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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life
+And Work, by P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life And Work
+
+Author: P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2005 [EBook #16935]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, LN Yaddanapudi and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY]
+
+
+
+
+Leaders in Science
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+
+A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE AND WORK
+
+
+BY
+
+P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A. (_Oxon._)
+
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+NEW YORK
+
+27 WEST TWENTY THIRD STREET
+
+LONDON
+
+24 BEDFORD STREET STRAND
+
+The Knickerbocker Press
+
+1900
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT 1900
+
+BY
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+
+The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume is in no sense an intimate or authorised biography of
+Huxley. It is simply an outline of the external features of his life
+and an account of his contributions to biology, to educational and
+social problems, and to philosophy and metaphysics. In preparing it, I
+have been indebted to his own Autobiography, to the obituary notice
+written by Sir Michael Foster for the Royal Society of London, to a
+sketch of him by Professor Howes, his successor at the Royal College
+of Science, and to his published works. The latter consist of many
+well-known separate volumes which are familiar to all zoölogists, and
+of a vast number of memoirs and essays scattered in various scientific
+and general publications. The general Essays were collected into nine
+volumes, revised by himself in the later years of his life, and
+published by Messrs. Macmillan. The Scientific Memoirs, thanks to the
+generous enterprise of the same publishing firm, with which he was so
+long associated, and to the pious labours of Sir Michael Foster and
+Professor Ray Lankester, are in process of reissue in the form of four
+volumes, two of which have now appeared. These will contain all his
+important contributions to science, with the exception of a large
+separate treatise on the _Oceanic Hydrozoa_ published by the Ray
+Society in 1859. There is also announced a formal Biography, prepared
+by his son, so that future admirers or students of Huxley's work will
+be in an exceptionally favourable position.
+
+LONDON, 1900.
+
+P. CHALMERS MITCHELL.
+
+
+
+
+Leaders in Science
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                       PAGE
+PREFACE                                                 iii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK                                  1
+
+    Birth--Parentage--School-days--Choice of Medical
+    Profession--Charing Cross Hospital--End of Medical
+    Studies--Admission to Naval Medical Service.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE RATTLESNAKE                            13
+
+    The Objects of the Voyage--The Route--The Naturalist and the
+    Surgeon--Collecting and Dredging--Stay in Sydney--Adventures with
+    the Natives--Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the _Beagle_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA                            30
+
+    The Nature of Floating Life--Memoir on Medusæ Accepted by the
+    Royal Society--Old and New Ideas of the Animal Kingdom--What
+    Huxley Discovered in Medusæ--His Comparison of them with
+    Vertebrate Embryos
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY DAYS IN LONDON                                       46
+
+    Scientific Work as Unattached Ship-Surgeon--Introduction to
+    London Scientific Society--Translating, Receiving, and
+    Lecturing--Ascidians--Molluscs and the Archetype--Criticism of
+    Pre-Darwinian Evolution--Appointment to Geological Survey.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CREATURES OF THE PAST                                      67
+
+    Beginning Palæontological Work--Fossil Amphibia and
+    Reptilia--Ancestry of Birds--Ancestry of the Horse--Imperfect
+    European Series Completed by Marsh's American Fossils--Meaning of
+    Geological Contemporaneity--Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+    Compared with Evolution in Geology--Age of the Earth--Intermediate
+    and Linear Types.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HUXLEY AND DARWIN                                          89
+
+    Early Ideas on Evolution--Erasmus Darwin--Lamarck--Herbert
+    Spencer--Difference between Evolution and Natural
+    Selection--Huxley's Preparation for Evolution--The Novelty of
+    Natural Selection--The Advantage of Natural Selection as a Working
+    Hypothesis--Huxley's Unchanged Position with regard to Evolution
+    and Natural Selection from 1860 to 1894.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION                                  110
+
+    Huxley's Prevision of the Battle--The Causes of the Battle--The
+    _Times_ Review--Sir Richard Owen attacks  Darwinism in the
+    _Edinburgh Review_--Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the _Quarterly
+    Review_--Huxley's Scathing Replies--The British Association
+    Debates at Oxford--Huxley and Wilberforce--Résumé of Huxley's
+    Exact Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VERTEBRATE ANATOMY                                        128
+
+    The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull--Goethe, Oken, Cuvier, and
+    Owen--Huxley Defends Goethe--His own Contributions to the
+    Theory--The Classification of Birds--Huxley Treats them as
+    "Extinct Animals"--Geographical Distribution--Sclater's
+    Regions--Huxley's Suggestions.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAN AND THE APES                                          144
+
+    Objections to Zoölogical Discussion of Man's Place--Owen's
+    Prudence--Huxley's Determination to Speak out--Account of his
+    Treatment of _Man's Place in Nature_--Additions Made by More
+    Recent Work.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION                           167
+
+    Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago--Huxley's Insistence on
+    Reform--Science Primers--Physiography--Elementary Physiology--_The
+    Crayfish_--Manuals of Anatomy--Modern Microscopical
+    Methods--Practical Work in Biological Teaching--Invention of the
+    Type System--Science in Medical Education--Science and Culture.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION                             188
+
+    Establishment of Compulsory Education in England--The Religious
+    Controversy--Huxley Advocates the Bible without Theology--His
+    Compromise on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause--Influence of the New
+    Criticism--Science and Art Instruction--Training of
+    Teachers--University Education--The Baltimore Address--Technical
+    Education--So-called "Applied Science"--National Systems of
+    Education as "Capacity-Catchers."
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST                             204
+
+    Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs--Official in Scientific
+    Societies--Royal Commissions--Vivisection--Characteristics of his
+    Public Speaking--His Method of Exposition--His
+    Essays--Vocabulary--Phrase-Making--His Style Essentially One of
+    Ideas.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM                               218
+
+    Science and Metaphysics--Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes--Existence of
+    Matter and Mind--Descartes's Contribution--Materialism and
+    Idealism--Criticism of Materialism--Berkeley's Idealism--Criticism
+    of Idealism--Empirical Idealism--Materialism as opposed to
+    Supernaturalism--Mind and Brain--Origin of Life--Teleology,
+    Chance, and the Argument from Design.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FREEDOM OF THOUGHT                                        232
+
+    Authority and Knowledge in Science--The Duty of Doubt--Authority
+    and Individual Judgment in Religion--The Protestant Position--Sir
+    Charles Lyell and the Deluge--Infallibility--The Church and
+    Science--Morality and Dogma--Civil and Religious
+    Liberty--Agnosticism and Clericalism--Meaning of
+    Agnosticism--Knowledge and Evidence--The Method of Agnosticism.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES                                    245
+
+    Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible--A _Magna Charta_ of the
+    Poor--The Theological Use of the Bible--The Doctrine of Biblical
+    Infallibility--The Bible and Science--The Three Hypotheses of the
+    Earth's History--Changes in the Past Proved--The Creation
+    Hypothesis--Gladstone on Genesis--Genesis not a Record of
+    Fact--The Hypothesis of Evolution--The New Testament--Theory of
+    Inspiration--Reliance on the Miraculous--The Continuity of Nature
+    no _a priori_ Argument against Miracles---Possibilities and
+    Impossibilities--Miracles a Question of Evidence--Praise of the
+    Bible.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ETHICS OF THE COSMOS                                      261
+
+    Conduct and Metaphysics--Conventional and Critical Minds--Good
+    and Evil--Huxley's Last Appearance at Oxford--The Ethical Process
+    and the Cosmic Process--Man's Intervention--The Cosmic Process
+    Evil--Ancient Reconciliations--Modern Acceptance of the
+    Difficulties--Criticism of Huxley's Pessimism--Man and his Ethical
+    Aspirations Part of the Cosmos.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY                                  275
+
+    Huxley's Life in London--Decennial
+    Periods--Ill-health--Retirement to Eastbourne--Death--Personal
+    Appearance--Methods of Work--Personal Characteristics--An Inspirer
+    of Others--His Influence in Science--A Naturalist by Vocation--His
+    Aspirations.
+
+
+INDEX                                                     287
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                         PAGE
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY--_From a photograph by
+  London Stereoscopic Company                    Frontispiece_
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857--_Reproduced by
+  permission from "Natural Science," vol. vii.,
+  No. 42_                                               64
+
+SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER--_From a photograph
+  by Elliott and Fry, London_                           98
+
+CHARLES DARWIN--_From the painting by Hon.
+  John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery_       146
+
+SIR CHARLES LYELL--_From a photograph by London
+  Stereoscopic Company_                                236
+
+CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF--_Reproduced
+  by permission from "Natural
+  Science," vol. vii., No. 46._                       276
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF HUXLEY'S WRITINGS
+
+
+This list is offered, not as a bibliography in the technical sense,
+but as an indication of the sources in which the vast majority of
+Huxley's scientific and general work may be consulted most
+conveniently.
+
+
+_The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley_. Edited by Professor
+Sir Michael Foster and Professor E. Ray Lankester; in four volumes.
+London, Macmillan & Co.; New York, D. Appleton.
+
+     This magnificent collection is intended to contain all Huxley's
+     original scientific papers, brought together from the multitude
+     of scientific periodicals in which they appeared, with
+     reproductions of the original illustrations. The only exception
+     is the monograph on _Oceanic Hydrozoa_. The first volume appeared
+     in 1898; the second in 1899, and the others are to follow
+     quickly.
+
+
+_Collected Essays by T.H. Huxley_; nine volumes of the Eversley
+Series. Macmillan & Co. London, 1893-95.
+
+     This set, edited by Huxley himself, contains the more important
+     of his more general contributions to science and his literary,
+     philosophical, and political and critical essays. Each volume has
+     a preface specially written, and the first volume contains his
+     autobiography.
+
+_The Oceanic Hydrozoa_; a description of the Calycophoridæ and
+Physophoridæ observed during the Voyage of H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_ in the
+years 1846-50, with a general introduction. Ray Society. London, 1859.
+
+
+_Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature_. Williams & Norgate. London,
+1863.
+
+
+_On our Knowledge of the Causes of Organic Phenomena_; being Six
+Lectures to Working Men. Hardwicke. London, 1863.
+
+
+_Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy_. On the
+Classification of Animals and the Vertebrate Skull. Churchill & Sons.
+London, 1864.
+
+
+_An Elementary Atlas of Comparative Osteology_. In twelve plates.
+Williams & Norgate. London, 1864.
+
+
+_Lessons in Elementary Physiology_. Macmillan & Co. London, 1866.
+
+
+_An Introduction to the Classification of Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1869.
+
+
+_A Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1871.
+
+
+_A Course of Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology_, assisted by
+H.N. Martin. Macmillan. London, 1875.
+
+
+_A Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1877.
+
+_Lay Sermons, Essays, and Reviews_. Macmillan. London, 1877.
+
+
+_American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology_.
+Macmillan. London, 1877.
+
+
+_Physiography, an Introduction to the Study of Zoölogy_. International
+Scientific Series. Kegan Paul. London, 1880.
+
+
+_Introductory Primer_. Science Primers. Macmillan. London, 1880.
+
+
+_The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_. Edited by his son, Francis
+Darwin. Volume II., with Chapter V. by Professor Huxley on the
+Reception of the _Origin of Species_. John Murray. London, 1887.
+
+
+_Life of Richard Owen_. By his grandson. With an Essay on Owen's
+Position in Anatomical Science, by T.H. Huxley. John Murray. London,
+1894.
+
+
+
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK
+
+     Birth--Parentage--School-days--Choice of Medical
+     Profession--Charing Cross Hospital--End of Medical
+     Studies--Admission to Naval Medical Service.
+
+
+Some men are born to greatness: even before their arrival in the world
+their future is marked out for them. All the advantages that wealth
+and the experience of friends can bring attend their growth to
+manhood, and their success almost loses its interest because of the
+ease with which it is attained. Few of the leaders of science were in
+such a position: many of them, such as Priestley, Davy, Faraday, John
+Hunter, and Linnæus were of humble parentage, and received the poorest
+education: most of them, like Huxley himself, have come from parents
+who were able to do little more for their children than set them out
+into life along the ordinary educational avenues. In Huxley's boyhood
+at least a comfortable income was necessary for this: in every
+civilised country nowadays, state endowments, or private endowments,
+are ready to help every capable boy, as far as Huxley was helped, and
+in his progress from boyhood to supreme distinction, there is nothing
+that cannot be emulated by every boy at school to-day. The minds of
+human beings when they are born into the world are as naked as their
+bodies; it matters not if parents, grandparents, and remoter ancestors
+were unlettered or had the wisdom of all the ages, the new mind has to
+build up its own wisdom from the beginning. We cannot even say with
+certainty that children inherit mental aptitudes and capacities from
+their parents; for as tall sons may come from short parents or
+beautiful daughters from ugly parents, so we may find in the
+capacities of the parents no traces of the future greatness of their
+children. None the less it is interesting to learn what we can about
+the parents of great men; and Huxley tells us that he thinks himself
+to have inherited many characters of his body and mind from his
+mother.
+
+Thomas Henry Huxley was born on the 4th of May, 1825, at Ealing, then
+a little country village, now united to London as a great suburb. He
+was the seventh child of George Huxley, who was second master at the
+school of Dr. Nicholson at Ealing. In these days private schools of
+varying character were very numerous in England, and this
+establishment seems to have been of high-class character, for Cardinal
+Newman and many other distinguished men received part of their
+education there. His mother, whose maiden name was Rachel Withers,
+was, he tells us himself:[A]
+
+     "A slender brunette of an emotional and energetic temperament,
+     and possessed of the most piercing black eyes I ever saw in a
+     woman's head. With no more education than other women of the
+     middle classes in her day, she had an excellent mental capacity.
+     Her most distinguishing characteristic, however, was rapidity of
+     thought. If one ventured to suggest she had not taken much time
+     to arrive at any conclusion, she would say, 'I cannot help it.
+     Things flash across me.' That peculiarity has been passed on to
+     me in full strength: it has often stood me in good stead: it has
+     sometimes played me sad tricks, and it has always been a danger.
+     But, after all, if my time were to come over again there is
+     nothing I would less willingly part with than my inheritance of
+     'mother wit.'"
+
+From his father he thinks that he inherited little except an inborn
+capacity for drawing, "a hot temper, and that amount of tenacity of
+purpose which unfriendly observers sometimes call obstinacy." As it
+happened, this natural gift for drawing proved of the greatest service
+to him throughout his career. It is imperative that every investigator
+of the anatomy of plants and animals should be able to sketch his
+observations, and there is no greater aid to seeing things as they are
+than the continuous attempt to reproduce them by pencil or brush.
+
+Huxley was christened Thomas Henry, and he was unaware why these names
+were chosen, but he humorously records the curious chance that his
+parents should have chosen for him the "name of that particular
+apostle with whom he had always felt most sympathy."
+
+Of his childhood little is recorded. He remembers being vain of his
+curls, and his mother's expressed regret that he soon lost the beauty
+of early childhood. He attended for some time the school at Ealing
+with which his father was associated, but he has little to say for the
+training he received there. He writes:
+
+     "My regular school training was of the briefest, perhaps
+     fortunately: for, though my way of life has made me acquainted
+     with all sorts and conditions of men, from the highest to the
+     lowest, I deliberately affirm that the society I fell into at
+     school was the worst I have ever known. We boys were average lads
+     with much the same inherent capacity for good and evil as any
+     others; but the people who were set over us cared about as much
+     for our intellectual and moral welfare as if they were
+     baby-farmers. We were left to the operation of the struggle for
+     existence among ourselves, and bullying was the least of the ill
+     practices current among us. Almost the only cheerful reminiscence
+     in connection with the place which arises in my mind is that of a
+     battle which I had with one of my class-mates, who had bullied me
+     until I could stand it no longer. I was a very slight lad, but
+     there was a wild-cat element in me which, when roused, made up
+     for my lack of weight, and I licked my adversary effectually.
+     However, one of my first experiences of the extremely rough and
+     ready nature of justice, as exhibited by the course of things in
+     general, arose out of the fact that _I_--the victor--had a black
+     eye, while he--the vanquished--had none, so that I got into
+     disgrace and he did not. One of the greatest shocks I ever
+     received in my life was to be told, a dozen years afterwards by
+     the groom who brought me my horse in a stable-yard in Sydney,
+     that he was my quondam antagonist. He had a long story of family
+     misfortune to account for his position--but at that time it was
+     necessary to deal very cautiously with mysterious strangers in
+     New South Wales, and on enquiry I found that the unfortunate
+     young man had not only been 'sent out,' but had undergone more
+     than one colonial conviction."
+
+Huxley was soon removed from school and continued his own education
+for several years, by reading of the most desultory sort. His special
+inclinations were towards mechanical problems, and had he been able to
+follow his own wishes there is little doubt but that he would have
+entered on the profession of an engineer. It is probable that there
+was a great deal more in his wishes than the familiar inclination of a
+clever boy to engineering. All through the pursuit of anatomy, which
+was the chief business of his life, it was the structure of animals,
+the different modifications of great ground-plans which they
+presented, that interested him. But the opportunity for engineering
+did not present itself, and at an exceedingly early age he began to
+study medicine. Two brothers-in-law were doctors, and this accidental
+fact probably determined his choice. In these days the study of
+medicine did not begin as now with a general and scientific education,
+but the young medical student was apprenticed to a doctor engaged in
+practice. He was supposed to learn the compounding of drugs in the
+dispensary attached to the doctor's consulting-room; to be taught the
+dressing of wounds and the superficial details of the medical craft
+while he pursued his studies in anatomy under the direction of the
+doctor. Huxley's master was his brother-in-law, Dr. Salt, a London
+practitioner, and he began his work when only twelve or thirteen years
+of age. In this system everything depended upon the superior; under
+the careful guidance of a conscientious and able man it was possible
+for an apt pupil to learn a great deal of science and to become an
+expert in the treatment of disease. Huxley, however, had only a short
+experience of this kind of training. He was taken by some senior
+student friends to a post-mortem examination, and although then, as
+all through his life, he was most sensitive to the disagreeable side
+of anatomical pursuits, on this occasion he gratified his curiosity
+too ardently. He did not cut himself, but in some way poisonous matter
+from the body affected him, and he fell into so bad a state of health
+that he had to be sent into the country to recruit. He lived for some
+time at a farmhouse in Warwickshire with friends of his father and
+slowly recovered health. From that time, however, all through his
+life, he suffered periodically from prostrating dyspepsia. After some
+months devoted to promiscuous reading he resumed his work under his
+brother-in-law in London. He confesses that he was far from a model
+student.
+
+     "I worked extremely hard when it pleased me, and when it did
+     not,--which was a frequent case,--I was extremely idle (unless
+     making caricatures of one's pastors and masters is to be called a
+     branch of industry), or else wasted my energies in wrong
+     directions. I read everything I could lay hands upon, including
+     novels, and took up all sorts of pursuits to drop them again
+     quite speedily."
+
+It is almost certain, however, that Huxley underestimated the value of
+this time. He stored his mind with both literature and science, and
+laid the foundation of the extremely varied intellectual interests
+which afterwards proved to him of so much value. It is certain, also,
+that during this time he acquired a fair knowledge of French and
+German. It would be difficult to exaggerate the value to him of this
+addition to his weapons for attacking knowledge. To do the best work
+in any scientific pursuit it is necessary to freshen one's own mind by
+contact with the ideas and results of other workers. As these workers
+are scattered over different countries it is necessary to transcend
+the confusion of Babel and read what they write in their own tongues.
+When Huxley was young, the great reputation of Cuvier overshadowed
+English anatomy, and English anatomists did little more than seek in
+nature what Cuvier had taught them to find. In Germany other men and
+other ideas were to be found. Johannes Mueller and Von Baer were
+attacking the problems of nature in a spirit that was entirely
+different, and Huxley, by combining what he was taught in England with
+what he learned from German methods, came to his own investigations
+with a wider mind. But his conquest of French and German brought with
+it advantages in addition to these technical gains. There is no reason
+to believe that he troubled himself with grammatical details and with
+the study of these languages as subjects in themselves. He acquired
+them simply to discover the new ideas concealed in them, and he by no
+means confined himself to the reading of foreign books on the subjects
+of his own studies. He read French and German poetry, literature, and
+philosophy, and so came to have a knowledge of the ideas of those
+outside his own race on all the great problems that interest mankind.
+A good deal has been written as to the narrowing tendency of
+scientific pursuits, but with Huxley, as with all the scientific men
+the present writer has known, the mechanical necessity of learning to
+read other languages has brought with it that wide intellectual
+sympathy which is the beginning of all culture and which is not
+infrequently missed by those who have devoted themselves to many
+grammars and a single literature. The old proverb, "Whatever is worth
+doing is worth doing well," has only value when "well" is properly
+interpreted. Although the science of language is as great as any
+science, it is not the science of language, but the practical
+interpretation of it, that is of value to most people, and there is
+much to be said for the method of anatomists like Huxley, who passed
+lightly over grammatical _minutiæ_ and went straight with a dictionary
+to the reading of each new tongue.
+
+After a short period of apprenticeship, or sometimes during the
+course of it, the young medical students "walked" a hospital. This
+consisted in attending the demonstrations of the physicians and
+surgeons in the wards of the hospital and in pursuing anatomical,
+chemical, and physiological study in the medical school attached to
+the hospital. A large fee was charged for the complete course, but at
+many of the hospitals there were entrance scholarships which relieved
+those who gained them of all cost. In 1842 Huxley and his elder
+brother, James, applied for such free scholarships at Charing Cross
+Hospital. There is no record in the books of the hospital as to what
+persons supported the application. The entry in the minutes for
+September 6, 1842, states that
+
+     "Applications from the following gentlemen (including the two
+     sons of Mr. George Huxley, late senior assistant master in Ealing
+     School), were laid before the meeting, and their testimonials
+     being approved of, it was decided that those gentlemen should be
+     admitted as free scholars, if their classical attainments should
+     be found upon examination to be satisfactory."
+
+It appears that the two Huxleys were able to satisfy the probably
+unexacting demands of the classical examiners, for they began their
+hospital work in October of the same year.
+
+Those who know the magnificent laboratories and lecture-rooms which
+have grown up in connection with the larger London hospitals must have
+difficulty in realising the humble arrangements for teaching students
+in the early forties. What endowments there were--and Charing Cross
+was never a richly endowed hospital--were devoted entirely to the
+hospital as opposed to the teaching school. There were no separate
+buildings for anatomy, physiology, and so forth. At Charing Cross the
+dissecting-room was in a cellar under the hospital, and subjects like
+chemistry, botany, physiology, and so forth were crowded into
+inconvenient side rooms. The teachers were not specialists, devoting
+their whole attention to particular branches of science, but were
+doctors engaged in practice, who, in addition to their private duties
+and their work at the hospital, each undertook to lecture upon a
+special scientific subject. Huxley came specially under the influence
+of Mr. Wharton Jones, who had begun to teach physiology at the
+hospital a year before. Mr. Jones throughout his life was engaged in
+professional work, his specialty being ophthalmic surgery, but he was
+a devoted student of anatomy and physiology, and made several
+classical contributions to scientific knowledge, his best-known
+discoveries relating to blood corpuscles and to the nature of the
+mammalian egg-cell. But perhaps his greatest claim to fame is that it
+was he who first imbued Huxley with a love for anatomical science and
+with a knowledge of the methods of investigation. At the end of his
+first session, in 1843, Huxley received the first prize in the senior
+physiology class, while his brother got a "good conduct" prize. Of
+Wharton Jones Huxley writes:
+
+     "The extent and precision of his knowledge impressed me greatly,
+     and the severe exactness of his method of lecturing was quite to
+     my taste. I do not know that I have ever felt so much respect for
+     anybody as a teacher before or since. I worked hard to obtain his
+     approbation, and he was extremely kind and helpful to the
+     youngster who, I am afraid, took up more of his time than he had
+     any right to do. It was he who suggested the publication of my
+     first scientific paper--a very little one--in the _Medical
+     Gazette_ of 1845, and most kindly corrected the literary faults
+     which abounded in it short as it was. For at that time, and for
+     many years afterwards, I detested the trouble of writing and
+     would take no pains over it."
+
+This little paper, although Huxley deprecates it, was remarkable as
+the work of so young an investigator. In it he demonstrated the
+existence of a hitherto unrecognised layer in the inner root-sheath of
+hairs, a layer that has been known since as Huxley's layer.
+
+There is no record in the minutes of the hospital school that Huxley
+gained any other school prizes. His name reappears only in formal
+applications at the beginning of each session for the renewal of his
+free scholarship. In this respect he is in marked contrast to his
+fellow-student, afterwards Sir Joseph Fayrer, who appears to have
+taken almost every prize open to him. On the other hand, his
+attainments in anatomy and physiology brought him distinction in a
+wider field than the hospital school, for he obtained, in the
+"honours" division of the first examination for the degree of Bachelor
+of Medicine at the University of London, the second place with a
+medal. And it is certain that he was far from neglecting his strictly
+professional work, although, no doubt, he devoted much time to reading
+and research in pure science, for in the winter of 1845-46, having
+completed his course at the hospital, he was prepared to offer himself
+at the examination for the membership of the Royal College of
+Surgeons; but, being as yet under twenty-one years of age, could not
+be admitted as a candidate.
+
+It was now time for Huxley definitely to enter on his profession. He
+would have preferred to continue his investigations in London and to
+wait for the chance of a teaching post in physiology, but it was
+necessary to earn a living. One of those whom he consulted was his
+fellow-student, Joseph Fayrer, who, hailing from Bermuda, knew
+something of those who go down to the sea in ships. He advised Huxley
+to write to Sir William Burnett, at that time Director-General for the
+medical service of the navy, for an appointment.
+
+     "I thought this rather a strong thing to do," says Huxley in his
+     autobiography, "as Sir William was personally unknown to me; but
+     my cheery friend would not listen to my scruples, so I went to my
+     lodgings and wrote the best letter I could devise. A few days
+     afterwards I received the usual official circular of
+     acknowledgement, but at the bottom was written an instruction to
+     call at Somerset House on such a day. I thought that looked like
+     business, so, at the appointed time I called and sent in my card,
+     while I waited in Sir William's ante-room. He was a tall,
+     shrewd-looking old gentleman, with a broad Scotch accent--and I
+     think I see him now as he entered with my card in his hand. The
+     first thing he did was to return it with the frugal reminder that
+     I should probably find it useful on some other occasion. The
+     second was to ask whether I was an Irishman. I suppose the air of
+     modesty about my appeal must have struck him. I satisfied the
+     Director-General that I was English to the backbone, and he made
+     some enquiries as to my student career, finally desiring me to
+     hold myself ready for examination. Having passed this, I was in
+     Her Majesty's service, and entered on the books of Nelson's old
+     ship, the _Victory_, for duty at Haslar Hospital, about a couple
+     of months after I made my application."
+
+About the same time he passed the examination of the Royal College of
+Surgeons and so became a fully qualified medical man. Haslar Hospital
+was the chief naval hospital to which invalided sailors were sent.
+There was a considerable staff of young surgeons, as navy surgeons
+were usually sent for a term to work in the hospital before being
+gazetted to a ship in commission. In connection with the hospital,
+there was a museum of natural history containing a collection of
+considerable importance slowly gathered from the gifts of sailors and
+officers. The museum curator was an enthusiastic naturalist, and
+Huxley must have had the opportunity of extending his knowledge of at
+least the external characters of many forms of life hitherto unknown
+to him. A few years later, the curator of the museum, with the help of
+two of Huxley's successors, published a _Manual of Natural History for
+the Use of Travellers_, and it is certain that Huxley at least did not
+lose at Haslar any of the enthusiasm for zoölogy with which he had
+been inspired at the Charing Cross Hospital. The chief of the hospital
+was Sir John Richardson, an excellent naturalist, and well known as an
+arctic explorer. He seems to have recognised the peculiar ability of
+his young assistant, and although he was a silent, reserved man, who
+seldom encouraged his assistants by talking to them, he made several
+attempts to obtain a suitable post for Huxley. Such a post was that of
+surgeon to H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_, then about to start under the command
+of Captain Owen Stanley for surveying work in the Torres Straits.
+Captain Stanley had expressed a wish for a surgeon who knew something
+of science, and, on the recommendation of Sir John Richardson,
+obtained the post for Huxley. There was, however, to be a special
+naturalist attached to the expedition, but Huxley had the opportunity
+he wanted. After a brief stay of seven months at the Haslar Hospital
+he left it for his ship, and thus definitely entered on his work in
+the world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote A: This and many other details in this chapter are taken
+from an autobiographical sketch in the first volume of Huxley's
+collected essays published by Macmillan, London, 1894.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE "RATTLESNAKE"
+
+     The Objects of the Voyage--The Route--The Naturalist and the
+     Surgeon--Collecting and Dredging--Stay in Sydney--Adventures with
+     the Natives--Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the _Beagle_.
+
+
+Her Majesty's ship the _Rattlesnake_, one of the old class of 28-gun
+ships, sailed from Plymouth for the Torres Straits and the Australian
+seas on December 12, 1846. Her commander was Captain Owen Stanley, a
+young but distinguished officer, the son of the Bishop of Norwich and
+a brother of Dean Stanley, who afterwards played so great a part in
+the social and religious history of England. She carried a complement
+of 180 officers and men, and was attended by the _Bramble_ and the
+_Castlereagh_, two small vessels of light draught, whose purpose was
+to precede her in shallow waters. The young colonies of Australia were
+developing commerce with the mother country, and the business of the
+_Rattlesnake_ was to survey the waters round about the Torres Straits,
+that the passage towards India on the homeward trip might be made
+safer. Incidentally the vessel was to land a treasure of £50,000 at
+the Cape of Good Hope, and another of £15,000 at the Mauritius. The
+Admiralty Commissioners left full powers to Captain Stanley to carry
+out the details of his mission according to his own judgment, but he
+was solemnly warned upon two points. Many very unfortunate casualties
+had occurred when sailors came in contact with the little-known
+savages of the southern seas, and the Admiralty instructed him as
+follows:
+
+     "In stretching off from the Barrier Reefs to the eastward, in
+     order to explore the safety of the sea intervening between them
+     and Louisiade and New Guinea, you will have occasion to approach
+     these shores, in which case you must constantly be on your guard
+     against the treacherous disposition of their inhabitants. All
+     barter for refreshments must be conducted under the eye of an
+     officer, and every pains be taken to avoid giving any just cause
+     of offence to their prejudices, especially with respect to their
+     women."
+
+The second warning concerned grave international matters. European
+politics were in the unsettled condition which, after the illusive
+international courtesies of the Great Exhibition of 1851, ended in the
+Crimean War, and it was feared that in the event of hostilities
+breaking out, the zeal of the officers for their country might tempt
+them to transcend their peaceful occupation. The instructions with
+regard to this ran as follows:
+
+     "In the event of this country being involved in hostilities
+     during your absence, you will take care never to be surprised;
+     but you are to refrain from any act of aggression towards the
+     vessels or settlements of any nation with which we may be at war,
+     as expeditions employed on behalf of discovery and science have
+     always been considered by all civilised communities as acting
+     under a general safeguard."
+
+The great scientific expeditions sent out in recent times by the
+governments of Britain, Germany, and the United States, were fitted
+with every convenience for the staff of naturalists, and the luxuries
+and comforts of civilisation attended them round the world. The late
+Professor Mosely, for instance, who was a naturalist on the English
+_Challenger_ expedition, told the present writer of a pleasant way in
+which a peculiarity of the deep sea was made to pay toll to the
+comfort of those on board ship. The great ocean depths all over the
+world, under the burning skies of the tropics, or below the arctic
+ice-fields, are extremely cold, the water at the bottom always being
+only a few degrees above freezing point. When the dredge brought up a
+sample of the abysmal mud at a convenient time, it was used to ice the
+wine for the officers' mess. There was, however, no cooled champagne
+for Huxley.
+
+     "Life on board Her Majesty's ships in those days," he writes,
+     "was a very different affair from what it is now, and ours was
+     exceptionally rough, as we were often many months without
+     receiving letters or seeing any civilised people but ourselves.
+     In exchange, we had the interest of being about the latest
+     voyagers, I suppose, to whom it could be possible to meet with
+     people who knew nothing of fire-arms--as we did on the south
+     coast of New Guinea--and of making acquaintances with a variety
+     of interesting savage and semi-civilised people. But apart from
+     experience of this kind, and the opportunities offered for
+     scientific work, to me personally the cruise was extremely
+     valuable. It was good for me to live under sharp discipline; to
+     be down on the realities of existence by living on bare
+     necessities; to find out how extremely well worth living life
+     seemed to be when one woke up from a night's rest on a soft plank
+     with the sky for canopy, and cocoa and weevilly biscuit the sole
+     prospect for breakfast; and more especially to learn to work for
+     the sake of what I got for myself out of it, even if it all went
+     to the bottom and I myself along with it. My brother officers
+     were as good fellows as sailors ought to be, and generally are,
+     but naturally they neither knew nor cared anything about my
+     pursuits, nor understood why I should be so zealous in pursuit
+     of the objects which my friends the middies christened 'Buffons,'
+     after the title conspicuous on a volume of the _Suites à Buffon_
+     which stood on my shelf in the chart-room."
+
+Huxley was only the surgeon on board the _Rattlesnake_, and his
+pursuit of natural history was his own affair. There was a special
+naturalist appointed to the expedition, no doubt chosen because four
+years earlier, as assistant to Professor Jukes, he had been attached
+as naturalist to the expedition of the _Fly_ in the same waters. His
+name was John MacGillivray, and he was the son of an exceedingly able
+naturalist whose reputation has been overshadowed by the greater names
+of the middle century. William MacGillivray, the father, sometime
+professor at the University of Aberdeen, was one of those driven by an
+almost instinctive desire to the study of nature. In his youth, when
+he was a poor lad, desiring to see as much as possible of his native
+land, and above all to visit the great museums and libraries of the
+south, he walked from Aberdeen to London with no luggage but a copy of
+Smith's _Flora Britannica_. He was an ardent botanist, a collector of
+insects and molluscs, and one of the pioneers in the anatomy of birds.
+There are many curious allusions in his writings which seem to shew
+that he too was beginning to doubt the fixity of species, and to guess
+at the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest which the
+great Darwin was the first to make a part of the knowledge of the
+world. It must be confessed that his son John, the companion of
+Huxley, had little of his father's ability. He was three years older
+than Huxley, and broke off his medical course at the University of
+Edinburgh to sail in the _Fly_. After the return of the _Rattlesnake_,
+he was appointed in 1852 as naturalist to H.M.S. _Herald_, then
+starting under Captain Denham for surveying work round the shores of
+South America. He left that ship at Sydney, and after many years'
+wandering about the southern seas, accounts of which he communicated
+from time to time to Sydney newspapers, he died in 1867. He was a
+zealous collector of plants and animals, but apparently cared little
+for the study of his captures, either in life, in relation to their
+surroundings, like Darwin, or for the structure of their bodies, like
+Huxley. The somewhat unpleasing nature of his regard for animals
+appears in the following story which he himself tells:
+
+     "While at dinner off Darnley Island near the Torres Straits, news
+     was brought that Dzum was under the stern in a canoe, shouting
+     out loudly for Dzoka (MacGillivray's native name), and, on going
+     up I found that he had brought off the barit, which after a deal
+     of trouble I struck a bargain for and obtained. It was a very
+     fine specimen of Cuscus Maculatus, quite tame and kept in a large
+     cage of split bamboo. Dzum seemed very unwilling to part with the
+     animal, and repeatedly enjoined me to take great care of it and
+     feed it well, which to please him I promised to do, although I
+     valued it merely for its skin, and was resolved to kill it for
+     that purpose at my first convenience."
+
+On the other hand, MacGillivray paid great attention to native
+languages, and collected vocabularies of some value. To him was
+entrusted the task of writing an account of the voyage, and it is from
+his rather dull pages, brightened by illustrations from Huxley's
+sketches, that the incidents of the voyage are taken. The references
+to Huxley in the narrative are slight, and seem to shew that no great
+intimacy existed between the two young men, the one a naturalist by
+profession, the other as yet a surgeon, but more devoted to natural
+history than the naturalist. Such references as occur relate to
+Huxley's constant occupations on shore, sketching natives and their
+dwellings, and his apparatus on board for trawling, dredging, and
+dissecting.
+
+The voyage out was uneventful. The ship touched at Madeira and at Rio
+de Janeiro, and then crossed the South Atlantic to Simon's Town at the
+Cape of Good Hope, where the first quantity of treasure was to be
+landed. There they found the colony distressed by the long continuance
+of the Kaffir war. Prices for everything were extortionate, and the
+colonists had no mind for any affairs than their own, so after a short
+stay the voyagers were glad to set out for the Mauritius. That island,
+although in the possession of Britain, still retained a strong impress
+of its French occupation, and the travellers were interested by the
+mixture of population inhabiting it.[B]
+
+     "Passing through the closely packed lines of shipping, and
+     landing as a stranger at Port Louis, perhaps the first thing to
+     engage attention is the strange mixture of
+     nations,--representatives, he might at first be inclined to
+     imagine, of half the countries of the earth. He stares at a
+     coolie from Madras with a breech-cloth and a soldier's jacket, or
+     a stately bearded Moor striking a bargain with a Parsee merchant.
+     A Chinaman with two bundles slung on a bamboo hurries past,
+     jostling a group of young Creole exquisites smoking their
+     cheroots at a corner, and talking of last night's Norma, or the
+     programme of the evening's performance at the Hippodrome in the
+     Champ de Mars. His eye next catches a couple of sailors reeling
+     out of a grogshop, to the amusement of a group of laughing
+     negresses, in white muslin dresses of the latest Parisian
+     fashion, contrasting strongly with a modestly attired Cingalese
+     woman, and an Indian ayah with her young charge. Amidst all this,
+     the French language prevails; and everything more or less
+     pertains of the French character, and an Englishman can scarcely
+     believe that he is in one of the colonies of his own country."
+
+From Mauritius they proceeded to the English-looking colony of
+Tasmania, and after a few days set out for Sydney, arriving there on
+July 16th. The surveying officers had tedious work to do there, and
+Huxley stayed in Sydney for three months. Then, and in the course of
+three other prolonged stays in that town during the expedition, Huxley
+entered into the society of the town and became a general favourite.
+He is still remembered there, and the accompanying illustration[C] is
+a copy of an original sketch of himself, now in the possession of an
+Australian lady. He drew it on the fly-leaf of a volume of Lytton's
+poems and presented it on her birthday to the little daughter of a
+friend. At Sydney, too, he met and gained the love of the lady, then
+Miss Henrietta A. Heathorn, who afterwards became his wife.
+
+On October 11th the _Rattlesnake_ sailed northwards to begin the real
+work of the expedition. The great island of New Guinea, lying to the
+north of Australia, is separated from it only by the comparatively
+narrow Torres Straits. Through these lies the natural route for the
+commerce between Australia and the Northern Hemisphere. The eastward
+prolongation of New Guinea, and the coast of Queensland, enclose
+between them a great tropical sea which gradually converges to the
+Straits. The waters are very tempestuous, and the navigation is made
+more dangerous by the thousands of coral islands and coral reefs that
+stud the ocean. Following the shoreline of Queensland, at a distance
+of from ten to one hundred and fifty miles, and stretching for twelve
+hundred and fifty miles, is the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, one
+of the wonders of the world. The shelving floor of the ocean rises
+nearly to the surface along this line, and vast colonies of coral
+building creatures have formed their reefs up to the water's edge
+along the ridge. The turbulent waves scouring over this living mass
+have carved and moulded it into millions of fantastic islands,
+sometimes heaping detached masses of dead debris high above the
+surface of the water. At low tide the most wonderful fields of the
+animal flowers of the sea are exposed. Some of them form branching
+systems of hard skeletons like stony trees, the soft, brightly
+coloured animals dotted over the stems like buds. Others form solid
+masses; others, again, rounded skull like boulders, or elevations like
+toadstools. The colours of the skeletons and the animals are vivid
+scarlets and purples and greens. Sea anemones, shell-fish, and
+starfish of the most vivid hues are as abundant as the corals.
+Brilliant fish dart through the blossoms of the marine gardens, and
+sea birds scream and wheel in the air. The whole region is a paradise
+for the naturalist. Along the seaward side of the reef the great ocean
+surges and thunders perpetually. Between it and the shore the quiet
+channel glows under the tropical skies. It was amid such scenes as
+these that the _Rattlesnake_ moved for nearly four years in the slow
+work of taking soundings, fixing the exact position of channels
+through the outer reef by slow triangular measurements, and generally
+preparing for the safety of the commerce of all nations. The ship went
+first up to Port Curtis in Brisbane; then fetched back to Sydney. Its
+next trip was south to the strait between Tasmania and Australia,
+then back to Sydney; then again along the Barrier Reef right up to the
+Torres Straits. After work there, it returned again to Sydney, and
+then set out for the Louisiade Archipelago, which stretches through
+the coral sea south-eastward from New Guinea; then again to the
+Australian shores of the Torres Straits, and finally arrived in Sydney
+in March, 1850, where the Captain suddenly died, and the ship was
+ordered to return to England.
+
+Throughout the voyage MacGillivray and Huxley busied themselves with
+collecting animals on sea and on shore. MacGillivray seems to have
+taken for his share of the spoil chiefly such animals as provided
+shells or skins or skeletons suitable for handing over to museums.
+Huxley occupied himself incessantly with dissecting tools and with the
+microscope, with results to be described in a later chapter. The
+better equipped expeditions of modern times were provided with
+elaborate appliances for bringing up samples of living creatures from
+all depths of the floor of the ocean, and with complicated towing nets
+for securing the floating creatures of the surface of the seas. The
+_Rattlesnake_ naturalists had to content themselves with simple
+apparatus devised by themselves. At an early period of the voyage
+attempts were made to take deep soundings, but no bottom was reached
+at a depth of two thousand four hundred fathoms, and their later work
+was confined to surface animals or to inshore dredging in shallow
+waters. They began near Rio.
+
+     "None of the ship's boats could be spared, so I [MacGillivray]
+     hired one pulled by four negro slaves who, although strong,
+     active fellows, had great objections to straining their backs at
+     the oar, when the dredge was down. No sieve having been
+     supplied, we were obliged to sift the contents of the dredge
+     through our hands--a tedious and superficial mode of examination.
+     Two days after, Mr. Huxley and I set to work in Botafogo Bay,
+     provided with a wire-gauze meat-cover and a curious machine for
+     cleaning rice; these answered capitally as substitutes for
+     sieves, and enabled us, by a thorough examination of the contents
+     of the dredge, to detect some forty-five species of Mollusca and
+     Radiata, some of which were new to science."
+
+By "new to science" MacGillivray meant no more than that the
+particular genera and species had not been captured before. Huxley, by
+his anatomical work, showed many of the most familiar creatures in a
+light "new to science," by revealing their true structure and
+relationships.
+
+     "Among the acquisitions," MacGillivray goes on, "I may mention a
+     new species of Amphioxus, a genus of small fishes exhibiting more
+     anomalies than any other known to Ichthyologists, and the lowest
+     organisation found in the class. It somewhat resembles the
+     sand-eels of Britain in habits, like them moving with
+     extraordinary rapidity through the sand. By dint of bribery and
+     ridicule we had at length managed to get our boatmen to work
+     tolerably well, and when we were alike well-roasted by the sun
+     and repeatedly drenched, besides being tired out and hungry, they
+     had become quite submissive, and exchanged their grumbling for
+     merriment."
+
+The towing net repeatedly produced a rich harvest. It was constructed
+by themselves, and consisted of a bag of the bunting used for flags,
+two feet deep, the mouth being sewn round a wooden hoop fourteen
+inches in diameter; three pieces of cord, a foot and a half long, were
+secured to the hoop at equal intervals and had their ends tied
+together. This net was towed behind the ship by a stout cord. The
+water passed through the meshes of the cloth and left behind in the
+pocket any small floating animals.
+
+Excursions ashore to the little savage islands or to the mainland were
+a source of constant interest, and it cannot be doubted that the
+acquaintance Huxley thus gained with many of the very low savages of
+Australia and New Guinea prepared his mind for the revolutionary
+doctrine of descent which he embraced a few years later. At the
+present time, there are probably very few parts of earth where there
+are yet to be found savages unaltered by civilisation. Some of the low
+races with which Huxley came in contact are now extinct. All the
+survivors have come in contact with white races, and their habits and
+customs have been altered. Before long the total extinction of these
+lower races is to be expected, and there will then be left an enormous
+gap between the lower animals and the dominant, aggressive, yellow and
+white races which are spreading over the earth and making the lower
+races perish before them, as the smaller but more cunning European rat
+has exterminated the native brown rat of Australia. In their various
+excursions upon the Australian mainland they had no trouble of any
+kind with the natives. These were at first suspicious of the doings of
+the white men, and their total ignorance of the use of firearms
+tempted them to rashness; but a few friendly gifts, and the exercise
+of tact in negotiating exchanges with them, made all the encounters
+pass off pleasantly. On the other hand, in the Louisiade Archipelago
+where the savages were of a higher type, difficulties constantly
+occurred. On one occasion, in a bay on the south side of Joannet
+Island the party was attacked.
+
+     "In the grey of the morning the look-outs reported the approach
+     of three canoes with about ten men in each. On two or three
+     persons shewing themselves in the bow of the pinnace, in front of
+     the rain awning, the natives ceased paddling, as if baulked in
+     their design of surprising the large boat; but, after a short
+     consultation, they came alongside in their usual noisy manner.
+     After a stay of about five minutes only they pushed off to the
+     galley, and some more sham bartering was attempted, but they had
+     nothing to give in exchange for the wares they so much coveted.
+     In a short time the rudeness and overbearing insolence of the
+     natives had risen to a pitch which left no doubt of their hostile
+     intentions. The anchor was got up, when some of the blacks seized
+     the painter, and others, in trying to capsize the boat, brought
+     the gunwale down to the water's edge, at the same time grappling
+     with the men to pull them out, and dragging the galley inshore
+     towards the shoal-water. The bowman, with the anchor in his hand,
+     was struck on the head with a stone-headed axe. The blow was
+     repeated, but fortunately took effect only on the wash-streak.
+     Another of the crew was struck at with a similar weapon, but
+     warded off the blow, although held fast by one arm, when, just as
+     the savage was making another stroke, Lieutenant Dayman, who up
+     till now had exercised the utmost forbearance, fired at him with
+     a musket. The man did not drop, although wounded in the thigh.
+     But even this, unquestionably their first experience of firearms,
+     did not intimidate the natives, one of whom, standing on a block
+     of coral, threw a spear which passed across the breast of one of
+     the boat's crew and lodged in the bend of one arm, opening a
+     vein. They raised a loud shout when the spear was seen to take
+     effect, and threw several others which missed. Lieutenant
+     Simpson, who had been watching what was going on, then fired from
+     the pinnace with buckshot and struck them, when, finding that the
+     large boat, though at anchor, could assist the smaller one, the
+     canoes were paddled inshore in great haste and confusion. Some
+     more musket shots were fired, and the galley went in chase
+     endeavouring to turn the canoes, so as to bring them under fire
+     of the pinnace's twelve-pounder howitzer, which was speedily
+     mounted and fired. The shot either struck one of the canoes or
+     went within a few inches of the mark, on which the natives
+     instantly jumped overboard into the shallow water, making for the
+     mangroves, which they succeeded in reaching, dragging their
+     canoes with them. Two rounds of grape-shot crashing through the
+     branches dispersed the party, but afterwards they moved two of
+     the canoes out of sight. The remaining one was brought out after
+     breakfast by the galley under cover of the pinnace, and was towed
+     off to some distance. The paddles having been taken out and the
+     spears broken and left in her, she was let go to drift down
+     toward a village whence the attacking party were supposed to have
+     come. Some blood in this canoe, although not the one most aimed
+     at, showed that the firing had not been ineffective. This act of
+     deliberate treachery was perpetrated by persons who had always
+     been well treated by us, for several of the natives present were
+     recognised as having been alongside the ship in Coral Haven.
+     This, their first act of positive hostility, affords, I think,
+     conclusive evidence of the savage disposition of the natives of
+     this part of the Louisiade Archipelago when incited by the hope
+     of plunder, and shews that no confidence should ever be reposed
+     in them, unless, perhaps in the presence of a numerically
+     superior force, or in the close vicinity of a ship. At the same
+     time, the boldness of these savages in attacking, with thirty men
+     in three canoes, two boats known to contain at least twenty
+     persons--even in the hopes of taking them by surprise--and in not
+     being at once driven off upon feeling the novel and deadly
+     effects of firearms, shews no little amount of bravery."
+
+On their last visit to Cape York, in the extreme north of Australia,
+the party had the remarkable experience of rescuing a white woman from
+captivity among the natives.
+
+     "In the afternoon some of our people on shore were surprised to
+     see a young white woman come up to claim their protection from a
+     party of natives from whom she had recently made her escape, and
+     who she thought would otherwise bring her back. Of course she
+     received every attention, and was taken on board the ship by the
+     first boat, when she told her story which is briefly as follows:
+     Her name is Barbara Thomson. She was born at Aberdeen in
+     Scotland, and, along with her parents, emigrated to New South
+     Wales. About four years and a half ago she left Moreton Bay with
+     her husband in a small cutter, called the _America_, of which he
+     was the owner, for the purpose of picking up some of the oil from
+     the wreck of a whaler, lost on the Bampton shoal, to which place
+     one of her late crew undertook to guide them; their ultimate
+     intention was to go on to Port Essington. The man who acted as
+     pilot was unable to find the wreck, and after much quarreling on
+     board in consequence, and the loss of two men by drowning and of
+     another who was left on a small uninhabited island, they made
+     their way up to the Torres Straits, where, during a gale of wind
+     their vessel struck upon a reef on the eastern Prince of Wales
+     Island. The two remaining men were lost in attempting to swim on
+     shore through the surf, but the woman was afterwards rescued by a
+     party of natives on a turtling excursion, who, when the gale
+     subsided, swam on board and supported her on shore between two of
+     their number. One of these blacks, Boroto by name, took
+     possession of the woman as his share of the plunder; she was
+     compelled to live with him, but was well treated by all the men,
+     although many of the women, jealous of the attention shewn her,
+     for a long time evinced anything but kindness. A curious
+     circumstance secured for her the protection of one of the
+     principal men of the tribe. This person, acting upon the belief,
+     universal throughout Australia and the islands of the Torres
+     Strait, so far as hitherto known, that white people are the
+     ghosts of the aborigines, fancied that in the stranger he
+     recognised a long-lost daughter, and at once admitted her into
+     the relationship which he thought had formerly subsisted between
+     them. She was immediately acknowledged by the whole tribe as one
+     of themselves, thus securing an extensive connection in relatives
+     of all denominations. The headquarters of the tribe being on an
+     island which all vessels passing through the Torres Strait from
+     the eastward must approach within two or three miles, she had the
+     mortification of seeing from twenty to thirty or more ships go
+     through every summer without anchoring in the neighbourhood, so
+     as to afford the slightest opportunity of making her escape. Last
+     year she heard of our two vessels being at Cape York, only twenty
+     miles distant from some of the tribe who had communicated with us
+     and had been well treated, but they would not take her over and
+     watched her even more narrowly than before. On our second and
+     present visit, however, which the Cape York people immediately
+     announced by smoke signals to their friends, she was successful
+     in persuading some of her more immediate friends to bring her
+     across to the mainland within a short distance of where the
+     vessels lay. The blacks were credulous enough to believe that as
+     she had been so long with them and had been so well treated, she
+     did not intend to leave them,--only 'she felt a strong desire to
+     see the white people once more and shake hands with them': adding
+     that she would be certain to purchase some axes, knives, tobacco,
+     and other much-prized articles."
+
+Although the external adventures of the _Rattlesnake_ party were less
+varied and exciting than might have been expected in a voyage of four
+years in the tropic seas and among barbarian tribes, the mental
+adventures through which Huxley passed in the time must have been of
+the most surprising kind. It was a four-years' course in the great
+university of nature, and when he had finished it he was no longer a
+mere student, capricious and unsettled in his mental tastes and
+inclinations, but had set his face steadily towards his future
+life-work. It is interesting to compare the importance in Huxley's
+life of the _Rattlesnake_ voyage with the importance in Darwin's life
+of the voyage on the _Beagle_ undertaken some fifteen years earlier.
+Huxley, when he started, was a young surgeon with a taste of a vague
+kind for dissecting and for drawing the peculiarities of structure of
+different animals revealed by the knife and the microscope. Day after
+day, month after month, year after year, in the abundant leisure his
+slight professional duties left him, he dissected and drew, dissected
+and drew, animal after animal, as he got them from the dredge or
+tow-net, or from the surface of the coral reefs. He was not in any
+sense of the word a collecting naturalist. The identification and
+naming of species interested him little. What he cared for was, he
+tells us, "the architectural and engineering part of the business: the
+working out of the wonderful unity of plan in the thousands and
+thousands of divers living constructions, and the modifications of
+similar apparatuses to serve different ends." And so, on the
+_Rattlesnake_, and in his work in continuation of the _Rattlesnake_
+investigations,--which occupied most of his time for a few years after
+his return to London,--there was gradually growing up in his mind a
+dim conception of the animal kingdom as a group of creatures, not
+built on half a dozen or more separate plans or types, each
+unconnected with the other, but as a varied set of modifications of a
+single type.
+
+When Darwin set out on the _Beagle_, unlike Huxley, he was an
+enthusiastic collecting naturalist. He had wandered from county to
+county in England adding new specimens to his collections of
+butterflies and beetles. As the _Beagle_ went round the world visiting
+remote islands, far from land in the centre of the waters,
+archipelagoes of islands crowding together, islands hugging the shore
+of continents, and the great continents of the old and new worlds, he
+continued to collect and to classify. Gradually the resemblances and
+differences between the creatures inhabiting different parts of the
+earth began to strike him as exhibiting an orderly plan. He saw that
+under apparently the same conditions of food and temperature and
+moisture, in different parts of the world the genera and species were
+different, and that they were most alike in regions between which
+there was the most recent chance of migrations having taken place. In
+the quietness of England, while Huxley was on the _Rattlesnake_,
+Darwin was slowly working towards the explanation of all he had seen:
+towards the conception that animals and plants had spread slowly from
+common centres, becoming more and more different from each other as
+they spread. He realised on his voyage that species had come into
+existence by descent with modification, and before long he was to
+publish to the world in the _Origin of Species_ a vast and convincing
+bulk of evidence as to the actual fact of a common descent for all the
+different existing organisms, and, in his theory of natural selection,
+a reasonable explanation of how the fact of evolution had come about.
+Darwin's greatest ally in bringing the new idea before the world was
+Huxley, and Huxley was teaching himself the absolute unity of the
+living world. The two men were dissimilar in tastes and temperament,
+and they were at work on quite different sides of nature. When the
+time came, Huxley, with his commanding knowledge of the structure of
+animals, was ready to support Darwin and to illustrate and amplify his
+arguments by a thousand anatomical proofs. It is a curious and
+dramatic coincidence to realise that both men learned their very
+different lessons under very similar circumstances in the tropical
+seas of the Southern Hemisphere.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote B: _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake_," by
+John MacGillivray, F.R.G.S. 2 vols. T.W. Boone, London, 1852.]
+
+[Footnote C: This sketch was reproduced and described in _Natural
+Science_, vol. vii., p. 381, and is now reproduced here by the
+courtesy of the proprietors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA
+
+     The Nature of Floating Life--Memoir on Medusæ Accepted by the
+     Royal Society--Old and New Ideas of the Animal Kingdom--What
+     Huxley Discovered in Medusæ--His Comparison of them with
+     Vertebrate Embryos.
+
+
+As the _Rattlesnake_ sailed through the tropical seas Huxley came in
+contact with the very peculiar and interesting inhabitants of the
+surface of the sea, known now to naturalists as pelagic life or
+"plankton." Although a poet has spoken of the "unvintageable sea," all
+parts of the ocean surface teem with life. Sometimes, as in high
+latitudes, the cold is so great that only the simplest microscopic
+forms are able to maintain existence. In the tropics, animals and
+plants are abundant, and sometimes by their numbers colour great areas
+of water; or, as in the drift of the Gulf Stream, make a tangle of
+animal and plant life through which a boat travels only with
+difficulty. The basis of the food supply of this vast and hungry
+floating life is, as on land, vegetable life; for plants are the only
+creatures capable of building up food from the gases of the air and
+the simple chemical salts found dissolved in water. Occasionally, in
+shallow or warm seas, marine floating plants, large and visible like
+the sea-weeds of the coast, form the floating masses known as Sargasso
+seas; more often the plants are minute, microscopic specks visible
+only when a drop of water is placed under the microscope, but
+occurring in incredible numbers, and, like the green vegetation of the
+earth, forming the ultimate food-supply of all the living things
+around them. Innumerable animals, great and small, live on the plants
+or upon their fellows, and, however far he may be from land, the
+naturalist has always abundant material got by his daily use of the
+tow-net. This drifting population floats at the mercy of the waves.
+Most of the animals are delicate, transparent creatures, their
+transparency helping to protect them from the attacks of hungry
+fellows. Nerves, muscles, skin, and the organs generally are clear,
+pale, and hardly visible. Such structures as the liver, the
+reproductive organs, and the stomach, which cannot easily become
+transparent, are grouped together into small knots, coloured brown
+like little masses of sea-weed. Other floating creatures are vividly
+coloured, but the hues are bright blues and greens closely similar to
+the sparkling tints of sea-water in sunlight. The different members of
+this marine flotsam frequently rise and fall periodically: some of
+them sinking by day to escape the light, others rising only by day;
+others, again, appearing on the surface in spring, keeping deep down
+in winter. Perhaps the majority of them are phosphorescent, sometimes
+shining by their own light, sometimes borrowing a glory from
+innumerable phosphorescent bacteria with which they are infested.
+Nearly every class of the animal kingdom contributes members to this
+strange population. The young forms of many fish, as for instance of
+conger, flying gurnards, and some flatfish, are pelagic and have
+colourless blood, and pale, transparent, gelatinous or cartilaginous
+skeletons. The tadpole-like stages of the sea-squirts, which in adult
+life are to be found attached to rocks like weeds, drift about in the
+surface waters until their time comes for settling down in life. Many
+other Ascidians pass their whole life as pelagic creatures. A few
+molluscs, many kinds of worms, echinoderms, and their allies, crab and
+lobster-like creatures in innumerable different stages of development,
+are to be found there, while unnumbered polyps and jelly-fish are
+always present. It would be difficult to imagine a better training for
+the naturalist than to spend years, as Huxley did, working at this
+varied assortment of living creatures. Huxley declared that the
+difficulties of examining such flimsy creatures had been exaggerated.
+
+     "At least, with a good light and a good microscope, with the ship
+     tolerably steady, I never failed in procuring all the information
+     I required. The great matter is to obtain a good successive
+     supply of specimens, as the more delicate oceanic species are
+     usually unfit for examination within a few hours after they are
+     taken."
+
+Day after day, as the _Rattlesnake_ crept from island to island,
+Huxley examined the animals brought up by his tow-net. He made endless
+dissections, and gradually accumulated a large portfolio of drawings.
+Much of the time he passed at Sydney was spent in libraries and
+museums, comparing his own observations with the recorded observations
+of earlier workers, and receiving from the combination of his own work
+and the work of others new ideas for his future investigations. It was
+all entirely a labour of love; it lay outside the professional duties
+by which he made his living, and for a long time it seemed as if he
+was not even to gain reputation by the discoveries he knew himself to
+be making. He writes in his autobiography:
+
+     "During the four years of our absence, I sent home communication
+     after communication to the 'Linnæan' Society, with the same
+     result as that obtained by Noah when he sent the raven out of his
+     ark. Tired at last of hearing nothing about them, I determined to
+     do or die, and in 1849 I drew up a more elaborate paper and
+     forwarded it to the Royal Society. This was my dove, if I had
+     only known it; but owing to the movements of the ship I heard
+     nothing of that either until my return to England in the latter
+     end of the year 1850, when I found that it was printed and
+     published, and that a huge packet of separate copies awaited me.
+     When I hear some of my young friends complain of want of sympathy
+     and encouragement, I am inclined to think that my naval life was
+     not the least valuable part of my education."
+
+This first successful paper was a memoir _On the Anatomy and the
+Affinities of the Family of Medusæ_, and was sent at Captain Stanley's
+suggestion to that officer's father, the Bishop of Norwich, who
+communicated it to the Royal Society. It is a curious circumstance
+that Huxley, who afterwards met with so virulent opposition from
+bishops, owed his first public success to one of them. Professor Sir
+Michael Foster writes of this period in Huxley's life:
+
+     "The career of many a successful man has shewn that obstacles
+     often prove the mother of endeavour, and never was this lesson
+     clearer than in the case of Huxley. Working amidst a host of
+     difficulties, in want of room, in want of light, seeking to
+     unravel the intricacies of minute structure with a microscope
+     lashed to secure steadiness, cramped within a tiny cabin, jostled
+     by the tumult of a crowded ship's life, with the scantiest supply
+     of books of reference, with no one at hand of whom he could take
+     counsel on the problems opening up before him, he gathered for
+     himself during these four years a large mass of accurate,
+     important, and in most cases novel, observations and illustrated
+     them with skilful, pertinent drawings. Even his intellectual
+     solitude had its good effects: it drove him to ponder over the
+     new facts which came before him, and all his observations were
+     made alive with scientific thought."
+
+Afterwards, in England, he received the Royal Medal of the Royal
+Society for this memoir on Medusæ, sharing this supreme distinction of
+scientific England with men so illustrious as Joule, the discoverer of
+the relation between force and heat, Stokes, the great investigator of
+optical physics, and Humboldt, the traveller, all of whom received
+medals in the same year. In making the presentation to Huxley, the
+Earl of Rosse, then President of the Royal Society, declared:
+
+     "In those papers you have for the first time fully developed
+     their structure (that of the Medusæ), and laid the foundation of
+     a rational theory for their classification. In your second paper,
+     on the anatomy of Salpa and Pyrosoma, the phenomena have received
+     the most ingenious and elaborate elucidations, and have given
+     rise to a process of reasoning, the results of which can scarcely
+     yet be anticipated, but must bear in a very important degree upon
+     some of the most abstruse points of what may be called
+     transcendental physiology."
+
+Many reasons make it difficult for us to realise, now, the singular
+novelty and importance of Huxley's memoir on the Medusæ. The first is
+a reason which often prevents great discoveries in almost every
+subject from receiving in after years their due respect. The years
+that have passed since 1850 have seen not only the most amazing
+progress in our knowledge of comparative anatomy, but almost a
+revolution in the methods of studying it. Huxley's work has been
+incorporated in the very body of science. A large number of later
+investigators have advanced upon the lines he laid down; and just as
+the superstructures of a great building conceal the foundations, so
+later anatomical work, although it has only amplified and extended
+Huxley's discoveries, has made them seem less striking to the modern
+reader. The present writer, for instance, learned all that he knows of
+anatomy in the last ten years, and until he turned to it for the
+purpose of this volume he had never referred to Huxley's original
+paper. When he did so, he found from beginning to end nothing that was
+new to him, nothing that was strange: all the ideas in the memoir had
+passed into the currency of knowledge and he had been taught them as
+fundamental facts. It was only when he turned to the text-books of
+anatomy and natural history current in Huxley's time that he was able
+to realise how the conclusions of the young ship-surgeon struck the
+Fellows and President of the Royal Society as luminous and
+revolutionary ideas.
+
+In the first half of the century, a conception of the animal kingdom
+prevailed which was entirely different from our modern ideas. We know
+now that all animals are bound together by the bond of a common
+descent, and we seek in anatomy a clue to the degrees of relationship
+existing among the different animals we know. We regard the animal
+kingdom as a thicket of branches all springing from a common root.
+Some of these spring straight up from the common root unconnected with
+their fellows. Others branch repeatedly, and all the branches of the
+same stem have features in common. What we see in the living world is
+only the surface of the thicket, the tops of the twigs; and it is by
+examination of the structure of this surface that we reconstruct in
+imagination the whole system of branches, and know that certain twigs,
+from their likeness, meet each other a little way down; that others
+are connected only very deep down, and that others, again, spring
+free almost from the beginning. The fossils of beds of rock of
+different geological ages give us incomplete views of the surface of
+the thicket of life, as it was in earlier times. These views we have
+of the past aspects of the animal kingdom are always much more
+incomplete than our knowledge of the existing aspect; partly because
+many animals, from the softness of their bodies, have left either no
+fossil remains at all, or only very imperfect casts of the external
+surfaces of their bodies; and partly because the turning of any animal
+into a fossil, and its subsequent discovery by a geologist, are
+occasional accidents; but, although the evidence is much less perfect
+than we could wish, there is enough of it to convince anatomists that
+existing animals are all in definite blood-relationship to each other,
+and to make them, in the investigation of any new animal, study its
+anatomy with the definite view of finding out its place in the family
+tree of the living world.
+
+When Huxley made his first discoveries, entirely different ideas
+prevailed. The animal kingdom was supposed to offer a series of types,
+of moulds, into which the Creator at the beginning of the world had
+cast the substance of life. These types were independent of each
+other, and had been so since the beginning of things. Anatomists were
+concerned chiefly with systematic work, with detecting and recording
+the slight differences that existed among the numbers of animals
+grouped around each type. No attempt was made to see connection
+between type and type, for where these had been separately created
+there was nothing to connect them except possibly some idea in the
+mind of the Creator. This apparently barren attitude to nature was
+stronger in men's minds because it had inspired the colossal
+achievements of Cuvier, a genius who, under whatever misconceptions he
+had worked, would have added greatly to knowledge. As we have seen in
+the first chapter, Huxley, through Wharton Jones, and through his own
+reading, had been brought under the more modern German thought of
+Johannes Mueller and Von Baer. He had learned to study the problems of
+living nature in the spirit of a physicist making investigations into
+dead nature. In the anatomy of animals, as in the structure of rocks
+and crystals, there were to be sought out "laws of growth" and shaping
+and moulding influences which accounted for the form of the
+structures. To use the technical term, he was a morphologist: one who
+studied the architecture of animals not merely in a spirit of admiring
+wonder, but with the definite idea of finding out the guiding
+principles which had determined these shapes.
+
+Not only was the prevailing method of investigation faulty, but actual
+knowledge of a large part of the animal kingdom was extremely limited.
+In the minds of most zoölogists the animal kingdom was divided into
+two great groups: the vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrate,
+or back-boned, animals were well known; comparatively speaking they
+are all built upon the type of man; and human anatomists, who indeed
+made up the greater number of all anatomists, using their exact
+knowledge of the human body, had studied many other vertebrates with
+minute care, and, from man to fishes, had arranged living vertebrates
+very much in the modern order. But the invertebrates were a vague and
+ill-assorted heap of animals. It was not recognised that among them
+there were many series of different grades of ascending complexity,
+and there was no well-known form to serve as a standard of comparison
+for all the others in the fashion that the body of man served as a
+standard of comparison for all vertebrates. Here and there, a few
+salient types such as insects and snails had been picked out, but
+knowledge of them helped but little with a great many of the
+invertebrates. The great Linnæus had divided the animal kingdom into
+four groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, but
+for the invertebrates he had done no more than to pick out the insects
+as one group and to call everything else "Vermes" or worms. The
+insects included all creatures possessed of an external skeleton or
+hard skin divided into jointed segments, and included forms so
+different as insects, spiders, crabs, and lobsters. But Vermes
+included all the members of the animal kingdom that were neither
+vertebrates nor insects. Cuvier advanced a little. He got rid of the
+comprehensive title Vermes--the label of the rubbish-heap of
+zoölogists. He divided animals into four great subkingdoms:
+Vertebrates, Mollusca, Articulata, Radiata. These names, however, only
+covered very superficial resemblances among the animals designated by
+them. The word _Mollusca_ only meant that the creatures grouped
+together had soft bodies, unsupported by internal or external
+articulated skeletons; and this character, or, rather, absence of
+character, was applied alike to many totally dissimilar creatures. The
+term _Articulata_ included not only Linnæus's insects but a number of
+soft-skinned, apparently jointed, worm-like animals such as the leech
+and earthworm. Lastly, the name _Radiata_ meant no more than that the
+organs of the creatures so designated were more or less disposed
+around a centre, as the sepals and petals of a flower are grouped
+around the central pistil; and it included animals so different as
+the starfish and sea-anemones and Medusæ. The names used in the
+classification were not only loosely applied but were based on the
+most superficial observation, and took no account of the intimate
+structures of the tissues and organs of the animals. With slight
+modifications, due to individual taste or special knowledge of small
+groups, later writers had followed Linnæus and Cuvier.
+
+It was with a view of the animal kingdom not much clearer than this
+that Huxley began his work on the Medusæ of the tropic seas. He began
+to study them no doubt simply because they were among the most
+abundant of the animals that could be obtained from the ship. He made
+endless dissections and drawings, and, above all, studied their minute
+anatomy with the microscope. They were all placed among Cuvier's
+_Radiata_, but, as Huxley said in the first line of his memoir:
+
+     "Perhaps no class of animals has been investigated with so little
+     satisfactory and comprehensive result, and this not for the want
+     of patience and ability on the part of the observers, but rather
+     because they have contented themselves with stating matters of
+     detail concerning particular genera and species, instead of
+     giving broad and general views of the whole class, considered as
+     organised upon a given type, and inquiring into its relations
+     with other families."
+
+He found that fully developed Medusæ consisted each of a disc with
+tentacles and vesicular bodies at the margins, a stomach, and canals
+proceeding from it, and generative organs. He traced this simple
+common structure through the complications and modifications in which
+it appeared in the different groups of Medusæ, in all this work
+bringing out the prevailing features of the anatomy in contrast to
+the individual peculiarities. He shewed that microscopically all the
+complicated systems of canals and organs were composed of two
+"foundation-membranes," two thin webs of cells, one of which formed
+the outermost layer of the body, while the inner formed the lining of
+the stomach and canals in the thinner parts of the body, such as the
+edges of the umbrella-like disc, and towards the ends of the
+tentacles. These thin webs formed practically all the body. In the
+thicker parts there was interposed between them an almost
+structureless layer of jelly, placed like padding between the lining
+and the cloth of a coat. He shewed that blood-vessels and blood were
+absent, in which he has been confirmed by all other observers. He
+declared more doubtfully against the existence of a special nervous
+system, and it was not until long after, when the methods of
+microscopic investigation were much more perfect, that the delicate
+nerve-cells and nerve-fibres, which we now know to exist, were
+discovered.
+
+Having thus shewn the peculiar organisation of the group he turned to
+seek out its allies among other families. The Medusæ consisted
+essentially of two membranes inclosing a variously shaped cavity
+inasmuch as all its organs were so composed. The generative organs
+were external, being variously developed processes of the two
+membranes. The peculiar organs called thread-cells--poisoned darts by
+the discharge of which prey could be paralysed--were universally
+present. What other families presented these peculiarities?
+
+There are to be found abundantly in sea-water, and less frequently in
+fresh water, innumerable forms of animal life called Zoöphytes or
+animal plants because they occur as encrusting masses like lichens, or
+branched forests like moss, on the surface of stones and shells. A
+common habit gave this set of creatures their common name; but,
+although they were grouped together, there was no greater affinity
+among them than there is racial affinity among people who clothe
+themselves for an evening party in the same conventional dress. Huxley
+examined a large number of these, and picked out from them two great
+families of polyps, the Hydroid and Sertularian polyps, which each
+consist of colonies of creatures very much like the little fresh-water
+hydra. He shewed that the tubular body of these and the ring of
+tentacles surrounding the mouth were composed of the same two
+foundation-membranes of which all the organs of Medusæ are composed.
+He found in them the poisoned arrows or thread-cells of the Medusæ,
+and the same external position of the reproductive organs. And,
+lastly, he separated from all other creatures, and associated with his
+new group, some of the strangest and most beautiful animals of the
+tropic seas, known to science as the Physophoridæ and the Diphyidæ.
+The best-known of these is the "Portuguese man-of-war," the body of
+which consists of a large pear-shaped vesicle which floats on the
+water like a bladder. From the lower part of this depend into the
+water large and small nutritive branches, each ending in a mouth
+surrounded by a circle of waving tentacles armed with batteries of
+thread-cells, while another set of hanging protrusions bear the
+grape-like reproductive organs. On the upper surface of the bladder is
+fixed a purple sail of the most brilliant colour, by which the
+floating creature is blown through the water. When the weather is
+rough, the bladder empties, and the creature sinks down into the quiet
+water below the waves, to rise again when the storm is over. This,
+and its equally wonderful allies, Huxley showed to be a complicated
+colony of hydra-like creatures, each part being composed of two
+membranes, and therefore essentially similar to Medusæ. Thus, by a
+great piece of constructive work, an assemblage of animals was
+gathered into a new group and shewn to be organised upon one simple
+and uniform plan, and, even in the most complex and aberrant forms,
+reducible to the same type. The group, and Huxley's conception of its
+structure, are now absolutely accepted by anatomists, and have made
+one of the corner-stones of our modern idea of the arrangement of the
+animal kingdom. With the exception of sponges, concerning the exact
+relations of which there is still dispute, and of a few sets of
+parasitic and possibly degenerate creatures, all animals, the bodies
+of which are multicellular, from the simple fresh-water hydra up to
+man, are divided into two great groups. The structure of the simpler
+of these groups is exactly what Huxley found to be of importance in
+the Medusæ. The body wall, from which all the organs protrude,
+consists merely of a web of cells arranged in two sheets or membranes,
+and the single cavity consists of a central stomach, surrounded by
+these membranes, the cavity remaining simple or giving rise to a
+number of branching canals. The members of this great division of the
+animal kingdom are the creatures which Huxley selected and placed
+together, with the addition of the sea-anemones and the medusa-like
+Ctenophora, which, indeed, he mentioned in his memoir as being related
+to the others, but reserved fuller consideration for a future
+occasion. This group is now called the CÅ“lenterata, the name
+implying that the creatures are simply hollow stomachs, and it is
+contrasted in the strongest way with the group CÅ“lomata, in which
+are placed all the higher animals, from the simplest worm up to man;
+animals in which, in addition to the two foundation-membranes of the
+CÅ“lenterata, there is a third foundation-membrane, and in which, in
+addition to the simple stomach cavity with its offshoots, there is a
+true body-cavity or cœlome, and usually a set of spaces and
+channels containing a blood-fluid. The older method of naming groups
+of animals after some obvious superficial character lingered on for
+some years in text-books and treatises, but in this memoir the young
+ship-surgeon had replaced it by the modern scientific method of
+grouping animals together only because of real identity of structure.
+
+There is yet left to be noticed perhaps the most wonderful of all the
+ideas in this first memoir by Huxley. In the course of describing the
+two foundation membranes of the Medusæ he remarks:
+
+     "It is curious to remark, that throughout, the outer and inner
+     membranes appear to bear the same physiological relation to one
+     another as do the serous and mucous layers of the germ: the outer
+     becoming developed into the muscular system, and giving rise to
+     the organs of offence and defence: the inner on the other hand
+     appearing to be more closely subservient to the purposes of
+     nutrition and generation."
+
+In the whole range of science it would be difficult to select an
+utterance more prophetic of future knowledge than these few words.
+Huxley had been reading the investigations of Von Baer into the early
+development of back-boned animals. He had learned from them the great
+generalisation, that the younger stages of these animals resemble one
+another more closely than the adult stages, and that in an early stage
+in the development of all these animals the beginning of the embryo
+consists of two layers of cells, in fact of two foundation-membranes,
+one forming specially the wall of the future digestive canal, the
+other forming the most external portion of the future animal. In these
+days nothing could have seemed a remoter or more unlikely comparison
+than one instituted between Medusæ and the embryonic stages of
+back-boned animals. But Huxley made it, not allowing the evidence
+brought before his reason to be swamped by preconceived ideas. At the
+time he did no more than to make the comparison. It was much later
+that the full importance of it became known, when more extended work
+on the embryology of vertebrates and of the different groups of the
+invertebrates had made it plain that the two foundation-membranes of
+Huxley occur in all animals from the Medusæ up to man. In the group of
+CÅ“lenterata the organisation remains throughout life as nothing
+more than a folding in and folding out of these membranes. The early
+stages of all the higher animals similarly consist of complications of
+the two membranes; but later on there is added to them a third
+membrane. Thus the group that Huxley gathered together comprises those
+animals that as adults remain in a condition of development which is
+passed through in the embryonic life of all higher animals. The
+immense importance of this conclusion becomes plain, and the
+conclusion itself seems obvious, when seen in the light of the
+doctrine of descent. The group of CÅ“lenterata represents a
+surviving, older condition in the evolution of animals. Huxley
+himself, when on the _Rattlesnake_, regarded evolution only as a vague
+metaphysical dream, and he made the comparison which has been
+described without any afterthought of what it implied. In this we have
+the earliest authentic instance of the peculiar integrity of mind
+which was so characteristic of him in his dealings with philosophy and
+tradition. He never allowed any weight of authority or any apparent
+disturbance of existing ideas to alter the conclusions to which his
+reason led him. This intellectual courage made him fitted to be the
+leader in the battle for evolution and against traditional thought,
+and we shall find again and again in consideration of his work that it
+was the keynote of his life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY DAYS IN LONDON
+
+     Scientific Work as Unattached Ship-Surgeon--Introduction to
+     London Scientific Society--Translating, Reviewing, and
+     Lecturing--Ascidians--Molluscs and the Archetype--Criticism of
+     Pre-Darwinian Evolution--Appointment to Geological Survey.
+
+
+The _Rattlesnake_ was paid off at Chatham on November 9, 1850. In the
+natural course of events Huxley would have been appointed before long
+to active service upon another ship. But he had no intention of
+relapsing into the position of a mere navy doctor; he had accumulated
+sufficient scientific material to keep him employed on scientific
+investigation for years, and so he applied to the Admiralty to "be
+borne on the books" of H.M.S. _Fisgard_ at Woolwich,--that is to say,
+to be appointed assistant-surgeon to the ship "for particular
+service," so that he should not be compelled to live on board, but
+might remain in town, and, with free access to libraries and museums,
+work up the observations he had made on the _Rattlesnake_ into serious
+and substantial contributions to science. His request was granted,
+largely by the aid of his old chief, Sir W. Burnett, who continued to
+take the most useful interest in the young man he had originally
+nominated to the service. In a letter to him Huxley described the
+investigations which he desired to continue as being chiefly those on
+"the anatomy of certain Gasteropod and Pteropod Mollusca, of Firola
+and Atlantis, of Salpa and Pyrosoma, of two new Ascidians, namely,
+Appendicularia and Doliolum, of Sagitta and certain Annelids, of the
+auditory and circulatory organs of certain transparent Crustacea, and
+of the Medusæ and Polyps." His request was granted, and for the next
+three years Huxley lived in London with his brother, on the exiguous
+income of an assistant-surgeon, and devoted himself to research. He
+became almost at once of the first rank among English anatomists. The
+result of the paper on Medusæ in the _Transactions of the Royal
+Society_ was that he was elected a Fellow of the Society on June 5,
+1851, and a year later received a Royal Medal of the Society. He made
+many warm friendships both among the older and the younger generations
+of scientific men. In his obituary notice of Huxley, Sir Michael
+Foster wrote:
+
+     "By Edward Forbes, in whose nature there was much that was akin
+     to his own, and with whom he had some acquaintance before his
+     voyage, he was at once greeted as a comrade, and with Joseph
+     Dalton Hooker, to whom he was drawn at the very first by their
+     common experience as navy surgeons, he began an attachment which,
+     strengthened by like biological aspirations, grew closer as their
+     lives went on. In the first year after his return, in the autumn
+     of 1851, he made the acquaintance of John Tyndall at the meeting
+     of the British Association at Ipswich, and the three, Hooker,
+     Huxley, and Tyndall, finding how much in common were all their
+     scientific views and desires, formed then and there a triple
+     scientific alliance."
+
+Repeated efforts were made by these three, and by more influential
+friends, to induce the Admiralty to contribute to the expense of
+publishing Huxley's scientific results, as they had given a pledge to
+encourage officers who had done scientific work. These efforts lasted
+unavailingly for nearly three years, and then, as Huxley says: "The
+Admiralty, getting tired, I suppose, cut short the discussion by
+ordering me to join a ship, which thing I declined to do, and, as
+Rastignac, in the _Père Goriot_, says to Paris, I said to London, _
+nous deux_." This light phrase conceals a courageous and momentous
+decision. He was absolutely without private resources, and having
+abandoned his professional work he had no salary of any kind. For a
+year or so he supported himself by writing reviews and popular
+scientific articles, striving all the time not only to gain his bread
+but to continue his scientific work and make it known to the public.
+He desired to get a professorship of physiology or of comparative
+anatomy, and as vacancies occurred he applied, but unsuccessfully. At
+the same time, he tells us, he and his friend, John Tyndall, were
+
+     "candidates, he for the Chair of Physics, and I for that of
+     Natural History in the University of Toronto, which, fortunately,
+     as it turned out, would not look at either of us. I say
+     fortunately, not from any lack of respect for the University of
+     Toronto; but because I soon made up my mind that London was the
+     place for me, and hence I have steadily declined the inducements
+     to leave it which have at various times been offered."
+
+In these early years in London Huxley's work was most varied. A large
+number of anonymous articles by him appeared in the _Literary
+Gazette_, and in other periodicals. He assisted to remove the insular
+narrowness from English scientific work by translating many foreign
+memoirs. With the collaboration of Mr. Henfrey, he edited a series of
+scientific memoirs, all of which were translated from foreign
+languages, and many by his own pen. With the assistance of Mr. George
+Busk he made a translation of Kölliker's _Histology_, a great treatise
+on microscopic anatomy which played a large part in the development of
+the modern English schools of anatomy and physiology. He made some
+valuable contributions to Todd and Bowman's _Cyclopædia of Anatomy_,
+an elaborate publication now nearly forgotten and practically
+superseded, but which was the standard anatomical work of the middle
+of this century. He was unable to progress rapidly with his work upon
+oceanic Medusæ, as he was uncertain how to have it published; the
+Admiralty refused to assist, and it was too lengthy for publication in
+the volumes of the learned Societies. As a matter of fact, he did not
+publish it until 1858, when it appeared as a separate memoir. To the
+_Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_ and to the _Transactions
+of the Royal and Linnæan Societies_ he contributed a large number of
+memoirs dealing with the microscopic anatomy and relationships of
+invertebrates, and, lastly, he gave a series of addresses at the Royal
+Institution, which had been founded as a means by which leading men of
+science might give accounts of their work to London society. Abstracts
+of these lectures are published in the early volumes of the
+_Proceedings of the Royal Institution_ and are interesting as shewing
+the kinds of zoölogical subjects which were attracting the attention
+of Huxley and which he considered of sufficient interest and
+importance to bring to the notice of the general public. The first of
+these lectures, and probably the first given in public by Huxley,
+occurred on April 30, 1852, and was entitled "Animal Individuality."
+The problem as to what is meant by an individual had been raised in
+his mind by consideration of many of the forms of marine life,
+notably compound structures like the Portuguese man-of-war, and
+creatures like the salps, which form floating chains often many yards
+in length. He explained that the word _individual_ covers at least
+three quite different kinds of conceptions. There is, first, what he
+described as arbitrary individuality, an individuality which is given
+by the mind of the observer and does not actually exist in the thing
+considered. Thus a landscape is in a sense an individual thing, but
+only so far as it is a particular part of the surface of the earth,
+isolated for the time in the mind of the person looking at it. If the
+observer shift his position, the range of the landscape alters and
+becomes something else. Next there are material, or practically
+accidental individual things, such as crystals or pieces of stone;
+and, lastly, there are living individuals which, as he pointed out,
+were cycles. All living things are born into the world, grow up, and
+die, and it was to the cycle of life, from the egg to the adult which
+produces eggs, that he gave the name individual. In a simple animal
+like Hydra there is no difficulty in accepting this plain definition
+of individuality; but Huxley went on to compare with Hydra a compound
+creature like the Portuguese man-of-war, which really is composed of a
+colony of Hydra-like creatures, the different members of the colony
+being more or less altered to serve different functions. All these
+have come from the branching of a single simple creature produced from
+an egg, and to the whole colony Huxley gave the name of zoölogical
+individual. The salps give a still wider interpretation to this view
+of individuality. The original salp produced from the egg gives rise
+to many salps, which may either remain attached in a chain, or,
+breaking away from one another, may live separately. Huxley extended
+the use of the word _individual_ so as to include as a single
+zoölogical individual the whole set of creatures cohering in chains or
+breaking apart, which had been produced by budding from the product of
+a single egg-cell. This subtle analysis of ideas delighted and
+interested his contemporaries, and the train of logical examination of
+what is meant by individuality has persisted to the present time. Like
+all other zoölogical ideas, this has been considerably altered by the
+conception of evolution. Zoölogists no longer attempt to stretch
+logical conceptions until they fit enormous and different parts of the
+living world. They recognise that the living world, because it is
+alive, is constantly changing, and that living things pass through
+different stages or kinds of individuality in the course of their
+lives. A single egg-cell is one kind, perhaps the simplest kind, of
+zoölogical individual; when it has grown up into a simple polyp it has
+passed into a second grade of individuality; when, by budding, the
+polyp has become branched, a third grade is reached, and when the
+branches have become different, in obedience to the different purposes
+which they are to serve in the whole compound creature, a still
+further grade is reached. Huxley's attempt to find a meaning for
+individuality that would apply equally to a single simple creature, to
+a compound creature, and to the large number of separate creatures,
+all developed by budding from one creature, is a striking instance of
+his singular capacity for bringing apparently dissimilar facts into
+harmony, by finding out the common underlying principle, and, although
+we no longer accept this particular conclusion, we cannot fail to
+notice in it the peculiar powers of his mind.
+
+A second and even more interesting Royal Institution lecture dealt
+with the "Identity of Structure in Animals and Plants." At the present
+time every educated person knows that the life of animals and plants
+alike depends on the fact that their bodies are composed of a living
+material called protoplasm, a material which is identical in every
+important respect in both kingdoms of the living world. In the early
+fifties, scientific opinion was by no means clear on this matter, and
+certainly public opinion was most vague. Huxley discussed what was
+meant by organisation, and shewed that in every essential respect
+plants and animals alike were organised beings. Then he went on to
+explain the cellular theory of Schwann, which was then a novelty to a
+general audience. Schwann, in studying the microscopic structure of
+plants, noticed that their bodies were made up of little cases with
+firm walls; these he called _cells_, and declared that the whole body
+of the plant was composed of cells. As the walls of these cells were
+the most obvious and visible feature, it was supposed that they were
+the most essential part of the structure, and there was some
+difficulty in applying the cellular theory to the bodies of animals,
+as in most cases there are no easily visible cell-walls in animal
+tissues. As the result of his own observation, and from his reading of
+the work of others, Huxley laid down in the clearest way what is now
+accepted by everyone--that the presence of walls is of minor
+importance, and that it is the slimy contents of the cells, what is
+called "protoplasm," that is the important element. He declared that
+the protoplasm of animals was identical with the protoplasm of plants,
+and that plants were "animals confined in wooden cases." He agreed
+with Schwann that the cell, using the term to imply the contents
+rather than the wall, was of fundamental importance, and was the unit
+of structure of the whole world of life. On the other hand, he
+declared that it could not be looked at as the unit of function: he
+denied that the powers and properties of a living body were simply the
+sum of the powers and properties of the single cells. In this opinion
+he was not followed by physiologists until quite recently. For many
+years physiologists held that cells were units of function just as
+much as they are units of structure; but in the last ten years there
+has been a strong return to the opinion of Huxley.
+
+In 1851 two very important memoirs were published in the _Transactions
+of the Royal Society_, which contained the results of Huxley's
+observations of the interesting animals known as "tunicates." The
+first of these papers begins as follows:
+
+     "The Salpæ, those strange gelatinous animals, through masses of
+     which the voyager in the great ocean sometimes sails day after
+     day, have been the subject of a great controversy since the time
+     of the publication of the celebrated work of Chamisso, _De
+     Animalibus Quibusdam e Classe Vermium Linnæana_. In this work
+     there were set forth, for the first time, the singular phenomena
+     presented by the reproductive processes of these
+     animals,--phenomena so strange, and so utterly unlike anything
+     then known to occur in the whole province of zoölogy, that
+     Chamisso's admirably clear and truthful account was received with
+     almost as much distrust as if he had announced the existence of a
+     veritable Peter Schlemihl."
+
+According to Chamisso, salps appeared in two forms: solitary forms,
+and forms in which a number of salps are united into a long chain.
+Each salp of the aggregate form contains within it an embryo receiving
+nutrition from the mother by a connection similar to the placenta by
+which the embryo of a mammal receives nourishment from the blood of
+the mother. These embryos grow up into the solitary form, and the
+solitary form gives rise to a long chain of the aggregate form which
+developes in the interior of the body. Chamisso compared this progress
+to the development of insects. "Supposing," he said, "caterpillars did
+not bodily change into butterflies, but by a process of sexual
+breeding produced young which grew into the ordinary adults, and that
+these adults, as indeed they do, gave rise to caterpillars by sexual
+reproduction, then there would be a true alternation of generations."
+The first generation would give rise to a second generation totally
+unlike itself, and this second generation would reproduce, not its
+kind, but the first generation; such an alternation of generations he
+stated to occur among the salps. Huxley had an excellent opportunity
+to study this question at Cape York in November, 1849. "For a time the
+sea was absolutely crowded with Salpæ, in all stages of growth, and of
+size very convenient for examination." He was able to verify the
+general truth of Chamisso's statement. The aggregate form of Salpa
+always gives rise to the solitary salps, and the solitary salps always
+give rise to chains of the aggregate salps. But the process of
+reproduction he shewed to be quite different in the two cases. The
+solitary salp produces in its interior a little stolon or diverticulum
+which contains an outgrowth from the circulatory system, and this
+stolon gradually becomes pinched off into the members of the chain of
+the aggregate form. The salps of the aggregate form are therefore
+merely buds from the solitary form, and are not produced in the
+ordinary way, by sexual generation. On the other hand, each salp of
+the chain has within it a true egg-cell. This is fertilised by a male
+cell, and within the body of the parent, nourished by the blood of the
+parent, grows up into the solitary form. There is then an alternation
+of generations, but there are not two sexual generations. The sexual
+generation of chain salps gives rise to forms which reproduce by buds.
+From this conclusion, with which all later observers have agreed,
+Huxley went on to his theory of individuality. Different names had
+been given to the two forms, but Huxley declared that neither form was
+a true zoölogical individual; they were only parts of individuals or
+organs, and the true individual was the complete cycle involving both
+forms.
+
+In addition to determining the interesting method of reproduction,
+Huxley made an elaborate investigation of the structure of Salpa. On
+one occasion only the _Rattlesnake_ came across a quantity of an
+allied Ascidian, Pyrosoma, which had received its name from its
+phosphorescence.
+
+     "The sky was clear but moonless, and the sea calm; and a more
+     beautiful sight can hardly be imagined than that presented from
+     the deck of the ship as she drifted, hour after hour, through
+     this shoal of miniature pillars of fire gleaming out of the dark
+     sea, with an ever-waning, ever brightening, soft bluish light, as
+     far as the eye could reach on every side. The Pyrosomata floated
+     deep, and it was only with difficulty that some were procured for
+     examination and placed in a bucketful of sea-water. The
+     phosphorescence was intermittent, periods of darkness alternating
+     with periods of brilliancy. The light commenced in one spot,
+     apparently on the surface of one of the zoöids, and gradually
+     spread from this as a centre in all directions; then the whole
+     was lighted up: it remained brilliant for a few seconds, and then
+     gradually faded and died away, until the whole mass was dark
+     again. Friction at any point induces the light at that point, and
+     from thence the phosphorescence spreads over the whole, while the
+     creature is quite freshly taken; afterwards, the illumination
+     arising from friction is only local."
+
+Dealing with these creatures in the broad anatomical spirit with which
+he had studied the Medusæ, Huxley shewed the typical structure
+manifested in the different forms, and that was common to them and the
+Ascidians or sea-squirts of the seashore. In a second paper on
+"Appendicularia and Doliolum" he made further contributions to our
+knowledge of these interesting creatures. Appendicularia is a curious
+little Ascidian, differing from all the others in its possession of a
+tail. Earlier observers had obtained it on various parts of the ocean
+surface, but had failed entirely to detect its relationship to the
+ordinary Ascidians. Chamisso got it near Behring's Straits and thought
+that it was more nearly allied to "Venus's Girdle," a CÅ“lenterate.
+Mertens, another distinguished zoölogist, had declared that "the
+relation of this animal with the Pteropods (a peculiar group of
+molluscs) is unmistakable"; while Müller, a prince among German
+anatomists, confessed that "he did not know in what division of the
+animal kingdom to place this creature." Huxley shewed that it
+possessed all the characteristic features of the Ascidians, the same
+arrangement of organs, the same kind of nervous system, a respiratory
+chamber formed from the fore part of the alimentary canal, and a
+peculiar organ running along the pharynx which Huxley called the
+endostyle and which is one of the most striking peculiarities of the
+whole group. The real nature of the tail was Huxley's most striking
+discovery. He pointed out that ordinary Ascidians begin life as tiny
+tadpole-like creatures which swim freely by the aid of a long caudal
+appendage; and that while these better-known Ascidians lose their
+tails when they settle down into adult life, the Appendiculariæ are
+Ascidians which retain this larval structure throughout life. Von Baer
+had shown that in the great natural groups of higher animals some
+forms occur which typify, in their adult condition, the larval state
+of the higher forms of the group. Thus, among the amphibia, frogs have
+tails in the larval or tadpole condition; but newts throughout life
+remain in the larval or tailed condition. Appendicularia he considered
+to be the lowest form of the Ascidians, and to typify in its adult
+condition the larval stages of the higher Ascidians.
+
+By this remarkable investigation of the structure of the group of
+Ascidians, and display of the various grades of organisation, Huxley
+paved the way for one of the great modern advances in knowledge. When,
+later on, the idea of evolution was accepted, and zoölogists began
+hunting out the pedigree of the back-boned animals, it was discovered
+that Ascidians were modern representatives of an important stage in
+the ancestry of vertebrate animals, and, therefore, of man himself.
+There are few more interesting chapters in genealogical zoölogy than
+those which reveal the relationship between Amphioxus and fish on the
+one hand, and Ascidians on the other; for fish are vertebrates, and
+Ascidians, on the old view, are lowly invertebrates. The details of
+these relationships have been made known to us by the brilliant
+investigations of several Germans, by Kowalevsky, a Russian, by the
+Englishmen Ray Lankester and Willey, and by several Americans and
+Frenchmen. But behind the work of all these lies the pioneer work of
+Huxley, who first gathered the group of Ascidians together, and in a
+series of masterly investigations described its typical structure.
+
+Huxley's next great piece of work was embodied in a memoir published
+in the _Transactions of the Royal Society_ in 1853, and which remains
+to the present day a model of luminous description and far-reaching
+ideas. It was a treatise on the structure of the great group of
+molluscs, and displays in a striking fashion his method of handling
+anatomical facts, and deducing from them the great underlying
+principles of construction. The shell-fish with which he dealt
+specially were those distinguished as cephalous, because, unlike
+creatures such as the oyster and mussel, they had something readily
+comparable with the head of vertebrates. He began by pointing out what
+problems he hoped to solve. The anatomy of many of the cephalous
+molluscs was known, but the relation of structures present in one to
+structures present in another group had not been settled.
+
+     "It is not settled whether the back of a cuttle-fish answers to
+     the dorsal or ventral surface of a gasteropod. It is not decided
+     whether the arms and funnels of the one have or have not their
+     homologues in the other. The dorsal integument of a Doris and the
+     cloak of a whelk are both called 'mantle,' without any evidence
+     to show that they are really homologous. Nor do very much more
+     definite notions seem to have prevailed with regard to the
+     archetypal molluscous form, and the mode in which (if such an
+     archetype exist) it becomes modified in the different secondary
+     types."
+
+He had taken from the surface of the sea a number of transparent
+shell-fish, and had been able to study the structure and arrangement
+of their organs "by simple inspection, without so much as disturbing a
+single beat of their hearts." From knowledge gained in this fashion,
+and from ordinary dissection of a number of common snails,
+cephalopods, and pteropods, he was able to describe in a very complete
+way the anatomical structure of cephalous molluscs. The next natural
+step, he stated, would have been to describe the embryonic development
+of the organs of these different creatures in order that a true
+knowledge might be gained of what were the homologous or really
+corresponding parts in each. Having had no opportunity to make such
+embryological studies for himself, he fell back on numerous accounts
+of development by Kölliker, Van Beneden, Gegenbauer, and others, and
+so gradually arrived at a conception of what he called the "archetype"
+of the cephalous molluscs. As the word _archetype_ was borrowed from
+old metaphysical ideas dating back to the time of Plato, he took care
+to state that what he meant by it was no more than a form embodying
+all that could be affirmed equally respecting every single kind of
+cephalous mollusc, and by no means an "idea" upon which it could be
+supposed that animal forms had been modelled. He described this
+archetype, and showed the condition of the different systems of organs
+which it could be supposed to possess, and how these organs were
+modified in the different existing groups. This archetypal mollusc of
+Huxley's was a creature with a bilaterally symmetrical head and body.
