. Another kind, a hard-fired earthenware, was also made in +England. At least two distinct types of local-made earthenware have been +found, and, as many examples have well-proportioned shapes and +attractive designs, it is evident that they were not fashioned by a +young apprentice, but by a trained potter who took pride in shaping his +wares. + +English Sgraffito-ware (a slipware).--This colorful pottery, beautifully +decorated with incised designs, is an English earthenware of red or buff +clay on which a slip was applied. Before firing, a decoration was +scratched, stippled, or cut through the slip, exposing the darker color +of the body. The entire piece then received a transparent lead glaze, +either clear or covered with an oxide. The English sgraffito-ware found +at Jamestown was made near Barnstaple, in North Devonshire, probably +after 1640. The reddish-brown floral and geometric designs which +decorate the vessels are unusually attractive against colorful yellow +backgrounds. Sgraffito is an Italian word meaning scratched. + +English Slip-decorated-ware.--This colorful English pottery, which was +made for everyday use, is a lead-glazed earthenware decorated with a +liquid clay or slip. The design was usually dropped or trailed upon the +ware from the spout (or quill) of a slip cup, somewhat in the manner a +baker decorates a cake with icing; or it may have been painted over a +large area or placed on in molded pads. Although most of the +slip-decorated-ware found at Jamestown was made in England, there is +some evidence that a few vessels may have been manufactured in America +during the late 17th century. + +English Redware with Marbled Slip Decoration.--On this type English +earthenware, which usually has a red body, the liquid slip was marbled +or combed over the surface of the vessel with a toothed instrument of +wire or leather to produce the effect of paper-marbling. Some in the +Jamestown collection appear to have been made as early as 1625. + +Italian Maiolica.--Maiolica is a word derived from a type of pottery +made on the Spanish island of Mallorca. The 17th-century Italian +maiolica-ware found at Jamestown is a red-body earthenware with +scratched or incised designs--a true sgraffito-ware. Somewhat similar in +appearance to the English sgraffito-ware, the desired design was +scratched through the cream-colored slip, revealing the reddish-brown +body beneath. On many examples, colorful lines were hand painted over or +near the incised designs, usually in reds, yellows, and greens, and were +covered with a transparent lead glaze. + +[Illustration: ENGLISH REDWARE WITH MARBLED SLIP DECORATION, 1625-50 +PERIOD OR EARLIER, UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: LATE 17TH-CENTURY ITALIAN MAIOLICA BOWLS EXCAVATED AT +JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: A FEW EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH DELFTWARE IN THE JAMESTOWN +COLLECTION.] + +[Illustration] + +Delftware.--This is a soft pottery covered with an opaque white tin +glaze, and decorated with hand-painted designs, usually in blues and +purples. A few specimens excavated are embellished with pleasing +patterns in polychrome colors. Most of the delftware unearthed at +Jamestown was made in England (Lambeth, Southwark, and Bristol), +although a few examples were imported from Holland. + +Spanish Maiolica.--This maiolica is a tin-glazed earthenware with a soft +body usually buff in color and porous in texture. The colorful +decorations were hand painted on the absorbent surface--usually in +greens, blues, yellows, and reddish-browns, against a white background. +Some small Spanish jugs in the collection bear very crude dark-red +floral designs painted against a cream-colored background. A few +examples of maiolica found at Jamestown are believed to have been made +in Lisbon, and these usually have designs in blues and dark purples +against a white background. + +Salt-glazed Stoneware.--This common but attractive type of pottery found +in many excavations at Jamestown includes mugs, jars, bottles, tankards, +and jugs. It is a very hard ware which was fired at high temperatures +and finished with a salt glaze, formed by throwing common salt into the +furnace. The surface of the body has a pitted appearance resembling an +orange peel, and is covered with a thin, glasslike coating. Most of the +salt-glazed stoneware unearthed was made in Germany, although a small +amount was manufactured in England. + +[Illustration: COLORFUL SPANISH MAIOLICA FOUND WHICH APPEAR TO HAVE BEEN +MADE BEFORE 1650.] + +[Illustration: A LARGE GERMAN STONEWARE JUG UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN. THE +DATE "1661" APPEARS ABOVE THE MEDALLION.] + +[Illustration: A FEW EXAMPLES OF GERMAN SALT-GLAZED STONEWARE IN THE +JAMESTOWN COLLECTION. ALL WERE MADE DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.] + +[Illustration: RECONSTRUCTED WINEGLASSES AND WINEGLASS FRAGMENTS IN THE +JAMESTOWN COLLECTION.] + +[Illustration: NOTE THE MAKERS' MARKS OR SEALS ON THE WINEGLASS +FRAGMENTS. ONLY A FEW ENGLISH WINEGLASSES BEARING 17TH-CENTURY MAKERS' +SEALS HAVE BEEN FOUND IN AMERICA.] + + +METALWARE EATING AND DRINKING VESSELS + +While large numbers of eating and drinking vessels made of pottery have +been excavated on Jamestown Island, only a few fragments of utensils +made of silver, pewter, brass, and copper were found. Metalware vessels +were relatively scarce during the early years of the settlement, and +their almost complete absence in the Jamestown collection may be +attributed to the fact that not many of them were discarded, regardless +of their worn condition. Only a few metal handles from mugs and cups, +and a small number of pewter plate fragments, have been excavated. + +Although no complete specimens of domestic silver and pewter eating and +drinking vessels were found, 17th-century records and inventories +indicate that many Jamestown families owned such wares (especially after +1630), including cups, beakers, dishes, salts, salvers, tankards, +porringers, bowls, and plates. + +It is of interest that 2 goldsmiths, 2 refiners, and a jeweler arrived +at Jamestown in 1608 aboard the supply ship _Phoenix_. Although John +Smith related that these artisans "never had occasion to exercise their +craft," it is possible that they made a few metal objects (such as +spoons) in the capital city. + + +GLASS DRINKING VESSELS + +Glass was made at Jamestown in 1608-09, and again in 1621-24. It was, in +all probability, the first commodity made by the English in a "factory" +in the New World. Many glass fragments were found at the furnace site, +but none was large enough to reveal what specific glass objects were +made there. It appears that drinking glasses may have been among the +items manufactured. + +The majority of the glass drinking vessels unearthed at Jamestown were +made in England, although a few were manufactured in Germany, Italy, and +the Low Countries. In the collection are fragments from goblets, +beakers, bowls, and wineglasses. Four of the English wineglass stems +bear makers' seals, rare marks seldom found on English drinking vessels. + + +GLASS WINE AND GIN BOTTLES + +These comprise a large and important part of the Jamestown collection. +Literally thousands of glass fragments from these bottles have been +unearthed, and by diligent and patient work a few complete wine and gin +bottles have been pieced together. + +The glass wine bottles were made in England. The oldest excavated, made +between 1640 and 1660, have spherical bodies and tall necks. Those made +between 1660 and 1680 have cup-shaped bodies with short necks. Of the +period between 1680 and 1700 the neck is very short and the body is wide +and squat. Insofar as is known, no glass wine bottles were used at +Jamestown before 1640. + +[Illustration: GLASS WINE BOTTLES UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN RANGING IN DATE +FROM 1640 TO 1690. THOUSANDS OF FRAGMENTS OF THESE BOTTLES HAVE BEEN +RECOVERED.] + +[Illustration: AN ASSORTMENT OF GLASS BOTTLE SEALS IN THE JAMESTOWN +COLLECTION. SOME OF THE WEALTHY PLANTERS HAD THEIR INITIALS (OR OTHER +ORNAMENTAL DEVICE) STAMPED ON THE SHOULDERS OF THE WINE BOTTLES WHICH +THEY ORDERED FROM ENGLAND.] + +[Illustration: THIS DUTCH GIN BOTTLE EXCAVATED AT JAMESTOWN WAS IMPORTED +FROM HOLLAND.] + +About 1650 the practice of affixing glass seals or buttons on the +shoulders of English wine bottles was begun. The seal was inscribed with +a name, or initials, or a date; sometimes a coat of arms or a crest, or +other device or ornament. Many of these glass bottle seals have been +found at Jamestown. As a rule, only the wealthy and influential planters +had seals stamped on their wine bottles. + +Gin bottles found at Jamestown are tall and square with thin glass +sides. Imported from Holland, many were made as early as 1625. One gin +bottle was miraculously unearthed intact, and not as much as a chip or +crack was found on this 300-year-old fragile specimen. + + +FOOD STORAGE VESSELS AND FACILITIES + +Many earthenware jars, pots, bowls, and jugs excavated at Jamestown were +used for the storage of foods. Wooden and wicker containers were also +used, although because of their perishable nature none was unearthed. +Seventeenth-century inventories list many of these perishable storage +items, including casks, barrels, hogsheads, tubs, bins, and baskets. +Leather bottles are also mentioned in a few early records. + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE VESSELS USED FOR THE STORAGE OF FOODS. SOME +WERE MADE AT JAMESTOWN, SOME WERE IMPORTED FROM ENGLAND.] + +[Illustration: "HARVESTING" ICE, ABOUT 1650. ARCHEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS +REVEALED THAT ICEHOUSES WERE BUILT ON THE HISTORIC ISLAND OVER 300 YEARS +AGO. (Painting by Sidney E. King.)] + +A brick-lined storage compartment was found in the cellar (below floor +level) of one of the 17th-century buildings. It was used, undoubtedly, +for the storage of such easily spoiled foods as milk, cheese, eggs, and +cream. Wine, too, was probably kept in bottles in the cool compartment, +as many broken bottles were found inside. + +An extremely important discovery was a large, deep, ice-storage pit, +believed to be the only 17th-century ice pit which has been excavated in +Virginia. The conjectural painting on page 48 shows its probable +appearance when in use about 1650. Ice-storage pits held dairy products, +meats, and other spoilable foods as well as ice. Pond ice was usually +cut and stored in the pit in late winter. Sometimes it lasted until late +summer or early autumn. + + +Clothing and Footwear + +The Jamestown settlers of the middle class were usually dressed in hard +wearing, rough clothes made of homespun material, with a slightly better +(and perhaps more colorful) costume for Sunday and holiday wear. In 1622 +each Englishman who planned to emigrate to Jamestown was advised to +supply himself with the following wearing apparel: + + "One Monmouth cap [a flat, round cap]. + Three falling bands [a neckband or collar of a shirt which turned + down over the shoulders]. + Three shirts. + One waste-coate. + One suite of Canvase [a suit made of coarse cloth, such as cotton, + hemp, tow, or jute]. + One suite of Frize [a woolen fabric with a nap]. + One suite of Cloth. + Three paire of Irish stockins. + Foure paire of shooes. + One paire of garters. + One doozen of points [a point was a tie or string ending with an + anglet and used to join parts of a costume as doublet and hose]." + +The women wore plain frocks and petticoats, although a few of the +wealthy ladies owned silk, satin, and velvet dresses. Bodices, as a +rule, were long pointed, and skirts were full and long. + +Perhaps the most unique items of wearing apparel recovered at Jamestown +were several leather shoe soles and two almost-complete shoes, found in +a dirtlined well in association with artifacts of the 1625-50 period. + +[Illustration: FOR EVERYDAY USE THE JAMESTOWN SETTLERS WORE HARDWEARING +CLOTHES MADE OF HOMESPUN CLOTH. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +Other objects unearthed relating to wearing apparel and costume +accessories, include an excellent assortment of buckles, buttons, and +brass eyelets. Items in the collection which were used in the mending of +clothes include needles, pins, and thimbles (both brass and silver). + +[Illustration: A LEATHER SHOE AND SEVERAL LEATHER SHOE SOLES WERE +UNCOVERED IN AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY WELL.] + +[Illustration: A FEW BUCKLES AND BUTTONS IN THE JAMESTOWN COLLECTION. +MANY ARE OVER 300 YEARS OLD.] + +[Illustration: HOMESPUN CLOTHES WERE SELDOM DISCARDED. THE MANY PINS, +NEEDLES, AND THIMBLES FOUND REVEAL THAT MENDING WAS A NEVER-ENDING CHORE +FOR THE BUSY HOUSEWIFE.] + +[Illustration: AN ASSORTMENT OF CARPENTERS' TOOLS UNEARTHED AT +JAMESTOWN. MOST OF THEM WERE USED OVER THREE CENTURIES AGO.] + +[Illustration: THE JAMESTOWN COOPER WAS A BUSY CRAFTSMAN. MANY BARRELS, +HOGSHEADS, AND CASKS WERE NEEDED IN THE COLONY, AND LARGE QUANTITIES OF +BARREL STAVES WERE MADE FOR SHIPPING TO ENGLAND. (Painting by Sidney E. +King.)] + + +Artisans and Craftsmen + +Numerous objects recovered at Jamestown are extremely important as they +reveal the kinds of craftsmen and artisans who worked in Virginia's +first capital, the nature of their tools and equipment, and examples of +their handiwork. + + +THE CARPENTER + +Scores of tools used by the men who helped build the Jamestown houses +have been unearthed, including chisels, augers, gouges, hammers, +reamers, saw fragments, bits, axes and hatchets, plane blades, gimlets, +files, calipers, compasses, scribers, nail pulls, and a saw wrest. A +grindstone was found in a refuse pit not far from the historic church +tower. + + +THE COOPER + +Some tools used by the cooper, including draw shaves, adzes, plane +irons, and race knives, have been excavated. Several barrel +staves--probably made at Jamestown--were found in a few wells. Because +of the great demand for barrels, casks, and hogsheads (both in Virginia +and England) the Jamestown cooper was a busy artisan. His products were +needed at all times, especially after 1620 when the Virginia settlers +began shipping large quantities of tobacco to England in wooden +hogsheads. + +[Illustration: TIMBERING--ONE OF THE FIRST ENGLISH INDUSTRIES IN THE NEW +WORLD. (Painting by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY, TWO-MAN, CROSSCUT SAW.] + + +THE WOODCUTTER AND SAWYER + +Numerous tools found on Jamestown Island relate to timbering, including +felling axes, hewing axes, hatchets, saws, and wedges. An early +17th-century two-man crosscut saw has been recovered almost intact. +Records indicate