+On the ventral side of the body it possessed a peculiar locomotor
+appendage, the so-called foot, and the dorsal surface of the body
+secreted a shell. Its nervous system consisted of three pairs of
+ganglia or brains, one pair in the head, one in the foot, and a third
+in the viscera. He shewed how the widely different groups of cephalous
+molluscs could be conceived as modifications of this structure, and
+extended the conception so as to cover all other molluscs.
+
+Quite apart from the anatomical value of this paper, and although all
+technical details have been omitted here, it is necessary to say that
+merely as a series of intricate anatomical descriptions and
+comparisons, this memoir was one of the most valuable of any that
+Huxley wrote. The working out of the theory of the archetype is
+peculiarly interesting to compare with modern conceptions. To those of
+us who began biological work after the idea of evolution had been
+impressed upon anatomical work, it is very difficult to follow
+Huxley's papers without reading into them evolutionary ideas. In the
+article upon Mollusca, written for the ninth edition of the
+_Encyclopædia Britannica_, by Professor Ray Lankester, the same device
+of an archetypal or, as Lankester calls it, a schematic mollusc, is
+employed in order to explain the relations of the different structures
+found in different groups of molluscs to one another. Lankester's
+schematic mollusc differs from Huxley's archetypal mollusc only as a
+finished modern piece of mechanism, the final result of years of
+experiment, differs from the original invention. The method of
+comparing the schematic mollusc with the different divergent forms in
+different groups is identical, and yet, while the ideas of Darwin are
+accepted in every line of Lankester's work, Huxley was writing six
+years before the publication of _The Origin of Species_. There was
+growing up in Huxley's mind, partly from his own attempts to arrange
+the anatomical facts he discovered in an intelligible series, the idea
+that within a group the divergencies of structure to be found had come
+about by the modification of an original type. Not only did he
+conceive of such an evolution as the only possible explanation of the
+facts, but he definitely used the word _evolution_ to convey his
+ideas. On the other hand, he was firmly convinced that such evolution
+was confined within the great groups. For each group there was a
+typical structure, and modifications by defect or excess of the parts
+of the definite archetype gave rise to the different members of the
+group. Moreover, he confined this evolution in the strictest possible
+way to each group; he did not believe that what was called
+anamorphosis--the transition of a lower type into a higher type--ever
+occurred. To use his own words:
+
+     "If, however, all Cephalous Mollusca, _i.e._, all Cephalopoda,
+     Gasteropoda, and Lamellibranchiata, be only modifications by
+     excess or defect of the parts of a definite archetype, then, I
+     think, it follows as a necessary consequence, that no
+     anamorphosis takes place in this group. There is no progression
+     from a lower to a higher type, but merely a more or less complete
+     evolution of one type. It may indeed be a matter of very grave
+     consideration whether true anamorphosis ever occurs in the whole
+     animal kingdom. If it do, then the doctrine that every natural
+     group is organised after a definite archetype, a doctrine which
+     seems to me as important for zoölogy as the theory of definite
+     proportions for chemistry, must be given up."
+
+It is of great historical interest to notice how closely actual
+consideration of the facts of the animal kingdom took zoölogists to an
+idea of evolution, and yet how far they were from it as we hold it
+now. It is fashionable at the present time to attempt to depreciate
+the immense change introduced by Darwin into zoölogical speculation,
+and the method employed is largely partial quotation, or reference to
+the kind of ideas found in papers such as this memoir by Huxley. The
+comparison between the types of the great groups and the combining
+proportions of the chemical elements shows clearly that Huxley
+regarded the structural plans of the great groups as properties
+necessary and inherent in these groups, just as the property of a
+chemical element to combine with another chemical substance only in a
+fixed proportion is necessary and inherent in the existing conception
+of it. There was no glimmer of the idea that these types were not
+inherent, but merely historical results of a long and slow series of
+changes produced by the interaction of the varied conditions of life
+and the intrinsic qualities of living material.
+
+In two lectures delivered at the Royal Institution in 1854 and 1855,
+the one on "The Common Plan of Animal Forms," the other on "The
+Zoölogical Arguments Adduced in Favour of the Progressive Development
+of Animal Life in Time," show, so far as the published abstracts go,
+the same condition of mind. The idea of progressive development of all
+life from common forms was not unknown to Huxley and his
+contemporaries, but was rejected by them. In the first of these two
+lectures he took four great groups of animals, the Vertebrates, the
+Articulata, the Mollusca, and the Radiata, and explained what was the
+archetype of each. He shewed the distinctiveness of each plan of
+structure, and then discussed the relations of the ideas suggested by
+Von Baer to these archetypes. He stated explicitly that while the
+adult forms were quite unlike one another, there were traces of a
+common plan to be derived from a study of their embryonic development.
+Such a trace of a common plan he had himself suggested when he
+compared the foundation-membranes of the Medusæ with the first
+foundation-membranes of vertebrate embryos. This was going a long way
+towards modern ideas; but he stopped short, and gave no hint that he
+believed in the possibility of the development of one plan from a
+lower or simpler plan. The second lecture dealt with the kind of ideas
+which were crystallised in the popular but striking work of Chambers,
+entitled _Vestiges of Creation_. Chambers attacked the theological
+view that all animals and plants had been created at the beginning of
+the world, and maintained that geological evidence showed the
+occurrence of a progressive development of animal life. Huxley, like
+all zoölogists and geologists who knew anything of the occurrence of
+fossils in the rocks of past ages, agreed with the general truth of
+the conception that a progressive development had occurred which
+showed that the species now existing were represented in the oldest
+rocks by species now extinct. But the examples he brought forward were
+all limited to evolution within the great groups, and did not affect
+his idea that archetypes were fixed and did not pass into each other.
+Moreover, he summed up strongly against the suggestion that there was
+any parallel between the succession of life in the past and the forms
+assumed by modern animals in their embryological development. So far
+as the present writer is able to judge from study of the literature of
+this period, the possibility of evolution was present in an active
+form in the minds of Huxley and of his contemporaries, and in an
+extraordinary way they brought together evidence which afterwards
+became of firstrate importance; but the idea in its modern sense was
+rejected by them.
+
+In 1854 Huxley's uncomfortable period of probation came to an end.
+Edward Forbes, who held the posts of Palæontologist to the Geological
+Survey, and Lecturer on General Natural History at the Metropolitan
+School of Science Applied to Mining and the Arts, vacated these on his
+appointment to the Chair of Natural History in the University of
+Edinburgh, and Sir H. De La Beche, the then Director-General of the
+Geological Survey, offered both the posts to Huxley--who in June and
+July of that year had given lectures at the school in place of Forbes.
+Huxley says himself:
+
+     "I refused the former point-blank, and accepted the latter only
+     provisionally, telling Sir Henry that I did not care for fossils,
+     and that I should give up natural history as soon as I could get
+     a physiological post. But I held the office for thirty-one years,
+     and a large part of my work has been palæontological."
+
+The salary of the post of Lecturer on Natural History was scanty, but
+De La Beche, who evidently recognised Huxley's genius, and was anxious
+to have him attached even against his will to palæontological work,
+created a place for him as Naturalist to the Geological Survey, by
+which a more suitable income was found for him. His official duties
+were at first in the Geological Museum of the Survey, but were
+distinguished from those of the special Palæontologist, Mr. Harvey.
+His income was now assured, and for the rest of his life, until
+towards its close, when he retired to Eastbourne, he lived the
+ordinary life of a professional man of science in London. He was now
+able to marry, and on July 21, 1855, he was married to a lady whom he
+had met in Sydney in 1847, and whom he had not seen since the
+_Rattlesnake_ left Sydney finally in the beginning of May, 1850.
+
+During the years 1856, 1857, and 1858, he held the post of Fullerian
+Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution, choosing as the
+title of his first two courses of lectures Physiology and Comparative
+Anatomy, as he still cherished the idea of being in the first place a
+physiologist.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857 Reproduced by permission from
+_Natural Science_, vol. vii., No. 42]
+
+     "Moreover," writes Professor Michael Foster, "like most other
+     young professional men of science, he had to eke out his not too
+     ample income by labours undertaken chiefly for their pecuniary
+     reward. He acted as examiner, conducting for instance, during the
+     years 1856 to 1863, and again 1865 to 1870, the examinations in
+     physiology and comparative anatomy at the University of London,
+     making even an examination paper feel the influence of the new
+     spirit in biology; and among his examinees at that time there was
+     at least one who, knowing Huxley's writings, but his writings
+     only, looked forward to the _viva voce_ test, not as a trial but
+     as an occasion of delight. He wrote almost incessantly for all
+     editors who were prepared to give adequate pay to a pen able to
+     deal with scientific themes in a manner at once exact and
+     popular, incisive and correct. During this period he was
+     gradually passing from his first anatomical love, the structure
+     of the Invertebrates, to Vertebrate work, and although he
+     continued to take a deep interest in the course of the progress
+     of research in that group of animals, the publication of his
+     great work on oceanic hydrozoa by the Ray Society was the last
+     piece of important work he wrote upon any anatomical subject
+     apart from vertebrates. His work in connection with the
+     Geological Survey naturally attracted his attention most closely
+     to vertebrates, and, towards the close of the fifties, he was led
+     to make a special study of vertebrate embryology, a subject which
+     the investigations of Kölliker and others in Germany were
+     bringing into prominence. The first result of this new direction
+     of his enquiries was embodied in a Croonian Lecture delivered in
+     1858 'On the Theory of the Vertebrate Skull.' Sir Richard Owen,
+     who was at that time the leading vertebrate anatomist in England,
+     had given his support to an extremely complicated view of the
+     skull as being formed of a series of expanded vertebræ moulded
+     together. The theory was really a legacy from an old German
+     school of which the chief members were Goethe, the poet, and
+     Oken, a naturalist, who was more of a metaphysical philosopher
+     than of a morphologist. Huxley pointed out the futility of
+     attempting to regard the skull as a series of segments, and of
+     supporting this view by trusting to superficial resemblances and
+     abstract reasoning, when there was a definite method by which the
+     actual building up of the skull might be followed. Following the
+     lines laid down by Rathke, another of the great Germans from
+     whose investigations he was always so willing to find
+     corroboration and assistance in his own labours, he traced the
+     actual development of the skull in the individual. He shewed
+     that the foundations of the skull and of the backbone were laid
+     down in a fashion quite different, and that it was impossible to
+     regard both skull and backbone as modifications of a common type
+     laid down right along the axis of the body. The spinal column and
+     the skull start from the same primitive condition, whence they
+     immediately begin to diverge. It may be true to say that there is
+     a primitive identity of structure between the spinal or vertebral
+     column and the skull; but it is no more true that the adult skull
+     is a modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that
+     the vertebral column is a modified skull."
+
+Since this famous lecture, a number of distinguished anatomists have
+studied the development of the skull more fully; but they have not
+departed from the methods of investigation laid down by Huxley, and
+their conclusions have differed only in greater elaboration of detail
+from the broad lines laid down by him. Apart from its direct
+scientific value, this lecture was of importance as marking the place
+to which Huxley had attained in the scientific world. Two years later,
+it is true, the London _Times_, referring to a famous debate at a
+meeting of the British Association at Oxford, spoke of him as "a Mr.
+Huxley"; but in the scientific world he was accepted as the leader of
+the younger anatomists, and as one at least capable of rivalling Owen,
+who was then at the height of his fame. The Croonian Lecture was in a
+sense a deliberate challenge to Owen, and in these days before Darwin,
+to challenge Owen was to claim equality with the greatest name in
+anatomical science.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CREATURES OF THE PAST
+
+     Beginning Palæontological Work--Fossil Amphibia and
+     Reptilia--Ancestry of Birds--Ancestry of the Horse--Imperfect
+     European Series Completed by Marsh's American Fossils--Meaning of
+     Geological Contemporaneity--Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+     Compared with Evolution in Geology--Age of the
+     Earth--Intermediate and Linear Types.
+
+
+Although Huxley took a post connected with Geology only because it was
+the most convenient opening for him, it was not long before he became
+deeply interested not only in the fossils, which at first he despised,
+but in the general problems of geology. He began by co-operation with
+Mr. Salter in the determination of fossils for the Geological Survey.
+The mere work of defining genera and species and naming and describing
+new species appealed very little to him. He had none of the
+collector's passion for new species; his interest in a creature being
+not whether or no it was new to science, but what general problems of
+biology its structure helped to elucidate. While he assisted in the
+routine work of determining the zoölogical position of the fossils
+sent in to the museum by the Survey, he carried investigations much
+farther than the duties of the post required when interesting
+zoölogical problems arose. His earliest notes were written in
+association with his colleague, and consisted of technical
+descriptions of some small fossils from the Downton Sandstones which
+were supposed to be fish-shields. The peculiarities of structure
+presented by these aroused his interest, and he began an elaborate
+series of investigations upon palæozoic fishes in general. Earlier
+zoölogists, such as the great Agassiz, had devoted most of their
+attention to careful and exact description of the different fossil
+fishes with which they became acquainted. Huxley at once began to
+investigate the relations that existed among the different kinds of
+structure exhibited in the different fish. He laid down the lines upon
+which future work has been conducted, and, precisely as he did in the
+case of molluscs, he started future investigators upon lines of
+research the ends of which have not yet been reached. His work upon
+_Devonian Fishes_, published in 1861, threw an entirely new light upon
+the affinities of these creatures, and still remains a standard work.
+
+He made a similar, although less important, series of investigations
+upon some of the great extinct Crustacea; but, perhaps, his most
+important palæontological work was done later, after he had been
+convinced by Darwin of the fact of evolution. In 1855 he had expressed
+the opinion that the study of fossils was hopeless if one sought in it
+confirmation of the doctrine of evolution; but five-and-twenty years'
+continuous work completely reversed his opinion, and in 1881,
+addressing the British Association at York he declared that "if
+zoölogists and embryologists had not put forward the theory, it would
+have been necessary for palæontologists to invent it." In three
+special groups of animals his study of fossils enabled him to assist
+in bridging over the gaps between surviving groups of creatures by
+study of creatures long extinct. He began to study the structure of
+the Labyrinthodonts, a group of extinct monsters which received their
+name from the peculiar structure of their teeth. He published
+elaborate descriptions of Anthracosaurus from the coal-measures of
+Northumberland, of Loxomma from the lower carboniferous of Scotland,
+and of several small forms from the coal-measures of Kilkenny, in
+Ireland, as well as describing skulls from Africa and a number of
+fragmentary bones from different localities. But in all this work it
+was the morphology of the creatures that interested him, and the light
+which their structure threw upon the structure of each other and of
+their nearest allies. He shewed that these monsters stood on the
+borderland between fishes, amphibia, and reptiles, and he added much
+to our knowledge of the true structure of these great groups. Next, he
+turned to the extinct reptiles of the Mesozoic age. It was generally
+believed that the Pterodactyls, or flying reptiles, were the nearest
+allies of birds, but Huxley insisted that the resemblances between the
+wings were simply such superficial resemblances as necessarily exist
+in organs adapted to the same purpose. About the same time, Cope in
+America, and Phillips and Huxley, in England, from study of the bones
+of the Dinosaurs, another great group of extinct reptiles, declared
+that these were the nearest in structure to birds. In association with
+the upright posture, the ilium or great haunch-bone of birds extends
+far forwards in front of the articulation of the thigh-bone, so that
+the pelvis in this region has a T-shape, the ilium forming the
+cross-bar of the T, and the femur or thigh-bone the downward limb.
+Huxley shewed that a large number of the Dinosaurs had this and other
+peculiarities of the bird's pelvis, and separated these into a group
+which he called the "Ornithoscelida," seeing in them the closest
+representatives of the probable reptilian ancestors of birds. While
+further work and the discovery of a still greater number of extinct
+reptiles has made it less probable that these were the actual
+ancestors of birds, Huxley's work in this, as in the many other cases
+we have shown, proved not only of great value in itself, but led to a
+continually increasing series of investigations by others. It is not
+always the pioneer that makes the greatest discoveries in a new
+country, but the work of the pioneer makes possible and easier the
+more assured discoveries of his followers.
+
+A third great piece of palæontological investigation with which the
+name of Huxley will always be associated, is the most familiar of all
+the instances taken from fossils in support of the evolution of
+animals. This famous case is the pedigree of the horse. In 1870, in an
+address delivered to the Geological Society of London, Huxley had
+shewn that there was a series of animals leading backwards from the
+modern horse to a more generalised creature called Anchitherium, and
+found in the rocks of the Miocene period. He suggested that there
+were, no doubt, similar fossils leading still further backwards
+towards the common mammalian type of animal, with five fingers and
+five toes, and went the length of suggesting one or two fossils which
+might stand in the direct line of ancestry. But in 1876 he visited
+America, and had the opportunity of consulting the marvellous series
+of fossils which Professor Marsh had collected from American Tertiary
+beds. Professor Marsh allowed him the freest use of his materials and
+of his conclusions, and the credit of the final result is to be
+shared at least equally between Marsh and Huxley. The final result was
+a demonstrative proof of the possible course of evolution of the
+horse, given in a lecture delivered by Huxley in New York on Sept. 22,
+1876, and illustrated by drawings from specimens in Marsh's
+collection. The matter of the lecture has become so important a part
+of all descriptive writing on evolution, and the treatment is so
+characteristic of Huxley's brilliant exposition, that it is worth
+while to make some rather long quotations from it. The lecture was
+published in the New York papers, and afterwards with other matter
+formed a volume of _American Addresses_, published by Macmillan, in
+London.
+
+     "In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the forearm contains
+     distinct bones called the radius and the ulna. The corresponding
+     region in the horse seems at first to possess but one bone.
+     Careful observation, however, enables us to distinguish in this
+     bone a part which clearly answers to the upper end of the ulna.
+     This is closely united with the chief mass of the bone which
+     represents the radius, and runs out into a slender shaft which
+     may be traced for some distance downwards on the back of the
+     radius, and then in most cases thins out and vanishes. It takes
+     still more trouble to make sure of what is nevertheless the fact,
+     that a small part of the lower end of the bone of the horse's
+     forearm, which is only distinct in a very young foal, is really
+     the lower extremity of the ulna.
+
+      "What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its wrist. The
+     'cannon bone' answers to the middle bone of the five metacarpal
+     bones which support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The
+     'pastern,' 'coronary,' and 'coffin' bones of veterinarians answer
+     to the joints of our middle fingers, while the hoof is simply a
+     greatly enlarged and thickened nail. But, if what lies below the
+     horse's 'knee' thus corresponds to the middle finger in
+     ourselves, what has become of the four other fingers or digits?
+     We find in the places of the second and fourth digits only two
+     slender splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the cannon
+     bone, which gradually taper to their lower ends and bear no
+     finger joints, or, as they are termed, phalanges. Sometimes small
+     bony or gristly nodules are to be found at the bases of these two
+     metacarpal splints, and it is probable that these represent
+     rudiments of the first and fifth digits. Thus the part of the
+     horse's skeleton which corresponds with that of the human hand
+     contains one overgrown middle digit, and at least two imperfect
+     lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the third, the
+     second, and the fourth digits in man.
+
+      "Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb. In
+     ourselves, and in most quadrupeds, the leg contains two distinct
+     bones, a large bone, the tibia, and a smaller and more slender
+     bone, the fibula. But, in the horse, the fibula seems, at first,
+     to be reduced to its upper end; a short slender bone united with
+     the tibia and ending in a point below occupying its place.
+     Examination of the lower end of a young foal's shin-bone,
+     however, shews a distinct portion of osseous matter, which is the
+     lower end of the fibula; so that the apparently single lower end
+     of the shin-bone is really made up of the coalesced ends of the
+     tibia and fibula, just as the apparently single lower end of the
+     fore-arm bone is composed of the coalesced radius and ulna.
+
+      "The heel of the horse is the part commonly known as the hock;
+     the hinder cannon bone answers to the middle metatarsal bone of
+     the human foot, the pastern, coronary, and coffin bones, to the
+     middle-toe bones; the hind hoof to the nail, as in the fore foot.
+     And, as in the fore foot, there are merely two splints to
+     represent the second and fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a
+     fifth toe appears to be traceable."
+
+Having in the same fashion described the highly complicated and
+peculiar structure of the teeth of modern horses, Huxley proceeded:
+
+     "To anyone who is acquainted with the morphology of vertebrated
+     animals, these characteristic structures of the horse show that
+     it deviates widely from the general structure of mammals; and
+     that the horse type is, in many respects, an extreme modification
+     of the general mammalian plan. The least modified mammals, in
+     fact, have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct
+     and separate. They have five distinct and complete digits on each
+     foot, and no one of these digits is very much larger than the
+     rest. Moreover, in the least modified mammals, the total number
+     of the teeth is very generally forty-four, while in the horse the
+     usual number is forty, and, in the absence of the canines, it may
+     be reduced to thirty-six; the incisor teeth are devoid of the
+     fold seen in those of the horse; the grinders regularly diminish
+     in size from the middle of the series to its front end; while
+     their crowns are short, early attain their full length, and
+     exhibit simple ridges or tubercles, in place of the complex
+     foldings of the horse's grinders.
+
+      "Hence the general principles of the hypothesis of evolution
+     lead to the conclusion that the horse must have been derived from
+     some quadruped which possessed five complete digits on each foot;
+     which had the bones of the forearm and of the leg complete and
+     separate; and which possessed forty-four teeth, among which the
+     crown of the incisors and grinders had a simple structure; while
+     the latter gradually increased in size from before backwards, at
+     any rate in the anterior part of the series, and had short
+     crowns.
+
+      "And if the horse had been thus evolved, and the remains of the
+     different stages of its evolution have been preserved, they ought
+     to present us with a series of forms in which the number of the
+     digits becomes reduced; the bones of the forearm and leg
+     gradually take on the equine condition; and the form and
+     arrangement of the teeth successively approximate to those which
+     obtain in existing horses.
+
+      "Let us turn to the facts and see how far they fulfill these
+     requirements of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+      "In Europe abundant remains of horses are found in the
+     Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far as the Pliocene
+     formation. But these horses, which are so common in the
+     cave-deposits and in the gravel of Europe, are in all essential
+     respects like existing horses, and that is true of all the horses
+     of the later part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in the deposits
+     which belong to the earlier Pliocene, and later Miocene epochs,
+     and which occur in Britain, in France, in Germany, in Greece, in
+     India, we find animals which are extremely like horses--which in
+     fact are so similar to horses, that you may follow descriptions
+     given in works upon the anatomy of the horse, upon the skeletons
+     of these animals--but which differ in some important particulars.
+     For example, the structure of their fore and hind limbs is
+     somewhat different. The bones, which, in the horse are
+     represented by two long splints, imperfect below, are as long as
+     the middle metacarpal and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the
+     extremity of each, is a digit with three joints of the same
+     general character as those of the middle digit, only very much
+     smaller. These small digits are so disposed that they could have
+     had but very little functional importance, and they must have
+     been rather of the nature of the dew-claws, such as are to be
+     found in many ruminant animals. The _Hipparion_, as the extinct
+     European three-toed horse is called, in fact presents a foot
+     similar to that of the American _Protohippus_ except that in
+     _Hipparion_ the smaller digits are situated further back, and are
+     of smaller proportional size than in the _Protohippus_.
+
+      "The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the horse; and the
+     whole length of it, as a very slender shaft, intimately united
+     with the radius, is completely traceable. The fibula appears to
+     be in the same condition as in the horse. The teeth of the
+     _Hipparion_ are essentially similar to those of the horse, but
+     the pattern of the grinders is in some respects a little more
+     complex, and there is a depression on the face of the skull in
+     front of the orbit, which is not seen in existing horses.
+
+      "In the earlier Miocene and perhaps in the Eocene deposits of
+     some parts of Europe, another distinct animal has been
+     discovered, which Cuvier, who first described some fragments of
+     it, considered to be a _Palæotherium_, but as further discoveries
+     threw new light on its structure, it was recognised as a distinct
+     genus, under the name of _Anchitherium_.
+
+      "In its general characters the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is
+     very similar to that of the horse, in fact Lartet and De
+     Blainville called it _Palæotherium equinum_ or _Hippoides_; and
+     De Cristol, in 1847, said that it differed from _Hipparion_ in
+     little more than the characters of the teeth, and gave it the
+     name of _Hipparitherium_. Each foot possesses three complete
+     toes: while the lateral toes are much larger in proportion to the
+     middle toe than in _Hipparion_, and doubtless rested on the
+     ground in ordinary locomotion. The ulna is complete and quite
+     distinct from the radius, although firmly united with the latter.
+     The fibula seems also to have been complete; its lower end,
+     though intimately united with that of the tibia, is clearly
+     united with that of the latter bone. There are forty-four teeth;
+     the incisors have no strong pit. The canines seem to have been
+     well developed in both sexes. The first of the seven grinders,
+     which, as I have said, is frequently absent, and, when it does
+     exist, is small in the horse, is a good-sized and permanent
+     tooth, while the grinder which follows it is but little larger
+     than the hinder ones. The crowns of the grinders are short, and,
+     although the fundamental pattern of the horse-tooth is
+     discernible, the front and back ridges are less curved, the
+     accessory pillars are wanting, and the valleys, much shallower,
+     are not filled up with cement."
+
+Then, after describing his early efforts to trace the descent of the
+horse from European fossils, Huxley goes on to relate the new light
+thrown on the matter from the American discoveries of Professor Marsh:
+
+     "You are all aware that, when your country was first discovered
+     by Europeans, there were no traces of the existence of the horse
+     in any part of the American continent. The accounts of the
+     conquest of Mexico dwell on the astonishment of the natives of
+     that country when they first became acquainted with that
+     astounding phenomenon, a man seated upon a horse. Nevertheless,
+     the investigations of American geologists have proved that the
+     remains of horses occur in the most superficial deposits of both
+     North and South America, just as they do in Europe. Therefore,
+     for some reason or other,--no feasible suggestion on that
+     subject, so far as I know, has been made,--the horse must have
+     died out on this continent at some period preceding the discovery
+     of America. Of late years there has been discovered in your
+     Western territories that marvellous accumulation of deposits,
+     admirably adapted for the preservation of organic remains, to
+     which I referred the other evening, and which furnishes us with a
+     consecutive series of records of the fauna of the older half of
+     the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel in Europe. The
+     researches of Leidy and others have shewn that forms allied to
+     the _Hipparion_ and the _Anchitherium_ are to be found among
+     these remains. Rut it is only recently that the admirably
+     conceived and most thoroughly and patiently worked-out
+     investigations of Professor Marsh have given us a just idea of
+     the vast fossil wealth and of the scientific importance of these
+     deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing over the
+     collections in Yale Museum; and I can truly say that, so far as
+     my knowledge extends, there is no collection from any one region
+     and series of strata comparable, for extent, or for care with
+     which the remains have been got together, or for their scientific
+     importance, to the series of fossils which he has deposited
+     there. This vast collection has yielded evidence bearing on the
+     question of the pedigree of the horse of the most striking
+     character. It tends to show that we must look to America rather
+     than to Europe for the original seat of the equine series; and
+     that the archaic forms and successive modifications of the
+     horse's ancestry are far better preserved here than in Europe.
+
+      "Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to put before you a
+     diagram, every figure of which is an actual representation of
+     some specimen which is to be seen at Yale at this present time.
+
+      "The succession of forms which he has brought together carries
+     us from the top to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there
+     is the true horse. Next we have the American Pliocene form of the
+     horse (_Pliohippus_): in the conformation of its limbs it
+     presents some very slight deviations from the ordinary horse, and
+     the crowns of the grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the
+     _Protohippus_, which represents the European _Hipparion_, having
+     one large digit and two small ones on each foot, and the general
+     characters of the forearm and leg to which I have referred. But
+     it is more valuable than the European _Hipparion_ for the reason
+     that it is devoid of some of the peculiarities of that
+     form--peculiarities which tend to show that the European
+     _Hipparion_ is rather a member of a collateral branch than a form
+     in the direct line of succession. Next, in the backward order in
+     time, is the _Miohippus_, which corresponds pretty nearly with
+     the _Anchitherium_ of Europe. It presents three complete
+     toes--one large median and two smaller lateral ones: and there
+     is a rudiment of that digit which answers to the little finger of
+     the human race.
+
+      "The European pedigree of the horse stops here; in the America
+     Tertiaries, on the contrary, the series of ancestral equine forms
+     is continued into the Eocene formations. An older Miocene form,
+     called _Mesohippus_, has three toes in front, with a large
+     splint-like rudiment representing the little finger; and three
+     toes behind. The radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, are
+     distinct, and the short crowned molar teeth are _Anchitherioid_
+     in pattern.
+
+      "But the most important discovery of all is the _Orohippus_
+     which comes from the Eocene formation, and is the oldest member
+     of the equine series yet known. Here we find four complete toes
+     on the front limb, three toes on the hind limb, a well-developed
+     ulna, a well-developed fibula, and short-crowned grinders of a
+     simple pattern.
+
+      "Thus, thanks to these important researches, it has become
+     evident that, so far as our present knowledge extends, the
+     history of the horse type is exactly and precisely that which
+     could have been predicted from a knowledge of the principles of
+     evolution; and the knowledge we now possess justifies us
+     completely in the anticipation that, when the still lower Eocene
+     deposits, and those which belong to the Cretaceous period have
+     yielded up their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall
+     find, first, a form with four complete toes and a rudiment of the
+     innermost or first digit in front, with probably a rudiment of
+     the fifth digit in the hind foot; while, in the older forms, the
+     series of digits will be more and more complete until we come to
+     the five-toed animals, in which, if the doctrine of evolution is
+     well founded, the whole series must have taken its origin."
+
+Just as Huxley was successful, when only the ancestry to Miocene times
+was known, in predicting the discovery of older forms in the older
+Miocene and upper Eocene, so his prediction of older Eocene forms
+carrying the chain back to five-toed creatures proved correct. One of
+the new links was indeed discovered before his lecture had passed
+through the press, and he was able to add in a footnote some details
+of the structure of the four-toed Eohippus from the lower Eocene
+beds. Further discoveries have connected these with the five-toed
+ancestors of the Tapirs, and there is the strongest reason to suppose
+that we now know as nearly as possible the line of ancestry of the
+horse back to the primitive forms common to all the higher mammals. It
+would, of course, be beyond possibility of proof that the exact
+fossils described were the actual ancestors of the horse; but that
+they are exceedingly close allies of these, and that among them some
+actual ancestors exist cannot reasonably be doubted.
+
+Although he had embarked upon geological work with some distaste,
+Huxley became very closely associated with it as years went on, and
+indeed, about the seventies, had abandoned his intention to devote
+himself specially to physiology, and declared himself to be in the
+first place a palæontologist. In 1876 he had accomplished so much that
+the Geological Society gave him its chief distinction, awarding him
+the Wollaston Medal in recognition of his services to geological
+science. He acted as Secretary to the Geological Society from 1859 to
+1862, and he was President from 1868 to 1870. In 1862, the President
+being incapacitated, Huxley delivered as Deputy-President the
+Presidential Address. This address is famous in the history of
+geology, because for the first time it stated clearly and in permanent
+form a doctrine now taken as a first principle in all geological
+text-books. A large part of geology is the attempt to read the past
+history of the earth from the evidence given by the successive strata
+of rocks that form its crust.
+
+     "It is mathematically certain that, in any given vertical linear
+     section of an undisturbed series of sedimentary deposits, the bed
+     which lies lowest is the oldest. In many other vertical linear
+     sections of the same series, of course corresponding beds will
+     occur in a similar order."
+
+It is of the utmost importance to determine whether or no the same
+series occurring vertically in the same order in different parts of
+the earth were deposited at the same time. To explain the problem,
+Huxley took the following concrete example:
+
+     "The Lias of England and the Lias of Germany, the Cretaceous
+     rocks of Britain and the Cretaceous rocks of Southern India, are
+     termed by geologists 'Contemporaneous' formations; but whenever
+     any thoughtful geologist is asked whether he means to say that
+     they were deposited at the same time, he says, 'No, only within
+     the same great epoch.' And if, in pursuing the enquiry, he is
+     asked what may be the approximate value in time of a 'great
+     epoch'--whether it means a hundred years, or a thousand, or a
+     million, or ten million years--his reply is, 'I cannot tell.'"
+
+Most of the standard writers on palæontology had assumed that the
+presence in two beds at different parts of the world of the same
+fossils implied that the beds were contemporaneous, that they had been
+formed at the same time. Huxley pointed out that the fact of identical
+fossils being present was, on the whole, evidence against the beds
+having been formed at the same time. Even some of the older writers
+who believed in species having been created at definite places at
+definite times had seen that time must have been required for sets of
+animals to wander from the places in which they had come into
+existence. The newer theory of evolution was equally opposed to the
+notion of the appearance of similar animals at the same time on
+far-distant parts of the earth. For such reasons he proposed to reject
+the use of the word _Contemporaneous_ as applied to rockbeds in
+different localities which contained the same fossils, and to replace
+it by the word _Homotaxial_, which meant no more than that the beds
+occupied corresponding places in the geological history of the earth.
+Huxley did not pretend that these arguments were entirely original:
+they represented the drift of the best geological opinion, and he
+seized hold of them and set them down as permanent geological truths.
+
+In 1869, in a Presidential Address to the Geological Society, Huxley
+took up one of the burning questions of the day. In the early part of
+the century, the discoveries of geologists had been the occasion of
+great distress to those good people who clung to a literal
+interpretation of everything in the Bible. Long before the doctrine of
+evolution and the descent of man from lower animals had taken practical
+shape, there had been a battle royal between geologists who declared
+that the earth was many million years old, and had been inhabited at
+least by animals and plants for enormous periods, and those who clung to
+the traditional chronology which placed the date of creation only a few
+thousand years from now. The continued progress of geology, and the
+sturdy championship of it by men like Sedgwick, Chalmers, and Buckland,
+who were at the same time reputable theologians and distinguished men of
+science, had decided the battle in favour of the conclusions of science,
+and it was accepted generally that the earth was almost indefinitely
+old. At the same time, another and more strictly scientific dispute had
+been in progress. The older school of geologists, looking on the face of
+the world, and seeing it scarred by mighty fissures, displaying huge
+distortions of the beds in the crust, had argued that geological change
+had taken place by a series of mighty catastrophes. The tremendous
+results which they saw seemed to them only possible on the theory that
+unusual and gigantic displays of force had caused them. On the other
+hand, Hutton and Lyell attempted to find adequate explanation of the
+greatest changes in the slow forces which may be seen in operation at
+the present time. Slow movements of upheaval and depression, amounting
+at most to an inch or two in a century, may be shown to be actually in
+existence now, and such slow changes acting for very many centuries
+would account for the raising of continents above the sea, so that old
+sea-bottoms became the surface of the land, and for the depression of
+land areas so that new sedimentary rocks might be deposited upon them.
+They shewed how air and water slowly crumbled away the hardest rocks,
+and how rivers deepened their beds steadily but excessively slowly; and
+they held that while great catastrophic changes might occasionally have
+occurred, there was ample evidence of the present operation of forces
+which, granted sufficient time for their operation, would have made the
+crust of the earth such as it is. This doctrine of _Uniformitarianism_,
+of the action of similar forces in the past and present history of the
+earth, had almost completely triumphed over the older catastrophic
+views. As Huxley put it, the school of catastrophe put no limit to the
+violence of forces which had operated; the uniformitarians put no limit
+to the length of time during which forces had operated.
+
+     "Catastrophism has insisted upon the existence of a practically
+     unlimited bank of force, on which the theorist might draw; and it
+     has cherished the idea of development of the earth from a state
+     in which its form, and the forces which it exerted, were very
+     different from those which we now know.
+
+      "Uniformitarianism, on the other hand, has with equal justice
+     insisted upon a practically unlimited bank of time, ready to
+     discount any quantity of hypothetical paper. It has kept before
+     our eyes the power of the infinitely little, time being granted,
+     and has compelled us to exhaust known causes before flying to the
+     unknown."
+
+But there was a third influence at work in geology, an influence which
+may best be described in Huxley's own words:
+
+     "I shall not make what I have to say on this head clear unless I
+     diverge, or seem to diverge, for a while, from the direct path of
+     my discourse so far as to explain what I take to be the scope of
+     geology itself. I conceive geology to be the history of the
+     earth, in precisely the same sense as biology is the history of
+     living beings; and I trust you will not think that I am
+     overpowered by the influence of a dominant pursuit if I say that
+     I trace a close analogy between these two histories.
+
+      "If I study a living being, under what heads does the knowledge
+     I obtain fall? I can learn its structure, or what we call its
+     Anatomy; and its development, or the series of changes it passes
+     through to acquire its complete structure. Then I find that the
+     living being has certain powers resulting from its own
+     activities, and the interaction of these with the activities of
+     other things--the knowledge of which is Physiology. Beyond this,
+     the living being has a position in space and time, which is its
+     Distribution. All these form the body of ascertainable facts
+     which constitute the _status quo_ of the living creature. But
+     these facts have their causes; and the ascertainment of these
+     causes is the doctrine of Ætiology.
+
+      "If we consider what is knowable about the earth, we shall find
+     that such earth-knowledge--if I may so translate the word
+     geology--falls into the same categories.
+
+      "What is termed stratigraphical geology is neither more nor less
+     than the anatomy of the earth; and the history of the succession
+     of the formations is a history of the succession of such
+     anatomies, or corresponds with development, as distinct from
+     generation.
+
+      "The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and depression of
+     its crust, its belching forth of vapours, ashes, and lava, are
+     its activities, in as strict a sense as are warmth and the
+     movements and products of respiration the activities of an
+     animal. The phenomena of the seasons, of the trade-winds, of the
+     Gulf Stream, are as much the results of the reaction between
+     these inner activities and outward forces, as are the budding of
+     the leaves in spring, and their falling in autumn the effects of
+     the interaction between the organisation of a plant and the solar
+     light and heat. And, as the study of the activities of the living
+     being is called its physiology, so are these phenomena the
+     subject matter of an analogous telluric physiology, to which we
+     sometimes give the name of meteorology; sometimes of physical
+     geography, sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth has a
+     place in space and time, and relations to other bodies in both
+     these respects, which constitute its distribution. This subject
+     is usually left to the astronomer; but a knowledge of its broad
+     outlines seems to me to be an essential constituent of the stock
+     of geological ideas.
+
+      "All that can be ascertained concerning the structure,
+     succession of conditions, actions, and position in space of the
+     earth, is the matter of its natural history. But, as in Biology,
+     there remains the matter of reasoning from these facts to their
+     causes, which is just as much science as the other, and indeed
+     more; and this constitutes geological ætiology.
+
+      "Having regard to this general scheme of geological knowledge
+     and thought, it is obvious that geological speculation may be, so
+     to speak, anatomical and developmental speculation, so far as it
+     relates to points of stratigraphical arrangement which are out of
+     reach of direct observation; or, it may be physiological
+     speculation so far as it relates to undetermined problems
+     relative to the activities of the earth; or, it may be
+     distributional speculation, if it deals with modifications of the
+     earth's place in space; or, finally, it will be ætiological
+     speculation if it attempts to deduce the history of the world, as
+     a whole, from the known properties of the matter of the earth, in
+     the conditions in which the earth has been placed."
+
+Huxley then proceeded to shew that uniformitarianism and catastrophism
+had neglected this last and most important branch of geology, the
+attempt to trace the interaction of causes which had brought the world
+into its present condition. He gave a striking display of the wide
+knowledge of his reading by going back to the foundation of this branch
+of modern science, and giving a masterly account of the then
+little-known treatise of Immanuel Kant, who in 1775 had written _An
+Attempt to Account for the Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the
+Universe upon Newtonian Principles_. Next he declared that evolution
+embraced all that was sound in both catastrophism and uniformitarianism
+while rejecting the arbitrary limits and assumptions of both.
+
+Finally he came to the great question to which these observations upon
+the existing schools of geology had led. The most distinguished
+physicist of the age, then Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, and
+Huxley's immediate successor in the Presidential Chair of the Royal
+Society, had stated that the English school of geology had assumed an
+impossible age for the earth. By physical reasonings, Thomson stated
+that he was able to prove "That the existing state of things on the
+earth--all geological history showing continuity of life--must be
+limited within some such period of time as one hundred million years."
+This pronouncement had been received with acclamation by those who
+feared the geological and biological sciences, as a sign of internal
+dissensions within the house of science. Huxley, then, as all through
+the latter part of his life, at once constituted himself the champion
+of science, and, taking Thomson's arguments one by one, shewed by a
+series of masterly deductions from known facts that there was a great
+deal to be said for the other side, and that physicists were as little
+certain as geologists could be of the exact duration of time that had
+elapsed since the dawn of life. His plea for more time since the
+cooling of the globe than physicists were willing to allow remains one
+of the classics of geological literature. But he carried the question
+much farther. The inference which was widely drawn by the enemies of
+evolution from the arguments of Sir William Thomson was that if
+geologists had overestimated the age of the cooled earth there was not
+time for the evolution of animals and plants to have taken place.
+Huxley pointed out a fact which should be quite obvious, but which
+even yet is frequently neglected. The evidence for the gradual
+appearance of life in the past history of the earth depends simply on
+the fact that the successive forms of life appear in successive
+strata, and the length of time taken for these changes simply depends
+upon the length of time which was taken up by the formation of the
+strata. Our only reason for supposing the evolution of life, made
+plain by fossil records, to have taken place very slowly is that
+geologists have stated that the deposition of the strata took place
+very slowly. Whether these strata were deposited slowly or less
+slowly, we know that the forms of life changed at the same rate.
+
+     "Biology takes her time from geology. The only reason we have for
+     believing in the slow rate of change in living forms is the fact
+     that they persist through a series of deposits which, geology
+     informs us, have taken a long while to make. If the geological
+     clock is wrong, all the naturalist will have to do is to modify
+     his notion of the rapidity of change accordingly; and I venture
+     to point out that, when we are told that the limitation of the
+     period during which living beings have inhabited this planet to
+     one, two, or three hundred million years requires a complete
+     revolution in geological speculation, the _onus probandi_ rests
+     on the maker of the assertion, who brings forward not a shadow of
+     evidence in its support."
+
+Perhaps, although this is now an old controversy, it is worth while
+to recall that the keenness of Huxley's language was not directed
+against Sir William Thomson, between whom and Huxley there was no more
+than the desire to argue out an interesting scientific question upon
+which their conclusions differed, but between Huxley and those
+outsiders who were always ready to turn any dubious question in
+science into an argument discrediting the general conclusions of
+science.
+
+The last time that Huxley occupied the Presidential Chair of the
+Geological Society was in 1870, and he occupied his Presidential
+address by a review of the "old judgments" which he had given in the
+course of his first address in 1862. The address was entitled
+"Palæontology and Evolution," and the most important part of it was a
+complete withdrawal of the fears he had expressed that geology would
+not supply definite evidence of the transformation of species.
+Important discoveries had come thick and fast; and, at least in the
+case of the higher vertebrates, he declared that, however one might
+"sift and criticise them," they left a clear balance in favour of the
+doctrine of the evolution of living forms one from another. But, with
+his usual critical spirit, examining arguments that bore against a
+conclusion for which he hoped almost more stringently than arguments
+apparently favourable to what he expected to be true, Huxley made an
+important distinction, the value of which becomes more and more
+apparent as time goes on. In the first flush of enthusiasm for
+Darwinism, zoölogists and palæontologists allowed their zeal to outrun
+discretion in the formation of family trees. They examined large
+series of living or extinct creatures, and so soon as they found
+gradations of structure present, they arranged their specimens in a
+linear series, from the simplest to the most complex, and declared
+that the arrangement was a representation of the family tree. The fact
+that the line of descent apparently could have followed along the
+direction they suggested they were inclined to take as evidence that
+it had so followed. Huxley made the most careful distinction between
+what he called intermediate types and types with a right to be placed
+in linear order,
+
+     Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of
+     life already known may be said, so far as it is intermediate, to
+     be evidence in favour of evolution, inasmuch as it shews a
+     possible road by which evolution may have taken place. But the
+     mere discovery of such a form does not, in itself, prove that
+     evolution took place by and through it, nor does it constitute
+     more than a presumptive evidence in favour of evolution in
+     general. The fact that _Anoplotheridæ_ are intermediate between
+     pigs and ruminants does not tell us whether the ruminants have
+     come from the pigs or the pigs from the ruminants, or both from
+     _Anoplotheridæ_, or whether pigs, ruminants, and _Anoplotheridæ_;
+     alike may not have diverged from some common stock.
+
+A familiar instance will make the point at issue plain. Everyone knows
+that in many respects, in the structure of the skeleton, and the curve
+of the backbone, and in the development of the brain, the man-like
+monkeys, the gorilla and its allies, are intermediate between man and
+the lower monkeys. In the early days of evolution it was assumed
+frequently that the gorilla, etc., were therefore to be regarded as
+ancestors of man, and they appear as such in more than one well-known
+treatise on evolutionary biology. We now know that it is exceedingly
+probable that the gorilla and its allies, although truly intermediate
+types, and truly shewing a possible path of evolution from the brute
+to man, are not the actual ancestors of man, but cousins, descendants
+like man from some more or less remote common ancestor. And the
+tendency of recent advances in knowledge is more and more to throw
+stress on the value of Huxley's distinction, and to minimise confusion
+between "intermediate" and truly ancestral types.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HUXLEY AND DARWIN
+
+     Early Ideas on Evolution--Erasmus Darwin--Lamarck--Herbert
+     Spencer--Difference between Evolution and Natural
+     Selection--Huxley's Preparation for Evolution--The Novelty of
+     Natural Selection--The Advantage of Natural Selection as a
+     Working Hypothesis--Huxley's Unchanged Position with regard to
+     Evolution and Natural Selection from 1860 to 1894.
+
+
+From our attempt to place together as much as possible of Huxley's
+geological work in the last chapter, it followed that we anticipated
+much that falls properly within this chapter. The year 1859, the date
+of publication of _The Origin of Species_, is a momentous date in the
+history of this century, as it was the year in which there was given
+to the world a theory that not only revolutionised scientific opinion,
+but altered the trend of almost every branch of thought. To understand
+this great change, and the part played in it by Huxley, it is
+necessary to be quite clear as to what Darwin did. In the first place,
+he did not invent evolution. The idea that all the varied structures
+in the world, the divergent forms of rocks and minerals and crystals,
+the innumerable trees and herbs that cover the face of the earth like
+a mantle, and all the animal host of creatures great and small that
+dwell on the land or dart through the air or people the waters,--that
+all these had arisen by natural laws from a primitive unformed
+material was known to the Greeks, was developed by the Romans, and
+even received the approval of early Christian Fathers, who wrote long
+before the idea had been invented that the naive legends of the Old
+Testament were an authoritative and literal account of the origin of
+the world. After a long interval, in which scientific thought was
+stifled by theological dogmatism, the theory of evolution,
+particularly in its application to animals, began to reappear, long
+before Darwin published _The Origin of Species_. Buffon, the great
+French naturalist, and Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, had
+expressed in the clearest way the possibility that species had not
+been created independently, but had arisen from other species. Lamarck
+had worked out a theory of descent in the fullest detail, and regarded
+it as the foundation of the whole science of biology. He taught that
+the beginning of life consisted only of the simplest and lowest plants
+and animals; that the more complex animals and plants arose from
+these, and that even man himself had come from ape-like mammals. He
+held that the course of development of the earth and of all the
+creatures upon it was a slow and continuous change, uninterrupted by
+violent revolutions. He summed up the causes of organic evolution in
+the following propositions[D]:
+
+     "1. Life tends by its inherent forces to increase the volume of
+     each living body and of all its parts up to a limit determined by
+     its own needs.
+
+      "2. New wants in animals give rise to new movements which
+     produce organs.
+
+      "3. The development of these organs is in proportion to their
+     employment.
+
+      "4. New developments are transmitted to offspring."
+
+He supported especially the last two propositions by a series of
+examples as to the effects of use and disuse; and the most famous of
+these, the theory that giraffes had produced their long necks by
+continually stretching up towards the trees on which they fed, is well
+known to everyone. However, the ingenious speculations of Lamarck were
+unsupported by a sufficient range of actual knowledge of anatomy, and
+lacked experimental proof. He entirely failed to convince his
+contemporaries; and Darwin himself, in a letter to Lyell, declared
+that he had gained nothing from two readings of Lamarck's book. There
+can be little doubt but that several Continental writers, in
+particular Haeckel, have exaggerated Lamarck's services to the
+development of the idea of evolution. On the other hand, Lyell,
+although he strongly opposed the ideas of Lamarck and some curious
+notions of progressional creation due to the great Agassiz, had
+prepared the way for Darwin by his advocacy of natural causes and slow
+changes in opposition to the catastrophic and miraculous views in
+vogue. Above all, Herbert Spencer had argued most strenuously in
+favour of evolution. Thus, in an important passage quoted by Mr. Clodd
+from the _Leader_ of March 20, 1852, Spencer had written as follows:
+
+     "Those who cavalierly reject the theory of evolution, as not
+     adequately supported by facts, seem quite to forget that their
+     own theory is not supported by facts at all. Like the majority of
+     men who are born to a given belief, they demand the most rigorous
+     proof of any adverse belief, but assume that their own needs
+     none. Here we find, scattered over the globe, vegetable and
+     animal organisms numbering, of the one kind (according to
+     Humboldt) some 320,000 species, and of the other, some 2,000,000
+     species (see Carpenter); and if to these we add the numbers of
+     animal and vegetable species that have become extinct, we may
+     safely estimate the number of species that have existed, and are
+     existing, on the earth, at no less than ten millions. Well, which
+     is the most rational theory about these ten millions of species?
+     Is it most likely that there have been ten millions of special
+     creations; or is it most likely that by continual modifications,
+     due to change of circumstances, ten millions of varieties have
+     been produced, as varieties are being produced still?... Even
+     could the supporters of the development hypothesis merely shew
+     that the origination of species by the process of modification is
+     conceivable, they would be in a better position than their
+     opponents. But they can do much more than this. They can shew
+     that the process of modification has effected, and is effecting,
+     decided changes in all organisms subject to modifying
+     influences.... They can shew that in successive generations these
+     changes continue, until ultimately the new conditions become the
+     natural ones. They can shew that in cultivated plants,
+     domesticated animals, and in the several races of men, such
+     alterations have taken place. They can show that the degrees of
+     difference so produced are often, as in dogs, greater than those
+     on which distinctions of species have been founded. They can
+     shew, too, that the changes daily taking place in ourselves--the
+     facility that attends long practice, and the loss of aptitude
+     that begins when practice ceases,--the strengthening of the
+     passions habitually gratified, and the weakening of those
+     habitually curbed,--the development of every faculty, bodily,
+     moral, intellectual, according to the use made of it--are all
+     explicable on this principle. And thus they can shew that
+     throughout all organic nature there is at work a modifying
+     influence of the kind they assign as the cause of these specific
+     differences; an influence which, though slow in its action, does,
+     in time, if the circumstances demand it, produce marked
+     changes--an influence which, to all appearance, would produce in
+     the millions of years, and under the great varieties of condition
+     which geological records imply, any amount of change."
+
+These and many other instances which might be brought together from
+the published writings of the half-century before the publication of
+the _Origin_, show conclusively that the idea of evolution was far
+from new, and that all through the first part of this century
+dissatisfaction with the doctrine of the fixity of species and of
+their miraculous creation was growing. The great contribution of
+Darwin was this: First, by his theory of natural selection, he brought
+together the known facts of variation, of struggle for existence, and
+of adaptation to varying conditions, in such a way that they provided
+men with a rational and known cause, a cause the operation of which
+could be seen, for the origin of species by means of preservation of
+favoured races. Next, as to the origin of species, he brought together
+not only proofs of the actual operation of natural selection, but a
+body of evidence in favour of the fact of evolution that was, beyond
+all comparison, more striking than had been adduced by any earlier
+philosophical or biological writer. He convinced naturalists that
+evolution was by far the most probable way in which the living world
+had come to be what it is, and he made them turn to examination of the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms with a lively hope that the past history
+of the living world was not an insoluble problem. Darwin's doctrine
+brought a new life into biological study, and the result of the
+incomparably greater bulk of investigation that followed the year 1859
+was a continual increase of evidence in favour of the probability of
+evolution, until now the whole scientific world, and the majority of
+those who are unscientific, are content to accept evolution as the
+only reasonable explanation of the living world. It is well to
+remember that while Darwin, by bringing forward the theory of struggle
+for existence and resulting survival of the fittest, was the actual
+cause of the present assured position of evolution as a first
+principle of science, it by no means follows that the survival of the
+fittest has become similarly a first principle of science. At cross
+roads a traveller may choose the right path from a quite
+unsatisfactory reason. Darwin himself, in the act of bringing forward
+his own theory of natural selection, admitted the possibility of the
+co-operation of many other agencies in evolution, and at various times
+during the course of his life he was inclined to attach, now more now
+less, importance to these additional agencies. Huxley, as we shall
+soon come to see, never wavered in his adhesion to the facts of
+evolution after 1859; but, from first to last, regarded natural
+selection as only the most probable cause of the occurrence of
+evolution. Other naturalists, of whom the best-known are Weismann in
+Germany, Ray Lankester in England, and W.K. Brooks in America, have
+come to attach a continually increasing importance to the purely
+Darwinian factor of natural selection; while others again, such as
+Herbert Spencer in England, and the late Professor Cope and a large
+American school, have advocated more and more strongly the importance
+of what may be called the Lamarckian factors of evolution,--the
+inherited effects of increased or diminished use of organs, the direct
+influence of the environment, and so forth. From the fact that Darwin
+has persuaded the world of the truth of evolution, evolution is often
+called Darwinism; and in this historically just though scientifically
+inaccurate sense of the term, Huxley was a strict Darwinian, a
+Darwinian of the Darwinians. From the facts that, although natural
+selection had been formulated by several writers before Darwin, and
+had been simultaneously elaborated by Wallace and Darwin, the _Origin
+of Species_ was the foundation of the modern acceptation of evolution,
+and natural selection was the key-note of the origin of species,
+natural selection may be called Darwinism with both historical and
+scientific accuracy; and in this sense of the term Huxley was a
+Darwinian; a convinced but free-thinking and broad-minded Darwinian,
+who was far from persuaded that his tenet had a monopoly of truth, and
+who delighted in shewing the distinctions between what seemed to him
+probable and what was proved, and in absorbing from other doctrines
+whatever he thought worthy to be absorbed. The present writer has
+thought it so important to distinguish between these two sides of the
+word _Darwinism_, that for the sake of clearness he has stated what he
+believes to be the truth of Huxley's relation to Darwin before
+beginning detailed exposition of it.
+
+In consideration of Huxley's position before 1859, the most
+interesting feature of his zoölogical work is the gradual preparation
+that it was making in his mind for the doctrine of the _Origin_. He
+was like an engineer boring a tunnel through a mountain, but ignorant
+of how near he was to the pleasant valley on the other side; and,
+above all, ignorant how rapidly he was being met by a much more mighty
+excavation from the other side. To use what is perhaps a more exact
+simile: he was like a child with half the pieces of a puzzle-map,
+slowly linking them together as far as they would fit, and quite
+ignorant that presently the remaining half would suddenly be given
+him, and with almost no trouble would at once fit into the gaps he had
+necessarily left, and transform a meaningless pattern into a perfect
+and intelligible whole. Let us consider some of these map pieces. The
+ultimate picture was the conception of the whole world of life, past
+and present, as a single family tree growing up from the simplest
+possible roots, and gradually spreading out first into the two main
+branches of animals and plants, and then into the endless series of
+complicated ramifications that make up living and extinct animals and
+plants. Huxley was piecing together the scattered fragments, and
+gradually learning to see here and there whole branches, as yet
+separate at their lower ends, but in themselves shapely, and showing a
+general resemblance to one another in the gradual progression from
+simple to complex. The greatest of these branches that he had pieced
+together was the group of Medusæ and their allies, now known as
+CÅ“lenterates. He had formed similar branches for the Molluscs and
+minor branches for the Salps and Ascidians, and, in his general
+lectures on the whole animal kingdom, he had shadowed out the broad
+arrangement of the main divisions, or, as he called them, _types_. He
+had seen in each particular branch the clearest evidence of the laws
+of growth which had directed its development, and had realised that
+these laws of growth, consisting of gradual modifications of common
+typical structures, were identical in the different branches. He had
+taken clear hold of Von Baer's conception that the younger stages of
+different types were more alike than the adult stages, and here and
+there he had made comparisons between the younger stages or simplest
+forms of his different branches, and had shown that, without
+completely realising it, he was ready for the idea that just as the
+separate pieces could be arranged to form orderly branches, so the
+separate branches might come to be arranged as a single tree. And
+finally, in his lectures on "Protoplasm and Cells," and on the
+"Common Structure of the Animal and Plant Kingdoms," he had reached
+the conclusion that the two main divisions of the living world were
+formed of the same stuff, displayed in identical fashion the
+elementary functions of life, and were creatures of the same order.
+But, notwithstanding this close approach to modern conceptions, he was
+not an evolutionist. When, in public, he expressed deliberate
+convictions, these convictions were against the general idea of
+evolution, until very shortly before 1859. In this opposition he was
+supported partly by the critical scepticism of his mind, which in all
+things made him singularly unwilling to accept any theories of any
+kind, but chiefly from the fact that the books of the two chief
+supporters of evolutionary conceptions impressed him very
+unfavourably. Huxley writes:
+
+     "I had studied Lamarck attentively, and I had read the _Vestiges_
+     with due care; but neither of them afforded me any good ground
+     for changing my negative and critical attitude. As for the
+     _Vestiges_, I confess that the book simply irritated me by the
+     prodigious ignorance and thoroughly unscientific habit of mind
+     manifested by the writer. If it had any influence on me at all,
+     it set me against evolution; and the only review I ever have
+     qualms of conscience about, on the ground of needless savagery is
+     one I wrote on the _Vestiges_ while under that influence. With
+     respect to the _Philosophie Zoologique_, it is no reproach to
+     Lamarck to say that the discussion of the species question in
+     that work, whatever might be said for it in 1809, was miserably
+     below the level of the knowledge of half a century later. In that
+     interval of time, the elucidation of the structure of the lower
+     animals and plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of
+     their relations; histology and embryology, in the modern sense,
+     had been created; physiology had been reconstituted; the facts of
+     distribution, geological and geographical, had been prodigiously
+     multiplied and reduced to order. To any biologist whose studies
+     had carried him beyond mere species-mongering, in 1850 one-half
+     of Lamarck's arguments were obsolete, and the other half
+     erroneous or defective, in virtue of omitting to deal with the
+     various classes of evidence which had been brought to light since
+     his time. Moreover his one suggestion as to the cause of the
+     gradual modification of species--effort excited by change of
+     conditions--was, on the face of it, inapplicable to the whole
+     vegetable world. I do not think that any impartial judge who
+     reads the _Philosophie Zoologique_ now, and who afterwards takes
+     up Lyell's trenchant and effective criticism (published as far
+     back as 1830) will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much higher
+     place in the establishment of biological evolution than that
+     which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to physical science
+     generally--_buccinator tantum_".
+
+On the other hand, Huxley's friendship with Darwin and with Lyell
+began to make him less certain about the fixity of species. He tells
+us that during his first interview with Darwin, which occurred soon
+after his return from the _Rattlesnake_, he
+
+     "expressed his belief in the sharpness of the lines of
+     demarcation between natural groups and in the absence of
+     transitional forms, with all the confidence of youth and
+     imperfect knowledge. I was not aware at that time that he had
+     been many years brooding over the species question; and the
+     humorous smile which accompanied his gentle answer, that such was
+     not altogether his view, long haunted and puzzled me."
+
+An elaborate study of Lyell's works helped largely in destroying this
+youthful confidence, and a letter written by Lyell and quoted by
+Huxley in the chapter he communicated to Darwin's _Life and Letters_,
+states that in April, 1856, "when Huxley, Hooker, and Wollaston were
+at Darwin's last week they (all four of them) ran a tilt against
+species; further I believe, than they are prepared to go." Another
+quotation from Huxley's essay on _The Reception of the Origin of
+Species_ will make it plain beyond all doubt that he was not a
+Darwinian before Darwin.
+
+[Illustration: SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER]
+
+     "Thus, looking hack into the past, it seems to me that my own
+     position of critical expectancy was just and reasonable, and must
+     have been taken up, on the same grounds, by many other persons.
+     If Agassiz had told me that the forms of life which had
+     successively tenanted the globe were the incarnations of
+     successive thoughts of the Deity; and that He had wiped out one
+     set of these embodiments by an appalling geological catastrophe
+     as soon as His ideas took a more advanced shape, I found myself
+     not only unable to admit the accuracy of the deductions from the
+     facts of palæontology, upon which this astounding hypothesis was
+     founded, but I had to confess my want of means of testing the
+     correctness of his explanation of them. And besides that, I could
+     by no means see what the explanation explained. Neither did it
+     help me to be told by an eminent anatomist that species had
+     succeeded one another in time, in virtue of a 'continuously
+     operative creational law'. That seemed to me to be no more than
+     saying that species had succeeded one another in the form of a
+     vote-catching resolution, with 'law' to please the man of science
+     and 'creational' to draw the orthodox. So I took refuge in that
+     _thätige Skepsis_ which Goethe has so well defined; and,
+     reversing the apostolic precept to be all things to all men, I
+     usually defended the tenability of the received doctrines when I
+     had to do with the transmutationists, and stood up for the
+     possibility of transmutation among the orthodox--thereby, no
+     doubt, increasing an already current, but quite undeserved,
+     reputation for needless combativeness."
+
+What transformed Huxley's views and the views of his contemporaries
+who accepted Darwinism was not so much the evidence in favour of
+evolution contained in the _Origin_, as the illuminating doctrine of
+natural selection which for the first time supplied naturalists with a
+reasonable explanation of how evolution might have come about, both in
+the animal and vegetable kingdoms. As soon as this reason was
+provided them, they turned to the store of facts within their own
+knowledge, and rapidly arranged the evidence which had been lurking
+only partly visible in favour of the fact of evolution. It cannot be
+disputed that here and there earlier writers than Darwin and Wallace
+had suggested the possibility of natural selection acting upon
+existing variations so as to cause survival of the fittest.
+MacGillivray, the Scots naturalist, and the father of Huxley's
+companion on the _Rattlesnake_, had published suggestions which came
+exceedingly near to Darwin's theory. In 1831 Mr. Patrick Matthew had
+published a work on _Naval Architecture and Timber_, and in it had
+stated the essential principle of the Darwinian doctrine of struggle
+and survival. Still earlier, in 1813, a Dr. W.C. Wells, in a paper to
+the Royal Society on "A White Female, Part of whose Skin Resembles
+that of a Negro," had, as Darwin himself freely admitted, distinctly
+recognised the principle of natural selection--but applied it only to
+the races of man, and to certain characters alone. Finally, long
+before either of these, Aristotle himself had written, in _Physics_,
+ii., 8: "Why are not the things which seem the result of design,
+merely spontaneous variations, which, being useful, have been
+preserved, while others are continually eliminated as unsuitable?"
+None of these foreshadowings were supported by lengthy evidence, nor
+worked out into an elaborate theory; and it was not until Darwin had
+done this that we can say the birth of natural selection really took
+place. Huxley writes:
+
+     "The suggestion that new species may result from the selective
+     action of external conditions upon the variations from their
+     specific type which individuals present,--and which we call
+     'spontaneous,' because we are ignorant of their causation,--is
+     as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was
+     to biological specialists before 1858."
+
+But that suggestion is the central idea of the origin of species, and
+contains the quintessence of Darwinism.
+
+Some weeks before the _Origin_ was published, Darwin wrote to Huxley,
+sending him a copy of the work, and asking him for the names of
+eminent foreigners to whom it should be sent. In the course of his
+letter he wrote: "I shall be intensely curious to hear what effect the
+book produces on you," and it was clear that he had no very confident
+expectation of a favourable opinion. Huxley replied the day before the
+_Origin_ was published, saying that he had finished the volume, and
+stating that it had completely convinced him of the fact of evolution,
+and that he fully accepted natural selection as a "true cause for the
+production of species." Darwin, in a letter to Wallace, telling of his
+doubts and fears concerning the reception of his book, had added the
+postscript: "I think I told you before that Hooker is a complete
+convert. If I can convert Huxley, I shall be content." When he
+received Huxley's letter he replied at once:
+
+     "Like a good Catholic who has received extreme unction, I can now
+     sing _Nunc Dimittis_. I should have been more than contented with
+     one quarter of what you have said. Exactly fifteen months ago,
+     when I first put pen to paper for this volume, I had awful
+     misgivings, and thought perhaps I had deluded myself, like so
+     many have done; and I then fixed in my mind three judges, on
+     whose decision I determined mentally to abide. The judges were
+     Lyell, Hooker, and yourself. It was this which made me so
+     excessively anxious for your verdict. I am now contented, and can
+     sing my _Nunc Dimittis_."
+
+The effect of the new theory on Huxley's mind has been expressed most
+fully and clearly by himself:
+
+     "I imagine that most of my contemporaries who thought seriously
+     about the matter were very much in my own state of mind--inclined
+     to say to Mosaists and Evolutionists, 'a plague on both your
+     houses!' and disposed to turn aside from an interminable and
+     apparently fruitless discussion to labour in the fertile fields
+     of ascertainable fact. And I may, therefore, further suppose that
+     the publication of the Darwin and Wallace papers in 1858, and
+     still more that of the _Origin_ in 1859, had the effect upon them
+     of that of a flash of light which, to a man who has lost himself
+     in a dark night, suddenly reveals a road which, whether it takes
+     him straight home or not, certainly goes his way. That which we
+     were looking for and could not find, was a hypothesis respecting
+     the origin of known organic forms, which assumed the operation of
+     no causes but such as could be proved to be actually at work. We
+     wanted, not to pin our faith to that or any other speculation,
+     but to get hold of clear and definite conceptions which could be
+     brought face to face with facts and have their validity tested.
+     The _Origin_ provided us with the working hypothesis we sought.
+     Moreover, it did us the immense service of freeing us for ever
+     from the dilemma--refuse to accept the creation hypothesis, and
+     what have you to propose that can be accepted by any cautious
+     reasoner? In 1857 I had no answer ready, and I do not think that
+     anyone else had. A year later, we reproached ourselves with
+     dulness for being perplexed by such an enquiry. My reflection,
+     when I first made myself master of the central idea of the
+     _Origin_ was, 'how exceedingly stupid not to have thought of
+     that.' I suppose that Columbus's companions said much the same
+     when he made the egg to stand on end. The facts of variability,
+     of the struggle for existence, of adaptation to conditions, were
+     notorious enough; but none of us had suspected that the road to
+     the heart of the species problem lay through them, until Darwin
+     and Wallace dispelled the darkness, and the beacon-fire of the
+     _Origin_ guided the benighted.
+
+      "Whether the particular shape which the doctrine of evolution,
+     as applied to the organic world, took in Darwin's hands, would
+     prove to be final or not, was, to me, a matter of indifference.
+     In my earliest criticisms of the _Origin_ I ventured to point out
+     that its logical foundation was insecure so long as experiments
+     in selective breeding had not produced varieties which were more
+     or less infertile; and that insecurity remains up to the present
+     time. But, with any and every critical doubt which my sceptical
+     ingenuity could suggest, the Darwinian hypothesis remained
+     incomparably more probable than the creation hypothesis. And if
+     we had none of us been able to discern the paramount significance
+     of some of the most patent and notorious of natural facts, until
+     they were, so to speak, thrust under our noses, what force
+     remained in the dilemma--creation or nothing? It was obvious
+     that, hereafter, the probability would be immensely greater that
+     the links of natural causation were hidden from our purblind
+     eyes, than that natural causation should be unable to produce all
+     the phenomena of nature. The only rational course for those who
+     had no other object than the attainment of truth, was to accept
+     'Darwinism' as a working hypothesis, and see what could be made
+     of it. Either it would prove its capacity to elucidate the fact
+     of organic life, or it would break down under the strain. This
+     was surely the dictate of common sense, and for once common-sense
+     carried the day. The result has been that complete _volte-face_
+     of the whole scientific world which must seem so surprising to
+     the present generation. I do not mean to say that all the leaders
+     of biological science have avowed themselves Darwinians; but I do
+     not think that there is a single zoölogist, or botanist, or
+     palæontologist, among the multitude of active workers of this
+     generation, who is other than an evolutionist profoundly
+     influenced by Darwin's views. Whatever may be the ultimate fate
+     of the particular theory put forth by Darwin, I venture to affirm
+     that, so far as my knowledge goes, all the ingenuity and all the
+     learning of hostile critics has not enabled them to adduce a
+     solitary fact of which it can be said that it is irreconcilable
+     with the Darwinian theory. In the prodigious variety and
+     complexity of organic nature, there are multitudes of phenomena
+     which are not deducible from any generalisation we have yet
+     reached. But the same may be said of every other class of natural
+     objects. I believe that astronomers cannot yet get the moon's
+     motions into perfect accordance with the theory of gravitation."
+
+These quotations make plain the historical fact that Huxley was
+convinced of evolution because Darwin, by his theory of natural
+selection, brought forward an actual cause that could be seen in
+operation, and that was competent to produce new species. As soon as the
+"flash of light" came, it revealed to Huxley the vast store of evidence
+that he had unconsciously accumulated, and it set him at once to work
+collecting more evidence. If we bear in mind the distinction between
+evolution and natural selection, the well-known subsequent history of
+the relations between Huxley and what was known popularly as Darwinism
+becomes clear and intelligible. From first to last he accepted
+evolution; from first to last he accepted natural selection as by far
+the most reasonable hypothesis that had been brought forward, and as
+infinitely more in accordance with the observed facts of nature than any
+theory of the immediate action of supernatural creative power. As time
+went on, and the influence of Darwin's theory made evolution acceptable
+to a wider and wider range of people, until it passed into the common
+knowledge of the world, that confusion of which we have spoken arose
+between evolution and Darwin's particular theory. And as knowledge grew,
+and the number of biologists increased in the striking fashion of this
+last half-century, while the evidence for evolution continued to
+increase with an unexpected rapidity, every detail of the purely
+Darwinian theory became more and more subjected to rigid scrutiny. Most
+educated people, unless their education has been largely in an
+experimental science, find difficulty in understanding the relation in
+the minds of naturalists between "authority" and "knowledge." We do not
+_know_, for instance, that the structure of the Medusæ consists
+essentially of two foundation-membranes, because Huxley, one of the
+greatest authorities in anatomy that the world has seen, told us that it
+was so. We know it because, Huxley having told us that it was so, we are
+able at any time with a microscope and dissecting needles to observe the
+fact for ourselves. It is true, that unless we are making a special
+study of the Medusæ we do not repeat the observation in the case of so
+many different forms of Medusæ as Huxley studied; but it is part of our
+training to observe for ourselves in a sufficient number of cases to
+test the correspondence between statement and fact before we accept the
+generalisation of any authority. And we learn, or at least have the
+opportunity of learning, in the whole habit of our lives as naturalists,
+to distinguish carefully between knowledge of which personal observation
+is an essential part, and opinion or belief which may or may not be
+based upon authority, but which in any case is devoid of the
+corroboration of personal observation. When a piece of new anatomical or
+physiological work is published in a technical journal, it is read by a
+large number of anatomists and physiologists, and if the work is
+apparently of an important kind, bearing on the general problems that
+even specialists have to follow, they all at once set to work in their
+laboratories to make corroborative dissections or experiments, and it is
+part of every modern account of a biological discovery to tell exactly
+the methods by which results were got, in order that this process of
+corroboration may be set about easily. The question as to whether or no
+natural selection were the sole or chief cause, or indeed a cause at
+all, of evolution is not yet, and perhaps never will be, a matter of
+knowledge in the scientific sense. At the most, we can see for ourselves
+only that selection does bring about changes at least as great as the
+differences between natural species. The evidence for this we have
+before our eyes, if we choose to see, on a stock farm; in the breeding
+yards of any keeper of "fancy" animals; or in the nursery gardens of any
+florist. So far, Huxley accepted the Darwinian principle as a definite
+contribution to knowledge; and so far the whole body of biologists has
+followed him. Beyond this the truth of the Darwinian principle is a
+matter of inference or judgment; of balancing probabilities and
+improbabilities. In multitude of counsellors there is said to be wisdom,
+and what we learn from the counsellors of biology all over the world is
+that some maintain that natural selection is the only probable agency in
+effecting evolution, and that it is competent to account for all the
+changes which we know to have taken place; others hold that its probable
+influence has been over-rated; and others, again, think that it has been
+one of the many causes that have brought about the kaleidoscopic variety
+of organic nature. Huxley remained to the last among those who
+distinguished in the clearest way between natural selection as an
+exceedingly ingenious and probable hypothesis, and a proved cause; and
+he was always careful, especially when he was writing for or speaking in
+the presence of those who like himself accepted the fact of evolution as
+proven, to distinguish between this provisional hypothesis as to how
+evolution had come about, and definite knowledge that it had come about
+in this way. Two passages from Huxley's writings, one written in 1860 in
+the _Westminster Review_, and the second written in 1893, in the preface
+to the volume of his collected essays which contained a reprint of the
+_Westminster_ article, will make plain the continuity of Huxley's
+attitude:
+
+     "There is no fault to be found with Mr. Darwin's method, then;
+     but it is another question whether he has fulfilled all the
+     conditions imposed by that method. Is it satisfactorily proved,
+     in fact, that species may be originated by selection? That there
+     is such a thing as natural selection? That none of the phenomena
+     exhibited by species are inconsistent with the origin of species
+     in this way? If these questions can be answered in the
+     affirmative, Mr. Darwin's view steps out of the rank of
+     hypotheses into those of proved theories; but, so long as the
+     evidence at present adduced falls short of enforcing that
+     affirmation, so long, to our minds, must the new doctrine be
+     content to remain among the former--an extremely valuable, and in
+     the highest degree probable, doctrine; indeed, the only extant
+     hypothesis which is worth anything in a scientific point of view;
+     but still a hypothesis, and not yet the theory of species.
+
+      "After much consideration, and assuredly with no bias against
+     Mr. Darwin's views, it is our clear conviction that, as the
+     evidence stands, it is not absolutely proven that a group of
+     animals having all the characters exhibited by species in nature,
+     has ever been originated by selection, whether natural or
+     artificial. Groups having the morphological character of species,
+     distinct and permanent races, in fact, have been so produced over
+     and over again; but there is no positive evidence at present that
+     any group of animals has, by variation and selective breeding,
+     given rise to another group which was in the least degree
+     infertile with the first. Mr. Darwin is perfectly aware of this
+     weak point, and brings forward a multitude of ingenious and
+     important arguments to diminish the force of the objection. We
+     admit the value of these arguments to the fullest extent; nay, we
+     will go so far as to express our belief that experiments,
+     conducted by a skilful physiologist, would very probably obtain
+     the desired production of mutually more or less infertile breeds
+     from a common stock in a comparatively few years; but still, as
+     the case stands at present, this little 'rift within the lute' is
+     not to be disguised or overlooked."--(_Westminster Review_,
+     1860.)
+
+      "We should leave a very wrong impression on the reader's mind if
+     we permitted him to suppose that the value of Darwin's work
+     depends wholly on the ultimate justification of the theoretical
+     views which it contains. On the contrary, if they were disproved
+     to-morrow, the book would still be the best of its kind--the most
+     compendious statement of well-sifted facts bearing on the
+     doctrine of species that has ever appeared. The chapters on
+     variation, on the struggle for existence, on instinct, on
+     hybridism, on the imperfection of the geological record, on
+     geographical distribution, have not only no equals, but, so far
+     as our knowledge goes, no competitors, within the range of
+     biological literature. And viewed as a whole, we do not believe
+     that, since the publication of Von Baer's _Researches on
+     Development_, thirty years ago, any work has appeared calculated
+     to exert so large an influence, not only on the future of
+     biology, but in extending the domination of science over regions
+     of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly
+     penetrated."--(_Ibid._)
+
+      "Those who take the trouble to read the essays published in 1859
+     and 1860, will, I think, do me the justice to admit that my zeal
+     to secure fair play for Mr. Darwin did not drive me into the
+     position of a mere advocate; and that, while doing justice to the
+     greatness of the argument, I did not fail to indicate its weak
+     points. I have never seen any reason for departing from the
+     position which I took up in these two essays; and the assertion
+     which I sometimes meet with nowadays that I have 'recanted' or
+     changed my opinions about Mr. Darwin's views is quite
+     unintelligible to me.
+
+      "As I have said in the seventh essay, the fact of evolution is
+     to my mind sufficiently evidenced by palæontology; and I remain
+     of the opinion expressed in the second, that until selective
+     breeding is definitely proved to give rise to varieties infertile
+     with one another, the logical foundation of the theory of natural
+     selection is quite incomplete. We still remain very much in the
+     dark about the causes of variation; the apparent inheritance of
+     acquired characters in some cases; and the struggle for existence
+     within the organism, which probably lies at the bottom of both
+     these phenomena."--(1893, _Preface_.)
+
+Finally, when he was awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society, on
+November 30, 1894, in the course of an address at the anniversary
+dinner of the Society, he said, as reported in the _Times_ next day:
+
+     "I am as much convinced now as I was thirty-four years ago that
+     the theory propounded by Mr. Darwin, I mean that which he
+     propounded--not that which has been reported to be his by too
+     many ill-instructed, both friends and foes--has never yet been
+     shewn to be inconsistent with any positive observations, and if I
+     may use a phrase which I know has been objected to, and which I
+     use in a totally different sense from that in which it was first
+     proposed by its first propounder, I do believe that on all
+     grounds of pure science it 'holds the field' as the only
+     hypothesis at present before us which has a sound scientific
+     foundation.... I am sincerely of opinion that the views which
+     were propounded by Mr. Darwin thirty-four years ago may be
+     understood hereafter as constituting an epoch in the intellectual
+     history of the human race. They will modify the whole system of
+     our thought and opinion, our most intimate convictions. But I do
+     not know, I do not think anybody knows, whether the particular
+     views he held will be hereafter fortified by the experience of
+     the ages which come after us.... Whether the particular form in
+     which he has put before us the Darwinian doctrines may be such as
+     to be destined to survive or not, is more, I venture to think,
+     than anybody is capable at this present moment of saying."
+
+Further details of Huxley's relation to natural selection may be
+gained from an interesting chapter in Professor Poulton's volume on
+_Charles Darwin_ (Cassell and Co., London, 1896).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote D: See E. Clodd's _Pioneers of Evolution_, London, 1897, and
+Osborn's _From the Greeks to Darwin_, New York, 1896.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION
+
+     Huxley's Prevision of the Battle--The Causes of the Battle--The
+     _Times_ Review--Sir Richard Owen attacks Darwinism in the
+     _Edinburgh Review_--Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the _Quarterly
+     Review_--Huxley's Scathing Replies--The British Association
+     Debates at Oxford--Huxley and Wilberforce--Résumé of Huxley's
+     Exact Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+
+
+When Huxley wrote thanking Darwin for the first copy of the _Origin_,
+he warned him of the annoyance and abuse he might expect from those
+whose opinions were too suddenly disturbed by the new exposition of
+evolution, and assured him of the strongest personal support:
+
+     "I trust you will not allow yourself to be in any way disgusted
+     or annoyed by the considerable abuse and misrepresentation which,
+     unless I greatly mistake, is in store for you. Depend upon it,
+     you have earned the lasting gratitude of all thoughtful men; and
+     as to the curs which will bark and yelp, you must recollect that
+     some of your friends, at any rate, are endowed with an amount of
+     combativeness which (though you have often and justly rebuked it)
+     may stand you in good stead.
+
+      "I am sharpening my claws and beak in readiness."
+
+Huxley was absolutely right in his prediction as to the magnitude of
+the prejudices to be overcome before evolution became accepted, and
+for the next thirty years of his life he was the leader in the battle
+for Darwinism. It was natural that the new views, especially in their
+extension to man himself, should arouse the keenest opposition. To
+those of the present generation, who have grown up in an atmosphere
+impregnated by the doctrine of descent, the position of the world in
+1860 seems "older than a tale written in any book." As we have tried
+to shew in the preceding chapter, biological science was partially
+prepared; the mutability of species and the orderly succession of
+organic life were in the air. But the application of the doctrine to
+man came as a greater shock to civilised sentiment than would have
+occurred a century earlier. It came as a disaster even to the clearest
+and calmest intellects, for it seemed to drag down to the dirt the
+nobility of man. Out of the fierce flame of the French Revolution,
+there had come purged and clean the conception of man as an individual
+and soul. As this century advanced, the conception of the dignity and
+worth of each individual man, rich or poor, bond or free, had spread
+more and more widely, bearing as its fruit the emancipation of slaves,
+the spread of political freedom, the amelioration of the conditions of
+the dregs of humanity, the right of all to education, the possibility
+of universal peace based on the brotherhood of man; and all that was
+best in philosophy and in political practice seemed bound up with a
+lofty view of the unit of mankind. Carlyle himself, to whom many of
+the freest and noblest spirits in Europe were beginning to look as to
+an inspired prophet, could see in it nothing but a "monkey
+damnification of mankind." The dogmatic world saw in it nothing but a
+deliberate and malicious assault upon religion. The Church of England
+in particular was beginning to recover from a long period of almost
+incredible supineness, and there was arising a large body of clergy
+full of faith and zeal and good works, but quite unacquainted with
+science, who frankly regarded Darwin as Antichrist, and Huxley and
+Tyndall as emissaries of the devil. Against evolutionists there was
+left unused no weapon that ignorant prejudice could find, whether that
+prejudice was inspired by a lofty zeal for what it conceived to be the
+highest interests of humanity, or by a crafty policy which saw in the
+new doctrine a blow to the coming renewed supremacy of the Church. To
+us, now, it may seem that Huxley had "sharpened his beak and claws"
+with the spirit of a gladiator rather than with that of the mere
+defender of a scientific doctrine; but a very short study of
+contemporary literature will convince anyone that for a time the
+defenders of evolution had to defend not only what they knew to be
+scientific truth, but their personal and private reputation. The new
+doctrine, like perhaps all the great doctrines that have come into the
+world, brought not peace but a sword, and had to be defended by the
+sword. Darwin had not the kind of disposition nor the particular
+faculties necessary for a deadly contest of this kind; he was
+interested indeed above all things in convincing a few leading
+naturalists of the truth of his opinions; but, that done, he would
+have been contented to continue his own work quietly, in absolute
+carelessness as to what the world in general thought of him. Huxley,
+on the other hand, was incapable of restraining himself from
+propagating what he knew to be the truth; his reforming missionary
+spirit was not content simply with self-defence; it drove him to be a
+bishop _in partibus infidelium_.
+
+By a curious and interesting accident, Huxley had the opportunity of
+beginning his propagandism by writing the first great review of _The
+Origin of Species_ in the _Times_, at that period without question the
+leading journal in the world. Huxley's own account of this happy
+chance is given in _Darwin's Life and Letters_, vol. ii.
+
+     "The _Origin_ was sent to Mr. Lucas, one of the staff of the
+     _Times_ writers at that day, in what I suppose was the ordinary
+     course of business. Mr. Lucas, though an excellent journalist,
+     and at a later period editor of _Once a Week_, was as innocent of
+     any knowledge of science as a babe, and bewailed himself to an
+     acquaintance on having to deal with such a book, whereupon he was
+     recommended to ask me to get him out of his difficulty, and he
+     applied to me accordingly, explaining, however, that it would be
+     necessary for him formally to adopt anything I might be disposed
+     to write, by prefacing it with two or three paragraphs of his
+     own.
+
+      "I was too anxious to seize on the opportunity thus offered of
+     giving the book a fair chance with the multitudinous readers of
+     the _Times_ to make any difficulty about conditions; and being
+     then very full of the subject, I wrote the article faster, I
+     think, than I ever wrote anything in my life, and sent it to Mr.
+     Lucas, who duly prefixed his opening sentences. When the article
+     appeared, there was much speculation as to its authorship. The
+     secret leaked out in time, as all secrets will, but not by my
+     aid; and then I used to derive a good deal of innocent amusement
+     from the vehement assertions of some of my more acute friends,
+     that they knew it was mine from the first paragraph." "As the
+     _Times_ some years since referred to my connection with the
+     review, I suppose there will be no breach of confidence in the
+     publication of this little history."
+
+This review was one of the few favourable notices, and naturally it
+delighted Darwin greatly. He wrote to Hooker about it: "Have you seen
+the splendid essay and notice of my book in the _Times_? I cannot
+avoid a strong suspicion that it is by Huxley; but I have never heard
+that he wrote in the _Times_. It will do grand service." On the same
+day, writing to Huxley himself, he said of the review:
+
+     "It included an eulogium of me which quite touched me, although I
+     am not vain enough to think it all deserved. The author is a
+     literary man and a German scholar. He has read my book
+     attentively; but, what is very remarkable, it seems that he is a
+     profound naturalist. He knows my barnacle book and appreciates it
+     too highly. Lastly, he writes and thinks with quite uncommon
+     force and clearness; and, what is even still rarer, his writing
+     is seasoned with most pleasant wit. We all laughed heartily over
+     some of the sentences.... Who can it be? Certainly I should have
+     said that there was only one man in England who could have
+     written this essay, and that you were the man; but I suppose that
+     I am wrong, and that there is some hidden genius of great
+     calibre; for how could you influence Jupiter Olympus and make him
+     give you three and a half columns to pure science? The old fogies
+     will think the world will come to an end. Well, whoever the man
+     is, he has done great service to the cause."
+
+The essay in the _Times_ was followed shortly afterwards by a "Friday
+Evening Discourse" in 1860 on "Species, Races, and their Origin," in
+which Huxley, addressing a cultivated audience, laid the whole weight
+of his brilliant scientific reputation on the side of evolution. Next,
+in April, 1860, he published a long article in the _Westminster
+Review_, then a leading organ of advanced opinion, on _The Origin of
+Species_, some quotations from which article were made in the last
+chapter. Apart from its strong support of the doctrine of evolution,
+its whole-hearted praise of Darwin's achievements, and the clear way
+in which, while it showed the value of natural selection as the only
+satisfactory hypothesis in the field, it gave reasons for regarding it
+strictly as an hypothesis, the review is specially interesting as a
+contrast to reviews which appeared about the same time in the
+_Edinburgh Review_ and in the _Quarterly_. Both these were not only
+exceedingly unfavourable, but were written in a spirit of personal
+abuse singularly unworthy of their authors and still more of their
+subject. The review in the _Edinburgh_ had come as a particularly
+great shock to Darwin, Huxley, and their friends. Sir Richard Owen, in
+many ways, was at that time the most distinguished anatomist in
+England. He had been an ardent follower of Cuvier, and in England had
+carried on the palæontological work of the great Frenchman. He was a
+personal friend of the court, a well-known man in the best society,
+and in many ways a worthy upholder of the best traditions of science.
+In the particular matter of species, he was known to be by no means a
+firm supporter of the orthodox views. When Darwin's paper was read at
+the Linnæan Society, and afterwards when the _Origin_ was published,
+the verdict of Owen was looked to with the greatest interest by the
+general public. For a time he wavered, and even expressed himself of
+the opinion that he had already in his published works included a
+considerable portion of Darwin's views. But two things seemed to have
+influenced him: First, Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, and Sedgwick
+and Whewell, the two best-known men at Cambridge, urged him to stamp
+once for all, as he only could do, upon this "new and pernicious
+doctrine." Secondly, combined with his great abilities, he had the
+keenest personal interest in his own position as the leader of English
+science, and had no particular friendship for men or for views that
+seemed likely to threaten his own supreme position. In a very short
+time he changed from being neutral, with a tendency in favour of the
+new views, to being a bitter opponent of them. In scientific societies
+and in London generally, naturally enough he constantly came across
+the younger scientific men, such as Huxley and Hooker, who had
+declared for Darwin, and he made the irretrievable mistake of for a
+time attempting to disguise his opposition while he was writing the
+most bitter of all the articles against Darwinism. That appeared in
+the _Edinburgh Review_ in April, 1860, and the range of knowledge it
+displayed, and the form of arguments employed, naturally enough
+betrayed the secret of its authorship, although Owen for very long
+attempted to conceal his connection with it. Darwin, who had the most
+unusual generosity towards his opponents, found this review too much
+for him. Writing to Lyell soon after its publication, he said:
+
+     "I have just read the _Edinburgh_, which, without doubt is by
+     ----. It is extremely malignant, clever, and, I fear, will be
+     very damaging. He is atrociously severe on Huxley's lecture, and
+     very bitter against Hooker. So we three _enjoyed_ it together.
+     Not that I really enjoyed it, for it made me uncomfortable for
+     one night; but I have quite got over it to-day. It requires much
+     study to appreciate all the bitter spite of many of the remarks
+     against me; indeed I did not discover all myself. It scandalously
+     misrepresents many parts. He misquotes some passages, altering
+     words within inverted commas.... It is painful to be hated in the
+     intense degree with which ---- hates me."
+
+As Owen was still alive when this letter was published in _Darwin's
+Life_, the authorship of the review was not actually mentioned; but it
+is necessary to mention it, as it justifies the sternness with which
+Huxley exposed Owen on an occasion shortly to be described. The review
+in the _Quarterly_ was written by Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford,
+in July, 1860, and almost at once the authorship of it became known
+to Darwin's friends. In connection with this, Huxley wrote in 1887, in
+_Darwin's Life and Letters_:
+
+     "I doubt if there was any man then living who had a better right
+     (than Darwin) to expect that anything he might choose to say on
+     such a question as the Origin of Species would be listened to
+     with profound attention, and discussed with respect. And there
+     was certainly no man whose personal character should have
+     afforded a better safeguard against attacks, instinct with
+     malignity and spiced with shameless impertinences. Yet such was
+     the portion of one of the kindest and truest men that it was ever
+     my good fortune to know; and years had to pass away before
+     misrepresentation, ridicule, and denunciation ceased to be the
+     most notable constituents of the majority of the multitudinous
+     criticisms of his work which poured from the press. I am loth to
+     rake up any of these ancient scandals from their well-deserved
+     oblivion; but I must make good a statement which may seem
+     overcharged to the present generation, and there is no _pièce
+     justificative_ more apt for the purpose or more worthy of such
+     dishonour than the article in the _Quarterly Review_ for July,
+     1860. Since Lord Brougham assailed Dr. Young, the world has seen
+     no such specimen of the insolence of a shallow pretender to a
+     Master in Science as this remarkable production, in which one of
+     the most exact of observers, most cautious of reasoners, and most
+     candid of expositors, of this or any other age, is held up to
+     scorn as a 'flighty' person who endeavours to 'prop up his
+     utterly rotten fabric of guess and speculation,' and whose 'mode
+     of dealing with nature' is reprobated as 'utterly dishonourable
+     to natural science.' And all this high and mighty talk, which
+     would have been indecent in one of Mr. Darwin's equals, proceeds
+     from a writer whose want of intelligence, or of conscience, or of
+     both, is so great, that, by way of an objection to Mr. Darwin's
+     views, he can ask, 'Is it credible that all favourable varieties
+     of turnips are tending to become men'; who is so ignorant of
+     palæontology that he can talk of the 'flowers and fruits' of the
+     plants of the carboniferous epoch; of comparative anatomy, that
+     he can gravely affirm the poison apparatus of venomous snakes to
+     be 'entirely separate from the ordinary laws of animal life, and
+     peculiar to themselves'; of the rudiments of physiology, that he
+     can ask, 'what advantage of life could alter the shape of the
+     corpuscles into which the blood can be evaporated?' Nor does the
+     reviewer fail to flavour this outpouring of incapacity with a
+     little stimulation of the _odium theologicum_. Some inkling of
+     the history of the conflicts between astronomy, geology, and
+     theology leads him to keep a retreat open by the proviso that he
+     cannot 'consent to test the truth of Natural Science by the Word
+     of Revelation,' but for all that he devotes pages to the
+     exposition of his conviction that Mr. Darwin's theory
+     'contradicts the revealed relation of the creation to its
+     Creator,' and is 'inconsistent with the fulness of His glory.'"
+
+In a footnote to this passage, Huxley wrote that he was not aware when
+writing these lines that the authorship of the article had been avowed
+publicly. He adds, however:
+
+     "Confession unaccompanied by penitence, however, affords no
+     ground for mitigation of judgment; and the kindliness with which
+     Mr. Darwin speaks of his assailant, Bishop Wilberforce, is so
+     striking an exemplification of his singular gentleness and
+     modesty, that it rather increases one's indignation against the
+     presumption of his critic."
+
+As a matter of fact Wilberforce was a man of no particular information
+in letters or in philosophy, and his knowledge of science was of the
+vaguest: a little natural history picked up from Gosse, the naturalist
+of the seashore, in the course of a few days' casual acquaintance at
+the seaside, and some pieces of anatomical facts with which he was
+provided, it is supposed, by Owen, for the purposes of the review. But
+he bore a great name, and misused a great position; he was a man of
+facile intelligence, smooth, crafty, and popular, and in this case he
+was convinced that he was doing the best possible for the great
+interests of religion by authoritatively denouncing a man whose
+character he was incapable of realising, and on whose work he was
+incompetent to pronounce an opinion. Against an enemy of this kind,
+Huxley was implacable and relentless. He was constitutionally
+incapable of tolerating pretentious ignorance, and he had realised
+from the first that there could be no question of giving and taking
+quarter from persons who were more concerned to suppress doctrines
+they conceived to be dangerous than to examine into their truth. On
+the other hand, much as Huxley disliked Owen's devious ways, and
+although in after life there occurred many and severe differences of
+opinion between Huxley and Owen, Huxley had a sincere respect for much
+of Owen's anatomical and palæontological work, and when, in 1894,
+Owen's _Life_ was published, one of the most interesting parts of it
+was a long, fair, and appreciative review by Huxley of Owen's
+contributions to knowledge.
+
+The middle of 1860, however, was not a time for Huxley, in his
+capacity as Darwin's chief defender, to make truce with the enemy. In
+England a certain number of well-known scientific men had given a
+general support to Darwinism. From France, Germany, and America there
+had come some support and a good deal of cold criticism, but most
+people were simmering with disturbed emotions. The newspapers and the
+reviews were full of the new subject; political speeches and sermons
+were filled with allusions to it. Wherever educated people talked the
+conversation came round to the question of evolution. Were animals and
+plants the results of special creations, or were they, including man,
+the result of the gradual transformations of a few simple primitive
+types evolving under the stress of some such force as Darwin's natural
+selection? To many people it seemed to be a choice between a world
+with God and a world without God; and the accredited defenders of
+religion gathered every force of argument, of misrepresentation,
+conscious and unconscious, of respectability, and of prejudice to
+crush once for all the obnoxious doctrine and its obnoxious
+supporters. In the autumn of that year it fell that the meeting of the
+British Association, then coming into prominence as the annual
+parliament of the sciences, was to be held at Oxford. It was
+inevitable that evolution should be debated formally and informally in
+the sessions of the Association, and it must have seemed to the
+orthodox that there, in that beautiful city, its air vibrant with
+tinkling calls to faith, its halls and libraries crowded with the
+devout and the learned, its history and traditions alike calling on
+all to defend the old fair piety, in such an uncongenial air, the
+supporters of evolution must be overwhelmed. Almost the whole weight
+of the attack had to be resisted by Huxley. In the various sectional
+meetings he had combat after combat with professors and clerics. Of
+these dialectic fights the most notable were one with Owen on the
+anatomical structure of the brain, and another with Wilberforce upon
+the general question of evolution. Owen contended that there were
+anatomical differences not merely of degree but of kind between the
+brain of man and the brain of the highest ape, and his remarks were
+accepted by the audience as a complete and authoritative blow to the
+theory of descent. Huxley at once met Owen with a direct and flat
+contradiction, and pledged his reputation to justify his contradiction
+with all due detail on a further occasion. As a matter of fact, he did
+justify the contradiction, and no anatomist would now dream of
+attempting the support of the proposition rashly made by Owen; but,
+at the time, the position of Owen and the sympathies of the audience
+took away much of their effect from Huxley's words. Two days later,
+Wilberforce, in a scene of considerable excitement, made a long,
+eloquent, and declamatory speech against evolution and against Huxley.
+From the incomplete reports of the debate that were published, it is
+difficult to gain a very clear idea of the Bishop's speech; but it is
+certain that it was eloquent and facile, and that it appealed strongly
+to the religious prejudices of the majority of the audience. He ended
+by a gibe which, under ordinary circumstances, might have passed
+simply as the rude humour of a popular orator, but which in that
+electric atmosphere stung Huxley into a retort that has become
+historical. He asked Huxley whether he was related by his
+grandfather's or grandmother's side to an ape. Huxley replied:
+
+     I asserted, and I repeat, that a man has no reason to be ashamed
+     of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an ancestor
+     whom I should feel shame in recalling, it would be a _man_, a man
+     of restless and versatile intellect, who, not content with an
+     equivocal success in his own sphere of activity, plunges into
+     scientific questions with which he has no real acquaintance, only
+     to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and distract the
+     attention of his hearers from the real point at issue by eloquent
+     digressions, and skilled appeals to religious prejudice.
+
+An eye-witness has told the present writer that Huxley's speech
+produced little effect at the time. In the minds of those of the
+audience best qualified to weigh biological arguments, there was
+little doubt but that he had refuted Owen, and simply dispelled the
+vaporous effusions of the Bishop; but the majority of the audience
+retained the old convictions. The combat was removed to a wider
+tribunal. From that time forwards Huxley, by a series of essays,
+addresses, and investigations, continued almost to the end of his
+life, tried to convince, and succeeded in convincing, the intellectual
+world. At the risk of wearying by repetition we shall again insist
+upon the side of Darwinism that Huxley fought for and triumphed for.
+
+Long before the time of Darwin and Huxley, almost at the beginning of
+recorded thought, philosophers busied themselves with the wonderful
+diversity of the living world and with speculations as to how it had
+assumed its present form. From the earliest times to this century,
+theories as to the living world fell into one or other of two main
+groups. The key-note of one group was the fixity of species: the
+belief that from their first appearance species were separate,
+independent entities, one never springing from another, new species
+never arising by the modification in different directions of
+descendants of already existing species. The key-note of the other
+group of theories was the idea of progressive change: that animals and
+plants as they passed along the stream of time were continually being
+moulded by the forces surrounding them, and that the farther back the
+mind could go in imagination the fewer and simpler species would be;
+until, in the first beginning, all the existing diverse kinds of
+living creatures would converge to a single point. It may be that, on
+the whole, the idea of fixity prevailed more among thinkers with a
+religious bias; but for the most part the theories were debated
+independently of the tenets of any faith, Christian or other. There
+were sceptical defenders of fixity and religious upholders of
+evolution. However, in Christian countries, from the time of the
+Reformation onwards, a change in this neutrality of religion to
+theories of the living world took place. As Pascal prophesied,
+Protestantism rejected the idea of an infallible Church in favour of
+the idea of an infallible book, and, because it happened that this
+book included an early legend of the origin of the world in a form
+apparently incompatible with evolution, Protestantism and, to a lesser
+and secondary extent, Catholicism, assumed the position that there was
+no place for evolution in a Christian philosophy. At the end of last
+century, and up to the middle of this century, the problem was not
+raised in any acute form. The chief anatomists and botanists were
+occupied with the investigation and discovery of facts, and, in an
+ordinary way, without taking any particular trouble about it, accepted
+more or less loosely the idea that species were fixed. Now and then an
+evolutionist propounded his views; but, as a rule, he supported them
+with a knowledge of facts very much inferior to that possessed by the
+more orthodox school. Then came Herbert Spencer, reasserting evolution
+in the old broad spirit, not merely in its application to species, but
+as the guiding principle of the whole universe from the integrations
+of nebulæ into systems of suns and planets to the transformations of
+chemical bodies. Before his marvellous generalisations had time to
+grip biologists, there came Darwin; and Darwin brought two things:
+first, a re-statement of the fact of evolution as applied to the
+living world, supported by an enormous body of evidence, new and old,
+presented with incomparably greater force, clearness, patience, and
+knowledge than had ever been seen before; and, second, the exposition
+of the principle of natural selection as a mechanism which might have
+caused, and probably did cause, evolution.
+
+Huxley, as has been shewn, like many other anatomists, was ready for
+the general principle of evolution. In fact, so far as it concerned
+the great independent types which he believed to exist among animals,
+he was more than prepared for it. Let us take a single definite
+example of his position. In his work on the Medusæ, he had shewn how a
+large number of creatures, at first sight diverse, were really
+modifications of a single great type, and he used language which, now
+that all zoölogists accept evolution in the fullest way, requires no
+change to be understood:
+
+     "What has now been advanced will, perhaps, be deemed evidence
+     sufficient to demonstrate,--first, that the organs of these
+     various families are traceable back to the same point in the way
+     of development; or, secondly, when this cannot be done, that they
+     are connected by natural gradations with organs which are so
+     traceable; in which case, according to the principles advanced in
+     57, the various organs are homologous, and the families have a
+     real affinity to one another and should form one group.... It
+     appears, then, that these five families are by no means so
+     distinct as has hitherto been supposed, but that they are members
+     of one great group, organised upon one simple and uniform plan,
+     and, even in their most complex and aberrant forms, reducible to
+     the same type. And I may add, finally, that on this theory it is
+     by no means difficult to account for the remarkable forms
+     presented by the Medusæ in their young state. The Medusæ are the
+     most perfect, the most individualised animals of the series, and
+     it is only in accordance with what very generally obtains in the
+     animal kingdom, if, in their early condition, they approximate
+     towards the simplest forms of the group to which they belong."
+
+Such words, written before 1849, only differ from those that would
+have been written by a convinced evolutionist by a hair's breadth. But
+Huxley was not an evolutionist then: it was Darwin's work, containing
+a new exposition of evolution and the new principle of natural
+selection, that convinced him, not of natural selection but of
+evolution. At Oxford, in 1860, it was for evolution, and not for
+natural selection, that he spoke; and throughout his life afterwards,
+as he expressed it, it was this "ancient doctrine of evolution,
+rehabilitated and placed upon a sound scientific foundation, since,
+and in consequence of, the publication of _The Origin of Species_,"
+that furnished him with the chief inspiration of his work. The clear
+accuracy of his original judgment upon Darwin's work has been
+abundantly justified by subsequent history. Since 1859 the case for
+evolution has become stronger and stronger until it can no longer be
+regarded as one of two possible hypotheses in the field, but as the
+only view credible to those who have even a moderate acquaintance with
+the facts. In 1894, thirty years after the famous meeting at Oxford,
+the British Association again met in that historic town. The
+President, Lord Salisbury, a devout Churchman and with a notably
+critical intellect, declared of Darwin:
+
+     "He has, as a matter of fact, disposed of the doctrine of the
+     immutability of species.... Few now are found to doubt that
+     animals separated by differences far exceeding those that
+     distinguish what we know as species have yet descended from
+     common ancestors."
+
+Huxley, in replying to the address, used the following words:
+
+     "As he noted in the Presidential Address to which they had just
+     listened with such well deserved interest, he found it stated, on
+     what was then and at this time the highest authority for them,
+     that as a matter of fact the doctrine of the immutability of
+     species was disposed of and gone. He found that few were now
+     found to doubt that animals separated by differences far
+     exceeding those which they knew as species were yet descended
+     from a common ancestry. Those were their propositions; those were
+     the fundamental principles of the doctrine of evolution."
+
+On the other hand, Huxley all through his life, while holding that
+natural selection was by far the most probable hypothesis as to the
+mode in which evolution had come about, maintained that it was only a
+hypothesis, and, unlike evolution, not a proved fact. In 1863, in a
+course of lectures to workingmen, he declared:
+
+     "I really believe that the alternative is either Darwinism or
+     nothing, for I do not know of any rational conception or theory
+     of the organic universe which has any scientific position at all
+     beside Mr. Darwin's.... But you must recollect that when I say I
+     think it is either Mr. Darwin's hypothesis or nothing; that
+     either we must take his view, or look upon the whole of organic
+     nature as an enigma, the meaning of which is wholly hidden from
+     us; you must understand that I mean that I accept it
+     provisionally, in exactly the same way as I accept any other
+     hypothesis."
+
+In 1878 he wrote:
+
+     "How far natural selection suffices for the production of species
+     remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the whole cause,
+     it is a very important factor in that operation; and that it must
+     play a great part in the sorting out of varieties into those
+     which are transitory and those which are permanent."
+
+The difficulty in accepting natural selection as more than a
+hypothesis is simply that we have no experimental knowledge of its
+being able to produce the mutual infertility which is so striking a
+character of species. This difficulty is, in the first place, the
+difficulty of proving a negative. It might be possible to prove that
+its operation actually does produce species; it will always be
+impossible to prove that, in the past, natural selection, and no other
+known or unknown agency or combination of agencies, had a share in
+the process. All naturalists are now agreed that, as a matter of
+historical fact, it was the propounding of natural selection by Darwin
+that led to the acceptance of evolution, to the fact that evolution
+"takes its place alongside of those accepted truths which must be
+reckoned with by philosophers of all schools." The difficulty as to
+natural selection still exists, and there is no better way to express
+it than in Huxley's words, written in the early sixties:
+
+     "But, for all this, our acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis
+     must be provisional so long as one link in the chain of evidence
+     is wanting; and, so long as all the animals and plants certainly
+     produced by selective breeding from a common stock are fertile
+     with one another, that link will be wanting; for, so long,
+     selective breeding will not be proved to be competent to do all
+     that is required of it to produce natural species.... I adopt Mr.
+     Darwin's hypothesis, therefore, subject to the production of
+     proof that physiological species may be produced by selective
+     breeding; just as a physical philosopher may accept the
+     undulatory theory of light, subject to the proof of the existence
+     of the hypothetical ether; or as the chemist adopts the atomic
+     theory, subject to the proof of the existence of atoms; and for
+     exactly the same reasons, namely, that it has an immense amount
+     of _prima facie_ probability; that it is the only means at
+     present within reach of reducing the chaos of observed facts to
+     order; and, lastly, that it is the most powerful instrument of
+     investigation which has been presented to the naturalists since
+     the invention of the natural system of classification, and the
+     commencement of the systematic study of embryology."--_Man's
+     Place in Nature_, p. 149.[E]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote E: Further details on the subject of this chapter may be
+obtained in Clodd's excellent volume, _Pioneers of Evolution_, where
+an account of the history of the idea of evolution from the earliest
+times is given; and in Poulton's _Charles Darwin and the Theory of
+Natural Selection_, where there is a particularly valuable chapter
+upon Huxley's relation to Darwinism.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VERTEBRATE ANATOMY
+
+     The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull--Goethe, Oken, Cuvier, and
+     Owen--Huxley Defends Goethe--His Own Contributions to the
+     Theory--The Classification of Birds--Huxley Treats them as
+     "Extinct Animals"--Geographical Distribution--Sclater's
+     Regions--Huxley's Suggestions.
+
+
+We have seen that some of the most important of the contributions made
+by Huxley to zoölogical knowledge were in the field of the lower
+animals, especially of those marine forms for the study of which he
+had so great opportunities on the _Rattlesnake_. A great bulk of his
+zoölogical work, however, related to the group of back-boned animals.
+These, by their natural affinities and anatomical structure, are more
+closely related to man, and, as Huxley began his scientific work as a
+medical student, the groundwork of all his knowledge was study of the
+anatomy and physiology of man. Moreover, throughout the greater part
+of his working life, he had more to do with the extinct forms of life.
+The vertebrate animals, from the great facility for preservation which
+their hard skeleton presents, as well as from the extremely important
+anatomical characters of the skeleton, bulk more largely in the study
+of palæontology than does any other group. In each of the great
+groups of vertebrate animals, in fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds,
+and mammals, Huxley did important work. Much of this is embodied in
+his treatise on _Vertebrate Anatomy_, but to some particular parts of
+it special attention may now be directed, as much because these serve
+as excellent examples of his method of work as because of their
+intrinsic importance.
+
+The skull is the most striking feature in the skeleton of vertebrate
+animals, and to the theory and structure of the vertebrate skull
+Huxley paid special attention, and his views and summary of the views
+of others form the basis of our modern knowledge. This work was put
+before the public in the course of a series of lectures on Comparative
+Anatomy given in 1863, while Huxley was Hunterian Professor at the
+Royal College of Surgeons, and the beginnings of it were contained in
+a Croonian lecture to the Royal Society in 1858.
+
+The theory of the skull which held the field was known as the
+vertebral theory. The great bulk of the nervous system of vertebrate
+animals consists of a mass of tissue lying along the dorsal line of
+the body and enclosed in a cartilaginous or bony sheath. The nerve
+tissue is the brain and spinal cord; the sheath is the skull in front
+and the vertebral column along the greater part of the length of the
+animal. The brain may be taken simply as an anterior portion of the
+nerve mass, corresponding in a general way to an expansion of the
+spinal cord in the region of the anterior limbs and an expansion in
+the region of the hind limbs, the latter indeed having recently been
+shown in some extinct creatures to surpass the brain in size. In a
+similar simple fashion the skull may be taken as an expanded anterior
+part of the vertebral column, serving as an expanded box for the
+brain, just as in the regions of the pectoral and pelvic expansions
+of the cord there are similar expansions of the surrounding bony case.
+We know now, from greater knowledge of its embryological development,
+that the brain contains structures quite peculiar to itself, and
+differs from the spinal cord in kind as well as in size; but, at the
+same time, when the vertebral theory of the skull was inaugurated,
+embryological knowledge and the importance of its relation to
+anatomical structure were less considered. What Huxley did was to show
+that the skull, in its mode of origin and real nature, was not merely
+an expanded portion of the vertebral column, but that it differed from
+it in kind.
+
+The hypothesis of the vertebral structure of the skull was due both to
+Goethe, the great German poet, and Oken, a most able but somewhat
+mystic German anatomist. An attempt had been made by a well-known
+English anatomist to cast on Goethe the stigma of having tried to rob
+Oken of the credit for this theory. Huxley set that matter finally at
+rest, disproving and repelling with indignation the unworthy
+suggestion. Oken gave out his theory in 1807, and described how it had
+been first suggested to his mind by the accident of picking up a dried
+and battered sheep's skull, in which the apparent vertebral structure
+was very obvious, as, indeed, anyone may see at a glance. It was in
+1820, long after the theory had been made current, that the poet first
+publicly narrated that in a similar way he had long before come to the
+same conclusion; but Huxley was able to show that, although announcing
+it later, Goethe had in reality anticipated the anatomist. A passage
+occurs in a letter to a friend, of a date in 1790, which admits of no
+doubt. "By the oddest happy chance, my servant picked up a bit of an
+animal's skull in the Jews' cemetery at Venice, and, by way of a
+joke, held it out to me as if he were offering me a Jew's skull. I
+have made a great step in the formation of animals." It is an
+interesting trait in Huxley's character, to find him zealous in
+defence of the reputation of a great man, even although that man had
+been dead more than half a century; but it may be added that his just
+zeal was at least stimulated by the fact that the maligner of Goethe
+was Owen, the conduct of whom, with regard to Darwin and Huxley,
+Huxley had had just reason for resenting.
+
+The theory, then, which had dropped stillborn from Goethe, but which
+Oken developed, was simply that the skull consisted of a series of
+expanded vertebræ. Each vertebra consists of a basal piece or centrum,
+the anterior and posterior faces of which are closely applied to the
+face of an adjoining vertebra, and of a bony arch or ring which
+encloses and protects the nervous cord. Oken supposed that there were
+four such vertebræ in the skull, the centra being firmly fused and the
+arches expanded to form the dome of the skull. Quite correctly, he
+divided the skull into four regions, corresponding to what he called
+an ear vertebra, at the back, through which the auditory nerves
+passed; a jaw vertebra, in the sphenoidal region, through which the
+nerves to the jaws passed; an eye vertebra in front, pierced by the
+optic nerves, and again in front a nose vertebra, the existence of
+which he doubted at first. Quite rightly, he discriminated between the
+ordinary bones of the skull and the special structures surrounding the
+inner ear which he declared to be additions derived from another
+source. So far it cannot be doubted that the vertebral theory made a
+distinct advance in our knowledge of the skull. It was to a certain
+extent, however, thrown into disrepute by various fantastic theories
+with which Oken surrounded it. Later on, Cuvier removed from it these
+wilder excrescences, and amplified the basis of observation upon which
+the underlying theory of the unity of type of the skull throughout the
+vertebrates was based. Cuvier, however, came to reject the theory,
+except so far as it applied to the posterior or occipital segment of
+the skull. Later on, Owen resuscitated the theory, first throwing
+doubt on the merit of Goethe, and then suggesting that Oken, instead
+of relying on the observed facts, had deduced the whole theory from
+his own imagination. Owen, although he made no new contribution to
+fact or theory in this matter, practically claimed the whole credit of
+it as a scientific hypothesis.
+
+When Huxley took up the subject, the position was that the vertebral
+theory was in full possession of the field, under the auspices of
+Owen. Huxley began afresh from observed facts. The first object of his
+investigation was to settle once for all the question as to whether
+the skulls of all vertebrates were essentially modifications of the
+same type. He took in succession the skulls of man, sheep, bird,
+turtle, and carp, and showed that in all these there were to be
+distinguished the same four basi-cranial regions: the basi-occipital,
+basi-sphenoid, pre-sphenoid, and ethmoid. These were essentially
+identical with the centra of the four vertebræ of Oken. Similarly, he
+showed the composition of the lateral and dorsal walls, proving the
+essential identity of the structures involved and of their relations
+to the nerve exits in the great types he had chosen. In the series of
+lectures delivered before the College of Surgeons, he extended his
+observations to a much larger series of vertebrates, and substantially
+laid down the main lines of our knowledge of the skull. In two
+important respects his statements were not merely a codification of
+existing knowledge, but an important extension of it. He distinguished
+the different modes in which the jaws may be suspended to the skull,
+and established for these different kinds of suspensoria the names
+which have ever since been employed. He proved clearly what had been
+suggested by Oken, that the region of the ear is a lateral addition to
+the skull, and he distinguished in it three bones, his names for which
+have since become the common property of anatomists. Finally, he made
+it plain beyond any possible doubt that the skulls of all vertebrates
+were built upon a common plan.
+
+Having established the facts, he proceeded to enquire into the theory.
+There was now a new method for investigating such problems, the method
+of embryology, which, practically, had not been available to Oken, and
+of which neither Cuvier nor Owen had made proper use. By putting
+together the investigations of a number of embryologists, by adding to
+these himself, and, lastly, by interpreting the facts which his
+investigations into comparative anatomy had brought to light, he
+shewed that the vertebral theory could not be maintained. He shewed,
+by these methods, that, though both skull and vertebral column are
+segmented, the one and the other, after an early stage, are fashioned
+on lines so different as to exclude the possibility of regarding the
+details of each as mere modifications of a common type. "The spinal
+column and the skull start from the same primitive condition, whence
+they immediately begin to diverge." "It may be true to say that there
+is a primitive identity of structure between the spinal or vertebral
+column and the skull; but it is no more true that the adult skull is
+a modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that the
+vertebral column is a modified skull." Taking the embryological facts,
+he shewed that the skull arose out of elements quite different from
+those of the vertebral column. The notochord alone is common to both.
+The skull is built up of longitudinal cartilaginous pieces, now known
+as the "parachordals" and "trabeculæ," of sense capsules enclosing the
+nose and ear, and of various roofing bones. In the historical
+development of the skull three grades become apparent; a primitive
+stage, as seen in Amphioxus, where there is nothing but a fibrous
+investment of the nervous structures; a cartilaginous grade, as seen
+in the skate or shark, where the skull is formed of cartilage, very
+imperfectly hardened by earthy deposits; a bony stage, seen in most of
+the higher animals. He shewed that in actual development of the higher
+animals these historical grades are repeated, the skull being at first
+a mere membranous or fibrous investment of the developing nervous
+masses, then becoming cartilaginous, and, lastly, bony. He made some
+important prophetic remarks as to the probable importance that future
+embryological work would give to the distinction between cartilage and
+membrane bones--a prophecy that has been more than fully realised by
+the investigations of Hertwig and of others. Our present knowledge of
+the skull differs from Huxley's conception practically only in a
+fuller knowledge of details. We know now that throughout the series
+there is a primitive set of structures common to all animals higher in
+the scale than Amphioxus, and forming the base and lateral walls of
+the skull. This is termed the Chondrocraninm, because it is laid down
+in cartilage; it is composed of the separate elements which Huxley
+indicated, and, in different animals, as Huxley suggested, the exact
+limits of the ossification of the primitive cartilages differ in
+extent, but occur in homologous situations. This primitive skull is
+roofed over by a series of membrane bones which have no connection in
+origin with the other portions of the skull, and which have no
+representative in the vertebral column, but which are the direct
+descendants of the bony scales clothing the external skin in
+cartilaginous fishes. In one respect only was Huxley erroneous. Partly
+by inadvertence, and partly because the minute details of vertebrate
+embryology became really familiar to zoölogists only after the
+elaborate work of Balfour of Cambridge, Huxley, in his account of the
+formation of the first beginnings of the skeleton in the embryo, made
+confusion between the walls of the primitive groove, which, in
+reality, give rise to the nervous structures, and those embryonic
+tissues which form the skeletal system.
+
+The next great piece of work which we may take as typical of Huxley's
+contributions to vertebrate anatomy, is his classical study on the
+classification of birds. The great group of birds contains a larger
+number of species than is known in any other group of vertebrates,
+and, in this vast assemblage of forms there is strikingly little
+anatomical difference. The ostrich and the humming-bird might perhaps
+be taken as types of the extremest differences to be found, and yet,
+although these differ in size, plumage, adaptations, habits, mode of
+life, and almost everything that can separate living things, the two
+conform so closely to the common type of bird structure that knowledge
+of the anatomy of one would be a sufficient guide, down to minute
+details, for dissection of the other. None the less, there are
+hundreds of thousands of species of birds between these two types. It
+is not surprising that to reduce this vast assemblage of similar
+creatures to an ordered system of classification has proved one of the
+most difficult tasks attempted by zoölogists. Before Huxley, it had
+been attempted by a number of distinguished zoölogists; but, for the
+most part, these had relied too much on merely external characters and
+on superficial modifications in obvious relation to habits. When
+Huxley, in the course of a set of lectures on Comparative Anatomy, was
+about to approach the subject of birds he was asked by a zoölogist how
+he proposed to treat them. "I intend," he replied, "to treat them as
+extinct animals." By that he meant that it was his purpose to make a
+prolonged study of their skeletal structures the basis of his
+grouping, following the lines which Cuvier, Owen, and he himself had
+pursued so successfully in the case of the fossil remains of
+vertebrates. The result was that this first systematic study of even
+one set of the anatomical characters of the group completely reformed
+the method by which all subsequent workers have tried to grapple with
+the problem; ornithology was raised from a process akin to
+stamp-collecting to a reasoned scientific study. The immediate
+practical results were equally important. He was able to shew that
+among the innumerable known forms there were three grades of
+structure. The lowest had already been recognised and named by
+Haeckel; it consisted of the Saururæ, or reptile-like, birds, and
+contained a single fossil form, Archæopteryx, distinguished from all
+living birds by the presence of a hand-like wing in which the
+metacarpal bones were well developed and freely movable, and by the
+possession of a long lizard-like tail actually exceeding in length
+the remainder of the spinal column. The next group of Ratites,
+although it contained only the Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, and
+Apteryx, he shewed to be equivalent in anatomical coherence to the
+third great group of Carinates, which includes the vast majority of
+living birds. In his arrangement of the latter group, he laid most
+stress on the characters of the bony structures which form the palate,
+and by this simple means was able to lay down clearly at least the
+main lines of a natural classification of the group.
+
+Huxley's work upon birds, like his work in many other branches of
+anatomy, has been so overlaid by the investigations of subsequent
+zoölogists that it is easy to overlook its importance. His employment
+of the skeleton as the basis of classification was succeeded by the
+work of others who made a similar use of the muscular anatomy, of the
+intestinal canal, of the windpipe, of the tendons of the feet, and
+many other structures which display anatomical modifications in
+different birds. The modern student finds that all these new sets of
+facts are much greater in bulk than the work of Huxley, and it is easy
+for him to remain in ignorance that they were all suggested and
+inspired by the method which Huxley employed. He finds that further
+research has supplanted some of Huxley's conclusions, and it is easy
+for him to remain in ignorance that the conclusions themselves
+suggested the investigations which have modified them. Huxley's
+anatomical work was essentially living and stimulating, and too often
+it has become lost to sight simply because of the vast superstructures
+of new facts to which it gave rise.
+
+Closely associated with vertebrate anatomy is the subject of
+geographical distribution. In 1857 the study of this important
+department of zoölogy was placed on a scientific basis, practically
+for the first time, by a memoir on the geographical distribution of
+birds published in the _Journal_ of the Linnæan Society of London. It
+was known in a general way that different kinds of creatures were
+found in different parts of the world, but little attempt had been
+made to map out the world into regions characterised by their animal
+and vegetable inhabitants, as the political divisions of the world are
+characterised by their different governments and policies. Mr.
+Sclater, who two years later became secretary of the Zoölogical
+Society of London, in his memoir introduced the subject in the
+following words:
+
+     "It is a well-known and universally acknowledged fact that we can
+     choose two portions of the globe of which the respective fauna
+     and flora shall be so different that we should not be far wrong
+     in supposing them to have been the result of distinct creations.
+     Assuming, then, that there are, or may be, more areas of creation
+     than one, the question naturally arises how many of them are
+     there, and what are their respective extents and boundaries; or,
+     in other words, what are the most natural primary ontological
+     divisions of the earth's surface?"
+
+Mr. Sclater's answer was that there are six great regions;
+Neotropical, Nearctic, Palæarctic, Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian,
+and his answer, with minor alterations and the addition of a great
+wealth of detail, has been accepted by zoölogy.
+
+Two years later, however, Darwin gave a new meaning and a new
+importance to Sclater's work, by the new interpretation he caused to
+be placed on the words "centres of creation." Sclater's facts and
+areas remained the same; Darwin rejected the idea of separate
+creations in the older sense of the words, and laid stress on the
+impossibility of accounting for the resemblances within a region and
+for the differences between regions by climatic differences and so
+forth. He raised the questions of modes of dispersal and of barriers
+to dispersal, of similarities due to common descent, and of the
+modifying results produced by isolation. He gave, in fact, a theory of
+the "creations" which Mr. Sclater had shewn to be a probable
+assumption. It was in the nature of things that Huxley should make a
+contribution to a set of problems so novel and of so much importance
+to zoölogy. In 1868, in the course of a memoir on the anatomy of the
+gallinaceous birds and their allies, he made a useful attempt, nearly
+the first of its kind, to correlate anatomical facts with geographical
+distribution. Having shewn the diverging lines of anatomical structure
+that existed in the group of creatures he had been considering, he
+went on to shew that there was a definite relation between the
+varieties of structure and the different positions on the surface of
+the globe occupied at the present time by the creatures in question.
+He made, in fact, the geographical position a necessary part of the
+whole idea of a species or of a group, and so introduced a conception
+which has become a permanent part of zoölogical science.
+
+With regard to the number and limits of the zoölogical regions into
+which the world may be divided, Huxley raised a number of problems
+which have not yet reached a full solution. Mr. Sclater had divided
+the world into six great regions: the Nearctic, including the
+continent of North America, with an overlap into what is called South
+America by geographers; the Palæarctic, comprising Europe and the
+greater part of Asia; the Oriental, containing certain southern
+portions of Asia, such as India south of the Himalayas and many of the
+adjacent islands; the Ethiopian, including Africa, except north of
+the Sahara, and Madagascar; the Australian, containing Australia and
+New Zealand and some of the more southeastern of the islands of Malay;
+the Neotropical, including South America. Huxley first called
+attention to certain noteworthy resemblances between the Neotropical
+and the Australian regions of Sclater, and held that a primary
+division of the world was into _Arctogæa_, comprising the great land
+masses of the Northern Hemisphere with a part of their extension
+across the equator, and _Notogæa_, which contained Australia but not
+New Zealand and South America. Although this acute suggestion has not
+been generally accepted as a modification of Mr. Sclater's scheme, it
+called attention in a striking fashion to some very remarkable
+features in the distribution of animals. Subsequent writers have
+considerably extended Huxley's conception of the similarities to be
+found among the more southern land areas. They have pointed out that
+the most striking idea of the distribution of land and water on the
+surface of the globe is to be got by considering the globe alternately
+from one pole and from the other. In the south, a clump of ice-bound
+land, well within the Antarctic Circle, surrounds the pole. All else
+is a wide domain of ocean broken only where tapering and isolated
+tongues of land, South America, the Cape, Australia, lean down from
+the great land masses of the north. On the other hand, all the great
+land masses expand in the Northern Hemisphere, and shoulder one
+another round the North Pole. America is separated from Asia only by
+the shallowest and narrowest of straits; an elevation of a few fathoms
+would unite Greenland with Europe. Science points definitely to some
+part of the great northern land area as the centre of life for at
+least the larger terrestrial forms of life. We know that these arose
+successively, primitive birds like the ostriches being older than
+higher forms like the parrots and singing birds; the pouched
+marsupials preceding the antelopes and the lion; the lemurs coming
+before the man-like apes. Each wave of life spread over the whole area
+producing after its kind; then, pressing round the northern land area,
+it met a thousand different conditions of environment, different
+foods, enemies, and climates, and broke up into different genera and
+species. But there was never a wave of life that was not followed by
+another wave. In the struggle for existence between the newer and the
+older forms, the older forms were gradually driven southwards towards
+the diverging fringes of the land masses. The vanquished left behind
+them on the field of battle only their bones, to become fossils.
+Sometimes succeeding waves swept along to the extreme limits of the
+land, and many early types were utterly destroyed. But others found
+sanctuary in the ends of the South, and such survivors of older and
+earlier types of life cause a similarity between the southern lands
+that Huxley called Notogæa, although the extent of his region must be
+increased.
+
+Recently, however, there has been a recurrence to Huxley's suggested
+union of South America and Australia, based on new evidence of a
+direct kind, quite different from that which had just been given.
+Various groups of naturalists have stated that there are similarities
+between the invertebrate inhabitants of Australia and of South America
+of a kind which makes the existence of a direct land connection in the
+Southern Hemisphere extremely probable. Moreover, Ameghino has
+recently described some marsupial fossils from South America which, he
+states, belong to the Australian group of Dasyuridæ, and Oldfield
+Thomas has described a new mammal from South America which is unlike
+the opossums of America and like the diprotodonts of Australia. So
+that, while the general opinion has been against Huxley's division,
+Notogæa, in the strict meaning which he gave to it, there has recently
+been an opinion growing in its favour.
+
+Huxley also made minor alterations in Mr. Sclater's scheme by forming
+an additional circumpolar region for the Northern Hemisphere, and by
+elevating New Zealand into a separate region, distinct from Australia.
+On these points there is a balance of opinion against his views.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Huxley's contributions to vertebrate
+anatomy, the actual details of which would occupy far too much space,
+it is necessary to mention the great importance to zoölogy of the new
+terms and new ideas he introduced into classification. His mind was,
+above all things, orderly and comprehensive, and while, in innumerable
+minute points, from the structure of the palate of birds to the
+structure of the roots of human hair (actually the subject of Huxley's
+first published contribution to scientific knowledge), he added to the
+number of known facts, he did even more important work in
+co-ordinating and grouping together the known body of facts. To him
+are due not only the names, but the idea, that the mammalian animals
+fall into three grades of ascending complexity of organisation: the
+reptile-like Prototheria, which lay large eggs, and which have many
+other reptilian characters; the Metatheria, or marsupial animals; the
+Eutheria, or higher animals, which include all the common animals from
+the mole or rabbit up to man. In a similar fashion, he grouped the
+vertebrates into three divisions, and named them: Ichthyopsida, which
+include the fish and Amphibia, creatures in which the aquatic habit
+dominates the life history and the anatomical structure; Sauropsida,
+including birds and reptiles, on the close connection between which he
+threw so much light; Mammalia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAN AND THE APES
+
+     Objections to Zoölogical Discussion of Man's Place--Owen's
+     Prudence--Huxley's Determination to Speak out--Account of his
+     Treatment of _Man's Place in Nature_--Additions Made by More
+     Recent Work.
+
+
+Even before the publication of _The Origin of Species_ there was a
+considerable nervousness in the minds of the more orthodox as to
+discussions on the position of the human species in zoölogical
+classification. Men of the broadest minds, such as Lyell, who himself
+had suffered considerably from outside interference with the
+scientific right to publish scientific conclusions, was strongly
+opposed to anything that seemed to tend towards breaking down the
+barrier between man and the lower creatures. Sir William Lawrence, a
+very distinguished and able man, had been criticised with the greatest
+severity, and had been nearly ostracised, for a very mild little book
+_On Man_; and Huxley tells us that the electors to the Chair of a
+Scotch University had refused to invite a distinguished man, to whom
+the post would have been acceptable, because he had advocated the view
+that there were several species of man. The court political leaders,
+and society generally, resented strongly anything that seemed at all
+likely to disturb the somewhat narrow orthodoxy prevalent in those
+times; and, as there were comparatively few posts open to scientific
+men, and comparatively greater chances of posts being made for men of
+talent and ability who adhered to the respectable traditions, those
+who tampered with so serious a question as the place of man were
+likely to burn their fingers severely. However, the difficulties of
+discussing these problems were much greater immediately after 1859.
+One of the most surprising things in the history of this century is
+the sudden intensity of the opposition of the public, particularly the
+respectable and religious public, to zoölogical writing upon man,
+immediately after the publication of the _Origin_. Before that time
+anatomists did not necessarily hesitate to point out the close
+resemblance between the anatomy of man and that of the higher apes,
+and the difficulties anatomists had in making anatomical distinction
+of value between them. Thus Professor Owen, who, as a writer, was
+rather unusually nervous about expressing facts to which any objection
+might be raised by those outside the strictly scientific world, had
+written the following paragraph in the course of an essay on the
+characters of the class Mammalia, published, in 1857, in the _Journal
+of the Proceedings of the Linnæan Society_:
+
+     "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the distinction
+     between the psychical phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a
+     Boschisman or of an Aztec, with arrested brain-growth, as being
+     of a nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between
+     them, or as being other than a difference of degree, I cannot
+     shut my eyes to the significance of that all-pervading similitude
+     of structure--every tooth, every bone, strictly homologous--which
+     makes the determination of the difference between _Homo_ and
+     _Pithecus_ the anatomist's difficulty."
+
+It is true, he went on to explain his belief in the existence of
+certain characters in the brain which seemed to him to justify the
+separation of man in a different group from that in which the apes
+were placed; but it is certain that he regretted having said anything
+which seemed to support the Darwinian view; and, two years later, when
+the opposition to Darwin was in its acutest stage, Owen withdrew his
+words. His "Reade Lecture," delivered in the University of Cambridge,
+was in all respects a reprint of the essay from which we have just
+quoted, but the apparently dangerous words were omitted. More than
+that, the points insisted on in the essay as being sufficient for the
+purpose of separating man in zoölogical classification were elevated
+into a reason against descent. Although Huxley, in several addresses
+and publications, disproved the existence of the alleged differences,
+and although Sir William Flower gave an actual demonstration shewing
+the essential identity of the brain of man and of the apes in the
+matter in question, Owen never admitted his error.
+
+[Illustration: CHARLES DARWIN
+From the painting by Hon. John Collier in the National Portrait
+Gallery]
+
+It is not surprising that, if an anatomist so distinguished and acute
+as was Owen allowed his judgment to be completely overborne by the
+storm of prejudice against Darwinism, those who were not anatomists
+should have held up to ridicule all idea of comparison between man and
+the apes. In _The Origin of Species_ itself, no elaborate attempt had
+been made to set forth the anatomical arguments in favour of or
+against a community of descent for man and the apes. But it was made
+sufficiently plain, and the public laid hold of the point eagerly,
+that the doctrine of descent was not meant to exclude man from the
+field of its operation. Huxley, in the course of his ordinary work as
+Professor of Biology, had, among many other subjects, naturally
+turned his attention to the anatomy and classification of the
+higher animals. When Owen's essay appeared, he found that he was
+unable to agree with many of the conclusions contained in it, and had
+set about a renewed investigation of the matter. Thus it happened
+that, when the question became prominent, in 1860, Huxley was ready
+with material contributions to it. He believed, moreover, that, as
+Darwin was not specially acquainted with the anatomy and development
+of vertebrates, there was an opportunity for doing a real service to
+the cause of evolution. Accordingly, in 1860, he took for the subject
+of a series of lectures to workingmen the "Relation of Man to the
+Lower Animals," and, in 1862, expanded the lectures into a volume
+called _Man's Place in Nature_. When it was ready, he was prepared to
+say with a good conscience that his conclusions "had not been formed
+hastily or enunciated crudely."
+
+     "I thought," he wrote in the preface to the 1894 edition, "I had
+     earned the right to publish them, and even fancied I might be
+     thanked, rather than reproved, for so doing. However, in my
+     anxiety to promulgate nothing erroneous, I asked a highly
+     competent anatomist and very good friend of mine to look through
+     my proofs, and, if he could, point out any errors of fact. I was
+     well pleased when he returned them without any criticism on that
+     score; but my satisfaction was speedily dashed by the very
+     earnest warning, as to the consequences of publication, which my
+     friend's interest in my welfare led him to give; but, as I have
+     confessed elsewhere, when I was a young man there was just a
+     little--a mere _soupçon_--in my composition of that tenacity of
+     purpose which has another name, and I felt sure that all the evil
+     things prophesied would not be so painful to me as the giving up
+     of that which I had resolved to do, upon grounds which I
+     conceived to be right. So the book came out, and I must do my
+     friend the justice to say that his forecast was completely
+     justified. The Boreas of criticism blew his hardest blasts of
+     misrepresentation and ridicule for some years; and I was even as
+     one of the wicked. Indeed, it surprises me, at times, to think
+     how anyone who had sunk so low could have emerged into, at any
+     rate, relative respectability."
+
+Further, in the same preface, Huxley strongly advises others to
+imitate his action in this matter. There are now, and no doubt there
+always will be, truths "plainly obvious and generally denied." Whoever
+attacks the current ideas is certain, unless human nature changes
+greatly, to encounter a bitter opposition, and there will always be
+those among his friends who recommend him to temper truth by prudence.
+Huxley's advice is different:
+
+     "If there is a young man of the present generation who has taken
+     as much trouble as I did to assure himself that they are truths,
+     let him come out with them, without troubling his head about the
+     barking of the dogs of St. Ernulphus. _Veritas prævalebit_--some
+     day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time, he himself
+     will be all the better and wiser for having tried to help her.
+     And let him recollect that such great reward is full payment for
+     all his labour and pains."
+
+Although they were written so long ago, the lectures on "Man's Place
+in Nature" are still the best existing treatise on the subject, and we
+shall give an outline of them, mentioning the chief points in which
+further work has been done. Information concerning the man-like apes
+was scattered in very different places, in the grave records of
+scientific societies, in the letters of travellers and missionaries,
+in the reports of the zoölogical societies which had been in
+possession of living specimens. The facts had to be sifted out from a
+great mass of verbiage and unfounded statement. With a characteristic
+desire for historical accuracy, more usual in a man of letters than in
+an anatomist, Huxley began with a study of classical and mediæval
+legends of the existence of pigmies and man-like creatures; but, while
+recognising that legends of satyrs and fauns were presages of the
+discovery of man-like apes, he was unable to find any actual record
+earlier than that contained in Pigafetta's _Description of the Kingdom
+of Congo_, drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor and
+published in 1598. The descriptions and figures in this work
+apparently referred to chimpanzees. From this date onwards he traces
+the literature of the animals in question, and then proceeds to give
+an account of them.
+
+There are four distinct kinds of man-like apes: in Eastern Asia the
+Orangs and the Gibbons (although some later writers differ from Huxley
+in removing the Gibbons from the group of anthropoids); in Western
+Africa, the Chimpanzees and the Gorillas. All these have certain
+characters in common. They are inhabitants of the old world; they all
+have the same number of teeth as man, possessing four incisors, two
+canines, four premolars, and six true molars in each jaw, in the adult
+condition, while the milk dentition, as in man, consists of twenty
+teeth,--four incisors, two canines, and four molars in each jaw. Since
+Huxley wrote, a large bulk of additional work upon teeth has been
+published, and we now know that man and the anthropoid apes display
+the same kind of degenerative specialisation in their jaws. Simpler
+and older forms of mammals had a much larger number of teeth, and
+these differed among themselves more than the teeth of the higher
+forms. In the Anthropoids and Man, the jaws are proportionately
+shorter and less heavy than in simpler forms, and, in correspondence
+with this, the number of the teeth has become reduced, while the teeth
+themselves tend to form a more even row. The canine or eye-teeth are
+relatively smaller in the gorilla than in primitive mammals; they are
+still smaller in the lower races of man; while in ordinary civilised
+man they do not project above the others. The shortening of the jaw is
+still proceeding, and, although in lower races of man the last molar
+or wisdom tooth is almost as large as the molars in front of it, in
+the higher races the wisdom tooth is much smaller and frequently does
+not develop at all, or begins to decay very soon after its appearance.
+If the process of extinction of lower races were to proceed much
+further, so that civilised white races became the only human
+inhabitants of the earth, then the gap between the Anthropoids and Man
+would be wider than it now is; man would be characterised by the
+presence of one tooth less than the anthropoids, just as the
+anthropoids and some lower monkeys are characterised by having one
+tooth less than monkeys still lower.
+
+In all, the nostrils have a narrow partition and look downwards as in
+man. The arms are always longer than the legs, the difference being
+greatest in the orang and least in the chimpanzee. We know now that in
+the lower races of man, the arms are proportionately longer than in
+higher races, and it has recently been shewn that, although there is a
+general proportion between the length of the long bones and the height
+of the whole body in man, so that the height may be calculated with an
+average error from these bones, yet the probable error is greater when
+the calculation is made from the arms than when it is made from the
+legs. In fact, the length of arm as compared to the length of leg and
+to whole height is a more variable feature in man than the length of
+leg.
+
+In all the anthropoids, the forelimbs end in hands with longer or
+shorter thumbs, and the great toe, always smaller than in man, is far
+more movable and can be opposed like a thumb to the other toes. Since
+Huxley wrote, a considerable amount of evidence has been collected
+shewing that partial opposability of the toe in man is not uncommon,
+and that there is evidence as to a tendency to increase of length of
+the great toe within historical times. None of the great apes have
+tails, and none of them have the cheek pouches common among lower
+monkeys.
+
+Huxley then gives an account of the natural history of these animals,
+an account which still remains the best in literature. He sums up the
+habits of the Asiatic forms as follows:
+
+1. They may readily move along the ground in the erect, or semi-erect
+position, and without direct support from the arms.
+
+2. They may possess an extremely loud voice, so loud as to be readily
+heard one or two miles.
+
+3. They may be capable of great viciousness and violence when
+irritated; and this is especially true of adult males.
+
+4. They may build a nest to sleep in.
+
+He finds the same general characters in the case of the gorilla and
+chimpanzee, but in their case there was not quite so reliable evidence
+upon which to go.
+
+Although, since Huxley wrote, there has been much greater opportunity
+of studying anthropoid apes, both in confinement and in their native
+haunts, there is not much to add to his account. Some little time ago,
+the world was interested by the assertion of a clever American that he
+had discovered a kind of language used by the higher apes, and that he
+was able to communicate with them. Mr. Garnier, the person in
+question, declared his intention of going out to tropical Africa and
+establishing himself in a strong cage in the forests inhabited by
+gorillas and chimpanzees, in the hope that, impelled by curiosity,
+they would look upon him as we look on monkeys in a zoölogical garden,
+and that he would thus be able to make his knowledge and records of
+monkey language more perfect. As a matter of fact he went to Africa,
+and on his return published a volume which aroused the indignation of
+naturalists. There was internal evidence that he had gone no further
+than the garden of a coast station, and his pretended account of the
+habits of monkeys as they lived in their native haunts contained
+nothing that was not already known. There is no doubt but that the
+anthropoid apes, like many other animals, use modulations of their
+voice to express emotional states; that, in fact, they have love-cries
+and cries of warning, of alarm, and of pleasure; but there is not the
+smallest evidence to suppose that in the case of the anthropoids these
+cries approach more nearly to speech than the cries of any other of
+the higher mammals.
+
+Since Huxley's volume was published, a large amount of information has
+been published by Darwin, Romanes, and others upon the mental
+capacities of anthropoids kept in confinement, and the result of this
+has been to prove that the anthropoids, in especial the chimpanzees,
+possess mental powers more akin to those of man than are to be found
+in the most intelligent of the quadrupeds. We may cite some instances
+of these higher powers. Vosmaern had a tame female orang-outang that
+was able to untie the most intricate knot with fingers or teeth, and
+took such pleasure in doing it that she regularly untied the shoes of
+those who came near her. The female chimpanzee called Sally, that
+lived for many years in the Zoölogical Society's Gardens in London,
+was taught by its keeper and by Romanes an interesting variety of
+"tricks" involving at least the rudiments of what may be called human
+intelligence. Among other feats, it would pick up from the floor and
+present to the keeper or to a visitor, a stated number of straws up to
+five. Many monkeys seem nearly purely destructive in their dealings
+with objects within their reach; but Leutemann tells of an
+orang-outang which "tried to put to its proper use whatever was given
+to him. To my great surprise he attempted to put on a pair of gloves.
+He supported himself on a light walking cane and, when it bent under
+him, made ridiculous motions to right it again." Brehm tells of a
+chimpanzee:
+
+     "After eating, he at once begins to clean up. He holds a stick of
+     wood in front of him, or puts his hands in his master's slippers,
+     and slides about the room, then takes a cloth and scrubs the
+     floor. Scouring, sweeping, and dusting are his favourite
+     occupations; and, when he once gets hold of the cloth, he never
+     wants to give it up."
+
+Falkenstein has given a detailed description of a gorilla which was
+remarkable for his delicacy in eating.
+
+     "He would take a cup or glass with the greatest care, using both
+     hands to carry it to his mouth, and setting it down so carefully
+     that I do not remember having lost a single piece of crockery
+     through him, though we had never tried to teach him the use of
+     such vessels, wishing to bring him to Europe as nearly in his
+     natural condition as possible."
+
+These and a multitude of similar observations which have been made
+since Huxley wrote are typical of the increase of our knowledge on the
+habits and capacities of the anthropoid apes. They all serve to show
+that in them the instinct for experimental investigation of
+everything with which they are surrounded, and their imitative
+faculties are peculiarly great. The importance of this, from the point
+of view of Huxley's argument, is great. The difference between the
+instincts of the lower animals and the intelligence of man is that
+instincts are to a large extent fixed and mechanical. The proper
+performance of an instinct demands the presence of exactly the right
+external conditions for its accomplishment. In the absence of these
+conditions, the call to perform the instinctive action is equally
+great, and results in useless performances. In many of the higher
+animals these elaborate instincts are more general in their character,
+and are supplemented by a considerable but varying aptitude for
+modification of instinctive action to suit varieties of surrounding
+circumstances. As this intelligence becomes more and more developed,
+the blind, mechanical instinct becomes weaker. A large number of
+instances might be given of such instincts modified by dawning
+intelligence. The chief factors in producing the change are, as has
+been shewn by Professor Groos, the possession of a general instinct to
+imitate and to experiment, and the existence of a period of youth in
+which the young creature may practise these instincts, and so prepare
+itself for the more serious purposes of adult life. The anthropoid
+apes seem to possess these experimental instincts to an extent much
+greater than that observed in any other class of animals, and, as they
+have a long period of youth, they have the opportunity of putting them
+into practice to the fullest possible extent.
+
+From the natural history of the anthropoid apes, Huxley passed to
+consideration of their relation to man, prefacing his observations
+with a passage defending the utility of the enquiry, a passage
+necessary enough in these days of prejudice, but now chiefly with
+historical interest:
+
+     "It will be admitted that some knowledge of man's position in the
+     animate world is an indispensable preliminary to the proper
+     understanding of his relations to the universe; and this again
+     resolves itself in the long run into an enquiry into the nature
+     and the closeness of the ties which connect him with those
+     singular creatures whose history has been sketched in the
+     preceding pages.
+
+      "The importance of such an enquiry is, indeed, intuitively
+     manifest. Brought face to face with these blurred copies of
+     himself, the least thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain
+     shock; due perhaps not so much to disgust at the aspect of what
+     looks like an insulting caricature, as to the awakening of a
+     sudden and profound mistrust of time-honoured theories and
+     strongly rooted prejudices regarding his own position in nature,
+     and his relations to the underworld of life; while that which
+     remains a dim suspicion for the unthinking, becomes a vast
+     argument, fraught with the deepest consequences, for all who are
+     acquainted with the recent progress of the anatomical and
+     physiological sciences."
+
+Huxley then proceeded to elaborate the argument from development for
+the essential identity of man and the apes. This argument has now
+become more or less familiar to us all, as it has gained additional
+support from recent extension of embryological knowledge, and as it
+has been used in every work on evolution since Huxley first laid
+stress on it. The adult forms of animals are much more complex than
+their embryonic stages, and the series of changes passed through in
+attaining the adult condition make up the embryological history of the
+animal. Huxley took the embryology of the dog as an example of the
+process in the higher animals generally, and as it had been worked out
+in detail by a set of investigators. The dog, like all vertebrate
+animals, begins its existence as an egg; and this body is just as much
+an egg as that of a fowl, although, in the case of the dog, there is
+not the accumulation of nutritive material which bloats the egg of the
+hen into its enormous size. Since Huxley wrote, it has been shewn
+clearly that among the mammalian animals there has been a gradual
+reduction in the size of the egg. The ancestors of the mammals laid
+large eggs, like those of birds or reptiles; and there still exist two
+strange mammalian creatures, the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna of
+Australia, which lay large, reptilian-like eggs. The ancestors of most
+living mammalia acquired the habit of retaining the eggs within the
+body until they were hatched; and, as a result of this, certain
+structures which grow out from the embryo while it is still within the
+egg and become applied to the inner wall of the porous shell for the
+purpose of obtaining air, got their supply of oxygen, not from the
+outer air, but from the blood-vessels of the maternal tissues. When
+this connection (called the placenta) between embryo and mother
+through the egg-shell became more perfect, not only oxygen but
+food-material was obtained from the blood-vessels of the mother; and,
+in consequence, it became unnecessary for the eggs to be provided with
+a large supply of food-yolk. Among existing marsupial animals, which,
+on the whole, represent a lower type of mammalian structure than
+ordinary mammals, there is more food-yolk than in ordinary mammals,
+and less food-yolk than in the two egg-laying mammals. In the ordinary
+mammals, such as the rabbit, dog, monkey, and man, there is
+practically no yolk whatever deposited in the egg; the egg is of
+minute size, and the embryo obtains most of its food from the maternal
+blood.
+
+The small egg of the mammal divides into a number of cells, which form
+a hollow sphere; on the upper surface of this the development of
+organs begins with the formation of a depression which indicates the
+future middle line of the animal, and is, in fact, the beginning of
+the nervous system. Under this is formed a straight rod of gelatinous
+material, the foundation of the vertebral column, and the body of the
+embryo is gradually pinched off from the surface of the hollow sphere.
+After tracing the details of this process, Huxley proceeded as
+follows:
+
+     "The history of the development of any other vertebrate animal,
+     lizard, snake, frog or fish, tells the same story. There is
+     always, to begin with, an egg, having the same essential
+     structure as that of the dog; the yolk of that egg always
+     undergoes division, or segmentation, as it is often called; the
+     ultimate products of that segmentation constitute the building
+     materials for the body of the young animal; and this is built up
+     round a primitive groove, in the floor of which a notochord is
+     developed. Furthermore, there is a period in which the young of
+     all these animals resemble one another, not merely in outward
+     form, but in all essentials of structure, so closely, that the
+     differences between them are inconsiderable, while in their
+     subsequent course they diverge more and more widely from one
+     another. And it is a general law, that, the more closely any
+     animals resemble one another in adult structure, the longer and
+     the more intimately do their embryos resemble one another; so
+     that, for example, the embryos of a snake and of a lizard remain
+     like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a bird;
+     and the embryos of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for
+     a far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird; or of a
+     dog and an opossum; or even than those of a dog and a monkey."
+
+This general rule, that the longer the paths of embryonic development
+of two animals keep identical the more nearly the two animals are
+related, when Huxley wrote, was founded on a much smaller number of
+facts than now are known. Since 1860 an enormous bulk of embryological
+investigation has been published, and the total result has been to
+confirm Huxley's position in the fullest possible way. A certain
+number of exceptions have been found, but these exceptions are so
+obviously special adaptations to special circumstances that their
+existence only makes the general truth of the proposition more clear.
+The most common kind of exception occurs when two closely related
+animals live under very different conditions. For instance, many
+marine animals have close allies that in comparatively recent times
+have taken to live in fresh water. The conditions of life in fresh
+water are very different, especially for delicate creatures
+susceptible to rapid changes of temperature, or unable to withstand
+strong currents. Thus most of the allies of the fresh-water crayfish,
+which live in the sea, lay eggs from which there are soon hatched
+minute, almost transparent larvæ, exceedingly unlike the adult. In the
+comparatively equable temperature of sea-water, and in the usual
+absence of strong currents, these small larvæ, as Huxley shewed later
+in his volume on the _Crayfish_, live a free life, obtaining their own
+food, and by a series of slow transformations gradually acquire the
+adult form. In fresh water, however, the delicate larvæ would be
+unable to live, and the mode of development is different. The series
+of slow transformations is condensed, and takes place almost entirely
+inside the egg-shell; so that, when hatching occurs, the young
+crayfish is exceedingly like the adult. Apart from such special cases,
+it is true that the study of development affords a clear test of
+closeness of structural affinity.
+
+Huxley then proceeds to discuss the development of man.
+
+     "Is he something apart? Does he originate in a totally different
+     way from dog, bird, frog, and fish, thus justifying those who
+     assert him to have no place in nature, and no real affinity with
+     the lower world of animal life? Or does he originate in a similar
+     germ, pass through the same slow and gradually progressive
+     modifications, depend on the same contrivances for protection and
+     nutrition, and finally enter the world by the help of the same
+     mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a moment, and has not
+     been doubtful any time these thirty years. Without question, the
+     mode of origin, and the early stages of the development of man
+     are identical with those of animals immediately below him in the
+     scale; without doubt, in these respects, he is far nearer the
+     apes than the apes are to the dog."
+
+Then, on lines with which, by continuous repetition and expansion by
+authors subsequent to him, we have now become familiar, Huxley
+compared, stage by stage, the development of man with that of other
+animals, and shewed, first, its essential similarity, and then that in
+every case where it departed from the development of the dog it
+resembled more closely the development of the ape. He went on to
+review the anatomy of man:
+
+     "Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+     originates,--identical, in the early stages of his
+     formation--identical in the mode of his nutrition before and
+     after birth, with the animals which lie immediately below him in
+     the scale,--Man, if his adult and perfect structure be compared
+     with theirs exhibits, as might be expected, a marvellous likeness
+     of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble one
+     another--he differs from, them as they differ from one another.
+     And, though these differences cannot be weighed and measured,
+     their value may be readily estimated; the scale or standard of
+     judgment, touching that value, being afforded and expressed by
+     the system of classification of animals now current among
+     zoölogists."
+
+Having explained the general system of zoölogical classification, he
+tried to dispel preliminary prejudice by inducing his readers or
+bearers to take an outside view of themselves.
+
+     "Let us endeavour for a moment to disconnect our thinking selves
+     from the mask of humanity; let us imagine ourselves scientific
+     Saturnians, if you will, fairly acquainted with such animals as
+     now inhabit the earth, and employed in discussing the relations
+     they bear to a new and singular 'erect and featherless biped,'
+     which some enterprising traveller, overcoming the difficulties of
+     space and gravitation, has brought from that distant planet for
+     our inspection, well preserved, may be, in a cask of rum. We
+     should all, at once, agree upon placing him among the mammalian
+     vertebrates; and his lower jaw, his molars, and his brain, would
+     leave no room for doubting the systematic position of the new
+     genus among those mammals whose young are nourished during
+     gestation by means of a placenta, or what are called the
+     placental mammals.
+
+      "Further, the most superficial study would at once convince us
+     that, among the orders of placental mammals, neither the whales,
+     nor the hoofed creatures, nor the sloths and ant-eaters, nor the
+     carnivorous cats, dogs, and bears, still less the rodent rats and
+     rabbits, or the insectivorous moles and hedgehogs, or the bats,
+     could claim our _Homo_ as one of themselves.
+
+      "There would remain, then, but one order for comparison, that of
+     the apes (using that word in its broadest sense), and the
+     question for discussion would narrow itself to this--Is Man so
+     different from any of these apes that he must form an order by
+     himself? Or does he differ less from them than they differ from
+     one another,--and hence must take his place in the same order
+     with them?
+
+      "Being happily free from all real or imaginary personal interest
+     in the results of the enquiry thus set afoot, we should proceed
+     to weigh the arguments on one side and on the other, with as much
+     judicial calmness as if the question related to a new opossum.
+     We should endeavour to ascertain, without seeking either to
+     magnify or diminish them, all the characters by which our new
+     mammal differed from the apes; and if we found that these were of
+     less structural value than those which distinguish certain
+     members of the ape order from others universally admitted to be
+     of the same order, we should undoubtedly place the newly
+     discovered tellurian genus with them."
+
+In pursuit of this method, and taking the gorilla as the type for
+immediate comparison with man, he passed in review the various
+anatomical structures, shewing that in every case man did not differ
+more from the gorilla than that differed from other anthropoids. We
+shall take a few examples of his method and results, reminding our
+readers, however, that Huxley carried his comparisons into every
+important part of the anatomical structure.
+
+There is no part of the skeleton so characteristically human as the
+bones which form the pelvis, or bony girdle of the hips. The expanded
+haunch-bones form a basin-like structure which affords support to the
+soft internal viscera during the habitually upright position, and
+gives space for the attachment of the very large muscles which help
+man to assume and support that attitude. In the gorilla this region
+differs considerably from that in man. The haunch-bones are narrower
+and much shallower, so that they do not form so convenient a
+supporting basin; they have much less surface for the attachment of
+muscles. The gibbon, however, differs more vastly from the gorilla
+than that differs from man. The haunch-bones are flat and narrow, and
+totally devoid of any basin-like formation; the passage through the
+pelvis is long and narrow, and the ischia have outwardly curved
+prominences, which, in life, are coated by callosities on which the
+animal habitually rests, and which are coarse, corn-like patches of
+skin wholly absent in the gorilla, in the chimpanzee, in the orang,
+and in man.
+
+In the characters of the hands, the feet, and the brain, certain real
+or supposed structural distinctions between man and the apes had been
+relied upon.
+
+     "Man has been defined as the only animal possessed of two hands
+     terminating his fore-limbs, and of two feet terminating his
+     hind-limbs, while it has been said that all the apes possess four
+     hands; and he has been affirmed to differ fundamentally from all
+     the apes in the characters of his brain, which alone, it has been
+     strangely asserted and reasserted, exhibits the structures known
+     to anatomists as the posterior lobe, the posterior cornu of the
+     lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus minor.
+
+      "That the former proposition should have gained general
+     acceptance is not surprising--indeed, at first sight, appearances
+     are much in its favour; but, as for the second, one can only
+     admire the surpassing courage of its enunciator, seeing that it
+     is an innovation which is not only opposed to generally and
+     justly accepted doctrines, but which is directly negatived by the
+     testimony of all original enquirers who have specially
+     investigated the matter; and that it has neither been, nor can
+     be, supported by a single anatomical preparation. It would, in
+     fact, be unworthy of serious refutation except for the general
+     and natural belief that deliberate and reiterated assertions must
+     have some foundation."
+
+The last remarks referred, of course, to the statements of Owen, which
+had made a great impression at the time and the result of which still
+lingers in some of the worse-informed treatises attacking evolution.
+Huxley gave a lucid account of the general structure and arrangement
+of the brain in the vertebrate series, explaining the well-known fact
+that from fish up to man the general ground-plan of the brain is
+identical, but that there is a progressive increase in the complexity
+and in the size of some parts compared with others. Next, he showed
+that, so far from its being possible to erect any barrier in the
+structure of the brain between man and the apes, there exists among
+the mammals an almost complete series of gradations from brains a
+little higher than that of the rabbit to brains a little lower than
+that of man. He laid great stress on
+
+     "the remarkable circumstance that though, so far as our present
+     knowledge extends, there _is_ one structural break in the series
+     of forms of simian brains, this hiatus does not lie between man
+     and the man-like apes, but between the lower and the lowest
+     simians; or, in other words, between the old-and new-world apes
+     and monkeys, and the lemurs. Every lemur which has yet been
+     examined, in fact, has its cerebellum partially visible from
+     above, and its posterior lobe, with the contained posterior cornu
+     and hippocampus minor, more or less rudimentary. Every marmoset,
+     American monkey, old-world monkey, baboon, or man-like ape, on
+     the contrary, has its cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by
+     the cerebral lobes, and possesses a large posterior cornu, with a
+     well-developed hippocampus minor." ... "So far from the posterior
+     lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor being
+     structures peculiar to, and characteristic of man, as they have
+     over and over again been asserted to be, even after the
+     publication of the clearest demonstration of the reverse, it is
+     precisely these structures which are the most marked cerebral
+     characters common to man with the apes. They are among the most
+     distinctly simian peculiarities which the human organism
+     exhibits." ... "Man differs from the chimpanzee or the orang, so
+     far as cerebral structure goes, less than these do from the
+     monkeys, and the difference between the brains of the chimpanzee
+     and of man is almost insignificant, when compared with that
+     between the chimpanzee brain and that of a lemur."
+
+Although Huxley found no structural differences between the brains of
+man and of anthropoid apes, he was careful to lay great stress on the
+important difference in size and weight. A full-grown gorilla is
+nearly twice as heavy as a European woman, and yet the heaviest known
+gorilla brain probably does not exceed twenty ounces in weight, while
+healthy adult human brains probably never weigh less than thirty-one
+or thirty-two ounces. This difference is not of systematic importance;
+for cranial capacities shew that relatively and absolutely there is a
+greater difference in brain-weight between the lowest and highest
+human beings than there is between the highest ape and the lowest
+human being.
+
+In dealing with the suggestion that man differs from the apes in being
+bimanous, while the apes are quadrumanous, Huxley first explained and
+discussed what the exact differences between hands and feet are. He
+shewed that in man the foot is absolutely distinguished from the hand
+by three structural points, although the two organs are similar in
+general ground-plan. These structural points are:
+
+1. The arrangement of the tarsal bones.
+
+2. The possession of a short flexor and short extensor muscle of the
+digits.
+
+3. The possession of a muscle named _peronæus longus_.
+
+Then he described the foot of the gorilla, and shewed that although it
+was superficially hand-like, it possessed all the structural
+characters that distinguish a foot from a hand. Tracing the structure
+of the foot downwards through the series of anthropoids and monkeys,
+he established clearly that, while important differences existed in
+nearly every single creature, the differences between the gorilla and
+man were not greater than those between the gorilla and other
+anthropoids, and less than between the gorilla and lower monkeys.
+
+This wonderful series of lectures ranks very high among the important
+works of Huxley. It is true that a considerable proportion of the work
+was not absolutely original, but it had all been specially verified by
+him. It was a task undertaken with the greatest courage, and with a
+care equal to the courage; and it settled conclusively for all time
+the impossibility of making between man and the anthropoids any
+anatomical barriers greater than those which exist between the
+different although closely related members of any of the other family
+groups in the animal kingdom. The advance of knowledge has only added
+to the details of Huxley's argument; it has not made any
+reconstruction of it necessary. A writer on the same subject to-day
+would to all certainty make use of the same general methods. The chief
+differences, perhaps, that would be made are two: First, greater
+stress would be laid on the distinction, first made by Huxley himself,
+between intermediate and linear types. (See p. 87). To use the popular
+phrase, a great deal of water has passed under the bridges since the
+separation of man from the ape-like progenitors common to him and to
+the existing anthropoids. It has already been pointed out that the
+gradual extinction of lower races of man is widening the apparent gap
+between existing man and existing apes; and evidence accumulates that
+many still more primitive and more ape-like races of man than the
+lowest existing savages have disappeared from the surface of the
+earth. Moreover, we know that existing anthropoids are the degenerate
+and scattered remnants of what was once a much more widely spread and
+more important group. We have some reason for believing the contrary,
+and no reason for believing that the surviving anthropoids represent
+the most man-like apes that have lived.
+
+The second great point in which a modern writer would amend Huxley's
+statement of the case is more purely anatomical. One result of
+Darwin's work has been that anatomists attend much more closely to the
+slight variations of anatomical structure to be found among
+individuals of the same species. A comparison between an individual
+human body and the body of an individual gorilla is not now considered
+sufficient. The comparison must be made between the results of
+dissection of a very large number of men and of a very large number of
+gorillas. The anatomy of a type is not the anatomy of an individual;
+it is a kind of central point around which there oscillate the
+variations presented by the individuals belonging to the type. So far
+as this newer method has been applied, it has been found that the
+variations of the gorilla type frequently, in the case of individual
+organs, overlap the variations of the human type, and that the
+structure of man differs from the structure of any anthropoid type
+only in that the abstract central point of its variations is slightly
+different from the abstract central point of the variations presented
+by individual orangs, gorillas, and chimpanzees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION
+
+     Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago--Huxley's Insistence on
+     Reform--Science Primers--Physiography--Elementary
+     Physiology--_The Crayfish_--Manuals of Anatomy--Modern
+     Microscopical Methods--Practical Work in Biological
+     Teaching--Invention of the Type System--Science in Medical
+     Education--Science and Culture.
+
+
+Less than half a century ago, there was practically no generally
+diffused knowledge of even the elements of science and practically no
+provision for teaching it. Medical students, in the course of their
+professional education, received some small instruction in botany,
+chemistry, and physiology; in the greater universities of England and
+the Continent there were not in all a dozen professorships of science
+apart from special branches of medicine; in the Scottish universities
+there were one or two dreamy chairs of "Natural and Civil History,"
+the occupiers of which were supposed to dispense instruction in half a
+dozen sciences. There was no scientific teaching at the public
+schools; there were practically no books available for beginners in
+science, and even the idea of guides to laboratory work had not been
+invented. Huxley, addressing in 1854 a particularly select audience in
+St. Martin's Hall, London, spoke to them of the
+
+     "utter ignorance as to the simplest laws of their own animal
+     life, which prevails among even the most highly educated persons
+     in this country." "I am addressing," he said, "I imagine, an
+     audience of cultivated persons; and yet I dare venture to assert
+     that, with the exception of those of my hearers who may chance to
+     have received a medical education, there is not one who could
+     tell me what is the meaning and use of an act which he performs a
+     score of times every minute, and whose suspension would involve
+     his immediate death:--I mean the act of breathing--or who could
+     state in precise terms why it is that a confined atmosphere is
+     injurious to health."
+
+The power to express the precise meaning of even a common
+physiological act is probably not yet possessed by all educated
+people: but no one can doubt that there is now a very generally
+diffused knowledge of and interest in the ordinary processes of living
+bodies. It is almost impossible for any of us to escape some amount of
+scientific education at school, at college, from lectures, or from
+books. Certainly those of us who have a natural inclination towards
+knowledge of that kind can hardly fail to have the opportunity of
+acquiring it. Every library abounds in elementary and advanced
+scientific books; every university and many schools have their
+lectures and laboratories for science, and there is scientific
+teaching involved in every educational curriculum. To attempt a
+complete account of how this radical change in the attitude of the
+world to science has come about would be to attempt to write the
+history of European civilisation in the last half-century. A thousand
+causes have been contributory; but among these causes two have been of
+extraordinary importance--an idea and a man. The idea is the
+conception of organic evolution, and the man was Huxley. The idea of
+evolution clothed the dead bones of anatomy with a fair and living
+flesh, and the new body left the dusty corners of museums to pervade
+the world, arousing the attention and interest of all. A large part of
+the prodigious mental activities of Huxley was devoted to compelling
+the world to take an interest in biological science. Had his life-work
+been no more than this side of it, it would have been of commanding
+importance. A mere enumeration of the modes in which he assisted in
+arousing attention to science among all classes would fill many pages.
+Almost before he was settled in London, in the lecture from which we
+quoted at the beginning of this chapter he urged the "educational
+value of the natural history sciences." In 1869 in a speech in
+Liverpool; in 1870 at University College, London; in 1874 as his
+Rectorial address in the University of Aberdeen; in 1876 at the
+opening ceremonial of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore; in
+the same year at South Kensington; in 1877 in a separate essay; in
+1881 in an address to the International Medical Congress: at these
+different times and addressing different and important audiences he
+continued to urge the absolute necessity of a knowledge of nature. A
+well-known and eloquent passage from an address on "a liberal
+education" delivered to working men in 1868 contains the gist of his
+reiterated argument:
+
+     "Suppose it were perfectly certain that the life and fortune of
+     every one of us would, one day or other, depend on his winning or
+     losing a game of chess, don't you think that we should all
+     consider it to be a primary duty to learn at least the names and
+     the moves of the pieces; to have a notion of a gambit, and a keen
+     eye for all the means of giving and getting out of check? Do you
+     not think that we should look with a disapprobation amounting to
+     scorn upon the father who allowed his son, or the state which
+     allowed its members, to grow up without knowing a pawn from a
+     knight?
+
+      Yet it is a very plain and elementary truth, that the life, the
+     fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and more or less
+     of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our knowing
+     something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and
+     complicated than chess. It is a game which has been played for
+     untold ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two
+     players in a game of his or her own. The chess-board is the
+     world, the pieces are the phenomena of the universe, the rules of
+     the game are what we call the laws of nature. The player on the
+     other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always
+     fair, just, and patient. But also we know, to our cost, that he
+     never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for
+     ignorance. To the man who plays well, the highest stakes are
+     paid, with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the
+     strong shows delight in strength, and one who plays ill is
+     checkmated--without haste, but without remorse."
+
+Huxley wished that this scientific education should begin at an early
+period of every child's training. In 1869 he wrote:
+
+     "Let every child be instructed in those general views of the
+     phænomena of nature for which we have no exact English name. The
+     nearest approximation to a name for what I mean which we possess
+     is physical geography; the Germans have a better, 'Erdkunde'
+     (earth knowledge or geology in its etymological sense), that is
+     to say, a general knowledge of the earth, and what is on it and
+     in it and about it. If anyone who has experience of the ways of
+     young children will call to mind their questions, he will find
+     that so far as they can be put in any scientific category, they
+     will come under this head of 'Erdkunde.' The child asks, 'What is
+     the moon, and why does it shine?' 'What is this water, and where
+     does it run?' 'What is the wind?' 'What makes these waves in the
+     sea?' 'Where does this animal live, and what is the use of that
+     plant?' And if not snubbed and stunted by being told not to ask
+     foolish questions, there is no limit to the intellectual craving
+     of a young child; nor any bounds to the slow but solid accretion
+     of knowledge and development of the thinking faculty in this way.
+     To all such questions, answers which are necessarily incomplete,
+     though true as far as they go, may be given by any teacher whose
+     ideas represent real knowledge and not mere book learning: and a
+     panoramic view of nature, accompanied by a strong infusion of the
+     scientific habit of mind, may thus be placed within the reach of
+     every child of nine or ten."
+
+In 1880 Huxley, in association with Professor Roscoe, the chemist, and
+Professor Balfour Stewart, the physicist, took a great practical step
+toward securing the widest possible extension of elementary knowledge
+in science. They became general editors, for the English publishing
+house of Macmillan, of a series of "Science Primers." These were
+written in simple language, suitable for those with no preliminary
+knowledge of science, but were the work of the chief authorities in
+the leading branches of science. They were published at what was then
+the phenomenally cheap price of a shilling, and they sold in almost
+incredible numbers. Huxley himself wrote the introductory volume to
+this great series of tracts, taking for his subject the simplest and
+most natural phenomena of the world and the simplest chains of cause
+and effect that can be observed around us. The keynote of the little
+book was that knowledge of nature could be gained only by observation
+and experiment, and that for these the ordinary things in the world
+around us provided ample material. A few years later he wrote a more
+advanced volume on the same subject. He had now found an English name
+for the German _Erdkunde_, and his book on _Physiography_ was simply
+an account of the leading things and forces of nature. A traveller
+set down in a foreign land will at once get into difficulties unless
+he has provided himself with a guide to the geography, the manners and
+customs, and the regulations of the country in which he finds himself.
+Huxley's aim was to provide a similar guide to nature; an outline of
+elementary knowledge of the world into which we all come as strangers.
+He wrote of force and energy, of the forms of water, of heat and cold,
+of the atmosphere, of winds and tides and weather, and of the main
+features of the lives of plants and animals. There was nothing new in
+what he wrote; he simply took from the chief sciences their leading
+principles and elementary facts, and set them forth in plain and
+simple language so that all could read and understand. The novelty was
+that an attempt should be made to bring these facts within the reach
+of all. The idea proved extremely infectious; in Europe and America,
+in many languages and by many authors, Huxley's main lines were
+followed, with the result that a new branch of education, and almost
+of science, was created.
+
+The body of man and the processes of life, in the earlier part of the
+century, were almost as unknown to most people as were the structure of
+the earth and the great processes of nature. What was known of human
+anatomy and physiology was contained in ponderous treatises, written in
+difficult and technical language suitable only for students of medicine
+and doctors. It was thought to be not only unnecessary but slightly
+coarse for those not in the profession to know anything of the viscera
+of digestion, circulation, and so forth. Huxley laid low this great
+superstition by his _Elementary Lessons in Physiology_, a little volume
+first published in 1866, which ran through many editions. In it he wrote
+primarily for teachers and learners in boys' and girls' schools, and
+selected from the great bulk of knowledge and opinion called human
+physiology only the important and well-established truths. So successful
+was he in his selection that, notwithstanding the immense increase in
+knowledge since he wrote, the book still remains an adequate and useful
+elementary treatise, and by this time must have given their main
+knowledge of the human body to hundreds and thousands of readers who
+otherwise would have remained ignorant.
+
+The books of which we have been writing were addressed to the general
+public, but, in addition, Huxley wrote several, of which three are
+specially important, for those students who devote themselves
+specially to anatomy. _The Crayfish_, his famous volume in the
+International Scientific Series, has been called by Professor Howes,
+the assistant and successor of Huxley at the Royal College of Science,
+"probably the best biological treatise ever written." Many naturalists
+have written elaborate monographs on single animals: Lyonet worked for
+years on the willow caterpillar, Strauss Durckheim devoted an even
+minuter attention to the common cockchafer, and the great Bojanus
+investigated almost every fibre in the structure of the tortoise. The
+volumes produced by these anatomists were valuable and memorable, and
+occupy an honoured place in the library of science, but Huxley's aim
+was wider and greater. He showed how careful study of one of the
+commonest and most insignificant of animals leads, step by step, from
+every-day knowledge to the widest generalisations and the most
+difficult problems of zoölogy. He made study of a single creature an
+introduction to a whole science, and taught students to regard any
+form of life not merely as a highly complicated and deeply interesting
+anatomical study, but as a creature that is only one out of an
+innumerable host of living things, every fibre in its body, every
+rhythm in its functions proclaiming the degree and nature of its
+relationship to other animals. R. Louis Stevenson, writing of his
+native town, tried to give "a vision of Edinburgh, not as you see her,
+in the midst of a little neighbourhood, but as a boss upon the round
+world, with all Europe and the deep sea for her surroundings. For
+every place is a centre to the earth, whence highways radiate, or
+ships set sail for foreign ports; the limit of a parish is not more
+imaginary than the frontier of an empire." It is this wider sweep,
+this attempt to see and to teach not merely the facts about things but
+the relations of these facts to the similar facts in other things,
+that makes the difference between the new knowledge and the old. The
+questions to be asked and answered are not merely, What are the
+structures in this animal? but, How and why do they come to be what
+they are? Huxley was a ruthless enemy of the books and teachers which
+or who made the mere acquisition of details of knowledge their chief
+object.
+
+     "I remember," he wrote, "in my youth there were detestable books
+     which ought to have been burned by the hands of the common
+     hangman, for they contained questions and answers to be learned
+     by heart, of this sort, 'What is a horse? The horse is termed
+     _Equus caballus_; belongs to the class Mammalia; order,
+     Pachydermata; family, Solidungula.' Was any human being the wiser
+     for learning that magic formula? Was he not more foolish inasmuch
+     as he was deluded into taking words for knowledge?"
+
+Huxley himself admitted his difficulty in remembering apparently
+meaningless facts, and occasionally aided his memory by inventing for
+them a humorous significance. Professor Howes relates a story of this
+kind. While examining the papers of candidates for some examination,
+Huxley came across one in which the mitral or bicuspid valve of the
+heart was erroneously described as being placed in the right cavity.
+"Poor little beggar," said Huxley; "I never could get them myself
+until I reflected that a bishop could never be in the right." This
+insistence on the uselessness of formal knowledge applied only to
+those who were being taught or who were learning from books or
+lectures. Of the value and discipline of knowledge of facts gained at
+first hand from objects themselves either in original investigation or
+with the aid of books, Huxley had the highest possible opinion. By
+such a method of work alone he believed it possible to distinguish
+what we believe on authority from what we have convinced ourselves to
+be true, and, as we shall see later, he regarded it as the most
+important duty of a man to have acquired the habit of classifying the
+mass of ideas in his brain into those which he knew and those which he
+thought to be true from having read or heard or imagined them.
+
+The two other of the three great treatises for anatomical students are
+the _Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, published in 1871,
+and the _Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_, published in
+1877. Of these two volumes it is sufficient to say that they formed
+the chief introduction to the study of animal zoölogy for many years,
+and that a large number of the best-known zoölogists of the end of
+this century received from them their first instruction in the
+science. As text-books they have been superseded lately by larger
+volumes in which there is found more space for some of the recent
+advances in knowledge, especially comparative embryology, and the more
+intricate knowledge of the structure of the soft parts of marine
+invertebrates made possible by the newer and more successful methods
+of preserving delicate tissues. Just before Huxley ceased his regular
+work as a teacher at the Royal College of Science, there arrived a
+series of marine embryos, beautifully preserved and prepared for
+microscopic work by the zoölogists at the International Zoölogical
+Station at Naples. Huxley is reported to have exclaimed at their
+beauty, and to have said: "You young men cannot realise your
+advantages; you have brought to you for study at your leisure in
+London, creatures that I had to lash my microscope to the mast to get
+a glimpse of." Huxley's books were written for students with fewer
+advantages, and, naturally, laid more stress on the harder skeletal
+parts and such structures as could be more easily preserved; but with
+this inevitable limitation they still serve as luminous and
+comprehensive guides to the subjects of which they treat. There is no
+doubt but that if he had been a younger man when the new technical
+methods made their appearance, he would have adopted them and their
+results in his volumes. One of the first great pieces of work which
+utilised methods more like those now used in all laboratories than
+those employed during the greater part of Huxley's life as a teacher
+was the classical investigation by Van Beneden into the changes in the
+egg of Ascaris which accompany the process of fertilisation. When
+Huxley read the memoir he exclaimed, "All this by the use of glacial
+acetic acid--is it possible!" At once, Professor Howes relates, he
+repeated the whole investigation himself, and, when satisfied,
+declared that the "history of the histological investigation of the
+future would be the history of its methods." Not only have the
+chemical substances used in preparing tissues for examination greatly
+increased since Huxley's time as an active worker, but a very
+important method of investigation has come into general use. In
+Huxley's time tissues or animals too large or too opaque to be
+examined microscopically as whole structures were either teased by
+needles or were cut with a razor by hand into comparatively thick
+slices. The process of cutting, however practised the operator, was
+tedious and uncertain, and it was almost impossible to cut a piece of
+tissue into a series of thin slices without losing or destroying
+considerable portions. Microtomes, with various accessory mechanical
+appliances, have now been invented, and by means of these not only are
+slices of great tenuity made with ease, but there is little difficulty
+in cutting the most delicate organism into a ribbon of consecutive
+slices. Such new methods have made almost a revolution in the study of
+zoölogy, particularly of the lower forms of life and of the embryonic
+stages of higher animals, and books written before these methods
+became common have naturally been superseded.
+
+Huxley did far more for the teaching of science than the preparation
+of books, however useful these were. He was the practical inventor of
+the laboratory system of teaching zoölogical science, and all over the
+world the methods invented by him have been adopted in university
+laboratories and technical schools. He had always declared that since
+zoölogy was a physical science, the method of studying it must needs
+be analogous to that which is followed in other physical sciences. If
+a man wishes to be a chemist, it is necessary not only that he should
+read chemical books and attend chemical lectures, but that he should
+actually perform the fundamental experiments in the laboratory for
+himself, and thus learn exactly what the words which he reads in his
+books and hears from his teachers, mean. "If you want a man to be a
+tea-merchant, you don't tell him to read books about China or about
+tea, but you put him into a tea-merchant's office where he has the
+handling, the smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the sort of
+knowledge which can be gained only in this practical way, his exploits
+as a tea-merchant will soon come to a bankrupt termination." The great
+and obvious difficulty in the practical teaching of biology appeared
+to be the immense number of different kinds of animals and plants in
+existence. A human life would not suffice for the examination of a
+hundredth part of these. Huxley met the difficulty by the "type"
+system.
+
+     "There are certainly more than 100,000 species of insects, and
+     yet anyone who knows one insect, if a properly chosen one, will
+     be able to have a fair conception of the structure of the whole.
+     I do not mean to say he will know that structure thoroughly, or
+     as well as is desirable that he should know it; but he will have
+     enough real knowledge to enable him to understand what he reads,
+     to have genuine images in his mind of these structures which
+     become so variously modified in all the forms of insects he has
+     not seen. In fact, there are such things as types of form among
+     animals and vegetables, and for the purpose of getting a definite
+     knowledge of what constitutes the leading modifications of animal
+     and plant life, it is not needful to examine more than a
+     comparatively small number of animals and plants."
+
+The type system in itself was not absolutely new. Rolleston, the
+Linacre professor at Oxford, in his _Forms of Animal Life_ had
+devised the method of teaching comparative anatomy by the study of a
+graded series of animals. But his method depended on the existence of
+a series of dissections and preparations made by a skilled craftsman;
+the tradition of teaching by authority instead of by investigation was
+maintained, although the authority of books and lectures was aided by
+museum specimens in glass bottles, the actual basis of the book being
+a series of dissections prepared by Mr. Charles Robertson, Rolleston's
+laboratory assistant, for the great International Exhibition of 1861.
+The authorities of Huxley's students were to be found in nature
+itself. The green scum from the nearest gutter, a handful of weed from
+a pond, a bean-plant, some fresh-water mud, a frog, and a pigeon were
+the ultimate authorities of his course. His students were taught how
+to observe them, and how to draw and record their observations.
+However familiar the objects, each student had to verify every fact
+afresh for himself. The business of the teacher was explanation of the
+methods of verification, insistence on the accomplishment of
+verification. It was a training in the immemorial attitude of the
+scientific mind, codified by Huxley and made an integral part in
+national education.
+
+As a matter of fact it was comparatively late in his life as a teacher
+that Huxley had complete opportunity for putting into practice his
+scheme for the laboratory teaching of biology. In 1854 there was no
+laboratory attached to the Natural History Department of the School of
+Mines. Lectures alone were given, and the only opportunity the student
+had of any practical acquaintance with the facts was in a short
+interview with the professor at the lecture table after the lecture.
+This condition continued practically to 1872. But a few years before
+that Huxley and his colleagues got up a kind of pronunciamento
+deploring the existing state of affairs. In his evidence before the
+Royal Commission of 1870 Huxley said: "There is a complete want in the
+School of Mines, as it now exists, of any means of teaching several of
+the subjects practically. For example, I am set there to teach natural
+history without a biological laboratory and without the means of
+shewing a single dissection." Against strong internal opposition and
+at considerable pecuniary loss Huxley and some of his colleagues
+succeeded, in 1872, in getting the School of Mines transferred to
+South Kensington, where it became the Royal College of Science. For
+the first course of instruction given in the new buildings, Huxley
+obtained the aid of Prof. M. Foster, Prof. Rutherford, and Prof. Ray
+Lankester. The laboratory course originated by Huxley and shaped by
+him with these three distinguished assistants became the model of the
+regular courses given subsequently, and, with various slight
+modifications, has since been adopted almost universally. Later on,
+Huxley described it as follows:
+
+     "I lecture to a class of students daily for about four months and
+     a half, and my class have, of course, their text-books; but the
+     essential part of the whole teaching, and that which I regard as
+     really the most important part of it, is a laboratory for
+     practical work, which is simply a room with all the appliances
+     needed for ordinary dissection. We have tables properly arranged
+     in regard to light, microscopes and dissecting instruments, and
+     we work through the structure of a certain number of plants and
+     animals. As, for example, among the plants we take the
+     yeast-plant, a Protococcus, a common mould, a Chara, a fern, and
+     some flowering plant; among animals we examine such things as an
+     Amœba, a Vorticella, and a fresh-water polyp. We dissect a
+     starfish, an earthworm, a snail, a squid, and a fresh-water
+     mussel. We examine a lobster and a crayfish, and a black beetle.
+     We go on to a common skate, a codfish, a frog, a tortoise, a
+     pigeon, and a rabbit, and that takes us about all the time we
+     have to give. The purpose of this course is not to make skilled
+     dissectors, but to give every student a clear and definite
+     conception, by means of sense images, of the characteristic
+     structure of each of the leading modifications of the animal
+     kingdom; and that is perfectly possible by going no further than
+     the length of that list of forms which I have enumerated. If a
+     man knows the structure of the animals I have mentioned, he has a
+     clear and exact, however limited apprehension of the essential
+     features of the organization of all those great divisions of the
+     animal and vegetable kingdoms to which the forms I have mentioned
+     severally belong. And it then becomes possible to him to read
+     with profit; because every time he meets with the name of a
+     structure, he has a definite image in his mind of what the name
+     means in the particular creature he is reading about, and
+     therefore the reading is not mere reading. It is not mere
+     repetition of words; but every term employed in the description,
+     we will say of a horse, or of an elephant, will call up the image
+     of the things he had seen in the rabbit, and he is able to form a
+     distinct conception of that which he has not seen, as a
+     modification of that which he has seen."
+
+Huxley himself was originally a medical man; all through his life he
+was chiefly interested in the biological sciences which underlie a
+scientific practice of medicine, and as teacher and examiner he had
+much to do with the shaping of medical education in London. Acting in
+various public capacities, as a member of commissions dealing with
+medical education, or as a witness before them, in magazine articles
+and in public speeches he made many contributions to the problems to
+be faced in medical education. Some of these related to the conditions
+peculiar to medical training in London. In the greatest city of the
+world there was during Huxley's life and there is still nothing
+comparable with the great universities of Europe and America, of
+Scotland and Ireland. Some dozen hospitals, supported partly by
+endowments, partly by charities, attempt each to maintain a complete,
+independent medical school. As the requirements of medical education
+in staff, laboratories, and general equipment has advanced, these
+hospitals have made heroic efforts to advance with them.
+Notwithstanding the zeal and public spirit of the staff and managers
+of the hospitals, this want of system has naturally resulted in a
+multiplication of inefficient institutions and a number of makeshift
+arrangements. Huxley repeatedly urged the concentration of all this
+diffuse effort into a few centres, but this inevitable reform has not
+yet become possible.
+
+A second important consideration, and one that has a much wider
+application, relates to the kind of person by whom the scientific
+sides of medical teaching should be given. Primitively, all the
+instruction to medical students was given by those actually engaged in
+the practice of medicine. Huxley was strongly of the opinion that the
+teachers of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and so forth, should be
+specialists devoted to these subjects for life, and not merely
+surgeons and physicians who engaged in teaching until their practice
+grew sufficiently to monopolise their attention.
+
+     "I get every year," he said, "the elaborate reports of Henle and
+     Meissner--volumes of I suppose 400 pages altogether--and they
+     consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have
+     been written on Anatomy and Physiology--only abstracts of them.
+     How is a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing
+     in the physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous
+     strides every day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with
+     the cares of practice?"
+
+There would always be found men, he declared, who would make the
+choice between the wealth which may come by successful practice and a
+modest competency, when that modest competency was to be combined with
+a scientific career and the means of advancing knowledge. It was to
+those who made the latter choice that he would entrust the teaching of
+the sciences underlying medicine; partly because from the mere
+mechanical reason of time these men would be better able to keep pace
+with the most recent advances in knowledge, and partly because their
+teaching would be stimulated by their own work in advancing knowledge.
+In this great matter the world is rapidly advancing towards the
+standard of Huxley; as each new appointment is made it becomes more
+and more probable that the man chosen will be a teacher and
+investigator rather than a practitioner.
+
+In another general question of the politics of medical education
+Huxley took a strong line, and the tendency of change is toward his
+view. One of the first results of the awakening of medical education
+in the middle of this century was a tendency to throw an almost
+intolerable burden of new subjects upon the medical student. In the
+revolt from the old apprenticeship system, in which the student, from
+the very first, gave his chief attention to practice, and was left
+almost to himself to pick up a scanty knowledge of the principles and
+theories underlying his profession, the pendulum swung too far the
+other way, and there was almost no branch of the biological and
+physical sciences in which he was not expected to go through a severe
+training. On the old system the greater part of his time was spent in
+the wards of the hospital; on the new system it was only at an
+advanced stage of his career that he entered the wards at all, a
+great part of his time and energy being spent in the purely scientific
+teaching of the medical college. Huxley, although he had largely aided
+in the overthrow of the happy-go-lucky older system, of which Mr. Bob
+Sawyer was no exaggerated type, was equally severe on the reckless
+extensions of the new system. "If I were a despot," he said, "I would
+cut down the theoretical branches to a very considerable extent." He
+would discard comparative anatomy and botany, materia medica, and
+chemistry and physics, except as applied to physiology, from the
+medical student's course. At first sight, this seems a hard saying,
+but it is to be remembered that at that time the normal curriculum of
+a medical student lasted only four years, a space of time barely
+sufficient for the necessary minimum of purely medical and surgical
+work. Huxley's view was that chemistry and physics, botany and
+zoölogy, should be part of the general education, not of the special
+medical education; he wished students to spend one or two years after
+their ordinary career at school in work on these elementary scientific
+subjects, and then to begin their medical course free from the burden
+of extra-professional subjects. With certain limits due to the
+different local conditions in different teaching centres Huxley's
+system is being adopted. In most cases the authorities in medical
+education are unable to leave the whole responsibility of the
+elementary education in science to the schools from which medical
+students come, as the conditions under which scientific subjects are
+still taught in schools leave much to be desired. The average length
+of the medical curriculum has been extended and the elementary
+scientific subjects are taken first, sometimes at the medical
+colleges, sometimes in the scientific departments of universities.
+The interesting general point of view is that Huxley, although himself
+a biologist and teacher of biology, took too broad an outlook on the
+general policy of education to insist upon his own subject to the
+detriment of the precise practical objects of the training of medical
+students.
+
+In the days of Huxley's greatest activity, while by the natural force
+of events and by his special efforts science was becoming more and
+more recognised as a necessary and important branch of general
+education, the cry was raised against it that scientific education was
+not capable of giving what is called culture. A scientific man was
+regarded as a mere scientific specialist, and science was considered
+to have no place in, and in fact to be an enemy of, "liberal
+education." In 1880, at Birmingham, Huxley attacked this view in a
+speech delivered at the opening of the Mason College. Sir Josiah
+Mason, the benevolent founder of that great institution, had made it
+one of the conditions of the foundation that the College should make
+no provision for "mere literary instruction and education." This gave
+Huxley a text for raising the whole question of the relation of
+science to culture. He declared that he held very strongly by two
+convictions.
+
+     "The first is, that neither the discipline nor the subject matter
+     of classical education is of such direct value to the student of
+     physical science as to justify the expenditure of valuable time
+     on either; and the second is, that for the purpose of attaining
+     real culture, an exclusively scientific education is at least as
+     effectual as an exclusively literary education."
+
+He quoted from Matthew Arnold, then in the zenith of his fame as a
+chief apostle of culture, and shewed that there were two propositions
+involved in the "literary" view of culture. The first was that a
+"criticism of life" was the essence of culture; the second, that
+literature contained the materials which sufficed for the construction
+of such a criticism. With the first proposition he had no dispute,
+taking the view that culture was something quite different from
+learning or technical skill. "It implies the possession of an ideal,
+and the habit of critically estimating the value of things by
+comparison with a theoretic standard. Perfect culture should supply a
+complete theory of life, based upon a clear knowledge alike of its
+possibilities and its limitations." Against the second proposition he
+urged in the first place that it was self-evident that after having
+learned all that Greek, Roman, and Eastern antiquity have thought and
+said, and all that modern literature has to tell us, it was still
+necessary to have a deeper foundation for criticism of life. An
+acquaintance with what physical science had done, particularly in
+later years, was as necessary to criticism of life as any of the
+literary materials. Next, following the biological habit of examining
+anything by studying its development, he shewed how the connection
+between "culture" and study of classical literature had come into
+existence. For many centuries Latin grammar, with logic and rhetoric,
+studied through Latin, were the fundamentals of education. A liberal
+education was possible only through study of the language in which all
+or nearly all the materials for it were written. With the changes
+produced by the Renascence there came a battle between Latin and
+Greek, and Greek came to be part of a liberal education. Later on,
+there came a similar battle between the classical and modern
+languages, and now the modern languages have included and absorbed
+all the necessary material for knowledge and criticism. Those who
+cling to classics as the basis of culture and education are clinging
+to old weapons long after these have ceased to be effective, simply
+because at one time in history only these weapons were available in
+the struggle for knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
+
+     Establishment of Compulsory Education in England--The Religious
+     Controversy--Huxley Advocates the Bible without Theology--His
+     Compromise on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause--Influence of the New
+     Criticism--Science and Art Instruction--Training of
+     Teachers--University Education--The Baltimore Address--Technical
+     Education--So-called "Applied Science"--National Systems of
+     Education as "Capacity-Catchers."
+
+
+In the last chapter, the special relation of Huxley to scientific
+education was described, and, naturally enough, it is in special
+connection with scientific education that his influence is best known.
+But he was keenly interested in all the larger problems of general,
+university, and technical education, and he played a great part in
+shaping the lines upon which these problems have been solved in
+England.
+
+In the years immediately before 1870, all England was wrestling with
+the great problem of elementary education, in the arrangements for
+which it was far behind not only the leading European countries but
+even its sister-kingdom, Scotland. In 1870 there came into operation
+an Act of Parliament for the regulation of elementary education under
+the supervision of locally elected school boards. Hitherto elementary
+education had been controlled by the Established Church, and by other
+denominational religious bodies, and the quality and quantity of the
+instruction provided, for financial and various other reasons, had
+been extremely unsatisfactory. But a long and furious battle had raged
+around the religious question; elementary education was now to be
+national, compulsory, and universal; where religious bodies maintained
+schools that complied with certain fixed standards of efficiency,
+attendance of children at these was to be regarded as satisfactory,
+and in addition to the ordinary subjects, such theological and
+religious teaching as the supporting bodies chose might be added. But
+in the schools for all and sundry, under the control of boards
+representing the whole population, and deriving that part of their
+income represented by the subscriptions of the religious bodies in the
+denominational schools from public rates, levied on the whole
+population, was any definite creed to be inculcated? The extreme
+Church party, perhaps naturally, held that the creed established by
+law in the land should be taught in these new schools; extreme
+supporters of other creeds, and a majority of ordinary people of all
+creeds or of no creeds, objected to a new establishment of a sectarian
+doctrine, even though that sectarian doctrine were the doctrine of the
+national religion. The final result of the dispute as codified in the
+Act of Parliament was what was known as the Cowper-Temple Clause: "No
+religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any
+particular denomination shall be taught in the school." The actual
+value of any clause, however it may appear to be a fair compromise,
+depends on the spirit in which it is practically interpreted, and no
+sooner had the Act been passed than the battle was renewed again over
+the interpretation of the clause. Many of the Church controversialists
+held that the liberal or more advanced party intended to exclude all
+reference to the Bible or to religion, on the plea that some sect
+could be found to which the most attenuated expression of religion
+would appear to be against the plain meaning of the clause, and
+Huxley, who had been in the forefront of the controversy, and who was
+a candidate for the first London School Board, was decried as an enemy
+of the Bible and of all religion and morality because he had expressed
+what he called a secular interpretation of the clause. In an article
+published in the _Contemporary Review_ immediately after the election,
+Huxley explained precisely what he took the clause to mean, and,
+afterwards, at all events during the existence of the Board to which
+he was elected, succeeded in carrying out his intentions in the main.