that pit saws were used, although none has been +excavated. + + +THE IRONWORKER + +A small, primitive hearth or furnace, where small amounts of iron may +have been smelted during the early part of the 17th century, was +uncovered during archeological explorations in 1955. A few miles upriver +from Jamestown, at Falling Creek, the English built their first iron +furnace in America in 1620-21. Iron was smelted in the furnace, and a +few tools were forged--the first iron objects made in the New World by +the English. In 1622 the Indians massacred the ironworkers and their +families, and destroyed the furnace. Although it was never rebuilt, its +importance cannot be overstressed, for the Falling Creek site can +rightfully claim the honor of being the birthplace of the American iron +industry. + +[Illustration: A FEW OF MANY TOOLS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE +USED FOR TIMBERING: FELLING AXES, A HEWING AXE, ADZE, HATCHET, WEDGE, +AND SAW FRAGMENT.] + +[Illustration: MAKING "TRIALLS" OF IRON. EVIDENCES OF AN EARTH OVEN OR +SMALL FURNACE WERE DISCOVERED AT JAMESTOWN DURING ARCHEOLOGICAL +EXPLORATIONS. SMALL AMOUNTS OF IRON MAY HAVE BEEN SMELTED IN THE FURNACE +DURING THE EARLY YEARS OF THE SETTLEMENT. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney +E. King.)] + + +THE BLACKSMITH + +In 1955, archeologists discovered the remnants of an early 17th-century +forge. At the site, blacksmith's tools, bar iron, sword guards, +unfinished iron objects, and slag were found. This gave evidence that a +blacksmith once plied his trade only a few yards west of the ancient +brick church. Many blacksmiths worked at Jamestown (there was one among +the first group of settlers). In the Jamestown collection are many tools +which they left behind, including pliers, pincers, chisels, punches, +hammers, and a small anvil. + + +THE BOATBUILDER + +Many small boats were built at Jamestown. They were built by English +shipwrights and carpenters, who came from a long line of efficient +craftsmen. These small vessels afforded the principal means of +transportation through the uncharted wilderness tidewaters of Virginia. +They were used for fishing, trade, and discovery. A few small +handwrought iron tools used by Jamestown boatbuilders have been +excavated on the historic island. + + +THE POTTER + +In 1955 a pottery kiln site was discovered at Jamestown. Nearby were +found many utilitarian earthenware vessels of the 1625-40 +period--definite evidence that pottery was made in Virginia over 300 +years ago. Although made for everyday use, many of the pieces unearthed +are symmetrical and not entirely lacking in beauty. The unknown +Jamestown potters were artisans, trained in the mysteries of an ancient +craft, who first transplanted their skills to the Virginia wilderness. + +[Illustration: OBJECTS FOUND AT A 17TH-CENTURY FORGE SITE AT JAMESTOWN: +BLACKSMITH'S TOOLS, BAR IRON, A FEW INCOMPLETE ITEMS, SWORD GUARDS, AND +SLAG. IT APPEARS THAT THE FORGE WAS IN OPERATION AS EARLY AS 1625.] + +[Illustration: BUILDING A SMALL BOAT AT JAMESTOWN ABOUT 1650. (Painting +by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: BOAT-BUILDING TOOLS FOUND, ALL MADE BEFORE 1700.] + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE VESSELS MADE AT JAMESTOWN BETWEEN 1625 AND +1640. THE SITE OF AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY POTTERY KILN WAS DISCOVERED ON +THE ISLAND IN 1955.] + +[Illustration: MAKING POTTERY AT JAMESTOWN, ABOUT 1625-40. (Painting by +Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: ARTIFACTS FOUND NEAR THE SITE OF THE JAMESTOWN GLASSHOUSE +WHICH WAS IN OPERATION AS EARLY AS 1608: A SMALL MELTING POT, PART OF A +WORKING HOLE, FRAGMENT FROM LARGE MELTING POT, CULLET (BROKEN OR REFUSE +GLASS SHOWN IN LOWER LEFT CORNER), AND GREEN GLASS FRAGMENTS (LOWER +CENTER AND LOWER RIGHT).] + +[Illustration: BLOWING GLASS AT JAMESTOWN IN 1608. (Conjectural sketch +by Sidney E. King.)] + + +THE GLASSBLOWER + +Glassblowers were working at Jamestown in 1608-09, and again in 1621-24. +The trial glass they made in 1608 was sent to England--the first glass +manufactured by Englishmen in the New World. The small glass fragments +excavated at the furnace sites do not reveal what was produced, but +probably nothing more complicated than window glass, bottles and vials, +and plain drinking glasses. It is believed that the small glass factory +at Jamestown was the first English "factory" in America. + + +THE BRICKMAKER AND TILEMAKER + +Four brick kilns have been excavated. In two of them roofing tile and +bricks were found. An iron spade, probably used in preparing the clay +for brickmaking, was found in one of the kilns. The oldest kiln +unearthed is believed to have been in use as early as 1625. Many +brickmakers emigrated to Jamestown during the 1600's. + + +THE LIMEBURNER + +Four lime kilns were unearthed on the historic island, where oyster +shells from the James River were burned and converted into lime by the +limeburner. As early as 1610 "lymeburners" emigrated to Virginia, and +thereafter many such workers came to the colony from England. + +[Illustration: FOUR BRICK KILNS HAVE BEEN EXCAVATED. THE ONE SHOWN HAD +FIVE FIRING CHAMBERS. ROOFING TILES WERE ALSO MADE IN THE JAMESTOWN +BRICK KILNS.] + +[Illustration: A 17TH-CENTURY LIME KILN EXCAVATED AT JAMESTOWN. IN IT +OYSTER SHELLS FROM THE JAMES RIVER WERE BURNED FOR MAKING LIME. THE IRON +HOOPS WHICH SUPPORTED THE ARCHED TOP OF THE KILN BUCKLED FROM THE +INTENSE HEAT.] + +[Illustration: MAKING LIME FROM OYSTER SHELLS IN A KILN, ABOUT 1625. +(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + + +OTHER CRAFTSMEN + +Contemporary records, confirmed by certain objects found at Jamestown +(especially small tools), reveal that pewterers, silversmiths colliers, +wheelwrights, calkers, bricklayers, millwrights, shoemakers, masons, +cordage makers, tanners, tobacco pipemakers, armorers, gunmakers, +braziers, and others worked in the capital city at various periods +between 1607 and 1699. + +[Illustration: A SILVERSMITH WEIGHING CLIPPED COINS. (Conjectural sketch +by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: BRASS WEIGHTS AND A PIECE OF SCRAP BRASS UNEARTHED AT +JAMESTOWN. RECORDS INDICATE THAT MANY METALWORKERS EMIGRATED TO VIRGINIA +DURING THE 17TH CENTURY.] + + +Home Industries + +During archeological explorations many artifacts relating to household +and town industries were recovered. It is believed that many of these +small industries were home activities carried on in the houses at +Jamestown. A few of these activities, and the products of them are +mentioned briefly. + + +SPINNING AND WEAVING + +A few metal parts from spinning wheels and looms have been +excavated--reminders that the pioneer housewife who spun the thread and +yarn, and wove the cloth for her large family, was seldom idle. + + +MALTING AND BREWING + +One Jamestown building or house (whose brick foundations were discovered +in 1955) appears to have been used for malting and brewing beer and ale, +or carrying out some activity requiring distillation. A few pieces of +lead were found which may have been part of a lead cistern for holding +barley. The three brick ovens that were uncovered may have been used +as drying kilns. A handle from a copper kettle was found near one of the +ovens, and pieces of copper and lead pipes were unearthed not far from +the building. The structure itself appears to have been used between +1625 and 1660. + +[Illustration: SPINNING THREAD OR YARN AND WEAVING CLOTH WERE ENDLESS +CHORES FOR THE WOMEN LIVING IN THE SMALL WILDERNESS SETTLEMENT. +(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: BREWING BEER AT JAMESTOWN. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney +E. King.)] + + +DAIRYING AND CHEESEMAKING + +Earthenware milk pans, bowls and pots, iron hoops (from wooden vessels), +an earthenware funnel, and parts of skimmers, sieves, and ladles have +been excavated. All these are evidence that dairying was an important +household industry. This activity was usually carried on in a +brick-paved room (with slatted windows) located on the northwest side of +the house. Cheese, as well as butter, was probably made in the same +room. + +[Illustration: LEAD AND COPPER PIPES, KETTLE FRAGMENTS, A BRASS SPIGOT, +AND OTHER ITEMS FOUND WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN USED FOR BREWING OR DISTILLING +PURPOSES.] + + +BAKING + +One of the largest objects that has been found is an earthenware baking +oven, which was unearthed in an old ditch near the site of the +May-Hartwell House. Restored from over 200 fragments, the oven was +probably used between 1650 and 1690. It may have been made at Jamestown, +molded of native clay and fired in a pottery kiln. In use, heated stones +were placed inside the oven and left until the walls were hot enough for +baking. Sometimes, however, the oven may have been placed directly on +the embers of the fire. It undoubtedly was used out of doors, near a +small house. + + +ASSOCIATED INDUSTRIES + +A few artifacts that have been recovered are associated with millers, +drapers, basketmakers, cutlers, tailors, barbers, netmakers, and +glovers. These tradesmen usually worked in or near their homes. + +[Illustration: EARTHENWARE MILK PAN, BRASS LADLE, FUNNEL FRAGMENT, AND +OTHER ITEMS FOUND WHICH RELATE TO DAIRYING AND CHEESEMAKING.] + +[Illustration: BAKING BREAD IN AN OUTDOOR BAKING OVEN ABOUT 1650. +(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: IN THIS OVEN A JAMESTOWN WOMAN BAKED BREAD OVER 300 YEARS +AGO. IT APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN IN USE BETWEEN 1650 AND 1690.] + +[Illustration: JAMESTOWN SOLDIERS CARRYING POLEARMS (A HALBERD AND A +BILL). (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + + +Military Equipment + +The vast assemblage of military equipment that has been unearthed +(probably the largest collection of late 16th-and 17th-century English +weapons used in America) emphasizes the important part which firearms +and other weapons played during the early years of the settlement. They +helped the colonists to protect themselves from the ever-menacing Indian +and from the Spaniards who might at anytime have sailed up the James +River to attack the small colony. They were also the means of providing +the settlers with much of their food. + +During the early years of the colony each Englishman who planned to +emigrate to Virginia was advised to supply himself with the following +"Armes": + + "One Armour compleat, light. + One long Peece, five foot or five and a halfe, neere + Musket bore. + One sword. + One bandaleere [a bandoleer was a belt worn to carry the + cases which held the powder charges]. + Twenty pound of powder. + Sixty pound of shot or lead, Pistoll and Goose shot." + +Most of the kinds of arms listed have been found at Jamestown and will +be described briefly along with other types of weapons which were +unearthed. + + +POLEARMS + +Parts from several polearms, including bills, pikes, and a halberd, have +been excavated. The recovered halberd (a polearm with sharp cutting +edges and a spearlike point) is typical of the late 16th century, and +may have been made as early as 1575. A few bills were unearthed, all +dating around 1600. (A bill is a polearm, having a long staff +terminating in a hook-shaped blade, usually with spikes at the back and +top.) Two pike butts were also unearthed. + +[Illustration: TWO EARLY 17TH-CENTURY POLEARMS--A BILL AND +HALBERD--UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN. BOTH WEAPONS HAD LONG WOODEN HANDLES.] + +[Illustration: THE CALTROP UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN. THIS SHARP-POINTED +INSTRUMENT WAS THROWN ON THE GROUND TO IMPEDE AN ENEMY'S INFANTRY AND +CAVALRY.] + + +CALTROP + +This small item unearthed at Jamestown is an instrument with 4 iron +points, so arranged that no matter how it lands, 1 point always projects +upward, to impede the progress of an enemy's cavalry and to prevent +surprise attacks. + + +SWORDS, RAPIERS, AND CUTLASSES + +Types of swords that have been found include broadswords, cutlasses or +back swords, and rapiers. Three examples are complete, or nearly so--a +cutlass, a broadsword, and a swept-hilt rapier. Many basket hilts were +unearthed together with guards from other type swords, pommels, and +blade fragments. A number of these edged weapons were made between 1600 +and 1625. Several basket-hilted guards and blade fragments were found at +the site of an early 17th-century forge, which may have been an +armorer's workshop. + + +CANNON + +One small cannon barrel fragment, possibly from a light cannon known as +a robinet, has been unearthed (the bore at the end of the barrel is only +1-1/4 inches across). A varied assortment of 17th-century cannon balls +have also been found, appropriate sizes for such ordnance as +demiculverines, sakers, minions, and falcons. + +[Illustration: FIRING A DEMICULVERINE FROM A BASTION AT "JAMES FORT." +(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: HILT AND PORTION OF BLADE OF A SWEPT-HILT RAPIER +EXCAVATED AT JAMESTOWN OF THE 1600-1610 PERIOD.] + + +MUSKETS + +An excellent assemblage of 17th-century musket barrels and gun parts +have been recovered from the Jamestown soil, reminiscent of times when +Indians attempted to wipe out the small settlement. + +Among the gunlocks found are matchlocks, wheel-locks, snaphaunces, +"doglocks," and flintlocks. The first settlers were equipped with both +wheel-lock and matchlock muskets. Some of the muskets were so heavy, +they required a forked ground-rest to shoot (parts of two forked +ground-rests have been excavated). Other muskets, like the caliver, were +light, and could be fired without the use of a support. + +The standard musket during the early years of the settlement was the +matchlock. By 1625, however, the picture had changed, for the +wheel-lock, snaphaunce, and "doglock," were being used in large numbers, +and the matchlock had become obsolete. + + +PISTOLS + +Only a few pistol barrels and parts have been unearthed. One pistol +barrel is attractively ornamented with silver bands. + + +LIGHT ARMOR AND SIEGE HELMET + +A breastplate and backpiece from a light suit of armor (probably a +pikeman's suit) were found in a refuse pit. These interesting specimens +were probably made in England during the 1600-20 period. + +In 1953, Sgt. Floyd E. Painter found an English siege helmet (1600-40 +period) 4 miles down the river from Jamestown Island. + +[Illustration: A JAMESTOWN SENTRY ON DUTY SHOULDERING HIS HEAVY +MATCHLOCK MUSKET. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: EARLY MUSKET BARREL AND GUN PARTS EXCAVATED AT +JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: BREASTPLATE FROM A LIGHT SUIT OF ARMOR FOUND IN A REFUSE +PIT. THIS WAS ONE TYPE USED BETWEEN 1600 AND 1640.] + +[Illustration: A HEAVY SIEGE HELMET FOUND 4 MILES DOWNRIVER FROM +JAMESTOWN. WEIGHING OVER 8 POUNDS, IT WAS ONE TYPE USED IN EUROPE DURING +THE EARLY YEARS OF THE 17TH CENTURY.] + +[Illustration: THE EARLY JAMESTOWN SETTLERS WERE ADVISED TO EQUIP +THEMSELVES WITH "ONE ARMOUR COMPLEAT, LIGHT." (Conjectural sketch by +Sidney E. King.)] + + +Farming + +The first settlers brought seeds from England, and planted wheat 2 weeks +after landing at Jamestown. + +The early Virginians successfully grew many kinds of crops: grains +(wheat, Indian corn, barley, oats, and rye), vegetables (peas, beans, +turnips, parsley, onions, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots, +parsnips, lettuce, and others), and fruits (apples, peaches, apricots, +quince, figs, grapes, and melons). + +The colonists planted Indian corn as early as 1609, and cultivated many +other Indian foods, including pumpkins, beans, and squash. They +cultivated tobacco (an Indian plant) as early as 1612, and during the +remainder of the century it was the most profitable crop grown. For many +years it was the economic salvation of the struggling colony. + +Attempts were made by the early colonists to grow other crops which, for +various reasons, did not thrive at Jamestown. Some plants, like bananas, +pineapple, citrus fruits, and pomegranates, could not withstand the cold +Virginia winters. Other plants, including rice, cotton, indigo, +sugarcane, flax, hemp, and olives, did not grow vigorously for one +reason or another, and repeated efforts to cultivate them usually +resulted in failure. Mulberry trees grew well at Jamestown (the leaves +were used to feed silk worms), but attempts to make silk were not +successful commercially. + +[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO OVER 300 YEARS +AGO. THESE TOOLS--HOE, BILLHOOK, AND CUTTING KNIVES--WERE EXCAVATED AT +JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: CULTIVATING A SMALL GARDEN IN VIRGINIA. (Conjectural +sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: A FEW FARM TOOLS USED BY AN EARLY SETTLER FOR CULTIVATING +HIS NEWLY CLEARED LAND.] + +[Illustration: FISHING PROVIDED FOOD AS WELL AS RECREATION FOR THE +COLONISTS. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: A FEW OF THE MANY ARTIFACTS RELATING TO FISHING UNEARTHED +AT JAMESTOWN: FISHHOOKS, FISH-GIGS, AND LEAD NET WEIGHTS.] + +Handtools used by the Jamestown farmers during the 17th-century have +been found in abundance. These include axes, picks, billhooks, +pitchforks, spades, rakes, mattocks, sickles, scythes, broad hoes, +narrow hoes, and shovels. + +Only a few parts belonging to heavy farming implements have been +unearthed, including a few ploughshares and small metal fragments from +wagons, carts, and harrows. + + +Fishing + +When the first settlers planted their small colony at Jamestown, the +tidewater rivers and bays and the Atlantic Ocean bordering the Virginia +coast teemed with many kinds of fish and shellfish which were both +edible and palatable. Varieties which the colonists soon learned to eat +included sheepshead, shad, sturgeon, herring, sole, white salmon, bass, +flounder, pike, bream, perch, rock, and drum, as well as oysters, +crabs, and mussels. Seafood was an important source of food for the +colonists, and at times, especially during the early years of the +settlement, it was the main source. + +Those in England who planned to go to Virginia were always advised to +provide themselves (among other items) with nets, fishhooks, and lines. + +During archeological explorations, fishhooks, lead net weights, +fish-gigs, and small anchors were uncovered. These are reminders of a +day when fish and shellfish were abundant in every tidewater Virginia +creek, river, and bay. + + +Health + +Keeping well and healthy, even managing to stay alive in the unfamiliar +Virginia wilderness during the first two decades of the Jamestown +settlement, was no easy matter. In the group of 105 original settlers, +67 died during the first 8 months. During the hard winter of 1609-10 +(known as the "starving time"), the population dwindled from 500 to +about 60 as a result of sickness, Indian attacks, and famine. + +One of the members of the first colony was a surgeon, William Wilkinson +by name. As the colony grew, other surgeons, physicians, and +apothecaries, emigrated to Virginia. Their lot was not easy, for it +appears that they were seldom idle in an island community having more +than its share of "cruell diseases, Swellings, Flixes, Burning Fevers, +warres and meere famine." + +During archeological explorations, drug jars, ointment pots, bleeding +bowls, mortars and pestles, small bottles and vials, and parts of +surgical instruments were recovered. These, undoubtedly, were used +countless times at Jamestown by unknown "chirurgions," doctors of +"physickes," and apothecaries--men who tried to keep the colonists well +with their limited medical equipment and scant supply of drugs. + + +Amusements and Pastimes + +The difficult and time-consuming job of conquering the Virginia +wilderness (clearing the land, building homes, planting and harvesting +crops, and warding off Indian attacks) left few hours for leisure and +amusements. There were times, however (especially after the first few +hard years had passed), when a colonist could enjoy himself by smoking +his pipe, playing a game, practicing archery, bowling, playing a musical +instrument, singing a ballad, or taking part in a lively dance. +Excavated artifacts reveal that the settlers enjoyed at least these few +amusements and pastimes. + +[Illustration: A PHYSICIAN BLEEDING A PATIENT. (Conjectural sketch by +Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: A FEW ITEMS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE USED BY +DOCTORS AND APOTHECARIES. INCLUDED ARE DRUG JARS, OINTMENT POT, BLEEDING +BOWL, MORTAR AND PESTLE FRAGMENTS, GLASS VIALS, AND PORTIONS OF SURGICAL +INSTRUMENTS.] + +[Illustration: ENJOYING A SMOKE IN A TAVERN, ABOUT 1625. (Conjectural +sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: A FEW OF THOUSANDS OF CLAY PIPE FRAGMENTS UNEARTHED AT +JAMESTOWN. THE ONES SHOWN RANGE IN DATE FROM 1600 TO 1700. DURING THIS +100-YEAR PERIOD, PIPES DEVELOPED FROM SMALL BOWLS TO FAIRLY LARGE +ONES.] + + +SMOKING + +The first colonists were quite familiar with the use of tobacco, and it +is believed that many of them smoked clay pipes. Evidently there was +some demand for tobacco pipes by the early planters as one of the men, +Robert Cotten, who reached Jamestown in January 1608, was a tobacco +pipemaker. + +In 1611-12 John Rolfe had experimented with tobacco plants in Virginia +(he used Virginia plants as well as varieties from the West Indies and +South America), and was successful in developing a sweet-scented leaf. +It became popular overnight, and for many years was the staple crop of +the infant colony. There was a prompt demand for the new leaf in +England, and its introduction there was an important factor in +popularizing the use of clay pipes. After 1620 the manufacture of white +clay pipes in England increased by leaps and bounds. + +It is estimated that there are over 50,000 clay pipe bowls and stem +fragments in the Jamestown collection--perhaps the largest assemblage of +its kind extant. Pipe bowls and stem fragments were found wherever +excavations were made, indicating that the smoking of clay pipes was an +extremely popular custom at Jamestown. + +During the 1607-1700 period, pipe-bowls developed in size from small to +fairly large. In most examples that have been found, the early pipes +have larger stem-holes than pipes made during the latter years of the +century. + +Although the majority of pipes found at Jamestown were imported from +England, some were made in Holland. Some of the colonists made their +pipes in Virginia from local clay, either by pipemaking machines or by +handmolding. The English and Dutch pipes were white in color, whereas +the local product was brown. As they were fragile, not a single complete +pipe has been unearthed at Jamestown. + +[Illustration: HARVESTING TOBACCO AT JAMESTOWN, ABOUT 1650. (Painting by +Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: CHILDRENS' GAMES DEPICTED ON DUTCH DELFTWARE FIREPLACE +TILES ARE VERY SIMILAR TO THE GAMES CHILDREN PLAY TODAY. THE TILES WERE +MADE IN HOLLAND ALMOST 300 YEARS AGO.] + + +GAMES + +A few ivory fragments that have been excavated appear to be parts of +dice and chessmen. Chess was popular during the 17th century, and many +dice games, including even and odd, hazard, passage, mumchance, and +novem were played. + +Other games which undoubtedly were played in many Jamestown homes were +tick-tack, backgammon, Irish, and cards. Card games were popular, +especially primero, trump, piquet, saint, and decoy. + +Many 17th-century fireplace tiles in the Jamestown collection are +decorated with charming little pictures depicting children's games. +Activities portrayed include skating, bowling, spinning tops, fishing, +rolling hoops, using a yo-yo, swinging, wrestling, skipping rope, +shooting, playing skittles, riding a hobby horse, sledding, boxing, and +playing musical instruments. These pictures remind us that games played +by boys and girls today are very similar to those enjoyed by children +three centuries ago. + +[Illustration: ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS REVEALED THAT THE COLONISTS +ENJOYED ARCHERY. THE IRON LEVER SHOWN, KNOWN AS A "GOAT'S FOOT," WAS +USED FOR SETTING THE STRING OF A LIGHT HUNTING CROSSBOW. IT WAS FOUND 4 +MILES FROM JAMESTOWN. ILLUSTRATION SHOWING THE USE OF A "GOAT'S FOOT" +FROM _Weapons, A Pictorial History_ BY EDWIN TUNIS.] + + +ARCHERY AND HUNTING + +One interesting item relating to archery has been found 4 miles from +Jamestown. Known as a "goat's foot," it is an iron lever which was used +for pulling back and setting the string of a light hunting crossbow. + +Contemporary records indicate that hunting game birds and animals was a +popular New World diversion. Such sport served a twofold purpose, as it +offered recreation to the settler and helped provide food for his table. +Parts of early fowling pieces and numerous lead birdshot (called goose +or swan shot during the early years of the 17th century) have been +recovered. + + +MUSIC AND DANCING + +A large assortment of iron and brass Jew's harps (also known as Jew's +trumps) have been found. This small instrument is lyre-shaped, and when +placed between the teeth gives tones from a bent metal tongue when +struck by the finger. Modulation of tone is produced by changing the +size and shape of the mouth cavity. + +As there is no record of spinets, or virginals, having been used at +Jamestown, we have no way of knowing whether such wire-stringed, +keyboard instruments were used in the homes of the more prosperous +planters, together with other musical instruments of the period. + +It is quite certain, however, that the Jamestown settlers knew the songs +and ballads which were sung in Great Britain in those days. They were +also familiar with English, Irish, Welsh, and Scotch dances. A few +contemporary accounts reveal that the Virginia colonists enjoyed merry +tunes and ditties, as well as lively dances. Although living in a +wilderness, there were times when they could enjoy a few leisure-hour +activities and amusements, including singing and dancing. + +[Illustration: PLAYING A JEW'S HARP--ENJOYING A LITTLE MUSIC IN THE +VIRGINIA WILDERNESS. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + +[Illustration: AN ASSORTMENT OF JEW'S HARPS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: A FEW OBJECTS RECOVERED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE ONCE USED +ON 17TH-CENTURY BOATS--REMINDERS OF A DAY WHEN TRAVEL IN VIRGINIA WAS +LARGELY BY WATER.] + + +Travel + +During the 17th century, travel in Virginia was mainly by boat. As the +roads leading from Jamestown to the nearby settlements were usually in +deplorable condition, especially after heavy rains, the settlers +preferred to travel by water whenever possible. As the colony grew, and +roads were improved somewhat, travel by horse became more common, +especially for short trips. After 1650 the use of wagons increased, and +records indicate that a few of the more prosperous planters imported +fine carriages from England. + + +BOATS AND SHIPS + +Boats used by the settlers varied in size from small flat-bottom boats +to fairly large sailing vessels, and included such types as small +rowboats, pinnaces, barks, bilanders, schooners, ketches, and sloops. +Living on a river, and in a tidewater area of innumerable creeks, bays, +and rivers, practically all of the colonists were familiar with +handling boats of one type or another. + +However, only a few objects relating to boats and ships have been +unearthed at Jamestown: small anchors, chains, oar locks, ship bolts and +spikes, and tools used by shipwrights and ships' carpenters. + +[Illustration: SOME BITS AND BRIDLE ORNAMENTS IN THE JAMESTOWN +COLLECTION. THE ARTISTIC DESIGNS ON MANY BRIDLE BOSSES ARE SYMBOLIC OF +BEAUTIFUL HANDIWORK PERFORMED BY CRAFTSMEN OF A BYGONE DAY.] + + +HORSES, WAGONS, AND CARRIAGES + +The first English-built road in America (in use by 1608) ran 1 mile from +Jamestown Island to Glasshouse Point. Later, as the colony grew, the +road was extended to Governor Berkeley's plantation, about 4 miles from +Jamestown, and other nearby settlements. There is some evidence that it +was known as the "Old Road" or "Greate Road." + +[Illustration: SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY SPUR AND STIRRUP EXCAVATED AT +JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: THIS BRANDING IRON WAS USED BY ONE OF THE COLONISTS +DURING THE EARLY DAYS OF THE SETTLEMENT.] + +As early as 1609 "six mares and two horses" were brought to Jamestown. +In 1611, 17 horses and mares arrived, and in 1614, Capt. Samuel Argall +brought several more. Six years later in 1620, 20 horses were shipped +from England. It is most surprising, therefore, that the census of 1625 +recorded only 1 horse for the entire colony! By 1649, however, it was +estimated that there were 300 horses in Virginia, and most of the +successful farmers and wealthy planters owned them after 1650. During +the following years, the number of horses increased greatly. + +Many well-preserved metal objects relating to horse equipment and riding +gear have been unearthed. + +Bits and Bridle Ornaments.