+
+His first general point was to deprecate the action of those
+extremists of both sides who tried to make the education of children a
+mere battle-ground of religious dogmas. He then laid down what he
+conceived to be the lines of most general utility upon which, under
+the provisions of the Act, the education of children should be
+conducted. In the foreground he placed physical training and drill, as
+of supreme importance to young children, especially in the case of the
+poor children of large towns.
+
+     "All the conditions of the lives of such are unfavourable to
+     their physical well-being. They are badly lodged, badly housed,
+     badly fed, and live from one year's end to another in bad air,
+     without a chance of a change. They have no play-grounds; they
+     amuse themselves with marbles and chuck-farthing, instead of
+     cricket and hare-and-hounds; and if it were not for the
+     wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender years
+     to throw themselves under the feet of cab-horses whenever they
+     can, I know not how they would learn to use their limbs with
+     agility."
+
+This, humanitarianism as it was, was not the mere emotional sentiment
+of the typical humanitarian; he went on to give the soundest practical
+reasons for physical development.
+
+     "Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of
+     natural selection, there can be none about artificial selection;
+     and the breeder who should attempt to make, or keep up, a fine
+     stock of pigs, or sheep, under the conditions to which the
+     children of the poor are exposed, would be the laughing stock
+     even of the bucolic mind. Parliament has already done something
+     in this direction by declining to be an accomplice in the
+     asphyxiation of school children. It refuses to make any grant to
+     a school in which the cubical contents of the school-room are
+     inadequate to allow of proper respiration."
+
+He wished to see physical training put on the same system.
+
+The second great point upon which he laid stress was the necessity of
+providing training in domestic economy, cookery, and other household
+accomplishments, for poor girls. These demands of Huxley seem simple
+and obvious, now that by his efforts and the efforts of others they
+have been accomplished, but in England, even thirty years ago, it
+required more than an ordinary prevision and boldness to insist upon
+them.
+
+Huxley passed next to the burning question of the time. He treated it
+in the broadest and least sectarian spirit.
+
+     "The boys and girls for whose education the School Boards have to
+     provide, have not merely to discharge domestic duties, but each
+     of them is a member of a social and political organisation of
+     great complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into
+     that organisation, or be crushed by it. To this end it is surely
+     needful, not only that they should be made acquainted with the
+     elementary laws of conduct, but that their affections should be
+     trained, so as to love with all their hearts that conduct which
+     tends to the attainment of the highest good for themselves and
+     their fellow-men, and to hate with all their hearts that opposite
+     course of action which is fraught with evil."
+
+He then proceeded to point out the distinction between the affection
+which is called religion, and the science which is called theology,
+and, without entering into the question as to whether the latter were
+or were not a true science, he insisted on the danger of a confusion
+between the two.
+
+     "We are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called
+     'religious' teaching on the one hand, and those of so-called
+     'secular' teaching on the other. And both parties seem to me to
+     be not only hopelessly wrong, but in such a position that if
+     either succeeded completely, it would discover, before many years
+     were over, that it had made a great mistake and done serious evil
+     to the cause of education. For, leaving aside the more far-seeing
+     minority on either side, what the religious party is crying for
+     is mere theology, under the name of religion; while the
+     secularists have unwisely and wrongfully admitted the assumption
+     of their opponents, and demand the abolition of all religious
+     teaching, when they only want to be free of theology--burning
+     your ship to get rid of the cockroaches." ... "If I were
+     compelled to choose for one of my own children, between a school
+     in which real religious instruction is given, and one without it,
+     I should prefer the former, even though the child might have to
+     take a good deal of theology with it. Nine-tenths of a dose of
+     bark is mere half-rotten wood; but one swallows it for the sake
+     of the particles of quinine, the beneficial effect of which may
+     be weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden dilution, unless
+     in the case of a few exceptionally tender stomachs. Hence, when
+     the great mass of the English people declare that they want to
+     have the children in the elementary schools taught the Bible, and
+     when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates in and
+     out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic declarations of
+     the Vice-President of the Council that it was intended that such
+     Bible-teaching should be permitted, unless good cause for
+     prohibiting it could be shewn, I do not see what reason there is
+     for opposing that wish."
+
+He went on to explain that, although he had always been strongly in
+favour of secular education, by that term he meant only education
+without theology, and he praised the English Bible in language as
+noble as has ever been applied to it by the most ardent of
+theologians.
+
+     "The Pagan moralists lack life and colour, and even the noble
+     Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high and refined for an ordinary
+     child. Take the Bible as a whole; make the severest deductions
+     which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings and positive
+     errors; eliminate, as a sensible lay-teacher would do, if left to
+     himself, all that is not desirable for children to occupy
+     themselves with; and there still remains in this old literature a
+     vast residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the
+     great historical fact that, for three centuries, this book has
+     been woven into the life of all that is best and noblest in
+     English history; that it has become the national epic of Britain,
+     and is as familiar to noble and simple, from Land's End to
+     John-o'-Groat's House, as Dante and Tasso once were to the
+     Italians; that it is written in the noblest and purest English,
+     and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary form; and,
+     finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left his
+     village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and
+     other civilisations, and of a great past, stretching back to the
+     furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By the study
+     of what other book could children be so much humanised and made
+     to feel that each figure in that vast historical procession
+     fills, like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval
+     between two eternities; and earns the blessings and the curses of
+     all time, according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even
+     as they also are earning their payment for their work."
+
+Lastly, he laid down the lines of the general education to be given.
+He pointed out that already in the existing schools a very
+considerable burden of work was imposed on the children in the form of
+catechism, lists of the kings of Israel, geography of Palestine, and
+that when these fantastic modes of education had been eliminated there
+was plenty of time and energy to be employed. The instruction in
+physical training was more than half play; that in the domestic
+subjects had an engrossing interest of its own. He proposed, first,
+the necessary discipline in the means for acquiring knowledge, the
+tools for employing it, that is to say, reading, writing, and
+arithmetic. After that, he believed that a certain amount of
+knowledge, of intellectual discipline, and of artistic training should
+be conveyed in the elementary schools, and for these purposes he
+proposed to teach some rudiments of physical science, drawing, and
+singing.
+
+In most respects the progress of primary education in England has been
+a continuous progress along these lines suggested by Huxley, and he
+may be regarded as in this fashion one of the great shapers of the
+destinies of his race, for nothing can have a bearing more important
+on the character and fate of a race than the manner of training
+provided for the masses of individuals composing it. It is only in the
+matter of the religious instruction that the course of events has been
+widely different from the neutral exposition of the Bible as suggested
+by him. In 1870 a great majority of the people of England who
+reflected upon the matter at all, and all those who accepted current
+ideas without reflection, accepted the Bible as an inspired, direct,
+and simple authority on all great matters of faith and morality.
+Therefore, when Huxley, as by far the most important man among those
+who advocated a secular education, was an advocate and not in the
+least an opponent of Bible teaching, they were well content to let the
+matter rest. There were, it is true, a certain number of zealots who
+entered the boards with the avowed purpose, on the one hand, of
+getting as much dogmatic teaching and interpretation added as it might
+be possible to smuggle in, and, on the other, to reduce the simplest
+Bible teaching to a minimum. But the vast majority of persons were out
+of sympathy with these fanaticisms. Since 1870, however, a gradual
+change has occurred in the attitude of the majority to the Bible in
+England. The growth of the new criticism and of knowledge of it has
+produced the result that now only a small minority of reflecting
+people in England accept the Bible in the old simple way; the majority
+thinks that it requires interpretation and explanation by the
+authority of the Church. And so a new battle over dogma has begun;
+moderate Church people no longer accept the compromise of Huxley, but
+strive for an interpretation which must be dogmatic, and there is a
+new dispute as to what may be regarded as undenominational religion.
+When a majority of reasonable persons accepted Huxley's suggestions of
+simple Bible teaching they did so not because they believed, as he
+did, that the Bible was simply great literature, great tradition, and
+great morality, but because they believed it to be direct, inspired
+authority. It is a curious coincidence that Huxley himself did so much
+to spread knowledge of the new criticism, and that a first result of
+this diffusion was to overthrow the compromise arranged largely by his
+influence, and which for many years provided a middle way in which
+sensible persons avoided the extremes of theological and
+anti-theological zealots.
+
+Early in the course of his career as a member of the London School
+Board, Huxley crystallised his views as to the general policy of
+education in a phrase which perhaps has done more than any other
+phrase ever invented to bring home to men's minds the ideal of a
+national system of education. "I conceive it to be our duty," he said,
+"to make a ladder from the gutter to the university along which any
+child may climb." We have seen the nature of his views as to the
+lowest rungs of this ladder; we may now turn to his work and views as
+to the higher stages. He expressed these views in occasional speeches
+and articles, and he had many important opportunities in aiding to
+carry them into actual practice. He was a member of a number of
+important Royal Commissions: Commission on the Royal College of
+Science for Ireland, 1866; Commission on Science and Art Instruction
+in Ireland, 1868; Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the
+Advancement of Science, 1870-75; Royal Commission to enquire into the
+Universities of Scotland, 1876-78; Royal Commission on the Medical
+Acts, 1881-82. From the beginning, he was closely associated with the
+Science and Art Department, the operations of which threw a web of
+education, intermediate between primary and university education, all
+over Britain. A number of the teachers under that department were
+trained by him, and as examiner to the department he took the greatest
+care to reduce to a minimum the evils necessarily attendant on the
+mode of payment by results. A certain number of teachers made it
+their chief effort to secure the largest possible number of grants.
+Huxley regarded these as poachers of the worst kind, and did all he
+could to foil them. He did all he could to promote systematic
+practical instruction in the classes, and to aid teachers who desired
+to learn their business more thoroughly. He insisted again and again
+upon the popular nature of the classes; their great advantage was that
+they were accessible to all who chose to avail themselves of them
+after working hours, and that they brought the means of instruction to
+the doors of the factories and workshops. The subjects which he
+considered of most importance were foreign languages, drawing, and
+elementary sciences, and he wished them to be used first of all by
+those who were handicraftsmen and who therefore left the elementary
+schools at the age of thirteen or fourteen.
+
+In a lecture given at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins
+University at Baltimore in 1876, and in a Rectorial address to the
+University of Aberdeen two years earlier, Huxley laid down the general
+lines of university education as he conceived it. He began by
+supposing that a good primary education had already been received.
+
+     "Such an education should enable an average boy of fifteen or
+     sixteen to read and write his own language with ease and
+     accuracy, and with a sense of literary excellence derived from
+     the study of our classic writers; to have a general acquaintance
+     with the history of his own country and with the great laws of
+     social existence; to have acquired the rudiments of the physical
+     and psychological sciences, and a fair knowledge of elementary
+     arithmetic and geometry. He should have obtained an acquaintance
+     with logic rather by example than by precept; while the
+     acquirement of the elements of music and drawing should have been
+     a pleasure rather than work."
+
+He had not much to say for secondary or intermediate education, partly
+because at that time, in England at least, the secondary schools were
+in a hopeless state of incapacity, and differed from primary schools
+not only in their greater expense, their adaptation to the
+class-spirit which demanded the separation of the boys of the upper
+and middle classes from those in the lower ranks of society, but
+chiefly in the futility of the education given at the majority of
+them. But where intermediate schools did exist, he demanded that they
+should keep on the same wide track of general knowledge, not
+sacrificing one branch of knowledge for another. He held that the
+elementary instruction to which he had referred embraced all the real
+kinds of knowledge and mental activity possible to man. The university
+could add no new fields of mental activity, no new departments of
+knowledge. What it could do was to intensify and specialise the
+instruction in each department.
+
+     "Thus literature and philology, represented in the elementary
+     school by English alone, in the university will extend over the
+     ancient and modern languages. History, which like charity, best
+     begins at home, but, like charity, should not end there, will
+     ramify into anthropology, archæology, political history, and
+     geography, with the history of the growth of the human mind and
+     of its products, in the shape of philosophy, science, and art,
+     and the university will present to the student libraries, museums
+     of antiquities, collections of coins, and the like, which will
+     efficiently subserve these studies. Instruction in the elements
+     of political economy, a most essential but hitherto sadly
+     neglected part of elementary education, will develop in the
+     university into political economy, sociology, and law. Physical
+     science will have its great divisions, of physical geography,
+     with geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and biology;
+     represented not merely by professors and their lectures, but by
+     laboratories in which the students, under guidance of
+     demonstrators, will work out facts for themselves and come into
+     that direct contact with reality which constitutes the
+     fundamental distinction of scientific education. Mathematics will
+     soar into its highest regions; while the high peaks of philosophy
+     may be scaled by those whose aptitude for abstract thought has
+     been awakened by elementary logic. Finally, schools of pictorial
+     and plastic art, of architecture, and of music will offer a
+     thorough discipline in the principles and practice of art to
+     those in whom lies nascent the rare faculty of æsthetic
+     representation, or the still rarer powers of creative genius."
+
+Early in the seventies the problems connected with what is called
+technical education became prominent in the minds of the most
+far-seeing of this nation. It became plain that England was not
+advancing with the same strides as some other nations in arts and
+manufactures, and the most obvious difference between England and the
+rivals whose advance was causing anxiety lay in her deficiency in
+education. Science or knowledge of nature lies at the root of all the
+arts and manufactures, and it was our relation to scientific teaching
+and research that required investigation. Naturally enough, Huxley
+took the keenest interest in this question and made large
+contributions to its solution, contributions which have not yet been
+put completely into operation. He insisted most strongly upon a point
+that we as a nation have not yet completely grasped. There is no
+difference between applied science and any other kind of science. The
+chemistry of manufactures, the physics of industrial machinery, the
+biology of agriculture and of fisheries, are not different from other
+chemistries and physics and biologies. They are merely special cases
+of the application of the same general fund of knowledge, and the same
+general principles of investigation. Huxley wished that the term
+"applied science" had never been invented, or that it could be
+destroyed. A man cannot study the chemistry of dyeing or make advances
+in it unless he be a thoroughly trained chemist in the full sense of
+the word. More than that, many of the greatest discoveries, using the
+word "great" as applied to commercial advantage rather than to
+abstract progress in knowledge, have been made by those who were
+pursuing research for its own sake rather than for any immediate
+commercial advantage to be derived from it. Hence he regarded it of
+vital importance, from the mere point of view of the prosperity of the
+country, that there should be a sufficiently large number of
+scientific men provided with the means for research in the shape of
+income and appliances. The most immediately utilitarian fashion for
+the nation to encourage science, was to encourage science in its
+highest and most advanced aspects. This meant the endowment of
+research and the support of universities and other institutions in
+which research might be conducted, and Huxley strove unceasingly for
+the benefit of all such great organisations. One of the last public
+occasions of his life was his appearance as leader of a deputation to
+urge upon the government the formation of a real university in London
+which should unite the scattered institutions of that great city and
+promote the highest spheres of the pursuit of knowledge. He held the
+view, strongly, that a useful combination was to be made by uniting
+the functions of teaching and investigation. A teacher taught better
+when his mind was kept fresh by the advances he himself was making,
+and an investigator, by having a moderate amount of teaching to do,
+gained from the need of forcing his mind from time to time to take
+broad surveys of the whole field a part of which he was engaged in
+tilling. The first great object, then, in promoting science so as to
+reap the most direct national advantage from it, was to encourage
+science in its highest and widest forms. It cannot be said that
+England has yet learned this lesson. The number of institutions in
+Germany where advanced investigation is continuously pursued is
+absolutely and relatively greater than the number in England.
+
+The second part of technical education is that to which general
+attention is more commonly given. It consists of the kind of training
+to be given to the great army of workers in the country. In regard to
+this, as in regard to research work, Huxley insisted on the absence of
+distinction between technical or applied science and science without
+such a limiting prefix. So far as technical instruction meant definite
+teaching of a handicraft, he believed that it could be learned
+satisfactorily only in the workshop itself.
+
+     "The workshop is the only real school for a handicraft. The
+     education which precedes that of the workshop should be entirely
+     devoted to the strengthening of the body, the elevation of the
+     moral faculties, and the cultivation of the intelligence; and,
+     especially, to the imbuing of the mind with a broad and clear
+     view of the laws of that natural world with the components of
+     which the handicraftsman will have to deal. And, the earlier the
+     period of life at which the handicraftsman has to enter into the
+     actual practice of his craft, the more important is it that he
+     should devote the precious hours of preliminary education to
+     things of the mind, which have no direct and immediate bearing on
+     his branch of industry, though they lie at the foundation of all
+     the realities."
+
+He compared his own handicraft as an anatomist with the handicrafts of
+artisans, and declared that the kind of preliminary training he would
+choose for himself or for his pupils was precisely the training he
+would provide for them. He did not wish that one who proposed to be a
+biologist should learn dissection during his school-days; that would
+come later, and, in the meantime, broader and deeper foundations had
+to be laid. These were the ordinary subjects of a liberal education:
+physical training, drawing, and a little music, French and German, the
+ordinary English subjects, and the elements of physical science.
+Against such costly schemes of education for the whole population of a
+nation, many objections have been urged. Of these, perhaps the chief
+is that the majority of human beings even in the most civilised
+country are not capable of profiting by or taking an interest in, or
+certainly of advancing far in, most subjects. Huxley met such
+objections in a spirit of the widest statesmanship. There were two
+reasons for making the general education of all what he called a
+liberal education. The first was that, even in a liberal education
+such as he advocated, no subject was pursued beyond the broad
+elementary stages, and that during the early years of life, while the
+framework and the character were forming, it was of first-rate
+importance not to stunt either by lack of material. The second great
+principle was that until any individual had had the opportunity, it
+was impossible to say whether or no he would profit much or little,
+and the gain to the whole nation by not missing any of those who were
+born with unusual natural capacity was more than worth the cost of
+affording opportunities to all.
+
+     "The great mass of mankind have neither the liking, nor the
+     aptitude, for either literary or scientific or artistic pursuits;
+     nor, indeed, for excellence of any sort. Their ambition is to go
+     through life with moderate exertion and a fair share of ease,
+     doing common things in a common way. And a great blessing and
+     comfort it is that the majority of men are of this mind; for the
+     majority of things to be done are common things, and are quite
+     well enough done when commonly done. The great end of life is not
+     knowledge but action. What men need is as much knowledge as they
+     can assimilate and organise into a basis for action; give them
+     more and it may become injurious. One knows people who are as
+     heavy and stupid from undigested learning as others are from
+     over-fulness of meat and drink. But a small percentage of the
+     population is born with that most excellent quality, a desire for
+     excellence, or with special aptitude of some sort or another....
+     Now, the most important object of all educational schemes is to
+     catch these exceptional people, and turn them to account for the
+     good of society. No man can say where they will crop up; like
+     their opposites, the fools and the knaves, they appear sometimes
+     in the palace, and sometimes in the hovel; but the great thing to
+     be aimed at, I was almost going to say, the most important end of
+     all social arrangements, is to keep these glorious sports of
+     Nature from being either corrupted by luxury or starved by
+     poverty, and to put them into the position in which they can do
+     the work for which they are specially fitted.... I weigh my words
+     when I say that if the nation could purchase a potential Watt or
+     Davy or Faraday, at the cost of a hundred thousand pounds down,
+     he would be dirt cheap at the money."
+
+The beginning and end of the whole matter was that a national system
+of education was above all things a "capacity-catcher," designed to
+secure against the loss of the incalculable advantages to be gained by
+cultivating the best genius born in the land.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST
+
+     Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs--Official in Scientific
+     Societies--Royal Commissions--Vivisection--Characteristics of his
+     Public Speaking--His Method of Exposition--His
+     Essays--Vocabulary--Phrase-Making--His Style Essentially one of
+     Ideas.
+
+
+A great body of fine work in science and literature has been produced
+by persons who may be described as typically academic. Such persons
+confine their interest in life within the boundaries of their own
+immediate pursuits; they are absorbed so completely by their
+avocations that the hurly-burly of the world seems needlessly
+distracting and a little vulgar. No doubt the thoughts of those who
+cry out most loudly against disturbance by the intruding claims of the
+world are, for the most part, hardly worth disturbing; the attitude to
+extrinsic things of those who are absorbed by their work is aped not
+infrequently by those who are absorbed only in themselves. None the
+less it is important to recognise that a genuine aversion from affairs
+is characteristic of many fine original investigators, and it is on
+such persons that the idea of the simple and childlike nature of
+philosophers, a simplicity often reaching real incapacity for the
+affairs of life, is based. There was no trace of this natural
+isolation in the character of Huxley. He was not only a serious
+student of science but a keen and zealous citizen, eagerly conscious
+of the great social and political movements around him, with the full
+sense that he was a man living in society with other men and that
+there was a business of life as well as a business of the laboratory.
+We have seen with what zeal he brought his trained intelligence to
+bear not only on his own province of scientific education, but on the
+wider problems of general education, and yet the time he gave to these
+was only a small part of that which he spared from abstract science
+for affairs. In scientific institutions as in others, there is always
+a considerable amount of business, involving the management of men and
+the management of money, and Huxley's readiness and aptitude led to
+his being largely occupied with these. For many years he was Dean of
+the Royal College of Science at South Kensington, and for a
+considerable time he served the Geological Society and the Royal
+Society as secretary. In all these posts, Huxley displayed great
+capacity as a leader of men and as a manager of affairs, and
+contributed largely to the successful working of the institutions
+which he served.
+
+In England, when troublesome questions press and seem to call for new
+legislation, it frequently happens that the collection and sifting of
+evidence preliminary to legislation is a task for which the methods
+and routine of Parliament are unsuitable. The Queen, acting through
+her responsible advisers, appoints a Royal Commission, consisting of a
+small body of men, to which is entrusted the preliminary task of
+collecting and weighing evidence, or of making recommendations on
+evidence already collected. To such honourable posts Huxley was
+repeatedly called. He served on the following Commissions: 1. Royal
+Commission on the Operation of Acts relating to Trawling for Herrings
+on the Coast of Scotland, 1862. 2. Royal Commission to Enquire into
+the Sea Fisheries of the United Kingdom, 1864-65. 3. Commission on the
+Royal College of Science for Ireland, 1866. 4. Commission on Science
+and Art Instruction in Ireland, 1868. 5. Royal Commission on the
+Administration and Operation of the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1870-71.
+6. Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of
+Science, 1870-75. 7. Royal Commission on the Practice of Subjecting
+Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific Purposes, 1876. 8. Royal
+Commission to Enquire into the Universities of Scotland, 1876-78. 9.
+Royal Commission on the Medical Acts, 1881-82. 10. Royal Commission on
+Trawl, Net, and Beam-Trawl Fishing, 1884. This is a great record for
+any man, especially for one in whose life work of this kind was
+outside his habitual occupation. It was no doubt in special
+recognition of the important services given his country by such work,
+as well as in general recognition of his distinction in science, that
+he was sworn a member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, so attaining a
+distinction more coveted than the peerage.
+
+The voluminous reports of the Commissions shew that Huxley, very far
+from being a silent member of them, took a large part in framing the
+questions which served to direct witnesses into useful lines, and that
+his clear and orderly habit of thought proved as useful in the
+elucidation of these subjects as they were in matters of scientific
+research. For the most part, the problems brought before the
+Commissions have lost their interest for readers of later years, but
+there are matters still unsettled on which the opinions of Huxley as
+expressed then remain useful. The Commission of 1876, for instance,
+dealt with vivisection, a matter on which the conscience of the
+ordinary man is not yet at rest. Although Huxley was intensely
+interested in the problems of physiology, and although at one time he
+hoped to devote his life to them, fortune directed otherwise, and the
+investigations for which he is famed did not in any way involve the
+kind of experiments known as vivisection. The greater part of his work
+was upon the remains of creatures dead for thousands of years or upon
+the lifeless skeletons of modern forms. On the other hand, he was
+keenly interested in the progress of physiological science, he had
+personal acquaintance with most of the distinguished workers in
+physiology of his time at home and abroad, and from this knowledge of
+their character and aspirations he was well able to judge of the
+wholesale and reckless accusations brought against them. He was a man
+full of the finest humanity, with an unusual devotion to animals as
+pets, and with knowledge of the degrees of pain involved in
+experimenting on living creatures. He insisted strongly on the
+necessity of limiting or abolishing pain, wherever it was possible; he
+agreed that any experiments which involved pain should not be
+permitted for the purpose of demonstrating known elementary facts.
+But, from his knowledge of the incalculable benefits which had been
+gained from experimental research, and from his confidence in those
+who conducted it, he declined to give support to the misguided
+fanatics who desired to make such experimental research a penal
+offence, even when conducted by the most skilled experts for the
+highest purposes.
+
+Huxley contributed his share to the great questions which agitated
+the public not only by service on Commissions, but by delivering a
+large number of public addresses and writing a large number of essays
+on topics of special interest. Much of his work on scientific,
+educational, and general subjects took its first shape in the form of
+addresses given to some public audience. University audiences in
+England, Scotland, and America were familiar to him, and from time to
+time he addressed large gatherings of a mixed character. But probably
+his favourite audience was composed of working men, and he had the
+greatest respect for the intelligence and sympathy of hearers who like
+himself passed the greater portion of their time in hard work.
+Professor Howes, his pupil, friend, and successor, writes of him:
+
+     "He gave workmen of his best. The substance of _Man's Place in
+     Nature_, one of the most successful and popular of his writings,
+     and of his _Crayfish_, perhaps the most perfect zoölogical
+     treatise ever published, was first communicated to them. In one
+     of the last communications I had with him, I asked his views as
+     to the desirability of discontinuing the workmen's lectures at
+     Jermyn Street, since the development of workmen's colleges and
+     institutes was regarded by some as rendering their continuance
+     unnecessary. He replied, almost with indignation, 'With our
+     central situation and resources we ought to be in a position to
+     give the workmen that which they cannot get elsewhere,' adding
+     that he would deeply deplore any such discontinuance."
+
+Huxley had no natural facility for speech. He tells us that at first
+he disliked it, and that he had a firm conviction that he would break
+down every time he opened his mouth. The only two possible faults of a
+public speaker which he believed himself to be without, were "talking
+at random and indulging in rhetoric." With practice, he lost this
+earlier hesitancy, and before long became known as one of the finest
+speakers of his time. Certain natural gifts aided him; his well-set
+figure and strong features, of which the piercing eyes and firm,
+trap-like mouth were the most striking, riveted attention, while his
+voice had a wide range and was beautifully modulated. But it was above
+all things the matter and not the manner of his speech that commanded
+success. He cared little or nothing for the impression he might
+make--everything for the ideas which he wished to convey. He was
+concerned only to set forth these ideas in their clear and logical
+order, convinced in his own mind that, were the facts as he knew them
+placed before the minds of his hearers, only one possible result could
+follow. The facts had convinced him: they must equally convince any
+honest and intelligent person placed in possession of them. He had not
+the smallest intention of overbearing by authority or of swaying by
+skilfully aroused emotion. Such weapons of the orator seemed to him
+dishonest in the speaker and most perilous to the audience. For him,
+speaking on any subject was merely a branch of scientific exposition;
+when emotion was to be roused or enthusiasm to be kindled the
+inspiration was to come from the facts and not from the orator. The
+arts he allowed himself were those common to all forms of exposition;
+he would explain a novel set of ideas by comparison with simpler ideas
+obvious to all his listeners; and he sought to arrest attention or to
+drive home a conclusion by some brilliant phrase that bit into the
+memory. These two arts, the art of the phrase-maker and the art of
+explaining by vivacious and simple comparison, he brought to a high
+perfection. The fundamental method of his exposition was simply the
+method of comparative anatomy, the result of a habit of thinking which
+makes it impossible to have any set of ideas brought into the mind
+without an immediate, almost unconscious, overhauling of the memory
+for any other ideas at all congruous. In a strict scientific
+exposition Huxley would choose from the multitude of possible
+comparisons that most simple and most intelligible to his audience;
+when in a lighter vein, he gave play to a natural humour in his
+choice. Instances of his method of exposition by comparison abound in
+his published addresses. Let us take one or two. In the course of an
+address to a large mixed audience so early in his public career as
+1854, in making plain to them the proposition, somewhat novel for
+those days, that the natural history sciences had an educational
+value, he explained that the faculties employed in that subject were
+simply those of the common sense of every-day life.
+
+     "The vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical
+     faculties, by no mental processes other than those which are
+     practised by every one of us, in the humblest and meanest affairs
+     of life. A detective policeman discovers a burglar from the marks
+     made by his shoe, by a mental process identical with that by
+     which Cuvier restored the extinct animals of Montmartre from
+     fragments of their bones. Nor does that process of induction and
+     deduction by which a lady, finding a stain of a peculiar kind on
+     her dress, concludes that somebody has upset the inkstand
+     thereon, differ in any way, in kind, from that by which Adams and
+     Leverrier discovered a new planet."
+
+In one of his addresses to working men on _Man's Place in Nature_ he
+shewed that from time to time in the history of the world average
+persons of the human race have accepted some kind of answer to the
+insoluble riddles of existence, but that from time to time the race
+has outgrown the current answers, ceasing to take comfort from them.
+
+     "In a well-worn metaphor a parallel is drawn between the life of
+     man and the metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly; but
+     the comparison may be more just as well as more novel, if for its
+     former term we take the mental progress of the race. History
+     shews that the human mind, fed by constant accessions of
+     knowledge, periodically grows too large for its theoretical
+     coverings, and bursts them asunder to appear in new habiliments,
+     as the feeding and growing grub, at intervals, casts its too
+     narrow skin and assumes another, itself but temporary. Truly, the
+     imago state of man seems to be terribly distant, but every moult
+     is a step gained, and of such there have been many."
+
+As another instance, the following from his address on a "Liberal
+Education" may be taken. He had been discussing the intellectual
+advantage to be derived from classical studies, and had been
+comparing, to the disadvantage of the latter, the intellectual
+discipline which might be got from a study of fossils with the
+discipline claimed by the ordinary experts upon education to be the
+results of classical training. He wished to anticipate the obvious
+objection to his argument: that the subject-matter of palæontology had
+no direct bearing on human interests and emotions, while the classical
+authors were rich in the finest humanity.
+
+     "But it will be said that I forget the beauty and the human
+     interest, which appertain to classical studies. To this I reply
+     that it is only a very strong man who can appreciate the charms
+     of landscape as he is toiling up a steep hill, along a bad road.
+     What with short-windedness, stones, nits, and a pervading sense
+     of the wisdom of rest and be thankful, most of us have little
+     enough sense of the beautiful under these circumstances. The
+     ordinary schoolboy is precisely in this case. He finds Parnassus
+     uncommonly steep, and there is no chance of his having much time
+     or inclination to look about him till he gets to the top. And
+     nine times out of ten he does not get to the top."
+
+The last example we shall take comes from a speech made after dinner
+at a much later period of his life. The occasion was a complimentary
+dinner to the editor of the English scientific periodical _Nature_,
+which had been for long the leading semi-popular journal of English
+science. Huxley, in proposing the health of the editor, declared that
+he did not quite know how to say what he wanted to say, but that he
+would explain by a story.
+
+     "A poor woman," he said, "was brought into one of our hospitals
+     in a shockingly battered condition. When her wounds had been
+     cleaned and sewn, and when the care of the surgeons had restored
+     her to comparative comfort, someone said to her, 'I am afraid
+     your husband has been knocking you about.' 'What!' she said, 'my
+     Jim bash me? no it worn't by him; he's always been more like a
+     friend to me than a husband.' That," went on Huxley, "is what I
+     wish to say about our guest of to-night. In all our intercourse
+     with him he has been more like a friend to us than an editor."
+
+It is impossible to make a real distinction between the essays and the
+addresses of Huxley. Many of the most important of his addresses, as
+for instance his Romanes lecture on "Evolution and Ethics," were
+written and printed before he delivered them; most of them were
+carefully prepared, and revised and printed after delivery. It is
+therefore not remarkable to find a close resemblance in matter and
+manner between what was originally spoken and what was published
+without a _vivâ voce_ delivery. Everything that may be said of the one
+set applies with an equal fitness to the other set. There are many
+who assert with confidence that Huxley is one of the great masters of
+English, and although an examination of this opinion involves
+discussion of the elusive quality termed "style," it is necessary to
+attempt it.
+
+In that totality which consists of an essay or of a printed address,
+and of which we are, most of us, ready to discuss the style, there are
+at least three separable elements, each contributing after its kind to
+the effect on our minds. When the general effect is to throw us into a
+state of pleasure, it is our habit to qualify the style with an
+adjective of praise, selecting the adjective according to the degree
+of restraint or of enthusiasm with which we are accustomed to express
+our emotions; when the general effect is to throw us into a condition
+of boredom or of distaste, we make a corresponding choice of
+appropriate adjectives. When we wish to be specially critical we pass
+a little way beyond an empirical judgment by pleasure or annoyance and
+take into account the degree of harmony between matter and manner. In
+such a frame of mind we discount the pleasure obtained from verbal
+quips, if these occur in a grave exposition, or that received from
+solemn and stately harmonies of language if these be employed on
+insignificant trifles. In a condition of unusual critical exaltation
+we may even admit an excellence of language and phrasing though these
+have as their contents ideas which we dislike, or press towards
+conclusions from which we dissent. But if we desire to make an exact
+appreciation of literary style, it is requisite to examine separately
+the three elements which contribute to the effect produced on us by
+any written work. These three elements are the words or raw materials
+employed, the building of words into sentences and of sentences into
+paragraphs, which may be designated as the architectural work, and,
+finally, the ideas conveyed, that is to say, the actual object of the
+writing.
+
+Huxley was a wide and omnivorous reader, and so had an unusually large
+fund of words at his disposal. His writings abound with quotations and
+allusions taken from the best English authors, and he had a profound
+and practical belief in the advantage to be gained from the reading of
+English. "If a man," he wrote, "cannot get literary culture out of his
+Bible, and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and Hobbes, and
+Bishop Berkeley, to mention only a few of our illustrious writers--I
+say, if he cannot get it out of these writers, he cannot get it out of
+anything." He had at least a fair knowledge of Greek in the original,
+and a very wide acquaintance with Greek phrasing and Greek ideas
+derived from a study of Greek authors in English versions. He had an
+unusual knowledge of Latin, both of the classical writers and of the
+early Church fathers and mediæval writers on science and metaphysics.
+French and German, the two foreign languages which are a necessary
+part of the mental equipment of an English-speaking man of science,
+were familiar to him. Finally, he had of necessity the wide and varied
+vocabulary of the natural and technical sciences at his disposal. From
+these varied sources, Huxley had a fund of words, a store of the raw
+material for expressing ideas, very much greater and more varied than
+that in the possession of most writers. You will find in his writings
+abundant and omnipresent evidence of the enormous wealth of verbal
+material ready for the ideas he wished to set forth: a Greek phrase, a
+German phrase, a Latin or French phrase, or a group of words borrowed
+from one of our own great writers always seemed to await his wish.
+General Booth's scheme for elevating the masses by cymbals and dogma
+was "corybantic Christianity"; to explain what he thought was the
+Catholic attitude to the doctrine of evolution, he said it would have
+been called _damnabilis_ by Father Suarez, and that he would have
+meant "not that it was to be damned, but that it was an active
+principle capable of damning." Huxley was like a builder who did not
+limit himself while he was constructing a house to the ordinary
+materials from the most convenient local quarry, but who collected
+endlessly from all the quarries and brickfields of the world, and
+brought to his heaps curiously wrought stones taken from a thousand
+old buildings. The swift choice from such a varied material gave an
+ease and appearance of natural growth to his work; it produced many
+surprising and delightful combinations, and it never sacrificed
+convenience of expression to exigencies of the materials for
+expression. On the other hand, Huxley lacked the sedulous concern for
+words themselves as things valuable and delightful; the delight of the
+craftsman in his tools; the dainty and respectful tribute paid to the
+words themselves; in fine, he took little pleasure in words themselves
+and used them as counters rather than as coins. Careful reflection and
+examination will make it plain that the pleasure to be got from
+Huxley's style is not due in any large measure to his choice and
+handling of words. There is no evidence that he deliberately and
+fastidiously preferred one word to another, that he took delight in
+the savour of individual words, in the placing of plain words in a
+context to make them sparkle, in the avoidance of some, in the
+deliberate preference of other words,--in fact, in all the conscious
+tricks and graces that distinguish the lover of words from their mere
+user.
+
+A close examination discovers a similar absence from Huxley's work of
+the second contributory to the total effect produced by written words.
+Anything that may be said about absence of artistry in the use of
+words, may be said as to absence of artistry in building of the words
+into sentences, of the sentences into paragraphs and pages. In the
+first place, actual infelicities of sentence-building are frequent.
+Clause is piled on clause, qualifying phrases are interpolated, the
+easy devices of dashes and repetitions are employed wherever
+convenience suggests them. It is striking to find how infrequent is
+the occurrence of passages marked in any way by sonorous rhythm or by
+the charm of a measured proportion. The purple passages themselves,
+those which linger in the memory and to which the reader turns back,
+linger by their sense and not by their sound. For indeed the truth of
+the matter is that Huxley's style was a style of ideas and not of
+words and sentences. The more closely you analyse his pages the more
+certainly you find that the secret of the effect produced on you lies
+in the gradual development of the precise and logical ideas he wished
+to convey, in the brilliant accumulation of argument upon argument, in
+the logical subordination of details to the whole, in fact, in the
+arts of the convinced, positive, and logical thinker, who knew exactly
+what he meant you to know and who set about telling you it with the
+least possible concern for the words he used or for the sentences into
+which he formed his words. The ideas and their ordering are the root
+and the branches, the beginning and the end of his style. To put it
+in another way: it would be extremely easy to translate any of
+Huxley's writings into French or German, and they would lose extremely
+little of the personal flavour of their author. The present writer has
+just been reading French translations of Huxley's _Physiography_ and
+_Crayfish_, made at different times by different translators. At first
+reading it seems almost miraculous how identically the effect produced
+by the original is reproduced by the French rendering, but the secret
+is really no secret at all. Huxley produced his effects by the
+ordering of his ideas and not by the ordering of his words. From the
+technical point of view of literary craftsmanship, he cannot be
+assigned a high place; he is one of our great English writers, but he
+is not a great writer of English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM
+
+     Science and Metaphysics--Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes--Existence of
+     Matter and Mind--Descartes's Contribution--Materialism and
+     Idealism--Criticism of Materialism--Berkeley's
+     Idealism--Criticism of Idealism--Empirical Idealism--Materialism
+     as opposed to Supernaturalism--Mind and Brain--Origin of
+     Life--Teleology, Chance, and the Argument from Design.
+
+
+The prosecution of independent thinking in any branch of knowledge
+leads to the ultimate problems of philosophy. The mathematician cannot
+ponder over the meaning of his figures, the chemist that of his
+reactions, the biologist that of his tissues and cells, the
+psychologist that of sensations and conceptions, without being tempted
+from the comparatively secure ground of observations and the
+arrangement of observations into the perilous regions of metaphysics.
+Most scientific men return quickly, repelled and perhaps a little
+scared by the baffling confusion of that windy region of thought where
+no rules of logic seem incontrovertible, no conclusions tenable, and
+no discussions profitable. Huxley, however, not only entered into
+metaphysical questions with enthusiasm, but gave a great deal of time
+to the study of some of the great metaphysical writers. His views are
+to be found scattered through very many of his ordinary scientific
+writings, but are specially set forth in a volume on _Hume_, which he
+wrote for Mr. John Morley's series, _English Men of Letters_, and in
+essays on Berkeley and on Descartes, all of which are republished in
+the _Collected Essays_. He contrived to preserve, in the most
+abstrusely philosophical of these writings, a simplicity and clarity
+which, although they have not commended him to professional
+metaphysicians, make his attitude to the problems of metaphysics
+extremely intelligible. The greatest barrier and cause of confusion to
+the novice in metaphysics is that the writings of most of the great
+authorities are overburdened by their great knowledge of the history
+of philosophy. Huxley, in a characteristic piece of "parting advice"
+in the preface to his work on Hume attacked this confusion between the
+history of a subject and the subject itself.
+
+     "If it is your desire," he wrote, "to discourse fluently and
+     learnedly about philosophical questions, begin with the Ionians
+     and work steadily through to the latest new speculative treatise.
+     If you have a good memory and a fair knowledge of Greek, Latin,
+     French, and German, three or four years spent in this way should
+     enable you to attain your object. If, on the contrary, you are
+     animated by the much rarer desire for real knowledge; if you want
+     to get a clear conception of the deepest problems set before the
+     intellect of man, there is no need, so far as I can see, for you
+     to go beyond the limits of the English tongue. Indeed, if you are
+     pressed for time, three English authors will suffice, namely,
+     Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes."
+
+The first and perhaps the greatest problem in metaphysics can be put
+very shortly. What is the reality behind the apparent universe of
+matter and mind we see around us? Or, rather, what do we know of that
+reality? To the uninitiated in philosophical thinking it seems
+sufficiently plain that there are two entities, body and soul in man,
+matter and mind in the whole universe; and various types of
+intelligent dogmatists, ranging from the sturdy if somewhat stupid
+shrewdness of Dr. Johnson to the agile casuistry of Catholic
+metaphysicians, have supported this simple verdict of "common sense."
+Trouble begins, however, with any attempt to analyse the relations
+between what we call "matter" and what we call "mind." It appears, for
+instance, that what we call matter we only know in terms of mind. In
+an essay on Descartes's _Discourse on Method_, Huxley explains this by
+simple examples.
+
+     "I take up a marble and I find it to be a red, round, hard,
+     single body. We call the redness, the roundness, the hardness and
+     the singleness, 'qualities' of the marble; and it sounds, at
+     first, the height of absurdity to say that all these qualities
+     are modes of our own consciousness, which cannot even be
+     conceived to exist in the marble. But consider the redness, to
+     begin with. How does the sensation of redness arise? The waves of
+     a certain very attenuated matter, the particles of which are
+     vibrating with vast rapidity, but with very different velocities,
+     strike upon the marble, and those which vibrate with one
+     particular velocity are thrown off from its surface in all
+     directions. The optical apparatus of the eye gathers some of
+     these together, and gives them such a course that they impinge
+     upon the surface of the retina, which is a singularly delicate
+     apparatus connected with the terminations of the fibres of the
+     optic nerve. The impulses of the attenuated matter, or ether,
+     affect this apparatus and the fibres of the optic nerve in a
+     certain way; and the change in the fibres of the optic nerve
+     produces yet other changes in the brain; and these, in some
+     fashion unknown to us, give rise to the feeling, or
+     consciousness, of redness. If the marble could remain unchanged,
+     and either the vibrations of the ether, or the nature of the
+     retina, could be altered, the marble would seem not red, but some
+     other colour. There are many people who are what are called
+     colour-blind, being unable to distinguish one colour from
+     another. Such an one might declare our marble to be green; and
+     he would be quite as right in saying that it is green as we are
+     in declaring it to be red. But then, as the marble itself cannot
+     be both green and red, at the same time, this shews that the
+     quality redness must be in our consciousness and not in the
+     marble."
+
+In similar fashion he shewed that the hardness, roundness, and even
+the singleness of the marble were, so far as we know, states of our
+consciousness and not in the marble. The argument is capable of
+application to all that we call matter, and it thus appears, on
+analysis, that what we know of matter is simply a series of states of
+our consciousness, or mind. In similar fashion, it turns out that what
+we call mind is, so far as practical experience goes, always
+associated with and dependent on what we call matter. We have no
+direct knowledge of thinking without a brain, or of consciousness
+without a body. Alterations and changes in matter, as for instance in
+the tissues and nutrition of the body, are, so far as our experience
+goes, inseparably associated with mental operations. In the animal
+kingdom we see the development of the mind creeping slowly after the
+development of the material nervous system, until, in man, the most
+complex mind and most complex consciousness of which we have knowledge
+accompany the most complex body and brain.
+
+Two great rival solutions to this fundamental problem are Materialism
+and Idealism. Materialism supposes that what we call matter is the
+real substance of the universe, and that mind is merely one of the
+forms of its activity. The advance of physical science has done much
+to make the materialistic hypothesis more plausible. When matter was
+believed to be inert, the mere vehicle or theatre of forces,
+materialism remained a singularly crude and unsatisfying position. But
+now that science has shewn all that we call matter--the most solid
+metals and the most attenuated vapours, the most stable and resisting
+inorganic bodies, and the unstable tissues of living bodies--to be
+alike in restless, orderly motion, to be, in fact, motion itself and
+not the thing moved, to be changeable but indestructible, passing
+through phases but eternal, there seems less difficulty in assuming it
+to be the ultimate reality, and mind and consciousness to be its most
+highly specialised qualities. Huxley, while stating this view plainly
+enough, refused to accept it as a legitimate conclusion from the
+facts.
+
+     "For anything that may be proved to the contrary, there may be a
+     real something which is the cause of all our impressions; that
+     sensations, though not likenesses, are symbols of that something;
+     and that the part of that something, which we call the nervous
+     system, is an apparatus for supplying us with a sort of algebra
+     of fact, based on these symbols. A brain may be the machinery by
+     which the material universe becomes conscious of itself. But it
+     is important to notice that, even if this conception of the
+     uuiverse and of the relation of consciousness to its other
+     components should be true, we should, nevertheless, be still
+     bound by the limits of thought, still unable to refute the
+     arguments of pure idealism. The more completely the materialistic
+     position is admitted, the easier it is to show that the
+     idealistic position is unassailable, if the idealist confines
+     himself within the limits of positive knowledge."
+
+However we attempt to form what philosophers call "ejects," to imagine
+that what is really in our consciousness is really the world outside
+ourselves, these ejects remain mere phenomena of our minds. Matter
+itself and its changes may, in the long run, be but modes of motion,
+but "our knowledge of motion is nothing but that of a change in the
+place and order of our sensations; just as our knowledge of matter is
+restricted to those feelings of which we assume it to be the cause."
+Huxley's exact position in regard to materialism is most plain in his
+expositions of the writings of Berkeley, with whom began in England
+the greatest movement towards an idealistic philosophy.
+
+     "Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the materialists:
+     'You tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into
+     matter and its affections. I assent to your statement, and now I
+     put to you the further question, What is matter? In answering
+     this question you shall be bound by your own conditions; and I
+     demand, in the terms of the Cartesian axiom, that you in turn
+     give your assent only to such conclusions as are perfectly clear
+     and obvious.'"
+
+Huxley then goes on to state the general lines of the arguments by
+which Berkeley arrived at the apparently paradoxical conclusion "that
+all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth--in a word, all
+those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world," have an
+existence only so far as they are in a perceiving mind. And he
+proceeds at length to explain the immense importance of the truths
+underlying Berkeley's position.
+
+     "The key to all philosophy lies in the clear apprehension of
+     Berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor less than one of
+     the shapes of the greatest of all questions, 'What are the limits
+     of our faculties?' And it is worth any amount of trouble to
+     comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which Berkeley
+     arrived at his results, and to know by one's own knowledge the
+     great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous
+     following up of the argument which leads us to materialism
+     inevitably carries us beyond it."
+
+Huxley, however, while he opposed a materialistic explanation of the
+universe with the strength of exposition and acute reasoning at his
+disposal, did not pass directly into the other camp and become a pure
+idealist.
+
+     "Granting the premisses," he wrote, "I do not see any escape from
+     Berkeley's conclusion, that the substance of matter is a
+     metaphysical unknown quantity, of the existence of which there is
+     no proof. What Berkeley does not seem to have so clearly
+     perceived is that the non-existence of a substance of mind is
+     equally arguable; and that the result of the impartial
+     application of his reasonings is the reduction of the all to
+     co-existences and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond
+     which there is nothing cognoscible."
+
+Hume had written: "What we call a mind is nothing but a heap or
+collection of different perceptions, united together by certain
+relations, and supposed, though falsely, to be endowed with a perfect
+simplicity and identity." Here was mind rejected for the same negative
+reasons as matter, and Huxley was as ready to point out that while we
+can know nothing of the
+
+     "substance of the thinking thing, we go beyond legitimate
+     reasoning if we therefore deny its existence." ... "Hume may be
+     right or wrong, but the most he or anyone else can prove in
+     favour of his conclusions is, that we know nothing more of the
+     mind than that it is a series of perceptions. Whether there is
+     something in the mind that lies beyond the reach of observation,
+     or whether perceptions themselves are the products of something
+     which can be observed and which is not mind, are questions which
+     can in no wise be settled by direct observation."
+
+In another passage he writes:
+
+     "To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe and all
+     its phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion, Berkeley
+     replies, True; but what you call matter and motion are known to
+     us only as forms of consciousness; their being is to be conceived
+     or known; and the existence of a state of consciousness, apart
+     from a thinking mind, is a contradiction in terms. I conceive
+     that this reasoning is irrefragable. And therefore, if I were
+     obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute
+     idealism, I should feel compelled to accept the latter
+     alternative. Indeed, upon this point Locke does, practically, go
+     as far in the direction of idealism as Berkeley, when he admits
+     that the 'simple ideas which we receive from sensation and
+     reflection are the boundaries of our thoughts, beyond which the
+     mind, whatever efforts it would make, is not able to advance one
+     jot.'"
+
+Locke went further, and Huxley agreed with him. He declared that the
+mind cannot "make any discoveries when it would pry into the nature
+and hidden cause of these ideas." We must, in fact, definitely reject
+what we know as matter as the absolute reality of the universe, for it
+becomes very plain that what we call matter we know merely as
+affections of our own consciousness. In a sense, then, so far as it is
+opposed to materialism, idealism, according to Huxley, must be the
+philosophical position of a scientific man. But the idealism is not
+the absolute idealism of Berkeley, as we have no logical right to deny
+or to affirm the existence of absolute matter or of absolute mind. The
+real truth of the philosophy of science lies in a separation between
+metaphysical theory and actual pursuits. In ultimate philosophical
+theory it is impossible to rest content with a plain natural
+conception of the universe. When any conception of matter, or of its
+affections, is pushed as far as analysis can take us, what we know
+resolves itself into affections of mind, into what without
+metaphysical finesse may be called ideas. But this empirical idealism
+must be taken positively as being merely the limits of our knowledge,
+and it must carry with it neither an undue exaltation of mind nor an
+undue depreciation of matter.
+
+     "The Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example of the
+     unscientific use of the imagination extant; and it would be hard
+     to estimate the amount of detriment to clear thinking effected,
+     directly and indirectly, by the theory of ideas, on the one hand,
+     and by the unfortunate doctrine of the baseness of matter, on the
+     other."
+
+Materialism was dismissed by Huxley as being an inadequate
+philosophical explanation of the universe, and as being based on a
+logical delusion. There remains, however, a practical application of
+the word in which the conceptions it involves are almost an inevitable
+part of science, and which was strenuously urged by Huxley. In the
+earlier days of the world and of science almost all the phenomena of
+nature were regarded as random or wilful displays of living
+intelligence. The earth itself and the sun, the moon, and the stars
+were endowed with life; legions of unseen intelligences ruled the
+operations of nature, and although these might be bribed or
+threatened, pleased or made angry, their actions were regarded as
+beyond prediction or control. The procession of the seasons, the
+routine of day and night, the placid appeasement of the rains, the
+devastating roar of storms, the shining of the rainbow, the bubbling
+of springs, the terrors of famine and pestilence; all these--the
+varying environment which makes or mars human life--were regarded as
+inevitable and capricious. The whole progress of physical science has
+been attended with a gradual elimination of these supernatural
+agencies and with a continual replacement of them by conceptions of
+physical sequence.
+
+     "In singular contrast with natural knowledge, the acquaintance of
+     mankind with the supernatural appears the more exact, and the
+     influence of supernatural doctrine on conduct the greater, the
+     further we go back in time and the lower the stage of
+     civilisation submitted to investigation. Historically, indeed,
+     there would seem to be an inverse relation between supernatural
+     and natural knowledge. As the latter has widened, gained in
+     precision and trustworthiness, so has the former shrunk, grown
+     vague and questionable; as the one has more and more filled the
+     sphere of action, so has the other retreated into the region of
+     meditation, or vanished behind the screen of mere verbal
+     recognition. Whether this difference of the fortunes of
+     Naturalism and Supernaturalism is an indication of the progress,
+     or of the regress of humanity, of a fall from or an advance
+     towards the higher life, is a matter of opinion. The point to
+     which I wish to direct attention is that the difference exists
+     and is making itself felt. Men are growing seriously alive to the
+     fact that the historical evolution of humanity, which is
+     generally, and I venture to think, not unreasonably, regarded as
+     progress, has been and is being accompanied by a co-ordinate
+     elimination of the supernatural from its originally large
+     occupation of men's thought."
+
+Every stage in this long process, every new attempt to place physical
+phenomena in a chain of direct causation has been denounced as
+dangerous and degrading materialism, and in this sense Huxley was not
+only an adherent but one of the foremost champions of materialism. As
+everyone knows, some of the greatest advances in this process of
+co-ordinating physical phenomena were made during Huxley's life; and
+his vigorous onslaughts on those who tried to thwart all attempts at
+material explanations in favour of unknown agencies made him specially
+open to abusive criticism. The battle was almost invariably between
+those who had not special knowledge and those in possession of it, and
+it occurred in practically the whole field of science, but
+particularly in the biological sciences. A single example will serve
+to shew what is meant by materialism in this sense and the attitude of
+Huxley to it. The study of the human mind naturally has attracted the
+attention of thinkers almost since the beginning of philosophy, but
+until this century, with a few crude exceptions, it has been conducted
+entirely apart from anatomy and physiology. Advances in these physical
+sciences, however, have changed that, and the modern psychologist has
+to begin by being a physiologist and anatomist.
+
+     "Surely no one who is cognisant of the facts of the case,
+     nowadays, doubts that the roots of psychology lie in the
+     physiology of the nervous system. What we call the operations of
+     the mind are the functions of the brain, and the materials of
+     consciousness are products of cerebral activity. Cabanis may have
+     made use of crude and misleading phraseology when he said that
+     the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile; but the
+     conception which that much-abused phrase embodies is,
+     nevertheless, far more consistent with fact than the popular
+     notion that the mind is a metaphysical entity seated in the head,
+     but as independent of the brain as a telegraph operator is of his
+     instrument. It is hardly necessary to point out that the doctrine
+     just laid down is what is commonly called materialism. I am not
+     sure that the adjective 'crass,' which appears to have a special
+     charm for rhetorical sciolists, would not be applied to it. But
+     it is, nevertheless, true that the doctrine contains nothing
+     inconsistent with the purest idealism."
+
+The whole doctrine of evolution is similarly a materialistic account
+of natural phenomena, in the popular and not the philosophical meaning
+of the term. But even within this popular meaning, it is extremely
+necessary to have an exact conception of the limits within which
+Huxley was materialistic. Take for instance the question of the origin
+of life. It would be one of the greatest achievements of physical
+science could it shew that life was not inco-ordinate with non-living
+physical phenomena, but was a special case of them. Huxley knew that
+this advance had not yet been made.
+
+     "It may be that, by-and-by, philosophers will discover some
+     higher laws of which the facts of life are particular cases--very
+     possibly they will find out some bond between physico-chemical
+     phenomena on the one hand, and vital phenomena on the other. At
+     present, however, we assuredly know of none; and I think we shall
+     exercise a wise humility in confessing that, for us at least,
+     this successive assumption of different states (external
+     conditions remaining the same)--this spontaneity of action--if I
+     may use a term which implies more than I would be answerable
+     for--which constitutes so vast and plain a practical distinction
+     between living bodies and those which do not live, is an ultimate
+     fact; indicating as such, the existence of a broad line of
+     demarcation between the subject matter of biological and of all
+     other science."
+
+In another passage he wrote:
+
+     "Looking back through the prodigious vista of the past I find no
+     record of the commencement of life, and therefore I am devoid of
+     any means of forming a definite conclusion as to the conditions
+     of its appearance. Belief, in the scientific sense of the word,
+     is a serious matter, and needs strong foundations. To say,
+     therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence, that I have any
+     belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have
+     originated, would be using words in a wrong sense. But
+     expectation is permissible where belief is not; and if it were
+     given me to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time
+     to the still more remote period when the earth was passing
+     through physical and chemical conditions which it can no more see
+     again than a man can recall his infancy, I should expect to be a
+     witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from non-living
+     matter. I should expect to see it appear under forms of great
+     simplicity, endowed, like existing fungi, with the power of
+     determining the formation of new protoplasm from such matters as
+     ammonium carbonates, oxalates, and tartrates, alkaline and earthy
+     phosphates, and water, without the aid of light. That is the
+     expectation to which analogical reasoning leads me, but I beg you
+     once more to recollect that I have no right to call my opinion
+     anything but an act of philosophical faith."
+
+Since these words were written the reasons for Huxley's "philosophic
+faith" have been strengthened by later discoveries, and perhaps a
+majority of biologists would take the view that except for practical
+purposes there is no sound reason for placing living and inorganic
+aggregations of matter in totally different categories. But even if
+the main outline of the theory of evolution were proved beyond the
+possibility of doubt, if we could trace existing plants and animals
+backwards with the accuracy of a genealogist and find that they had
+been developed, under purely physical "laws" from a few simple forms,
+and if we could understand exactly how these few simple forms of
+living matter took origin from non-living matter, we would not, if we
+followed Huxley, be able to rest in a purely materialistic position.
+As he, in different words, repeatedly said:
+
+     "It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not an
+     explanation of the cosmos, but merely a generalised statement of
+     the method and results of that process. And, further, that, if
+     there is any proof that the cosmic process was set going by any
+     agent, then that agent will be the creator of it and of all its
+     products, although supernatural intervention may remain strictly
+     excluded from its further course."
+
+The doctrine of evolution was, for him, no attempt to reinstate the
+"old pagan goddess, Chance." Darwin had again and again explained, and
+Huxley again and again had called attention to the explanation, that
+when words like "chance" and "spontaneous" were used, no more was
+intended to be implied than an ignorance of the causes. In the true
+sense of the word "chance" did not exist for Huxley and Darwin. So far
+as all scientific and common experience goes, every event is connected
+with foregoing events in an orderly and inevitable chain of
+sequences,--a chain that could have been predicted or predetermined
+by any sufficient intelligence. Moreover, Huxley did not believe that
+Darwin's views, rightly interpreted, "abolished teleology and
+eviscerated the argument from design." They only abolished that crude
+expression of teleology which supposed all structures among animals
+and plants to have been created in their present forms for their
+present purposes. Under the stimulus given to biology by the doctrine
+of evolution that science has progressed far beyond conceptions so
+rudely mechanical. We know that behind each existing structure there
+is a long history of change; of change not only in form and
+appearance, but also in function. In the development of living
+organisms to-day, as they grow up into tree or animal from seed or
+egg, we can trace the record of these changes of form; in some cases
+we can follow the actual change of function. But in a wider sense
+there is no incongruity between evolution and teleology.
+
+     "There is a wider teleology," Huxley wrote, "which is not touched
+     by the doctrine of evolution, but is actually based on the
+     fundamental proposition of evolution. This proposition is that
+     the whole world, living and not living, is the result of the
+     mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of the forces
+     possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of
+     the universe was composed. That acute champion of teleology,
+     Paley, saw no difficulty in admitting that the 'production of
+     things' may be the result of mechanical dispositions fixed
+     beforehand by intelligent appointment and kept in action by a
+     power at the centre."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FREEDOM OF THOUGHT
+
+     Authority and Knowledge in Science--The Duty of Doubt--Authority
+     and Individual Judgment in Religion--The Protestant Position--Sir
+     Charles Lyell and the Deluge--Infallibility--The Church and
+     Science--Morality and Dogma--Civil and Religious
+     Liberty--Agnosticism and Clericalism--Meaning of
+     Agnosticism--Knowledge and Evidence--The Method of Agnosticism.
+
+
+In the practice of modern law-courts, a witness rarely is allowed to
+offer as evidence any statement for which he himself is not the direct
+authority. What he himself saw or heard or did with regard to the
+matter at issue--these, and not what others told him they had seen or
+heard or done, are the limits within which he is allowed to be a
+competent witness. As a matter of fact, in the business of life we
+have to act differently. A large proportion of our opinions, beliefs,
+and reasons for conduct must come to us on the authority of others. We
+have no direct experience of the past; of the present we can see
+little and only the little immediately surrounding us. In a multitude
+of affairs we have to act on authority, to accept from books or from
+persons what we have not ourselves the opportunity of knowing. It
+would seem, then, to be a primary duty to learn to distinguish in our
+minds those matters which we know directly from those matters which we
+have accepted on trust; and, secondly, to learn and to apply the best
+modes of choosing the good and of rejecting the bad authorities. The
+work of the scientific man is a lifelong exercise of these primary
+duties. From the first moment he begins to observe living things or to
+dissect their dead frameworks, to mix chemical substances, to make
+experiments with magnets and wires, he begins to build, and as long as
+he continues to work he continues to build for himself a body of
+first-hand knowledge. But, however he work arduously or through long
+years, he can visit only the smallest portion of the field of nature
+in which he is working. It is necessary for him to employ the work of
+others, submitting, from time to time such accepted work to the tests
+suggested by his own observations. He learns to regard in a different
+light all knowledge taken on the authority of others; to distrust it a
+little until he has learned to weigh its general credibility by his
+own standards, and its particular credibility by subjecting portions
+of it to his own tests; to distrust it still more when even small
+portions fail to answer his tests, and to reject it altogether when
+the percentage of detected error is large. He learns, in fact, what
+Huxley called the duty of doubt.
+
+This duty has not been universally accepted. In the history of
+Christian civilisation (and a parallel series of events might be
+portrayed from the history of other civilisations), many great
+institutions and very many great and good men have condemned and
+feared the habit and attitude of doubt in all its forms. Certain
+doctrines believed to be of supreme importance to mankind were held to
+rest on authority independent of, and perhaps not susceptible to, the
+kind of testing employed in science. Around these doctrines there
+grew, in time, a body of traditions, customs, new dogmas, and
+fantasies; and the duty of belief in the first was extended to cover
+the whole system, the central jewel as well as the accretions and
+encrustations of time. The domain of religious authority was extended
+to the whole field of human thought and of human action, and the more
+unreasonable the dominion became, the more strenuously was the duty of
+belief urged. The Protestant Reformation was one of the great stages
+in the conflict for freedom against the universal tyranny that had
+arisen, but the reformers very naturally retained a considerable
+portion of the bias against which they had fought. In Protestant
+countries, in the first half of this century, the duty of belief in
+the Protestant doctrines, traditions, philosophy, history, and
+attitude to science reigned supreme, and all weapons, from legitimate
+argument to abusive invective and social ostracism, were employed
+against those who acted in accordance with the duty of doubt.
+Allegations of "unsoundness" or of "free thinking" became barriers to
+success in life, and those against whom they were made became lowered
+in the esteem of their fellows.
+
+At the present time, when the advance of science and of civilisation
+has almost won the battle for freedom of thought, it is difficult to
+realise the strength of the forces against which Huxley and many
+others had to fight. Huxley himself said with perfect justice: "I
+hardly know of a great physical truth whose universal reception has
+not been preceded by an epoch in which most estimable persons have
+maintained that the phenomena investigated were directly dependent on
+the Divine Will, and that the attempt to investigate them was not
+only futile but blasphemous." As a particular instance of this he
+cited some episodes in the history of geological science.
+
+     "At the present time, it is difficult to persuade serious
+     scientific enquirers to occupy themselves, in any way, with the
+     Noachian Deluge. They look at you with a smile and a shrug, and
+     say they have more important matters to attend to than mere
+     antiquarianism. But it was not so in my youth. At that time
+     geologists and biologists could hardly follow to the end any path
+     of enquiry without finding the way blocked by Noah and his ark,
+     or by the first chapter of Genesis; and it was a serious matter,
+     in this country at any rate, for a man to be suspected of
+     doubting the literal truth of the Diluvial or any other
+     Pentateuchal history. The fiftieth anniversary of the foundation
+     of the Geological Club (in 1824) was, if I remember rightly, the
+     last occasion on which the late Sir Charles Lyell spoke to even
+     so small a public as the members of that body. Our veteran leader
+     lighted up once more; and, referring to the difficulties which
+     beset his early efforts to create a rational science of geology,
+     spoke, with his wonted clearness and vigour, of the social
+     ostracism which pursued him after the publication of the
+     _Principles of Geology_, in 1830, on account of the obvious
+     tendency of that noble work to discredit the Pentateuchal
+     accounts of the Creation and the Deluge. If my younger
+     contemporaries find this hard to believe, I may refer them to a
+     grave book _On the Doctrine of the Deluge_, published eight years
+     later, and dedicated by the author to his father, the then
+     Archbishop of York. The first chapter refers to the treatment of
+     the 'Mosaic Deluge,' by Dr. Buckland and Mr. Lyell, in the
+     following terms: 'Their respect for revealed religion has
+     prevented them from arraying themselves openly against the
+     Scriptural account of it--much less do they deny its truth--but
+     they are in a great hurry to escape from the consideration of it,
+     and evidently concur in the opinion of Linnæus, that no proofs
+     whatever of the Deluge are to be discovered in the structure of
+     the earth.' And after an attempt to reply to some of Lyell's
+     arguments, which it would be cruel to reproduce, the writer
+     continues:--'When, therefore, upon such slender grounds, it is
+     determined, in answer to those who insist on its universality,
+     that the Mosaic Deluge must be considered a preternatural event,
+     far beyond the reach of philosophical enquiry; not only as to the
+     causes employed to produce it, but as to the effects most likely
+     to result from it; that determination wears an aspect of
+     scepticism, which, however much soever it may be unintentional in
+     the mind of the writer, yet cannot but produce an evil impression
+     on those who are already predisposed to carp and cavil at the
+     evidence of Revelation.'"
+
+The great evil of authority was its tendency to erect itself into some
+form of infallibility of universal application. When, for a time, the
+geological victory was won, and the supporters of authority had
+comforted themselves with reconciliations, there arose the much
+greater and more serious opposition between authority and the
+conceptions involved in evolution. Huxley, as we have seen in an
+earlier chapter, found that all the old weapons of authority were
+resumed with a renewed assurance, and his advocacy of the duty of
+doubt became not merely the defence of a great principle but a means
+of self-defence. The conception of infallible authority had been
+transferred by Protestants from the Church to the Bible, and against
+this Huxley strove with all his might. It is convenient to reserve a
+full treatment of Huxley's attitude to the Bible for a separate
+chapter, but at this point a quotation will shew his general view.
+
+[Illustration: SIR CHARLES LYELL]
+
+     "The truth is that the pretension to infallibility, by whomsoever
+     made, has done endless mischief; with impartial malignity it has
+     proved a curse, alike to those who have made it and those who
+     have accepted it; and its most baneful shape is book
+     infallibility. For sacerdotal corporations and schools of
+     philosophy are able, under due compulsion of opinion, to retreat
+     from positions that have become untenable; while the dead hand of
+     a book sets and stiffens, amidst texts and formulæ, until it
+     becomes a mere petrifaction, fit only for that function of
+     stumbling-block, which it so admirably performs. Wherever
+     bibliolatry has prevailed, bigotry and cruelty have accompanied
+     it. It lies at the root of the deep-seated, sometimes disguised,
+     but never absent, antagonism of all varieties of ecclesiasticism
+     to the freedom of thought and to the spirit of scientific
+     investigation."
+
+Moreover, Presbyter is but Priest writ large, and the Protestant
+clergy were the leaders in denunciation of every person and every
+branch of investigation or of thought in any way connected with
+evolution. Huxley was no respecter of persons, and, following the
+example of Darwin, he was ready to study carefully any arguments for
+or against any scientific doctrines by whomsoever or howsoever brought
+forward. The right of criticism and duty of doubt, which he insisted
+on for himself, he was extremely willing to extend to others, and, as
+a matter of fact he was on terms of intimate friendship with some of
+his most distinguished clerical opponents. But to an extent which it
+is almost impossible now to realise, the clergy generally abused their
+legitimate position and authority, and demanded or assumed a right to
+give authoritative opinions on questions which did not come within
+their domain. It was the old attempt of the Church to make its
+authority felt in all departments of thought and of action, and the
+attempt was made in the traditional fashion. Questions of fact were
+associated with questions of morality, and those who held one view as
+to the meaning and implication of certain facts were denounced as
+wicked. Huxley at once carried the war into the enemy's own country:
+
+     "And, seeing how large a share of this clamour is raised by the
+     clergy of one denomination or another, may I say, in conclusion,
+     that it really would be well if ecclesiastical persons would
+     reflect that ordination, whatever deep-seated graces it may
+     confer, has never been observed to be followed by any visible
+     increase in the learning or the logic of its subject. Making a
+     man a Bishop, or entrusting him with the office of ministering to
+     even the largest of Presbyterian congregations, or setting him up
+     to lecture to a church congress, really does not in the smallest
+     degree augment such title to respect as his opinions may
+     intrinsically possess. And when such a man presumes on an
+     authority, which was conferred on him for other purposes, to sit
+     in judgment on matters his incompetence to deal with which is
+     patent, it is permissible to ignore his sacerdotal pretensions,
+     and to tell him, as one would tell a mere, common, unconsecrated
+     layman: that it is not necessary for any man to occupy himself
+     with problems of this kind unless he so choose; life is filled
+     full enough with the performance of its ordinary and obvious
+     duties. But that, if a man elect to become a judge of these grave
+     questions; still more if he assume the responsibility of
+     attaching praise or blame to his fellow-men for the conclusions
+     at which they arrive touching them, he will commit a sin more
+     grievous than most breaches of the decalogue, unless he avoid a
+     lazy reliance upon the information that is gathered by prejudice
+     and filtered through passion, unless he go back to the prime
+     sources of knowledge--the facts of Nature, and the thoughts of
+     those wise men who for generations past have been her best
+     interpreters."
+
+In the campaign for absolute freedom of thought, for the duty of not
+believing anything except on sufficient evidence, Huxley was
+frequently met by an argument of superficial strength, and which no
+doubt was in the minds of many of his clerical opponents. In the minds
+of a majority of people, it was said, and particularly of slightly
+educated people, the reasons for right conduct and the distinctions
+between right and wrong are firmly associated with the Bible and with
+religion. If you allow doubts as to the absolute veracity of the
+Bible, or as to the supernatural origin of religion to reach such
+persons, you run a grave risk that they will reflect the uncertainty
+on the canons of morality. In taking from them what you believe to be
+false, inevitably you will unsettle their ideas on moral questions
+although you might be in full agreement as to these moral questions.
+Huxley refused to accept the asserted association between morality and
+particular metaphysical or religious doctrines.
+
+     "Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the
+     incompatibility of pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt
+     about the immortality of the soul, with religion and morality is
+     to be held as an axiomatic truth. I confess that I have a certain
+     difficulty in accepting this dogma. For the Stoics were
+     notoriously materialists and pantheists of the most extreme
+     character; and while no strict Stoic believed in the eternal
+     duration of the individual soul, some even denied its persistence
+     after death. Yet it is equally certain, that, of all gentile
+     philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical development,
+     is animated by the most religious spirit, and has exerted the
+     profoundest influence upon the moral and religious development
+     not merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the
+     moderns down to our own day."
+
+He held the view now generally taken by students of the history of
+man, that standards of conduct and religious beliefs arose in separate
+ways and developed independently, and that it was only comparatively
+recently that "religion took morality under its protection." But he
+met the argument in a still more direct fashion by rejecting entirely
+the possibility or advisability of founding any system of ethics upon
+a false basis.
+
+     "It is very clear to me," he wrote, "that, as Beelzebub is not
+     to be cast out by Beelzebub, so morality is not to be established
+     by immorality. It is, we are told, the special peculiarity of the
+     devil that he was a liar from the beginning. If we set out in
+     life with pretending to know that which we do not know; with
+     professing to accept for proof evidence which we are well aware
+     is inadequate; with wilfully shutting our eyes and our ears to
+     facts which militate against this or that comfortable hypothesis;
+     we are assuredly doing our best to deserve the same character."
+
+Freedom of thought meant for Huxley all that is best in liberalism
+applied to life. In an essay on Joseph Priestley, he described the
+condition of affairs in England last century, when scientific
+investigation and all forms of independent thinking laboured under the
+most heavy restrictions that could be imposed by dominant
+ecclesiastical and civil prejudice. He pointed out the astounding
+changes between these times and the times of to-day.
+
+     "If we ask," he wrote, "what is the deeper meaning of all these
+     vast changes, there can be but one reply. They mean that reason
+     has asserted and exercised her primacy over all the provinces of
+     human activity; that ecclesiastical authority has been relegated
+     to its proper place; that the good of the governed has been
+     finally recognised as the end of government, and the complete
+     responsibility of governors to the people as its means; and that
+     the dependence of natural phenomena in general on the laws of
+     action of what we call matter has become an axiom."
+
+The common ground of those who advocate the duty of belief and those
+who insist on the duty of doubt is clear. Both are agreed as to the
+necessity of accepting whatever has sufficient evidence to support it;
+both agree that there is room for doubt though not necessarily for
+rejection in cases where the evidence is contaminated or insufficient.
+It is in the application that the difference lies. The scientific
+theologian admits the agnostic principle, however widely his results
+may differ from those reached by the majority of agnostics. "But, as
+between agnosticism and ecclesiasticism, or, as our neighbours across
+the Channel call it, clericalism, there can be neither peace nor
+truce. The cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe
+certain propositions, whatever the results of a strict scientific
+investigation of the evidence of these propositions. He tells us that
+"religious error is, in itself, of an immoral nature" (Newman). It
+necessarily follows that, for him, the attainment of faith, not the
+ascertainment of truth, is the highest aim of mental life."
+
+Huxley helped largely in the modern movement which has made it
+impossible to blame people for doubt, and this was what he strove for
+most strenuously. Freedom of thought, like freedom of the Press, by no
+means implies that what is free must necessarily be good. In both
+cases there may be a rank growth of weeds, nurtured in vicious
+imagination, and finding a ready market with the credulous mob. For
+the detection and rejection of these, the critical method of science
+serves as well as it does against the loftier errors supported by
+authority.
+
+It was on Descartes and on Hume that Huxley founded the precise form
+in which he urged the duty of doubt, and his exact words are worth
+quoting.
+
+     "It was in 1619, while meditating in solitary winter quarters,
+     that Descartes (being about the same age as Hume when he wrote
+     the _Treatise on Human Nature_) made that famous resolution, to
+     "take nothing for truth without clear knowledge that it is such,"
+     the great practical effect of which is the sanctification of
+     doubt; the recognition that the profession of belief in
+     propositions, of the truth of which there is no sufficient
+     evidence, is immoral; the discrowning of authority as such; the
+     repudiation of the confusion, beloved of sophists of all sorts,
+     between free assent and merely piously gagged dissent, and the
+     admission of the obligation to reconsider even one's own axioms
+     on due demand."
+
+This was the healthy and active scepticism which took no direct
+pleasure in doubting, but used doubt only as a means of making
+knowledge doubly secure, and which prevented false ideas being
+bolstered up by privilege or by tyranny.
+
+     "The development of exact natural knowledge in all its vast
+     range, from physics to history and criticism, is the consequence
+     of the working out, in this province, of the resolution to take
+     nothing for truth without clear knowledge that it is such; to
+     consider all beliefs open to criticism; to regard the value of
+     authority as neither greater nor less than as much as it can
+     prove itself to be worth. The modern spirit is not the spirit
+     'which always denies,' delighting only in destruction; still less
+     is it that which builds castles in the air rather than not
+     construct; it is the spirit which works and will work 'without
+     haste and without rest,' gathering harvest after harvest of truth
+     into its barns and devouring error with unquenchable fire."
+
+It is a special weakness of the modern human race to love inventing
+descriptive names by which particular modes of thought may be
+classified and labelled. In order to meet this demand, Huxley invented
+the word _agnosticism_, to serve as a label for his own attitude. The
+word rapidly became popular, and attempts were made to read into it
+far more than its inventor implied. For him it was no definite body of
+doctrine, no creed in any positive sense. It merely expressed the
+attitude he assumed towards all problems on which he regarded the
+evidence as insufficient. It was a habit of mind rather than a series
+of opinions or beliefs; an intellectual weapon and not materials on
+which to exercise the intellect.
+
+Hume had written that "the justest and most plausible objection
+against a considerable part of metaphysics was that they are not
+properly a science, but arise either from the fruitless efforts of
+human vanity, which would penetrate into subjects utterly inaccessible
+to the human understanding, or from the craft of popular
+superstitions, which, being unable to defend themselves on fair
+ground, raise these entangling brambles to cover and protect them." In
+these considerations he found reason not for leaving superstition in
+possession of its ground, but for making a bold and arduous attack
+upon it in its haunts. The great difficulty in the way of carrying the
+war into the enemy's own camp was that in those days so-called science
+was itself cumbered with many illogical and metaphysical ideas, and
+for the first time in the present century the great advances of
+physical science, and, in particular, the renewed life poured by
+Darwin into the doctrine of evolution, made it possible to bring a new
+series of exact arguments against hazy metaphysical dogmas. The
+militant side of agnosticism was directed against the camp of
+superstition and armed with the new weapons of exact science. Its
+stern refusal of belief without adequate evidence was a challenge to
+all the supporters of the sanguine philosophy which replaces proof by
+assured and emphatic statement and restatement. It is possible,
+although rare, for those who hold a positive belief upon evidence,
+howsoever insufficient, to leave their doubting neighbours in peace,
+and these neighbours, assured in their own beliefs, equally positive
+and perhaps equally unfounded, may return the lazy tolerance. But the
+agnostic position is at once a reproof and a challenge to all who do
+not hold it. Perhaps no one has ever put the agnostic attitude more
+clearly than Kant when he wrote that "the greatest and perhaps sole
+use of all philosophy of pure reason, is, after all, merely negative,
+since it serves, not as an organ on (for the enlargement of
+knowledge), but as a discipline for its delimitation: and instead of
+discovering truth has only the modest merit of preventing error." It
+is precisely because it is addressed against error that agnosticism
+brings not peace but a sword; precisely because, instead of adding to
+the beliefs of the world, it seeks to examine them and perhaps by the
+examination to diminish them, that it aroused passionate resentment.
+In this respect it stands entirely separate and apart from any other
+similar term, as all these implied a definite acceptance or rejection
+of some definite propositions. Agnosticism means none of these things.
+Huxley said of it:
+
+     "Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed but a method, the essence
+     of which lies in a rigorous application of a single principle.
+     That principle is of great antiquity; it is as old as Socrates;
+     as old as the writer who said, 'Try all things, hold fast by that
+     which is good'; it is the foundation of the Reformation, which
+     simply illustrated the axiom that every man should be able to
+     give reason for the faith that is in him; it is the great
+     principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of modern
+     science. Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of
+     the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you,
+     without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In
+     matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are
+     certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take
+     to be the agnostic faith, which, if a man keep whole and
+     undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look the universe in the
+     face, whatever the future may have in store for him."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES
+
+     Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible--A _Magna Charta_ of the
+     Poor--The Theological Use of the Bible--The Doctrine of Biblical
+     Infallibility--The Bible and Science--The Three Hypotheses of the
+     Earth's History--Changes in the Past Proved--The Creation
+     Hypothesis--Gladstone on Genesis--Genesis not a Record of
+     Fact--The Hypothesis of Evolution--The New Testament--Theory of
+     Inspiration--Reliance on the Miraculous--The Continuity of Nature
+     no _a priori_ Argument against Miracles--Possibilities and
+     Impossibilities--Miracles a Question of Evidence--Praise of the
+     Bible.
+
+
+Huxley was by training and habit of mind a naturalist, busy with
+dissections and drawings, pursuing his branch of science for itself
+and with no concern as to its possible relation to philosophical
+speculation or religious dogma. It is possible that, had his life been
+passed under different conditions, his intellectual activities might
+have been spent entirely on his scientific work. As it was, he became
+almost more widely known as a hostile critic of accepted religious
+doctrine than as a man of science. Many causes contributed to this
+effect, but the chief reason was the contemporary attitude of the
+churches to Darwinism. He tells us as a matter of fact that in 1850,
+nine years before the appearance of _The Origin of Species_, he had
+"long done with the Pentateuchal cosmogony which had been impressed on
+his childish understanding as divine truth." In the chapter he
+contributed to the _Life of Darwin_ he wrote that in his opinion "the
+doctrine of evolution does not even come into contact with theism,
+considered as a philosophical doctrine." The reason of his general
+attitude to the Bible was simply that his application to it of the
+agnostic method led him to the view that there was not sufficient
+evidence for the pretensions assigned to it; the reason of his coming
+forward as a public and active champion of his views in this matter
+was partly to make a counter attack on the enemies of science, and
+partly his innate respect for the propagation of truth. He had the
+inevitable respect of an Englishman for the English Bible as one of
+the greatest books in our language, and we have seen how he had
+advocated its adoption in schools. He had the veneration for its
+ethical contents common to the best thinkers of all ages since it came
+into existence, and few writers have ever employed loftier or more
+direct language to express their respect and admiration. As a
+venerator of freedom and of liberty he regarded the Bible as the
+greatest text-book of freedom.
+
+     "Throughout the history of the Western world," he wrote, "the
+     Scriptures, Jewish and Christian, have been the great instigators
+     of revolt against the worse forms of clerical and political
+     despotism. The Bible has been the _Magna Charta_ of the poor and
+     of the oppressed; down to modern times no State has had a
+     constitution in which the interests of the people are so largely
+     taken into account, in which the duties, so much more than the
+     privileges, of rulers are insisted upon, as that drawn up for
+     Israel in Deuteronomy and in Leviticus; nowhere is the
+     fundamental truth that the welfare of the State, in the long
+     run, depends on the uprightness of the citizen so strongly laid
+     down. Assuredly the Bible talks no trash about the rights of man;
+     but it insists on the equality of duties, on the liberty to bring
+     about that righteousness which is somewhat different from
+     struggling for 'rights'; on the fraternity of taking thought for
+     one's neighbour as for oneself."
+
+It was not against the Bible but against the applications made of it
+and implications read into it that he strove.
+
+     "In this nineteenth century, as at the dawn of modern physical
+     science, the cosmogony of the semi-barbarous Hebrew is the
+     incubus of the philosopher and the opprobrium of the orthodox.
+     Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth,
+     from the days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been
+     embittered and their good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of
+     Bibliolaters? Who shall count the host of weaker men whose sense
+     of truth has been destroyed in the effort to harmonise
+     impossibilities--whose life has been wasted in the attempt to
+     force the generous new wine of science into the old bottles of
+     Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party? It is
+     true that if philosophers have suffered, their cause has been
+     amply avenged. Extinguished theologians lie about the cradle of
+     every science as the strangled snakes beside that of Hercules;
+     and history records that whenever science and orthodoxy have been
+     fairly opposed, the latter has been forced to retire from the
+     lists, bleeding and crushed, if not annihilated; scotched, if not
+     slain. But orthodoxy is the Bourbon of the world of thought. It
+     learns not, neither can it forget; and though, at present,
+     bewildered and afraid to move, it is as willing as ever to insist
+     that the first chapter of Genesis contains the beginning and the
+     end of sound science; and to visit, with such petty thunderbolts
+     as its half-paralysed hands can hurl, those who refuse to degrade
+     Nature to the level of primitive Judaism."
+
+These words were written in 1860 and events have moved rapidly since
+Huxley wrote them. There is now practically no religious body
+containing a proportion of educated persons which does not allow
+within it a very wide range of opinion as to the inspiration of the
+Scriptures, the Biblical account of the Creation, the miraculous
+events of the Old Testament and the recorded miracles of the New.
+Within the last few months, Dr. St. George Mivart, a distinguished
+Catholic zoölogist and long an opponent of Huxley, has declared that
+within the Catholic Church itself a number of educated persons are
+prepared to accept most of Huxley's positions, as well as views more
+extremely iconoclastic than any advanced by Huxley. Although Dr.
+Mivart's outspoken words have called down on him the official thunders
+of Rome, it is an open secret that many good Catholics think this
+attempted exclusion of modern knowledge to be fraught with grave
+danger to the Church. In these matters the Protestant churches have
+advanced much farther.
+
+It was very different when Huxley wrote. The first and gravest
+difficulty placed in the way of science was the asserted infallibility
+of the Scriptures. In Catholic theology, at least until late in this
+century, the general tendency has been to regard the Bible rather as a
+quarry for doctrine than as a direct means of grace. The theory of
+religion rested on two pillars: the inspired Scriptures containing the
+necessary information and the inspired Church to interpret the
+Scriptures. Protestant theology had rejected the infallible
+inspiration of the Church, and, in consequence, had thrown a greater
+burden on the Scriptures. The Scriptures became the Word of God,
+verbally and literally true; in its extreme form this doctrine
+reverted almost to the ancient Rabbinical maxim that even the vowel
+points and accents were of divine origin. In practice, if not in
+theory, the halo was extended to cover even the marginal chronology,
+then a familiar feature in the editions of the English Bible. The
+present writer, even so lately as in 1888 was reproved with violence
+by a clergyman of considerable education and position for expressing a
+doubt as to the accuracy of these dates. Obviously there was no common
+measure between a church holding such views and advancing science. War
+was inevitable, until one side or the other should give way.
+
+Huxley conducted the attack in a series of controversies extending
+over many years, and in which his opponents were well-known laymen
+such as Mr. Gladstone, Dr. St. George Mivart, the Duke of Argyll, and
+many clerical dignitaries of different denominations. The most
+important of his contributions to these controversies, as well as
+several isolated essays and addresses, have been collected in two
+volumes, _Science and the Hebrew Tradition_, and _Science and the
+Christian Tradition_.
+
+The first stage in the controversy, and the stage most immediately
+pressing, was to shew that the Bible was misleading and inaccurate as
+a record of scientific fact, and that therefore it could not be
+brought forward as evidence against scientific doctrines supported by
+scientific evidence. The vital matter in this was the account given in
+Genesis of the origin of the world. If that disappeared then the whole
+ground was gained; science would be left free in its own sphere.
+
+In a lecture on Evolution, delivered in 1876, Huxley began by
+discussing the possibilities as to the past history of nature. He
+believed that there were only three hypotheses which had been
+entertained or which well could be entertained respecting this
+history. The first was to assume that phenomena of nature similar to
+those exhibited by the world at present had always existed; in fact
+that the universe had existed from all eternity in what might be
+termed, broadly, its present condition. The second hypothesis was that
+the present condition of things had had only a limited duration, and
+that, at some period of the past, what we now know came into existence
+without any relation of natural causation to an antecedent state. The
+third hypothesis also assumed that the present condition of things had
+had a limited duration, but it supposed that that condition had been
+derived by natural processes from an antecedent condition, the
+hypothesis attempting to set no limits to the series of changes.
+
+In a certain sense, the first hypothesis recalls the doctrine of
+uniformitarianism, which Hutton and Lyell had shaped from a rational
+interpretation of the present conditions of nature. But, although it
+is no longer necessary to imagine the past history of the earth as a
+series of gigantic catastrophes, yet the whole record of science is
+against the supposition that anything like the existing state of
+nature has had an eternal duration. The record of fossils shews that
+the living population of the earth has been entirely different at
+different epochs. Geological history shews that, whether these changes
+have come about by swift catastrophes, or by slow, enduring movements,
+the surface of the globe, its distribution into land and water, the
+character of these areas and the conditions of climate to which they
+have been subjected have passed through changes on a colossal scale.
+Moreover, if we look from this earth to the universe of stars and suns
+and planets, we see everywhere evidence of unceasing change. If we use
+scientific observation and reason, if we employ on the problem the
+only means we possess for attempting its solution, we cannot accept
+the hypothesis that the present condition of nature has been eternal.
+
+     "So far as that limited revelation of the nature of things, which
+     we call scientific knowledge, has yet gone, it tends, with
+     constantly increasing emphasis, to the belief that, not merely
+     the world of plants, but that of animals; not merely living
+     things but the whole fabric of the earth; not merely our planet
+     but the whole solar system, not merely our star and its
+     satellites, but the millions of similar bodies which bear witness
+     to the order which pervades boundless space and has endured
+     through boundless time, are all working out their predestined
+     courses of evolution."
+
+The second hypothesis is familiar to us in the sacred records of many
+religious and in the Hebrew Scriptures. Most of these have a
+fundamental similarity, inasmuch as they offer pictures in which the
+mode and order of creation are given in the minutest detail and with
+the simplest kind of anthropomorphism; in which the Creator is
+represented with familiar human characteristics. But these general
+considerations, so obvious now that we have learned to read the Bible
+narrative without passion or prejudice, were not plain to the early
+opponents of evolution, and it was necessary, step by step, to shew
+not only that the narrative in Genesis could not be reconciled with
+known facts if it were accepted in its literal meaning, but that the
+most strained interpretation of the language failed to bring it into
+accordance with scientific truth. Mr. Gladstone was the latest and
+most vigorous of those who attempted to reconcile Genesis with modern
+knowledge, and in his controversy with Huxley he brought to bear all
+the resources of an acute intellect trained by long practice in the
+devices of argument and inspired by a lofty if mistaken enthusiasm. In
+the course of his argument he wrote:
+
+
+     "But the question is not here of a lofty poem, or a skilfully
+     constructed narrative; it is whether natural science, in the
+     patient exercise of its high calling to examine facts, finds that
+     the works of God cry out against what we have fondly believed to
+     be His word and tell another tale; or whether, in this nineteenth
+     century of Christian progress, it substantially echoes back the
+     majestic sound, which, before it existed as a pursuit, went forth
+     into all lands.
+
+     First, looking largely at the latter portion of the narrative,
+     which describes the creation of living organisms, and waiving
+     details, on some of which (as in v. 24) the Septuagint seems to
+     vary from the Hebrew, there is a grand fourfold division, set
+     forth in an orderly succession of times as follows: on the fifth
+     day
+
+       1. The water-population.
+       2. The air-population,
+      and, on the sixth day,
+       3. The land-population of animals.
+       4. The land-population consummated in man.
+
+     this same fourfold order is understood to have been so
+     affirmed in our time by natural science, that it may be taken as
+     a demonstrated conclusion and established fact."
+
+The defence itself shewed that already a large part of the original
+position had been abandoned. The literal meaning and belief in
+detailed accuracy were given up and Mr. Gladstone sought to establish
+only a general correspondence between the Biblical narrative and the
+results of science. But even in that form Huxley shewed the defence to
+be untenable.
+
+     "I can meet the statement in the last paragraph of the above
+     citation," he replied, "with nothing but a direct negative. If I
+     know anything at all about the results attained by the natural
+     science of our time, it is a 'demonstrated conclusion and
+     established fact' that the fourfold order given by Mr. Gladstone
+     is not that in which the evidence at our disposal tends to shew
+     that the water, air, and land populations of our globe made their
+     appearance."
+
+With the most voluminous detail, he proceeds to shew that there is no
+possible relation between the order implied by the narrative and the
+order as revealed by science. Let us sum up, by two quotations, the
+result of the whole controversy. First, the literal meaning is
+untenable.
+
+     "The question whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of
+     its present living population were made in six natural days or
+     not is no longer one on which two opinions can be held. The fact
+     that it did not come so into being stands upon as sound a basis
+     as any fact of history whatever. It is not true that existing
+     plants and animals came into being within three days of the
+     creation of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that
+     innumerable generations of other plants and animals lived upon
+     the earth before its present population. And when, Sunday after
+     Sunday, men who profess to be our instructors in righteousness
+     read out the statement, 'In six days the Lord made heaven and
+     earth, the sea, and all that in them is,' in innumerable
+     churches, they are either propagating what they may easily know,
+     and, therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities; or, if they
+     use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall below the
+     moral standard of the much abused Jesuit."
+
+The attenuated meaning equally must be given up.
+
+     "Even if they (the reconcilers) now allow that the words 'the
+     evening and the morning' have not the least reference to a
+     natural day, but mean a period of any number of millions of years
+     that may be necessary; even if they are driven to admit that the
+     word 'creation,' which so many millions of pious Jews and
+     Christians have held, and still hold, to mean a sudden act of the
+     Deity, signifies a process of gradual evolution of one species
+     from another, extending through immeasurable time; even if they
+     are willing to grant that the asserted coincidence of the order
+     of nature with the 'fourfold order' ascribed to Genesis is an
+     obvious error instead of an established truth, they are surely
+     prepared to make a last stand upon the conception which underlies
+     the whole, and which constitutes the essence of Mr. Gladstone's
+     'fourfold division, set forth in an orderly succession of times.'
+     It is that the animal species which compose the water-population,
+     the air-population, and the land-population, respectively,
+     originated during three distinct and successive periods of time,
+     and only during these periods of time.... But even this
+     sublimated essence of the Pentateuchal doctrine remains as
+     discordant with natural science as ever."
+
+There remains the third, or evolutionary hypothesis regarding the
+origin of the existing order of nature. As Huxley held it, it was
+rigidly limited within the possibilities afforded by the agnostic
+attitude. With regard to the real nature, the origin and destiny of
+the whole universe, there was not sufficient evidence before the human
+mind, if indeed the human mind were capable of receiving such
+evidence, to come to any conclusion. For the rest, for the actual
+condition of the earth itself, science was gradually accumulating
+overwhelming evidence in favour of a continuous evolution, under
+natural agencies, from the beginning of life to the existing forms of
+animals and plants, and the actual origin of life from inorganic
+matter under similarly natural agencies was becoming more and more a
+legitimate inference.
+
+Huxley's relation to the New Testament may be summed up in few words.
+It was simply that there was not sufficient evidence for ascribing to
+it the supernatural sanction demanded for it by dogmatic theology.
+
+     "From the dawn of scientific Biblical criticism until the present
+     day, the evidence against the long-cherished notion that the
+     three synoptic gospels are the work of three independent authors,
+     each prompted by Divine inspiration, has steadily accumulated,
+     until, at the present time, there is no visible escape from the
+     conclusion that each of the three is a compilation consisting of
+     a groundwork common to all three--the three-fold tradition; and
+     of a superstructure consisting, firstly, of matter common to it
+     with one of the others, and, secondly, of matter common to each."
+
+Again:--"There is no proof, nothing more than a fair presumption, that
+any one of the gospels existed, in the state in which we find it in
+the authorised version of the Bible, before the second century, or, in
+other words, sixty or seventy years after the events recorded." These
+considerations with slight differences in details are now practically
+admitted among the abler apologists, with the result that, as Huxley
+claimed, the New Testament, like the Old, must be treated as
+literature rather than as Dogma. As Literature everyone has the right
+to examine the contents critically, and, considering the importance
+attributed to the contents, the right becomes a duty. No doubt, had
+Huxley not lived there would have been others equally ready and
+equally able to gain the battle for freedom of thought in its special
+application to the claim of the Bible to stand in the way of the
+advance of scientific knowledge; but as it is, it cannot be denied
+that the existing prevalence of liberal views, inside and outside the
+churches, on the nature and interpretation of the Scriptures is
+largely due to him.
+
+After the question of inspiration, the most striking feature of the
+Bible is its appeal to miracles and the miraculous element. It is now
+necessary to examine the position assumed by Huxley towards these. Two
+great _a priori_ difficulties have been brought against accepting any
+record of miracles as true. The first of these is very simple,
+depending on the history of all times and peoples. It is that the
+human race has shewn itself universally credulous in this matter. It
+has cried "Wolf!" so readily, so honestly, and on so many occasions
+that the cry has ceased to carry conviction with it. Every religion
+has its series of miraculous events; every savage tribe and every
+uneducated race has its miracle-workers implicitly accepted. In
+mediæval and modern Europe up to our own times, miracles have been so
+constantly recorded on testimony of such undoubted integrity that we
+must either believe that miracles can be performed by numberless
+persons with no other claim to special regard, or that it is
+singularly easy to get false but honest evidence regarding them.
+Huxley supported the latter alternative strongly, and held the view
+that to believe in any particular miracles would require evidence very
+much more direct and very much stronger than would be necessary in the
+case of inherently probable events.
+
+The second _a priori_ objection to the credibility of miracles has
+been urged more strongly, but was not accepted by Huxley. It is that
+miracles are inherently incredible inasmuch as they are "violations of
+the order of nature." Hume, attacking miracles, had made this
+objection the chief ground of his argument. Huxley paid a logical
+respect, at least as great, to the continuity of nature.
+
+     "When the experience of generation after generation is recorded,
+     and a single book tells us more than Methuselah could have
+     learned, had he spent every waking hour of his thousand years in
+     learning; when apparent disorders are found to be only the
+     recurrent pulses of a slow-working order, and the wonder of a
+     year becomes the commonplace of a century; when repeated and
+     minute examination never reveals a break in the chain of causes
+     and effects; and the whole edifice of practical life is built
+     upon our faith in its continuity; the belief that that chain has
+     never been broken and will never be broken, becomes one of the
+     strongest and most justifiable of human convictions. And it must
+     be admitted to be a reasonable request, if we ask those who would
+     have us put faith in the actual occurrence of interruptions of
+     that order, to produce evidence in favour of their view, not only
+     equal, but superior, in weight, to that which leads us to adopt
+     ours."
+
+But out of the mouth of Hume himself he declared against making the
+recorded experience of man, however lengthy and impressive, a
+necessary ground for rejecting the possibility of the miraculous. Hume
+had said, "Whatever is intelligible and can be distinctly conceived
+implies no contradiction, and can never be proved false by any
+demonstration, argument, or reasoning, _a priori_." This or the like
+applies to most of the recorded miracles. Huxley was extremely careful
+not to assert that they were incredible merely because they might
+involve conditions outside our existing experience. It is a vulgar
+mistake, for which science certainly gives no warrant, to assert that
+things are impossible because they contradict our experience. In such
+a sense many of the most common modern conveniences of life would have
+seemed impossible a century ago. To travel with safety sixty miles an
+hour, to talk through the telephone with a friend an hundred miles
+away, to receive intelligible messages across the Atlantic by a cable,
+and, still more, to communicate by wireless telegraphy would have
+seemed impossible until recently. At the present time, the conversion
+of a baser metal into gold would be called impossible by everyone with
+a little knowledge of elementary chemistry. This last example leads
+admirably to a right understanding of the scientific view of
+impossibility. The older alchemists, partly from ignorance and partly
+from credulity, believed absolutely in the possibility of transmuting
+the metals. The advance of chemical science led to definite
+conceptions of the differences between compounds and elementary
+bodies, and of the independence of these elements. The methods and
+reasoning of the alchemists became absurd, and no one would attempt
+seriously to transmute the metals on their lines. These advances,
+however, do not give us the right to assume that the elements are
+absolutely independent, and that transmutation is therefore
+impossible. Some of the most recent progress in chemistry has opened
+up the suggestion that the elements themselves are different
+combinations of a common substance. Huxley applied this particular
+argument to the miracle at the marriage of Cana.
+
+     "You are quite mistaken in supposing that anybody who is
+     acquainted with the possibilities of physical science will
+     undertake categorically to deny that water may be turned into
+     wine. Many very competent judges are inclined to think that the
+     bodies which we have hitherto regarded as elementary are really
+     composite arrangements of the particles of a uniform primitive
+     matter. Supposing that view to be correct, there would be no more
+     theoretical difficulty about turning water into alcohol, ethereal
+     and colouring matters, than there is, at this present moment, any
+     practical difficulty in working other such miracles; as when we
+     turn sugar into alcohol, carbonic acid, glycerine, and succinic
+     acid; or transmute gas-refuse into perfumes rarer than musk and
+     dyes richer than Tyrian purple."
+
+Unless we make the unscientific and preposterous assumption that our
+present knowledge of nature and of natural forces is absolute and
+complete, it is unscientific and illogical to declare at once that any
+supposed events could not have happened merely because they seem to
+have contradicted so-called natural laws.
+
+     "Strictly speaking," Huxley wrote, "I am unaware of anything that
+     has a right to the title of an 'impossibility' except a
+     contradiction in terms. There are impossibilities logical, but
+     none natural. A 'round square,' a 'present past,' 'two parallel
+     lines that intersect,' are impossibilities, because the ideas
+     denoted by the predicates, round, present, intersect, are
+     contradictory of the ideas denoted by the subjects, square, past,
+     parallel. But walking on water, or turning water into wine, or
+     procreation without male intervention, or raising the dead, are
+     plainly not impossibilities in this sense."
+
+The whole matter turns on the question of sufficient evidence.
+
+     "Hume's arguments resolve themselves into a simple statement of
+     the dictates of common sense which may be expressed in this
+     canon: the more a statement of fact conflicts with previous
+     experience, the more complete must be the evidence which is to
+     justify us in believing it."
+
+Again, expressing the same idea in different words, he wrote:
+
+     "Nobody can presume to say what the order of nature must be; all
+     that the widest experience (even if it extended over all past
+     time and through all space) that events had happened in a certain
+     way could justify, would be a proportionately strong expectation
+     that events will go on so happening, and the demand for a
+     proportional strength of evidence in favour of any assertion that
+     they had happened otherwise. It is this weighty consideration,
+     the truth of which everyone who is capable of logical thought
+     must surely admit, which knocks the bottom out of all _a priori_
+     objections either to ordinary 'miracles' or to the efficacy of
+     prayer, in so far as the latter implies the miraculous
+     intervention of a higher power. No one is entitled to say, _a
+     priori_, that prayer for some change in the ordinary course of
+     nature cannot possibly avail."
+
+It was a question of evidence, and not only did the evidence not
+convince Huxley, but the thaumaturgic nature of the Biblical miracles
+provided him with additional reason for refusing to attach any
+extrinsic value to the contents of the book.
+
+On the other hand, although he declined to accept the Bible as a
+miraculous and authentic revelation, again and again he expressed
+himself in the strongest terms as to its value to mankind, and as to
+the impossibility of any scientific advance diminishing in any way
+whatsoever that value.
+
+     "The antagonism between religion and science, about which we hear
+     so much, appears to me to be purely factitious--fabricated, on
+     the one hand, by shortsighted religious people who confound a
+     certain branch of science, theology, with religion; and, on the
+     other, by equally shortsighted scientific people who forget that
+     science takes for its province only that which is susceptible of
+     clear intellectual comprehension; and that, outside the
+     boundaries of that province, they must be content with
+     imagination, with hope, and with ignorance."
+
+And again;
+
+     "In the eighth century B.C., in the heart of a world of
+     idolatrous polytheists, the Hebrew prophets put forth a
+     conception of religion which appears to me to be as wonderful an
+     inspiration of genius as the art of Pheidias or the science of
+     Aristotle. 'And what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do
+     justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?' If
+     any so-called religion takes away from this great saying of
+     Micah, I think it wantonly mutilates, while if it adds thereto, I
+     think it obscures, the perfect ideal of religion."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ETHICS OF THE COSMOS
+
+     Conduct and Metaphysics--Conventional and Critical Minds--Good
+     and Evil--Huxley's Last Appearance at Oxford--The Ethical Process
+     and the Cosmic Process--Man's Intervention--The Cosmic Process
+     Evil--Ancient Reconciliations--Modern Acceptance of the
+     Difficulties--Criticism of Huxley's Pessimism--Man and his
+     Ethical Aspirations Part of the Cosmos.
+
+
+We have seen that Huxley refused to acquiesce in the current orthodox
+doctrine that our systems of morality rested on a special revelation,
+miraculous in its origin, and vouched for by the recorded miracles of
+its Founder, or by those entrusted by the Founder with miraculous
+power. He supported the view that, historically and actually, there is
+no necessary connection between religion and morality. The one is an
+attempt, in his opinion always unsuccessful, to lift the veil from the
+unseen, to know the unknowable; the other is simply the code that
+social man, through the ages, has elaborated for his own guidance, and
+proved by his own experience. So far as the conduct of life goes, the
+morality of one who accepts the agnostic position with regard to
+revelation and the unseen universe differs in no respect from the code
+taken under the protection of the modern forms of religion. As John
+Morley, in his _Essay on Voltaire_ wrote of such a person:
+
+     "There are new solutions for him, if the old have fallen dumb. If
+     he no longer believe death to be a stroke from the sword of God's
+     justice, but the leaden footfall of an inflexible law of matter,
+     the humility of his awe is deepened, and the tenderness of his
+     pity made holier, that creatures who can love so much should have
+     their days so shut round with a wall of darkness. The purifying
+     anguish of remorse will be stronger, not weaker, when he has
+     trained himself to look upon every wrong in thought, every duty
+     omitted from act, each infringement of the inner spiritual law
+     which humanity is constantly perfecting for its own guidance and
+     advantage, less as a breach of the decrees of an unseen tribunal
+     than as an ungrateful infection weakening and corrupting the
+     future of his brothers."
+
+But there are wider questions than the immediate problems of conduct. A
+certain type of mind finds it almost impossible not to attempt ethical
+judgments on the whole universe, not to speculate whether the Cosmos, as
+we can imagine it from the part of it within the cognisance of man,
+offers a spectacle of moral or immoral or of non-moral significance. In
+the old times of Greece and in the modern world many have been devoid of
+the taste for argument on such subjects. Those who are uninterested in
+these abstract discussions are rarely in opposition to the mode of faith
+surrounding them, as to reject the doctrines held by the majority of
+one's friends and associates implies either a disagreeable disposition
+or an unusual interest in ultimate problems; they are usually orthodox
+according to their environment--Stoics, Epicureans, Jews, Episcopalians,
+Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Mormons, Mohammedans, Buddhists, or
+whatever may be the prevailing dogma around them. The attitude of
+indifference to moral philosophy has practically no relation to what may
+be considered good or bad moral conduct; those characterised by it live
+above or below or round about their own moral standards in a fashion as
+variable as that of moral philosophers. Many of the saints, ancient and
+modern, have been notorious instances; question them as to their faith
+or as to the logical foundation of their renunciations and they will
+tell you in simple honesty or make it plain by their answers that they
+have no head for logic, that they cannot argue, but only know and feel
+their position to be true. In addition to the saints, many of the best
+and most of the pleasant people in the world are of this type.
+
+The type strongly in contrast with the foregoing is found in persons
+of a more strenuous, perhaps more admirable but less agreeable
+character. The savour of acerbity may be a natural attribute of the
+critical character, and it is certainly not lessened where moral
+philosophy is the subject-matter of the criticism. The continual
+search after solutions of problems that may be insoluble at least
+makes the seekers excellent judges of wrong solutions. Like Luther and
+Loyola and Kant, they may be able to satisfy themselves, or, like
+Huxley, they may remain in doubt, but in either case they are
+excellent critics of the solutions of others. They are the firebrands
+of faith or of negation; they are possessed by an intellectual fury
+that will not let them cease from propagandising. They must go through
+the world as missionaries; and the missionary spirit is dual, one side
+zealous to proclaim the new, the other equally zealous to denounce the
+old. But theirs is the great work, "to burn old falsehood bare," to
+tear away the incrustations of time which people have come to accept
+as the thing itself, and in their track new and lively truth springs
+up, as fresh green follows the devastations of fire.
+
+To most of us it seems of sufficient importance and of sufficient
+difficulty to make our decisions in the little eddies of good and evil
+that form as the world-stream breaks round our individual lives.
+Huxley strove to interpret the world-stream itself, to translate its
+movements into the ethical language of man. As knowledge of the forces
+and movements of the Cosmos has increased so has our general
+conception been intensified, our conception of it as a wondrous
+display of power and grandeur and superhuman fixity of order. But are
+the forces of the Cosmos good or evil? Are we, and the Cosmos of which
+we are a part, the sport of changeable and capricious deities, the
+pawns in a game of the gods, as some of the Greeks held; or of a power
+drunkenly malicious, as Heine once cynically suggested; or a
+battle-ground for a force of good and a force of evil as in so many
+Eastern religions? Are we dominated by pure evil, as some dark creeds
+have held, or by pure good, as the religion of the Western world
+teaches? And if we are dominated by pure evil, whence come good and
+the idea of good, or, if by pure good, whence evil and the idea of
+evil?
+
+Huxley's interest in these great problems appears and reappears
+throughout his published writings, but his views are most clearly and
+systematically exposed in his "Romanes" lecture on "Evolution and
+Ethics" delivered and published at Oxford in 1894, and afterwards
+republished with a prefatory essay in the last volume of his
+_Collected Essays_. Not long before his death, Professor Romanes, who
+had come to live in Oxford, founded a University lectureship, the
+purpose of which was that once a year a distinguished man should
+address the University on a subject neither religious nor political.
+Mr. Gladstone was the first lecturer, and, at the suggestion of the
+founder, Huxley was chosen as the second. For years he had been taking
+a special interest in both religion and politics, and he was not a
+little embarrassed by the restrictions imposed by the terms of the
+foundation, for he determined to make ethical science the subject of
+his address, and
+
+     "ethical science is, on all sides, so entangled with religion and
+     politics, that the lecturer who essays to touch the former
+     without coming in contact with either of the latter, needs all
+     the dexterity of an egg-dancer, and may even discover that his
+     sense of clearness and his sense of propriety come into conflict,
+     by no means to the advantage of the former."
+
+As Huxley, on that great occasion, ascended the rostrum in the
+Sheldonian theatre, very white and frail in his scarlet doctor's
+robes, there must have been present in his mind memories of the
+occasion, four-and-thirty years before, when he first addressed an
+audience in the University of Oxford. Then he was a young man, almost
+unknown, rising to lead what seemed a forlorn hope for an idea utterly
+repugnant to most of his hearers. Now, and largely by his own efforts,
+the idea had become an inseparable part of human thought, and Huxley
+himself was the guest to whom the whole University was doing honour.
+Graduates from all parts of England had come to hear what, it was
+feared, might be his last public speech, and practically every member
+of the University who could gain admission was present. The press of
+the world attended to report his words as if they were those of a
+great political leader, about to decide the fate of nations. Although
+his voice had lost much of its old sonorous reach, and although the
+old clear rhythms were occasionally broken by hesitancies, the magic
+of his personality oriented to him every face.
+
+It is a curious and striking circumstance, a circumstance fully
+recognised by Huxley himself, that in this exposition of his ethical
+conception of the Cosmos he reconstructed, on the lines of his
+evolutionary philosophy one of the oldest and most widespread
+theories, a theory again and again reached by men of different
+civilisations and epochs. Manes, the Persian, from whose name the word
+"Manicheism" has been coined to denote his doctrine, taught in perhaps
+the most explicit fashion that the Cosmos was the battle-ground of two
+contending powers,--Ahriman, the principle of evil, and Ormuzd, the
+principle of good. This doctrine in some form or other is implicit in
+most of the greater religions, some of which have assumed an ultimate
+triumph for the principle of good, while others have left the issue
+doubtful. The Ahriman of Huxley, the principle of evil, is what he
+termed the cosmic process, that great play of forces, by which, in a
+ruthless struggle for existence, the fittest (by which is meant the
+most suited to the surrounding conditions and not necessarily the
+ethically best) have survived at the expense of the less fit. The
+Ormuzd, the principle of good, is what Huxley called the Ethical
+process, the process by which sentient, intelligent, and moral man has
+striven to replace the "old ape and tiger methods" of the cosmic
+process, by methods in which justice and mercy, sacrifice and
+consideration for others have a part.
+
+To explain clearly the distinction he made between the ethical and
+cosmic processes. Huxley, in the prefatory essay ("Prolegomena")
+published in the volume with his Romanes lecture, developed the
+analogy of a cultivated garden reclaimed from surrounding wild nature.
+He described how the countryside, visible from his windows at
+Eastbourne, had certainly been in a "state of nature" about two
+thousand years ago when Cæsar had set foot in Britain and had made the
+Roman camps, the remains of which still mark the chalk downs of
+England.
+
+     "Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as
+     those which still, here and there, break the flowing contours of
+     the Downs, man's hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin
+     veil of vegetation which overspread the broad-backed heights and
+     the shelving sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry.
+     The native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse,
+     contended with one another for possession of the scanty surface
+     soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of
+     winter, and the furious gales, which swept with unbroken force,
+     now from the Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times
+     of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps made in
+     their ranks by all sorts of overground and underground ravagers.
+     One year with another, an average population, the floating
+     balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the
+     indigenous plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be
+     doubted that an essentially similar state of nature prevailed in
+     this region for many thousand years before the coming of Cæsar;
+     and there is no assignable reason for denying that it might
+     continue to exist through an equally prolonged futurity except
+     for the intervention of man."
+
+This present state of nature, he explained, is only a fleeting phase
+of a process that has gone on for millions of years. Under the thin
+layer of soil are the chalk cliffs, hundreds of feet thick and
+witnesses of the entirely different phases of the struggle that went
+on while the cliffs were being formed at the bottom of the chalk sea,
+when the vegetation of the nearest land was as different from the
+existing vegetation as that is different from the trees and flowers of
+an African forest.
+
+     "Before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly longer period
+     elapsed, throughout which it is easy to follow the traces of the
+     same process of ceaseless modification and of the same
+     internecine struggle for existence of living things; and when we
+     can go no further back, it is not because there is any reason to
+     think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail of the
+     most ancient life remains hidden or has become obliterated."
+
+The state of nature, then, is a fleeting and impermanent process.
+
+     "That which endures is not one or other association of living
+     forms, but the process of which the Cosmos is the product and of
+     which these are among the transitory expressions. And in the
+     living world, one of the most characteristic features of this
+     cosmic process is the struggle for existence, the competition of
+     each with all, the result of which is the selection, that is to
+     say, the survival of those forms which, on the whole, are best
+     adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain; and which
+     are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the
+     fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation
+     of the Downs is seen in the turf with its weeds and gorse. Under
+     the conditions, they have come out of the struggle victorious;
+     and, by surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to
+     survive."
+
+For three or four years, the state of nature in a small portion of the
+Downs surrounding Huxley's house had been put an end to by the
+intervention of man.
+
+     "The patch was cut off from the rest by a wall; within the area
+     thus protected the native vegetation was, as far as possible,
+     extirpated, while a colony of strange plants was imported and set
+     down in its place. In short, it was made into a garden. This
+     artificially treated area presents an aspect extraordinarily
+     different from that of so much of the land as still remains in
+     the state of nature outside the wall. Trees, shrubs and herbs,
+     many of them appertaining to the state of nature in remote parts
+     of the globe, abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable
+     quantities of vegetables, fruit, and flowers are produced, of
+     kinds which neither now exist nor have ever existed except under
+     conditions such as obtain in the garden and which therefore are
+     as much works of the art of man as the frames and glass-houses in
+     which some of them are raised. That the 'state of art' thus
+     created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and
+     dependent on him, would at once become apparent if the watchful
+     supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic
+     influences of the general cosmic process were no longer
+     sedulously warded off, or counteracted."
+
+He proceeds to describe how, under such circumstances, the artificial
+barriers would decay, and the delicate inhabitants of the garden would
+perish under the assaults of animal and vegetable foes. External
+forces would reassert themselves and wild nature would resume its
+sway. While, in a sense, he had strenuously advocated the unity of all
+nature, he found in it two rivals: the artificial products of sentient
+man and the forces and products of wild nature. These two he believed
+to be in inevitable opposition and to represent the good and the evil
+forces of the world.
+
+In the dim ages of the past, the forces that have gone to the making
+of man have been part of the cosmic process. In the endless and
+wonderful series of kaleidoscopic changes by which, under the
+operation of natural laws, the body, habits, and the character of man
+have been elaborated slowly from the natal dust, there is the widest
+field for the operation of the most acute intelligence to study and
+trace the stages in the process. But if intellectual delight in
+studying the process be left out of account, a serious question at
+once appears. In the higher stages of evolution the cosmic forces,
+ceasing to act merely on insentient matter, have operated on sentient
+beings, and in so doing have given rise to the mystery of pain and
+suffering. When the less fit of chemical combinations or even of the
+lower forms of life perished in the struggle, we may regard the
+process with the unemotional eye of pure intelligence. But "pain, the
+baleful product of evolution, increases in quantity and in intensity
+with advancing stages of animal organisation, until it attains its
+highest level in man." And so it comes about that the cosmic process
+produces evil, sorrow, and suffering. Consideration of the cosmic
+process leads up against the mystery of evil.
+
+Huxley argued that the various philosophies and civilisations of the
+past had led by different paths to a similar conclusion. The primitive
+ethical codes of man were not unlike the compacts of a wolf-pack, the
+understanding to refrain from mutual attack during the chase of a
+common prey. Conceptions of this kind became arranged in codes and
+invested with supernatural sanction. But in Hindustan and Ionia alike,
+material prosperity, no doubt partly the result of the accepted codes,
+produced culture of the intellect and culture of the pleasures. With
+these came the "beneficent demon, doubt, whose name is legion and who
+dwells amongst the tombs of old faiths." The doubting intellect,
+acting on the codes, produced the conception of justice-in-itself, of
+merit as divorced from the effect of action on others, the abstract
+idea of goodness.
+
+The old philosopher, turning from this new conception to the Cosmos,
+found that incompatible with goodness. Suffering and sorrow, sunshine
+and rain, were distributed independently of merit. With Greek and
+Semite and Indian the conscience of man revolted against the moral
+indifference of nature. Instead of bringing in a verdict of guilty,
+they attempted reconciliation in various ways. Indian speculation
+invented or elaborated the theory of transmigration, in which the
+Karma or soul-character passed from individual to individual, the
+algebraic sums of happiness in the whole chain being proportional to
+merit. The Stoics were metaphysicians and imagined an immanent,
+omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent First Cause. Evil was
+incompatible with this, and so they held, against experience, that
+either it did not exist, or that it was inflicted for our benefit or
+due to our fault. In one fashion or another, all the great systems of
+thought had recognised the antagonism and had attempted some
+explanation of it. Huxley's view was that the modern world with its
+new philosophy was only retreading the toil-worn paths of the old.
+Scientific optimism was being replaced by a frank pessimism. Cosmic
+evolution might be accountable for both good and evil, but knowledge
+of it provided no better reason for choice of the good than did
+earlier speculation. The cosmic process was not only non-moral but
+immoral; goodness did not lead to success in it, and laws and moral
+precepts could only be addressed to the curbing of it.
+
+In a sense these conclusions of Huxley seemed to lead to absolute
+pessimism, but he offered some mitigating considerations. Society
+remains subject to the cosmic process, but the less as civilisation
+advances and ethical man is the more ready to combat it. The history
+of civilisation shows that we have some hope of this, for "when
+physiology, psychology, ethics, and political science, now befogged by
+crude anticipations and futile analogies, have emerged from their
+childhood, they may work as much change on human affairs as the
+earlier-ripened physical sciences wrought on material progress." And
+so, remembering that the evil cosmic nature in us has the foothold of
+millions of years, and never hoping to abandon sorrow and pain, we may
+yet, in the manhood of our race, accept our destiny, and, with clear
+and steady eyes, address ourselves to the task of living, that we and
+others may live better.
+
+These gloomy views come from Huxley with such weight and authority
+that even in a sketch of his life and opinions it may be noticed that
+they do not seem necessary deductions from the evolutionary conception
+of the world. The first count adduced against the cosmic process is
+its connection with suffering. It may be doubted, so far as the animal
+world is concerned, if Huxley has not exaggerated the gravity of this.
+The two greatest contributors to the modern conception of evolution
+are not in agreement with him. Alfred Russel Wallace wrote:
+
+     "On the whole, then, we conclude that the popular idea of the
+     struggle for existence entailing misery and pain on the animal
+     world is the very reverse of the truth. What it really brings
+     about is the maximum of life and of the enjoyment of life with
+     the minimum of suffering and pain. Given the necessity of death
+     and reproduction--and without those there could have been no
+     progressive development of the animal world--and it is difficult
+     even to imagine a system by which a greater balance of happiness
+     could have been secured."
+
+This view was evidently that also of Darwin himself, who thus
+concluded his chapter on the struggle for existence: "When we reflect
+on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief that
+the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death
+is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy
+survive and multiply." As for man himself, though it be true that in
+him the consummation of pain is reached, still this is no isolated
+fact of far-reaching ethical importance. It is in direct dependence on
+the increased physical and mental development of man, and these are
+equally necessary for and equally susceptible to increased pleasure
+and increased happiness. It is not necessary to regard the cosmic
+process as evil. Even when man, in various ages, had elaborated the
+conception of abstract goodness, and had endeavoured to make his
+justice a doling out of reward and punishment according to merit, it
+was not inevitable to bring in a verdict of guilty against the Cosmos.
+It is quite true that, in all the ages, man has seen the sun shine on
+the unjust as on the just. But it is an easy reflection that the world
+could not turn round on individual merit, and if few are so guilty as
+to deserve the agonies of grief that may come to all, still fewer
+deserve some of the simpler and more common joys of life. The
+conception that was implicit in the disciplines of the older
+philosophies is still open to the philosophy of evolution. Behind it,
+as behind the "self-hypnotised catalepsy of the devotee of Brahma,"
+the Buddhist aspirations to Nirvana, the _apatheia_ of the Stoics,
+there may lie a recognition of the worthlessness of the individual: an
+equable acceptation of one's self as part of a process: a triumph of
+intelligence over selfishness. Finally, behind the sharp division made
+between man and the Cosmos, there still lurks one of the oldest and
+most enduring fallacies of the world, a fallacy that Huxley himself
+spent a great part of his intellectual life in discovering and
+routing. The fallacy is the conception of the Cosmos as something
+separate and apart from man, as something through which he, however
+briefly, passes. Thus Omar sang:
+
+    "Myself, when young, did eagerly frequent
+    Doctor and saint, and heard great argument
+      About it and about: but evermore
+    Came out by the same door where in I went.
+
+    "With them the seed of wisdom did I sow,
+    And with mine own hand wrought to make it grow;
+      And this was all the Harvest that I reaped--
+    'I came like Water, and like Wind I go.'
+
+    "Into this Universe, and _Why_ not knowing
+    Nor _Whence_, like water willy-nilly flowing;
+      And out of it, like Wind along the Waste
+    I know not _Whither_, willy-nilly blowing."
+
+But, the more profoundly does the conception of evolution lay hold of
+human thought, the more inevitable it becomes to recognise that man
+and all that is best in man--his aspirations, ideas, virtues, and
+practical and abstract justice and goodness--are just as much the
+product of the cosmic process and part of the Cosmos as the most
+sinister results of the struggle for existence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY
+
+     Huxley's Life in London--Decennial
+     Periods--Ill-health--Retirement to Eastbourne--Death--Personal
+     Appearance--Methods of Work--Personal Characteristics--An
+     Inspirer of Others--His Influence in Science--A Naturalist by
+     Vocation--His Aspirations.
+
+
+Huxley's life followed the quiet and even tenor of that of a
+professional man of science and letters. The great adventure in it was
+his youthful voyage on the _Rattlesnake_. That over, and his choice
+made in favour of science as against medicine, he settled down in
+London. He married happily and shared in the common joys and sorrows
+of domestic life. Advancement came to him steadily, and, although he
+was never rich, after the first few years of life in London, his
+income was always adequate to his moderate needs. For the greater part
+of his working life, he lived actually in London, in the ordinary
+style and with the ordinary social enjoyments of a professional man.
+His duties in connection with the Royal College of Science and with
+the Geological Survey were not arduous but constant; his time was
+fully occupied with these, with his scientific and literary work, with
+the business of scientific societies, with the occasional obligations
+of royal commissions, public boards, and lecturing engagements. The
+quiet routine of his life was diversified by many visits to provincial
+towns to deliver lectures or addresses, by meetings of the British
+Association, by holidays in Switzerland, during which, with Tyndall,
+he made special studies of the phenomena of glaciation, and in the
+usual Continental resorts, and by several trips to America.
+
+In a rough-and-ready fashion, Huxley's active life may be broken into
+a set of decennial periods, each with tolerably distinctive
+characters. The first period, roughly from 1850 to 1860, was almost
+purely scientific. It was occupied by his voyage, by his transition to
+science as a career, his researches into the invertebrate forms of
+life, the beginning of his palæontological investigations, and a
+comparatively small amount of lecturing and literary work. The second
+decennium still found him employed chiefly in research, vertebrate and
+extinct forms absorbing most of his attention. He was occupied
+actively with teaching, but the dominant feature of the decennium was
+his assumption of the Darwinian doctrines. In connection with these
+latter, his literary and lecturing work increased greatly, and the
+side issues of what was, in itself, purely a scientific controversy
+began to lead him into metaphysical and religious studies. The third
+period, from 1870 to 1880, was considerably different in character. He
+had become the most prominent man in biological science in England, at
+a time when biological science was attracting a quite unusual amount
+of scientific and public attention. Public honours and public duties,
+some of them scientific, others general, began to crowd upon him, and
+the time at his disposal for the quiet labours of investigation
+became rapidly more limited within this period. He was secretary of
+the Royal Society, a member of the London School Board, president of
+the British Association, Lord Rector at several universities, member
+of many royal commissions, government inspector of fisheries,
+president of the Geological Society. In this multitude of duties it
+was natural that the bulk of strictly scientific output was limited,
+but, on the other hand, his literary output was much larger. Between
+1880 and 1890 he had reached the full maturity of a splendid
+reputation, and honours and duties pressed thick upon him. For part of
+the time he was president of the Royal Society, the most distinguished
+position to which a scientific man in England can attain, and he was
+held by the general public at least in as high esteem as by his
+scientific contemporaries. A small amount of original scientific work
+still appeared from his pen, but he was occupied chiefly with more
+general contributions to thought.
+
+[Illustration: CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF
+Reproduced by permission from _Natural Science_, vol. vii., No. 46]
+
+Throughout his life, Huxley had never been robust. From his youth
+upwards he had been troubled by dyspepsia with its usual accompaniment
+of occasional fits of severe mental and physical depression. In 1872
+he was compelled to take a long holiday in Egypt, and, although he
+returned to resume full labour, it is doubtful if from that time
+onwards he recovered even the strength normal to him. In 1885, his
+ill-health became grave; in the following years he had two attacks of
+pleurisy, and symptoms of cardiac mischief became pressing. He
+gradually withdrew from his official posts, and, in 1890, retired to
+Eastbourne, where he had built himself a house on the Downs. The more
+healthy conditions and the comparative leisure he permitted himself
+had a good effect, and he was able to write some of his most
+brilliant essays and to make a few public appearances: at Oxford in
+1893, when he delivered the Romanes lecture; at the meeting of the
+British Association in 1894, when he spoke on the vote of thanks to
+the President, the Marquis of Salisbury; at the Royal Society in the
+same year when he received the recently established "Darwin Medal."
+Early in the spring of 1895, he had a prostrating attack of influenza,
+and from that time until his death on June 29, 1895, he was an
+invalid. He was buried in the Marylebone cemetery at Finchley, to the
+north of London.
+
+Huxley was of middle stature and rather slender build. His face, as
+Professor Ray Lankester described it, was "grave, black-browed, and
+fiercely earnest." His hair, plentiful and worn rather long, was black
+until in old age it became silvery white. He wore short side whiskers,
+but shaved the rest of his face, leaving fully exposed an obstinate
+chin, and mobile lips, grim and resolute in repose, but capable of
+relaxation into a smile of almost feminine charm.
+
+He was a very hard worker and took little exercise. Professor Howes
+describes a typical day as occupied by lecture and laboratory work at
+the College of Science until his hurried luncheon; then a cab-drive to
+the Home Office for his work as Inspector of Fisheries; then a cab
+home for an hour's work before dinner, and the evening after dinner
+spent in literary work or scientific reading. While at work, his whole
+attention was engrossed, and he disliked being disturbed. This
+abstraction of his attention is illustrated humorously by a story told
+by one of his demonstrators. Huxley was engaged in the investigations
+required for his book on the Crayfish, and his demonstrator came in to
+ask a question about a codfish. "Codfish?" said Huxley; "that's a
+vertebrate, isn't it? Ask me in a fortnight and I'll consider it."
+While at work he smoked almost continuously, and from time to time he
+took a little relaxation, for the strains of a fiddle were
+occasionally heard from his room. Indeed he was devoted to music,
+regarding it as one of the highest of the æsthetic pleasures. He tells
+us himself:
+
+     "When I was a boy, I was very fond of music, and I am so now; and
+     it so happened that I had the opportunity of hearing much good
+     music. Among other things, I had abundant opportunities of
+     hearing that great old master, Sebastian Bach. I remember
+     perfectly well--although I knew nothing about music then, and, I
+     may add, know nothing whatever about it now--the intense
+     satisfaction and delight which I had in listening, by the hour
+     together, to Bach's fugues. It is a pleasure which remains with
+     me, I am glad to think; but, of late years, I have tried to find
+     out the why and wherefore, and it has often occurred to me that
+     the pleasure derived from musical compositions of this kind is
+     essentially of the same nature as that which is derived from
+     pursuits which are commonly regarded as purely intellectual. I
+     mean, that the source of pleasure is exactly the same as in most
+     of my problems in morphology--that you have the theme in one of
+     the old masters' works followed out in all its endless
+     variations, always appearing and always reminding you of unity in
+     variety."
+
+He had a hot temper, and did not readily brook opposition, especially
+when that seemed to him to be the result of stupidity or of prejudice
+rather than of reason, and his own reason was of a very clear,
+decided, and exact order. He had little sympathy with vacillation of
+any kind, whether it arose from mere infirmity of purpose or from the
+temperament which delights in balancing opposing considerations. He
+said on one occasion:
+
+     "A great lawyer-statesman and philosopher of a former age--I mean
+     Francis Bacon--said that truth came out of error much more
+     rapidly than out of confusion. There is a wonderful truth in that
+     saying. Next to being right in this world, the best of all things
+     is to be clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out
+     somewhere. If you go buzzing about between right and wrong,
+     vibrating and fluctuating, you come out nowhere; but if you are
+     absolutely and thoroughly and persistently wrong, you must, some
+     of these days, have the extreme good fortune of knocking your
+     head against a fact, and that sets you all straight again. So I
+     will not trouble myself as to whether I may be right or wrong in
+     what I am about to say, but at any rate I hope to be clear and
+     definite; and then you will be able to judge for yourselves
+     whether, in following out the train of thought I have to
+     introduce, you knock your heads against facts or not."
+
+The particular suggestions to which these remarks were the
+characteristic introduction related to definite problems of education,
+that is to say, to questions upon which some action was urgent. It was
+in all cases of life, in science or affairs, that Huxley was resolute
+for clear ideas and definite courses of conduct. As a matter of fact,
+no one ever took greater care to satisfy himself as best he could as
+to what was right and what was wrong; but where action rather than
+reflection was needed, then his principle was to act, and to know
+definitely and clearly why you acted and for what you acted. In
+matters of opinion, on the other hand, he was all for not coming to a
+definite opinion when the facts obtainable did not justify such an
+opinion. In thought, agnosticism, the refusal to accept any ideas or
+principles except on sufficient evidence; in action, positivism, to
+act promptly in definite and known directions for definite and known
+objects: these were his principles.
+
+Another aspect of the same trait of character, he shewed in an address
+to medical students at a distribution of prizes. After congratulating
+the victors he confessed to "an undercurrent of sympathy for those who
+have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have been
+overthrown in their tourney, and have not made their appearance in
+public." After recounting an early failure of his own, he proceeded:
+
+     "I said to myself, 'Never mind; what's the next thing to be
+     done?' And I found that policy of 'never minding' and going on to
+     the next thing to be done, to be the most important of all
+     policies in the conduct of practical life. It does not matter how
+     many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you do not get
+     dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to stop to
+     be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race. You
+     learn that which is of inestimable importance--that there are a
+     great many people in the world who are just as clever as you are.
+     You learn to put your trust, by and by, in an economy and
+     frugality of the exercise of your powers both moral and
+     intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have not found
+     it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are worth
+     more than twice their weight of cleverness."
+
+All Huxley's work was marked by a quality which may be called
+conscientiousness or thoroughness. Looking through his memoirs,
+written many years ago, the subjects of which have since been handled
+and rehandled by other writers with new knowledge and with new methods
+at their disposal, one is struck that all the observations he made
+have stood their ground. With new facts new generalisations have often
+been reached, and some of the positions occupied by Huxley have been
+turned. But what he saw and described had not to be redescribed; the
+citations he made from the older authorities were always so chosen as
+to contain the exact gist of the writers. These qualities, admirable
+in scientific work, became at once admirable and terrible in his
+controversial writings. His own exactness made him ruthless in
+exposing any inexactness in his adversaries, and there were few
+disputants who left an argument with Huxley in an undamaged condition.
+The consciousness which he had of his own careful methods, added to a
+natural pugnacity, gave him an intellectual courage of a very high
+order. As he knew himself to have made sure of his premisses, he did
+not care whither his conclusions might lead him, against whatsoever
+established doctrine or accepted axiom.
+
+There was, however, a strong spice of natural combativeness in his
+nature, the direct result of his native and highly trained critical
+faculty. He tells us that in the pre-Darwinian days he was accustomed
+to defend the fixity of species in the company of evolutionists and in
+the presence of the orthodox to attack the same doctrine. Later in
+life, when evolution had become fashionable, and the principles of
+Darwinism were being elevated into a new dogmatism, he was as ready to
+criticise the loose adherents of his own views as he had been to
+expose the weakness of the conventional dogmatists.
+
+Perhaps the most striking feature of Huxley's work as a whole was its
+infectious nature. His vigorous and decided personality was reflected
+on all the subjects to which he gave attention, and in the same
+fashion as his presence infected persons with a personal enthusiasm so
+his writings stimulated readers to efforts along the same lines. His
+great influence is clear in the number and distinction of the
+biologists who came under his personal care, and in the great army of
+writers and thinkers who have been inspired by his views and methods
+on general questions. His position as an actual contributor to science
+has to a certain extent been lost sight of for two reasons. In the
+first place, his effect on the world as an expositor of the scientific
+method in its general application to life has overshadowed his exact
+work; in the second place, his exact work itself has been partly lost
+sight of in the new discoveries and advances to which it gave rise. It
+is therefore necessary to reiterate that, apart from all his other
+successes, he had made for himself an extremely distinguished position
+in the annals of exact science. Sir Michael Foster and Prof. Ray
+Lankester, in their preface to the collected edition of his scientific
+memoirs, make a just claim for him. These memoirs, they wrote, show
+that, "apart from the influence exerted by his popular writings, the
+progress of biology during the present century was largely due to
+labours of his of which the general public knew nothing, and that he
+was in some respects the most original and most fertile in discovery
+of all his fellow workers in the same branch of science."
+
+There can be little question that it was no accident that determined
+the direction of Huxley's career. He was a naturalist by inborn
+vocation. The contrast between a natural bent and an acquired habit of
+life was well seen in the case of Huxley and Macgillivray, his
+companion on the _Rattlesnake_. The former was appointed as a surgeon,
+and it was no part of his duties to busy himself with the creatures of
+the sea; and yet his observations on them made a series of real
+contributions to biological science and laid the sure foundation of a
+world-wide and enduring reputation. The latter was the son of a
+naturalist, a naturalist by profession, and appointed to the
+expedition as its official naturalist; and yet he made only a few
+observations and a limited collection of curiosities, and even his
+exiguous place in the annals of zoölogy is the accidental result of
+his companionship with Huxley. The special natural endowments which
+Huxley brought to the study of zoölogy were, in the first place, a
+faculty for the patient and assiduous observation of facts; in the
+second, a swift power of discriminating between the essential and the
+accessory among facts; in the third, the constructive ability to
+arrange these essentials in wide generalisations which we call laws or
+principles and which, within the limits necessarily set by inductive
+principles, are the starting-point for new deductions. These were the
+faculties which he brought to his science, but there were added to
+them two personal characteristics without which they would not have
+taken him far. They were impelled by a driving force which
+distinguishes the successful man from the muddler and without which
+the finest mental powers are as useless as a complicated machine
+disconnected from its driving-wheel. They were directed by a lofty and
+disinterested enthusiasm, without which the most talented man is a
+mere self-seeker, useless or dangerous to society. The faculties and
+qualities which made Huxley great as a zoölogist were practically
+those which he applied to the general questions of biological theory,
+to the problems of education and of society, and to philosophy and
+metaphysics. A comparison between his sane and forcible handling of
+questions that lay outside the special province to which the greater
+part of his life was devoted, with the dubious and involved treatment
+given such questions by the professional politicians to whom the
+English races tend to entrust their destinies, is a useful comment on
+that value of science as discipline to which Huxley so strenuously
+called attention.
+
+There can be no better way of ending this sketch of Huxley's life and
+work than by quoting his own account of the objects to which he had
+devoted himself consciously. These were:
+
+     "To promote the increase of natural knowledge and to forward the
+     application of scientific methods of investigation to all the
+     problems of life to the best of my ability, in the conviction
+     which has grown with my growth and strengthened with my strength,
+     that there is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except
+     veracity of thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the
+     world as it is when the garment of make-believe by which pious
+     hands have hidden its uglier features is stripped off.
+
+      "It is with this intent that I have subordinated any reasonable
+     or unreasonable ambition for scientific fame which I may have
+     permitted myself to entertain to other ends; to the
+     popularisation of science; to the development and organisation of
+     scientific education; to the endless series of battles and
+     skirmishes over evolution; and to untiring opposition to that
+     ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as
+     everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is
+     the deadly enemy of science.
+
+      "In striving for the attainment of these objects, I have been
+     but one among many, and I shall be well content to be remembered,
+     or even not remembered, as such. Circumstances, among which I am
+     proud to reckon the devoted kindness of many friends, have led to
+     my occupation of various prominent positions, among which the
+     presidency of the Royal Society is the highest. It would be mock
+     modesty on my part, with these and other scientific honours which
+     have been bestowed upon me, to pretend that I have not succeeded
+     in the career which I have followed, rather because I was driven
+     into it than of my own free will; but I am afraid I should not
+     count even these things as marks of success if I could not hope
+     that I had not somewhat helped that movement of opinion which has
+     been called the New Reformation."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+A
+
+Adams, 209
+
+Admiralty, 14, 48, 49
+
+Agassiz, 68, 91, 99
+
+Age of the earth, 84, 85
+
+Agnosticism, 239, 241-243, 279
+
+Ahriman, 265
+
+Alchemists, 256, 257
+
+Alternation of generations, 53, 54
+
+Ameghino, 141
+
+America, 70
+
+American addresses, 71
+
+American fossils, 75
+
+American monkeys, 163
+
+Amphibia, 143
+
+Amphioxus, 22, 134
+
+Anatomy of man and ape, 161
+
+Anchitherium, 70, 74, 76
+
+Animal kingdom, old views of, 35
+
+Animals and plants, 97
+
+Anthracosaurus, 69
+
+Anthropomorphism, 250
+
+Anthropoid apes, 149-153
+
+"Ape and Tiger" methods, 265
+
+Appendicularia, 56, 57
+
+Apprenticeship in medicine, 183
+
+Archæopteryx, 136
+
+Archetype of molluscs, 58, 59, 61
+
+Archetype of Vertebrata, Articulata, and Radiata, 62
+
+Arctogœa, 140
+
+Argyll, Duke of, 248
+
+Aristotle, 100, 259
+
+Arnold, Matthew, 185
+
+Articulata of Cuvier, 38
+
+Ascaris, egg of, 176
+
+Ascidians, 55-57, 96
+
+Australia and South America, land connection, 141
+
+Authority, 175, 231, 232, 241
+
+Authority and investigation, 179
+
+Authority and knowledge, 104, 105
+
+Axioms, 240
+
+
+B
+
+Bach, Sebastian, 278
+
+Balfour, F.M., 135
+
+Barrier Reef of Australia, 20
+
+Basi-cranium of vertebrates, 132
+
+_Beagle_, voyage of, 28
+
+Beelzebub, 238
+
+Belief, duty of, 238, 239
+
+Belief, nature of scientific, 228
+
+Beneden, van, 59, 176
+
+Berkeley, Bishop, 218, 221, 224
+
+Berkeley, quotation from, 221
+
+Bible, 189, 192, 194, 213, 235, 237, 244, 245, 247, 248, 250, 253, 254, 259
+
+Bible and geology, 80
+
+Bibliolatry, 235, 246
+
+Bimana, 164
+
+Biology and medical education, 184
+
+Birds, ancestry of, 69
+
+Birds, classification of, 135
+
+Birmingham, 185
+
+Bishop, 175
+
+Bishop Berkeley, 218, 221, 224
+
+Bishop of Norwich, 33
+
+Bishop of Oxford, _see_ Wilberforce
+
+Boards for elementary education, 188
+
+Bojanus, 173
+
+Bones of horse, 71, 72
+
+Bones, cartilage, and membrane, 134
+
+Books, value of, 175
+
+Booth, "General," 213
+
+Bourbon, 246
+
+Brahma, 272
+
+Brain of man and apes, 120, 145, 146, 162, 163
+
+Brain and mind, 220, 221
+
+Brain-weights, 164
+
+Breathing, 168
+
+Breeding, selective, 127
+
+Brehm, 153
+
+British Association, 68, 120, 125, 274
+
+Brooks, Professor W.K., 94
+
+Buckland, Professor, 80, 234
+
+Buddhists, 1, 272
+
+Buffon, 15, 90
+
+Burnett, Sir William, 11, 46
+
+Busk, George, 49
+
+
+C
+
+Cabanis, 228
+
+Cæsar, 265
+
+Cana, miracle at, 257
+
+Cape York, 25
+
+Carinates, 137
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, 111
+
+Cartesian axiom, 222
+
+Cartilage bones, 134
+
+Cartilaginous skulls, 134
+
+Catastrophism in geology, 80, 249
+
+Catholicism, 123, 214, 247
+
+Cells, 52, 53
+
+Cephalous molluscs, 58, 59
+
+Chalk, 266
+
+_Challenger_ expedition, 15
+
+Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, 80
+
+Chambers, R., 62
+
+Chamisso, 53, 56
+
+Chance, 229
+
+Change in universe, 249
+
+Charing Cross Hospital, 8, 9
+
+Chaucer, 213
+
+Chemistry and alchemy, 257
+
+Chess, life compared with, 169
+
+Children, education of, 189
+
+Chimpanzees, 149, 163
+
+Chondrocranium, 134
+
+Christianity and evolution, 122
+
+Christian civilisation and authority, 232
+
+Chronology of the Bible, 247
+
+Church of England, 111, 112
+
+Church, the, and science, 236
+
+Classical education, 185, 210
+
+Classification of birds, 135
+
+Classification by Cuvier, 38
+
+Classification by Linnæus, 38
+
+Classification of mammals, 142
+
+Classification of man, 146
+
+Classification by old authors, 37
+
+Classification of vertebrates, 143
+
+Clergy as critics of science, 236
+
+Clericalism, 239, 284
+
+Clodd, E., 90, 127
+
+CÅ“lenterata, 42, 96
+
+CÅ“lomata, 43, 44
+
+Commissions, royal, 195, 204
+
+Common sense and metaphysics, 218
+
+Common sense and science, 209
+
+Conduct and religion, 261
+
+Congo, 149
+
+Conscience, 269
+
+Conscientiousness, 280
+
+Consciousness, 220, 224
+
+Contemporaneity, geological, 79
+
+Continuity of nature, 255
+
+Cookery in schools, 190
+
+Cope, Professor, 69, 94
+
+Corals of Barrier Reef, 20
+
+"Corybantic Christianity," 215
+
+Cosmic process, 268, 270, 271
+
+Cosmogony of the Hebrews, 244, 246
+
+Cosmos, 229, 263, 265, 267, 272
+
+Cowper-Temple Clause, 188
+
+Crayfish, 158, 173, 277
+
+Creation, 139, 246, 252
+
+Creator, the, 250
+
+Credibility of authority, 232
+
+Criticism, Biblical, 194
+
+Criticism of life, 185
+
+Croonian lectures, 65, 129
+
+Ctenophora, 42
+
+Culture and science, 185, 186
+
+Curriculum of medical education, 184
+
+Cuttle-fish, 58
+
+Cuvier, 6, 38, 115, 132, 133, 136, 209, 211
+
+
+D
+
+Darwin, Charles, 27-29, 60, 61, 68, chapters viii. and ix., 138, 147,
+166, 229, 242
+
+Darwin medal, 108
+
+Darwin, voyage of, 27, 28
+
+Darwin, Erasmus, 90
+
+Darwinism, 103, 104, 106, 123
+
+Darwinism, Huxley's late and early opinions on, 106-109
+
+Darwinism and Lamarckism, 94
+
+"Days" of creation, 251, 252
+
+De la Beche, Sir Henry, 63, 64
+
+Deluge, the, 235
+
+Descartes, 219, 240, 243
+
+Design, argument from, 230
+
+Despotism and the Bible, 245
+
+Devonian fishes, 68
+
+Deuteronomy, 245
+
+Dinosaurs and the ancestry of birds, 69
+
+Diprotodonts, 142
+
+Dissection in laboratories, 181
+
+Divine will and science, 233
+
+_Doctrine of the Deluge_, 235
+
+Dogma and literature in the Bible, 254
+
+Doliolum, 56
+
+Domestic economy, 190
+
+Doubt, duty of, 232, 239, 269
+
+Drawing for children, 193
+
+Dredging, 22
+
+Drill for children, 189
+
+Durckheim, Strauss, 173
+
+
+E
+
+Earth, age of, 84, 85
+
+Eastbourne, 277
+
+Ecclesiasticism, 235, 239
+
+Echidna, 156
+
+Economy, domestic, 190
+
+Edinburgh, 174
+
+_Edinburgh Review_, 115, 116
+
+Education, classical, 185, 210
+
+Education of children, 170
+
+Education, elementary, 187, 188
+
+Education, general, 184
+
+Education, liberal, 169, 186, 210
+
+Education, medical, 181
+
+Education and religion, 188
+
+Education, scientific, 168
+
+Education of teachers, 195
+
+Education, university, 195
+
+Eggs of Mammalia, 156
+
+Egypt, 276
+
+Ejects, 221
+
+Elementary education, 188
+
+Elementary lessons in physiology, 172
+
+Embryology and zoölogy, 177
+
+Embryology of brain and skull, 130-133
+Embryology of Mammals, 156, 157
+
+Embryology of man, 159
+
+Embryos, marine, 176
+
+Embryos of vertebrates, 157
+
+Endostyle of Ascidians, 56
+
+England in eighteenth century, 239
+
+English Bible, 245
+
+English men of letters, 218
+
+English philosophers, 218
+
+Eohippus, 78
+
+_Erdkunde_, 170, 171
+
+Error, 243
+
+Established church and Education, 189
+
+Ether, 219
+
+Ethics and evolution, 263
+
+Ethical process, 265
+
+Eutheria, 142
+
+Evidence, limitations of, 231
+
+Evidence for miraculous, 258
+
+Evil, 268, 269, 271
+
+Evolution, 60, 62, 63, 108, 110, 122, 168, 248
+
+Evolution and Christianity, 122
+
+Evolution of Cosmos, 250-253
+
+Evolution not an explanation of Cosmos, 229
+
+Evolution and Darwinism, 94
+
+Evolution before Darwin, 91, 93, 100
+
+Evolution, Darwin's contribution to, 93, 104
+
+Evolution and ethics, 263
+
+Evolution of horse, 73
+
+Evolution and natural selection, 124-127
+
+Evolution and pain, 268
+
+Evolution, philosophy of, 272
+
+Evolution and palæontology, 86, 87
+
+Evolution and Theism, 244
+
+Evolutionist, 281
+
+Exposition, Huxley's method of, 208
+
+
+F
+
+Faith, agnostic, 243
+
+Falkenstein, 153
+
+Fayrer, Sir Joseph, 10, 11
+
+Feet of anthropoids, 164
+
+Fertility of artificial breeds, 127
+
+Fiddle, 278
+
+_Fisgard_, H.M.S., 46
+
+Fish, fossil, 68
+
+Fisheries, Inspector of, 277
+
+Flower, Sir William, 146
+
+Forbes, Edward, 47, 63
+
+Foreign languages, 196, 213
+
+_Forms of Animal Life_, 178
+
+Fossils, 67, 68
+
+Fossils, chronological arrangement of, 87
+
+Fossils and evolution, 87
+
+Foundation membranes of Medusæ, 40-43
+
+Foster, Sir Michael, 47, 64, 180, 283
+
+Freedom of the Press, 240
+
+Freedom of thought, 231, 233
+
+French, 213
+
+French Revolution, 111
+
+French translations, 216
+
+Fullerian Professor, 64
+
+Function, changes in, 230
+
+
+G
+
+Galileo, 247
+
+Gallinaceous birds, 139
+
+Gambit, 169
+
+Game of life, 170
+
+Garden, as an instance of interference with cosmic process, 267
+
+Garnier, 151
+
+Gasteropoda, 58
+
+Gegenbauer, 59
+
+Genesis, 234, 248, 250, 251, 252
+
+Geographical distribution, 137-141
+
+Geological addresses, 79, 80
+
+Geological club, 234
+Geological contemporaneity, 79
+
+Geological history, 249
+
+Geological Society of London, 70, 78, 80, 86
+
+Geological time, 84, 85
+
+Geology and the Bible, 80
+
+Geology and catastrophism, 80, 81
+
+Geology compared with biology, 82
+
+Geology, history of, 234
+
+German, 213
+
+Gibbons, 149
+
+Girls, education of, 190
+
+Glacial acetic acid, 176
+
+Gladstone, W.E., 248, 250, 251, 263
+
+Goethe, 99, 130, 132
+
+Goethe, quotations from, 130
+
+Gold, transmutation of, 256
+
+Goodness, 269, 273
+
+Gorilla, 87, 149, 161
+
+Gospels, 254
+
+Gosse, P.H., 118
+
+Government, 239
+
+Greek, 213;
+  in education, 186
+
+Greek ethics, 269
+
+Groos, Prof., 154
+
+
+H
+
+Haeckel, Prof. E., 91, 136
+
+Hands of Anthropoids, 164
+
+Haslar Hospital, 11, 12
+
+Heathorn, Miss H.A., 19
+
+Hebrew Cosmogony, 246
+
+Hebrew Morality, 259
+
+Hebrew Scriptures, 250
+
+Heine, 261
+
+Henle and Meissner, reports of, 182
+
+Hercules, 246
+
+Hertwig, 134
+
+Hindustan, 269
+
+Hipparion, 74-76
+
+Hippocampus minor, 162, 163
+
+Histological methods, 177
+
+Hobbes, 218
+
+Home office, 277
+
+Homo, classification of, 160
+
+Homology in organs of Medusæ, 123
+
+Homotaxis in geology, 80
+
+Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, 47, 98, 101
+
+Horse, 68-78, 174
+
+Hospitals in London, 181
+
+Howes, Professor G.B., 173, 174, 207, 277
+
+Humboldt, 92
+
+Hume, David, 217, 218, 223, 240, 255, 256
+
+Hume, David, quotations from, 223, 241, 256
+
+Humour, 209
+
+Hunterian Professor, 129
+
+Hutton, James, 81, 249
+
+Huxley, birth, 2;
+  parents, 2, 3;
+  school, 4;
+  apprenticed to medicine, 5;
+  enters Charing Cross Hospital, 8;
+  first original paper, 9;
+  graduates at London University, 10;
+  becomes M.R.C.S., 11;
+  appointed to Haslar Hospital, 11;
+  appointed to _Rattlesnake_, 12;
+  meets his future wife at Sydney, 19;
+  first paper to Royal Society, 33;
+  Royal medals, 34;
+  becomes F.R.S., 47;
+  leaves naval service, 48;
+  appointed to Geological Survey and School of Mines, 63;
+  becomes Fullerian Professor, 64;
+  marriage, 64;
+  examiner, 65;
+  Croonian lecturer, 66;
+  visits America, 70;
+  becomes Secretary and President of Geological Society, 78;
+  accepts Darwinism, 101;
+  receives Darwin medal, 108;
+  becomes Hunterian Professor,129;
+  starts laboratory courses at South Kensington, 180;
+  becomes candidate for London School Board, 189;
+  serves on Royal Commissions,196, 204;
+  becomes member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, 205;
+  marriage, 274;
+  ill-health and retirement, 276;
+  death, 277;
+  personal appearance, 277
+
+Huxley's layer in root-sheath of hairs, 10
+
+Hydra, 50
+
+Hypothesis as to History of Nature, 248, 249
+
+
+I
+
+Ichthyopsida, 143
+
+Idealism, 220, 224
+
+Ideals and culture, 186
+
+Indian speculation, 269
+
+Individuality of animals, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55
+
+Infallibility, 123, 236
+
+Inspiration, 246, 247, 253, 254
+
+Instincts, 154
+
+Intellect, 243
+
+Intermediate and linear types, 87
+
+_International Scientific Series_, 173
+
+_Invertebrata, Manual of_, 175
+
+Ionia, 169
+
+Israel, 245
+
+
+J
+
+Jermyn Street lectures to working men, 207
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 219
+
+Judaism and science, 246
+
+Justice, 265, 269, 271, 273
+
+
+K
+
+Kant, 84, 242, 262
+
+Karma, 269
+
+Kelvin, Lord, 84
+
+Knowledge and authority, 104, 105
+
+Kölliker, 49, 59
+
+Kowalevsky, 57
+
+
+L
+
+Laboratory work, 177, 179, 180
+
+Labyrinthodonts, 69
+
+Lamarck, 90, 91, 97
+
+Lamarckism and Darwinism, 94, 97
+
+Languages, modern, 6, 7
+
+Lankester, Professor E. Ray, 57, 60, 94, 180, 277, 282
+
+Larvæ, 158
+
+Latin, 186, 213
+
+Law-courts and evidence, 231
+
+Lawrence, Sir W., 144
+
+Lectures at the School of Mines, 180
+
+Lemurs, 163
+
+Leutemann, 153
+
+Leverrier, 209
+
+Leviticus, 245
+
+Liberal education, 228
+
+Life, origin of, 227, 228
+
+Limbs of Man and Gorilla, 162
+
+Linear and intermediate types, 87
+
+Linnæan Society of London, 33, 49, 115, 138, 145
+
+Linnæus, 38, 234
+
+Literary culture, 186
+
+_Literary Gazette_, 48
+
+Literary style, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215
+
+Literature, the Bible as, 254
+
+Liverpool, 169
+
+Living bodies, nature of, 228
+
+Locke, 224
+
+Lockyer, Sir Norman, 211
+
+London, medical education in, 181
+
+London, school board of, 189
+
+Loyola, 262
+
+Loxomma, 69
+
+Lucas, Mr., 113
+
+Luther, 262
+
+Lyell, Sir Charles, 81, 91, 98, 144, 234, 249
+
+Lyonet, 173
+
+
+M
+
+MacGillivray, John, 16, 17, 282
+
+MacGillivray, William, 16, 100
+
+Macmillan and Co., 171
+
+Magna Charta, the Bible as, 245
+
+Mammalia, classification of, 142
+
+Man and the Apes, 155
+
+Man, classification of, 146
+
+Man and Gorilla, 161
+
+Man, origin of, 144
+
+_Man and the Apes_, 165
+
+_Man's Place in Nature_, 147, 148
+
+Manes and Manicheism, 265
+
+Mantle of molluscs, 58
+
+_Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_, 175
+
+_Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, 175
+
+Marine embryos, 176
+
+Marmosets, 163
+
+Marriage, 19, 274
+
+Marsh, Professor, 70-78
+
+Marsupials, 141
+
+Mason, Sir Josiah, 185
+
+Materialism, 217, 220, 222, 225, 227
+
+Matter and ideas, 224
+
+Matter, nature of, 219-221
+
+Matthew, Patrick, 100
+
+Mauritius, 18
+
+Medical education, 167, 181, 184
+
+Medical students, 181, 279
+
+Medusæ, 33, 39, 40, 41, 42, 96, 123
+
+Membrane bones, 134
+
+Mental capacity of apes, 152
+
+Mercy, 265
+
+Mertens, 56
+
+Mesohippus, 77
+
+Metals, transmutation of, 257
+
+Metaphysics, 241
+
+Metaphysics and science, 217
+
+Metatheria, 142
+
+Methods in histology, 177
+
+Microscope, 32, 176
+
+Microtomes, 177
+
+Milton, 213
+
+Mind and body, 220
+
+Mind, growth of, 210
+
+Miohippus, 76
+
+Miracles, 246, 254-259
+
+Missionary spirit, 262
+
+Mitral valve, 175
+
+Mivart, Dr. St. George, 246-248
+
+Modern spirit, 241
+
+Modification of species, 92
+
+Mollusca, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 96
+
+Morality and religion, 237, 238
+
+Morality of Stoics, 238
+
+Morley, John, 217, 260
+
+Mosaic Deluge, 235
+
+Moseley, Professor H.N., 15
+
+Mucous layer of germ, 43
+
+Müller, Johannes, 6, 37, 56
+
+Music, 278
+
+
+N
+
+Naples, International Zoölogical Station at, 176
+
+Naturalism, 226
+
+Natural selection, 94, 99, 100, 103, 105, 124-127
+
+Nature, continuity of, 255
+
+Nature, history of, 248
+
+Nature, state of, 266
+
+_Nature_, 211
+
+_Naval Architecture and Timber_, 100
+
+Nebular hypothesis, 230
+
+Newman, Cardinal, 240
+
+New Testament, 253, 254
+
+Nirvana, 272
+
+Noah's Deluge, 235
+
+Notochord, 134
+
+Notogœa, 140
+
+
+O
+
+Oken, 130, 132, 133
+
+Old Testament, 90
+
+Omar, 272
+
+Optimism, 270
+
+Orangs, 149
+
+Order of nature, 255, 258
+
+Organic _versus_ Inorganic, 229
+
+Organon, 242
+
+Origin of species, 89, 95, 101, 102, 110
+
+_Origin of Species_, reviews of, 113, 114, 115, 146
+
+Ormuzd, 265
+
+Ornithology, 136
+
+Ornithorhynchus, 156
+
+Ornithoscelida, 69
+
+Orohippus, 77
+
+Orthodoxy, 246
+
+Owen, Sir Richard, 65, 66, 115, 118-121, 131, 133, 136, 145, 146, 162
+
+Oxford, 120, 125, 263, 264
+
+Oxford, Bishop of, _see_ Wilberforce
+
+
+P
+
+Pain, 268, 270, 271
+
+Palæontology and evolution, 68, 86
+
+Palæotherium, 74
+
+Paley, 230
+
+Pascal, 122
+
+Payment of teachers by results, 195
+
+Pelagic life, 30, 31
+
+Pelvis of man and gorilla, 161
+
+Pentateuch, 234, 244
+
+Pessimism, 270
+
+Phillips, Professor, 69
+
+_Philosophic Zoölogique_, 97, 98
+
+Philosophy, Huxley's advice on, 218
+
+Phosphorescence, 55
+
+Physical education, 189
+
+Physical geography, 170
+
+_Physics_ of Aristotle, 100
+
+_Physiography_, 171
+
+Physiology, 172
+
+Pigafetta, 149
+
+Pigmies, 149
+
+_Pioneers of Evolution_, 127
+
+Plankton, 30, 31
+
+Plato's Archetypes, 59
+
+Plato's philosophy, 224
+
+Pliohippus, 76
+
+"Portuguese man-of-war," 41, 50
+
+Possibilities in logic, 258
+
+Poulton, Professor E.B., 109, 127
+
+Prayer, efficacy of, 258
+
+Priestley, Joseph, 239
+
+Primers of science, 171
+
+Primitive groove, 135
+
+_Principles of Geology_, 234
+
+Professional education, 183
+
+Protestantism, 123, 233, 235, 236
+
+Protestant churches and knowledge, 247
+
+Protestants and the Bible, 247
+
+Protohippus, 74
+
+Protoplasm, 52, 228
+
+Prototheria, 142
+
+Psychology, 227
+
+Pterodactyls, 69
+
+Pteropods, 56
+
+Pyrosoma, 55
+
+
+Q
+
+_Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_, 49
+
+_Quarterly Review_, 115, 116, 117
+
+
+R
+
+Rabbinical maxim of inspiration, 247
+
+Radiata of Cuvier, 38
+
+Rathke, 65
+
+Ratites, 137
+
+_Rattlesnake_, H.M.S., 13, 20, 21, 46, 282
+
+Reade lecture, 146
+
+Reason, age of, 239
+
+Reformation, New, 284
+
+Reformation, Protestant, 122, 233
+
+Religion in education, 188, 191
+
+Religion and morality, 237, 238
+
+Religion and science, 120, 259
+
+Religion, teaching, 191
+
+Results, payment by, 195
+
+Retina and light, 219
+
+Revelation, 260
+
+Revolution, French, 111
+
+Richardson, Sir John, 12
+
+Rights of man, 245
+
+Robertson, Charles, 179
+
+Rolleston, Professor, 152, 153, 266
+
+Romanes, Professor, 152, 153, 263
+
+Romanes lecture, 263
+
+Rome, 247
+
+Roscoe, Professor, 171
+
+Rosse, Earl of, 34
+
+Royal College of Science, 176, 180, 204, 274, 277
+
+Royal College of Surgeons, 11, 129, 132
+
+Royal Commissions, 204, 274
+
+Royal Institution, 49, 52, 62, 64
+
+Royal Society, 33, 34, 47, 49, 53, 58, 108, 129, 276
+
+Rutherford, Professor, 180
+
+
+S
+
+Salisbury, Marquis of, 125
+
+"Sally," the chimpanzee, 153
+
+Salps, 50, 53, 54, 55, 96
+
+Salt, Dr., 5
+
+Sauropsida, 143
+
+Saururæ, 136
+
+Savages, 23, 24, 165
+
+Sawyer, Bob, 184
+
+Scepticism, 240
+
+Schematic mollusc, 60
+
+School boards, 188, 189
+
+School of Mines, 180
+
+Schwann, 52
+
+Science and Art Department, 195
+
+Science and culture, 185
+
+Science and Judaism, 246
+
+Science and medical education, 184
+
+Science and metaphysics, 217
+
+Science and religion, 259
+
+_Science and the Christian Tradition_, 248
+
+_Science and the Hebrew Tradition_, 248
+
+Science primers, 171
+
+Scientific education, 168
+
+Sclater, P.L., 138, 139, 142
+
+Scottish universities, 167
+
+Scriptures, 246
+
+Section-cutting, 177
+
+Secular education, 191, 194
+
+Sedgwick, Professor Adam, 80, 115
+
+Segmentation of eggs, 157
+
+Segmentation of skull, 133
+
+Selection and education, 190
+
+Selective breeding, 103
+
+Semite, ethics of, 269
+
+Septuagint, 251
+
+Serous layer of germ, 43
+
+Sheldonian theatre, 264
+
+Singing for children, 193
+
+_Skepsis, thätige_, of Goethe, 99
+
+Skull of vertebrates, 65, 129, 130, 131, 132
+
+Socrates, 243
+
+Southern hemisphere, former land in, 141
+
+Speaking, public, 208
+
+Species, 92, 98, 106, 107, 108, 125, 126, 127
+
+Specialists as teachers, 182
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 91, 94, 123
+
+Sponges, 42
+
+Spontaneity of living matter, 228
+
+Stanley, Captain Owen, 12, 13
+
+State of nature, 266
+
+Stevenson, R.L., quotation from, 174
+
+Stewart, Professor Balfour, 171
+
+Stoic morality, 192, 238
+
+Stoics, 238, 269, 272
+
+Struggle for existence, 93, 94, 95, 104, 266, 267, 271
+
+Style, analysis of, 211, 212
+
+Suarez, Father, 214
+
+Substance of mind and matter, 223
+
+Supernaturalism, 226
+
+Superstition, 242
+
+Survival of the fittest, 93, 94, 104
+
+Suspensoria of jaws, 133
+
+Switzerland, 275
+
+Sydney, 19, 32
+
+Synoptic Gospels, 254
+
+
+T
+
+Tapirs, 78
+
+Teachers, education of, 195
+
+Teeth of anthropoids, 149
+
+Teeth of the horse, 73
+
+Teleology, 230
+
+Temper, 278
+
+Theism and evolution, 244
+
+Theology, 259
+
+Theology in education, 191
+
+Theoretical work in medical education, 184
+
+Thomas, Oldfield, 142
+
+Thomson, Sir W., now Lord Kelvin, _q.v._
+
+Thread-cells of Medusæ, 41
+
+Time required for evolution, 84, 85
+
+_Times_, the London, 66, 108, 113
+
+Todd and Bowman's _Cyclopædia of Anatomy_, 49
+
+Toronto, University of, 48
+
+Tow-net material, 31
+
+Transmigration, 269
+
+Transmutation of species, 99
+
+_Treatise on Human Nature_, 240
+
+Tree of evolution, 35
+
+Tyndall, Professor John, 47, 48, 275
+
+Types, 36, 96, 166
+
+Types for laboratory dissection, 178, 180, 181
+
+Types, intermediate and linear, 165
+
+
+U
+
+Uniformitarianism in geology, 81, 240
+
+University education, 195
+
+University of London, 65
+
+University of Toronto, 48
+
+
+V
+
+Variation in anatomy, 166
+
+Verification, method of, 179
+
+Vertebræ, structure of, 131
+
+Vertebral theory of the skull, 129-132
+
+Vertebrata, 128
+
+Vertebrata, ancestors of, 57
+
+Vertebrata, classification of, 43
+
+Vertebrata, embryos of, 157
+
+_Vestiges of Creation_, 63, 97
+
+Vivisection, 205
+
+Voltaire, 260
+
+Von Baer, 37, 43, 62, 96
+
+Voyage of _Beagle_, 28
+
+Voyage of _Challenger_, 15
+
+Voyage of _Rattlesnake_, 20, 21
+
+
+W
+
+Wallace, Alfred Russel, 95, 101, 271
+
+Weight of brains, 164
+
+Weismann, Professor A., 94
+
+Wells, W.C., 100
+
+_Westminster Review_, 107, 114
+
+Wharton Jones, Dr., 9, 37
+
+Whewell, 115
+
+Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121
+
+Willey, Arthur, 57
+
+Wine miracle at Cana, 257
+
+Wollaston, 98
+
+Words, use of, 213, 214
+
+Workmen, lectures to, 207
+
+
+Y
+
+York, Archbishop of, 234
+
+
+Z
+
+Zoölogical Society, 138
+
+Zoölogical science and laboratories, 177
+
+Zoölogist, Huxley as a, 283
+
+Zoölogy, 173
+
+Zoöphytes, 40
+
+
+
+
+The Story of the Nations.
+
+
+Messrs. G.P. Putnam's Sons take pleasure in announcing that they have
+in course of publication, in co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of
+London, a series of historical studies, intended to present in a
+graphic manner the stories of the different nations that have attained
+prominence in history.
+
+In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly
+indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are
+presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+as well as to universal history.
+
+It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into
+the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as
+they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and
+wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the
+myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be
+overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the
+actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical
+authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.
+
+The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover
+connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so
+that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it
+is, of course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in
+their chronological order.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
+
+The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in handsome 12mo
+form. They are adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and
+indexes. Price per vol., cloth, $1.50; half morocco, gilt top, $1.75.
+
+The following are now ready:
+
+GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.
+ROME. Arthur Gilman.
+THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.
+CHALDEA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.
+NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
+SPAIN. Rev. E.E. and Susan Hale.
+HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vámbéry.
+CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.
+THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.
+PERSIA. S.G.W. Benjamin.
+ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.
+ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J.P. Mahaffy.
+ASSYRIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.
+IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.
+TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+MEDIÆVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.
+HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.
+MEXICO. Susan Hale.
+PHÅ’NICIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.
+EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Pool.
+RUSSIA. W.R. Morfill.
+THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W.D. Morrison.
+SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.
+SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.
+PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.
+THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C.W.C. Oman.
+SICILY. E.A. Freeman.
+THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.
+POLAND. W.R. Morfill.
+PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+JAPAN. David Murray.
+THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H.E. Watts.
+AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.
+SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.
+VENICE. Alethea Wiel.
+THE CRUSADES. T.S. Archer and C.L. Kingsford.
+VEDIC INDIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+BOHEMIA. C.E. Maurice.
+CANADA. J.G. Bourinot.
+THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.
+BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R.W. Frazer.
+MODERN FRANCE. André Le Bon.
+THE BUILDING OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.
+THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.
+THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.
+THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.
+AUSTRIA, THE HOME OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY, FROM 1282 TO THE PRESENT DAY.
+Sidney Whitman.
+
+CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.
+MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A.S. Hume.
+MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.
+THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
+
+Other volumes in preparation are:
+
+THE UNITED STATES, 1775-1897. Prof. A.C. McLaughlin. Two vols.
+BUDDHIST INDIA. Prof. T.W. Rhys-Davids.
+MOHAMMEDAN INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+
+
+Heroes of the Nations.
+
+EDITED BY
+
+EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD.
+
+
+A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of
+representative historical characters about whom have gathered the
+great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a
+picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
+
+The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities
+on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as
+history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men
+and of the events connected with them.
+
+To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume,
+handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately
+illustrated according to the special requirements of the several
+subjects. The volumes will be sold separately as follows:
+
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diff --git a/16935-0.zip b/16935-0.zip
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life
+And Work, by P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life And Work
+
+Author: P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2005 [EBook #16935]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, LN Yaddanapudi and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY]
+
+
+
+
+Leaders in Science
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+
+A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE AND WORK
+
+
+BY
+
+P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A. (_Oxon._)
+
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+NEW YORK
+
+27 WEST TWENTY THIRD STREET
+
+LONDON
+
+24 BEDFORD STREET STRAND
+
+The Knickerbocker Press
+
+1900
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT 1900
+
+BY
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+
+The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume is in no sense an intimate or authorised biography of
+Huxley. It is simply an outline of the external features of his life
+and an account of his contributions to biology, to educational and
+social problems, and to philosophy and metaphysics. In preparing it, I
+have been indebted to his own Autobiography, to the obituary notice
+written by Sir Michael Foster for the Royal Society of London, to a
+sketch of him by Professor Howes, his successor at the Royal College
+of Science, and to his published works. The latter consist of many
+well-known separate volumes which are familiar to all zoölogists, and
+of a vast number of memoirs and essays scattered in various scientific
+and general publications. The general Essays were collected into nine
+volumes, revised by himself in the later years of his life, and
+published by Messrs. Macmillan. The Scientific Memoirs, thanks to the
+generous enterprise of the same publishing firm, with which he was so
+long associated, and to the pious labours of Sir Michael Foster and
+Professor Ray Lankester, are in process of reissue in the form of four
+volumes, two of which have now appeared. These will contain all his
+important contributions to science, with the exception of a large
+separate treatise on the _Oceanic Hydrozoa_ published by the Ray
+Society in 1859. There is also announced a formal Biography, prepared
+by his son, so that future admirers or students of Huxley's work will
+be in an exceptionally favourable position.
+
+LONDON, 1900.
+
+P. CHALMERS MITCHELL.
+
+
+
+
+Leaders in Science
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                       PAGE
+PREFACE                                                 iii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK                                  1
+
+    Birth--Parentage--School-days--Choice of Medical
+    Profession--Charing Cross Hospital--End of Medical
+    Studies--Admission to Naval Medical Service.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE RATTLESNAKE                            13
+
+    The Objects of the Voyage--The Route--The Naturalist and the
+    Surgeon--Collecting and Dredging--Stay in Sydney--Adventures with
+    the Natives--Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the _Beagle_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA                            30
+
+    The Nature of Floating Life--Memoir on Medusæ Accepted by the
+    Royal Society--Old and New Ideas of the Animal Kingdom--What
+    Huxley Discovered in Medusæ--His Comparison of them with
+    Vertebrate Embryos
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY DAYS IN LONDON                                       46
+
+    Scientific Work as Unattached Ship-Surgeon--Introduction to
+    London Scientific Society--Translating, Receiving, and
+    Lecturing--Ascidians--Molluscs and the Archetype--Criticism of
+    Pre-Darwinian Evolution--Appointment to Geological Survey.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CREATURES OF THE PAST                                      67
+
+    Beginning Palæontological Work--Fossil Amphibia and
+    Reptilia--Ancestry of Birds--Ancestry of the Horse--Imperfect
+    European Series Completed by Marsh's American Fossils--Meaning of
+    Geological Contemporaneity--Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+    Compared with Evolution in Geology--Age of the Earth--Intermediate
+    and Linear Types.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HUXLEY AND DARWIN                                          89
+
+    Early Ideas on Evolution--Erasmus Darwin--Lamarck--Herbert
+    Spencer--Difference between Evolution and Natural
+    Selection--Huxley's Preparation for Evolution--The Novelty of
+    Natural Selection--The Advantage of Natural Selection as a Working
+    Hypothesis--Huxley's Unchanged Position with regard to Evolution
+    and Natural Selection from 1860 to 1894.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION                                  110
+
+    Huxley's Prevision of the Battle--The Causes of the Battle--The
+    _Times_ Review--Sir Richard Owen attacks Darwinism in the
+    _Edinburgh Review_--Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the _Quarterly
+    Review_--Huxley's Scathing Replies--The British Association
+    Debates at Oxford--Huxley and Wilberforce--Résumé of Huxley's
+    Exact Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VERTEBRATE ANATOMY                                        128
+
+    The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull--Goethe, Oken, Cuvier, and
+    Owen--Huxley Defends Goethe--His own Contributions to the
+    Theory--The Classification of Birds--Huxley Treats them as
+    "Extinct Animals"--Geographical Distribution--Sclater's
+    Regions--Huxley's Suggestions.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAN AND THE APES                                          144
+
+    Objections to Zoölogical Discussion of Man's Place--Owen's
+    Prudence--Huxley's Determination to Speak out--Account of his
+    Treatment of _Man's Place in Nature_--Additions Made by More
+    Recent Work.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION                           167
+
+    Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago--Huxley's Insistence on
+    Reform--Science Primers--Physiography--Elementary Physiology--_The
+    Crayfish_--Manuals of Anatomy--Modern Microscopical
+    Methods--Practical Work in Biological Teaching--Invention of the
+    Type System--Science in Medical Education--Science and Culture.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION                             188
+
+    Establishment of Compulsory Education in England--The Religious
+    Controversy--Huxley Advocates the Bible without Theology--His
+    Compromise on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause--Influence of the New
+    Criticism--Science and Art Instruction--Training of
+    Teachers--University Education--The Baltimore Address--Technical
+    Education--So-called "Applied Science"--National Systems of
+    Education as "Capacity-Catchers."
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST                             204
+
+    Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs--Official in Scientific
+    Societies--Royal Commissions--Vivisection--Characteristics of his
+    Public Speaking--His Method of Exposition--His
+    Essays--Vocabulary--Phrase-Making--His Style Essentially One of
+    Ideas.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM                               218
+
+    Science and Metaphysics--Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes--Existence of
+    Matter and Mind--Descartes's Contribution--Materialism and
+    Idealism--Criticism of Materialism--Berkeley's Idealism--Criticism
+    of Idealism--Empirical Idealism--Materialism as opposed to
+    Supernaturalism--Mind and Brain--Origin of Life--Teleology,
+    Chance, and the Argument from Design.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FREEDOM OF THOUGHT                                        232
+
+    Authority and Knowledge in Science--The Duty of Doubt--Authority
+    and Individual Judgment in Religion--The Protestant Position--Sir
+    Charles Lyell and the Deluge--Infallibility--The Church and
+    Science--Morality and Dogma--Civil and Religious
+    Liberty--Agnosticism and Clericalism--Meaning of
+    Agnosticism--Knowledge and Evidence--The Method of Agnosticism.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES                                    245
+
+    Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible--A _Magna Charta_ of the
+    Poor--The Theological Use of the Bible--The Doctrine of Biblical
+    Infallibility--The Bible and Science--The Three Hypotheses of the
+    Earth's History--Changes in the Past Proved--The Creation
+    Hypothesis--Gladstone on Genesis--Genesis not a Record of
+    Fact--The Hypothesis of Evolution--The New Testament--Theory of
+    Inspiration--Reliance on the Miraculous--The Continuity of Nature
+    no _a priori_ Argument against Miracles---Possibilities and
+    Impossibilities--Miracles a Question of Evidence--Praise of the
+    Bible.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ETHICS OF THE COSMOS                                      261
+
+    Conduct and Metaphysics--Conventional and Critical Minds--Good
+    and Evil--Huxley's Last Appearance at Oxford--The Ethical Process
+    and the Cosmic Process--Man's Intervention--The Cosmic Process
+    Evil--Ancient Reconciliations--Modern Acceptance of the
+    Difficulties--Criticism of Huxley's Pessimism--Man and his Ethical
+    Aspirations Part of the Cosmos.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY                                  275
+
+    Huxley's Life in London--Decennial
+    Periods--Ill-health--Retirement to Eastbourne--Death--Personal
+    Appearance--Methods of Work--Personal Characteristics--An Inspirer
+    of Others--His Influence in Science--A Naturalist by Vocation--His
+    Aspirations.
+
+
+INDEX                                                     287
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                         PAGE
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY--_From a photograph by
+  London Stereoscopic Company                    Frontispiece_
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857--_Reproduced by
+  permission from "Natural Science," vol. vii.,
+  No. 42_                                               64
+
+SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER--_From a photograph
+  by Elliott and Fry, London_                           98
+
+CHARLES DARWIN--_From the painting by Hon.
+  John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery_       146
+
+SIR CHARLES LYELL--_From a photograph by London
+  Stereoscopic Company_                                236
+
+CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF--_Reproduced
+  by permission from "Natural
+  Science," vol. vii., No. 46._                        276
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF HUXLEY'S WRITINGS
+
+
+This list is offered, not as a bibliography in the technical sense,
+but as an indication of the sources in which the vast majority of
+Huxley's scientific and general work may be consulted most
+conveniently.
+
+
+_The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley_. Edited by Professor
+Sir Michael Foster and Professor E. Ray Lankester; in four volumes.
+London, Macmillan & Co.; New York, D. Appleton.
+
+     This magnificent collection is intended to contain all Huxley's
+     original scientific papers, brought together from the multitude
+     of scientific periodicals in which they appeared, with
+     reproductions of the original illustrations. The only exception
+     is the monograph on _Oceanic Hydrozoa_. The first volume appeared
+     in 1898; the second in 1899, and the others are to follow
+     quickly.
+
+
+_Collected Essays by T.H. Huxley_; nine volumes of the Eversley
+Series. Macmillan & Co. London, 1893-95.
+
+     This set, edited by Huxley himself, contains the more important
+     of his more general contributions to science and his literary,
+     philosophical, and political and critical essays. Each volume has
+     a preface specially written, and the first volume contains his
+     autobiography.
+
+_The Oceanic Hydrozoa_; a description of the Calycophoridæ and
+Physophoridæ observed during the Voyage of H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_ in the
+years 1846-50, with a general introduction. Ray Society. London, 1859.
+
+
+_Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature_. Williams & Norgate. London,
+1863.
+
+
+_On our Knowledge of the Causes of Organic Phenomena_; being Six
+Lectures to Working Men. Hardwicke. London, 1863.
+
+
+_Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy_. On the
+Classification of Animals and the Vertebrate Skull. Churchill & Sons.
+London, 1864.
+
+
+_An Elementary Atlas of Comparative Osteology_. In twelve plates.
+Williams & Norgate. London, 1864.
+
+
+_Lessons in Elementary Physiology_. Macmillan & Co. London, 1866.
+
+
+_An Introduction to the Classification of Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1869.
+
+
+_A Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1871.
+
+
+_A Course of Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology_, assisted by
+H.N. Martin. Macmillan. London, 1875.
+
+
+_A Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1877.
+
+_Lay Sermons, Essays, and Reviews_. Macmillan. London, 1877.
+
+
+_American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology_.
+Macmillan. London, 1877.
+
+
+_Physiography, an Introduction to the Study of Zoölogy_. International
+Scientific Series. Kegan Paul. London, 1880.
+
+
+_Introductory Primer_. Science Primers. Macmillan. London, 1880.
+
+
+_The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_. Edited by his son, Francis
+Darwin. Volume II., with Chapter V. by Professor Huxley on the
+Reception of the _Origin of Species_. John Murray. London, 1887.
+
+
+_Life of Richard Owen_. By his grandson. With an Essay on Owen's
+Position in Anatomical Science, by T.H. Huxley. John Murray. London,
+1894.
+
+
+
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK
+
+     Birth--Parentage--School-days--Choice of Medical
+     Profession--Charing Cross Hospital--End of Medical
+     Studies--Admission to Naval Medical Service.
+
+
+Some men are born to greatness: even before their arrival in the world
+their future is marked out for them. All the advantages that wealth
+and the experience of friends can bring attend their growth to
+manhood, and their success almost loses its interest because of the
+ease with which it is attained. Few of the leaders of science were in
+such a position: many of them, such as Priestley, Davy, Faraday, John
+Hunter, and Linnæus were of humble parentage, and received the poorest
+education: most of them, like Huxley himself, have come from parents
+who were able to do little more for their children than set them out
+into life along the ordinary educational avenues. In Huxley's boyhood
+at least a comfortable income was necessary for this: in every
+civilised country nowadays, state endowments, or private endowments,
+are ready to help every capable boy, as far as Huxley was helped, and
+in his progress from boyhood to supreme distinction, there is nothing
+that cannot be emulated by every boy at school to-day. The minds of
+human beings when they are born into the world are as naked as their
+bodies; it matters not if parents, grandparents, and remoter ancestors
+were unlettered or had the wisdom of all the ages, the new mind has to
+build up its own wisdom from the beginning. We cannot even say with
+certainty that children inherit mental aptitudes and capacities from
+their parents; for as tall sons may come from short parents or
+beautiful daughters from ugly parents, so we may find in the
+capacities of the parents no traces of the future greatness of their
+children. None the less it is interesting to learn what we can about
+the parents of great men; and Huxley tells us that he thinks himself
+to have inherited many characters of his body and mind from his
+mother.
+
+Thomas Henry Huxley was born on the 4th of May, 1825, at Ealing, then
+a little country village, now united to London as a great suburb. He
+was the seventh child of George Huxley, who was second master at the
+school of Dr. Nicholson at Ealing. In these days private schools of
+varying character were very numerous in England, and this
+establishment seems to have been of high-class character, for Cardinal
+Newman and many other distinguished men received part of their
+education there. His mother, whose maiden name was Rachel Withers,
+was, he tells us himself:[A]
+
+     "A slender brunette of an emotional and energetic temperament,
+     and possessed of the most piercing black eyes I ever saw in a
+     woman's head. With no more education than other women of the
+     middle classes in her day, she had an excellent mental capacity.
+     Her most distinguishing characteristic, however, was rapidity of
+     thought. If one ventured to suggest she had not taken much time
+     to arrive at any conclusion, she would say, 'I cannot help it.
+     Things flash across me.' That peculiarity has been passed on to
+     me in full strength: it has often stood me in good stead: it has
+     sometimes played me sad tricks, and it has always been a danger.
+     But, after all, if my time were to come over again there is
+     nothing I would less willingly part with than my inheritance of
+     'mother wit.'"
+
+From his father he thinks that he inherited little except an inborn
+capacity for drawing, "a hot temper, and that amount of tenacity of
+purpose which unfriendly observers sometimes call obstinacy." As it
+happened, this natural gift for drawing proved of the greatest service
+to him throughout his career. It is imperative that every investigator
+of the anatomy of plants and animals should be able to sketch his
+observations, and there is no greater aid to seeing things as they are
+than the continuous attempt to reproduce them by pencil or brush.
+
+Huxley was christened Thomas Henry, and he was unaware why these names
+were chosen, but he humorously records the curious chance that his
+parents should have chosen for him the "name of that particular
+apostle with whom he had always felt most sympathy."
+
+Of his childhood little is recorded. He remembers being vain of his
+curls, and his mother's expressed regret that he soon lost the beauty
+of early childhood. He attended for some time the school at Ealing
+with which his father was associated, but he has little to say for the
+training he received there. He writes:
+
+     "My regular school training was of the briefest, perhaps
+     fortunately: for, though my way of life has made me acquainted
+     with all sorts and conditions of men, from the highest to the
+     lowest, I deliberately affirm that the society I fell into at
+     school was the worst I have ever known. We boys were average lads
+     with much the same inherent capacity for good and evil as any
+     others; but the people who were set over us cared about as much
+     for our intellectual and moral welfare as if they were
+     baby-farmers. We were left to the operation of the struggle for
+     existence among ourselves, and bullying was the least of the ill
+     practices current among us. Almost the only cheerful reminiscence
+     in connection with the place which arises in my mind is that of a
+     battle which I had with one of my class-mates, who had bullied me
+     until I could stand it no longer. I was a very slight lad, but
+     there was a wild-cat element in me which, when roused, made up
+     for my lack of weight, and I licked my adversary effectually.
+     However, one of my first experiences of the extremely rough and
+     ready nature of justice, as exhibited by the course of things in
+     general, arose out of the fact that _I_--the victor--had a black
+     eye, while he--the vanquished--had none, so that I got into
+     disgrace and he did not. One of the greatest shocks I ever
+     received in my life was to be told, a dozen years afterwards by
+     the groom who brought me my horse in a stable-yard in Sydney,
+     that he was my quondam antagonist. He had a long story of family
+     misfortune to account for his position--but at that time it was
+     necessary to deal very cautiously with mysterious strangers in
+     New South Wales, and on enquiry I found that the unfortunate
+     young man had not only been 'sent out,' but had undergone more
+     than one colonial conviction."
+
+Huxley was soon removed from school and continued his own education
+for several years, by reading of the most desultory sort. His special
+inclinations were towards mechanical problems, and had he been able to
+follow his own wishes there is little doubt but that he would have
+entered on the profession of an engineer. It is probable that there
+was a great deal more in his wishes than the familiar inclination of a
+clever boy to engineering. All through the pursuit of anatomy, which
+was the chief business of his life, it was the structure of animals,
+the different modifications of great ground-plans which they
+presented, that interested him. But the opportunity for engineering
+did not present itself, and at an exceedingly early age he began to
+study medicine. Two brothers-in-law were doctors, and this accidental
+fact probably determined his choice. In these days the study of
+medicine did not begin as now with a general and scientific education,
+but the young medical student was apprenticed to a doctor engaged in
+practice. He was supposed to learn the compounding of drugs in the
+dispensary attached to the doctor's consulting-room; to be taught the
+dressing of wounds and the superficial details of the medical craft
+while he pursued his studies in anatomy under the direction of the
+doctor. Huxley's master was his brother-in-law, Dr. Salt, a London
+practitioner, and he began his work when only twelve or thirteen years
+of age. In this system everything depended upon the superior; under
+the careful guidance of a conscientious and able man it was possible
+for an apt pupil to learn a great deal of science and to become an
+expert in the treatment of disease. Huxley, however, had only a short
+experience of this kind of training. He was taken by some senior
+student friends to a post-mortem examination, and although then, as
+all through his life, he was most sensitive to the disagreeable side
+of anatomical pursuits, on this occasion he gratified his curiosity
+too ardently. He did not cut himself, but in some way poisonous matter
+from the body affected him, and he fell into so bad a state of health
+that he had to be sent into the country to recruit. He lived for some
+time at a farmhouse in Warwickshire with friends of his father and
+slowly recovered health. From that time, however, all through his
+life, he suffered periodically from prostrating dyspepsia. After some
+months devoted to promiscuous reading he resumed his work under his
+brother-in-law in London. He confesses that he was far from a model
+student.
+
+     "I worked extremely hard when it pleased me, and when it did
+     not,--which was a frequent case,--I was extremely idle (unless
+     making caricatures of one's pastors and masters is to be called a
+     branch of industry), or else wasted my energies in wrong
+     directions. I read everything I could lay hands upon, including
+     novels, and took up all sorts of pursuits to drop them again
+     quite speedily."
+
+It is almost certain, however, that Huxley underestimated the value of
+this time. He stored his mind with both literature and science, and
+laid the foundation of the extremely varied intellectual interests
+which afterwards proved to him of so much value. It is certain, also,
+that during this time he acquired a fair knowledge of French and
+German. It would be difficult to exaggerate the value to him of this
+addition to his weapons for attacking knowledge. To do the best work
+in any scientific pursuit it is necessary to freshen one's own mind by
+contact with the ideas and results of other workers. As these workers
+are scattered over different countries it is necessary to transcend
+the confusion of Babel and read what they write in their own tongues.
+When Huxley was young, the great reputation of Cuvier overshadowed
+English anatomy, and English anatomists did little more than seek in
+nature what Cuvier had taught them to find. In Germany other men and
+other ideas were to be found. Johannes Mueller and Von Baer were
+attacking the problems of nature in a spirit that was entirely
+different, and Huxley, by combining what he was taught in England with
+what he learned from German methods, came to his own investigations
+with a wider mind. But his conquest of French and German brought with
+it advantages in addition to these technical gains. There is no reason
+to believe that he troubled himself with grammatical details and with
+the study of these languages as subjects in themselves. He acquired
+them simply to discover the new ideas concealed in them, and he by no
+means confined himself to the reading of foreign books on the subjects
+of his own studies. He read French and German poetry, literature, and
+philosophy, and so came to have a knowledge of the ideas of those
+outside his own race on all the great problems that interest mankind.
+A good deal has been written as to the narrowing tendency of
+scientific pursuits, but with Huxley, as with all the scientific men
+the present writer has known, the mechanical necessity of learning to
+read other languages has brought with it that wide intellectual
+sympathy which is the beginning of all culture and which is not
+infrequently missed by those who have devoted themselves to many
+grammars and a single literature. The old proverb, "Whatever is worth
+doing is worth doing well," has only value when "well" is properly
+interpreted. Although the science of language is as great as any
+science, it is not the science of language, but the practical
+interpretation of it, that is of value to most people, and there is
+much to be said for the method of anatomists like Huxley, who passed
+lightly over grammatical _minutiæ_ and went straight with a dictionary
+to the reading of each new tongue.
+
+After a short period of apprenticeship, or sometimes during the
+course of it, the young medical students "walked" a hospital. This
+consisted in attending the demonstrations of the physicians and
+surgeons in the wards of the hospital and in pursuing anatomical,
+chemical, and physiological study in the medical school attached to
+the hospital. A large fee was charged for the complete course, but at
+many of the hospitals there were entrance scholarships which relieved
+those who gained them of all cost. In 1842 Huxley and his elder
+brother, James, applied for such free scholarships at Charing Cross
+Hospital. There is no record in the books of the hospital as to what
+persons supported the application. The entry in the minutes for
+September 6, 1842, states that
+
+     "Applications from the following gentlemen (including the two
+     sons of Mr. George Huxley, late senior assistant master in Ealing
+     School), were laid before the meeting, and their testimonials
+     being approved of, it was decided that those gentlemen should be
+     admitted as free scholars, if their classical attainments should
+     be found upon examination to be satisfactory."
+
+It appears that the two Huxleys were able to satisfy the probably
+unexacting demands of the classical examiners, for they began their
+hospital work in October of the same year.
+
+Those who know the magnificent laboratories and lecture-rooms which
+have grown up in connection with the larger London hospitals must have
+difficulty in realising the humble arrangements for teaching students
+in the early forties. What endowments there were--and Charing Cross
+was never a richly endowed hospital--were devoted entirely to the
+hospital as opposed to the teaching school. There were no separate
+buildings for anatomy, physiology, and so forth. At Charing Cross the
+dissecting-room was in a cellar under the hospital, and subjects like
+chemistry, botany, physiology, and so forth were crowded into
+inconvenient side rooms. The teachers were not specialists, devoting
+their whole attention to particular branches of science, but were
+doctors engaged in practice, who, in addition to their private duties
+and their work at the hospital, each undertook to lecture upon a
+special scientific subject. Huxley came specially under the influence
+of Mr. Wharton Jones, who had begun to teach physiology at the
+hospital a year before. Mr. Jones throughout his life was engaged in
+professional work, his specialty being ophthalmic surgery, but he was
+a devoted student of anatomy and physiology, and made several
+classical contributions to scientific knowledge, his best-known
+discoveries relating to blood corpuscles and to the nature of the
+mammalian egg-cell. But perhaps his greatest claim to fame is that it
+was he who first imbued Huxley with a love for anatomical science and
+with a knowledge of the methods of investigation. At the end of his
+first session, in 1843, Huxley received the first prize in the senior
+physiology class, while his brother got a "good conduct" prize. Of
+Wharton Jones Huxley writes:
+
+     "The extent and precision of his knowledge impressed me greatly,
+     and the severe exactness of his method of lecturing was quite to
+     my taste. I do not know that I have ever felt so much respect for
+     anybody as a teacher before or since. I worked hard to obtain his
+     approbation, and he was extremely kind and helpful to the
+     youngster who, I am afraid, took up more of his time than he had
+     any right to do. It was he who suggested the publication of my
+     first scientific paper--a very little one--in the _Medical
+     Gazette_ of 1845, and most kindly corrected the literary faults
+     which abounded in it short as it was. For at that time, and for
+     many years afterwards, I detested the trouble of writing and
+     would take no pains over it."
+
+This little paper, although Huxley deprecates it, was remarkable as
+the work of so young an investigator. In it he demonstrated the
+existence of a hitherto unrecognised layer in the inner root-sheath of
+hairs, a layer that has been known since as Huxley's layer.
+
+There is no record in the minutes of the hospital school that Huxley
+gained any other school prizes. His name reappears only in formal
+applications at the beginning of each session for the renewal of his
+free scholarship. In this respect he is in marked contrast to his
+fellow-student, afterwards Sir Joseph Fayrer, who appears to have
+taken almost every prize open to him. On the other hand, his
+attainments in anatomy and physiology brought him distinction in a
+wider field than the hospital school, for he obtained, in the
+"honours" division of the first examination for the degree of Bachelor
+of Medicine at the University of London, the second place with a
+medal. And it is certain that he was far from neglecting his strictly
+professional work, although, no doubt, he devoted much time to reading
+and research in pure science, for in the winter of 1845-46, having
+completed his course at the hospital, he was prepared to offer himself
+at the examination for the membership of the Royal College of
+Surgeons; but, being as yet under twenty-one years of age, could not
+be admitted as a candidate.
+
+It was now time for Huxley definitely to enter on his profession. He
+would have preferred to continue his investigations in London and to
+wait for the chance of a teaching post in physiology, but it was
+necessary to earn a living. One of those whom he consulted was his
+fellow-student, Joseph Fayrer, who, hailing from Bermuda, knew
+something of those who go down to the sea in ships. He advised Huxley
+to write to Sir William Burnett, at that time Director-General for the
+medical service of the navy, for an appointment.
+
+     "I thought this rather a strong thing to do," says Huxley in his
+     autobiography, "as Sir William was personally unknown to me; but
+     my cheery friend would not listen to my scruples, so I went to my
+     lodgings and wrote the best letter I could devise. A few days
+     afterwards I received the usual official circular of
+     acknowledgement, but at the bottom was written an instruction to
+     call at Somerset House on such a day. I thought that looked like
+     business, so, at the appointed time I called and sent in my card,
+     while I waited in Sir William's ante-room. He was a tall,
+     shrewd-looking old gentleman, with a broad Scotch accent--and I
+     think I see him now as he entered with my card in his hand. The
+     first thing he did was to return it with the frugal reminder that
+     I should probably find it useful on some other occasion. The
+     second was to ask whether I was an Irishman. I suppose the air of
+     modesty about my appeal must have struck him. I satisfied the
+     Director-General that I was English to the backbone, and he made
+     some enquiries as to my student career, finally desiring me to
+     hold myself ready for examination. Having passed this, I was in
+     Her Majesty's service, and entered on the books of Nelson's old
+     ship, the _Victory_, for duty at Haslar Hospital, about a couple
+     of months after I made my application."
+
+About the same time he passed the examination of the Royal College of
+Surgeons and so became a fully qualified medical man. Haslar Hospital
+was the chief naval hospital to which invalided sailors were sent.
+There was a considerable staff of young surgeons, as navy surgeons
+were usually sent for a term to work in the hospital before being
+gazetted to a ship in commission. In connection with the hospital,
+there was a museum of natural history containing a collection of
+considerable importance slowly gathered from the gifts of sailors and
+officers. The museum curator was an enthusiastic naturalist, and
+Huxley must have had the opportunity of extending his knowledge of at
+least the external characters of many forms of life hitherto unknown
+to him. A few years later, the curator of the museum, with the help of
+two of Huxley's successors, published a _Manual of Natural History for
+the Use of Travellers_, and it is certain that Huxley at least did not
+lose at Haslar any of the enthusiasm for zoölogy with which he had
+been inspired at the Charing Cross Hospital. The chief of the hospital
+was Sir John Richardson, an excellent naturalist, and well known as an
+arctic explorer. He seems to have recognised the peculiar ability of
+his young assistant, and although he was a silent, reserved man, who
+seldom encouraged his assistants by talking to them, he made several
+attempts to obtain a suitable post for Huxley. Such a post was that of
+surgeon to H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_, then about to start under the command
+of Captain Owen Stanley for surveying work in the Torres Straits.
+Captain Stanley had expressed a wish for a surgeon who knew something
+of science, and, on the recommendation of Sir John Richardson,
+obtained the post for Huxley. There was, however, to be a special
+naturalist attached to the expedition, but Huxley had the opportunity
+he wanted. After a brief stay of seven months at the Haslar Hospital
+he left it for his ship, and thus definitely entered on his work in
+the world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote A: This and many other details in this chapter are taken
+from an autobiographical sketch in the first volume of Huxley's
+collected essays published by Macmillan, London, 1894.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE "RATTLESNAKE"
+
+     The Objects of the Voyage--The Route--The Naturalist and the
+     Surgeon--Collecting and Dredging--Stay in Sydney--Adventures with
+     the Natives--Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the _Beagle_.
+
+
+Her Majesty's ship the _Rattlesnake_, one of the old class of 28-gun
+ships, sailed from Plymouth for the Torres Straits and the Australian
+seas on December 12, 1846. Her commander was Captain Owen Stanley, a
+young but distinguished officer, the son of the Bishop of Norwich and
+a brother of Dean Stanley, who afterwards played so great a part in
+the social and religious history of England. She carried a complement
+of 180 officers and men, and was attended by the _Bramble_ and the
+_Castlereagh_, two small vessels of light draught, whose purpose was
+to precede her in shallow waters. The young colonies of Australia were
+developing commerce with the mother country, and the business of the
+_Rattlesnake_ was to survey the waters round about the Torres Straits,
+that the passage towards India on the homeward trip might be made
+safer. Incidentally the vessel was to land a treasure of £50,000 at
+the Cape of Good Hope, and another of £15,000 at the Mauritius. The
+Admiralty Commissioners left full powers to Captain Stanley to carry
+out the details of his mission according to his own judgment, but he
+was solemnly warned upon two points. Many very unfortunate casualties
+had occurred when sailors came in contact with the little-known
+savages of the southern seas, and the Admiralty instructed him as
+follows:
+
+     "In stretching off from the Barrier Reefs to the eastward, in
+     order to explore the safety of the sea intervening between them
+     and Louisiade and New Guinea, you will have occasion to approach
+     these shores, in which case you must constantly be on your guard
+     against the treacherous disposition of their inhabitants. All
+     barter for refreshments must be conducted under the eye of an
+     officer, and every pains be taken to avoid giving any just cause
+     of offence to their prejudices, especially with respect to their
+     women."
+
+The second warning concerned grave international matters. European
+politics were in the unsettled condition which, after the illusive
+international courtesies of the Great Exhibition of 1851, ended in the
+Crimean War, and it was feared that in the event of hostilities
+breaking out, the zeal of the officers for their country might tempt
+them to transcend their peaceful occupation. The instructions with
+regard to this ran as follows:
+
+     "In the event of this country being involved in hostilities
+     during your absence, you will take care never to be surprised;
+     but you are to refrain from any act of aggression towards the
+     vessels or settlements of any nation with which we may be at war,
+     as expeditions employed on behalf of discovery and science have
+     always been considered by all civilised communities as acting
+     under a general safeguard."
+
+The great scientific expeditions sent out in recent times by the
+governments of Britain, Germany, and the United States, were fitted
+with every convenience for the staff of naturalists, and the luxuries
+and comforts of civilisation attended them round the world. The late
+Professor Mosely, for instance, who was a naturalist on the English
+_Challenger_ expedition, told the present writer of a pleasant way in
+which a peculiarity of the deep sea was made to pay toll to the
+comfort of those on board ship. The great ocean depths all over the
+world, under the burning skies of the tropics, or below the arctic
+ice-fields, are extremely cold, the water at the bottom always being
+only a few degrees above freezing point. When the dredge brought up a
+sample of the abysmal mud at a convenient time, it was used to ice the
+wine for the officers' mess. There was, however, no cooled champagne
+for Huxley.
+
+     "Life on board Her Majesty's ships in those days," he writes,
+     "was a very different affair from what it is now, and ours was
+     exceptionally rough, as we were often many months without
+     receiving letters or seeing any civilised people but ourselves.
+     In exchange, we had the interest of being about the latest
+     voyagers, I suppose, to whom it could be possible to meet with
+     people who knew nothing of fire-arms--as we did on the south
+     coast of New Guinea--and of making acquaintances with a variety
+     of interesting savage and semi-civilised people. But apart from
+     experience of this kind, and the opportunities offered for
+     scientific work, to me personally the cruise was extremely
+     valuable. It was good for me to live under sharp discipline; to
+     be down on the realities of existence by living on bare
+     necessities; to find out how extremely well worth living life
+     seemed to be when one woke up from a night's rest on a soft plank
+     with the sky for canopy, and cocoa and weevilly biscuit the sole
+     prospect for breakfast; and more especially to learn to work for
+     the sake of what I got for myself out of it, even if it all went
+     to the bottom and I myself along with it. My brother officers
+     were as good fellows as sailors ought to be, and generally are,
+     but naturally they neither knew nor cared anything about my
+     pursuits, nor understood why I should be so zealous in pursuit
+     of the objects which my friends the middies christened 'Buffons,'
+     after the title conspicuous on a volume of the _Suites à Buffon_
+     which stood on my shelf in the chart-room."
+
+Huxley was only the surgeon on board the _Rattlesnake_, and his
+pursuit of natural history was his own affair. There was a special
+naturalist appointed to the expedition, no doubt chosen because four
+years earlier, as assistant to Professor Jukes, he had been attached
+as naturalist to the expedition of the _Fly_ in the same waters. His
+name was John MacGillivray, and he was the son of an exceedingly able
+naturalist whose reputation has been overshadowed by the greater names
+of the middle century. William MacGillivray, the father, sometime
+professor at the University of Aberdeen, was one of those driven by an
+almost instinctive desire to the study of nature. In his youth, when
+he was a poor lad, desiring to see as much as possible of his native
+land, and above all to visit the great museums and libraries of the
+south, he walked from Aberdeen to London with no luggage but a copy of
+Smith's _Flora Britannica_. He was an ardent botanist, a collector of
+insects and molluscs, and one of the pioneers in the anatomy of birds.
+There are many curious allusions in his writings which seem to shew
+that he too was beginning to doubt the fixity of species, and to guess
+at the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest which the
+great Darwin was the first to make a part of the knowledge of the
+world. It must be confessed that his son John, the companion of
+Huxley, had little of his father's ability. He was three years older
+than Huxley, and broke off his medical course at the University of
+Edinburgh to sail in the _Fly_. After the return of the _Rattlesnake_,
+he was appointed in 1852 as naturalist to H.M.S. _Herald_, then
+starting under Captain Denham for surveying work round the shores of
+South America. He left that ship at Sydney, and after many years'
+wandering about the southern seas, accounts of which he communicated
+from time to time to Sydney newspapers, he died in 1867. He was a
+zealous collector of plants and animals, but apparently cared little
+for the study of his captures, either in life, in relation to their
+surroundings, like Darwin, or for the structure of their bodies, like
+Huxley. The somewhat unpleasing nature of his regard for animals
+appears in the following story which he himself tells:
+
+     "While at dinner off Darnley Island near the Torres Straits, news
+     was brought that Dzum was under the stern in a canoe, shouting
+     out loudly for Dzoka (MacGillivray's native name), and, on going
+     up I found that he had brought off the barit, which after a deal
+     of trouble I struck a bargain for and obtained. It was a very
+     fine specimen of Cuscus Maculatus, quite tame and kept in a large
+     cage of split bamboo. Dzum seemed very unwilling to part with the
+     animal, and repeatedly enjoined me to take great care of it and
+     feed it well, which to please him I promised to do, although I
+     valued it merely for its skin, and was resolved to kill it for
+     that purpose at my first convenience."
+
+On the other hand, MacGillivray paid great attention to native
+languages, and collected vocabularies of some value. To him was
+entrusted the task of writing an account of the voyage, and it is from
+his rather dull pages, brightened by illustrations from Huxley's
+sketches, that the incidents of the voyage are taken. The references
+to Huxley in the narrative are slight, and seem to shew that no great
+intimacy existed between the two young men, the one a naturalist by
+profession, the other as yet a surgeon, but more devoted to natural
+history than the naturalist. Such references as occur relate to
+Huxley's constant occupations on shore, sketching natives and their
+dwellings, and his apparatus on board for trawling, dredging, and
+dissecting.
+
+The voyage out was uneventful. The ship touched at Madeira and at Rio
+de Janeiro, and then crossed the South Atlantic to Simon's Town at the
+Cape of Good Hope, where the first quantity of treasure was to be
+landed. There they found the colony distressed by the long continuance
+of the Kaffir war. Prices for everything were extortionate, and the
+colonists had no mind for any affairs than their own, so after a short
+stay the voyagers were glad to set out for the Mauritius. That island,
+although in the possession of Britain, still retained a strong impress
+of its French occupation, and the travellers were interested by the
+mixture of population inhabiting it.[B]
+
+     "Passing through the closely packed lines of shipping, and
+     landing as a stranger at Port Louis, perhaps the first thing to
+     engage attention is the strange mixture of
+     nations,--representatives, he might at first be inclined to
+     imagine, of half the countries of the earth. He stares at a
+     coolie from Madras with a breech-cloth and a soldier's jacket, or
+     a stately bearded Moor striking a bargain with a Parsee merchant.
+     A Chinaman with two bundles slung on a bamboo hurries past,
+     jostling a group of young Creole exquisites smoking their
+     cheroots at a corner, and talking of last night's Norma, or the
+     programme of the evening's performance at the Hippodrome in the
+     Champ de Mars. His eye next catches a couple of sailors reeling
+     out of a grogshop, to the amusement of a group of laughing
+     negresses, in white muslin dresses of the latest Parisian
+     fashion, contrasting strongly with a modestly attired Cingalese
+     woman, and an Indian ayah with her young charge. Amidst all this,
+     the French language prevails; and everything more or less
+     pertains of the French character, and an Englishman can scarcely
+     believe that he is in one of the colonies of his own country."
+
+From Mauritius they proceeded to the English-looking colony of
+Tasmania, and after a few days set out for Sydney, arriving there on
+July 16th. The surveying officers had tedious work to do there, and
+Huxley stayed in Sydney for three months. Then, and in the course of
+three other prolonged stays in that town during the expedition, Huxley
+entered into the society of the town and became a general favourite.
+He is still remembered there, and the accompanying illustration[C] is
+a copy of an original sketch of himself, now in the possession of an
+Australian lady. He drew it on the fly-leaf of a volume of Lytton's
+poems and presented it on her birthday to the little daughter of a
+friend. At Sydney, too, he met and gained the love of the lady, then
+Miss Henrietta A. Heathorn, who afterwards became his wife.
+
+On October 11th the _Rattlesnake_ sailed northwards to begin the real
+work of the expedition. The great island of New Guinea, lying to the
+north of Australia, is separated from it only by the comparatively
+narrow Torres Straits. Through these lies the natural route for the
+commerce between Australia and the Northern Hemisphere. The eastward
+prolongation of New Guinea, and the coast of Queensland, enclose
+between them a great tropical sea which gradually converges to the
+Straits. The waters are very tempestuous, and the navigation is made
+more dangerous by the thousands of coral islands and coral reefs that
+stud the ocean. Following the shoreline of Queensland, at a distance
+of from ten to one hundred and fifty miles, and stretching for twelve
+hundred and fifty miles, is the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, one
+of the wonders of the world. The shelving floor of the ocean rises
+nearly to the surface along this line, and vast colonies of coral
+building creatures have formed their reefs up to the water's edge
+along the ridge. The turbulent waves scouring over this living mass
+have carved and moulded it into millions of fantastic islands,
+sometimes heaping detached masses of dead debris high above the
+surface of the water. At low tide the most wonderful fields of the
+animal flowers of the sea are exposed. Some of them form branching
+systems of hard skeletons like stony trees, the soft, brightly
+coloured animals dotted over the stems like buds. Others form solid
+masses; others, again, rounded skull like boulders, or elevations like
+toadstools. The colours of the skeletons and the animals are vivid
+scarlets and purples and greens. Sea anemones, shell-fish, and
+starfish of the most vivid hues are as abundant as the corals.
+Brilliant fish dart through the blossoms of the marine gardens, and
+sea birds scream and wheel in the air. The whole region is a paradise
+for the naturalist. Along the seaward side of the reef the great ocean
+surges and thunders perpetually. Between it and the shore the quiet
+channel glows under the tropical skies. It was amid such scenes as
+these that the _Rattlesnake_ moved for nearly four years in the slow
+work of taking soundings, fixing the exact position of channels
+through the outer reef by slow triangular measurements, and generally
+preparing for the safety of the commerce of all nations. The ship went
+first up to Port Curtis in Brisbane; then fetched back to Sydney. Its
+next trip was south to the strait between Tasmania and Australia,
+then back to Sydney; then again along the Barrier Reef right up to the
+Torres Straits. After work there, it returned again to Sydney, and
+then set out for the Louisiade Archipelago, which stretches through
+the coral sea south-eastward from New Guinea; then again to the
+Australian shores of the Torres Straits, and finally arrived in Sydney
+in March, 1850, where the Captain suddenly died, and the ship was
+ordered to return to England.
+
+Throughout the voyage MacGillivray and Huxley busied themselves with
+collecting animals on sea and on shore. MacGillivray seems to have
+taken for his share of the spoil chiefly such animals as provided
+shells or skins or skeletons suitable for handing over to museums.
+Huxley occupied himself incessantly with dissecting tools and with the
+microscope, with results to be described in a later chapter. The
+better equipped expeditions of modern times were provided with
+elaborate appliances for bringing up samples of living creatures from
+all depths of the floor of the ocean, and with complicated towing nets
+for securing the floating creatures of the surface of the seas. The
+_Rattlesnake_ naturalists had to content themselves with simple
+apparatus devised by themselves. At an early period of the voyage
+attempts were made to take deep soundings, but no bottom was reached
+at a depth of two thousand four hundred fathoms, and their later work
+was confined to surface animals or to inshore dredging in shallow
+waters. They began near Rio.
+
+     "None of the ship's boats could be spared, so I [MacGillivray]
+     hired one pulled by four negro slaves who, although strong,
+     active fellows, had great objections to straining their backs at
+     the oar, when the dredge was down. No sieve having been
+     supplied, we were obliged to sift the contents of the dredge
+     through our hands--a tedious and superficial mode of examination.
+     Two days after, Mr. Huxley and I set to work in Botafogo Bay,
+     provided with a wire-gauze meat-cover and a curious machine for
+     cleaning rice; these answered capitally as substitutes for
+     sieves, and enabled us, by a thorough examination of the contents
+     of the dredge, to detect some forty-five species of Mollusca and
+     Radiata, some of which were new to science."
+
+By "new to science" MacGillivray meant no more than that the
+particular genera and species had not been captured before. Huxley, by
+his anatomical work, showed many of the most familiar creatures in a
+light "new to science," by revealing their true structure and
+relationships.
+
+     "Among the acquisitions," MacGillivray goes on, "I may mention a
+     new species of Amphioxus, a genus of small fishes exhibiting more
+     anomalies than any other known to Ichthyologists, and the lowest
+     organisation found in the class. It somewhat resembles the
+     sand-eels of Britain in habits, like them moving with
+     extraordinary rapidity through the sand. By dint of bribery and
+     ridicule we had at length managed to get our boatmen to work
+     tolerably well, and when we were alike well-roasted by the sun
+     and repeatedly drenched, besides being tired out and hungry, they
+     had become quite submissive, and exchanged their grumbling for
+     merriment."
+
+The towing net repeatedly produced a rich harvest. It was constructed
+by themselves, and consisted of a bag of the bunting used for flags,
+two feet deep, the mouth being sewn round a wooden hoop fourteen
+inches in diameter; three pieces of cord, a foot and a half long, were
+secured to the hoop at equal intervals and had their ends tied
+together. This net was towed behind the ship by a stout cord. The
+water passed through the meshes of the cloth and left behind in the
+pocket any small floating animals.
+
+Excursions ashore to the little savage islands or to the mainland were
+a source of constant interest, and it cannot be doubted that the
+acquaintance Huxley thus gained with many of the very low savages of
+Australia and New Guinea prepared his mind for the revolutionary
+doctrine of descent which he embraced a few years later. At the
+present time, there are probably very few parts of earth where there
+are yet to be found savages unaltered by civilisation. Some of the low
+races with which Huxley came in contact are now extinct. All the
+survivors have come in contact with white races, and their habits and
+customs have been altered. Before long the total extinction of these
+lower races is to be expected, and there will then be left an enormous
+gap between the lower animals and the dominant, aggressive, yellow and
+white races which are spreading over the earth and making the lower
+races perish before them, as the smaller but more cunning European rat
+has exterminated the native brown rat of Australia. In their various
+excursions upon the Australian mainland they had no trouble of any
+kind with the natives. These were at first suspicious of the doings of
+the white men, and their total ignorance of the use of firearms
+tempted them to rashness; but a few friendly gifts, and the exercise
+of tact in negotiating exchanges with them, made all the encounters
+pass off pleasantly. On the other hand, in the Louisiade Archipelago
+where the savages were of a higher type, difficulties constantly
+occurred. On one occasion, in a bay on the south side of Joannet
+Island the party was attacked.
+
+     "In the grey of the morning the look-outs reported the approach
+     of three canoes with about ten men in each. On two or three
+     persons shewing themselves in the bow of the pinnace, in front of
+     the rain awning, the natives ceased paddling, as if baulked in
+     their design of surprising the large boat; but, after a short
+     consultation, they came alongside in their usual noisy manner.
+     After a stay of about five minutes only they pushed off to the
+     galley, and some more sham bartering was attempted, but they had
+     nothing to give in exchange for the wares they so much coveted.
+     In a short time the rudeness and overbearing insolence of the
+     natives had risen to a pitch which left no doubt of their hostile
+     intentions. The anchor was got up, when some of the blacks seized
+     the painter, and others, in trying to capsize the boat, brought
+     the gunwale down to the water's edge, at the same time grappling
+     with the men to pull them out, and dragging the galley inshore
+     towards the shoal-water. The bowman, with the anchor in his hand,
+     was struck on the head with a stone-headed axe. The blow was
+     repeated, but fortunately took effect only on the wash-streak.
+     Another of the crew was struck at with a similar weapon, but
+     warded off the blow, although held fast by one arm, when, just as
+     the savage was making another stroke, Lieutenant Dayman, who up
+     till now had exercised the utmost forbearance, fired at him with
+     a musket. The man did not drop, although wounded in the thigh.
+     But even this, unquestionably their first experience of firearms,
+     did not intimidate the natives, one of whom, standing on a block
+     of coral, threw a spear which passed across the breast of one of
+     the boat's crew and lodged in the bend of one arm, opening a
+     vein. They raised a loud shout when the spear was seen to take
+     effect, and threw several others which missed. Lieutenant
+     Simpson, who had been watching what was going on, then fired from
+     the pinnace with buckshot and struck them, when, finding that the
+     large boat, though at anchor, could assist the smaller one, the
+     canoes were paddled inshore in great haste and confusion. Some
+     more musket shots were fired, and the galley went in chase
+     endeavouring to turn the canoes, so as to bring them under fire
+     of the pinnace's twelve-pounder howitzer, which was speedily
+     mounted and fired. The shot either struck one of the canoes or
+     went within a few inches of the mark, on which the natives
+     instantly jumped overboard into the shallow water, making for the
+     mangroves, which they succeeded in reaching, dragging their
+     canoes with them. Two rounds of grape-shot crashing through the
+     branches dispersed the party, but afterwards they moved two of
+     the canoes out of sight. The remaining one was brought out after
+     breakfast by the galley under cover of the pinnace, and was towed
+     off to some distance. The paddles having been taken out and the
+     spears broken and left in her, she was let go to drift down
+     toward a village whence the attacking party were supposed to have
+     come. Some blood in this canoe, although not the one most aimed
+     at, showed that the firing had not been ineffective. This act of
+     deliberate treachery was perpetrated by persons who had always
+     been well treated by us, for several of the natives present were
+     recognised as having been alongside the ship in Coral Haven.
+     This, their first act of positive hostility, affords, I think,
+     conclusive evidence of the savage disposition of the natives of
+     this part of the Louisiade Archipelago when incited by the hope
+     of plunder, and shews that no confidence should ever be reposed
+     in them, unless, perhaps in the presence of a numerically
+     superior force, or in the close vicinity of a ship. At the same
+     time, the boldness of these savages in attacking, with thirty men
+     in three canoes, two boats known to contain at least twenty
+     persons--even in the hopes of taking them by surprise--and in not
+     being at once driven off upon feeling the novel and deadly
+     effects of firearms, shews no little amount of bravery."
+
+On their last visit to Cape York, in the extreme north of Australia,
+the party had the remarkable experience of rescuing a white woman from
+captivity among the natives.
+
+     "In the afternoon some of our people on shore were surprised to
+     see a young white woman come up to claim their protection from a
+     party of natives from whom she had recently made her escape, and
+     who she thought would otherwise bring her back. Of course she
+     received every attention, and was taken on board the ship by the
+     first boat, when she told her story which is briefly as follows:
+     Her name is Barbara Thomson. She was born at Aberdeen in
+     Scotland, and, along with her parents, emigrated to New South
+     Wales. About four years and a half ago she left Moreton Bay with
+     her husband in a small cutter, called the _America_, of which he
+     was the owner, for the purpose of picking up some of the oil from
+     the wreck of a whaler, lost on the Bampton shoal, to which place
+     one of her late crew undertook to guide them; their ultimate
+     intention was to go on to Port Essington. The man who acted as
+     pilot was unable to find the wreck, and after much quarreling on
+     board in consequence, and the loss of two men by drowning and of
+     another who was left on a small uninhabited island, they made
+     their way up to the Torres Straits, where, during a gale of wind
+     their vessel struck upon a reef on the eastern Prince of Wales
+     Island. The two remaining men were lost in attempting to swim on
+     shore through the surf, but the woman was afterwards rescued by a
+     party of natives on a turtling excursion, who, when the gale
+     subsided, swam on board and supported her on shore between two of
+     their number. One of these blacks, Boroto by name, took
+     possession of the woman as his share of the plunder; she was
+     compelled to live with him, but was well treated by all the men,
+     although many of the women, jealous of the attention shewn her,
+     for a long time evinced anything but kindness. A curious
+     circumstance secured for her the protection of one of the
+     principal men of the tribe. This person, acting upon the belief,
+     universal throughout Australia and the islands of the Torres
+     Strait, so far as hitherto known, that white people are the
+     ghosts of the aborigines, fancied that in the stranger he
+     recognised a long-lost daughter, and at once admitted her into
+     the relationship which he thought had formerly subsisted between
+     them. She was immediately acknowledged by the whole tribe as one
+     of themselves, thus securing an extensive connection in relatives
+     of all denominations. The headquarters of the tribe being on an
+     island which all vessels passing through the Torres Strait from
+     the eastward must approach within two or three miles, she had the
+     mortification of seeing from twenty to thirty or more ships go
+     through every summer without anchoring in the neighbourhood, so
+     as to afford the slightest opportunity of making her escape. Last
+     year she heard of our two vessels being at Cape York, only twenty
+     miles distant from some of the tribe who had communicated with us
+     and had been well treated, but they would not take her over and
+     watched her even more narrowly than before. On our second and
+     present visit, however, which the Cape York people immediately
+     announced by smoke signals to their friends, she was successful
+     in persuading some of her more immediate friends to bring her
+     across to the mainland within a short distance of where the
+     vessels lay. The blacks were credulous enough to believe that as
+     she had been so long with them and had been so well treated, she
+     did not intend to leave them,--only 'she felt a strong desire to
+     see the white people once more and shake hands with them': adding
+     that she would be certain to purchase some axes, knives, tobacco,
+     and other much-prized articles."
+
+Although the external adventures of the _Rattlesnake_ party were less
+varied and exciting than might have been expected in a voyage of four
+years in the tropic seas and among barbarian tribes, the mental
+adventures through which Huxley passed in the time must have been of
+the most surprising kind. It was a four-years' course in the great
+university of nature, and when he had finished it he was no longer a
+mere student, capricious and unsettled in his mental tastes and
+inclinations, but had set his face steadily towards his future
+life-work. It is interesting to compare the importance in Huxley's
+life of the _Rattlesnake_ voyage with the importance in Darwin's life
+of the voyage on the _Beagle_ undertaken some fifteen years earlier.
+Huxley, when he started, was a young surgeon with a taste of a vague
+kind for dissecting and for drawing the peculiarities of structure of
+different animals revealed by the knife and the microscope. Day after
+day, month after month, year after year, in the abundant leisure his
+slight professional duties left him, he dissected and drew, dissected
+and drew, animal after animal, as he got them from the dredge or
+tow-net, or from the surface of the coral reefs. He was not in any
+sense of the word a collecting naturalist. The identification and
+naming of species interested him little. What he cared for was, he
+tells us, "the architectural and engineering part of the business: the
+working out of the wonderful unity of plan in the thousands and
+thousands of divers living constructions, and the modifications of
+similar apparatuses to serve different ends." And so, on the
+_Rattlesnake_, and in his work in continuation of the _Rattlesnake_
+investigations,--which occupied most of his time for a few years after
+his return to London,--there was gradually growing up in his mind a
+dim conception of the animal kingdom as a group of creatures, not
+built on half a dozen or more separate plans or types, each
+unconnected with the other, but as a varied set of modifications of a
+single type.
+
+When Darwin set out on the _Beagle_, unlike Huxley, he was an
+enthusiastic collecting naturalist. He had wandered from county to
+county in England adding new specimens to his collections of
+butterflies and beetles. As the _Beagle_ went round the world visiting
+remote islands, far from land in the centre of the waters,
+archipelagoes of islands crowding together, islands hugging the shore
+of continents, and the great continents of the old and new worlds, he
+continued to collect and to classify. Gradually the resemblances and
+differences between the creatures inhabiting different parts of the
+earth began to strike him as exhibiting an orderly plan. He saw that
+under apparently the same conditions of food and temperature and
+moisture, in different parts of the world the genera and species were
+different, and that they were most alike in regions between which
+there was the most recent chance of migrations having taken place. In
+the quietness of England, while Huxley was on the _Rattlesnake_,
+Darwin was slowly working towards the explanation of all he had seen:
+towards the conception that animals and plants had spread slowly from
+common centres, becoming more and more different from each other as
+they spread. He realised on his voyage that species had come into
+existence by descent with modification, and before long he was to
+publish to the world in the _Origin of Species_ a vast and convincing
+bulk of evidence as to the actual fact of a common descent for all the
+different existing organisms, and, in his theory of natural selection,
+a reasonable explanation of how the fact of evolution had come about.
+Darwin's greatest ally in bringing the new idea before the world was
+Huxley, and Huxley was teaching himself the absolute unity of the
+living world. The two men were dissimilar in tastes and temperament,
+and they were at work on quite different sides of nature. When the
+time came, Huxley, with his commanding knowledge of the structure of
+animals, was ready to support Darwin and to illustrate and amplify his
+arguments by a thousand anatomical proofs. It is a curious and
+dramatic coincidence to realise that both men learned their very
+different lessons under very similar circumstances in the tropical
+seas of the Southern Hemisphere.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote B: _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake_," by
+John MacGillivray, F.R.G.S. 2 vols. T.W. Boone, London, 1852.]
+
+[Footnote C: This sketch was reproduced and described in _Natural
+Science_, vol. vii., p. 381, and is now reproduced here by the
+courtesy of the proprietors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA
+
+     The Nature of Floating Life--Memoir on Medusæ Accepted by the
+     Royal Society--Old and New Ideas of the Animal Kingdom--What
+     Huxley Discovered in Medusæ--His Comparison of them with
+     Vertebrate Embryos.
+
+
+As the _Rattlesnake_ sailed through the tropical seas Huxley came in
+contact with the very peculiar and interesting inhabitants of the
+surface of the sea, known now to naturalists as pelagic life or
+"plankton." Although a poet has spoken of the "unvintageable sea," all
+parts of the ocean surface teem with life. Sometimes, as in high
+latitudes, the cold is so great that only the simplest microscopic
+forms are able to maintain existence. In the tropics, animals and
+plants are abundant, and sometimes by their numbers colour great areas
+of water; or, as in the drift of the Gulf Stream, make a tangle of
+animal and plant life through which a boat travels only with
+difficulty. The basis of the food supply of this vast and hungry
+floating life is, as on land, vegetable life; for plants are the only
+creatures capable of building up food from the gases of the air and
+the simple chemical salts found dissolved in water. Occasionally, in
+shallow or warm seas, marine floating plants, large and visible like
+the sea-weeds of the coast, form the floating masses known as Sargasso
+seas; more often the plants are minute, microscopic specks visible
+only when a drop of water is placed under the microscope, but
+occurring in incredible numbers, and, like the green vegetation of the
+earth, forming the ultimate food-supply of all the living things
+around them. Innumerable animals, great and small, live on the plants
+or upon their fellows, and, however far he may be from land, the
+naturalist has always abundant material got by his daily use of the
+tow-net. This drifting population floats at the mercy of the waves.
+Most of the animals are delicate, transparent creatures, their
+transparency helping to protect them from the attacks of hungry
+fellows. Nerves, muscles, skin, and the organs generally are clear,
+pale, and hardly visible. Such structures as the liver, the
+reproductive organs, and the stomach, which cannot easily become
+transparent, are grouped together into small knots, coloured brown
+like little masses of sea-weed. Other floating creatures are vividly
+coloured, but the hues are bright blues and greens closely similar to
+the sparkling tints of sea-water in sunlight. The different members of
+this marine flotsam frequently rise and fall periodically: some of
+them sinking by day to escape the light, others rising only by day;
+others, again, appearing on the surface in spring, keeping deep down
+in winter. Perhaps the majority of them are phosphorescent, sometimes
+shining by their own light, sometimes borrowing a glory from
+innumerable phosphorescent bacteria with which they are infested.
+Nearly every class of the animal kingdom contributes members to this
+strange population. The young forms of many fish, as for instance of
+conger, flying gurnards, and some flatfish, are pelagic and have
+colourless blood, and pale, transparent, gelatinous or cartilaginous
+skeletons. The tadpole-like stages of the sea-squirts, which in adult
+life are to be found attached to rocks like weeds, drift about in the
+surface waters until their time comes for settling down in life. Many
+other Ascidians pass their whole life as pelagic creatures. A few
+molluscs, many kinds of worms, echinoderms, and their allies, crab and
+lobster-like creatures in innumerable different stages of development,
+are to be found there, while unnumbered polyps and jelly-fish are
+always present. It would be difficult to imagine a better training for
+the naturalist than to spend years, as Huxley did, working at this
+varied assortment of living creatures. Huxley declared that the
+difficulties of examining such flimsy creatures had been exaggerated.
+
+     "At least, with a good light and a good microscope, with the ship
+     tolerably steady, I never failed in procuring all the information
+     I required. The great matter is to obtain a good successive
+     supply of specimens, as the more delicate oceanic species are
+     usually unfit for examination within a few hours after they are
+     taken."
+
+Day after day, as the _Rattlesnake_ crept from island to island,
+Huxley examined the animals brought up by his tow-net. He made endless
+dissections, and gradually accumulated a large portfolio of drawings.
+Much of the time he passed at Sydney was spent in libraries and
+museums, comparing his own observations with the recorded observations
+of earlier workers, and receiving from the combination of his own work
+and the work of others new ideas for his future investigations. It was
+all entirely a labour of love; it lay outside the professional duties
+by which he made his living, and for a long time it seemed as if he
+was not even to gain reputation by the discoveries he knew himself to
+be making. He writes in his autobiography:
+
+     "During the four years of our absence, I sent home communication
+     after communication to the 'Linnæan' Society, with the same
+     result as that obtained by Noah when he sent the raven out of his
+     ark. Tired at last of hearing nothing about them, I determined to
+     do or die, and in 1849 I drew up a more elaborate paper and
+     forwarded it to the Royal Society. This was my dove, if I had
+     only known it; but owing to the movements of the ship I heard
+     nothing of that either until my return to England in the latter
+     end of the year 1850, when I found that it was printed and
+     published, and that a huge packet of separate copies awaited me.
+     When I hear some of my young friends complain of want of sympathy
+     and encouragement, I am inclined to think that my naval life was
+     not the least valuable part of my education."
+
+This first successful paper was a memoir _On the Anatomy and the
+Affinities of the Family of Medusæ_, and was sent at Captain Stanley's
+suggestion to that officer's father, the Bishop of Norwich, who
+communicated it to the Royal Society. It is a curious circumstance
+that Huxley, who afterwards met with so virulent opposition from
+bishops, owed his first public success to one of them. Professor Sir
+Michael Foster writes of this period in Huxley's life:
+
+     "The career of many a successful man has shewn that obstacles
+     often prove the mother of endeavour, and never was this lesson
+     clearer than in the case of Huxley. Working amidst a host of
+     difficulties, in want of room, in want of light, seeking to
+     unravel the intricacies of minute structure with a microscope
+     lashed to secure steadiness, cramped within a tiny cabin, jostled
+     by the tumult of a crowded ship's life, with the scantiest supply
+     of books of reference, with no one at hand of whom he could take
+     counsel on the problems opening up before him, he gathered for
+     himself during these four years a large mass of accurate,
+     important, and in most cases novel, observations and illustrated
+     them with skilful, pertinent drawings. Even his intellectual
+     solitude had its good effects: it drove him to ponder over the
+     new facts which came before him, and all his observations were
+     made alive with scientific thought."
+
+Afterwards, in England, he received the Royal Medal of the Royal
+Society for this memoir on Medusæ, sharing this supreme distinction of
+scientific England with men so illustrious as Joule, the discoverer of
+the relation between force and heat, Stokes, the great investigator of
+optical physics, and Humboldt, the traveller, all of whom received
+medals in the same year. In making the presentation to Huxley, the
+Earl of Rosse, then President of the Royal Society, declared:
+
+     "In those papers you have for the first time fully developed
+     their structure (that of the Medusæ), and laid the foundation of
+     a rational theory for their classification. In your second paper,
+     on the anatomy of Salpa and Pyrosoma, the phenomena have received
+     the most ingenious and elaborate elucidations, and have given
+     rise to a process of reasoning, the results of which can scarcely
+     yet be anticipated, but must bear in a very important degree upon
+     some of the most abstruse points of what may be called
+     transcendental physiology."
+
+Many reasons make it difficult for us to realise, now, the singular
+novelty and importance of Huxley's memoir on the Medusæ. The first is
+a reason which often prevents great discoveries in almost every
+subject from receiving in after years their due respect. The years
+that have passed since 1850 have seen not only the most amazing
+progress in our knowledge of comparative anatomy, but almost a
+revolution in the methods of studying it. Huxley's work has been
+incorporated in the very body of science. A large number of later
+investigators have advanced upon the lines he laid down; and just as
+the superstructures of a great building conceal the foundations, so
+later anatomical work, although it has only amplified and extended
+Huxley's discoveries, has made them seem less striking to the modern
+reader. The present writer, for instance, learned all that he knows of
+anatomy in the last ten years, and until he turned to it for the
+purpose of this volume he had never referred to Huxley's original
+paper. When he did so, he found from beginning to end nothing that was
+new to him, nothing that was strange: all the ideas in the memoir had
+passed into the currency of knowledge and he had been taught them as
+fundamental facts. It was only when he turned to the text-books of
+anatomy and natural history current in Huxley's time that he was able
+to realise how the conclusions of the young ship-surgeon struck the
+Fellows and President of the Royal Society as luminous and
+revolutionary ideas.
+
+In the first half of the century, a conception of the animal kingdom
+prevailed which was entirely different from our modern ideas. We know
+now that all animals are bound together by the bond of a common
+descent, and we seek in anatomy a clue to the degrees of relationship
+existing among the different animals we know. We regard the animal
+kingdom as a thicket of branches all springing from a common root.
+Some of these spring straight up from the common root unconnected with
+their fellows. Others branch repeatedly, and all the branches of the
+same stem have features in common. What we see in the living world is
+only the surface of the thicket, the tops of the twigs; and it is by
+examination of the structure of this surface that we reconstruct in
+imagination the whole system of branches, and know that certain twigs,
+from their likeness, meet each other a little way down; that others
+are connected only very deep down, and that others, again, spring
+free almost from the beginning. The fossils of beds of rock of
+different geological ages give us incomplete views of the surface of
+the thicket of life, as it was in earlier times. These views we have
+of the past aspects of the animal kingdom are always much more
+incomplete than our knowledge of the existing aspect; partly because
+many animals, from the softness of their bodies, have left either no
+fossil remains at all, or only very imperfect casts of the external
+surfaces of their bodies; and partly because the turning of any animal
+into a fossil, and its subsequent discovery by a geologist, are
+occasional accidents; but, although the evidence is much less perfect
+than we could wish, there is enough of it to convince anatomists that
+existing animals are all in definite blood-relationship to each other,
+and to make them, in the investigation of any new animal, study its
+anatomy with the definite view of finding out its place in the family
+tree of the living world.
+
+When Huxley made his first discoveries, entirely different ideas
+prevailed. The animal kingdom was supposed to offer a series of types,
+of moulds, into which the Creator at the beginning of the world had
+cast the substance of life. These types were independent of each
+other, and had been so since the beginning of things. Anatomists were
+concerned chiefly with systematic work, with detecting and recording
+the slight differences that existed among the numbers of animals
+grouped around each type. No attempt was made to see connection
+between type and type, for where these had been separately created
+there was nothing to connect them except possibly some idea in the
+mind of the Creator. This apparently barren attitude to nature was
+stronger in men's minds because it had inspired the colossal
+achievements of Cuvier, a genius who, under whatever misconceptions he
+had worked, would have added greatly to knowledge. As we have seen in
+the first chapter, Huxley, through Wharton Jones, and through his own
+reading, had been brought under the more modern German thought of
+Johannes Mueller and Von Baer. He had learned to study the problems of
+living nature in the spirit of a physicist making investigations into
+dead nature. In the anatomy of animals, as in the structure of rocks
+and crystals, there were to be sought out "laws of growth" and shaping
+and moulding influences which accounted for the form of the
+structures. To use the technical term, he was a morphologist: one who
+studied the architecture of animals not merely in a spirit of admiring
+wonder, but with the definite idea of finding out the guiding
+principles which had determined these shapes.
+
+Not only was the prevailing method of investigation faulty, but actual
+knowledge of a large part of the animal kingdom was extremely limited.
+In the minds of most zoölogists the animal kingdom was divided into
+two great groups: the vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrate,
+or back-boned, animals were well known; comparatively speaking they
+are all built upon the type of man; and human anatomists, who indeed
+made up the greater number of all anatomists, using their exact
+knowledge of the human body, had studied many other vertebrates with
+minute care, and, from man to fishes, had arranged living vertebrates
+very much in the modern order. But the invertebrates were a vague and
+ill-assorted heap of animals. It was not recognised that among them
+there were many series of different grades of ascending complexity,
+and there was no well-known form to serve as a standard of comparison
+for all the others in the fashion that the body of man served as a
+standard of comparison for all vertebrates. Here and there, a few
+salient types such as insects and snails had been picked out, but
+knowledge of them helped but little with a great many of the
+invertebrates. The great Linnæus had divided the animal kingdom into
+four groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, but
+for the invertebrates he had done no more than to pick out the insects
+as one group and to call everything else "Vermes" or worms. The
+insects included all creatures possessed of an external skeleton or
+hard skin divided into jointed segments, and included forms so
+different as insects, spiders, crabs, and lobsters. But Vermes
+included all the members of the animal kingdom that were neither
+vertebrates nor insects. Cuvier advanced a little. He got rid of the
+comprehensive title Vermes--the label of the rubbish-heap of
+zoölogists. He divided animals into four great subkingdoms:
+Vertebrates, Mollusca, Articulata, Radiata. These names, however, only
+covered very superficial resemblances among the animals designated by
+them. The word _Mollusca_ only meant that the creatures grouped
+together had soft bodies, unsupported by internal or external
+articulated skeletons; and this character, or, rather, absence of
+character, was applied alike to many totally dissimilar creatures. The
+term _Articulata_ included not only Linnæus's insects but a number of
+soft-skinned, apparently jointed, worm-like animals such as the leech
+and earthworm. Lastly, the name _Radiata_ meant no more than that the
+organs of the creatures so designated were more or less disposed
+around a centre, as the sepals and petals of a flower are grouped
+around the central pistil; and it included animals so different as
+the starfish and sea-anemones and Medusæ. The names used in the
+classification were not only loosely applied but were based on the
+most superficial observation, and took no account of the intimate
+structures of the tissues and organs of the animals. With slight
+modifications, due to individual taste or special knowledge of small
+groups, later writers had followed Linnæus and Cuvier.
+
+It was with a view of the animal kingdom not much clearer than this
+that Huxley began his work on the Medusæ of the tropic seas. He began
+to study them no doubt simply because they were among the most
+abundant of the animals that could be obtained from the ship. He made
+endless dissections and drawings, and, above all, studied their minute
+anatomy with the microscope. They were all placed among Cuvier's
+_Radiata_, but, as Huxley said in the first line of his memoir:
+
+     "Perhaps no class of animals has been investigated with so little
+     satisfactory and comprehensive result, and this not for the want
+     of patience and ability on the part of the observers, but rather
+     because they have contented themselves with stating matters of
+     detail concerning particular genera and species, instead of
+     giving broad and general views of the whole class, considered as
+     organised upon a given type, and inquiring into its relations
+     with other families."
+
+He found that fully developed Medusæ consisted each of a disc with
+tentacles and vesicular bodies at the margins, a stomach, and canals
+proceeding from it, and generative organs. He traced this simple
+common structure through the complications and modifications in which
+it appeared in the different groups of Medusæ, in all this work
+bringing out the prevailing features of the anatomy in contrast to
+the individual peculiarities. He shewed that microscopically all the
+complicated systems of canals and organs were composed of two
+"foundation-membranes," two thin webs of cells, one of which formed
+the outermost layer of the body, while the inner formed the lining of
+the stomach and canals in the thinner parts of the body, such as the
+edges of the umbrella-like disc, and towards the ends of the
+tentacles. These thin webs formed practically all the body. In the
+thicker parts there was interposed between them an almost
+structureless layer of jelly, placed like padding between the lining
+and the cloth of a coat. He shewed that blood-vessels and blood were
+absent, in which he has been confirmed by all other observers. He
+declared more doubtfully against the existence of a special nervous
+system, and it was not until long after, when the methods of
+microscopic investigation were much more perfect, that the delicate
+nerve-cells and nerve-fibres, which we now know to exist, were
+discovered.
+
+Having thus shewn the peculiar organisation of the group he turned to
+seek out its allies among other families. The Medusæ consisted
+essentially of two membranes inclosing a variously shaped cavity
+inasmuch as all its organs were so composed. The generative organs
+were external, being variously developed processes of the two
+membranes. The peculiar organs called thread-cells--poisoned darts by
+the discharge of which prey could be paralysed--were universally
+present. What other families presented these peculiarities?
+
+There are to be found abundantly in sea-water, and less frequently in
+fresh water, innumerable forms of animal life called Zoöphytes or
+animal plants because they occur as encrusting masses like lichens, or
+branched forests like moss, on the surface of stones and shells. A
+common habit gave this set of creatures their common name; but,
+although they were grouped together, there was no greater affinity
+among them than there is racial affinity among people who clothe
+themselves for an evening party in the same conventional dress. Huxley
+examined a large number of these, and picked out from them two great
+families of polyps, the Hydroid and Sertularian polyps, which each
+consist of colonies of creatures very much like the little fresh-water
+hydra. He shewed that the tubular body of these and the ring of
+tentacles surrounding the mouth were composed of the same two
+foundation-membranes of which all the organs of Medusæ are composed.
+He found in them the poisoned arrows or thread-cells of the Medusæ,
+and the same external position of the reproductive organs. And,
+lastly, he separated from all other creatures, and associated with his
+new group, some of the strangest and most beautiful animals of the
+tropic seas, known to science as the Physophoridæ and the Diphyidæ.
+The best-known of these is the "Portuguese man-of-war," the body of
+which consists of a large pear-shaped vesicle which floats on the
+water like a bladder. From the lower part of this depend into the
+water large and small nutritive branches, each ending in a mouth
+surrounded by a circle of waving tentacles armed with batteries of
+thread-cells, while another set of hanging protrusions bear the
+grape-like reproductive organs. On the upper surface of the bladder is
+fixed a purple sail of the most brilliant colour, by which the
+floating creature is blown through the water. When the weather is
+rough, the bladder empties, and the creature sinks down into the quiet
+water below the waves, to rise again when the storm is over. This,
+and its equally wonderful allies, Huxley showed to be a complicated
+colony of hydra-like creatures, each part being composed of two
+membranes, and therefore essentially similar to Medusæ. Thus, by a
+great piece of constructive work, an assemblage of animals was
+gathered into a new group and shewn to be organised upon one simple
+and uniform plan, and, even in the most complex and aberrant forms,
+reducible to the same type. The group, and Huxley's conception of its
+structure, are now absolutely accepted by anatomists, and have made
+one of the corner-stones of our modern idea of the arrangement of the
+animal kingdom. With the exception of sponges, concerning the exact
+relations of which there is still dispute, and of a few sets of
+parasitic and possibly degenerate creatures, all animals, the bodies
+of which are multicellular, from the simple fresh-water hydra up to
+man, are divided into two great groups. The structure of the simpler
+of these groups is exactly what Huxley found to be of importance in
+the Medusæ. The body wall, from which all the organs protrude,
+consists merely of a web of cells arranged in two sheets or membranes,
+and the single cavity consists of a central stomach, surrounded by
+these membranes, the cavity remaining simple or giving rise to a
+number of branching canals. The members of this great division of the
+animal kingdom are the creatures which Huxley selected and placed
+together, with the addition of the sea-anemones and the medusa-like
+Ctenophora, which, indeed, he mentioned in his memoir as being related
+to the others, but reserved fuller consideration for a future
+occasion. This group is now called the Coelenterata, the name
+implying that the creatures are simply hollow stomachs, and it is
+contrasted in the strongest way with the group Coelomata, in which
+are placed all the higher animals, from the simplest worm up to man;
+animals in which, in addition to the two foundation-membranes of the
+Coelenterata, there is a third foundation-membrane, and in which, in
+addition to the simple stomach cavity with its offshoots, there is a
+true body-cavity or coelome, and usually a set of spaces and
+channels containing a blood-fluid. The older method of naming groups
+of animals after some obvious superficial character lingered on for
+some years in text-books and treatises, but in this memoir the young
+ship-surgeon had replaced it by the modern scientific method of
+grouping animals together only because of real identity of structure.
+
+There is yet left to be noticed perhaps the most wonderful of all the
+ideas in this first memoir by Huxley. In the course of describing the
+two foundation membranes of the Medusæ he remarks:
+
+     "It is curious to remark, that throughout, the outer and inner
+     membranes appear to bear the same physiological relation to one
+     another as do the serous and mucous layers of the germ: the outer
+     becoming developed into the muscular system, and giving rise to
+     the organs of offence and defence: the inner on the other hand
+     appearing to be more closely subservient to the purposes of
+     nutrition and generation."
+
+In the whole range of science it would be difficult to select an
+utterance more prophetic of future knowledge than these few words.
+Huxley had been reading the investigations of Von Baer into the early
+development of back-boned animals. He had learned from them the great
+generalisation, that the younger stages of these animals resemble one
+another more closely than the adult stages, and that in an early stage
+in the development of all these animals the beginning of the embryo
+consists of two layers of cells, in fact of two foundation-membranes,
+one forming specially the wall of the future digestive canal, the
+other forming the most external portion of the future animal. In these
+days nothing could have seemed a remoter or more unlikely comparison
+than one instituted between Medusæ and the embryonic stages of
+back-boned animals. But Huxley made it, not allowing the evidence
+brought before his reason to be swamped by preconceived ideas. At the
+time he did no more than to make the comparison. It was much later
+that the full importance of it became known, when more extended work
+on the embryology of vertebrates and of the different groups of the
+invertebrates had made it plain that the two foundation-membranes of
+Huxley occur in all animals from the Medusæ up to man. In the group of
+Coelenterata the organisation remains throughout life as nothing
+more than a folding in and folding out of these membranes. The early
+stages of all the higher animals similarly consist of complications of
+the two membranes; but later on there is added to them a third
+membrane. Thus the group that Huxley gathered together comprises those
+animals that as adults remain in a condition of development which is
+passed through in the embryonic life of all higher animals. The
+immense importance of this conclusion becomes plain, and the
+conclusion itself seems obvious, when seen in the light of the
+doctrine of descent. The group of Coelenterata represents a
+surviving, older condition in the evolution of animals. Huxley
+himself, when on the _Rattlesnake_, regarded evolution only as a vague
+metaphysical dream, and he made the comparison which has been
+described without any afterthought of what it implied. In this we have
+the earliest authentic instance of the peculiar integrity of mind
+which was so characteristic of him in his dealings with philosophy and
+tradition. He never allowed any weight of authority or any apparent
+disturbance of existing ideas to alter the conclusions to which his
+reason led him. This intellectual courage made him fitted to be the
+leader in the battle for evolution and against traditional thought,
+and we shall find again and again in consideration of his work that it
+was the keynote of his life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY DAYS IN LONDON
+
+     Scientific Work as Unattached Ship-Surgeon--Introduction to
+     London Scientific Society--Translating, Reviewing, and
+     Lecturing--Ascidians--Molluscs and the Archetype--Criticism of
+     Pre-Darwinian Evolution--Appointment to Geological Survey.
+
+
+The _Rattlesnake_ was paid off at Chatham on November 9, 1850. In the
+natural course of events Huxley would have been appointed before long
+to active service upon another ship. But he had no intention of
+relapsing into the position of a mere navy doctor; he had accumulated
+sufficient scientific material to keep him employed on scientific
+investigation for years, and so he applied to the Admiralty to "be
+borne on the books" of H.M.S. _Fisgard_ at Woolwich,--that is to say,
+to be appointed assistant-surgeon to the ship "for particular
+service," so that he should not be compelled to live on board, but
+might remain in town, and, with free access to libraries and museums,
+work up the observations he had made on the _Rattlesnake_ into serious
+and substantial contributions to science. His request was granted,
+largely by the aid of his old chief, Sir W. Burnett, who continued to
+take the most useful interest in the young man he had originally
+nominated to the service. In a letter to him Huxley described the
+investigations which he desired to continue as being chiefly those on
+"the anatomy of certain Gasteropod and Pteropod Mollusca, of Firola
+and Atlantis, of Salpa and Pyrosoma, of two new Ascidians, namely,
+Appendicularia and Doliolum, of Sagitta and certain Annelids, of the
+auditory and circulatory organs of certain transparent Crustacea, and
+of the Medusæ and Polyps." His request was granted, and for the next
+three years Huxley lived in London with his brother, on the exiguous
+income of an assistant-surgeon, and devoted himself to research. He
+became almost at once of the first rank among English anatomists. The
+result of the paper on Medusæ in the _Transactions of the Royal
+Society_ was that he was elected a Fellow of the Society on June 5,
+1851, and a year later received a Royal Medal of the Society. He made
+many warm friendships both among the older and the younger generations
+of scientific men. In his obituary notice of Huxley, Sir Michael
+Foster wrote:
+
+     "By Edward Forbes, in whose nature there was much that was akin
+     to his own, and with whom he had some acquaintance before his
+     voyage, he was at once greeted as a comrade, and with Joseph
+     Dalton Hooker, to whom he was drawn at the very first by their
+     common experience as navy surgeons, he began an attachment which,
+     strengthened by like biological aspirations, grew closer as their
+     lives went on. In the first year after his return, in the autumn
+     of 1851, he made the acquaintance of John Tyndall at the meeting
+     of the British Association at Ipswich, and the three, Hooker,
+     Huxley, and Tyndall, finding how much in common were all their
+     scientific views and desires, formed then and there a triple
+     scientific alliance."
+
+Repeated efforts were made by these three, and by more influential
+friends, to induce the Admiralty to contribute to the expense of
+publishing Huxley's scientific results, as they had given a pledge to
+encourage officers who had done scientific work. These efforts lasted
+unavailingly for nearly three years, and then, as Huxley says: "The
+Admiralty, getting tired, I suppose, cut short the discussion by
+ordering me to join a ship, which thing I declined to do, and, as
+Rastignac, in the _Père Goriot_, says to Paris, I said to London, _à
+nous deux_." This light phrase conceals a courageous and momentous
+decision. He was absolutely without private resources, and having
+abandoned his professional work he had no salary of any kind. For a
+year or so he supported himself by writing reviews and popular
+scientific articles, striving all the time not only to gain his bread
+but to continue his scientific work and make it known to the public.
+He desired to get a professorship of physiology or of comparative
+anatomy, and as vacancies occurred he applied, but unsuccessfully. At
+the same time, he tells us, he and his friend, John Tyndall, were
+
+     "candidates, he for the Chair of Physics, and I for that of
+     Natural History in the University of Toronto, which, fortunately,
+     as it turned out, would not look at either of us. I say
+     fortunately, not from any lack of respect for the University of
+     Toronto; but because I soon made up my mind that London was the
+     place for me, and hence I have steadily declined the inducements
+     to leave it which have at various times been offered."
+
+In these early years in London Huxley's work was most varied. A large
+number of anonymous articles by him appeared in the _Literary
+Gazette_, and in other periodicals. He assisted to remove the insular
+narrowness from English scientific work by translating many foreign
+memoirs. With the collaboration of Mr. Henfrey, he edited a series of
+scientific memoirs, all of which were translated from foreign
+languages, and many by his own pen. With the assistance of Mr. George
+Busk he made a translation of Kölliker's _Histology_, a great treatise
+on microscopic anatomy which played a large part in the development of
+the modern English schools of anatomy and physiology. He made some
+valuable contributions to Todd and Bowman's _Cyclopædia of Anatomy_,
+an elaborate publication now nearly forgotten and practically
+superseded, but which was the standard anatomical work of the middle
+of this century. He was unable to progress rapidly with his work upon
+oceanic Medusæ, as he was uncertain how to have it published; the
+Admiralty refused to assist, and it was too lengthy for publication in
+the volumes of the learned Societies. As a matter of fact, he did not
+publish it until 1858, when it appeared as a separate memoir. To the
+_Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_ and to the _Transactions
+of the Royal and Linnæan Societies_ he contributed a large number of
+memoirs dealing with the microscopic anatomy and relationships of
+invertebrates, and, lastly, he gave a series of addresses at the Royal
+Institution, which had been founded as a means by which leading men of
+science might give accounts of their work to London society. Abstracts
+of these lectures are published in the early volumes of the
+_Proceedings of the Royal Institution_ and are interesting as shewing
+the kinds of zoölogical subjects which were attracting the attention
+of Huxley and which he considered of sufficient interest and
+importance to bring to the notice of the general public. The first of
+these lectures, and probably the first given in public by Huxley,
+occurred on April 30, 1852, and was entitled "Animal Individuality."
+The problem as to what is meant by an individual had been raised in
+his mind by consideration of many of the forms of marine life,
+notably compound structures like the Portuguese man-of-war, and
+creatures like the salps, which form floating chains often many yards
+in length. He explained that the word _individual_ covers at least
+three quite different kinds of conceptions. There is, first, what he
+described as arbitrary individuality, an individuality which is given
+by the mind of the observer and does not actually exist in the thing
+considered. Thus a landscape is in a sense an individual thing, but
+only so far as it is a particular part of the surface of the earth,
+isolated for the time in the mind of the person looking at it. If the
+observer shift his position, the range of the landscape alters and
+becomes something else. Next there are material, or practically
+accidental individual things, such as crystals or pieces of stone;
+and, lastly, there are living individuals which, as he pointed out,
+were cycles. All living things are born into the world, grow up, and
+die, and it was to the cycle of life, from the egg to the adult which
+produces eggs, that he gave the name individual. In a simple animal
+like Hydra there is no difficulty in accepting this plain definition
+of individuality; but Huxley went on to compare with Hydra a compound
+creature like the Portuguese man-of-war, which really is composed of a
+colony of Hydra-like creatures, the different members of the colony
+being more or less altered to serve different functions. All these
+have come from the branching of a single simple creature produced from
+an egg, and to the whole colony Huxley gave the name of zoölogical
+individual. The salps give a still wider interpretation to this view
+of individuality. The original salp produced from the egg gives rise
+to many salps, which may either remain attached in a chain, or,
+breaking away from one another, may live separately. Huxley extended
+the use of the word _individual_ so as to include as a single
+zoölogical individual the whole set of creatures cohering in chains or
+breaking apart, which had been produced by budding from the product of
+a single egg-cell. This subtle analysis of ideas delighted and
+interested his contemporaries, and the train of logical examination of
+what is meant by individuality has persisted to the present time. Like
+all other zoölogical ideas, this has been considerably altered by the
+conception of evolution. Zoölogists no longer attempt to stretch
+logical conceptions until they fit enormous and different parts of the
+living world. They recognise that the living world, because it is
+alive, is constantly changing, and that living things pass through
+different stages or kinds of individuality in the course of their
+lives. A single egg-cell is one kind, perhaps the simplest kind, of
+zoölogical individual; when it has grown up into a simple polyp it has
+passed into a second grade of individuality; when, by budding, the
+polyp has become branched, a third grade is reached, and when the
+branches have become different, in obedience to the different purposes
+which they are to serve in the whole compound creature, a still
+further grade is reached. Huxley's attempt to find a meaning for
+individuality that would apply equally to a single simple creature, to
+a compound creature, and to the large number of separate creatures,
+all developed by budding from one creature, is a striking instance of
+his singular capacity for bringing apparently dissimilar facts into
+harmony, by finding out the common underlying principle, and, although
+we no longer accept this particular conclusion, we cannot fail to
+notice in it the peculiar powers of his mind.
+
+A second and even more interesting Royal Institution lecture dealt
+with the "Identity of Structure in Animals and Plants." At the present
+time every educated person knows that the life of animals and plants
+alike depends on the fact that their bodies are composed of a living
+material called protoplasm, a material which is identical in every
+important respect in both kingdoms of the living world. In the early
+fifties, scientific opinion was by no means clear on this matter, and
+certainly public opinion was most vague. Huxley discussed what was
+meant by organisation, and shewed that in every essential respect
+plants and animals alike were organised beings. Then he went on to
+explain the cellular theory of Schwann, which was then a novelty to a
+general audience. Schwann, in studying the microscopic structure of
+plants, noticed that their bodies were made up of little cases with
+firm walls; these he called _cells_, and declared that the whole body
+of the plant was composed of cells. As the walls of these cells were
+the most obvious and visible feature, it was supposed that they were
+the most essential part of the structure, and there was some
+difficulty in applying the cellular theory to the bodies of animals,
+as in most cases there are no easily visible cell-walls in animal
+tissues. As the result of his own observation, and from his reading of
+the work of others, Huxley laid down in the clearest way what is now
+accepted by everyone--that the presence of walls is of minor
+importance, and that it is the slimy contents of the cells, what is
+called "protoplasm," that is the important element. He declared that
+the protoplasm of animals was identical with the protoplasm of plants,
+and that plants were "animals confined in wooden cases." He agreed
+with Schwann that the cell, using the term to imply the contents
+rather than the wall, was of fundamental importance, and was the unit
+of structure of the whole world of life. On the other hand, he
+declared that it could not be looked at as the unit of function: he
+denied that the powers and properties of a living body were simply the
+sum of the powers and properties of the single cells. In this opinion
+he was not followed by physiologists until quite recently. For many
+years physiologists held that cells were units of function just as
+much as they are units of structure; but in the last ten years there
+has been a strong return to the opinion of Huxley.
+
+In 1851 two very important memoirs were published in the _Transactions
+of the Royal Society_, which contained the results of Huxley's
+observations of the interesting animals known as "tunicates." The
+first of these papers begins as follows:
+
+     "The Salpæ, those strange gelatinous animals, through masses of
+     which the voyager in the great ocean sometimes sails day after
+     day, have been the subject of a great controversy since the time
+     of the publication of the celebrated work of Chamisso, _De
+     Animalibus Quibusdam e Classe Vermium Linnæana_. In this work
+     there were set forth, for the first time, the singular phenomena
+     presented by the reproductive processes of these
+     animals,--phenomena so strange, and so utterly unlike anything
+     then known to occur in the whole province of zoölogy, that
+     Chamisso's admirably clear and truthful account was received with
+     almost as much distrust as if he had announced the existence of a
+     veritable Peter Schlemihl."
+
+According to Chamisso, salps appeared in two forms: solitary forms,
+and forms in which a number of salps are united into a long chain.
+Each salp of the aggregate form contains within it an embryo receiving
+nutrition from the mother by a connection similar to the placenta by
+which the embryo of a mammal receives nourishment from the blood of
+the mother. These embryos grow up into the solitary form, and the
+solitary form gives rise to a long chain of the aggregate form which
+developes in the interior of the body. Chamisso compared this progress
+to the development of insects. "Supposing," he said, "caterpillars did
+not bodily change into butterflies, but by a process of sexual
+breeding produced young which grew into the ordinary adults, and that
+these adults, as indeed they do, gave rise to caterpillars by sexual
+reproduction, then there would be a true alternation of generations."
+The first generation would give rise to a second generation totally
+unlike itself, and this second generation would reproduce, not its
+kind, but the first generation; such an alternation of generations he
+stated to occur among the salps. Huxley had an excellent opportunity
+to study this question at Cape York in November, 1849. "For a time the
+sea was absolutely crowded with Salpæ, in all stages of growth, and of
+size very convenient for examination." He was able to verify the
+general truth of Chamisso's statement. The aggregate form of Salpa
+always gives rise to the solitary salps, and the solitary salps always
+give rise to chains of the aggregate salps. But the process of
+reproduction he shewed to be quite different in the two cases. The
+solitary salp produces in its interior a little stolon or diverticulum
+which contains an outgrowth from the circulatory system, and this
+stolon gradually becomes pinched off into the members of the chain of
+the aggregate form. The salps of the aggregate form are therefore
+merely buds from the solitary form, and are not produced in the
+ordinary way, by sexual generation. On the other hand, each salp of
+the chain has within it a true egg-cell. This is fertilised by a male
+cell, and within the body of the parent, nourished by the blood of the
+parent, grows up into the solitary form. There is then an alternation
+of generations, but there are not two sexual generations. The sexual
+generation of chain salps gives rise to forms which reproduce by buds.
+From this conclusion, with which all later observers have agreed,
+Huxley went on to his theory of individuality. Different names had
+been given to the two forms, but Huxley declared that neither form was
+a true zoölogical individual; they were only parts of individuals or
+organs, and the true individual was the complete cycle involving both
+forms.
+
+In addition to determining the interesting method of reproduction,
+Huxley made an elaborate investigation of the structure of Salpa. On
+one occasion only the _Rattlesnake_ came across a quantity of an
+allied Ascidian, Pyrosoma, which had received its name from its
+phosphorescence.
+
+     "The sky was clear but moonless, and the sea calm; and a more
+     beautiful sight can hardly be imagined than that presented from
+     the deck of the ship as she drifted, hour after hour, through
+     this shoal of miniature pillars of fire gleaming out of the dark
+     sea, with an ever-waning, ever brightening, soft bluish light, as
+     far as the eye could reach on every side. The Pyrosomata floated
+     deep, and it was only with difficulty that some were procured for
+     examination and placed in a bucketful of sea-water. The
+     phosphorescence was intermittent, periods of darkness alternating
+     with periods of brilliancy. The light commenced in one spot,
+     apparently on the surface of one of the zoöids, and gradually
+     spread from this as a centre in all directions; then the whole
+     was lighted up: it remained brilliant for a few seconds, and then
+     gradually faded and died away, until the whole mass was dark
+     again. Friction at any point induces the light at that point, and
+     from thence the phosphorescence spreads over the whole, while the
+     creature is quite freshly taken; afterwards, the illumination
+     arising from friction is only local."
+
+Dealing with these creatures in the broad anatomical spirit with which
+he had studied the Medusæ, Huxley shewed the typical structure
+manifested in the different forms, and that was common to them and the
+Ascidians or sea-squirts of the seashore. In a second paper on
+"Appendicularia and Doliolum" he made further contributions to our
+knowledge of these interesting creatures. Appendicularia is a curious
+little Ascidian, differing from all the others in its possession of a
+tail. Earlier observers had obtained it on various parts of the ocean
+surface, but had failed entirely to detect its relationship to the
+ordinary Ascidians. Chamisso got it near Behring's Straits and thought
+that it was more nearly allied to "Venus's Girdle," a Coelenterate.
+Mertens, another distinguished zoölogist, had declared that "the
+relation of this animal with the Pteropods (a peculiar group of
+molluscs) is unmistakable"; while Müller, a prince among German
+anatomists, confessed that "he did not know in what division of the
+animal kingdom to place this creature." Huxley shewed that it
+possessed all the characteristic features of the Ascidians, the same
+arrangement of organs, the same kind of nervous system, a respiratory
+chamber formed from the fore part of the alimentary canal, and a
+peculiar organ running along the pharynx which Huxley called the
+endostyle and which is one of the most striking peculiarities of the
+whole group. The real nature of the tail was Huxley's most striking
+discovery. He pointed out that ordinary Ascidians begin life as tiny
+tadpole-like creatures which swim freely by the aid of a long caudal
+appendage; and that while these better-known Ascidians lose their
+tails when they settle down into adult life, the Appendiculariæ are
+Ascidians which retain this larval structure throughout life. Von Baer
+had shown that in the great natural groups of higher animals some
+forms occur which typify, in their adult condition, the larval state
+of the higher forms of the group. Thus, among the amphibia, frogs have
+tails in the larval or tadpole condition; but newts throughout life
+remain in the larval or tailed condition. Appendicularia he considered
+to be the lowest form of the Ascidians, and to typify in its adult
+condition the larval stages of the higher Ascidians.
+
+By this remarkable investigation of the structure of the group of
+Ascidians, and display of the various grades of organisation, Huxley
+paved the way for one of the great modern advances in knowledge. When,
+later on, the idea of evolution was accepted, and zoölogists began
+hunting out the pedigree of the back-boned animals, it was discovered
+that Ascidians were modern representatives of an important stage in
+the ancestry of vertebrate animals, and, therefore, of man himself.
+There are few more interesting chapters in genealogical zoölogy than
+those which reveal the relationship between Amphioxus and fish on the
+one hand, and Ascidians on the other; for fish are vertebrates, and
+Ascidians, on the old view, are lowly invertebrates. The details of
+these relationships have been made known to us by the brilliant
+investigations of several Germans, by Kowalevsky, a Russian, by the
+Englishmen Ray Lankester and Willey, and by several Americans and
+Frenchmen. But behind the work of all these lies the pioneer work of
+Huxley, who first gathered the group of Ascidians together, and in a
+series of masterly investigations described its typical structure.
+
+Huxley's next great piece of work was embodied in a memoir published
+in the _Transactions of the Royal Society_ in 1853, and which remains
+to the present day a model of luminous description and far-reaching
+ideas. It was a treatise on the structure of the great group of
+molluscs, and displays in a striking fashion his method of handling
+anatomical facts, and deducing from them the great underlying
+principles of construction. The shell-fish with which he dealt
+specially were those distinguished as cephalous, because, unlike
+creatures such as the oyster and mussel, they had something readily
+comparable with the head of vertebrates. He began by pointing out what
+problems he hoped to solve. The anatomy of many of the cephalous
+molluscs was known, but the relation of structures present in one to
+structures present in another group had not been settled.
+
+     "It is not settled whether the back of a cuttle-fish answers to
+     the dorsal or ventral surface of a gasteropod. It is not decided
+     whether the arms and funnels of the one have or have not their
+     homologues in the other. The dorsal integument of a Doris and the
+     cloak of a whelk are both called 'mantle,' without any evidence
+     to show that they are really homologous. Nor do very much more
+     definite notions seem to have prevailed with regard to the
+     archetypal molluscous form, and the mode in which (if such an
+     archetype exist) it becomes modified in the different secondary
+     types."
+
+He had taken from the surface of the sea a number of transparent
+shell-fish, and had been able to study the structure and arrangement
+of their organs "by simple inspection, without so much as disturbing a
+single beat of their hearts." From knowledge gained in this fashion,
+and from ordinary dissection of a number of common snails,
+cephalopods, and pteropods, he was able to describe in a very complete
+way the anatomical structure of cephalous molluscs. The next natural
+step, he stated, would have been to describe the embryonic development
+of the organs of these different creatures in order that a true
+knowledge might be gained of what were the homologous or really
+corresponding parts in each. Having had no opportunity to make such
+embryological studies for himself, he fell back on numerous accounts
+of development by Kölliker, Van Beneden, Gegenbauer, and others, and
+so gradually arrived at a conception of what he called the "archetype"
+of the cephalous molluscs. As the word _archetype_ was borrowed from
+old metaphysical ideas dating back to the time of Plato, he took care
+to state that what he meant by it was no more than a form embodying
+all that could be affirmed equally respecting every single kind of
+cephalous mollusc, and by no means an "idea" upon which it could be
+supposed that animal forms had been modelled. He described this
+archetype, and showed the condition of the different systems of organs
+which it could be supposed to possess, and how these organs were
+modified in the different existing groups. This archetypal mollusc of
+Huxley's was a creature with a bilaterally symmetrical head and body.
+On the ventral side of the body it possessed a peculiar locomotor
+appendage, the so-called foot, and the dorsal surface of the body
+secreted a shell. Its nervous system consisted of three pairs of
+ganglia or brains, one pair in the head, one in the foot, and a third
+in the viscera. He shewed how the widely different groups of cephalous
+molluscs could be conceived as modifications of this structure, and
+extended the conception so as to cover all other molluscs.
+
+Quite apart from the anatomical value of this paper, and although all
+technical details have been omitted here, it is necessary to say that
+merely as a series of intricate anatomical descriptions and
+comparisons, this memoir was one of the most valuable of any that
+Huxley wrote. The working out of the theory of the archetype is
+peculiarly interesting to compare with modern conceptions. To those of
+us who began biological work after the idea of evolution had been
+impressed upon anatomical work, it is very difficult to follow
+Huxley's papers without reading into them evolutionary ideas. In the
+article upon Mollusca, written for the ninth edition of the
+_Encyclopædia Britannica_, by Professor Ray Lankester, the same device
+of an archetypal or, as Lankester calls it, a schematic mollusc, is
+employed in order to explain the relations of the different structures
+found in different groups of molluscs to one another. Lankester's
+schematic mollusc differs from Huxley's archetypal mollusc only as a
+finished modern piece of mechanism, the final result of years of
+experiment, differs from the original invention. The method of
+comparing the schematic mollusc with the different divergent forms in
+different groups is identical, and yet, while the ideas of Darwin are
+accepted in every line of Lankester's work, Huxley was writing six
+years before the publication of _The Origin of Species_. There was
+growing up in Huxley's mind, partly from his own attempts to arrange
+the anatomical facts he discovered in an intelligible series, the idea
+that within a group the divergencies of structure to be found had come
+about by the modification of an original type. Not only did he
+conceive of such an evolution as the only possible explanation of the
+facts, but he definitely used the word _evolution_ to convey his
+ideas. On the other hand, he was firmly convinced that such evolution
+was confined within the great groups. For each group there was a
+typical structure, and modifications by defect or excess of the parts
+of the definite archetype gave rise to the different members of the
+group. Moreover, he confined this evolution in the strictest possible
+way to each group; he did not believe that what was called
+anamorphosis--the transition of a lower type into a higher type--ever
+occurred. To use his own words:
+
+     "If, however, all Cephalous Mollusca, _i.e._, all Cephalopoda,
+     Gasteropoda, and Lamellibranchiata, be only modifications by
+     excess or defect of the parts of a definite archetype, then, I
+     think, it follows as a necessary consequence, that no
+     anamorphosis takes place in this group. There is no progression
+     from a lower to a higher type, but merely a more or less complete
+     evolution of one type. It may indeed be a matter of very grave
+     consideration whether true anamorphosis ever occurs in the whole
+     animal kingdom. If it do, then the doctrine that every natural
+     group is organised after a definite archetype, a doctrine which
+     seems to me as important for zoölogy as the theory of definite
+     proportions for chemistry, must be given up."
+
+It is of great historical interest to notice how closely actual
+consideration of the facts of the animal kingdom took zoölogists to an
+idea of evolution, and yet how far they were from it as we hold it
+now. It is fashionable at the present time to attempt to depreciate
+the immense change introduced by Darwin into zoölogical speculation,
+and the method employed is largely partial quotation, or reference to
+the kind of ideas found in papers such as this memoir by Huxley. The
+comparison between the types of the great groups and the combining
+proportions of the chemical elements shows clearly that Huxley
+regarded the structural plans of the great groups as properties
+necessary and inherent in these groups, just as the property of a
+chemical element to combine with another chemical substance only in a
+fixed proportion is necessary and inherent in the existing conception
+of it. There was no glimmer of the idea that these types were not
+inherent, but merely historical results of a long and slow series of
+changes produced by the interaction of the varied conditions of life
+and the intrinsic qualities of living material.
+
+In two lectures delivered at the Royal Institution in 1854 and 1855,
+the one on "The Common Plan of Animal Forms," the other on "The
+Zoölogical Arguments Adduced in Favour of the Progressive Development
+of Animal Life in Time," show, so far as the published abstracts go,
+the same condition of mind. The idea of progressive development of all
+life from common forms was not unknown to Huxley and his
+contemporaries, but was rejected by them. In the first of these two
+lectures he took four great groups of animals, the Vertebrates, the
+Articulata, the Mollusca, and the Radiata, and explained what was the
+archetype of each. He shewed the distinctiveness of each plan of
+structure, and then discussed the relations of the ideas suggested by
+Von Baer to these archetypes. He stated explicitly that while the
+adult forms were quite unlike one another, there were traces of a
+common plan to be derived from a study of their embryonic development.
+Such a trace of a common plan he had himself suggested when he
+compared the foundation-membranes of the Medusæ with the first
+foundation-membranes of vertebrate embryos. This was going a long way
+towards modern ideas; but he stopped short, and gave no hint that he
+believed in the possibility of the development of one plan from a
+lower or simpler plan. The second lecture dealt with the kind of ideas
+which were crystallised in the popular but striking work of Chambers,
+entitled _Vestiges of Creation_. Chambers attacked the theological
+view that all animals and plants had been created at the beginning of
+the world, and maintained that geological evidence showed the
+occurrence of a progressive development of animal life. Huxley, like
+all zoölogists and geologists who knew anything of the occurrence of
+fossils in the rocks of past ages, agreed with the general truth of
+the conception that a progressive development had occurred which
+showed that the species now existing were represented in the oldest
+rocks by species now extinct. But the examples he brought forward were
+all limited to evolution within the great groups, and did not affect
+his idea that archetypes were fixed and did not pass into each other.
+Moreover, he summed up strongly against the suggestion that there was
+any parallel between the succession of life in the past and the forms
+assumed by modern animals in their embryological development. So far
+as the present writer is able to judge from study of the literature of
+this period, the possibility of evolution was present in an active
+form in the minds of Huxley and of his contemporaries, and in an
+extraordinary way they brought together evidence which afterwards
+became of firstrate importance; but the idea in its modern sense was
+rejected by them.
+
+In 1854 Huxley's uncomfortable period of probation came to an end.
+Edward Forbes, who held the posts of Palæontologist to the Geological
+Survey, and Lecturer on General Natural History at the Metropolitan
+School of Science Applied to Mining and the Arts, vacated these on his
+appointment to the Chair of Natural History in the University of
+Edinburgh, and Sir H. De La Beche, the then Director-General of the
+Geological Survey, offered both the posts to Huxley--who in June and
+July of that year had given lectures at the school in place of Forbes.
+Huxley says himself:
+
+     "I refused the former point-blank, and accepted the latter only
+     provisionally, telling Sir Henry that I did not care for fossils,
+     and that I should give up natural history as soon as I could get
+     a physiological post. But I held the office for thirty-one years,
+     and a large part of my work has been palæontological."
+
+The salary of the post of Lecturer on Natural History was scanty, but
+De La Beche, who evidently recognised Huxley's genius, and was anxious
+to have him attached even against his will to palæontological work,
+created a place for him as Naturalist to the Geological Survey, by
+which a more suitable income was found for him. His official duties
+were at first in the Geological Museum of the Survey, but were
+distinguished from those of the special Palæontologist, Mr. Harvey.
+His income was now assured, and for the rest of his life, until
+towards its close, when he retired to Eastbourne, he lived the
+ordinary life of a professional man of science in London. He was now
+able to marry, and on July 21, 1855, he was married to a lady whom he
+had met in Sydney in 1847, and whom he had not seen since the
+_Rattlesnake_ left Sydney finally in the beginning of May, 1850.
+
+During the years 1856, 1857, and 1858, he held the post of Fullerian
+Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution, choosing as the
+title of his first two courses of lectures Physiology and Comparative
+Anatomy, as he still cherished the idea of being in the first place a
+physiologist.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857 Reproduced by permission from
+_Natural Science_, vol. vii., No. 42]
+
+     "Moreover," writes Professor Michael Foster, "like most other
+     young professional men of science, he had to eke out his not too
+     ample income by labours undertaken chiefly for their pecuniary
+     reward. He acted as examiner, conducting for instance, during the
+     years 1856 to 1863, and again 1865 to 1870, the examinations in
+     physiology and comparative anatomy at the University of London,
+     making even an examination paper feel the influence of the new
+     spirit in biology; and among his examinees at that time there was
+     at least one who, knowing Huxley's writings, but his writings
+     only, looked forward to the _viva voce_ test, not as a trial but
+     as an occasion of delight. He wrote almost incessantly for all
+     editors who were prepared to give adequate pay to a pen able to
+     deal with scientific themes in a manner at once exact and
+     popular, incisive and correct. During this period he was
+     gradually passing from his first anatomical love, the structure
+     of the Invertebrates, to Vertebrate work, and although he
+     continued to take a deep interest in the course of the progress
+     of research in that group of animals, the publication of his
+     great work on oceanic hydrozoa by the Ray Society was the last
+     piece of important work he wrote upon any anatomical subject
+     apart from vertebrates. His work in connection with the
+     Geological Survey naturally attracted his attention most closely
+     to vertebrates, and, towards the close of the fifties, he was led
+     to make a special study of vertebrate embryology, a subject which
+     the investigations of Kölliker and others in Germany were
+     bringing into prominence. The first result of this new direction
+     of his enquiries was embodied in a Croonian Lecture delivered in
+     1858 'On the Theory of the Vertebrate Skull.' Sir Richard Owen,
+     who was at that time the leading vertebrate anatomist in England,
+     had given his support to an extremely complicated view of the
+     skull as being formed of a series of expanded vertebræ moulded
+     together. The theory was really a legacy from an old German
+     school of which the chief members were Goethe, the poet, and
+     Oken, a naturalist, who was more of a metaphysical philosopher
+     than of a morphologist. Huxley pointed out the futility of
+     attempting to regard the skull as a series of segments, and of
+     supporting this view by trusting to superficial resemblances and
+     abstract reasoning, when there was a definite method by which the
+     actual building up of the skull might be followed. Following the
+     lines laid down by Rathke, another of the great Germans from
+     whose investigations he was always so willing to find
+     corroboration and assistance in his own labours, he traced the
+     actual development of the skull in the individual. He shewed
+     that the foundations of the skull and of the backbone were laid
+     down in a fashion quite different, and that it was impossible to
+     regard both skull and backbone as modifications of a common type
+     laid down right along the axis of the body. The spinal column and
+     the skull start from the same primitive condition, whence they
+     immediately begin to diverge. It may be true to say that there is
+     a primitive identity of structure between the spinal or vertebral
+     column and the skull; but it is no more true that the adult skull
+     is a modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that
+     the vertebral column is a modified skull."
+
+Since this famous lecture, a number of distinguished anatomists have
+studied the development of the skull more fully; but they have not
+departed from the methods of investigation laid down by Huxley, and
+their conclusions have differed only in greater elaboration of detail
+from the broad lines laid down by him. Apart from its direct
+scientific value, this lecture was of importance as marking the place
+to which Huxley had attained in the scientific world. Two years later,
+it is true, the London _Times_, referring to a famous debate at a
+meeting of the British Association at Oxford, spoke of him as "a Mr.
+Huxley"; but in the scientific world he was accepted as the leader of
+the younger anatomists, and as one at least capable of rivalling Owen,
+who was then at the height of his fame. The Croonian Lecture was in a
+sense a deliberate challenge to Owen, and in these days before Darwin,
+to challenge Owen was to claim equality with the greatest name in
+anatomical science.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CREATURES OF THE PAST
+
+     Beginning Palæontological Work--Fossil Amphibia and
+     Reptilia--Ancestry of Birds--Ancestry of the Horse--Imperfect
+     European Series Completed by Marsh's American Fossils--Meaning of
+     Geological Contemporaneity--Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+     Compared with Evolution in Geology--Age of the
+     Earth--Intermediate and Linear Types.
+
+
+Although Huxley took a post connected with Geology only because it was
+the most convenient opening for him, it was not long before he became
+deeply interested not only in the fossils, which at first he despised,
+but in the general problems of geology. He began by co-operation with
+Mr. Salter in the determination of fossils for the Geological Survey.
+The mere work of defining genera and species and naming and describing
+new species appealed very little to him. He had none of the
+collector's passion for new species; his interest in a creature being
+not whether or no it was new to science, but what general problems of
+biology its structure helped to elucidate. While he assisted in the
+routine work of determining the zoölogical position of the fossils
+sent in to the museum by the Survey, he carried investigations much
+farther than the duties of the post required when interesting
+zoölogical problems arose. His earliest notes were written in
+association with his colleague, and consisted of technical
+descriptions of some small fossils from the Downton Sandstones which
+were supposed to be fish-shields. The peculiarities of structure
+presented by these aroused his interest, and he began an elaborate
+series of investigations upon palæozoic fishes in general. Earlier
+zoölogists, such as the great Agassiz, had devoted most of their
+attention to careful and exact description of the different fossil
+fishes with which they became acquainted. Huxley at once began to
+investigate the relations that existed among the different kinds of
+structure exhibited in the different fish. He laid down the lines upon
+which future work has been conducted, and, precisely as he did in the
+case of molluscs, he started future investigators upon lines of
+research the ends of which have not yet been reached. His work upon
+_Devonian Fishes_, published in 1861, threw an entirely new light upon
+the affinities of these creatures, and still remains a standard work.
+
+He made a similar, although less important, series of investigations
+upon some of the great extinct Crustacea; but, perhaps, his most
+important palæontological work was done later, after he had been
+convinced by Darwin of the fact of evolution. In 1855 he had expressed
+the opinion that the study of fossils was hopeless if one sought in it
+confirmation of the doctrine of evolution; but five-and-twenty years'
+continuous work completely reversed his opinion, and in 1881,
+addressing the British Association at York he declared that "if
+zoölogists and embryologists had not put forward the theory, it would
+have been necessary for palæontologists to invent it." In three
+special groups of animals his study of fossils enabled him to assist
+in bridging over the gaps between surviving groups of creatures by
+study of creatures long extinct. He began to study the structure of
+the Labyrinthodonts, a group of extinct monsters which received their
+name from the peculiar structure of their teeth. He published
+elaborate descriptions of Anthracosaurus from the coal-measures of
+Northumberland, of Loxomma from the lower carboniferous of Scotland,
+and of several small forms from the coal-measures of Kilkenny, in
+Ireland, as well as describing skulls from Africa and a number of
+fragmentary bones from different localities. But in all this work it
+was the morphology of the creatures that interested him, and the light
+which their structure threw upon the structure of each other and of
+their nearest allies. He shewed that these monsters stood on the
+borderland between fishes, amphibia, and reptiles, and he added much
+to our knowledge of the true structure of these great groups. Next, he
+turned to the extinct reptiles of the Mesozoic age. It was generally
+believed that the Pterodactyls, or flying reptiles, were the nearest
+allies of birds, but Huxley insisted that the resemblances between the
+wings were simply such superficial resemblances as necessarily exist
+in organs adapted to the same purpose. About the same time, Cope in
+America, and Phillips and Huxley, in England, from study of the bones
+of the Dinosaurs, another great group of extinct reptiles, declared
+that these were the nearest in structure to birds. In association with
+the upright posture, the ilium or great haunch-bone of birds extends
+far forwards in front of the articulation of the thigh-bone, so that
+the pelvis in this region has a T-shape, the ilium forming the
+cross-bar of the T, and the femur or thigh-bone the downward limb.
+Huxley shewed that a large number of the Dinosaurs had this and other
+peculiarities of the bird's pelvis, and separated these into a group
+which he called the "Ornithoscelida," seeing in them the closest
+representatives of the probable reptilian ancestors of birds. While
+further work and the discovery of a still greater number of extinct
+reptiles has made it less probable that these were the actual
+ancestors of birds, Huxley's work in this, as in the many other cases
+we have shown, proved not only of great value in itself, but led to a
+continually increasing series of investigations by others. It is not
+always the pioneer that makes the greatest discoveries in a new
+country, but the work of the pioneer makes possible and easier the
+more assured discoveries of his followers.
+
+A third great piece of palæontological investigation with which the
+name of Huxley will always be associated, is the most familiar of all
+the instances taken from fossils in support of the evolution of
+animals. This famous case is the pedigree of the horse. In 1870, in an
+address delivered to the Geological Society of London, Huxley had
+shewn that there was a series of animals leading backwards from the
+modern horse to a more generalised creature called Anchitherium, and
+found in the rocks of the Miocene period. He suggested that there
+were, no doubt, similar fossils leading still further backwards
+towards the common mammalian type of animal, with five fingers and
+five toes, and went the length of suggesting one or two fossils which
+might stand in the direct line of ancestry. But in 1876 he visited
+America, and had the opportunity of consulting the marvellous series
+of fossils which Professor Marsh had collected from American Tertiary
+beds. Professor Marsh allowed him the freest use of his materials and
+of his conclusions, and the credit of the final result is to be
+shared at least equally between Marsh and Huxley. The final result was
+a demonstrative proof of the possible course of evolution of the
+horse, given in a lecture delivered by Huxley in New York on Sept. 22,
+1876, and illustrated by drawings from specimens in Marsh's
+collection. The matter of the lecture has become so important a part
+of all descriptive writing on evolution, and the treatment is so
+characteristic of Huxley's brilliant exposition, that it is worth
+while to make some rather long quotations from it. The lecture was
+published in the New York papers, and afterwards with other matter
+formed a volume of _American Addresses_, published by Macmillan, in
+London.
+
+     "In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the forearm contains
+     distinct bones called the radius and the ulna. The corresponding
+     region in the horse seems at first to possess but one bone.
+     Careful observation, however, enables us to distinguish in this
+     bone a part which clearly answers to the upper end of the ulna.
+     This is closely united with the chief mass of the bone which
+     represents the radius, and runs out into a slender shaft which
+     may be traced for some distance downwards on the back of the
+     radius, and then in most cases thins out and vanishes. It takes
+     still more trouble to make sure of what is nevertheless the fact,
+     that a small part of the lower end of the bone of the horse's
+     forearm, which is only distinct in a very young foal, is really
+     the lower extremity of the ulna.
+
+      "What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its wrist. The
+     'cannon bone' answers to the middle bone of the five metacarpal
+     bones which support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The
+     'pastern,' 'coronary,' and 'coffin' bones of veterinarians answer
+     to the joints of our middle fingers, while the hoof is simply a
+     greatly enlarged and thickened nail. But, if what lies below the
+     horse's 'knee' thus corresponds to the middle finger in
+     ourselves, what has become of the four other fingers or digits?
+     We find in the places of the second and fourth digits only two
+     slender splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the cannon
+     bone, which gradually taper to their lower ends and bear no
+     finger joints, or, as they are termed, phalanges. Sometimes small
+     bony or gristly nodules are to be found at the bases of these two
+     metacarpal splints, and it is probable that these represent
+     rudiments of the first and fifth digits. Thus the part of the
+     horse's skeleton which corresponds with that of the human hand
+     contains one overgrown middle digit, and at least two imperfect
+     lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the third, the
+     second, and the fourth digits in man.
+
+      "Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb. In
+     ourselves, and in most quadrupeds, the leg contains two distinct
+     bones, a large bone, the tibia, and a smaller and more slender
+     bone, the fibula. But, in the horse, the fibula seems, at first,
+     to be reduced to its upper end; a short slender bone united with
+     the tibia and ending in a point below occupying its place.
+     Examination of the lower end of a young foal's shin-bone,
+     however, shews a distinct portion of osseous matter, which is the
+     lower end of the fibula; so that the apparently single lower end
+     of the shin-bone is really made up of the coalesced ends of the
+     tibia and fibula, just as the apparently single lower end of the
+     fore-arm bone is composed of the coalesced radius and ulna.
+
+      "The heel of the horse is the part commonly known as the hock;
+     the hinder cannon bone answers to the middle metatarsal bone of
+     the human foot, the pastern, coronary, and coffin bones, to the
+     middle-toe bones; the hind hoof to the nail, as in the fore foot.
+     And, as in the fore foot, there are merely two splints to
+     represent the second and fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a
+     fifth toe appears to be traceable."
+
+Having in the same fashion described the highly complicated and
+peculiar structure of the teeth of modern horses, Huxley proceeded:
+
+     "To anyone who is acquainted with the morphology of vertebrated
+     animals, these characteristic structures of the horse show that
+     it deviates widely from the general structure of mammals; and
+     that the horse type is, in many respects, an extreme modification
+     of the general mammalian plan. The least modified mammals, in
+     fact, have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct
+     and separate. They have five distinct and complete digits on each
+     foot, and no one of these digits is very much larger than the
+     rest. Moreover, in the least modified mammals, the total number
+     of the teeth is very generally forty-four, while in the horse the
+     usual number is forty, and, in the absence of the canines, it may
+     be reduced to thirty-six; the incisor teeth are devoid of the
+     fold seen in those of the horse; the grinders regularly diminish
+     in size from the middle of the series to its front end; while
+     their crowns are short, early attain their full length, and
+     exhibit simple ridges or tubercles, in place of the complex
+     foldings of the horse's grinders.
+
+      "Hence the general principles of the hypothesis of evolution
+     lead to the conclusion that the horse must have been derived from
+     some quadruped which possessed five complete digits on each foot;
+     which had the bones of the forearm and of the leg complete and
+     separate; and which possessed forty-four teeth, among which the
+     crown of the incisors and grinders had a simple structure; while
+     the latter gradually increased in size from before backwards, at
+     any rate in the anterior part of the series, and had short
+     crowns.
+
+      "And if the horse had been thus evolved, and the remains of the
+     different stages of its evolution have been preserved, they ought
+     to present us with a series of forms in which the number of the
+     digits becomes reduced; the bones of the forearm and leg
+     gradually take on the equine condition; and the form and
+     arrangement of the teeth successively approximate to those which
+     obtain in existing horses.
+
+      "Let us turn to the facts and see how far they fulfill these
+     requirements of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+      "In Europe abundant remains of horses are found in the
+     Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far as the Pliocene
+     formation. But these horses, which are so common in the
+     cave-deposits and in the gravel of Europe, are in all essential
+     respects like existing horses, and that is true of all the horses
+     of the later part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in the deposits
+     which belong to the earlier Pliocene, and later Miocene epochs,
+     and which occur in Britain, in France, in Germany, in Greece, in
+     India, we find animals which are extremely like horses--which in
+     fact are so similar to horses, that you may follow descriptions
+     given in works upon the anatomy of the horse, upon the skeletons
+     of these animals--but which differ in some important particulars.
+     For example, the structure of their fore and hind limbs is
+     somewhat different. The bones, which, in the horse are
+     represented by two long splints, imperfect below, are as long as
+     the middle metacarpal and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the
+     extremity of each, is a digit with three joints of the same
+     general character as those of the middle digit, only very much
+     smaller. These small digits are so disposed that they could have
+     had but very little functional importance, and they must have
+     been rather of the nature of the dew-claws, such as are to be
+     found in many ruminant animals. The _Hipparion_, as the extinct
+     European three-toed horse is called, in fact presents a foot
+     similar to that of the American _Protohippus_ except that in
+     _Hipparion_ the smaller digits are situated further back, and are
+     of smaller proportional size than in the _Protohippus_.
+
+      "The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the horse; and the
+     whole length of it, as a very slender shaft, intimately united
+     with the radius, is completely traceable. The fibula appears to
+     be in the same condition as in the horse. The teeth of the
+     _Hipparion_ are essentially similar to those of the horse, but
+     the pattern of the grinders is in some respects a little more
+     complex, and there is a depression on the face of the skull in
+     front of the orbit, which is not seen in existing horses.
+
+      "In the earlier Miocene and perhaps in the Eocene deposits of
+     some parts of Europe, another distinct animal has been
+     discovered, which Cuvier, who first described some fragments of
+     it, considered to be a _Palæotherium_, but as further discoveries
+     threw new light on its structure, it was recognised as a distinct
+     genus, under the name of _Anchitherium_.
+
+      "In its general characters the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is
+     very similar to that of the horse, in fact Lartet and De
+     Blainville called it _Palæotherium equinum_ or _Hippoides_; and
+     De Cristol, in 1847, said that it differed from _Hipparion_ in
+     little more than the characters of the teeth, and gave it the
+     name of _Hipparitherium_. Each foot possesses three complete
+     toes: while the lateral toes are much larger in proportion to the
+     middle toe than in _Hipparion_, and doubtless rested on the
+     ground in ordinary locomotion. The ulna is complete and quite
+     distinct from the radius, although firmly united with the latter.
+     The fibula seems also to have been complete; its lower end,
+     though intimately united with that of the tibia, is clearly
+     united with that of the latter bone. There are forty-four teeth;
+     the incisors have no strong pit. The canines seem to have been
+     well developed in both sexes. The first of the seven grinders,
+     which, as I have said, is frequently absent, and, when it does
+     exist, is small in the horse, is a good-sized and permanent
+     tooth, while the grinder which follows it is but little larger
+     than the hinder ones. The crowns of the grinders are short, and,
+     although the fundamental pattern of the horse-tooth is
+     discernible, the front and back ridges are less curved, the
+     accessory pillars are wanting, and the valleys, much shallower,
+     are not filled up with cement."
+
+Then, after describing his early efforts to trace the descent of the
+horse from European fossils, Huxley goes on to relate the new light
+thrown on the matter from the American discoveries of Professor Marsh:
+
+     "You are all aware that, when your country was first discovered
+     by Europeans, there were no traces of the existence of the horse
+     in any part of the American continent. The accounts of the
+     conquest of Mexico dwell on the astonishment of the natives of
+     that country when they first became acquainted with that
+     astounding phenomenon, a man seated upon a horse. Nevertheless,
+     the investigations of American geologists have proved that the
+     remains of horses occur in the most superficial deposits of both
+     North and South America, just as they do in Europe. Therefore,
+     for some reason or other,--no feasible suggestion on that
+     subject, so far as I know, has been made,--the horse must have
+     died out on this continent at some period preceding the discovery
+     of America. Of late years there has been discovered in your
+     Western territories that marvellous accumulation of deposits,
+     admirably adapted for the preservation of organic remains, to
+     which I referred the other evening, and which furnishes us with a
+     consecutive series of records of the fauna of the older half of
+     the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel in Europe. The
+     researches of Leidy and others have shewn that forms allied to
+     the _Hipparion_ and the _Anchitherium_ are to be found among
+     these remains. Rut it is only recently that the admirably
+     conceived and most thoroughly and patiently worked-out
+     investigations of Professor Marsh have given us a just idea of
+     the vast fossil wealth and of the scientific importance of these
+     deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing over the
+     collections in Yale Museum; and I can truly say that, so far as
+     my knowledge extends, there is no collection from any one region
+     and series of strata comparable, for extent, or for care with
+     which the remains have been got together, or for their scientific
+     importance, to the series of fossils which he has deposited
+     there. This vast collection has yielded evidence bearing on the
+     question of the pedigree of the horse of the most striking
+     character. It tends to show that we must look to America rather
+     than to Europe for the original seat of the equine series; and
+     that the archaic forms and successive modifications of the
+     horse's ancestry are far better preserved here than in Europe.
+
+      "Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to put before you a
+     diagram, every figure of which is an actual representation of
+     some specimen which is to be seen at Yale at this present time.
+
+      "The succession of forms which he has brought together carries
+     us from the top to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there
+     is the true horse. Next we have the American Pliocene form of the
+     horse (_Pliohippus_): in the conformation of its limbs it
+     presents some very slight deviations from the ordinary horse, and
+     the crowns of the grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the
+     _Protohippus_, which represents the European _Hipparion_, having
+     one large digit and two small ones on each foot, and the general
+     characters of the forearm and leg to which I have referred. But
+     it is more valuable than the European _Hipparion_ for the reason
+     that it is devoid of some of the peculiarities of that
+     form--peculiarities which tend to show that the European
+     _Hipparion_ is rather a member of a collateral branch than a form
+     in the direct line of succession. Next, in the backward order in
+     time, is the _Miohippus_, which corresponds pretty nearly with
+     the _Anchitherium_ of Europe. It presents three complete
+     toes--one large median and two smaller lateral ones: and there
+     is a rudiment of that digit which answers to the little finger of
+     the human race.
+
+      "The European pedigree of the horse stops here; in the America
+     Tertiaries, on the contrary, the series of ancestral equine forms
+     is continued into the Eocene formations. An older Miocene form,
+     called _Mesohippus_, has three toes in front, with a large
+     splint-like rudiment representing the little finger; and three
+     toes behind. The radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, are
+     distinct, and the short crowned molar teeth are _Anchitherioid_
+     in pattern.
+
+      "But the most important discovery of all is the _Orohippus_
+     which comes from the Eocene formation, and is the oldest member
+     of the equine series yet known. Here we find four complete toes
+     on the front limb, three toes on the hind limb, a well-developed
+     ulna, a well-developed fibula, and short-crowned grinders of a
+     simple pattern.
+
+      "Thus, thanks to these important researches, it has become
+     evident that, so far as our present knowledge extends, the
+     history of the horse type is exactly and precisely that which
+     could have been predicted from a knowledge of the principles of
+     evolution; and the knowledge we now possess justifies us
+     completely in the anticipation that, when the still lower Eocene
+     deposits, and those which belong to the Cretaceous period have
+     yielded up their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall
+     find, first, a form with four complete toes and a rudiment of the
+     innermost or first digit in front, with probably a rudiment of
+     the fifth digit in the hind foot; while, in the older forms, the
+     series of digits will be more and more complete until we come to
+     the five-toed animals, in which, if the doctrine of evolution is
+     well founded, the whole series must have taken its origin."
+
+Just as Huxley was successful, when only the ancestry to Miocene times
+was known, in predicting the discovery of older forms in the older
+Miocene and upper Eocene, so his prediction of older Eocene forms
+carrying the chain back to five-toed creatures proved correct. One of
+the new links was indeed discovered before his lecture had passed
+through the press, and he was able to add in a footnote some details
+of the structure of the four-toed Eohippus from the lower Eocene
+beds. Further discoveries have connected these with the five-toed
+ancestors of the Tapirs, and there is the strongest reason to suppose
+that we now know as nearly as possible the line of ancestry of the
+horse back to the primitive forms common to all the higher mammals. It
+would, of course, be beyond possibility of proof that the exact
+fossils described were the actual ancestors of the horse; but that
+they are exceedingly close allies of these, and that among them some
+actual ancestors exist cannot reasonably be doubted.
+
+Although he had embarked upon geological work with some distaste,
+Huxley became very closely associated with it as years went on, and
+indeed, about the seventies, had abandoned his intention to devote
+himself specially to physiology, and declared himself to be in the
+first place a palæontologist. In 1876 he had accomplished so much that
+the Geological Society gave him its chief distinction, awarding him
+the Wollaston Medal in recognition of his services to geological
+science. He acted as Secretary to the Geological Society from 1859 to
+1862, and he was President from 1868 to 1870. In 1862, the President
+being incapacitated, Huxley delivered as Deputy-President the
+Presidential Address. This address is famous in the history of
+geology, because for the first time it stated clearly and in permanent
+form a doctrine now taken as a first principle in all geological
+text-books. A large part of geology is the attempt to read the past
+history of the earth from the evidence given by the successive strata
+of rocks that form its crust.
+
+     "It is mathematically certain that, in any given vertical linear
+     section of an undisturbed series of sedimentary deposits, the bed
+     which lies lowest is the oldest. In many other vertical linear
+     sections of the same series, of course corresponding beds will
+     occur in a similar order."
+
+It is of the utmost importance to determine whether or no the same
+series occurring vertically in the same order in different parts of
+the earth were deposited at the same time. To explain the problem,
+Huxley took the following concrete example:
+
+     "The Lias of England and the Lias of Germany, the Cretaceous
+     rocks of Britain and the Cretaceous rocks of Southern India, are
+     termed by geologists 'Contemporaneous' formations; but whenever
+     any thoughtful geologist is asked whether he means to say that
+     they were deposited at the same time, he says, 'No, only within
+     the same great epoch.' And if, in pursuing the enquiry, he is
+     asked what may be the approximate value in time of a 'great
+     epoch'--whether it means a hundred years, or a thousand, or a
+     million, or ten million years--his reply is, 'I cannot tell.'"
+
+Most of the standard writers on palæontology had assumed that the
+presence in two beds at different parts of the world of the same
+fossils implied that the beds were contemporaneous, that they had been
+formed at the same time. Huxley pointed out that the fact of identical
+fossils being present was, on the whole, evidence against the beds
+having been formed at the same time. Even some of the older writers
+who believed in species having been created at definite places at
+definite times had seen that time must have been required for sets of
+animals to wander from the places in which they had come into
+existence. The newer theory of evolution was equally opposed to the
+notion of the appearance of similar animals at the same time on
+far-distant parts of the earth. For such reasons he proposed to reject
+the use of the word _Contemporaneous_ as applied to rockbeds in
+different localities which contained the same fossils, and to replace
+it by the word _Homotaxial_, which meant no more than that the beds
+occupied corresponding places in the geological history of the earth.
+Huxley did not pretend that these arguments were entirely original:
+they represented the drift of the best geological opinion, and he
+seized hold of them and set them down as permanent geological truths.
+
+In 1869, in a Presidential Address to the Geological Society, Huxley
+took up one of the burning questions of the day. In the early part of
+the century, the discoveries of geologists had been the occasion of
+great distress to those good people who clung to a literal
+interpretation of everything in the Bible. Long before the doctrine of
+evolution and the descent of man from lower animals had taken practical
+shape, there had been a battle royal between geologists who declared
+that the earth was many million years old, and had been inhabited at
+least by animals and plants for enormous periods, and those who clung to
+the traditional chronology which placed the date of creation only a few
+thousand years from now. The continued progress of geology, and the
+sturdy championship of it by men like Sedgwick, Chalmers, and Buckland,
+who were at the same time reputable theologians and distinguished men of
+science, had decided the battle in favour of the conclusions of science,
+and it was accepted generally that the earth was almost indefinitely
+old. At the same time, another and more strictly scientific dispute had
+been in progress. The older school of geologists, looking on the face of
+the world, and seeing it scarred by mighty fissures, displaying huge
+distortions of the beds in the crust, had argued that geological change
+had taken place by a series of mighty catastrophes. The tremendous
+results which they saw seemed to them only possible on the theory that
+unusual and gigantic displays of force had caused them. On the other
+hand, Hutton and Lyell attempted to find adequate explanation of the
+greatest changes in the slow forces which may be seen in operation at
+the present time. Slow movements of upheaval and depression, amounting
+at most to an inch or two in a century, may be shown to be actually in
+existence now, and such slow changes acting for very many centuries
+would account for the raising of continents above the sea, so that old
+sea-bottoms became the surface of the land, and for the depression of
+land areas so that new sedimentary rocks might be deposited upon them.
+They shewed how air and water slowly crumbled away the hardest rocks,
+and how rivers deepened their beds steadily but excessively slowly; and
+they held that while great catastrophic changes might occasionally have
+occurred, there was ample evidence of the present operation of forces
+which, granted sufficient time for their operation, would have made the
+crust of the earth such as it is. This doctrine of _Uniformitarianism_,
+of the action of similar forces in the past and present history of the
+earth, had almost completely triumphed over the older catastrophic
+views. As Huxley put it, the school of catastrophe put no limit to the
+violence of forces which had operated; the uniformitarians put no limit
+to the length of time during which forces had operated.
+
+     "Catastrophism has insisted upon the existence of a practically
+     unlimited bank of force, on which the theorist might draw; and it
+     has cherished the idea of development of the earth from a state
+     in which its form, and the forces which it exerted, were very
+     different from those which we now know.
+
+      "Uniformitarianism, on the other hand, has with equal justice
+     insisted upon a practically unlimited bank of time, ready to
+     discount any quantity of hypothetical paper. It has kept before
+     our eyes the power of the infinitely little, time being granted,
+     and has compelled us to exhaust known causes before flying to the
+     unknown."
+
+But there was a third influence at work in geology, an influence which
+may best be described in Huxley's own words:
+
+     "I shall not make what I have to say on this head clear unless I
+     diverge, or seem to diverge, for a while, from the direct path of
+     my discourse so far as to explain what I take to be the scope of
+     geology itself. I conceive geology to be the history of the
+     earth, in precisely the same sense as biology is the history of
+     living beings; and I trust you will not think that I am
+     overpowered by the influence of a dominant pursuit if I say that
+     I trace a close analogy between these two histories.
+
+      "If I study a living being, under what heads does the knowledge
+     I obtain fall? I can learn its structure, or what we call its
+     Anatomy; and its development, or the series of changes it passes
+     through to acquire its complete structure. Then I find that the
+     living being has certain powers resulting from its own
+     activities, and the interaction of these with the activities of
+     other things--the knowledge of which is Physiology. Beyond this,
+     the living being has a position in space and time, which is its
+     Distribution. All these form the body of ascertainable facts
+     which constitute the _status quo_ of the living creature. But
+     these facts have their causes; and the ascertainment of these
+     causes is the doctrine of Ætiology.
+
+      "If we consider what is knowable about the earth, we shall find
+     that such earth-knowledge--if I may so translate the word
+     geology--falls into the same categories.
+
+      "What is termed stratigraphical geology is neither more nor less
+     than the anatomy of the earth; and the history of the succession
+     of the formations is a history of the succession of such
+     anatomies, or corresponds with development, as distinct from
+     generation.
+
+      "The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and depression of
+     its crust, its belching forth of vapours, ashes, and lava, are
+     its activities, in as strict a sense as are warmth and the
+     movements and products of respiration the activities of an
+     animal. The phenomena of the seasons, of the trade-winds, of the
+     Gulf Stream, are as much the results of the reaction between
+     these inner activities and outward forces, as are the budding of
+     the leaves in spring, and their falling in autumn the effects of
+     the interaction between the organisation of a plant and the solar
+     light and heat. And, as the study of the activities of the living
+     being is called its physiology, so are these phenomena the
+     subject matter of an analogous telluric physiology, to which we
+     sometimes give the name of meteorology; sometimes of physical
+     geography, sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth has a
+     place in space and time, and relations to other bodies in both
+     these respects, which constitute its distribution. This subject
+     is usually left to the astronomer; but a knowledge of its broad
+     outlines seems to me to be an essential constituent of the stock
+     of geological ideas.
+
+      "All that can be ascertained concerning the structure,
+     succession of conditions, actions, and position in space of the
+     earth, is the matter of its natural history. But, as in Biology,
+     there remains the matter of reasoning from these facts to their
+     causes, which is just as much science as the other, and indeed
+     more; and this constitutes geological ætiology.
+
+      "Having regard to this general scheme of geological knowledge
+     and thought, it is obvious that geological speculation may be, so
+     to speak, anatomical and developmental speculation, so far as it
+     relates to points of stratigraphical arrangement which are out of
+     reach of direct observation; or, it may be physiological
+     speculation so far as it relates to undetermined problems
+     relative to the activities of the earth; or, it may be
+     distributional speculation, if it deals with modifications of the
+     earth's place in space; or, finally, it will be ætiological
+     speculation if it attempts to deduce the history of the world, as
+     a whole, from the known properties of the matter of the earth, in
+     the conditions in which the earth has been placed."
+
+Huxley then proceeded to shew that uniformitarianism and catastrophism
+had neglected this last and most important branch of geology, the
+attempt to trace the interaction of causes which had brought the world
+into its present condition. He gave a striking display of the wide
+knowledge of his reading by going back to the foundation of this branch
+of modern science, and giving a masterly account of the then
+little-known treatise of Immanuel Kant, who in 1775 had written _An
+Attempt to Account for the Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the
+Universe upon Newtonian Principles_. Next he declared that evolution
+embraced all that was sound in both catastrophism and uniformitarianism
+while rejecting the arbitrary limits and assumptions of both.
+
+Finally he came to the great question to which these observations upon
+the existing schools of geology had led. The most distinguished
+physicist of the age, then Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, and
+Huxley's immediate successor in the Presidential Chair of the Royal
+Society, had stated that the English school of geology had assumed an
+impossible age for the earth. By physical reasonings, Thomson stated
+that he was able to prove "That the existing state of things on the
+earth--all geological history showing continuity of life--must be
+limited within some such period of time as one hundred million years."
+This pronouncement had been received with acclamation by those who
+feared the geological and biological sciences, as a sign of internal
+dissensions within the house of science. Huxley, then, as all through
+the latter part of his life, at once constituted himself the champion
+of science, and, taking Thomson's arguments one by one, shewed by a
+series of masterly deductions from known facts that there was a great
+deal to be said for the other side, and that physicists were as little
+certain as geologists could be of the exact duration of time that had
+elapsed since the dawn of life. His plea for more time since the
+cooling of the globe than physicists were willing to allow remains one
+of the classics of geological literature. But he carried the question
+much farther. The inference which was widely drawn by the enemies of
+evolution from the arguments of Sir William Thomson was that if
+geologists had overestimated the age of the cooled earth there was not
+time for the evolution of animals and plants to have taken place.
+Huxley pointed out a fact which should be quite obvious, but which
+even yet is frequently neglected. The evidence for the gradual
+appearance of life in the past history of the earth depends simply on
+the fact that the successive forms of life appear in successive
+strata, and the length of time taken for these changes simply depends
+upon the length of time which was taken up by the formation of the
+strata. Our only reason for supposing the evolution of life, made
+plain by fossil records, to have taken place very slowly is that
+geologists have stated that the deposition of the strata took place
+very slowly. Whether these strata were deposited slowly or less
+slowly, we know that the forms of life changed at the same rate.
+
+     "Biology takes her time from geology. The only reason we have for
+     believing in the slow rate of change in living forms is the fact
+     that they persist through a series of deposits which, geology
+     informs us, have taken a long while to make. If the geological
+     clock is wrong, all the naturalist will have to do is to modify
+     his notion of the rapidity of change accordingly; and I venture
+     to point out that, when we are told that the limitation of the
+     period during which living beings have inhabited this planet to
+     one, two, or three hundred million years requires a complete
+     revolution in geological speculation, the _onus probandi_ rests
+     on the maker of the assertion, who brings forward not a shadow of
+     evidence in its support."
+
+Perhaps, although this is now an old controversy, it is worth while
+to recall that the keenness of Huxley's language was not directed
+against Sir William Thomson, between whom and Huxley there was no more
+than the desire to argue out an interesting scientific question upon
+which their conclusions differed, but between Huxley and those
+outsiders who were always ready to turn any dubious question in
+science into an argument discrediting the general conclusions of
+science.
+
+The last time that Huxley occupied the Presidential Chair of the
+Geological Society was in 1870, and he occupied his Presidential
+address by a review of the "old judgments" which he had given in the
+course of his first address in 1862. The address was entitled
+"Palæontology and Evolution," and the most important part of it was a
+complete withdrawal of the fears he had expressed that geology would
+not supply definite evidence of the transformation of species.
+Important discoveries had come thick and fast; and, at least in the
+case of the higher vertebrates, he declared that, however one might
+"sift and criticise them," they left a clear balance in favour of the
+doctrine of the evolution of living forms one from another. But, with
+his usual critical spirit, examining arguments that bore against a
+conclusion for which he hoped almost more stringently than arguments
+apparently favourable to what he expected to be true, Huxley made an
+important distinction, the value of which becomes more and more
+apparent as time goes on. In the first flush of enthusiasm for
+Darwinism, zoölogists and palæontologists allowed their zeal to outrun
+discretion in the formation of family trees. They examined large
+series of living or extinct creatures, and so soon as they found
+gradations of structure present, they arranged their specimens in a
+linear series, from the simplest to the most complex, and declared
+that the arrangement was a representation of the family tree. The fact
+that the line of descent apparently could have followed along the
+direction they suggested they were inclined to take as evidence that
+it had so followed. Huxley made the most careful distinction between
+what he called intermediate types and types with a right to be placed
+in linear order,
+
+     Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of
+     life already known may be said, so far as it is intermediate, to
+     be evidence in favour of evolution, inasmuch as it shews a
+     possible road by which evolution may have taken place. But the
+     mere discovery of such a form does not, in itself, prove that
+     evolution took place by and through it, nor does it constitute
+     more than a presumptive evidence in favour of evolution in
+     general. The fact that _Anoplotheridæ_ are intermediate between
+     pigs and ruminants does not tell us whether the ruminants have
+     come from the pigs or the pigs from the ruminants, or both from
+     _Anoplotheridæ_, or whether pigs, ruminants, and _Anoplotheridæ_;
+     alike may not have diverged from some common stock.
+
+A familiar instance will make the point at issue plain. Everyone knows
+that in many respects, in the structure of the skeleton, and the curve
+of the backbone, and in the development of the brain, the man-like
+monkeys, the gorilla and its allies, are intermediate between man and
+the lower monkeys. In the early days of evolution it was assumed
+frequently that the gorilla, etc., were therefore to be regarded as
+ancestors of man, and they appear as such in more than one well-known
+treatise on evolutionary biology. We now know that it is exceedingly
+probable that the gorilla and its allies, although truly intermediate
+types, and truly shewing a possible path of evolution from the brute
+to man, are not the actual ancestors of man, but cousins, descendants
+like man from some more or less remote common ancestor. And the
+tendency of recent advances in knowledge is more and more to throw
+stress on the value of Huxley's distinction, and to minimise confusion
+between "intermediate" and truly ancestral types.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HUXLEY AND DARWIN
+
+     Early Ideas on Evolution--Erasmus Darwin--Lamarck--Herbert
+     Spencer--Difference between Evolution and Natural
+     Selection--Huxley's Preparation for Evolution--The Novelty of
+     Natural Selection--The Advantage of Natural Selection as a
+     Working Hypothesis--Huxley's Unchanged Position with regard to
+     Evolution and Natural Selection from 1860 to 1894.
+
+
+From our attempt to place together as much as possible of Huxley's
+geological work in the last chapter, it followed that we anticipated
+much that falls properly within this chapter. The year 1859, the date
+of publication of _The Origin of Species_, is a momentous date in the
+history of this century, as it was the year in which there was given
+to the world a theory that not only revolutionised scientific opinion,
+but altered the trend of almost every branch of thought. To understand
+this great change, and the part played in it by Huxley, it is
+necessary to be quite clear as to what Darwin did. In the first place,
+he did not invent evolution. The idea that all the varied structures
+in the world, the divergent forms of rocks and minerals and crystals,
+the innumerable trees and herbs that cover the face of the earth like
+a mantle, and all the animal host of creatures great and small that
+dwell on the land or dart through the air or people the waters,--that
+all these had arisen by natural laws from a primitive unformed
+material was known to the Greeks, was developed by the Romans, and
+even received the approval of early Christian Fathers, who wrote long
+before the idea had been invented that the naive legends of the Old
+Testament were an authoritative and literal account of the origin of
+the world. After a long interval, in which scientific thought was
+stifled by theological dogmatism, the theory of evolution,
+particularly in its application to animals, began to reappear, long
+before Darwin published _The Origin of Species_. Buffon, the great
+French naturalist, and Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, had
+expressed in the clearest way the possibility that species had not
+been created independently, but had arisen from other species. Lamarck
+had worked out a theory of descent in the fullest detail, and regarded
+it as the foundation of the whole science of biology. He taught that
+the beginning of life consisted only of the simplest and lowest plants
+and animals; that the more complex animals and plants arose from
+these, and that even man himself had come from ape-like mammals. He
+held that the course of development of the earth and of all the
+creatures upon it was a slow and continuous change, uninterrupted by
+violent revolutions. He summed up the causes of organic evolution in
+the following propositions[D]:
+
+      "1. Life tends by its inherent forces to increase the volume of
+     each living body and of all its parts up to a limit determined by
+     its own needs.
+
+      "2. New wants in animals give rise to new movements which
+     produce organs.
+
+      "3. The development of these organs is in proportion to their
+     employment.
+
+      "4. New developments are transmitted to offspring."
+
+He supported especially the last two propositions by a series of
+examples as to the effects of use and disuse; and the most famous of
+these, the theory that giraffes had produced their long necks by
+continually stretching up towards the trees on which they fed, is well
+known to everyone. However, the ingenious speculations of Lamarck were
+unsupported by a sufficient range of actual knowledge of anatomy, and
+lacked experimental proof. He entirely failed to convince his
+contemporaries; and Darwin himself, in a letter to Lyell, declared
+that he had gained nothing from two readings of Lamarck's book. There
+can be little doubt but that several Continental writers, in
+particular Haeckel, have exaggerated Lamarck's services to the
+development of the idea of evolution. On the other hand, Lyell,
+although he strongly opposed the ideas of Lamarck and some curious
+notions of progressional creation due to the great Agassiz, had
+prepared the way for Darwin by his advocacy of natural causes and slow
+changes in opposition to the catastrophic and miraculous views in
+vogue. Above all, Herbert Spencer had argued most strenuously in
+favour of evolution. Thus, in an important passage quoted by Mr. Clodd
+from the _Leader_ of March 20, 1852, Spencer had written as follows:
+
+     "Those who cavalierly reject the theory of evolution, as not
+     adequately supported by facts, seem quite to forget that their
+     own theory is not supported by facts at all. Like the majority of
+     men who are born to a given belief, they demand the most rigorous
+     proof of any adverse belief, but assume that their own needs
+     none. Here we find, scattered over the globe, vegetable and
+     animal organisms numbering, of the one kind (according to
+     Humboldt) some 320,000 species, and of the other, some 2,000,000
+     species (see Carpenter); and if to these we add the numbers of
+     animal and vegetable species that have become extinct, we may
+     safely estimate the number of species that have existed, and are
+     existing, on the earth, at no less than ten millions. Well, which
+     is the most rational theory about these ten millions of species?
+     Is it most likely that there have been ten millions of special
+     creations; or is it most likely that by continual modifications,
+     due to change of circumstances, ten millions of varieties have
+     been produced, as varieties are being produced still?... Even
+     could the supporters of the development hypothesis merely shew
+     that the origination of species by the process of modification is
+     conceivable, they would be in a better position than their
+     opponents. But they can do much more than this. They can shew
+     that the process of modification has effected, and is effecting,
+     decided changes in all organisms subject to modifying
+     influences.... They can shew that in successive generations these
+     changes continue, until ultimately the new conditions become the
+     natural ones. They can shew that in cultivated plants,
+     domesticated animals, and in the several races of men, such
+     alterations have taken place. They can show that the degrees of
+     difference so produced are often, as in dogs, greater than those
+     on which distinctions of species have been founded. They can
+     shew, too, that the changes daily taking place in ourselves--the
+     facility that attends long practice, and the loss of aptitude
+     that begins when practice ceases,--the strengthening of the
+     passions habitually gratified, and the weakening of those
+     habitually curbed,--the development of every faculty, bodily,
+     moral, intellectual, according to the use made of it--are all
+     explicable on this principle. And thus they can shew that
+     throughout all organic nature there is at work a modifying
+     influence of the kind they assign as the cause of these specific
+     differences; an influence which, though slow in its action, does,
+     in time, if the circumstances demand it, produce marked
+     changes--an influence which, to all appearance, would produce in
+     the millions of years, and under the great varieties of condition
+     which geological records imply, any amount of change."
+
+These and many other instances which might be brought together from
+the published writings of the half-century before the publication of
+the _Origin_, show conclusively that the idea of evolution was far
+from new, and that all through the first part of this century
+dissatisfaction with the doctrine of the fixity of species and of
+their miraculous creation was growing. The great contribution of
+Darwin was this: First, by his theory of natural selection, he brought
+together the known facts of variation, of struggle for existence, and
+of adaptation to varying conditions, in such a way that they provided
+men with a rational and known cause, a cause the operation of which
+could be seen, for the origin of species by means of preservation of
+favoured races. Next, as to the origin of species, he brought together
+not only proofs of the actual operation of natural selection, but a
+body of evidence in favour of the fact of evolution that was, beyond
+all comparison, more striking than had been adduced by any earlier
+philosophical or biological writer. He convinced naturalists that
+evolution was by far the most probable way in which the living world
+had come to be what it is, and he made them turn to examination of the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms with a lively hope that the past history
+of the living world was not an insoluble problem. Darwin's doctrine
+brought a new life into biological study, and the result of the
+incomparably greater bulk of investigation that followed the year 1859
+was a continual increase of evidence in favour of the probability of
+evolution, until now the whole scientific world, and the majority of
+those who are unscientific, are content to accept evolution as the
+only reasonable explanation of the living world. It is well to
+remember that while Darwin, by bringing forward the theory of struggle
+for existence and resulting survival of the fittest, was the actual
+cause of the present assured position of evolution as a first
+principle of science, it by no means follows that the survival of the
+fittest has become similarly a first principle of science. At cross
+roads a traveller may choose the right path from a quite
+unsatisfactory reason. Darwin himself, in the act of bringing forward
+his own theory of natural selection, admitted the possibility of the
+co-operation of many other agencies in evolution, and at various times
+during the course of his life he was inclined to attach, now more now
+less, importance to these additional agencies. Huxley, as we shall
+soon come to see, never wavered in his adhesion to the facts of
+evolution after 1859; but, from first to last, regarded natural
+selection as only the most probable cause of the occurrence of
+evolution. Other naturalists, of whom the best-known are Weismann in
+Germany, Ray Lankester in England, and W.K. Brooks in America, have
+come to attach a continually increasing importance to the purely
+Darwinian factor of natural selection; while others again, such as
+Herbert Spencer in England, and the late Professor Cope and a large
+American school, have advocated more and more strongly the importance
+of what may be called the Lamarckian factors of evolution,--the
+inherited effects of increased or diminished use of organs, the direct
+influence of the environment, and so forth. From the fact that Darwin
+has persuaded the world of the truth of evolution, evolution is often
+called Darwinism; and in this historically just though scientifically
+inaccurate sense of the term, Huxley was a strict Darwinian, a
+Darwinian of the Darwinians. From the facts that, although natural
+selection had been formulated by several writers before Darwin, and
+had been simultaneously elaborated by Wallace and Darwin, the _Origin
+of Species_ was the foundation of the modern acceptation of evolution,
+and natural selection was the key-note of the origin of species,
+natural selection may be called Darwinism with both historical and
+scientific accuracy; and in this sense of the term Huxley was a
+Darwinian; a convinced but free-thinking and broad-minded Darwinian,
+who was far from persuaded that his tenet had a monopoly of truth, and
+who delighted in shewing the distinctions between what seemed to him
+probable and what was proved, and in absorbing from other doctrines
+whatever he thought worthy to be absorbed. The present writer has
+thought it so important to distinguish between these two sides of the
+word _Darwinism_, that for the sake of clearness he has stated what he
+believes to be the truth of Huxley's relation to Darwin before
+beginning detailed exposition of it.
+
+In consideration of Huxley's position before 1859, the most
+interesting feature of his zoölogical work is the gradual preparation
+that it was making in his mind for the doctrine of the _Origin_. He
+was like an engineer boring a tunnel through a mountain, but ignorant
+of how near he was to the pleasant valley on the other side; and,
+above all, ignorant how rapidly he was being met by a much more mighty
+excavation from the other side. To use what is perhaps a more exact
+simile: he was like a child with half the pieces of a puzzle-map,
+slowly linking them together as far as they would fit, and quite
+ignorant that presently the remaining half would suddenly be given
+him, and with almost no trouble would at once fit into the gaps he had
+necessarily left, and transform a meaningless pattern into a perfect
+and intelligible whole. Let us consider some of these map pieces. The
+ultimate picture was the conception of the whole world of life, past
+and present, as a single family tree growing up from the simplest
+possible roots, and gradually spreading out first into the two main
+branches of animals and plants, and then into the endless series of
+complicated ramifications that make up living and extinct animals and
+plants. Huxley was piecing together the scattered fragments, and
+gradually learning to see here and there whole branches, as yet
+separate at their lower ends, but in themselves shapely, and showing a
+general resemblance to one another in the gradual progression from
+simple to complex. The greatest of these branches that he had pieced
+together was the group of Medusæ and their allies, now known as
+Coelenterates. He had formed similar branches for the Molluscs and
+minor branches for the Salps and Ascidians, and, in his general
+lectures on the whole animal kingdom, he had shadowed out the broad
+arrangement of the main divisions, or, as he called them, _types_. He
+had seen in each particular branch the clearest evidence of the laws
+of growth which had directed its development, and had realised that
+these laws of growth, consisting of gradual modifications of common
+typical structures, were identical in the different branches. He had
+taken clear hold of Von Baer's conception that the younger stages of
+different types were more alike than the adult stages, and here and
+there he had made comparisons between the younger stages or simplest
+forms of his different branches, and had shown that, without
+completely realising it, he was ready for the idea that just as the
+separate pieces could be arranged to form orderly branches, so the
+separate branches might come to be arranged as a single tree. And
+finally, in his lectures on "Protoplasm and Cells," and on the
+"Common Structure of the Animal and Plant Kingdoms," he had reached
+the conclusion that the two main divisions of the living world were
+formed of the same stuff, displayed in identical fashion the
+elementary functions of life, and were creatures of the same order.
+But, notwithstanding this close approach to modern conceptions, he was
+not an evolutionist. When, in public, he expressed deliberate
+convictions, these convictions were against the general idea of
+evolution, until very shortly before 1859. In this opposition he was
+supported partly by the critical scepticism of his mind, which in all
+things made him singularly unwilling to accept any theories of any
+kind, but chiefly from the fact that the books of the two chief
+supporters of evolutionary conceptions impressed him very
+unfavourably. Huxley writes:
+
+     "I had studied Lamarck attentively, and I had read the _Vestiges_
+     with due care; but neither of them afforded me any good ground
+     for changing my negative and critical attitude. As for the
+     _Vestiges_, I confess that the book simply irritated me by the
+     prodigious ignorance and thoroughly unscientific habit of mind
+     manifested by the writer. If it had any influence on me at all,
+     it set me against evolution; and the only review I ever have
+     qualms of conscience about, on the ground of needless savagery is
+     one I wrote on the _Vestiges_ while under that influence. With
+     respect to the _Philosophie Zoologique_, it is no reproach to
+     Lamarck to say that the discussion of the species question in
+     that work, whatever might be said for it in 1809, was miserably
+     below the level of the knowledge of half a century later. In that
+     interval of time, the elucidation of the structure of the lower
+     animals and plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of
+     their relations; histology and embryology, in the modern sense,
+     had been created; physiology had been reconstituted; the facts of
+     distribution, geological and geographical, had been prodigiously
+     multiplied and reduced to order. To any biologist whose studies
+     had carried him beyond mere species-mongering, in 1850 one-half
+     of Lamarck's arguments were obsolete, and the other half
+     erroneous or defective, in virtue of omitting to deal with the
+     various classes of evidence which had been brought to light since
+     his time. Moreover his one suggestion as to the cause of the
+     gradual modification of species--effort excited by change of
+     conditions--was, on the face of it, inapplicable to the whole
+     vegetable world. I do not think that any impartial judge who
+     reads the _Philosophie Zoologique_ now, and who afterwards takes
+     up Lyell's trenchant and effective criticism (published as far
+     back as 1830) will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much higher
+     place in the establishment of biological evolution than that
+     which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to physical science
+     generally--_buccinator tantum_".
+
+On the other hand, Huxley's friendship with Darwin and with Lyell
+began to make him less certain about the fixity of species. He tells
+us that during his first interview with Darwin, which occurred soon
+after his return from the _Rattlesnake_, he
+
+     "expressed his belief in the sharpness of the lines of
+     demarcation between natural groups and in the absence of
+     transitional forms, with all the confidence of youth and
+     imperfect knowledge. I was not aware at that time that he had
+     been many years brooding over the species question; and the
+     humorous smile which accompanied his gentle answer, that such was
+     not altogether his view, long haunted and puzzled me."
+
+An elaborate study of Lyell's works helped largely in destroying this
+youthful confidence, and a letter written by Lyell and quoted by
+Huxley in the chapter he communicated to Darwin's _Life and Letters_,
+states that in April, 1856, "when Huxley, Hooker, and Wollaston were
+at Darwin's last week they (all four of them) ran a tilt against
+species; further I believe, than they are prepared to go." Another
+quotation from Huxley's essay on _The Reception of the Origin of
+Species_ will make it plain beyond all doubt that he was not a
+Darwinian before Darwin.
+
+[Illustration: SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER]
+
+     "Thus, looking hack into the past, it seems to me that my own
+     position of critical expectancy was just and reasonable, and must
+     have been taken up, on the same grounds, by many other persons.
+     If Agassiz had told me that the forms of life which had
+     successively tenanted the globe were the incarnations of
+     successive thoughts of the Deity; and that He had wiped out one
+     set of these embodiments by an appalling geological catastrophe
+     as soon as His ideas took a more advanced shape, I found myself
+     not only unable to admit the accuracy of the deductions from the
+     facts of palæontology, upon which this astounding hypothesis was
+     founded, but I had to confess my want of means of testing the
+     correctness of his explanation of them. And besides that, I could
+     by no means see what the explanation explained. Neither did it
+     help me to be told by an eminent anatomist that species had
+     succeeded one another in time, in virtue of a 'continuously
+     operative creational law'. That seemed to me to be no more than
+     saying that species had succeeded one another in the form of a
+     vote-catching resolution, with 'law' to please the man of science
+     and 'creational' to draw the orthodox. So I took refuge in that
+     _thätige Skepsis_ which Goethe has so well defined; and,
+     reversing the apostolic precept to be all things to all men, I
+     usually defended the tenability of the received doctrines when I
+     had to do with the transmutationists, and stood up for the
+     possibility of transmutation among the orthodox--thereby, no
+     doubt, increasing an already current, but quite undeserved,
+     reputation for needless combativeness."
+
+What transformed Huxley's views and the views of his contemporaries
+who accepted Darwinism was not so much the evidence in favour of
+evolution contained in the _Origin_, as the illuminating doctrine of
+natural selection which for the first time supplied naturalists with a
+reasonable explanation of how evolution might have come about, both in
+the animal and vegetable kingdoms. As soon as this reason was
+provided them, they turned to the store of facts within their own
+knowledge, and rapidly arranged the evidence which had been lurking
+only partly visible in favour of the fact of evolution. It cannot be
+disputed that here and there earlier writers than Darwin and Wallace
+had suggested the possibility of natural selection acting upon
+existing variations so as to cause survival of the fittest.
+MacGillivray, the Scots naturalist, and the father of Huxley's
+companion on the _Rattlesnake_, had published suggestions which came
+exceedingly near to Darwin's theory. In 1831 Mr. Patrick Matthew had
+published a work on _Naval Architecture and Timber_, and in it had
+stated the essential principle of the Darwinian doctrine of struggle
+and survival. Still earlier, in 1813, a Dr. W.C. Wells, in a paper to
+the Royal Society on "A White Female, Part of whose Skin Resembles
+that of a Negro," had, as Darwin himself freely admitted, distinctly
+recognised the principle of natural selection--but applied it only to
+the races of man, and to certain characters alone. Finally, long
+before either of these, Aristotle himself had written, in _Physics_,
+ii., 8: "Why are not the things which seem the result of design,
+merely spontaneous variations, which, being useful, have been
+preserved, while others are continually eliminated as unsuitable?"
+None of these foreshadowings were supported by lengthy evidence, nor
+worked out into an elaborate theory; and it was not until Darwin had
+done this that we can say the birth of natural selection really took
+place. Huxley writes:
+
+     "The suggestion that new species may result from the selective
+     action of external conditions upon the variations from their
+     specific type which individuals present,--and which we call
+     'spontaneous,' because we are ignorant of their causation,--is
+     as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was
+     to biological specialists before 1858."
+
+But that suggestion is the central idea of the origin of species, and
+contains the quintessence of Darwinism.
+
+Some weeks before the _Origin_ was published, Darwin wrote to Huxley,
+sending him a copy of the work, and asking him for the names of
+eminent foreigners to whom it should be sent. In the course of his
+letter he wrote: "I shall be intensely curious to hear what effect the
+book produces on you," and it was clear that he had no very confident
+expectation of a favourable opinion. Huxley replied the day before the
+_Origin_ was published, saying that he had finished the volume, and
+stating that it had completely convinced him of the fact of evolution,
+and that he fully accepted natural selection as a "true cause for the
+production of species." Darwin, in a letter to Wallace, telling of his
+doubts and fears concerning the reception of his book, had added the
+postscript: "I think I told you before that Hooker is a complete
+convert. If I can convert Huxley, I shall be content." When he
+received Huxley's letter he replied at once:
+
+     "Like a good Catholic who has received extreme unction, I can now
+     sing _Nunc Dimittis_. I should have been more than contented with
+     one quarter of what you have said. Exactly fifteen months ago,
+     when I first put pen to paper for this volume, I had awful
+     misgivings, and thought perhaps I had deluded myself, like so
+     many have done; and I then fixed in my mind three judges, on
+     whose decision I determined mentally to abide. The judges were
+     Lyell, Hooker, and yourself. It was this which made me so
+     excessively anxious for your verdict. I am now contented, and can
+     sing my _Nunc Dimittis_."
+
+The effect of the new theory on Huxley's mind has been expressed most
+fully and clearly by himself:
+
+     "I imagine that most of my contemporaries who thought seriously
+     about the matter were very much in my own state of mind--inclined
+     to say to Mosaists and Evolutionists, 'a plague on both your
+     houses!' and disposed to turn aside from an interminable and
+     apparently fruitless discussion to labour in the fertile fields
+     of ascertainable fact. And I may, therefore, further suppose that
+     the publication of the Darwin and Wallace papers in 1858, and
+     still more that of the _Origin_ in 1859, had the effect upon them
+     of that of a flash of light which, to a man who has lost himself
+     in a dark night, suddenly reveals a road which, whether it takes
+     him straight home or not, certainly goes his way. That which we
+     were looking for and could not find, was a hypothesis respecting
+     the origin of known organic forms, which assumed the operation of
+     no causes but such as could be proved to be actually at work. We
+     wanted, not to pin our faith to that or any other speculation,
+     but to get hold of clear and definite conceptions which could be
+     brought face to face with facts and have their validity tested.
+     The _Origin_ provided us with the working hypothesis we sought.
+     Moreover, it did us the immense service of freeing us for ever
+     from the dilemma--refuse to accept the creation hypothesis, and
+     what have you to propose that can be accepted by any cautious
+     reasoner? In 1857 I had no answer ready, and I do not think that
+     anyone else had. A year later, we reproached ourselves with
+     dulness for being perplexed by such an enquiry. My reflection,
+     when I first made myself master of the central idea of the
+     _Origin_ was, 'how exceedingly stupid not to have thought of
+     that.' I suppose that Columbus's companions said much the same
+     when he made the egg to stand on end. The facts of variability,
+     of the struggle for existence, of adaptation to conditions, were
+     notorious enough; but none of us had suspected that the road to
+     the heart of the species problem lay through them, until Darwin
+     and Wallace dispelled the darkness, and the beacon-fire of the
+     _Origin_ guided the benighted.
+
+      "Whether the particular shape which the doctrine of evolution,
+     as applied to the organic world, took in Darwin's hands, would
+     prove to be final or not, was, to me, a matter of indifference.
+     In my earliest criticisms of the _Origin_ I ventured to point out
+     that its logical foundation was insecure so long as experiments
+     in selective breeding had not produced varieties which were more
+     or less infertile; and that insecurity remains up to the present
+     time. But, with any and every critical doubt which my sceptical
+     ingenuity could suggest, the Darwinian hypothesis remained
+     incomparably more probable than the creation hypothesis. And if
+     we had none of us been able to discern the paramount significance
+     of some of the most patent and notorious of natural facts, until
+     they were, so to speak, thrust under our noses, what force
+     remained in the dilemma--creation or nothing? It was obvious
+     that, hereafter, the probability would be immensely greater that
+     the links of natural causation were hidden from our purblind
+     eyes, than that natural causation should be unable to produce all
+     the phenomena of nature. The only rational course for those who
+     had no other object than the attainment of truth, was to accept
+     'Darwinism' as a working hypothesis, and see what could be made
+     of it. Either it would prove its capacity to elucidate the fact
+     of organic life, or it would break down under the strain. This
+     was surely the dictate of common sense, and for once common-sense
+     carried the day. The result has been that complete _volte-face_
+     of the whole scientific world which must seem so surprising to
+     the present generation. I do not mean to say that all the leaders
+     of biological science have avowed themselves Darwinians; but I do
+     not think that there is a single zoölogist, or botanist, or
+     palæontologist, among the multitude of active workers of this
+     generation, who is other than an evolutionist profoundly
+     influenced by Darwin's views. Whatever may be the ultimate fate
+     of the particular theory put forth by Darwin, I venture to affirm
+     that, so far as my knowledge goes, all the ingenuity and all the
+     learning of hostile critics has not enabled them to adduce a
+     solitary fact of which it can be said that it is irreconcilable
+     with the Darwinian theory. In the prodigious variety and
+     complexity of organic nature, there are multitudes of phenomena
+     which are not deducible from any generalisation we have yet
+     reached. But the same may be said of every other class of natural
+     objects. I believe that astronomers cannot yet get the moon's
+     motions into perfect accordance with the theory of gravitation."
+
+These quotations make plain the historical fact that Huxley was
+convinced of evolution because Darwin, by his theory of natural
+selection, brought forward an actual cause that could be seen in
+operation, and that was competent to produce new species. As soon as the
+"flash of light" came, it revealed to Huxley the vast store of evidence
+that he had unconsciously accumulated, and it set him at once to work
+collecting more evidence. If we bear in mind the distinction between
+evolution and natural selection, the well-known subsequent history of
+the relations between Huxley and what was known popularly as Darwinism
+becomes clear and intelligible. From first to last he accepted
+evolution; from first to last he accepted natural selection as by far
+the most reasonable hypothesis that had been brought forward, and as
+infinitely more in accordance with the observed facts of nature than any
+theory of the immediate action of supernatural creative power. As time
+went on, and the influence of Darwin's theory made evolution acceptable
+to a wider and wider range of people, until it passed into the common
+knowledge of the world, that confusion of which we have spoken arose
+between evolution and Darwin's particular theory. And as knowledge grew,
+and the number of biologists increased in the striking fashion of this
+last half-century, while the evidence for evolution continued to
+increase with an unexpected rapidity, every detail of the purely
+Darwinian theory became more and more subjected to rigid scrutiny. Most
+educated people, unless their education has been largely in an
+experimental science, find difficulty in understanding the relation in
+the minds of naturalists between "authority" and "knowledge." We do not
+_know_, for instance, that the structure of the Medusæ consists
+essentially of two foundation-membranes, because Huxley, one of the
+greatest authorities in anatomy that the world has seen, told us that it
+was so. We know it because, Huxley having told us that it was so, we are
+able at any time with a microscope and dissecting needles to observe the
+fact for ourselves. It is true, that unless we are making a special
+study of the Medusæ we do not repeat the observation in the case of so
+many different forms of Medusæ as Huxley studied; but it is part of our
+training to observe for ourselves in a sufficient number of cases to
+test the correspondence between statement and fact before we accept the
+generalisation of any authority. And we learn, or at least have the
+opportunity of learning, in the whole habit of our lives as naturalists,
+to distinguish carefully between knowledge of which personal observation
+is an essential part, and opinion or belief which may or may not be
+based upon authority, but which in any case is devoid of the
+corroboration of personal observation. When a piece of new anatomical or
+physiological work is published in a technical journal, it is read by a
+large number of anatomists and physiologists, and if the work is
+apparently of an important kind, bearing on the general problems that
+even specialists have to follow, they all at once set to work in their
+laboratories to make corroborative dissections or experiments, and it is
+part of every modern account of a biological discovery to tell exactly
+the methods by which results were got, in order that this process of
+corroboration may be set about easily. The question as to whether or no
+natural selection were the sole or chief cause, or indeed a cause at
+all, of evolution is not yet, and perhaps never will be, a matter of
+knowledge in the scientific sense. At the most, we can see for ourselves
+only that selection does bring about changes at least as great as the
+differences between natural species. The evidence for this we have
+before our eyes, if we choose to see, on a stock farm; in the breeding
+yards of any keeper of "fancy" animals; or in the nursery gardens of any
+florist. So far, Huxley accepted the Darwinian principle as a definite
+contribution to knowledge; and so far the whole body of biologists has
+followed him. Beyond this the truth of the Darwinian principle is a
+matter of inference or judgment; of balancing probabilities and
+improbabilities. In multitude of counsellors there is said to be wisdom,
+and what we learn from the counsellors of biology all over the world is
+that some maintain that natural selection is the only probable agency in
+effecting evolution, and that it is competent to account for all the
+changes which we know to have taken place; others hold that its probable
+influence has been over-rated; and others, again, think that it has been
+one of the many causes that have brought about the kaleidoscopic variety
+of organic nature. Huxley remained to the last among those who
+distinguished in the clearest way between natural selection as an
+exceedingly ingenious and probable hypothesis, and a proved cause; and
+he was always careful, especially when he was writing for or speaking in
+the presence of those who like himself accepted the fact of evolution as
+proven, to distinguish between this provisional hypothesis as to how
+evolution had come about, and definite knowledge that it had come about
+in this way. Two passages from Huxley's writings, one written in 1860 in
+the _Westminster Review_, and the second written in 1893, in the preface
+to the volume of his collected essays which contained a reprint of the
+_Westminster_ article, will make plain the continuity of Huxley's
+attitude:
+
+     "There is no fault to be found with Mr. Darwin's method, then;
+     but it is another question whether he has fulfilled all the
+     conditions imposed by that method. Is it satisfactorily proved,
+     in fact, that species may be originated by selection? That there
+     is such a thing as natural selection? That none of the phenomena
+     exhibited by species are inconsistent with the origin of species
+     in this way? If these questions can be answered in the
+     affirmative, Mr. Darwin's view steps out of the rank of
+     hypotheses into those of proved theories; but, so long as the
+     evidence at present adduced falls short of enforcing that
+     affirmation, so long, to our minds, must the new doctrine be
+     content to remain among the former--an extremely valuable, and in
+     the highest degree probable, doctrine; indeed, the only extant
+     hypothesis which is worth anything in a scientific point of view;
+     but still a hypothesis, and not yet the theory of species.
+
+      "After much consideration, and assuredly with no bias against
+     Mr. Darwin's views, it is our clear conviction that, as the
+     evidence stands, it is not absolutely proven that a group of
+     animals having all the characters exhibited by species in nature,
+     has ever been originated by selection, whether natural or
+     artificial. Groups having the morphological character of species,
+     distinct and permanent races, in fact, have been so produced over
+     and over again; but there is no positive evidence at present that
+     any group of animals has, by variation and selective breeding,
+     given rise to another group which was in the least degree
+     infertile with the first. Mr. Darwin is perfectly aware of this
+     weak point, and brings forward a multitude of ingenious and
+     important arguments to diminish the force of the objection. We
+     admit the value of these arguments to the fullest extent; nay, we
+     will go so far as to express our belief that experiments,
+     conducted by a skilful physiologist, would very probably obtain
+     the desired production of mutually more or less infertile breeds
+     from a common stock in a comparatively few years; but still, as
+     the case stands at present, this little 'rift within the lute' is
+     not to be disguised or overlooked."--(_Westminster Review_,
+     1860.)
+
+      "We should leave a very wrong impression on the reader's mind if
+     we permitted him to suppose that the value of Darwin's work
+     depends wholly on the ultimate justification of the theoretical
+     views which it contains. On the contrary, if they were disproved
+     to-morrow, the book would still be the best of its kind--the most
+     compendious statement of well-sifted facts bearing on the
+     doctrine of species that has ever appeared. The chapters on
+     variation, on the struggle for existence, on instinct, on
+     hybridism, on the imperfection of the geological record, on
+     geographical distribution, have not only no equals, but, so far
+     as our knowledge goes, no competitors, within the range of
+     biological literature. And viewed as a whole, we do not believe
+     that, since the publication of Von Baer's _Researches on
+     Development_, thirty years ago, any work has appeared calculated
+     to exert so large an influence, not only on the future of
+     biology, but in extending the domination of science over regions
+     of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly
+     penetrated."--(_Ibid._)
+
+      "Those who take the trouble to read the essays published in 1859
+     and 1860, will, I think, do me the justice to admit that my zeal
+     to secure fair play for Mr. Darwin did not drive me into the
+     position of a mere advocate; and that, while doing justice to the
+     greatness of the argument, I did not fail to indicate its weak
+     points. I have never seen any reason for departing from the
+     position which I took up in these two essays; and the assertion
+     which I sometimes meet with nowadays that I have 'recanted' or
+     changed my opinions about Mr. Darwin's views is quite
+     unintelligible to me.
+
+      "As I have said in the seventh essay, the fact of evolution is
+     to my mind sufficiently evidenced by palæontology; and I remain
+     of the opinion expressed in the second, that until selective
+     breeding is definitely proved to give rise to varieties infertile
+     with one another, the logical foundation of the theory of natural
+     selection is quite incomplete. We still remain very much in the
+     dark about the causes of variation; the apparent inheritance of
+     acquired characters in some cases; and the struggle for existence
+     within the organism, which probably lies at the bottom of both
+     these phenomena."--(1893, _Preface_.)
+
+Finally, when he was awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society, on
+November 30, 1894, in the course of an address at the anniversary
+dinner of the Society, he said, as reported in the _Times_ next day:
+
+     "I am as much convinced now as I was thirty-four years ago that
+     the theory propounded by Mr. Darwin, I mean that which he
+     propounded--not that which has been reported to be his by too
+     many ill-instructed, both friends and foes--has never yet been
+     shewn to be inconsistent with any positive observations, and if I
+     may use a phrase which I know has been objected to, and which I
+     use in a totally different sense from that in which it was first
+     proposed by its first propounder, I do believe that on all
+     grounds of pure science it 'holds the field' as the only
+     hypothesis at present before us which has a sound scientific
+     foundation.... I am sincerely of opinion that the views which
+     were propounded by Mr. Darwin thirty-four years ago may be
+     understood hereafter as constituting an epoch in the intellectual
+     history of the human race. They will modify the whole system of
+     our thought and opinion, our most intimate convictions. But I do
+     not know, I do not think anybody knows, whether the particular
+     views he held will be hereafter fortified by the experience of
+     the ages which come after us.... Whether the particular form in
+     which he has put before us the Darwinian doctrines may be such as
+     to be destined to survive or not, is more, I venture to think,
+     than anybody is capable at this present moment of saying."
+
+Further details of Huxley's relation to natural selection may be
+gained from an interesting chapter in Professor Poulton's volume on
+_Charles Darwin_ (Cassell and Co., London, 1896).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote D: See E. Clodd's _Pioneers of Evolution_, London, 1897, and
+Osborn's _From the Greeks to Darwin_, New York, 1896.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION
+
+     Huxley's Prevision of the Battle--The Causes of the Battle--The
+     _Times_ Review--Sir Richard Owen attacks Darwinism in the
+     _Edinburgh Review_--Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the _Quarterly
+     Review_--Huxley's Scathing Replies--The British Association
+     Debates at Oxford--Huxley and Wilberforce--Résumé of Huxley's
+     Exact Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+
+
+When Huxley wrote thanking Darwin for the first copy of the _Origin_,
+he warned him of the annoyance and abuse he might expect from those
+whose opinions were too suddenly disturbed by the new exposition of
+evolution, and assured him of the strongest personal support:
+
+     "I trust you will not allow yourself to be in any way disgusted
+     or annoyed by the considerable abuse and misrepresentation which,
+     unless I greatly mistake, is in store for you. Depend upon it,
+     you have earned the lasting gratitude of all thoughtful men; and
+     as to the curs which will bark and yelp, you must recollect that
+     some of your friends, at any rate, are endowed with an amount of
+     combativeness which (though you have often and justly rebuked it)
+     may stand you in good stead.
+
+      "I am sharpening my claws and beak in readiness."
+
+Huxley was absolutely right in his prediction as to the magnitude of
+the prejudices to be overcome before evolution became accepted, and
+for the next thirty years of his life he was the leader in the battle
+for Darwinism. It was natural that the new views, especially in their
+extension to man himself, should arouse the keenest opposition. To
+those of the present generation, who have grown up in an atmosphere
+impregnated by the doctrine of descent, the position of the world in
+1860 seems "older than a tale written in any book." As we have tried
+to shew in the preceding chapter, biological science was partially
+prepared; the mutability of species and the orderly succession of
+organic life were in the air. But the application of the doctrine to
+man came as a greater shock to civilised sentiment than would have
+occurred a century earlier. It came as a disaster even to the clearest
+and calmest intellects, for it seemed to drag down to the dirt the
+nobility of man. Out of the fierce flame of the French Revolution,
+there had come purged and clean the conception of man as an individual
+and soul. As this century advanced, the conception of the dignity and
+worth of each individual man, rich or poor, bond or free, had spread
+more and more widely, bearing as its fruit the emancipation of slaves,
+the spread of political freedom, the amelioration of the conditions of
+the dregs of humanity, the right of all to education, the possibility
+of universal peace based on the brotherhood of man; and all that was
+best in philosophy and in political practice seemed bound up with a
+lofty view of the unit of mankind. Carlyle himself, to whom many of
+the freest and noblest spirits in Europe were beginning to look as to
+an inspired prophet, could see in it nothing but a "monkey
+damnification of mankind." The dogmatic world saw in it nothing but a
+deliberate and malicious assault upon religion. The Church of England
+in particular was beginning to recover from a long period of almost
+incredible supineness, and there was arising a large body of clergy
+full of faith and zeal and good works, but quite unacquainted with
+science, who frankly regarded Darwin as Antichrist, and Huxley and
+Tyndall as emissaries of the devil. Against evolutionists there was
+left unused no weapon that ignorant prejudice could find, whether that
+prejudice was inspired by a lofty zeal for what it conceived to be the
+highest interests of humanity, or by a crafty policy which saw in the
+new doctrine a blow to the coming renewed supremacy of the Church. To
+us, now, it may seem that Huxley had "sharpened his beak and claws"
+with the spirit of a gladiator rather than with that of the mere
+defender of a scientific doctrine; but a very short study of
+contemporary literature will convince anyone that for a time the
+defenders of evolution had to defend not only what they knew to be
+scientific truth, but their personal and private reputation. The new
+doctrine, like perhaps all the great doctrines that have come into the
+world, brought not peace but a sword, and had to be defended by the
+sword. Darwin had not the kind of disposition nor the particular
+faculties necessary for a deadly contest of this kind; he was
+interested indeed above all things in convincing a few leading
+naturalists of the truth of his opinions; but, that done, he would
+have been contented to continue his own work quietly, in absolute
+carelessness as to what the world in general thought of him. Huxley,
+on the other hand, was incapable of restraining himself from
+propagating what he knew to be the truth; his reforming missionary
+spirit was not content simply with self-defence; it drove him to be a
+bishop _in partibus infidelium_.
+
+By a curious and interesting accident, Huxley had the opportunity of
+beginning his propagandism by writing the first great review of _The
+Origin of Species_ in the _Times_, at that period without question the
+leading journal in the world. Huxley's own account of this happy
+chance is given in _Darwin's Life and Letters_, vol. ii.
+
+     "The _Origin_ was sent to Mr. Lucas, one of the staff of the
+     _Times_ writers at that day, in what I suppose was the ordinary
+     course of business. Mr. Lucas, though an excellent journalist,
+     and at a later period editor of _Once a Week_, was as innocent of
+     any knowledge of science as a babe, and bewailed himself to an
+     acquaintance on having to deal with such a book, whereupon he was
+     recommended to ask me to get him out of his difficulty, and he
+     applied to me accordingly, explaining, however, that it would be
+     necessary for him formally to adopt anything I might be disposed
+     to write, by prefacing it with two or three paragraphs of his
+     own.
+
+      "I was too anxious to seize on the opportunity thus offered of
+     giving the book a fair chance with the multitudinous readers of
+     the _Times_ to make any difficulty about conditions; and being
+     then very full of the subject, I wrote the article faster, I
+     think, than I ever wrote anything in my life, and sent it to Mr.
+     Lucas, who duly prefixed his opening sentences. When the article
+     appeared, there was much speculation as to its authorship. The
+     secret leaked out in time, as all secrets will, but not by my
+     aid; and then I used to derive a good deal of innocent amusement
+     from the vehement assertions of some of my more acute friends,
+     that they knew it was mine from the first paragraph." "As the
+     _Times_ some years since referred to my connection with the
+     review, I suppose there will be no breach of confidence in the
+     publication of this little history."
+
+This review was one of the few favourable notices, and naturally it
+delighted Darwin greatly. He wrote to Hooker about it: "Have you seen
+the splendid essay and notice of my book in the _Times_? I cannot
+avoid a strong suspicion that it is by Huxley; but I have never heard
+that he wrote in the _Times_. It will do grand service." On the same
+day, writing to Huxley himself, he said of the review:
+
+     "It included an eulogium of me which quite touched me, although I
+     am not vain enough to think it all deserved. The author is a
+     literary man and a German scholar. He has read my book
+     attentively; but, what is very remarkable, it seems that he is a
+     profound naturalist. He knows my barnacle book and appreciates it
+     too highly. Lastly, he writes and thinks with quite uncommon
+     force and clearness; and, what is even still rarer, his writing
+     is seasoned with most pleasant wit. We all laughed heartily over
+     some of the sentences.... Who can it be? Certainly I should have
+     said that there was only one man in England who could have
+     written this essay, and that you were the man; but I suppose that
+     I am wrong, and that there is some hidden genius of great
+     calibre; for how could you influence Jupiter Olympus and make him
+     give you three and a half columns to pure science? The old fogies
+     will think the world will come to an end. Well, whoever the man
+     is, he has done great service to the cause."
+
+The essay in the _Times_ was followed shortly afterwards by a "Friday
+Evening Discourse" in 1860 on "Species, Races, and their Origin," in
+which Huxley, addressing a cultivated audience, laid the whole weight
+of his brilliant scientific reputation on the side of evolution. Next,
+in April, 1860, he published a long article in the _Westminster
+Review_, then a leading organ of advanced opinion, on _The Origin of
+Species_, some quotations from which article were made in the last
+chapter. Apart from its strong support of the doctrine of evolution,
+its whole-hearted praise of Darwin's achievements, and the clear way
+in which, while it showed the value of natural selection as the only
+satisfactory hypothesis in the field, it gave reasons for regarding it
+strictly as an hypothesis, the review is specially interesting as a
+contrast to reviews which appeared about the same time in the
+_Edinburgh Review_ and in the _Quarterly_. Both these were not only
+exceedingly unfavourable, but were written in a spirit of personal
+abuse singularly unworthy of their authors and still more of their
+subject. The review in the _Edinburgh_ had come as a particularly
+great shock to Darwin, Huxley, and their friends. Sir Richard Owen, in
+many ways, was at that time the most distinguished anatomist in
+England. He had been an ardent follower of Cuvier, and in England had
+carried on the palæontological work of the great Frenchman. He was a
+personal friend of the court, a well-known man in the best society,
+and in many ways a worthy upholder of the best traditions of science.
+In the particular matter of species, he was known to be by no means a
+firm supporter of the orthodox views. When Darwin's paper was read at
+the Linnæan Society, and afterwards when the _Origin_ was published,
+the verdict of Owen was looked to with the greatest interest by the
+general public. For a time he wavered, and even expressed himself of
+the opinion that he had already in his published works included a
+considerable portion of Darwin's views. But two things seemed to have
+influenced him: First, Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, and Sedgwick
+and Whewell, the two best-known men at Cambridge, urged him to stamp
+once for all, as he only could do, upon this "new and pernicious
+doctrine." Secondly, combined with his great abilities, he had the
+keenest personal interest in his own position as the leader of English
+science, and had no particular friendship for men or for views that
+seemed likely to threaten his own supreme position. In a very short
+time he changed from being neutral, with a tendency in favour of the
+new views, to being a bitter opponent of them. In scientific societies
+and in London generally, naturally enough he constantly came across
+the younger scientific men, such as Huxley and Hooker, who had
+declared for Darwin, and he made the irretrievable mistake of for a
+time attempting to disguise his opposition while he was writing the
+most bitter of all the articles against Darwinism. That appeared in
+the _Edinburgh Review_ in April, 1860, and the range of knowledge it
+displayed, and the form of arguments employed, naturally enough
+betrayed the secret of its authorship, although Owen for very long
+attempted to conceal his connection with it. Darwin, who had the most
+unusual generosity towards his opponents, found this review too much
+for him. Writing to Lyell soon after its publication, he said:
+
+     "I have just read the _Edinburgh_, which, without doubt is by
+     ----. It is extremely malignant, clever, and, I fear, will be
+     very damaging. He is atrociously severe on Huxley's lecture, and
+     very bitter against Hooker. So we three _enjoyed_ it together.
+     Not that I really enjoyed it, for it made me uncomfortable for
+     one night; but I have quite got over it to-day. It requires much
+     study to appreciate all the bitter spite of many of the remarks
+     against me; indeed I did not discover all myself. It scandalously
+     misrepresents many parts. He misquotes some passages, altering
+     words within inverted commas.... It is painful to be hated in the
+     intense degree with which ---- hates me."
+
+As Owen was still alive when this letter was published in _Darwin's
+Life_, the authorship of the review was not actually mentioned; but it
+is necessary to mention it, as it justifies the sternness with which
+Huxley exposed Owen on an occasion shortly to be described. The review
+in the _Quarterly_ was written by Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford,
+in July, 1860, and almost at once the authorship of it became known
+to Darwin's friends. In connection with this, Huxley wrote in 1887, in
+_Darwin's Life and Letters_:
+
+     "I doubt if there was any man then living who had a better right
+     (than Darwin) to expect that anything he might choose to say on
+     such a question as the Origin of Species would be listened to
+     with profound attention, and discussed with respect. And there
+     was certainly no man whose personal character should have
+     afforded a better safeguard against attacks, instinct with
+     malignity and spiced with shameless impertinences. Yet such was
+     the portion of one of the kindest and truest men that it was ever
+     my good fortune to know; and years had to pass away before
+     misrepresentation, ridicule, and denunciation ceased to be the
+     most notable constituents of the majority of the multitudinous
+     criticisms of his work which poured from the press. I am loth to
+     rake up any of these ancient scandals from their well-deserved
+     oblivion; but I must make good a statement which may seem
+     overcharged to the present generation, and there is no _pièce
+     justificative_ more apt for the purpose or more worthy of such
+     dishonour than the article in the _Quarterly Review_ for July,
+     1860. Since Lord Brougham assailed Dr. Young, the world has seen
+     no such specimen of the insolence of a shallow pretender to a
+     Master in Science as this remarkable production, in which one of
+     the most exact of observers, most cautious of reasoners, and most
+     candid of expositors, of this or any other age, is held up to
+     scorn as a 'flighty' person who endeavours to 'prop up his
+     utterly rotten fabric of guess and speculation,' and whose 'mode
+     of dealing with nature' is reprobated as 'utterly dishonourable
+     to natural science.' And all this high and mighty talk, which
+     would have been indecent in one of Mr. Darwin's equals, proceeds
+     from a writer whose want of intelligence, or of conscience, or of
+     both, is so great, that, by way of an objection to Mr. Darwin's
+     views, he can ask, 'Is it credible that all favourable varieties
+     of turnips are tending to become men'; who is so ignorant of
+     palæontology that he can talk of the 'flowers and fruits' of the
+     plants of the carboniferous epoch; of comparative anatomy, that
+     he can gravely affirm the poison apparatus of venomous snakes to
+     be 'entirely separate from the ordinary laws of animal life, and
+     peculiar to themselves'; of the rudiments of physiology, that he
+     can ask, 'what advantage of life could alter the shape of the
+     corpuscles into which the blood can be evaporated?' Nor does the
+     reviewer fail to flavour this outpouring of incapacity with a
+     little stimulation of the _odium theologicum_. Some inkling of
+     the history of the conflicts between astronomy, geology, and
+     theology leads him to keep a retreat open by the proviso that he
+     cannot 'consent to test the truth of Natural Science by the Word
+     of Revelation,' but for all that he devotes pages to the
+     exposition of his conviction that Mr. Darwin's theory
+     'contradicts the revealed relation of the creation to its
+     Creator,' and is 'inconsistent with the fulness of His glory.'"
+
+In a footnote to this passage, Huxley wrote that he was not aware when
+writing these lines that the authorship of the article had been avowed
+publicly. He adds, however:
+
+     "Confession unaccompanied by penitence, however, affords no
+     ground for mitigation of judgment; and the kindliness with which
+     Mr. Darwin speaks of his assailant, Bishop Wilberforce, is so
+     striking an exemplification of his singular gentleness and
+     modesty, that it rather increases one's indignation against the
+     presumption of his critic."
+
+As a matter of fact Wilberforce was a man of no particular information
+in letters or in philosophy, and his knowledge of science was of the
+vaguest: a little natural history picked up from Gosse, the naturalist
+of the seashore, in the course of a few days' casual acquaintance at
+the seaside, and some pieces of anatomical facts with which he was
+provided, it is supposed, by Owen, for the purposes of the review. But
+he bore a great name, and misused a great position; he was a man of
+facile intelligence, smooth, crafty, and popular, and in this case he
+was convinced that he was doing the best possible for the great
+interests of religion by authoritatively denouncing a man whose
+character he was incapable of realising, and on whose work he was
+incompetent to pronounce an opinion. Against an enemy of this kind,
+Huxley was implacable and relentless. He was constitutionally
+incapable of tolerating pretentious ignorance, and he had realised
+from the first that there could be no question of giving and taking
+quarter from persons who were more concerned to suppress doctrines
+they conceived to be dangerous than to examine into their truth. On
+the other hand, much as Huxley disliked Owen's devious ways, and
+although in after life there occurred many and severe differences of
+opinion between Huxley and Owen, Huxley had a sincere respect for much
+of Owen's anatomical and palæontological work, and when, in 1894,
+Owen's _Life_ was published, one of the most interesting parts of it
+was a long, fair, and appreciative review by Huxley of Owen's
+contributions to knowledge.
+
+The middle of 1860, however, was not a time for Huxley, in his
+capacity as Darwin's chief defender, to make truce with the enemy. In
+England a certain number of well-known scientific men had given a
+general support to Darwinism. From France, Germany, and America there
+had come some support and a good deal of cold criticism, but most
+people were simmering with disturbed emotions. The newspapers and the
+reviews were full of the new subject; political speeches and sermons
+were filled with allusions to it. Wherever educated people talked the
+conversation came round to the question of evolution. Were animals and
+plants the results of special creations, or were they, including man,
+the result of the gradual transformations of a few simple primitive
+types evolving under the stress of some such force as Darwin's natural
+selection? To many people it seemed to be a choice between a world
+with God and a world without God; and the accredited defenders of
+religion gathered every force of argument, of misrepresentation,
+conscious and unconscious, of respectability, and of prejudice to
+crush once for all the obnoxious doctrine and its obnoxious
+supporters. In the autumn of that year it fell that the meeting of the
+British Association, then coming into prominence as the annual
+parliament of the sciences, was to be held at Oxford. It was
+inevitable that evolution should be debated formally and informally in
+the sessions of the Association, and it must have seemed to the
+orthodox that there, in that beautiful city, its air vibrant with
+tinkling calls to faith, its halls and libraries crowded with the
+devout and the learned, its history and traditions alike calling on
+all to defend the old fair piety, in such an uncongenial air, the
+supporters of evolution must be overwhelmed. Almost the whole weight
+of the attack had to be resisted by Huxley. In the various sectional
+meetings he had combat after combat with professors and clerics. Of
+these dialectic fights the most notable were one with Owen on the
+anatomical structure of the brain, and another with Wilberforce upon
+the general question of evolution. Owen contended that there were
+anatomical differences not merely of degree but of kind between the
+brain of man and the brain of the highest ape, and his remarks were
+accepted by the audience as a complete and authoritative blow to the
+theory of descent. Huxley at once met Owen with a direct and flat
+contradiction, and pledged his reputation to justify his contradiction
+with all due detail on a further occasion. As a matter of fact, he did
+justify the contradiction, and no anatomist would now dream of
+attempting the support of the proposition rashly made by Owen; but,
+at the time, the position of Owen and the sympathies of the audience
+took away much of their effect from Huxley's words. Two days later,
+Wilberforce, in a scene of considerable excitement, made a long,
+eloquent, and declamatory speech against evolution and against Huxley.
+From the incomplete reports of the debate that were published, it is
+difficult to gain a very clear idea of the Bishop's speech; but it is
+certain that it was eloquent and facile, and that it appealed strongly
+to the religious prejudices of the majority of the audience. He ended
+by a gibe which, under ordinary circumstances, might have passed
+simply as the rude humour of a popular orator, but which in that
+electric atmosphere stung Huxley into a retort that has become
+historical. He asked Huxley whether he was related by his
+grandfather's or grandmother's side to an ape. Huxley replied:
+
+     I asserted, and I repeat, that a man has no reason to be ashamed
+     of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an ancestor
+     whom I should feel shame in recalling, it would be a _man_, a man
+     of restless and versatile intellect, who, not content with an
+     equivocal success in his own sphere of activity, plunges into
+     scientific questions with which he has no real acquaintance, only
+     to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and distract the
+     attention of his hearers from the real point at issue by eloquent
+     digressions, and skilled appeals to religious prejudice.
+
+An eye-witness has told the present writer that Huxley's speech
+produced little effect at the time. In the minds of those of the
+audience best qualified to weigh biological arguments, there was
+little doubt but that he had refuted Owen, and simply dispelled the
+vaporous effusions of the Bishop; but the majority of the audience
+retained the old convictions. The combat was removed to a wider
+tribunal. From that time forwards Huxley, by a series of essays,
+addresses, and investigations, continued almost to the end of his
+life, tried to convince, and succeeded in convincing, the intellectual
+world. At the risk of wearying by repetition we shall again insist
+upon the side of Darwinism that Huxley fought for and triumphed for.
+
+Long before the time of Darwin and Huxley, almost at the beginning of
+recorded thought, philosophers busied themselves with the wonderful
+diversity of the living world and with speculations as to how it had
+assumed its present form. From the earliest times to this century,
+theories as to the living world fell into one or other of two main
+groups. The key-note of one group was the fixity of species: the
+belief that from their first appearance species were separate,
+independent entities, one never springing from another, new species
+never arising by the modification in different directions of
+descendants of already existing species. The key-note of the other
+group of theories was the idea of progressive change: that animals and
+plants as they passed along the stream of time were continually being
+moulded by the forces surrounding them, and that the farther back the
+mind could go in imagination the fewer and simpler species would be;
+until, in the first beginning, all the existing diverse kinds of
+living creatures would converge to a single point. It may be that, on
+the whole, the idea of fixity prevailed more among thinkers with a
+religious bias; but for the most part the theories were debated
+independently of the tenets of any faith, Christian or other. There
+were sceptical defenders of fixity and religious upholders of
+evolution. However, in Christian countries, from the time of the
+Reformation onwards, a change in this neutrality of religion to
+theories of the living world took place. As Pascal prophesied,
+Protestantism rejected the idea of an infallible Church in favour of
+the idea of an infallible book, and, because it happened that this
+book included an early legend of the origin of the world in a form
+apparently incompatible with evolution, Protestantism and, to a lesser
+and secondary extent, Catholicism, assumed the position that there was
+no place for evolution in a Christian philosophy. At the end of last
+century, and up to the middle of this century, the problem was not
+raised in any acute form. The chief anatomists and botanists were
+occupied with the investigation and discovery of facts, and, in an
+ordinary way, without taking any particular trouble about it, accepted
+more or less loosely the idea that species were fixed. Now and then an
+evolutionist propounded his views; but, as a rule, he supported them
+with a knowledge of facts very much inferior to that possessed by the
+more orthodox school. Then came Herbert Spencer, reasserting evolution
+in the old broad spirit, not merely in its application to species, but
+as the guiding principle of the whole universe from the integrations
+of nebulæ into systems of suns and planets to the transformations of
+chemical bodies. Before his marvellous generalisations had time to
+grip biologists, there came Darwin; and Darwin brought two things:
+first, a re-statement of the fact of evolution as applied to the
+living world, supported by an enormous body of evidence, new and old,
+presented with incomparably greater force, clearness, patience, and
+knowledge than had ever been seen before; and, second, the exposition
+of the principle of natural selection as a mechanism which might have
+caused, and probably did cause, evolution.
+
+Huxley, as has been shewn, like many other anatomists, was ready for
+the general principle of evolution. In fact, so far as it concerned
+the great independent types which he believed to exist among animals,
+he was more than prepared for it. Let us take a single definite
+example of his position. In his work on the Medusæ, he had shewn how a
+large number of creatures, at first sight diverse, were really
+modifications of a single great type, and he used language which, now
+that all zoölogists accept evolution in the fullest way, requires no
+change to be understood:
+
+     "What has now been advanced will, perhaps, be deemed evidence
+     sufficient to demonstrate,--first, that the organs of these
+     various families are traceable back to the same point in the way
+     of development; or, secondly, when this cannot be done, that they
+     are connected by natural gradations with organs which are so
+     traceable; in which case, according to the principles advanced in
+     57, the various organs are homologous, and the families have a
+     real affinity to one another and should form one group.... It
+     appears, then, that these five families are by no means so
+     distinct as has hitherto been supposed, but that they are members
+     of one great group, organised upon one simple and uniform plan,
+     and, even in their most complex and aberrant forms, reducible to
+     the same type. And I may add, finally, that on this theory it is
+     by no means difficult to account for the remarkable forms
+     presented by the Medusæ in their young state. The Medusæ are the
+     most perfect, the most individualised animals of the series, and
+     it is only in accordance with what very generally obtains in the
+     animal kingdom, if, in their early condition, they approximate
+     towards the simplest forms of the group to which they belong."
+
+Such words, written before 1849, only differ from those that would
+have been written by a convinced evolutionist by a hair's breadth. But
+Huxley was not an evolutionist then: it was Darwin's work, containing
+a new exposition of evolution and the new principle of natural
+selection, that convinced him, not of natural selection but of
+evolution. At Oxford, in 1860, it was for evolution, and not for
+natural selection, that he spoke; and throughout his life afterwards,
+as he expressed it, it was this "ancient doctrine of evolution,
+rehabilitated and placed upon a sound scientific foundation, since,
+and in consequence of, the publication of _The Origin of Species_,"
+that furnished him with the chief inspiration of his work. The clear
+accuracy of his original judgment upon Darwin's work has been
+abundantly justified by subsequent history. Since 1859 the case for
+evolution has become stronger and stronger until it can no longer be
+regarded as one of two possible hypotheses in the field, but as the
+only view credible to those who have even a moderate acquaintance with
+the facts. In 1894, thirty years after the famous meeting at Oxford,
+the British Association again met in that historic town. The
+President, Lord Salisbury, a devout Churchman and with a notably
+critical intellect, declared of Darwin:
+
+     "He has, as a matter of fact, disposed of the doctrine of the
+     immutability of species.... Few now are found to doubt that
+     animals separated by differences far exceeding those that
+     distinguish what we know as species have yet descended from
+     common ancestors."
+
+Huxley, in replying to the address, used the following words:
+
+     "As he noted in the Presidential Address to which they had just
+     listened with such well deserved interest, he found it stated, on
+     what was then and at this time the highest authority for them,
+     that as a matter of fact the doctrine of the immutability of
+     species was disposed of and gone. He found that few were now
+     found to doubt that animals separated by differences far
+     exceeding those which they knew as species were yet descended
+     from a common ancestry. Those were their propositions; those were
+     the fundamental principles of the doctrine of evolution."
+
+On the other hand, Huxley all through his life, while holding that
+natural selection was by far the most probable hypothesis as to the
+mode in which evolution had come about, maintained that it was only a
+hypothesis, and, unlike evolution, not a proved fact. In 1863, in a
+course of lectures to workingmen, he declared:
+
+     "I really believe that the alternative is either Darwinism or
+     nothing, for I do not know of any rational conception or theory
+     of the organic universe which has any scientific position at all
+     beside Mr. Darwin's.... But you must recollect that when I say I
+     think it is either Mr. Darwin's hypothesis or nothing; that
+     either we must take his view, or look upon the whole of organic
+     nature as an enigma, the meaning of which is wholly hidden from
+     us; you must understand that I mean that I accept it
+     provisionally, in exactly the same way as I accept any other
+     hypothesis."
+
+In 1878 he wrote:
+
+     "How far natural selection suffices for the production of species
+     remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the whole cause,
+     it is a very important factor in that operation; and that it must
+     play a great part in the sorting out of varieties into those
+     which are transitory and those which are permanent."
+
+The difficulty in accepting natural selection as more than a
+hypothesis is simply that we have no experimental knowledge of its
+being able to produce the mutual infertility which is so striking a
+character of species. This difficulty is, in the first place, the
+difficulty of proving a negative. It might be possible to prove that
+its operation actually does produce species; it will always be
+impossible to prove that, in the past, natural selection, and no other
+known or unknown agency or combination of agencies, had a share in
+the process. All naturalists are now agreed that, as a matter of
+historical fact, it was the propounding of natural selection by Darwin
+that led to the acceptance of evolution, to the fact that evolution
+"takes its place alongside of those accepted truths which must be
+reckoned with by philosophers of all schools." The difficulty as to
+natural selection still exists, and there is no better way to express
+it than in Huxley's words, written in the early sixties:
+
+     "But, for all this, our acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis
+     must be provisional so long as one link in the chain of evidence
+     is wanting; and, so long as all the animals and plants certainly
+     produced by selective breeding from a common stock are fertile
+     with one another, that link will be wanting; for, so long,
+     selective breeding will not be proved to be competent to do all
+     that is required of it to produce natural species.... I adopt Mr.
+     Darwin's hypothesis, therefore, subject to the production of
+     proof that physiological species may be produced by selective
+     breeding; just as a physical philosopher may accept the
+     undulatory theory of light, subject to the proof of the existence
+     of the hypothetical ether; or as the chemist adopts the atomic
+     theory, subject to the proof of the existence of atoms; and for
+     exactly the same reasons, namely, that it has an immense amount
+     of _prima facie_ probability; that it is the only means at
+     present within reach of reducing the chaos of observed facts to
+     order; and, lastly, that it is the most powerful instrument of
+     investigation which has been presented to the naturalists since
+     the invention of the natural system of classification, and the
+     commencement of the systematic study of embryology."--_Man's
+     Place in Nature_, p. 149.[E]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote E: Further details on the subject of this chapter may be
+obtained in Clodd's excellent volume, _Pioneers of Evolution_, where
+an account of the history of the idea of evolution from the earliest
+times is given; and in Poulton's _Charles Darwin and the Theory of
+Natural Selection_, where there is a particularly valuable chapter
+upon Huxley's relation to Darwinism.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VERTEBRATE ANATOMY
+
+     The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull--Goethe, Oken, Cuvier, and
+     Owen--Huxley Defends Goethe--His Own Contributions to the
+     Theory--The Classification of Birds--Huxley Treats them as
+     "Extinct Animals"--Geographical Distribution--Sclater's
+     Regions--Huxley's Suggestions.
+
+
+We have seen that some of the most important of the contributions made
+by Huxley to zoölogical knowledge were in the field of the lower
+animals, especially of those marine forms for the study of which he
+had so great opportunities on the _Rattlesnake_. A great bulk of his
+zoölogical work, however, related to the group of back-boned animals.
+These, by their natural affinities and anatomical structure, are more
+closely related to man, and, as Huxley began his scientific work as a
+medical student, the groundwork of all his knowledge was study of the
+anatomy and physiology of man. Moreover, throughout the greater part
+of his working life, he had more to do with the extinct forms of life.
+The vertebrate animals, from the great facility for preservation which
+their hard skeleton presents, as well as from the extremely important
+anatomical characters of the skeleton, bulk more largely in the study
+of palæontology than does any other group. In each of the great
+groups of vertebrate animals, in fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds,
+and mammals, Huxley did important work. Much of this is embodied in
+his treatise on _Vertebrate Anatomy_, but to some particular parts of
+it special attention may now be directed, as much because these serve
+as excellent examples of his method of work as because of their
+intrinsic importance.
+
+The skull is the most striking feature in the skeleton of vertebrate
+animals, and to the theory and structure of the vertebrate skull
+Huxley paid special attention, and his views and summary of the views
+of others form the basis of our modern knowledge. This work was put
+before the public in the course of a series of lectures on Comparative
+Anatomy given in 1863, while Huxley was Hunterian Professor at the
+Royal College of Surgeons, and the beginnings of it were contained in
+a Croonian lecture to the Royal Society in 1858.
+
+The theory of the skull which held the field was known as the
+vertebral theory. The great bulk of the nervous system of vertebrate
+animals consists of a mass of tissue lying along the dorsal line of
+the body and enclosed in a cartilaginous or bony sheath. The nerve
+tissue is the brain and spinal cord; the sheath is the skull in front
+and the vertebral column along the greater part of the length of the
+animal. The brain may be taken simply as an anterior portion of the
+nerve mass, corresponding in a general way to an expansion of the
+spinal cord in the region of the anterior limbs and an expansion in
+the region of the hind limbs, the latter indeed having recently been
+shown in some extinct creatures to surpass the brain in size. In a
+similar simple fashion the skull may be taken as an expanded anterior
+part of the vertebral column, serving as an expanded box for the
+brain, just as in the regions of the pectoral and pelvic expansions
+of the cord there are similar expansions of the surrounding bony case.
+We know now, from greater knowledge of its embryological development,
+that the brain contains structures quite peculiar to itself, and
+differs from the spinal cord in kind as well as in size; but, at the
+same time, when the vertebral theory of the skull was inaugurated,
+embryological knowledge and the importance of its relation to
+anatomical structure were less considered. What Huxley did was to show
+that the skull, in its mode of origin and real nature, was not merely
+an expanded portion of the vertebral column, but that it differed from
+it in kind.
+
+The hypothesis of the vertebral structure of the skull was due both to
+Goethe, the great German poet, and Oken, a most able but somewhat
+mystic German anatomist. An attempt had been made by a well-known
+English anatomist to cast on Goethe the stigma of having tried to rob
+Oken of the credit for this theory. Huxley set that matter finally at
+rest, disproving and repelling with indignation the unworthy
+suggestion. Oken gave out his theory in 1807, and described how it had
+been first suggested to his mind by the accident of picking up a dried
+and battered sheep's skull, in which the apparent vertebral structure
+was very obvious, as, indeed, anyone may see at a glance. It was in
+1820, long after the theory had been made current, that the poet first
+publicly narrated that in a similar way he had long before come to the
+same conclusion; but Huxley was able to show that, although announcing
+it later, Goethe had in reality anticipated the anatomist. A passage
+occurs in a letter to a friend, of a date in 1790, which admits of no
+doubt. "By the oddest happy chance, my servant picked up a bit of an
+animal's skull in the Jews' cemetery at Venice, and, by way of a
+joke, held it out to me as if he were offering me a Jew's skull. I
+have made a great step in the formation of animals." It is an
+interesting trait in Huxley's character, to find him zealous in
+defence of the reputation of a great man, even although that man had
+been dead more than half a century; but it may be added that his just
+zeal was at least stimulated by the fact that the maligner of Goethe
+was Owen, the conduct of whom, with regard to Darwin and Huxley,
+Huxley had had just reason for resenting.
+
+The theory, then, which had dropped stillborn from Goethe, but which
+Oken developed, was simply that the skull consisted of a series of
+expanded vertebræ. Each vertebra consists of a basal piece or centrum,
+the anterior and posterior faces of which are closely applied to the
+face of an adjoining vertebra, and of a bony arch or ring which
+encloses and protects the nervous cord. Oken supposed that there were
+four such vertebræ in the skull, the centra being firmly fused and the
+arches expanded to form the dome of the skull. Quite correctly, he
+divided the skull into four regions, corresponding to what he called
+an ear vertebra, at the back, through which the auditory nerves
+passed; a jaw vertebra, in the sphenoidal region, through which the
+nerves to the jaws passed; an eye vertebra in front, pierced by the
+optic nerves, and again in front a nose vertebra, the existence of
+which he doubted at first. Quite rightly, he discriminated between the
+ordinary bones of the skull and the special structures surrounding the
+inner ear which he declared to be additions derived from another
+source. So far it cannot be doubted that the vertebral theory made a
+distinct advance in our knowledge of the skull. It was to a certain
+extent, however, thrown into disrepute by various fantastic theories
+with which Oken surrounded it. Later on, Cuvier removed from it these
+wilder excrescences, and amplified the basis of observation upon which
+the underlying theory of the unity of type of the skull throughout the
+vertebrates was based. Cuvier, however, came to reject the theory,
+except so far as it applied to the posterior or occipital segment of
+the skull. Later on, Owen resuscitated the theory, first throwing
+doubt on the merit of Goethe, and then suggesting that Oken, instead
+of relying on the observed facts, had deduced the whole theory from
+his own imagination. Owen, although he made no new contribution to
+fact or theory in this matter, practically claimed the whole credit of
+it as a scientific hypothesis.
+
+When Huxley took up the subject, the position was that the vertebral
+theory was in full possession of the field, under the auspices of
+Owen. Huxley began afresh from observed facts. The first object of his
+investigation was to settle once for all the question as to whether
+the skulls of all vertebrates were essentially modifications of the
+same type. He took in succession the skulls of man, sheep, bird,
+turtle, and carp, and showed that in all these there were to be
+distinguished the same four basi-cranial regions: the basi-occipital,
+basi-sphenoid, pre-sphenoid, and ethmoid. These were essentially
+identical with the centra of the four vertebræ of Oken. Similarly, he
+showed the composition of the lateral and dorsal walls, proving the
+essential identity of the structures involved and of their relations
+to the nerve exits in the great types he had chosen. In the series of
+lectures delivered before the College of Surgeons, he extended his
+observations to a much larger series of vertebrates, and substantially
+laid down the main lines of our knowledge of the skull. In two
+important respects his statements were not merely a codification of
+existing knowledge, but an important extension of it. He distinguished
+the different modes in which the jaws may be suspended to the skull,
+and established for these different kinds of suspensoria the names
+which have ever since been employed. He proved clearly what had been
+suggested by Oken, that the region of the ear is a lateral addition to
+the skull, and he distinguished in it three bones, his names for which
+have since become the common property of anatomists. Finally, he made
+it plain beyond any possible doubt that the skulls of all vertebrates
+were built upon a common plan.
+
+Having established the facts, he proceeded to enquire into the theory.
+There was now a new method for investigating such problems, the method
+of embryology, which, practically, had not been available to Oken, and
+of which neither Cuvier nor Owen had made proper use. By putting
+together the investigations of a number of embryologists, by adding to
+these himself, and, lastly, by interpreting the facts which his
+investigations into comparative anatomy had brought to light, he
+shewed that the vertebral theory could not be maintained. He shewed,
+by these methods, that, though both skull and vertebral column are
+segmented, the one and the other, after an early stage, are fashioned
+on lines so different as to exclude the possibility of regarding the
+details of each as mere modifications of a common type. "The spinal
+column and the skull start from the same primitive condition, whence
+they immediately begin to diverge." "It may be true to say that there
+is a primitive identity of structure between the spinal or vertebral
+column and the skull; but it is no more true that the adult skull is
+a modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that the
+vertebral column is a modified skull." Taking the embryological facts,
+he shewed that the skull arose out of elements quite different from
+those of the vertebral column. The notochord alone is common to both.
+The skull is built up of longitudinal cartilaginous pieces, now known
+as the "parachordals" and "trabeculæ," of sense capsules enclosing the
+nose and ear, and of various roofing bones. In the historical
+development of the skull three grades become apparent; a primitive
+stage, as seen in Amphioxus, where there is nothing but a fibrous
+investment of the nervous structures; a cartilaginous grade, as seen
+in the skate or shark, where the skull is formed of cartilage, very
+imperfectly hardened by earthy deposits; a bony stage, seen in most of
+the higher animals. He shewed that in actual development of the higher
+animals these historical grades are repeated, the skull being at first
+a mere membranous or fibrous investment of the developing nervous
+masses, then becoming cartilaginous, and, lastly, bony. He made some
+important prophetic remarks as to the probable importance that future
+embryological work would give to the distinction between cartilage and
+membrane bones--a prophecy that has been more than fully realised by
+the investigations of Hertwig and of others. Our present knowledge of
+the skull differs from Huxley's conception practically only in a
+fuller knowledge of details. We know now that throughout the series
+there is a primitive set of structures common to all animals higher in
+the scale than Amphioxus, and forming the base and lateral walls of
+the skull. This is termed the Chondrocraninm, because it is laid down
+in cartilage; it is composed of the separate elements which Huxley
+indicated, and, in different animals, as Huxley suggested, the exact
+limits of the ossification of the primitive cartilages differ in
+extent, but occur in homologous situations. This primitive skull is
+roofed over by a series of membrane bones which have no connection in
+origin with the other portions of the skull, and which have no
+representative in the vertebral column, but which are the direct
+descendants of the bony scales clothing the external skin in
+cartilaginous fishes. In one respect only was Huxley erroneous. Partly
+by inadvertence, and partly because the minute details of vertebrate
+embryology became really familiar to zoölogists only after the
+elaborate work of Balfour of Cambridge, Huxley, in his account of the
+formation of the first beginnings of the skeleton in the embryo, made
+confusion between the walls of the primitive groove, which, in
+reality, give rise to the nervous structures, and those embryonic
+tissues which form the skeletal system.
+
+The next great piece of work which we may take as typical of Huxley's
+contributions to vertebrate anatomy, is his classical study on the
+classification of birds. The great group of birds contains a larger
+number of species than is known in any other group of vertebrates,
+and, in this vast assemblage of forms there is strikingly little
+anatomical difference. The ostrich and the humming-bird might perhaps
+be taken as types of the extremest differences to be found, and yet,
+although these differ in size, plumage, adaptations, habits, mode of
+life, and almost everything that can separate living things, the two
+conform so closely to the common type of bird structure that knowledge
+of the anatomy of one would be a sufficient guide, down to minute
+details, for dissection of the other. None the less, there are
+hundreds of thousands of species of birds between these two types. It
+is not surprising that to reduce this vast assemblage of similar
+creatures to an ordered system of classification has proved one of the
+most difficult tasks attempted by zoölogists. Before Huxley, it had
+been attempted by a number of distinguished zoölogists; but, for the
+most part, these had relied too much on merely external characters and
+on superficial modifications in obvious relation to habits. When
+Huxley, in the course of a set of lectures on Comparative Anatomy, was
+about to approach the subject of birds he was asked by a zoölogist how
+he proposed to treat them. "I intend," he replied, "to treat them as
+extinct animals." By that he meant that it was his purpose to make a
+prolonged study of their skeletal structures the basis of his
+grouping, following the lines which Cuvier, Owen, and he himself had
+pursued so successfully in the case of the fossil remains of
+vertebrates. The result was that this first systematic study of even
+one set of the anatomical characters of the group completely reformed
+the method by which all subsequent workers have tried to grapple with
+the problem; ornithology was raised from a process akin to
+stamp-collecting to a reasoned scientific study. The immediate
+practical results were equally important. He was able to shew that
+among the innumerable known forms there were three grades of
+structure. The lowest had already been recognised and named by
+Haeckel; it consisted of the Saururæ, or reptile-like, birds, and
+contained a single fossil form, Archæopteryx, distinguished from all
+living birds by the presence of a hand-like wing in which the
+metacarpal bones were well developed and freely movable, and by the
+possession of a long lizard-like tail actually exceeding in length
+the remainder of the spinal column. The next group of Ratites,
+although it contained only the Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, and
+Apteryx, he shewed to be equivalent in anatomical coherence to the
+third great group of Carinates, which includes the vast majority of
+living birds. In his arrangement of the latter group, he laid most
+stress on the characters of the bony structures which form the palate,
+and by this simple means was able to lay down clearly at least the
+main lines of a natural classification of the group.
+
+Huxley's work upon birds, like his work in many other branches of
+anatomy, has been so overlaid by the investigations of subsequent
+zoölogists that it is easy to overlook its importance. His employment
+of the skeleton as the basis of classification was succeeded by the
+work of others who made a similar use of the muscular anatomy, of the
+intestinal canal, of the windpipe, of the tendons of the feet, and
+many other structures which display anatomical modifications in
+different birds. The modern student finds that all these new sets of
+facts are much greater in bulk than the work of Huxley, and it is easy
+for him to remain in ignorance that they were all suggested and
+inspired by the method which Huxley employed. He finds that further
+research has supplanted some of Huxley's conclusions, and it is easy
+for him to remain in ignorance that the conclusions themselves
+suggested the investigations which have modified them. Huxley's
+anatomical work was essentially living and stimulating, and too often
+it has become lost to sight simply because of the vast superstructures
+of new facts to which it gave rise.
+
+Closely associated with vertebrate anatomy is the subject of
+geographical distribution. In 1857 the study of this important
+department of zoölogy was placed on a scientific basis, practically
+for the first time, by a memoir on the geographical distribution of
+birds published in the _Journal_ of the Linnæan Society of London. It
+was known in a general way that different kinds of creatures were
+found in different parts of the world, but little attempt had been
+made to map out the world into regions characterised by their animal
+and vegetable inhabitants, as the political divisions of the world are
+characterised by their different governments and policies. Mr.
+Sclater, who two years later became secretary of the Zoölogical
+Society of London, in his memoir introduced the subject in the
+following words:
+
+     "It is a well-known and universally acknowledged fact that we can
+     choose two portions of the globe of which the respective fauna
+     and flora shall be so different that we should not be far wrong
+     in supposing them to have been the result of distinct creations.
+     Assuming, then, that there are, or may be, more areas of creation
+     than one, the question naturally arises how many of them are
+     there, and what are their respective extents and boundaries; or,
+     in other words, what are the most natural primary ontological
+     divisions of the earth's surface?"
+
+Mr. Sclater's answer was that there are six great regions;
+Neotropical, Nearctic, Palæarctic, Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian,
+and his answer, with minor alterations and the addition of a great
+wealth of detail, has been accepted by zoölogy.
+
+Two years later, however, Darwin gave a new meaning and a new
+importance to Sclater's work, by the new interpretation he caused to
+be placed on the words "centres of creation." Sclater's facts and
+areas remained the same; Darwin rejected the idea of separate
+creations in the older sense of the words, and laid stress on the
+impossibility of accounting for the resemblances within a region and
+for the differences between regions by climatic differences and so
+forth. He raised the questions of modes of dispersal and of barriers
+to dispersal, of similarities due to common descent, and of the
+modifying results produced by isolation. He gave, in fact, a theory of
+the "creations" which Mr. Sclater had shewn to be a probable
+assumption. It was in the nature of things that Huxley should make a
+contribution to a set of problems so novel and of so much importance
+to zoölogy. In 1868, in the course of a memoir on the anatomy of the
+gallinaceous birds and their allies, he made a useful attempt, nearly
+the first of its kind, to correlate anatomical facts with geographical
+distribution. Having shewn the diverging lines of anatomical structure
+that existed in the group of creatures he had been considering, he
+went on to shew that there was a definite relation between the
+varieties of structure and the different positions on the surface of
+the globe occupied at the present time by the creatures in question.
+He made, in fact, the geographical position a necessary part of the
+whole idea of a species or of a group, and so introduced a conception
+which has become a permanent part of zoölogical science.
+
+With regard to the number and limits of the zoölogical regions into
+which the world may be divided, Huxley raised a number of problems
+which have not yet reached a full solution. Mr. Sclater had divided
+the world into six great regions: the Nearctic, including the
+continent of North America, with an overlap into what is called South
+America by geographers; the Palæarctic, comprising Europe and the
+greater part of Asia; the Oriental, containing certain southern
+portions of Asia, such as India south of the Himalayas and many of the
+adjacent islands; the Ethiopian, including Africa, except north of
+the Sahara, and Madagascar; the Australian, containing Australia and
+New Zealand and some of the more southeastern of the islands of Malay;
+the Neotropical, including South America. Huxley first called
+attention to certain noteworthy resemblances between the Neotropical
+and the Australian regions of Sclater, and held that a primary
+division of the world was into _Arctogæa_, comprising the great land
+masses of the Northern Hemisphere with a part of their extension
+across the equator, and _Notogæa_, which contained Australia but not
+New Zealand and South America. Although this acute suggestion has not
+been generally accepted as a modification of Mr. Sclater's scheme, it
+called attention in a striking fashion to some very remarkable
+features in the distribution of animals. Subsequent writers have
+considerably extended Huxley's conception of the similarities to be
+found among the more southern land areas. They have pointed out that
+the most striking idea of the distribution of land and water on the
+surface of the globe is to be got by considering the globe alternately
+from one pole and from the other. In the south, a clump of ice-bound
+land, well within the Antarctic Circle, surrounds the pole. All else
+is a wide domain of ocean broken only where tapering and isolated
+tongues of land, South America, the Cape, Australia, lean down from
+the great land masses of the north. On the other hand, all the great
+land masses expand in the Northern Hemisphere, and shoulder one
+another round the North Pole. America is separated from Asia only by
+the shallowest and narrowest of straits; an elevation of a few fathoms
+would unite Greenland with Europe. Science points definitely to some
+part of the great northern land area as the centre of life for at
+least the larger terrestrial forms of life. We know that these arose
+successively, primitive birds like the ostriches being older than
+higher forms like the parrots and singing birds; the pouched
+marsupials preceding the antelopes and the lion; the lemurs coming
+before the man-like apes. Each wave of life spread over the whole area
+producing after its kind; then, pressing round the northern land area,
+it met a thousand different conditions of environment, different
+foods, enemies, and climates, and broke up into different genera and
+species. But there was never a wave of life that was not followed by
+another wave. In the struggle for existence between the newer and the
+older forms, the older forms were gradually driven southwards towards
+the diverging fringes of the land masses. The vanquished left behind
+them on the field of battle only their bones, to become fossils.
+Sometimes succeeding waves swept along to the extreme limits of the
+land, and many early types were utterly destroyed. But others found
+sanctuary in the ends of the South, and such survivors of older and
+earlier types of life cause a similarity between the southern lands
+that Huxley called Notogæa, although the extent of his region must be
+increased.
+
+Recently, however, there has been a recurrence to Huxley's suggested
+union of South America and Australia, based on new evidence of a
+direct kind, quite different from that which had just been given.
+Various groups of naturalists have stated that there are similarities
+between the invertebrate inhabitants of Australia and of South America
+of a kind which makes the existence of a direct land connection in the
+Southern Hemisphere extremely probable. Moreover, Ameghino has
+recently described some marsupial fossils from South America which, he
+states, belong to the Australian group of Dasyuridæ, and Oldfield
+Thomas has described a new mammal from South America which is unlike
+the opossums of America and like the diprotodonts of Australia. So
+that, while the general opinion has been against Huxley's division,
+Notogæa, in the strict meaning which he gave to it, there has recently
+been an opinion growing in its favour.
+
+Huxley also made minor alterations in Mr. Sclater's scheme by forming
+an additional circumpolar region for the Northern Hemisphere, and by
+elevating New Zealand into a separate region, distinct from Australia.
+On these points there is a balance of opinion against his views.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Huxley's contributions to vertebrate
+anatomy, the actual details of which would occupy far too much space,
+it is necessary to mention the great importance to zoölogy of the new
+terms and new ideas he introduced into classification. His mind was,
+above all things, orderly and comprehensive, and while, in innumerable
+minute points, from the structure of the palate of birds to the
+structure of the roots of human hair (actually the subject of Huxley's
+first published contribution to scientific knowledge), he added to the
+number of known facts, he did even more important work in
+co-ordinating and grouping together the known body of facts. To him
+are due not only the names, but the idea, that the mammalian animals
+fall into three grades of ascending complexity of organisation: the
+reptile-like Prototheria, which lay large eggs, and which have many
+other reptilian characters; the Metatheria, or marsupial animals; the
+Eutheria, or higher animals, which include all the common animals from
+the mole or rabbit up to man. In a similar fashion, he grouped the
+vertebrates into three divisions, and named them: Ichthyopsida, which
+include the fish and Amphibia, creatures in which the aquatic habit
+dominates the life history and the anatomical structure; Sauropsida,
+including birds and reptiles, on the close connection between which he
+threw so much light; Mammalia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAN AND THE APES
+
+     Objections to Zoölogical Discussion of Man's Place--Owen's
+     Prudence--Huxley's Determination to Speak out--Account of his
+     Treatment of _Man's Place in Nature_--Additions Made by More
+     Recent Work.
+
+
+Even before the publication of _The Origin of Species_ there was a
+considerable nervousness in the minds of the more orthodox as to
+discussions on the position of the human species in zoölogical
+classification. Men of the broadest minds, such as Lyell, who himself
+had suffered considerably from outside interference with the
+scientific right to publish scientific conclusions, was strongly
+opposed to anything that seemed to tend towards breaking down the
+barrier between man and the lower creatures. Sir William Lawrence, a
+very distinguished and able man, had been criticised with the greatest
+severity, and had been nearly ostracised, for a very mild little book
+_On Man_; and Huxley tells us that the electors to the Chair of a
+Scotch University had refused to invite a distinguished man, to whom
+the post would have been acceptable, because he had advocated the view
+that there were several species of man. The court political leaders,
+and society generally, resented strongly anything that seemed at all
+likely to disturb the somewhat narrow orthodoxy prevalent in those
+times; and, as there were comparatively few posts open to scientific
+men, and comparatively greater chances of posts being made for men of
+talent and ability who adhered to the respectable traditions, those
+who tampered with so serious a question as the place of man were
+likely to burn their fingers severely. However, the difficulties of
+discussing these problems were much greater immediately after 1859.
+One of the most surprising things in the history of this century is
+the sudden intensity of the opposition of the public, particularly the
+respectable and religious public, to zoölogical writing upon man,
+immediately after the publication of the _Origin_. Before that time
+anatomists did not necessarily hesitate to point out the close
+resemblance between the anatomy of man and that of the higher apes,
+and the difficulties anatomists had in making anatomical distinction
+of value between them. Thus Professor Owen, who, as a writer, was
+rather unusually nervous about expressing facts to which any objection
+might be raised by those outside the strictly scientific world, had
+written the following paragraph in the course of an essay on the
+characters of the class Mammalia, published, in 1857, in the _Journal
+of the Proceedings of the Linnæan Society_:
+
+     "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the distinction
+     between the psychical phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a
+     Boschisman or of an Aztec, with arrested brain-growth, as being
+     of a nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between
+     them, or as being other than a difference of degree, I cannot
+     shut my eyes to the significance of that all-pervading similitude
+     of structure--every tooth, every bone, strictly homologous--which
+     makes the determination of the difference between _Homo_ and
+     _Pithecus_ the anatomist's difficulty."
+
+It is true, he went on to explain his belief in the existence of
+certain characters in the brain which seemed to him to justify the
+separation of man in a different group from that in which the apes
+were placed; but it is certain that he regretted having said anything
+which seemed to support the Darwinian view; and, two years later, when
+the opposition to Darwin was in its acutest stage, Owen withdrew his
+words. His "Reade Lecture," delivered in the University of Cambridge,
+was in all respects a reprint of the essay from which we have just
+quoted, but the apparently dangerous words were omitted. More than
+that, the points insisted on in the essay as being sufficient for the
+purpose of separating man in zoölogical classification were elevated
+into a reason against descent. Although Huxley, in several addresses
+and publications, disproved the existence of the alleged differences,
+and although Sir William Flower gave an actual demonstration shewing
+the essential identity of the brain of man and of the apes in the
+matter in question, Owen never admitted his error.
+
+[Illustration: CHARLES DARWIN
+From the painting by Hon. John Collier in the National Portrait
+Gallery]
+
+It is not surprising that, if an anatomist so distinguished and acute
+as was Owen allowed his judgment to be completely overborne by the
+storm of prejudice against Darwinism, those who were not anatomists
+should have held up to ridicule all idea of comparison between man and
+the apes. In _The Origin of Species_ itself, no elaborate attempt had
+been made to set forth the anatomical arguments in favour of or
+against a community of descent for man and the apes. But it was made
+sufficiently plain, and the public laid hold of the point eagerly,
+that the doctrine of descent was not meant to exclude man from the
+field of its operation. Huxley, in the course of his ordinary work as
+Professor of Biology, had, among many other subjects, naturally
+turned his attention to the anatomy and classification of the
+higher animals. When Owen's essay appeared, he found that he was
+unable to agree with many of the conclusions contained in it, and had
+set about a renewed investigation of the matter. Thus it happened
+that, when the question became prominent, in 1860, Huxley was ready
+with material contributions to it. He believed, moreover, that, as
+Darwin was not specially acquainted with the anatomy and development
+of vertebrates, there was an opportunity for doing a real service to
+the cause of evolution. Accordingly, in 1860, he took for the subject
+of a series of lectures to workingmen the "Relation of Man to the
+Lower Animals," and, in 1862, expanded the lectures into a volume
+called _Man's Place in Nature_. When it was ready, he was prepared to
+say with a good conscience that his conclusions "had not been formed
+hastily or enunciated crudely."
+
+     "I thought," he wrote in the preface to the 1894 edition, "I had
+     earned the right to publish them, and even fancied I might be
+     thanked, rather than reproved, for so doing. However, in my
+     anxiety to promulgate nothing erroneous, I asked a highly
+     competent anatomist and very good friend of mine to look through
+     my proofs, and, if he could, point out any errors of fact. I was
+     well pleased when he returned them without any criticism on that
+     score; but my satisfaction was speedily dashed by the very
+     earnest warning, as to the consequences of publication, which my
+     friend's interest in my welfare led him to give; but, as I have
+     confessed elsewhere, when I was a young man there was just a
+     little--a mere _soupçon_--in my composition of that tenacity of
+     purpose which has another name, and I felt sure that all the evil
+     things prophesied would not be so painful to me as the giving up
+     of that which I had resolved to do, upon grounds which I
+     conceived to be right. So the book came out, and I must do my
+     friend the justice to say that his forecast was completely
+     justified. The Boreas of criticism blew his hardest blasts of
+     misrepresentation and ridicule for some years; and I was even as
+     one of the wicked. Indeed, it surprises me, at times, to think
+     how anyone who had sunk so low could have emerged into, at any
+     rate, relative respectability."
+
+Further, in the same preface, Huxley strongly advises others to
+imitate his action in this matter. There are now, and no doubt there
+always will be, truths "plainly obvious and generally denied." Whoever
+attacks the current ideas is certain, unless human nature changes
+greatly, to encounter a bitter opposition, and there will always be
+those among his friends who recommend him to temper truth by prudence.
+Huxley's advice is different:
+
+     "If there is a young man of the present generation who has taken
+     as much trouble as I did to assure himself that they are truths,
+     let him come out with them, without troubling his head about the
+     barking of the dogs of St. Ernulphus. _Veritas prævalebit_--some
+     day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time, he himself
+     will be all the better and wiser for having tried to help her.
+     And let him recollect that such great reward is full payment for
+     all his labour and pains."
+
+Although they were written so long ago, the lectures on "Man's Place
+in Nature" are still the best existing treatise on the subject, and we
+shall give an outline of them, mentioning the chief points in which
+further work has been done. Information concerning the man-like apes
+was scattered in very different places, in the grave records of
+scientific societies, in the letters of travellers and missionaries,
+in the reports of the zoölogical societies which had been in
+possession of living specimens. The facts had to be sifted out from a
+great mass of verbiage and unfounded statement. With a characteristic
+desire for historical accuracy, more usual in a man of letters than in
+an anatomist, Huxley began with a study of classical and mediæval
+legends of the existence of pigmies and man-like creatures; but, while
+recognising that legends of satyrs and fauns were presages of the
+discovery of man-like apes, he was unable to find any actual record
+earlier than that contained in Pigafetta's _Description of the Kingdom
+of Congo_, drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor and
+published in 1598. The descriptions and figures in this work
+apparently referred to chimpanzees. From this date onwards he traces
+the literature of the animals in question, and then proceeds to give
+an account of them.
+
+There are four distinct kinds of man-like apes: in Eastern Asia the
+Orangs and the Gibbons (although some later writers differ from Huxley
+in removing the Gibbons from the group of anthropoids); in Western
+Africa, the Chimpanzees and the Gorillas. All these have certain
+characters in common. They are inhabitants of the old world; they all
+have the same number of teeth as man, possessing four incisors, two
+canines, four premolars, and six true molars in each jaw, in the adult
+condition, while the milk dentition, as in man, consists of twenty
+teeth,--four incisors, two canines, and four molars in each jaw. Since
+Huxley wrote, a large bulk of additional work upon teeth has been
+published, and we now know that man and the anthropoid apes display
+the same kind of degenerative specialisation in their jaws. Simpler
+and older forms of mammals had a much larger number of teeth, and
+these differed among themselves more than the teeth of the higher
+forms. In the Anthropoids and Man, the jaws are proportionately
+shorter and less heavy than in simpler forms, and, in correspondence
+with this, the number of the teeth has become reduced, while the teeth
+themselves tend to form a more even row. The canine or eye-teeth are
+relatively smaller in the gorilla than in primitive mammals; they are
+still smaller in the lower races of man; while in ordinary civilised
+man they do not project above the others. The shortening of the jaw is
+still proceeding, and, although in lower races of man the last molar
+or wisdom tooth is almost as large as the molars in front of it, in
+the higher races the wisdom tooth is much smaller and frequently does
+not develop at all, or begins to decay very soon after its appearance.
+If the process of extinction of lower races were to proceed much
+further, so that civilised white races became the only human
+inhabitants of the earth, then the gap between the Anthropoids and Man
+would be wider than it now is; man would be characterised by the
+presence of one tooth less than the anthropoids, just as the
+anthropoids and some lower monkeys are characterised by having one
+tooth less than monkeys still lower.
+
+In all, the nostrils have a narrow partition and look downwards as in
+man. The arms are always longer than the legs, the difference being
+greatest in the orang and least in the chimpanzee. We know now that in
+the lower races of man, the arms are proportionately longer than in
+higher races, and it has recently been shewn that, although there is a
+general proportion between the length of the long bones and the height
+of the whole body in man, so that the height may be calculated with an
+average error from these bones, yet the probable error is greater when
+the calculation is made from the arms than when it is made from the
+legs. In fact, the length of arm as compared to the length of leg and
+to whole height is a more variable feature in man than the length of
+leg.
+
+In all the anthropoids, the forelimbs end in hands with longer or
+shorter thumbs, and the great toe, always smaller than in man, is far
+more movable and can be opposed like a thumb to the other toes. Since
+Huxley wrote, a considerable amount of evidence has been collected
+shewing that partial opposability of the toe in man is not uncommon,
+and that there is evidence as to a tendency to increase of length of
+the great toe within historical times. None of the great apes have
+tails, and none of them have the cheek pouches common among lower
+monkeys.
+
+Huxley then gives an account of the natural history of these animals,
+an account which still remains the best in literature. He sums up the
+habits of the Asiatic forms as follows:
+
+1. They may readily move along the ground in the erect, or semi-erect
+position, and without direct support from the arms.
+
+2. They may possess an extremely loud voice, so loud as to be readily
+heard one or two miles.
+
+3. They may be capable of great viciousness and violence when
+irritated; and this is especially true of adult males.
+
+4. They may build a nest to sleep in.
+
+He finds the same general characters in the case of the gorilla and
+chimpanzee, but in their case there was not quite so reliable evidence
+upon which to go.
+
+Although, since Huxley wrote, there has been much greater opportunity
+of studying anthropoid apes, both in confinement and in their native
+haunts, there is not much to add to his account. Some little time ago,
+the world was interested by the assertion of a clever American that he
+had discovered a kind of language used by the higher apes, and that he
+was able to communicate with them. Mr. Garnier, the person in
+question, declared his intention of going out to tropical Africa and
+establishing himself in a strong cage in the forests inhabited by
+gorillas and chimpanzees, in the hope that, impelled by curiosity,
+they would look upon him as we look on monkeys in a zoölogical garden,
+and that he would thus be able to make his knowledge and records of
+monkey language more perfect. As a matter of fact he went to Africa,
+and on his return published a volume which aroused the indignation of
+naturalists. There was internal evidence that he had gone no further
+than the garden of a coast station, and his pretended account of the
+habits of monkeys as they lived in their native haunts contained
+nothing that was not already known. There is no doubt but that the
+anthropoid apes, like many other animals, use modulations of their
+voice to express emotional states; that, in fact, they have love-cries
+and cries of warning, of alarm, and of pleasure; but there is not the
+smallest evidence to suppose that in the case of the anthropoids these
+cries approach more nearly to speech than the cries of any other of
+the higher mammals.
+
+Since Huxley's volume was published, a large amount of information has
+been published by Darwin, Romanes, and others upon the mental
+capacities of anthropoids kept in confinement, and the result of this
+has been to prove that the anthropoids, in especial the chimpanzees,
+possess mental powers more akin to those of man than are to be found
+in the most intelligent of the quadrupeds. We may cite some instances
+of these higher powers. Vosmaern had a tame female orang-outang that
+was able to untie the most intricate knot with fingers or teeth, and
+took such pleasure in doing it that she regularly untied the shoes of
+those who came near her. The female chimpanzee called Sally, that
+lived for many years in the Zoölogical Society's Gardens in London,
+was taught by its keeper and by Romanes an interesting variety of
+"tricks" involving at least the rudiments of what may be called human
+intelligence. Among other feats, it would pick up from the floor and
+present to the keeper or to a visitor, a stated number of straws up to
+five. Many monkeys seem nearly purely destructive in their dealings
+with objects within their reach; but Leutemann tells of an
+orang-outang which "tried to put to its proper use whatever was given
+to him. To my great surprise he attempted to put on a pair of gloves.
+He supported himself on a light walking cane and, when it bent under
+him, made ridiculous motions to right it again." Brehm tells of a
+chimpanzee:
+
+     "After eating, he at once begins to clean up. He holds a stick of
+     wood in front of him, or puts his hands in his master's slippers,
+     and slides about the room, then takes a cloth and scrubs the
+     floor. Scouring, sweeping, and dusting are his favourite
+     occupations; and, when he once gets hold of the cloth, he never
+     wants to give it up."
+
+Falkenstein has given a detailed description of a gorilla which was
+remarkable for his delicacy in eating.
+
+     "He would take a cup or glass with the greatest care, using both
+     hands to carry it to his mouth, and setting it down so carefully
+     that I do not remember having lost a single piece of crockery
+     through him, though we had never tried to teach him the use of
+     such vessels, wishing to bring him to Europe as nearly in his
+     natural condition as possible."
+
+These and a multitude of similar observations which have been made
+since Huxley wrote are typical of the increase of our knowledge on the
+habits and capacities of the anthropoid apes. They all serve to show
+that in them the instinct for experimental investigation of
+everything with which they are surrounded, and their imitative
+faculties are peculiarly great. The importance of this, from the point
+of view of Huxley's argument, is great. The difference between the
+instincts of the lower animals and the intelligence of man is that
+instincts are to a large extent fixed and mechanical. The proper
+performance of an instinct demands the presence of exactly the right
+external conditions for its accomplishment. In the absence of these
+conditions, the call to perform the instinctive action is equally
+great, and results in useless performances. In many of the higher
+animals these elaborate instincts are more general in their character,
+and are supplemented by a considerable but varying aptitude for
+modification of instinctive action to suit varieties of surrounding
+circumstances. As this intelligence becomes more and more developed,
+the blind, mechanical instinct becomes weaker. A large number of
+instances might be given of such instincts modified by dawning
+intelligence. The chief factors in producing the change are, as has
+been shewn by Professor Groos, the possession of a general instinct to
+imitate and to experiment, and the existence of a period of youth in
+which the young creature may practise these instincts, and so prepare
+itself for the more serious purposes of adult life. The anthropoid
+apes seem to possess these experimental instincts to an extent much
+greater than that observed in any other class of animals, and, as they
+have a long period of youth, they have the opportunity of putting them
+into practice to the fullest possible extent.
+
+From the natural history of the anthropoid apes, Huxley passed to
+consideration of their relation to man, prefacing his observations
+with a passage defending the utility of the enquiry, a passage
+necessary enough in these days of prejudice, but now chiefly with
+historical interest:
+
+     "It will be admitted that some knowledge of man's position in the
+     animate world is an indispensable preliminary to the proper
+     understanding of his relations to the universe; and this again
+     resolves itself in the long run into an enquiry into the nature
+     and the closeness of the ties which connect him with those
+     singular creatures whose history has been sketched in the
+     preceding pages.
+
+      "The importance of such an enquiry is, indeed, intuitively
+     manifest. Brought face to face with these blurred copies of
+     himself, the least thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain
+     shock; due perhaps not so much to disgust at the aspect of what
+     looks like an insulting caricature, as to the awakening of a
+     sudden and profound mistrust of time-honoured theories and
+     strongly rooted prejudices regarding his own position in nature,
+     and his relations to the underworld of life; while that which
+     remains a dim suspicion for the unthinking, becomes a vast
+     argument, fraught with the deepest consequences, for all who are
+     acquainted with the recent progress of the anatomical and
+     physiological sciences."
+
+Huxley then proceeded to elaborate the argument from development for
+the essential identity of man and the apes. This argument has now
+become more or less familiar to us all, as it has gained additional
+support from recent extension of embryological knowledge, and as it
+has been used in every work on evolution since Huxley first laid
+stress on it. The adult forms of animals are much more complex than
+their embryonic stages, and the series of changes passed through in
+attaining the adult condition make up the embryological history of the
+animal. Huxley took the embryology of the dog as an example of the
+process in the higher animals generally, and as it had been worked out
+in detail by a set of investigators. The dog, like all vertebrate
+animals, begins its existence as an egg; and this body is just as much
+an egg as that of a fowl, although, in the case of the dog, there is
+not the accumulation of nutritive material which bloats the egg of the
+hen into its enormous size. Since Huxley wrote, it has been shewn
+clearly that among the mammalian animals there has been a gradual
+reduction in the size of the egg. The ancestors of the mammals laid
+large eggs, like those of birds or reptiles; and there still exist two
+strange mammalian creatures, the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna of
+Australia, which lay large, reptilian-like eggs. The ancestors of most
+living mammalia acquired the habit of retaining the eggs within the
+body until they were hatched; and, as a result of this, certain
+structures which grow out from the embryo while it is still within the
+egg and become applied to the inner wall of the porous shell for the
+purpose of obtaining air, got their supply of oxygen, not from the
+outer air, but from the blood-vessels of the maternal tissues. When
+this connection (called the placenta) between embryo and mother
+through the egg-shell became more perfect, not only oxygen but
+food-material was obtained from the blood-vessels of the mother; and,
+in consequence, it became unnecessary for the eggs to be provided with
+a large supply of food-yolk. Among existing marsupial animals, which,
+on the whole, represent a lower type of mammalian structure than
+ordinary mammals, there is more food-yolk than in ordinary mammals,
+and less food-yolk than in the two egg-laying mammals. In the ordinary
+mammals, such as the rabbit, dog, monkey, and man, there is
+practically no yolk whatever deposited in the egg; the egg is of
+minute size, and the embryo obtains most of its food from the maternal
+blood.
+
+The small egg of the mammal divides into a number of cells, which form
+a hollow sphere; on the upper surface of this the development of
+organs begins with the formation of a depression which indicates the
+future middle line of the animal, and is, in fact, the beginning of
+the nervous system. Under this is formed a straight rod of gelatinous
+material, the foundation of the vertebral column, and the body of the
+embryo is gradually pinched off from the surface of the hollow sphere.
+After tracing the details of this process, Huxley proceeded as
+follows:
+
+     "The history of the development of any other vertebrate animal,
+     lizard, snake, frog or fish, tells the same story. There is
+     always, to begin with, an egg, having the same essential
+     structure as that of the dog; the yolk of that egg always
+     undergoes division, or segmentation, as it is often called; the
+     ultimate products of that segmentation constitute the building
+     materials for the body of the young animal; and this is built up
+     round a primitive groove, in the floor of which a notochord is
+     developed. Furthermore, there is a period in which the young of
+     all these animals resemble one another, not merely in outward
+     form, but in all essentials of structure, so closely, that the
+     differences between them are inconsiderable, while in their
+     subsequent course they diverge more and more widely from one
+     another. And it is a general law, that, the more closely any
+     animals resemble one another in adult structure, the longer and
+     the more intimately do their embryos resemble one another; so
+     that, for example, the embryos of a snake and of a lizard remain
+     like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a bird;
+     and the embryos of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for
+     a far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird; or of a
+     dog and an opossum; or even than those of a dog and a monkey."
+
+This general rule, that the longer the paths of embryonic development
+of two animals keep identical the more nearly the two animals are
+related, when Huxley wrote, was founded on a much smaller number of
+facts than now are known. Since 1860 an enormous bulk of embryological
+investigation has been published, and the total result has been to
+confirm Huxley's position in the fullest possible way. A certain
+number of exceptions have been found, but these exceptions are so
+obviously special adaptations to special circumstances that their
+existence only makes the general truth of the proposition more clear.
+The most common kind of exception occurs when two closely related
+animals live under very different conditions. For instance, many
+marine animals have close allies that in comparatively recent times
+have taken to live in fresh water. The conditions of life in fresh
+water are very different, especially for delicate creatures
+susceptible to rapid changes of temperature, or unable to withstand
+strong currents. Thus most of the allies of the fresh-water crayfish,
+which live in the sea, lay eggs from which there are soon hatched
+minute, almost transparent larvæ, exceedingly unlike the adult. In the
+comparatively equable temperature of sea-water, and in the usual
+absence of strong currents, these small larvæ, as Huxley shewed later
+in his volume on the _Crayfish_, live a free life, obtaining their own
+food, and by a series of slow transformations gradually acquire the
+adult form. In fresh water, however, the delicate larvæ would be
+unable to live, and the mode of development is different. The series
+of slow transformations is condensed, and takes place almost entirely
+inside the egg-shell; so that, when hatching occurs, the young
+crayfish is exceedingly like the adult. Apart from such special cases,
+it is true that the study of development affords a clear test of
+closeness of structural affinity.
+
+Huxley then proceeds to discuss the development of man.
+
+     "Is he something apart? Does he originate in a totally different
+     way from dog, bird, frog, and fish, thus justifying those who
+     assert him to have no place in nature, and no real affinity with
+     the lower world of animal life? Or does he originate in a similar
+     germ, pass through the same slow and gradually progressive
+     modifications, depend on the same contrivances for protection and
+     nutrition, and finally enter the world by the help of the same
+     mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a moment, and has not
+     been doubtful any time these thirty years. Without question, the
+     mode of origin, and the early stages of the development of man
+     are identical with those of animals immediately below him in the
+     scale; without doubt, in these respects, he is far nearer the
+     apes than the apes are to the dog."
+
+Then, on lines with which, by continuous repetition and expansion by
+authors subsequent to him, we have now become familiar, Huxley
+compared, stage by stage, the development of man with that of other
+animals, and shewed, first, its essential similarity, and then that in
+every case where it departed from the development of the dog it
+resembled more closely the development of the ape. He went on to
+review the anatomy of man:
+
+     "Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+     originates,--identical, in the early stages of his
+     formation--identical in the mode of his nutrition before and
+     after birth, with the animals which lie immediately below him in
+     the scale,--Man, if his adult and perfect structure be compared
+     with theirs exhibits, as might be expected, a marvellous likeness
+     of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble one
+     another--he differs from, them as they differ from one another.
+     And, though these differences cannot be weighed and measured,
+     their value may be readily estimated; the scale or standard of
+     judgment, touching that value, being afforded and expressed by
+     the system of classification of animals now current among
+     zoölogists."
+
+Having explained the general system of zoölogical classification, he
+tried to dispel preliminary prejudice by inducing his readers or
+bearers to take an outside view of themselves.
+
+     "Let us endeavour for a moment to disconnect our thinking selves
+     from the mask of humanity; let us imagine ourselves scientific
+     Saturnians, if you will, fairly acquainted with such animals as
+     now inhabit the earth, and employed in discussing the relations
+     they bear to a new and singular 'erect and featherless biped,'
+     which some enterprising traveller, overcoming the difficulties of
+     space and gravitation, has brought from that distant planet for
+     our inspection, well preserved, may be, in a cask of rum. We
+     should all, at once, agree upon placing him among the mammalian
+     vertebrates; and his lower jaw, his molars, and his brain, would
+     leave no room for doubting the systematic position of the new
+     genus among those mammals whose young are nourished during
+     gestation by means of a placenta, or what are called the
+     placental mammals.
+
+      "Further, the most superficial study would at once convince us
+     that, among the orders of placental mammals, neither the whales,
+     nor the hoofed creatures, nor the sloths and ant-eaters, nor the
+     carnivorous cats, dogs, and bears, still less the rodent rats and
+     rabbits, or the insectivorous moles and hedgehogs, or the bats,
+     could claim our _Homo_ as one of themselves.
+
+      "There would remain, then, but one order for comparison, that of
+     the apes (using that word in its broadest sense), and the
+     question for discussion would narrow itself to this--Is Man so
+     different from any of these apes that he must form an order by
+     himself? Or does he differ less from them than they differ from
+     one another,--and hence must take his place in the same order
+     with them?
+
+      "Being happily free from all real or imaginary personal interest
+     in the results of the enquiry thus set afoot, we should proceed
+     to weigh the arguments on one side and on the other, with as much
+     judicial calmness as if the question related to a new opossum.
+     We should endeavour to ascertain, without seeking either to
+     magnify or diminish them, all the characters by which our new
+     mammal differed from the apes; and if we found that these were of
+     less structural value than those which distinguish certain
+     members of the ape order from others universally admitted to be
+     of the same order, we should undoubtedly place the newly
+     discovered tellurian genus with them."
+
+In pursuit of this method, and taking the gorilla as the type for
+immediate comparison with man, he passed in review the various
+anatomical structures, shewing that in every case man did not differ
+more from the gorilla than that differed from other anthropoids. We
+shall take a few examples of his method and results, reminding our
+readers, however, that Huxley carried his comparisons into every
+important part of the anatomical structure.
+
+There is no part of the skeleton so characteristically human as the
+bones which form the pelvis, or bony girdle of the hips. The expanded
+haunch-bones form a basin-like structure which affords support to the
+soft internal viscera during the habitually upright position, and
+gives space for the attachment of the very large muscles which help
+man to assume and support that attitude. In the gorilla this region
+differs considerably from that in man. The haunch-bones are narrower
+and much shallower, so that they do not form so convenient a
+supporting basin; they have much less surface for the attachment of
+muscles. The gibbon, however, differs more vastly from the gorilla
+than that differs from man. The haunch-bones are flat and narrow, and
+totally devoid of any basin-like formation; the passage through the
+pelvis is long and narrow, and the ischia have outwardly curved
+prominences, which, in life, are coated by callosities on which the
+animal habitually rests, and which are coarse, corn-like patches of
+skin wholly absent in the gorilla, in the chimpanzee, in the orang,
+and in man.
+
+In the characters of the hands, the feet, and the brain, certain real
+or supposed structural distinctions between man and the apes had been
+relied upon.
+
+     "Man has been defined as the only animal possessed of two hands
+     terminating his fore-limbs, and of two feet terminating his
+     hind-limbs, while it has been said that all the apes possess four
+     hands; and he has been affirmed to differ fundamentally from all
+     the apes in the characters of his brain, which alone, it has been
+     strangely asserted and reasserted, exhibits the structures known
+     to anatomists as the posterior lobe, the posterior cornu of the
+     lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus minor.
+
+      "That the former proposition should have gained general
+     acceptance is not surprising--indeed, at first sight, appearances
+     are much in its favour; but, as for the second, one can only
+     admire the surpassing courage of its enunciator, seeing that it
+     is an innovation which is not only opposed to generally and
+     justly accepted doctrines, but which is directly negatived by the
+     testimony of all original enquirers who have specially
+     investigated the matter; and that it has neither been, nor can
+     be, supported by a single anatomical preparation. It would, in
+     fact, be unworthy of serious refutation except for the general
+     and natural belief that deliberate and reiterated assertions must
+     have some foundation."
+
+The last remarks referred, of course, to the statements of Owen, which
+had made a great impression at the time and the result of which still
+lingers in some of the worse-informed treatises attacking evolution.
+Huxley gave a lucid account of the general structure and arrangement
+of the brain in the vertebrate series, explaining the well-known fact
+that from fish up to man the general ground-plan of the brain is
+identical, but that there is a progressive increase in the complexity
+and in the size of some parts compared with others. Next, he showed
+that, so far from its being possible to erect any barrier in the
+structure of the brain between man and the apes, there exists among
+the mammals an almost complete series of gradations from brains a
+little higher than that of the rabbit to brains a little lower than
+that of man. He laid great stress on
+
+     "the remarkable circumstance that though, so far as our present
+     knowledge extends, there _is_ one structural break in the series
+     of forms of simian brains, this hiatus does not lie between man
+     and the man-like apes, but between the lower and the lowest
+     simians; or, in other words, between the old-and new-world apes
+     and monkeys, and the lemurs. Every lemur which has yet been
+     examined, in fact, has its cerebellum partially visible from
+     above, and its posterior lobe, with the contained posterior cornu
+     and hippocampus minor, more or less rudimentary. Every marmoset,
+     American monkey, old-world monkey, baboon, or man-like ape, on
+     the contrary, has its cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by
+     the cerebral lobes, and possesses a large posterior cornu, with a
+     well-developed hippocampus minor." ... "So far from the posterior
+     lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor being
+     structures peculiar to, and characteristic of man, as they have
+     over and over again been asserted to be, even after the
+     publication of the clearest demonstration of the reverse, it is
+     precisely these structures which are the most marked cerebral
+     characters common to man with the apes. They are among the most
+     distinctly simian peculiarities which the human organism
+     exhibits." ... "Man differs from the chimpanzee or the orang, so
+     far as cerebral structure goes, less than these do from the
+     monkeys, and the difference between the brains of the chimpanzee
+     and of man is almost insignificant, when compared with that
+     between the chimpanzee brain and that of a lemur."
+
+Although Huxley found no structural differences between the brains of
+man and of anthropoid apes, he was careful to lay great stress on the
+important difference in size and weight. A full-grown gorilla is
+nearly twice as heavy as a European woman, and yet the heaviest known
+gorilla brain probably does not exceed twenty ounces in weight, while
+healthy adult human brains probably never weigh less than thirty-one
+or thirty-two ounces. This difference is not of systematic importance;
+for cranial capacities shew that relatively and absolutely there is a
+greater difference in brain-weight between the lowest and highest
+human beings than there is between the highest ape and the lowest
+human being.
+
+In dealing with the suggestion that man differs from the apes in being
+bimanous, while the apes are quadrumanous, Huxley first explained and
+discussed what the exact differences between hands and feet are. He
+shewed that in man the foot is absolutely distinguished from the hand
+by three structural points, although the two organs are similar in
+general ground-plan. These structural points are:
+
+1. The arrangement of the tarsal bones.
+
+2. The possession of a short flexor and short extensor muscle of the
+digits.
+
+3. The possession of a muscle named _peronæus longus_.
+
+Then he described the foot of the gorilla, and shewed that although it
+was superficially hand-like, it possessed all the structural
+characters that distinguish a foot from a hand. Tracing the structure
+of the foot downwards through the series of anthropoids and monkeys,
+he established clearly that, while important differences existed in
+nearly every single creature, the differences between the gorilla and
+man were not greater than those between the gorilla and other
+anthropoids, and less than between the gorilla and lower monkeys.
+
+This wonderful series of lectures ranks very high among the important
+works of Huxley. It is true that a considerable proportion of the work
+was not absolutely original, but it had all been specially verified by
+him. It was a task undertaken with the greatest courage, and with a
+care equal to the courage; and it settled conclusively for all time
+the impossibility of making between man and the anthropoids any
+anatomical barriers greater than those which exist between the
+different although closely related members of any of the other family
+groups in the animal kingdom. The advance of knowledge has only added
+to the details of Huxley's argument; it has not made any
+reconstruction of it necessary. A writer on the same subject to-day
+would to all certainty make use of the same general methods. The chief
+differences, perhaps, that would be made are two: First, greater
+stress would be laid on the distinction, first made by Huxley himself,
+between intermediate and linear types. (See p. 87). To use the popular
+phrase, a great deal of water has passed under the bridges since the
+separation of man from the ape-like progenitors common to him and to
+the existing anthropoids. It has already been pointed out that the
+gradual extinction of lower races of man is widening the apparent gap
+between existing man and existing apes; and evidence accumulates that
+many still more primitive and more ape-like races of man than the
+lowest existing savages have disappeared from the surface of the
+earth. Moreover, we know that existing anthropoids are the degenerate
+and scattered remnants of what was once a much more widely spread and
+more important group. We have some reason for believing the contrary,
+and no reason for believing that the surviving anthropoids represent
+the most man-like apes that have lived.
+
+The second great point in which a modern writer would amend Huxley's
+statement of the case is more purely anatomical. One result of
+Darwin's work has been that anatomists attend much more closely to the
+slight variations of anatomical structure to be found among
+individuals of the same species. A comparison between an individual
+human body and the body of an individual gorilla is not now considered
+sufficient. The comparison must be made between the results of
+dissection of a very large number of men and of a very large number of
+gorillas. The anatomy of a type is not the anatomy of an individual;
+it is a kind of central point around which there oscillate the
+variations presented by the individuals belonging to the type. So far
+as this newer method has been applied, it has been found that the
+variations of the gorilla type frequently, in the case of individual
+organs, overlap the variations of the human type, and that the
+structure of man differs from the structure of any anthropoid type
+only in that the abstract central point of its variations is slightly
+different from the abstract central point of the variations presented
+by individual orangs, gorillas, and chimpanzees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION
+
+     Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago--Huxley's Insistence on
+     Reform--Science Primers--Physiography--Elementary
+     Physiology--_The Crayfish_--Manuals of Anatomy--Modern
+     Microscopical Methods--Practical Work in Biological
+     Teaching--Invention of the Type System--Science in Medical
+     Education--Science and Culture.
+
+
+Less than half a century ago, there was practically no generally
+diffused knowledge of even the elements of science and practically no
+provision for teaching it. Medical students, in the course of their
+professional education, received some small instruction in botany,
+chemistry, and physiology; in the greater universities of England and
+the Continent there were not in all a dozen professorships of science
+apart from special branches of medicine; in the Scottish universities
+there were one or two dreamy chairs of "Natural and Civil History,"
+the occupiers of which were supposed to dispense instruction in half a
+dozen sciences. There was no scientific teaching at the public
+schools; there were practically no books available for beginners in
+science, and even the idea of guides to laboratory work had not been
+invented. Huxley, addressing in 1854 a particularly select audience in
+St. Martin's Hall, London, spoke to them of the
+
+     "utter ignorance as to the simplest laws of their own animal
+     life, which prevails among even the most highly educated persons
+     in this country." "I am addressing," he said, "I imagine, an
+     audience of cultivated persons; and yet I dare venture to assert
+     that, with the exception of those of my hearers who may chance to
+     have received a medical education, there is not one who could
+     tell me what is the meaning and use of an act which he performs a
+     score of times every minute, and whose suspension would involve
+     his immediate death:--I mean the act of breathing--or who could
+     state in precise terms why it is that a confined atmosphere is
+     injurious to health."
+
+The power to express the precise meaning of even a common
+physiological act is probably not yet possessed by all educated
+people: but no one can doubt that there is now a very generally
+diffused knowledge of and interest in the ordinary processes of living
+bodies. It is almost impossible for any of us to escape some amount of
+scientific education at school, at college, from lectures, or from
+books. Certainly those of us who have a natural inclination towards
+knowledge of that kind can hardly fail to have the opportunity of
+acquiring it. Every library abounds in elementary and advanced
+scientific books; every university and many schools have their
+lectures and laboratories for science, and there is scientific
+teaching involved in every educational curriculum. To attempt a
+complete account of how this radical change in the attitude of the
+world to science has come about would be to attempt to write the
+history of European civilisation in the last half-century. A thousand
+causes have been contributory; but among these causes two have been of
+extraordinary importance--an idea and a man. The idea is the
+conception of organic evolution, and the man was Huxley. The idea of
+evolution clothed the dead bones of anatomy with a fair and living
+flesh, and the new body left the dusty corners of museums to pervade
+the world, arousing the attention and interest of all. A large part of
+the prodigious mental activities of Huxley was devoted to compelling
+the world to take an interest in biological science. Had his life-work
+been no more than this side of it, it would have been of commanding
+importance. A mere enumeration of the modes in which he assisted in
+arousing attention to science among all classes would fill many pages.
+Almost before he was settled in London, in the lecture from which we
+quoted at the beginning of this chapter he urged the "educational
+value of the natural history sciences." In 1869 in a speech in
+Liverpool; in 1870 at University College, London; in 1874 as his
+Rectorial address in the University of Aberdeen; in 1876 at the
+opening ceremonial of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore; in
+the same year at South Kensington; in 1877 in a separate essay; in
+1881 in an address to the International Medical Congress: at these
+different times and addressing different and important audiences he
+continued to urge the absolute necessity of a knowledge of nature. A
+well-known and eloquent passage from an address on "a liberal
+education" delivered to working men in 1868 contains the gist of his
+reiterated argument:
+
+     "Suppose it were perfectly certain that the life and fortune of
+     every one of us would, one day or other, depend on his winning or
+     losing a game of chess, don't you think that we should all
+     consider it to be a primary duty to learn at least the names and
+     the moves of the pieces; to have a notion of a gambit, and a keen
+     eye for all the means of giving and getting out of check? Do you
+     not think that we should look with a disapprobation amounting to
+     scorn upon the father who allowed his son, or the state which
+     allowed its members, to grow up without knowing a pawn from a
+     knight?
+
+     Yet it is a very plain and elementary truth, that the life, the
+     fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and more or less
+     of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our knowing
+     something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and
+     complicated than chess. It is a game which has been played for
+     untold ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two
+     players in a game of his or her own. The chess-board is the
+     world, the pieces are the phenomena of the universe, the rules of
+     the game are what we call the laws of nature. The player on the
+     other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always
+     fair, just, and patient. But also we know, to our cost, that he
+     never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for
+     ignorance. To the man who plays well, the highest stakes are
+     paid, with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the
+     strong shows delight in strength, and one who plays ill is
+     checkmated--without haste, but without remorse."
+
+Huxley wished that this scientific education should begin at an early
+period of every child's training. In 1869 he wrote:
+
+     "Let every child be instructed in those general views of the
+     phænomena of nature for which we have no exact English name. The
+     nearest approximation to a name for what I mean which we possess
+     is physical geography; the Germans have a better, 'Erdkunde'
+     (earth knowledge or geology in its etymological sense), that is
+     to say, a general knowledge of the earth, and what is on it and
+     in it and about it. If anyone who has experience of the ways of
+     young children will call to mind their questions, he will find
+     that so far as they can be put in any scientific category, they
+     will come under this head of 'Erdkunde.' The child asks, 'What is
+     the moon, and why does it shine?' 'What is this water, and where
+     does it run?' 'What is the wind?' 'What makes these waves in the
+     sea?' 'Where does this animal live, and what is the use of that
+     plant?' And if not snubbed and stunted by being told not to ask
+     foolish questions, there is no limit to the intellectual craving
+     of a young child; nor any bounds to the slow but solid accretion
+     of knowledge and development of the thinking faculty in this way.
+     To all such questions, answers which are necessarily incomplete,
+     though true as far as they go, may be given by any teacher whose
+     ideas represent real knowledge and not mere book learning: and a
+     panoramic view of nature, accompanied by a strong infusion of the
+     scientific habit of mind, may thus be placed within the reach of
+     every child of nine or ten."
+
+In 1880 Huxley, in association with Professor Roscoe, the chemist, and
+Professor Balfour Stewart, the physicist, took a great practical step
+toward securing the widest possible extension of elementary knowledge
+in science. They became general editors, for the English publishing
+house of Macmillan, of a series of "Science Primers." These were
+written in simple language, suitable for those with no preliminary
+knowledge of science, but were the work of the chief authorities in
+the leading branches of science. They were published at what was then
+the phenomenally cheap price of a shilling, and they sold in almost
+incredible numbers. Huxley himself wrote the introductory volume to
+this great series of tracts, taking for his subject the simplest and
+most natural phenomena of the world and the simplest chains of cause
+and effect that can be observed around us. The keynote of the little
+book was that knowledge of nature could be gained only by observation
+and experiment, and that for these the ordinary things in the world
+around us provided ample material. A few years later he wrote a more
+advanced volume on the same subject. He had now found an English name
+for the German _Erdkunde_, and his book on _Physiography_ was simply
+an account of the leading things and forces of nature. A traveller
+set down in a foreign land will at once get into difficulties unless
+he has provided himself with a guide to the geography, the manners and
+customs, and the regulations of the country in which he finds himself.
+Huxley's aim was to provide a similar guide to nature; an outline of
+elementary knowledge of the world into which we all come as strangers.
+He wrote of force and energy, of the forms of water, of heat and cold,
+of the atmosphere, of winds and tides and weather, and of the main
+features of the lives of plants and animals. There was nothing new in
+what he wrote; he simply took from the chief sciences their leading
+principles and elementary facts, and set them forth in plain and
+simple language so that all could read and understand. The novelty was
+that an attempt should be made to bring these facts within the reach
+of all. The idea proved extremely infectious; in Europe and America,
+in many languages and by many authors, Huxley's main lines were
+followed, with the result that a new branch of education, and almost
+of science, was created.
+
+The body of man and the processes of life, in the earlier part of the
+century, were almost as unknown to most people as were the structure of
+the earth and the great processes of nature. What was known of human
+anatomy and physiology was contained in ponderous treatises, written in
+difficult and technical language suitable only for students of medicine
+and doctors. It was thought to be not only unnecessary but slightly
+coarse for those not in the profession to know anything of the viscera
+of digestion, circulation, and so forth. Huxley laid low this great
+superstition by his _Elementary Lessons in Physiology_, a little volume
+first published in 1866, which ran through many editions. In it he wrote
+primarily for teachers and learners in boys' and girls' schools, and
+selected from the great bulk of knowledge and opinion called human
+physiology only the important and well-established truths. So successful
+was he in his selection that, notwithstanding the immense increase in
+knowledge since he wrote, the book still remains an adequate and useful
+elementary treatise, and by this time must have given their main
+knowledge of the human body to hundreds and thousands of readers who
+otherwise would have remained ignorant.
+
+The books of which we have been writing were addressed to the general
+public, but, in addition, Huxley wrote several, of which three are
+specially important, for those students who devote themselves
+specially to anatomy. _The Crayfish_, his famous volume in the
+International Scientific Series, has been called by Professor Howes,
+the assistant and successor of Huxley at the Royal College of Science,
+"probably the best biological treatise ever written." Many naturalists
+have written elaborate monographs on single animals: Lyonet worked for
+years on the willow caterpillar, Strauss Durckheim devoted an even
+minuter attention to the common cockchafer, and the great Bojanus
+investigated almost every fibre in the structure of the tortoise. The
+volumes produced by these anatomists were valuable and memorable, and
+occupy an honoured place in the library of science, but Huxley's aim
+was wider and greater. He showed how careful study of one of the
+commonest and most insignificant of animals leads, step by step, from
+every-day knowledge to the widest generalisations and the most
+difficult problems of zoölogy. He made study of a single creature an
+introduction to a whole science, and taught students to regard any
+form of life not merely as a highly complicated and deeply interesting
+anatomical study, but as a creature that is only one out of an
+innumerable host of living things, every fibre in its body, every
+rhythm in its functions proclaiming the degree and nature of its
+relationship to other animals. R. Louis Stevenson, writing of his
+native town, tried to give "a vision of Edinburgh, not as you see her,
+in the midst of a little neighbourhood, but as a boss upon the round
+world, with all Europe and the deep sea for her surroundings. For
+every place is a centre to the earth, whence highways radiate, or
+ships set sail for foreign ports; the limit of a parish is not more
+imaginary than the frontier of an empire." It is this wider sweep,
+this attempt to see and to teach not merely the facts about things but
+the relations of these facts to the similar facts in other things,
+that makes the difference between the new knowledge and the old. The
+questions to be asked and answered are not merely, What are the
+structures in this animal? but, How and why do they come to be what
+they are? Huxley was a ruthless enemy of the books and teachers which
+or who made the mere acquisition of details of knowledge their chief
+object.
+
+     "I remember," he wrote, "in my youth there were detestable books
+     which ought to have been burned by the hands of the common
+     hangman, for they contained questions and answers to be learned
+     by heart, of this sort, 'What is a horse? The horse is termed
+     _Equus caballus_; belongs to the class Mammalia; order,
+     Pachydermata; family, Solidungula.' Was any human being the wiser
+     for learning that magic formula? Was he not more foolish inasmuch
+     as he was deluded into taking words for knowledge?"
+
+Huxley himself admitted his difficulty in remembering apparently
+meaningless facts, and occasionally aided his memory by inventing for
+them a humorous significance. Professor Howes relates a story of this
+kind. While examining the papers of candidates for some examination,
+Huxley came across one in which the mitral or bicuspid valve of the
+heart was erroneously described as being placed in the right cavity.
+"Poor little beggar," said Huxley; "I never could get them myself
+until I reflected that a bishop could never be in the right." This
+insistence on the uselessness of formal knowledge applied only to
+those who were being taught or who were learning from books or
+lectures. Of the value and discipline of knowledge of facts gained at
+first hand from objects themselves either in original investigation or
+with the aid of books, Huxley had the highest possible opinion. By
+such a method of work alone he believed it possible to distinguish
+what we believe on authority from what we have convinced ourselves to
+be true, and, as we shall see later, he regarded it as the most
+important duty of a man to have acquired the habit of classifying the
+mass of ideas in his brain into those which he knew and those which he
+thought to be true from having read or heard or imagined them.
+
+The two other of the three great treatises for anatomical students are
+the _Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, published in 1871,
+and the _Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_, published in
+1877. Of these two volumes it is sufficient to say that they formed
+the chief introduction to the study of animal zoölogy for many years,
+and that a large number of the best-known zoölogists of the end of
+this century received from them their first instruction in the
+science. As text-books they have been superseded lately by larger
+volumes in which there is found more space for some of the recent
+advances in knowledge, especially comparative embryology, and the more
+intricate knowledge of the structure of the soft parts of marine
+invertebrates made possible by the newer and more successful methods
+of preserving delicate tissues. Just before Huxley ceased his regular
+work as a teacher at the Royal College of Science, there arrived a
+series of marine embryos, beautifully preserved and prepared for
+microscopic work by the zoölogists at the International Zoölogical
+Station at Naples. Huxley is reported to have exclaimed at their
+beauty, and to have said: "You young men cannot realise your
+advantages; you have brought to you for study at your leisure in
+London, creatures that I had to lash my microscope to the mast to get
+a glimpse of." Huxley's books were written for students with fewer
+advantages, and, naturally, laid more stress on the harder skeletal
+parts and such structures as could be more easily preserved; but with
+this inevitable limitation they still serve as luminous and
+comprehensive guides to the subjects of which they treat. There is no
+doubt but that if he had been a younger man when the new technical
+methods made their appearance, he would have adopted them and their
+results in his volumes. One of the first great pieces of work which
+utilised methods more like those now used in all laboratories than
+those employed during the greater part of Huxley's life as a teacher
+was the classical investigation by Van Beneden into the changes in the
+egg of Ascaris which accompany the process of fertilisation. When
+Huxley read the memoir he exclaimed, "All this by the use of glacial
+acetic acid--is it possible!" At once, Professor Howes relates, he
+repeated the whole investigation himself, and, when satisfied,
+declared that the "history of the histological investigation of the
+future would be the history of its methods." Not only have the
+chemical substances used in preparing tissues for examination greatly
+increased since Huxley's time as an active worker, but a very
+important method of investigation has come into general use. In
+Huxley's time tissues or animals too large or too opaque to be
+examined microscopically as whole structures were either teased by
+needles or were cut with a razor by hand into comparatively thick
+slices. The process of cutting, however practised the operator, was
+tedious and uncertain, and it was almost impossible to cut a piece of
+tissue into a series of thin slices without losing or destroying
+considerable portions. Microtomes, with various accessory mechanical
+appliances, have now been invented, and by means of these not only are
+slices of great tenuity made with ease, but there is little difficulty
+in cutting the most delicate organism into a ribbon of consecutive
+slices. Such new methods have made almost a revolution in the study of
+zoölogy, particularly of the lower forms of life and of the embryonic
+stages of higher animals, and books written before these methods
+became common have naturally been superseded.
+
+Huxley did far more for the teaching of science than the preparation
+of books, however useful these were. He was the practical inventor of
+the laboratory system of teaching zoölogical science, and all over the
+world the methods invented by him have been adopted in university
+laboratories and technical schools. He had always declared that since
+zoölogy was a physical science, the method of studying it must needs
+be analogous to that which is followed in other physical sciences. If
+a man wishes to be a chemist, it is necessary not only that he should
+read chemical books and attend chemical lectures, but that he should
+actually perform the fundamental experiments in the laboratory for
+himself, and thus learn exactly what the words which he reads in his
+books and hears from his teachers, mean. "If you want a man to be a
+tea-merchant, you don't tell him to read books about China or about
+tea, but you put him into a tea-merchant's office where he has the
+handling, the smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the sort of
+knowledge which can be gained only in this practical way, his exploits
+as a tea-merchant will soon come to a bankrupt termination." The great
+and obvious difficulty in the practical teaching of biology appeared
+to be the immense number of different kinds of animals and plants in
+existence. A human life would not suffice for the examination of a
+hundredth part of these. Huxley met the difficulty by the "type"
+system.
+
+     "There are certainly more than 100,000 species of insects, and
+     yet anyone who knows one insect, if a properly chosen one, will
+     be able to have a fair conception of the structure of the whole.
+     I do not mean to say he will know that structure thoroughly, or
+     as well as is desirable that he should know it; but he will have
+     enough real knowledge to enable him to understand what he reads,
+     to have genuine images in his mind of these structures which
+     become so variously modified in all the forms of insects he has
+     not seen. In fact, there are such things as types of form among
+     animals and vegetables, and for the purpose of getting a definite
+     knowledge of what constitutes the leading modifications of animal
+     and plant life, it is not needful to examine more than a
+     comparatively small number of animals and plants."
+
+The type system in itself was not absolutely new. Rolleston, the
+Linacre professor at Oxford, in his _Forms of Animal Life_ had
+devised the method of teaching comparative anatomy by the study of a
+graded series of animals. But his method depended on the existence of
+a series of dissections and preparations made by a skilled craftsman;
+the tradition of teaching by authority instead of by investigation was
+maintained, although the authority of books and lectures was aided by
+museum specimens in glass bottles, the actual basis of the book being
+a series of dissections prepared by Mr. Charles Robertson, Rolleston's
+laboratory assistant, for the great International Exhibition of 1861.
+The authorities of Huxley's students were to be found in nature
+itself. The green scum from the nearest gutter, a handful of weed from
+a pond, a bean-plant, some fresh-water mud, a frog, and a pigeon were
+the ultimate authorities of his course. His students were taught how
+to observe them, and how to draw and record their observations.
+However familiar the objects, each student had to verify every fact
+afresh for himself. The business of the teacher was explanation of the
+methods of verification, insistence on the accomplishment of
+verification. It was a training in the immemorial attitude of the
+scientific mind, codified by Huxley and made an integral part in
+national education.
+
+As a matter of fact it was comparatively late in his life as a teacher
+that Huxley had complete opportunity for putting into practice his
+scheme for the laboratory teaching of biology. In 1854 there was no
+laboratory attached to the Natural History Department of the School of
+Mines. Lectures alone were given, and the only opportunity the student
+had of any practical acquaintance with the facts was in a short
+interview with the professor at the lecture table after the lecture.
+This condition continued practically to 1872. But a few years before
+that Huxley and his colleagues got up a kind of pronunciamento
+deploring the existing state of affairs. In his evidence before the
+Royal Commission of 1870 Huxley said: "There is a complete want in the
+School of Mines, as it now exists, of any means of teaching several of
+the subjects practically. For example, I am set there to teach natural
+history without a biological laboratory and without the means of
+shewing a single dissection." Against strong internal opposition and
+at considerable pecuniary loss Huxley and some of his colleagues
+succeeded, in 1872, in getting the School of Mines transferred to
+South Kensington, where it became the Royal College of Science. For
+the first course of instruction given in the new buildings, Huxley
+obtained the aid of Prof. M. Foster, Prof. Rutherford, and Prof. Ray
+Lankester. The laboratory course originated by Huxley and shaped by
+him with these three distinguished assistants became the model of the
+regular courses given subsequently, and, with various slight
+modifications, has since been adopted almost universally. Later on,
+Huxley described it as follows:
+
+     "I lecture to a class of students daily for about four months and
+     a half, and my class have, of course, their text-books; but the
+     essential part of the whole teaching, and that which I regard as
+     really the most important part of it, is a laboratory for
+     practical work, which is simply a room with all the appliances
+     needed for ordinary dissection. We have tables properly arranged
+     in regard to light, microscopes and dissecting instruments, and
+     we work through the structure of a certain number of plants and
+     animals. As, for example, among the plants we take the
+     yeast-plant, a Protococcus, a common mould, a Chara, a fern, and
+     some flowering plant; among animals we examine such things as an
+     Amoeba, a Vorticella, and a fresh-water polyp. We dissect a
+     starfish, an earthworm, a snail, a squid, and a fresh-water
+     mussel. We examine a lobster and a crayfish, and a black beetle.
+     We go on to a common skate, a codfish, a frog, a tortoise, a
+     pigeon, and a rabbit, and that takes us about all the time we
+     have to give. The purpose of this course is not to make skilled
+     dissectors, but to give every student a clear and definite
+     conception, by means of sense images, of the characteristic
+     structure of each of the leading modifications of the animal
+     kingdom; and that is perfectly possible by going no further than
+     the length of that list of forms which I have enumerated. If a
+     man knows the structure of the animals I have mentioned, he has a
+     clear and exact, however limited apprehension of the essential
+     features of the organization of all those great divisions of the
+     animal and vegetable kingdoms to which the forms I have mentioned
+     severally belong. And it then becomes possible to him to read
+     with profit; because every time he meets with the name of a
+     structure, he has a definite image in his mind of what the name
+     means in the particular creature he is reading about, and
+     therefore the reading is not mere reading. It is not mere
+     repetition of words; but every term employed in the description,
+     we will say of a horse, or of an elephant, will call up the image
+     of the things he had seen in the rabbit, and he is able to form a
+     distinct conception of that which he has not seen, as a
+     modification of that which he has seen."
+
+Huxley himself was originally a medical man; all through his life he
+was chiefly interested in the biological sciences which underlie a
+scientific practice of medicine, and as teacher and examiner he had
+much to do with the shaping of medical education in London. Acting in
+various public capacities, as a member of commissions dealing with
+medical education, or as a witness before them, in magazine articles
+and in public speeches he made many contributions to the problems to
+be faced in medical education. Some of these related to the conditions
+peculiar to medical training in London. In the greatest city of the
+world there was during Huxley's life and there is still nothing
+comparable with the great universities of Europe and America, of
+Scotland and Ireland. Some dozen hospitals, supported partly by
+endowments, partly by charities, attempt each to maintain a complete,
+independent medical school. As the requirements of medical education
+in staff, laboratories, and general equipment has advanced, these
+hospitals have made heroic efforts to advance with them.
+Notwithstanding the zeal and public spirit of the staff and managers
+of the hospitals, this want of system has naturally resulted in a
+multiplication of inefficient institutions and a number of makeshift
+arrangements. Huxley repeatedly urged the concentration of all this
+diffuse effort into a few centres, but this inevitable reform has not
+yet become possible.
+
+A second important consideration, and one that has a much wider
+application, relates to the kind of person by whom the scientific
+sides of medical teaching should be given. Primitively, all the
+instruction to medical students was given by those actually engaged in
+the practice of medicine. Huxley was strongly of the opinion that the
+teachers of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and so forth, should be
+specialists devoted to these subjects for life, and not merely
+surgeons and physicians who engaged in teaching until their practice
+grew sufficiently to monopolise their attention.
+
+     "I get every year," he said, "the elaborate reports of Henle and
+     Meissner--volumes of I suppose 400 pages altogether--and they
+     consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have
+     been written on Anatomy and Physiology--only abstracts of them.
+     How is a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing
+     in the physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous
+     strides every day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with
+     the cares of practice?"
+
+There would always be found men, he declared, who would make the
+choice between the wealth which may come by successful practice and a
+modest competency, when that modest competency was to be combined with
+a scientific career and the means of advancing knowledge. It was to
+those who made the latter choice that he would entrust the teaching of
+the sciences underlying medicine; partly because from the mere
+mechanical reason of time these men would be better able to keep pace
+with the most recent advances in knowledge, and partly because their
+teaching would be stimulated by their own work in advancing knowledge.
+In this great matter the world is rapidly advancing towards the
+standard of Huxley; as each new appointment is made it becomes more
+and more probable that the man chosen will be a teacher and
+investigator rather than a practitioner.
+
+In another general question of the politics of medical education
+Huxley took a strong line, and the tendency of change is toward his
+view. One of the first results of the awakening of medical education
+in the middle of this century was a tendency to throw an almost
+intolerable burden of new subjects upon the medical student. In the
+revolt from the old apprenticeship system, in which the student, from
+the very first, gave his chief attention to practice, and was left
+almost to himself to pick up a scanty knowledge of the principles and
+theories underlying his profession, the pendulum swung too far the
+other way, and there was almost no branch of the biological and
+physical sciences in which he was not expected to go through a severe
+training. On the old system the greater part of his time was spent in
+the wards of the hospital; on the new system it was only at an
+advanced stage of his career that he entered the wards at all, a
+great part of his time and energy being spent in the purely scientific
+teaching of the medical college. Huxley, although he had largely aided
+in the overthrow of the happy-go-lucky older system, of which Mr. Bob
+Sawyer was no exaggerated type, was equally severe on the reckless
+extensions of the new system. "If I were a despot," he said, "I would
+cut down the theoretical branches to a very considerable extent." He
+would discard comparative anatomy and botany, materia medica, and
+chemistry and physics, except as applied to physiology, from the
+medical student's course. At first sight, this seems a hard saying,
+but it is to be remembered that at that time the normal curriculum of
+a medical student lasted only four years, a space of time barely
+sufficient for the necessary minimum of purely medical and surgical
+work. Huxley's view was that chemistry and physics, botany and
+zoölogy, should be part of the general education, not of the special
+medical education; he wished students to spend one or two years after
+their ordinary career at school in work on these elementary scientific
+subjects, and then to begin their medical course free from the burden
+of extra-professional subjects. With certain limits due to the
+different local conditions in different teaching centres Huxley's
+system is being adopted. In most cases the authorities in medical
+education are unable to leave the whole responsibility of the
+elementary education in science to the schools from which medical
+students come, as the conditions under which scientific subjects are
+still taught in schools leave much to be desired. The average length
+of the medical curriculum has been extended and the elementary
+scientific subjects are taken first, sometimes at the medical
+colleges, sometimes in the scientific departments of universities.
+The interesting general point of view is that Huxley, although himself
+a biologist and teacher of biology, took too broad an outlook on the
+general policy of education to insist upon his own subject to the
+detriment of the precise practical objects of the training of medical
+students.
+
+In the days of Huxley's greatest activity, while by the natural force
+of events and by his special efforts science was becoming more and
+more recognised as a necessary and important branch of general
+education, the cry was raised against it that scientific education was
+not capable of giving what is called culture. A scientific man was
+regarded as a mere scientific specialist, and science was considered
+to have no place in, and in fact to be an enemy of, "liberal
+education." In 1880, at Birmingham, Huxley attacked this view in a
+speech delivered at the opening of the Mason College. Sir Josiah
+Mason, the benevolent founder of that great institution, had made it
+one of the conditions of the foundation that the College should make
+no provision for "mere literary instruction and education." This gave
+Huxley a text for raising the whole question of the relation of
+science to culture. He declared that he held very strongly by two
+convictions.
+
+     "The first is, that neither the discipline nor the subject matter
+     of classical education is of such direct value to the student of
+     physical science as to justify the expenditure of valuable time
+     on either; and the second is, that for the purpose of attaining
+     real culture, an exclusively scientific education is at least as
+     effectual as an exclusively literary education."
+
+He quoted from Matthew Arnold, then in the zenith of his fame as a
+chief apostle of culture, and shewed that there were two propositions
+involved in the "literary" view of culture. The first was that a
+"criticism of life" was the essence of culture; the second, that
+literature contained the materials which sufficed for the construction
+of such a criticism. With the first proposition he had no dispute,
+taking the view that culture was something quite different from
+learning or technical skill. "It implies the possession of an ideal,
+and the habit of critically estimating the value of things by
+comparison with a theoretic standard. Perfect culture should supply a
+complete theory of life, based upon a clear knowledge alike of its
+possibilities and its limitations." Against the second proposition he
+urged in the first place that it was self-evident that after having
+learned all that Greek, Roman, and Eastern antiquity have thought and
+said, and all that modern literature has to tell us, it was still
+necessary to have a deeper foundation for criticism of life. An
+acquaintance with what physical science had done, particularly in
+later years, was as necessary to criticism of life as any of the
+literary materials. Next, following the biological habit of examining
+anything by studying its development, he shewed how the connection
+between "culture" and study of classical literature had come into
+existence. For many centuries Latin grammar, with logic and rhetoric,
+studied through Latin, were the fundamentals of education. A liberal
+education was possible only through study of the language in which all
+or nearly all the materials for it were written. With the changes
+produced by the Renascence there came a battle between Latin and
+Greek, and Greek came to be part of a liberal education. Later on,
+there came a similar battle between the classical and modern
+languages, and now the modern languages have included and absorbed
+all the necessary material for knowledge and criticism. Those who
+cling to classics as the basis of culture and education are clinging
+to old weapons long after these have ceased to be effective, simply
+because at one time in history only these weapons were available in
+the struggle for knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
+
+     Establishment of Compulsory Education in England--The Religious
+     Controversy--Huxley Advocates the Bible without Theology--His
+     Compromise on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause--Influence of the New
+     Criticism--Science and Art Instruction--Training of
+     Teachers--University Education--The Baltimore Address--Technical
+     Education--So-called "Applied Science"--National Systems of
+     Education as "Capacity-Catchers."
+
+
+In the last chapter, the special relation of Huxley to scientific
+education was described, and, naturally enough, it is in special
+connection with scientific education that his influence is best known.
+But he was keenly interested in all the larger problems of general,
+university, and technical education, and he played a great part in
+shaping the lines upon which these problems have been solved in
+England.
+
+In the years immediately before 1870, all England was wrestling with
+the great problem of elementary education, in the arrangements for
+which it was far behind not only the leading European countries but
+even its sister-kingdom, Scotland. In 1870 there came into operation
+an Act of Parliament for the regulation of elementary education under
+the supervision of locally elected school boards. Hitherto elementary
+education had been controlled by the Established Church, and by other
+denominational religious bodies, and the quality and quantity of the
+instruction provided, for financial and various other reasons, had
+been extremely unsatisfactory. But a long and furious battle had raged
+around the religious question; elementary education was now to be
+national, compulsory, and universal; where religious bodies maintained
+schools that complied with certain fixed standards of efficiency,
+attendance of children at these was to be regarded as satisfactory,
+and in addition to the ordinary subjects, such theological and
+religious teaching as the supporting bodies chose might be added. But
+in the schools for all and sundry, under the control of boards
+representing the whole population, and deriving that part of their
+income represented by the subscriptions of the religious bodies in the
+denominational schools from public rates, levied on the whole
+population, was any definite creed to be inculcated? The extreme
+Church party, perhaps naturally, held that the creed established by
+law in the land should be taught in these new schools; extreme
+supporters of other creeds, and a majority of ordinary people of all
+creeds or of no creeds, objected to a new establishment of a sectarian
+doctrine, even though that sectarian doctrine were the doctrine of the
+national religion. The final result of the dispute as codified in the
+Act of Parliament was what was known as the Cowper-Temple Clause: "No
+religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any
+particular denomination shall be taught in the school." The actual
+value of any clause, however it may appear to be a fair compromise,
+depends on the spirit in which it is practically interpreted, and no
+sooner had the Act been passed than the battle was renewed again over
+the interpretation of the clause. Many of the Church controversialists
+held that the liberal or more advanced party intended to exclude all
+reference to the Bible or to religion, on the plea that some sect
+could be found to which the most attenuated expression of religion
+would appear to be against the plain meaning of the clause, and
+Huxley, who had been in the forefront of the controversy, and who was
+a candidate for the first London School Board, was decried as an enemy
+of the Bible and of all religion and morality because he had expressed
+what he called a secular interpretation of the clause. In an article
+published in the _Contemporary Review_ immediately after the election,
+Huxley explained precisely what he took the clause to mean, and,
+afterwards, at all events during the existence of the Board to which
+he was elected, succeeded in carrying out his intentions in the main.
+
+His first general point was to deprecate the action of those
+extremists of both sides who tried to make the education of children a
+mere battle-ground of religious dogmas. He then laid down what he
+conceived to be the lines of most general utility upon which, under
+the provisions of the Act, the education of children should be
+conducted. In the foreground he placed physical training and drill, as
+of supreme importance to young children, especially in the case of the
+poor children of large towns.
+
+     "All the conditions of the lives of such are unfavourable to
+     their physical well-being. They are badly lodged, badly housed,
+     badly fed, and live from one year's end to another in bad air,
+     without a chance of a change. They have no play-grounds; they
+     amuse themselves with marbles and chuck-farthing, instead of
+     cricket and hare-and-hounds; and if it were not for the
+     wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender years
+     to throw themselves under the feet of cab-horses whenever they
+     can, I know not how they would learn to use their limbs with
+     agility."
+
+This, humanitarianism as it was, was not the mere emotional sentiment
+of the typical humanitarian; he went on to give the soundest practical
+reasons for physical development.
+
+     "Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of
+     natural selection, there can be none about artificial selection;
+     and the breeder who should attempt to make, or keep up, a fine
+     stock of pigs, or sheep, under the conditions to which the
+     children of the poor are exposed, would be the laughing stock
+     even of the bucolic mind. Parliament has already done something
+     in this direction by declining to be an accomplice in the
+     asphyxiation of school children. It refuses to make any grant to
+     a school in which the cubical contents of the school-room are
+     inadequate to allow of proper respiration."
+
+He wished to see physical training put on the same system.
+
+The second great point upon which he laid stress was the necessity of
+providing training in domestic economy, cookery, and other household
+accomplishments, for poor girls. These demands of Huxley seem simple
+and obvious, now that by his efforts and the efforts of others they
+have been accomplished, but in England, even thirty years ago, it
+required more than an ordinary prevision and boldness to insist upon
+them.
+
+Huxley passed next to the burning question of the time. He treated it
+in the broadest and least sectarian spirit.
+
+     "The boys and girls for whose education the School Boards have to
+     provide, have not merely to discharge domestic duties, but each
+     of them is a member of a social and political organisation of
+     great complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into
+     that organisation, or be crushed by it. To this end it is surely
+     needful, not only that they should be made acquainted with the
+     elementary laws of conduct, but that their affections should be
+     trained, so as to love with all their hearts that conduct which
+     tends to the attainment of the highest good for themselves and
+     their fellow-men, and to hate with all their hearts that opposite
+     course of action which is fraught with evil."
+
+He then proceeded to point out the distinction between the affection
+which is called religion, and the science which is called theology,
+and, without entering into the question as to whether the latter were
+or were not a true science, he insisted on the danger of a confusion
+between the two.
+
+     "We are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called
+     'religious' teaching on the one hand, and those of so-called
+     'secular' teaching on the other. And both parties seem to me to
+     be not only hopelessly wrong, but in such a position that if
+     either succeeded completely, it would discover, before many years
+     were over, that it had made a great mistake and done serious evil
+     to the cause of education. For, leaving aside the more far-seeing
+     minority on either side, what the religious party is crying for
+     is mere theology, under the name of religion; while the
+     secularists have unwisely and wrongfully admitted the assumption
+     of their opponents, and demand the abolition of all religious
+     teaching, when they only want to be free of theology--burning
+     your ship to get rid of the cockroaches." ... "If I were
+     compelled to choose for one of my own children, between a school
+     in which real religious instruction is given, and one without it,
+     I should prefer the former, even though the child might have to
+     take a good deal of theology with it. Nine-tenths of a dose of
+     bark is mere half-rotten wood; but one swallows it for the sake
+     of the particles of quinine, the beneficial effect of which may
+     be weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden dilution, unless
+     in the case of a few exceptionally tender stomachs. Hence, when
+     the great mass of the English people declare that they want to
+     have the children in the elementary schools taught the Bible, and
+     when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates in and
+     out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic declarations of
+     the Vice-President of the Council that it was intended that such
+     Bible-teaching should be permitted, unless good cause for
+     prohibiting it could be shewn, I do not see what reason there is
+     for opposing that wish."
+
+He went on to explain that, although he had always been strongly in
+favour of secular education, by that term he meant only education
+without theology, and he praised the English Bible in language as
+noble as has ever been applied to it by the most ardent of
+theologians.
+
+     "The Pagan moralists lack life and colour, and even the noble
+     Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high and refined for an ordinary
+     child. Take the Bible as a whole; make the severest deductions
+     which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings and positive
+     errors; eliminate, as a sensible lay-teacher would do, if left to
+     himself, all that is not desirable for children to occupy
+     themselves with; and there still remains in this old literature a
+     vast residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the
+     great historical fact that, for three centuries, this book has
+     been woven into the life of all that is best and noblest in
+     English history; that it has become the national epic of Britain,
+     and is as familiar to noble and simple, from Land's End to
+     John-o'-Groat's House, as Dante and Tasso once were to the
+     Italians; that it is written in the noblest and purest English,
+     and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary form; and,
+     finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left his
+     village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and
+     other civilisations, and of a great past, stretching back to the
+     furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By the study
+     of what other book could children be so much humanised and made
+     to feel that each figure in that vast historical procession
+     fills, like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval
+     between two eternities; and earns the blessings and the curses of
+     all time, according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even
+     as they also are earning their payment for their work."
+
+Lastly, he laid down the lines of the general education to be given.
+He pointed out that already in the existing schools a very
+considerable burden of work was imposed on the children in the form of
+catechism, lists of the kings of Israel, geography of Palestine, and
+that when these fantastic modes of education had been eliminated there
+was plenty of time and energy to be employed. The instruction in
+physical training was more than half play; that in the domestic
+subjects had an engrossing interest of its own. He proposed, first,
+the necessary discipline in the means for acquiring knowledge, the
+tools for employing it, that is to say, reading, writing, and
+arithmetic. After that, he believed that a certain amount of
+knowledge, of intellectual discipline, and of artistic training should
+be conveyed in the elementary schools, and for these purposes he
+proposed to teach some rudiments of physical science, drawing, and
+singing.
+
+In most respects the progress of primary education in England has been
+a continuous progress along these lines suggested by Huxley, and he
+may be regarded as in this fashion one of the great shapers of the
+destinies of his race, for nothing can have a bearing more important
+on the character and fate of a race than the manner of training
+provided for the masses of individuals composing it. It is only in the
+matter of the religious instruction that the course of events has been
+widely different from the neutral exposition of the Bible as suggested
+by him. In 1870 a great majority of the people of England who
+reflected upon the matter at all, and all those who accepted current
+ideas without reflection, accepted the Bible as an inspired, direct,
+and simple authority on all great matters of faith and morality.
+Therefore, when Huxley, as by far the most important man among those
+who advocated a secular education, was an advocate and not in the
+least an opponent of Bible teaching, they were well content to let the
+matter rest. There were, it is true, a certain number of zealots who
+entered the boards with the avowed purpose, on the one hand, of
+getting as much dogmatic teaching and interpretation added as it might
+be possible to smuggle in, and, on the other, to reduce the simplest
+Bible teaching to a minimum. But the vast majority of persons were out
+of sympathy with these fanaticisms. Since 1870, however, a gradual
+change has occurred in the attitude of the majority to the Bible in
+England. The growth of the new criticism and of knowledge of it has
+produced the result that now only a small minority of reflecting
+people in England accept the Bible in the old simple way; the majority
+thinks that it requires interpretation and explanation by the
+authority of the Church. And so a new battle over dogma has begun;
+moderate Church people no longer accept the compromise of Huxley, but
+strive for an interpretation which must be dogmatic, and there is a
+new dispute as to what may be regarded as undenominational religion.
+When a majority of reasonable persons accepted Huxley's suggestions of
+simple Bible teaching they did so not because they believed, as he
+did, that the Bible was simply great literature, great tradition, and
+great morality, but because they believed it to be direct, inspired
+authority. It is a curious coincidence that Huxley himself did so much
+to spread knowledge of the new criticism, and that a first result of
+this diffusion was to overthrow the compromise arranged largely by his
+influence, and which for many years provided a middle way in which
+sensible persons avoided the extremes of theological and
+anti-theological zealots.
+
+Early in the course of his career as a member of the London School
+Board, Huxley crystallised his views as to the general policy of
+education in a phrase which perhaps has done more than any other
+phrase ever invented to bring home to men's minds the ideal of a
+national system of education. "I conceive it to be our duty," he said,
+"to make a ladder from the gutter to the university along which any
+child may climb." We have seen the nature of his views as to the
+lowest rungs of this ladder; we may now turn to his work and views as
+to the higher stages. He expressed these views in occasional speeches
+and articles, and he had many important opportunities in aiding to
+carry them into actual practice. He was a member of a number of
+important Royal Commissions: Commission on the Royal College of
+Science for Ireland, 1866; Commission on Science and Art Instruction
+in Ireland, 1868; Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the
+Advancement of Science, 1870-75; Royal Commission to enquire into the
+Universities of Scotland, 1876-78; Royal Commission on the Medical
+Acts, 1881-82. From the beginning, he was closely associated with the
+Science and Art Department, the operations of which threw a web of
+education, intermediate between primary and university education, all
+over Britain. A number of the teachers under that department were
+trained by him, and as examiner to the department he took the greatest
+care to reduce to a minimum the evils necessarily attendant on the
+mode of payment by results. A certain number of teachers made it
+their chief effort to secure the largest possible number of grants.
+Huxley regarded these as poachers of the worst kind, and did all he
+could to foil them. He did all he could to promote systematic
+practical instruction in the classes, and to aid teachers who desired
+to learn their business more thoroughly. He insisted again and again
+upon the popular nature of the classes; their great advantage was that
+they were accessible to all who chose to avail themselves of them
+after working hours, and that they brought the means of instruction to
+the doors of the factories and workshops. The subjects which he
+considered of most importance were foreign languages, drawing, and
+elementary sciences, and he wished them to be used first of all by
+those who were handicraftsmen and who therefore left the elementary
+schools at the age of thirteen or fourteen.
+
+In a lecture given at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins
+University at Baltimore in 1876, and in a Rectorial address to the
+University of Aberdeen two years earlier, Huxley laid down the general
+lines of university education as he conceived it. He began by
+supposing that a good primary education had already been received.
+
+     "Such an education should enable an average boy of fifteen or
+     sixteen to read and write his own language with ease and
+     accuracy, and with a sense of literary excellence derived from
+     the study of our classic writers; to have a general acquaintance
+     with the history of his own country and with the great laws of
+     social existence; to have acquired the rudiments of the physical
+     and psychological sciences, and a fair knowledge of elementary
+     arithmetic and geometry. He should have obtained an acquaintance
+     with logic rather by example than by precept; while the
+     acquirement of the elements of music and drawing should have been
+     a pleasure rather than work."
+
+He had not much to say for secondary or intermediate education, partly
+because at that time, in England at least, the secondary schools were
+in a hopeless state of incapacity, and differed from primary schools
+not only in their greater expense, their adaptation to the
+class-spirit which demanded the separation of the boys of the upper
+and middle classes from those in the lower ranks of society, but
+chiefly in the futility of the education given at the majority of
+them. But where intermediate schools did exist, he demanded that they
+should keep on the same wide track of general knowledge, not
+sacrificing one branch of knowledge for another. He held that the
+elementary instruction to which he had referred embraced all the real
+kinds of knowledge and mental activity possible to man. The university
+could add no new fields of mental activity, no new departments of
+knowledge. What it could do was to intensify and specialise the
+instruction in each department.
+
+     "Thus literature and philology, represented in the elementary
+     school by English alone, in the university will extend over the
+     ancient and modern languages. History, which like charity, best
+     begins at home, but, like charity, should not end there, will
+     ramify into anthropology, archæology, political history, and
+     geography, with the history of the growth of the human mind and
+     of its products, in the shape of philosophy, science, and art,
+     and the university will present to the student libraries, museums
+     of antiquities, collections of coins, and the like, which will
+     efficiently subserve these studies. Instruction in the elements
+     of political economy, a most essential but hitherto sadly
+     neglected part of elementary education, will develop in the
+     university into political economy, sociology, and law. Physical
+     science will have its great divisions, of physical geography,
+     with geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and biology;
+     represented not merely by professors and their lectures, but by
+     laboratories in which the students, under guidance of
+     demonstrators, will work out facts for themselves and come into
+     that direct contact with reality which constitutes the
+     fundamental distinction of scientific education. Mathematics will
+     soar into its highest regions; while the high peaks of philosophy
+     may be scaled by those whose aptitude for abstract thought has
+     been awakened by elementary logic. Finally, schools of pictorial
+     and plastic art, of architecture, and of music will offer a
+     thorough discipline in the principles and practice of art to
+     those in whom lies nascent the rare faculty of æsthetic
+     representation, or the still rarer powers of creative genius."
+
+Early in the seventies the problems connected with what is called
+technical education became prominent in the minds of the most
+far-seeing of this nation. It became plain that England was not
+advancing with the same strides as some other nations in arts and
+manufactures, and the most obvious difference between England and the
+rivals whose advance was causing anxiety lay in her deficiency in
+education. Science or knowledge of nature lies at the root of all the
+arts and manufactures, and it was our relation to scientific teaching
+and research that required investigation. Naturally enough, Huxley
+took the keenest interest in this question and made large
+contributions to its solution, contributions which have not yet been
+put completely into operation. He insisted most strongly upon a point
+that we as a nation have not yet completely grasped. There is no
+difference between applied science and any other kind of science. The
+chemistry of manufactures, the physics of industrial machinery, the
+biology of agriculture and of fisheries, are not different from other
+chemistries and physics and biologies. They are merely special cases
+of the application of the same general fund of knowledge, and the same
+general principles of investigation. Huxley wished that the term
+"applied science" had never been invented, or that it could be
+destroyed. A man cannot study the chemistry of dyeing or make advances
+in it unless he be a thoroughly trained chemist in the full sense of
+the word. More than that, many of the greatest discoveries, using the
+word "great" as applied to commercial advantage rather than to
+abstract progress in knowledge, have been made by those who were
+pursuing research for its own sake rather than for any immediate
+commercial advantage to be derived from it. Hence he regarded it of
+vital importance, from the mere point of view of the prosperity of the
+country, that there should be a sufficiently large number of
+scientific men provided with the means for research in the shape of
+income and appliances. The most immediately utilitarian fashion for
+the nation to encourage science, was to encourage science in its
+highest and most advanced aspects. This meant the endowment of
+research and the support of universities and other institutions in
+which research might be conducted, and Huxley strove unceasingly for
+the benefit of all such great organisations. One of the last public
+occasions of his life was his appearance as leader of a deputation to
+urge upon the government the formation of a real university in London
+which should unite the scattered institutions of that great city and
+promote the highest spheres of the pursuit of knowledge. He held the
+view, strongly, that a useful combination was to be made by uniting
+the functions of teaching and investigation. A teacher taught better
+when his mind was kept fresh by the advances he himself was making,
+and an investigator, by having a moderate amount of teaching to do,
+gained from the need of forcing his mind from time to time to take
+broad surveys of the whole field a part of which he was engaged in
+tilling. The first great object, then, in promoting science so as to
+reap the most direct national advantage from it, was to encourage
+science in its highest and widest forms. It cannot be said that
+England has yet learned this lesson. The number of institutions in
+Germany where advanced investigation is continuously pursued is
+absolutely and relatively greater than the number in England.
+
+The second part of technical education is that to which general
+attention is more commonly given. It consists of the kind of training
+to be given to the great army of workers in the country. In regard to
+this, as in regard to research work, Huxley insisted on the absence of
+distinction between technical or applied science and science without
+such a limiting prefix. So far as technical instruction meant definite
+teaching of a handicraft, he believed that it could be learned
+satisfactorily only in the workshop itself.
+
+     "The workshop is the only real school for a handicraft. The
+     education which precedes that of the workshop should be entirely
+     devoted to the strengthening of the body, the elevation of the
+     moral faculties, and the cultivation of the intelligence; and,
+     especially, to the imbuing of the mind with a broad and clear
+     view of the laws of that natural world with the components of
+     which the handicraftsman will have to deal. And, the earlier the
+     period of life at which the handicraftsman has to enter into the
+     actual practice of his craft, the more important is it that he
+     should devote the precious hours of preliminary education to
+     things of the mind, which have no direct and immediate bearing on
+     his branch of industry, though they lie at the foundation of all
+     the realities."
+
+He compared his own handicraft as an anatomist with the handicrafts of
+artisans, and declared that the kind of preliminary training he would
+choose for himself or for his pupils was precisely the training he
+would provide for them. He did not wish that one who proposed to be a
+biologist should learn dissection during his school-days; that would
+come later, and, in the meantime, broader and deeper foundations had
+to be laid. These were the ordinary subjects of a liberal education:
+physical training, drawing, and a little music, French and German, the
+ordinary English subjects, and the elements of physical science.
+Against such costly schemes of education for the whole population of a
+nation, many objections have been urged. Of these, perhaps the chief
+is that the majority of human beings even in the most civilised
+country are not capable of profiting by or taking an interest in, or
+certainly of advancing far in, most subjects. Huxley met such
+objections in a spirit of the widest statesmanship. There were two
+reasons for making the general education of all what he called a
+liberal education. The first was that, even in a liberal education
+such as he advocated, no subject was pursued beyond the broad
+elementary stages, and that during the early years of life, while the
+framework and the character were forming, it was of first-rate
+importance not to stunt either by lack of material. The second great
+principle was that until any individual had had the opportunity, it
+was impossible to say whether or no he would profit much or little,
+and the gain to the whole nation by not missing any of those who were
+born with unusual natural capacity was more than worth the cost of
+affording opportunities to all.
+
+     "The great mass of mankind have neither the liking, nor the
+     aptitude, for either literary or scientific or artistic pursuits;
+     nor, indeed, for excellence of any sort. Their ambition is to go
+     through life with moderate exertion and a fair share of ease,
+     doing common things in a common way. And a great blessing and
+     comfort it is that the majority of men are of this mind; for the
+     majority of things to be done are common things, and are quite
+     well enough done when commonly done. The great end of life is not
+     knowledge but action. What men need is as much knowledge as they
+     can assimilate and organise into a basis for action; give them
+     more and it may become injurious. One knows people who are as
+     heavy and stupid from undigested learning as others are from
+     over-fulness of meat and drink. But a small percentage of the
+     population is born with that most excellent quality, a desire for
+     excellence, or with special aptitude of some sort or another....
+     Now, the most important object of all educational schemes is to
+     catch these exceptional people, and turn them to account for the
+     good of society. No man can say where they will crop up; like
+     their opposites, the fools and the knaves, they appear sometimes
+     in the palace, and sometimes in the hovel; but the great thing to
+     be aimed at, I was almost going to say, the most important end of
+     all social arrangements, is to keep these glorious sports of
+     Nature from being either corrupted by luxury or starved by
+     poverty, and to put them into the position in which they can do
+     the work for which they are specially fitted.... I weigh my words
+     when I say that if the nation could purchase a potential Watt or
+     Davy or Faraday, at the cost of a hundred thousand pounds down,
+     he would be dirt cheap at the money."
+
+The beginning and end of the whole matter was that a national system
+of education was above all things a "capacity-catcher," designed to
+secure against the loss of the incalculable advantages to be gained by
+cultivating the best genius born in the land.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST
+
+     Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs--Official in Scientific
+     Societies--Royal Commissions--Vivisection--Characteristics of his
+     Public Speaking--His Method of Exposition--His
+     Essays--Vocabulary--Phrase-Making--His Style Essentially one of
+     Ideas.
+
+
+A great body of fine work in science and literature has been produced
+by persons who may be described as typically academic. Such persons
+confine their interest in life within the boundaries of their own
+immediate pursuits; they are absorbed so completely by their
+avocations that the hurly-burly of the world seems needlessly
+distracting and a little vulgar. No doubt the thoughts of those who
+cry out most loudly against disturbance by the intruding claims of the
+world are, for the most part, hardly worth disturbing; the attitude to
+extrinsic things of those who are absorbed by their work is aped not
+infrequently by those who are absorbed only in themselves. None the
+less it is important to recognise that a genuine aversion from affairs
+is characteristic of many fine original investigators, and it is on
+such persons that the idea of the simple and childlike nature of
+philosophers, a simplicity often reaching real incapacity for the
+affairs of life, is based. There was no trace of this natural
+isolation in the character of Huxley. He was not only a serious
+student of science but a keen and zealous citizen, eagerly conscious
+of the great social and political movements around him, with the full
+sense that he was a man living in society with other men and that
+there was a business of life as well as a business of the laboratory.
+We have seen with what zeal he brought his trained intelligence to
+bear not only on his own province of scientific education, but on the
+wider problems of general education, and yet the time he gave to these
+was only a small part of that which he spared from abstract science
+for affairs. In scientific institutions as in others, there is always
+a considerable amount of business, involving the management of men and
+the management of money, and Huxley's readiness and aptitude led to
+his being largely occupied with these. For many years he was Dean of
+the Royal College of Science at South Kensington, and for a
+considerable time he served the Geological Society and the Royal
+Society as secretary. In all these posts, Huxley displayed great
+capacity as a leader of men and as a manager of affairs, and
+contributed largely to the successful working of the institutions
+which he served.
+
+In England, when troublesome questions press and seem to call for new
+legislation, it frequently happens that the collection and sifting of
+evidence preliminary to legislation is a task for which the methods
+and routine of Parliament are unsuitable. The Queen, acting through
+her responsible advisers, appoints a Royal Commission, consisting of a
+small body of men, to which is entrusted the preliminary task of
+collecting and weighing evidence, or of making recommendations on
+evidence already collected. To such honourable posts Huxley was
+repeatedly called. He served on the following Commissions: 1. Royal
+Commission on the Operation of Acts relating to Trawling for Herrings
+on the Coast of Scotland, 1862. 2. Royal Commission to Enquire into
+the Sea Fisheries of the United Kingdom, 1864-65. 3. Commission on the
+Royal College of Science for Ireland, 1866. 4. Commission on Science
+and Art Instruction in Ireland, 1868. 5. Royal Commission on the
+Administration and Operation of the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1870-71.
+6. Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of
+Science, 1870-75. 7. Royal Commission on the Practice of Subjecting
+Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific Purposes, 1876. 8. Royal
+Commission to Enquire into the Universities of Scotland, 1876-78. 9.
+Royal Commission on the Medical Acts, 1881-82. 10. Royal Commission on
+Trawl, Net, and Beam-Trawl Fishing, 1884. This is a great record for
+any man, especially for one in whose life work of this kind was
+outside his habitual occupation. It was no doubt in special
+recognition of the important services given his country by such work,
+as well as in general recognition of his distinction in science, that
+he was sworn a member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, so attaining a
+distinction more coveted than the peerage.
+
+The voluminous reports of the Commissions shew that Huxley, very far
+from being a silent member of them, took a large part in framing the
+questions which served to direct witnesses into useful lines, and that
+his clear and orderly habit of thought proved as useful in the
+elucidation of these subjects as they were in matters of scientific
+research. For the most part, the problems brought before the
+Commissions have lost their interest for readers of later years, but
+there are matters still unsettled on which the opinions of Huxley as
+expressed then remain useful. The Commission of 1876, for instance,
+dealt with vivisection, a matter on which the conscience of the
+ordinary man is not yet at rest. Although Huxley was intensely
+interested in the problems of physiology, and although at one time he
+hoped to devote his life to them, fortune directed otherwise, and the
+investigations for which he is famed did not in any way involve the
+kind of experiments known as vivisection. The greater part of his work
+was upon the remains of creatures dead for thousands of years or upon
+the lifeless skeletons of modern forms. On the other hand, he was
+keenly interested in the progress of physiological science, he had
+personal acquaintance with most of the distinguished workers in
+physiology of his time at home and abroad, and from this knowledge of
+their character and aspirations he was well able to judge of the
+wholesale and reckless accusations brought against them. He was a man
+full of the finest humanity, with an unusual devotion to animals as
+pets, and with knowledge of the degrees of pain involved in
+experimenting on living creatures. He insisted strongly on the
+necessity of limiting or abolishing pain, wherever it was possible; he
+agreed that any experiments which involved pain should not be
+permitted for the purpose of demonstrating known elementary facts.
+But, from his knowledge of the incalculable benefits which had been
+gained from experimental research, and from his confidence in those
+who conducted it, he declined to give support to the misguided
+fanatics who desired to make such experimental research a penal
+offence, even when conducted by the most skilled experts for the
+highest purposes.
+
+Huxley contributed his share to the great