--Most bits are of the snaffle variety, +although a few curb bits have been recovered. In those days many bits +had brass bosses attached to their cheek bars, and many of these +attractive ornaments have been unearthed. Some bosses are decorated with +raised designs while others are plain. The majority are made of brass, +although a few iron bosses have been excavated. + +Spurs and Stirrups.--A few complete spurs have been excavated. While the +majority are plain iron some brass spurs in the collection are +decorated with very attractive incised or embossed designs. Two or three +of the highly decorated brass spurs are probably of Spanish origin. One +of them, in excellent condition, was found near an early brick kiln. + +[Illustration: WROUGHT-IRON HORSESHOES AND CURRYCOMBS USED PRIOR TO +1650.] + +[Illustration: SETTLERS TRADING WITH THE INDIANS--BARTERING CASTING +COUNTERS AND OTHER TRADE GOODS FOR FURS. (Conjectural sketch by Sidney +E. King.)] + +All stirrups unearthed are made of wrought iron. Some of the steps or +stirrup bars are solid, while others have a single slot. + +Horseshoes and Currycombs.--Horseshoes found vary considerably in size, +although the majority are relatively small. Many shoes have both toe and +heel calks, and in most examples the calks are well worn. The many small +shoes that have been excavated may indicate that the horses used in +Virginia three centuries ago were much smaller than the 20th-century +breeds. + +All currycombs found are handwrought, and many have pleasing designs on +the backs, formed by the curved iron strips which extend from the handle +prong to the back of the comb. + +Branding Irons.--Parts of several branding irons were found including a +complete example with initials "TR." + +Wagon and Carriage Parts.--Archeologists unearthed only a few metal +parts from wagons and carriages--reminders of a day when horses and oxen +were indispensable animals in the Virginia settlements. + + +Trade + +Some interesting objects recovered at Jamestown relate to early trade. +These include items used in trade with the Indians, as well as an +excellent assortment of lead bale clips. These clips are decorated discs +which were often attached to bales of goods (especially woolen cloth) +imported from England. One object, the heaviest unearthed at Jamestown, +relates indirectly to trade. It is a 1,300-pound iron piledriver which +was once used to build wharfs and piers. + + +INDIAN TRADE + +One reason why the colonists selected a site for Jamestown some miles up +the James River was to develop the Indian trade over an extensive area. +During the early years of the colony, trade with the natives was +encouraged. It is clear from the early records that the settlers +bartered such items as beads, cloth, penny knives, shears, bells, glass +toys, whistles, hatchets, pots and pans, brass casting counters, and +similar objects in exchange for Indian corn (and other vegetables), +fish, game, fruits and berries, and furs. + +Many examples of English trade goods used for bartering with the Indians +have been found on the island, but these can be described only briefly. + +Beads.--The majority of glass beads were shipped from England, although +some may have been made in Italy, probably in Venice. As no glass beads +were found at or near the site of the glass factory, it is doubtful +whether any were made there. Most beads in the collection are round or +oval, a few are cylindrical having been cut from colored glass rods. All +beads excavated are of one or more colors, with the exception of 2 or 3 +that are colorless. After three centuries the attractive colors still +persist; and looking at the colorful beads today you can understand the +charm they held for the Indians. + +Knives.--Small, inexpensive knives called penny knives, were often used +for trading purposes during the years at Jamestown. A few folding knives +and blade fragments (which may also have been penny knives) have been +recovered. + +Shears.--Several shears and scissors, highly prized by the Indians, were +found on the island. A few are almost complete. + +Bells.--Brass and iron bells of types which were used for bartering with +the Indians have been excavated. A few days after the colonists reached +Jamestown one of them recorded that "our captaine ... presented [to an +Indian chief] gyftes of dyvers sortes, as penny knyves, sheeres, belles, +beades, glass toyes &c. more amply then before." + +[Illustration: BRASS CASTING COUNTERS EXCAVATED ON JAMESTOWN ISLAND. +MANY WERE MADE IN GERMANY BEFORE 1575 FOR USE BY MERCHANTS ON COUNTING +BOARDS. IN THE NEW WORLD THEY WERE USED FOR THE INDIAN TRADE.] + +[Illustration: A FEW OBJECTS UNEARTHED AT JAMESTOWN WHICH WERE USED FOR +TRADING WITH THE INDIANS. SHOWN ARE GLASS BEADS, SCISSORS, IRON KNIVES, +A HATCHET, AND BELL FRAGMENTS.] + + +Hatchets.--Many fine specimens of handwrought hatchets have been found. +These were valuable items during the early years of the settlement, and +much sought after by the Indians, so that a large number were used in +trading with them. But hatchets were used primarily by the carpenter, +cooper, and other artisans. + +Pots and Pans.--A pot or pan made of brass or copper was almost worth +its weight in gold for trading purposes. A few complete examples, +together with numerous fragments, have been recovered. + +Brass Casting Counters or Jettons.--Most of these thin brass tokens or +counters (similar in appearance to coins) were made in Germany during +the second half of the 16th century. In Europe they were used on +counting boards for making mathematical calculations, but in the New +World it is believed that they were used in the Indian trade. +Approximately a dozen have been found at Jamestown. Three were also +found on Roanoke Island (site of Raleigh's ill-fated "Lost Colony") and +one was recovered in an Indian shell mound near Cape Hatteras, not too +distant from Croatoan Island (known today as Ocracoke Island). Many of +the counters in the Jamestown collection were made by Hans Schultes and +Hans Laufer of Nuremberg, who manufactured such jettons between 1550 and +1574, at which time Nuremberg was a center for the making of casting +counters. Some of the counters have holes punched through them, +indicating that the Indians may have worn them around their necks like +pendants, suspended from leather thongs. + +Miscellaneous Items.--Other objects which the English used in trade with +the Indians were colored cloth, glass toys, and whistles; but no +examples of these have been recovered during archeological explorations. + +[Illustration: A WHARF SCENE--ARRIVAL OF A SHIP FROM THE MOTHER COUNTRY. +(Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King.)] + + +ENGLISH AND FOREIGN TRADE + +During the 17th century, active trade was carried on between the +Virginia colony and the mother country. Local commodities of timber, +wood products, soap ashes, iron ore, tobacco, pitch, tar, furs, +minerals, salt, sassafras, and other New World raw materials were +shipped to England. In exchange, English merchants sold to the +colonists, tools, farm implements, seeds, stock and poultry, furniture +and household accessories, clothing, weapons, hardware, kitchen +utensils, pottery, metalware, glassware, and certain foods and drinks. + +There is also good evidence that some trade was carried on with Holland, +Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Mexico, and the West Indies. +Many artifacts unearthed (especially pottery) were made in the countries +mentioned. It is believed that certain commodities were acquired by +direct trade with the country where made, in spite of the strict laws by +which the Colonial Powers sought to monopolize the colonial trade for +the benefit of the mother country. + +Lead Bale Clips.--A series of decorated lead clips which relate to +17th-century trade have been found at several places on Jamestown +Island. As their name implies, these lead clips, or seals, were attached +to bales of English goods, usually woolen cloth, to attest that the +goods were of an approved quality and length, and of a given amount. +Each clip usually consisted of two discs connected by a narrow band, and +when used for marking cloth the name or initials of the maker of the +material was often incised on one of the discs. The clips, too, were +often embossed with a decorative device such as a coat of arms, crest, +crown, name or initials of a king, numerals, king's head, royal arms, +animal, or flower. Over a dozen of these small lead clips have been +unearthed, and serve as reminders of a past day when majestic English +merchantmen sailed to Jamestown laden with bales of goods from the +mother country. + +[Illustration: LEAD BALE CLIPS USED FOR SEALING BALES OF WOOLEN CLOTH +AND OTHER GOODS. ONCE A CLIP HAD BEEN ATTACHED TO A BALE IT ATTESTED +THAT THE GOODS WERE OF AN APPROVED QUALITY AND LENGTH OR AMOUNT.] + +[Illustration: THIS 1,300-POUND IRON PILEDRIVER USED FOR DRIVING PILES +IN THE BUILDING OF SMALL WHARVES WAS FOUND AT JAMESTOWN.] + +[Illustration: BUILDING A WHARF, ABOUT 1650. (Conjectural sketch by +Sidney E. King.)] + +Piers and Wharfs.--In order to accommodate such large sailing vessels, +piers and wharfs had to be built at Jamestown. A 1,300-pound iron +piledriver was found in the basement of a 17th-century building in 1955. +It was probably used three centuries ago for driving piles in the James +River during construction of a small wharf. + + +Worshipping + +The Jamestown colonists were, for the most part, religious and +God-fearing people. The majority were members of the Church of England. +One of the first settlers, the Rev. Robert Hunt, was an ordained +minister of that church. Whenever possible, services were held every +morning and evening, and sermons delivered twice on Sundays. + +A few ornamental brass book clasps excavated near Jamestown may have +been used on early Bibles and Prayer Books. Under the care of Bruton +Parish Episcopal Church in Willamsburg are four pieces of communion +silver which were used in the church at Jamestown. Two pieces, an +exquisite chalice and paten, were donated to the Jamestown church by Lt. +Gov. Francis Morrison (or Moryson) in 1661. Inscribed on both is the +legend: "Mixe not holy thinges with profane." A second paten, made in +London in 1691-92, was given to the Jamestown Church by Gov. Edmund +Andros in 1694. Another paten, or a collection plate (also made in +London), bears the inscription: "For the use of James City Parish +Church." + +[Illustration: DECORATED BRASS BOOK CLASPS FOUND NEAR JAMESTOWN WHICH +MAY HAVE BEEN USED ON AN EARLY BIBLE OR PRAYER BOOK] + +The officials of the Virginia Company of London, admonishing the first +settlers to serve and fear God in order to plant a successful and +prosperous colony, advised: + + Lastly and chiefly the way to prosper and achieve good success is + to make yourselves all of one mind for the good of your country and + your own, and to serve and fear God the Giver of all Goodness, for + every plantation which our Heavenly Father hath not planted shall + be rooted out. + +Seemingly the advice was carried out, for from the small settlement on a +tiny island in the James River grew a great and mighty nation. + +[Illustration: COMMUNION SILVER USED IN THE JAMESTOWN CHURCH AFTER 1661. +BOTH THE CHALICE AND PATEN WERE MADE IN LONDON, AND DONATED TO THE +CHURCH BY LT. GOV. FRANCIS MORRISON (OR MORYSON) IN 1661. ON BOTH PIECES +IS THE LEGEND: "MIXE NOT HOLY THINGES WITH PROFANE."] + + + + +Select Bibliography + + +BAILEY, WORTH. "Concerning Jamestown Pottery--Past and Present." + _Ceramic Age_, pp. 101-104. October 1937. +----. "Joseph Copeland, 17th Century Pewterer." _The Magazine Antiques_, + pp. 188-190. April 1938. +----. "Lime Preparation at Jamestown in the Seventeenth Century." + _William and Mary College Quarterly_, pp. 1-12. January 1938. +----. "Notes on the Use of Pewter in Virginia During the Seventeenth + Century." _William and Mary College Quarterly_, pp. 227-241. April + 1938. + +BRUCE, PHILLIP ALEXANDER. _Economic History of Virginia in the + Seventeenth Century_. 2 Vols. New York. Peter Smith. 1935. + +FORMAN, HENRY CHANDLER. _Jamestown and St. Mary's_. Baltimore. The Johns + Hopkins Press. 1938. +----. "The Old Hardware of James Town." _The Magazine Antiques_, pp. + 30-32. January 1941. + +HARRINGTON, J.C. _Glassmaking at Jamestown._ Richmond, Va. The Dietz + Press, Inc. 1952. +----. "Seventeenth Century Brickmaking and Tilemaking at Jamestown, + Virginia." _The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography_, pp. + 16-39. January 1950. +----. "Some Delft Tiles Found at Jamestown." _The Magazine Antiques_, + pp. 36-37. January 1951. +----. "Tobacco Pipes from Jamestown." _Quarterly Bulletin Archeological + Society of Virginia_, June 1951. + +HONEY, WILLIAM B. _European Ceramic Art from the end of the Middle Ages + to about 1815_. New York. 1949. +----. _Glass: A Handbook and a Guide to the Museum Collection_. Victoria + and Albert Museum, London. 1946. + +HUDSON, J. PAUL. "The Story of Iron at Jamestown, Virginia--Where Iron + Objects Were Wrought by Englishmen Almost 350 Years Ago." _The Iron + Worker_, pp. 2-14. Summer 1956. +----and C. Malcolm Watkins. "How Pottery Was Made at Jamestown, + Virginia--Where Englishmen First Made Earthenware Vessels in the New + World Over Three Hundred Years Ago." _The Magazine Antiques_. January + 1957. + +INNOCENT, C.F. _Development of English Building Construction_. + University Press. Cambridge, England. 1916. + +LANE, ARTHUR. _A Guide to the Collection of Tiles_. Victoria and Albert + Museum. London. 1939. + +PETERSON, CHARLES E. "Some Recent Discoveries at Jamestown." _The + Magazine Antiques_, pp. 192-194. May 1936. + +PETERSON, HAROLD L. _Arms and Armor in Colonial America_. Stackpole + Company. Harrisburg, Pa. 1956. + +SONN, ALBERT H. _Early American Wrought Iron_. 3 Vols. Charles + Scribner's Sons. New York. 1928. + +WATKINS, C. MALCOLM. "The Lamps of Colonial America." _The Magazine + Antiques_, pp. 187-191. October 1937. + + + + +OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE RELATING TO JAMESTOWN + +FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING +OFFICE, WASHINGTON 25, D.C. + + +Jamestown, Virginia, the Townsite and Its Story (Historical Handbook +Series No. 2) 25 cents. + +James Towne in the Words of Contemporaries (Source Book Series No. 5) 20 +cents. + +America's Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses +(Interpretive Series No. 2) 25 cents. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of New Discoveries at Jamestown +by John L. Cotter +J. Paul Hudson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW DISCOVERIES AT JAMESTOWN *** + +***** This file should be named 16277.txt or 16277.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/6/2/7/16277/ + +Produced by Mark C. Orton, Ben Beasley and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |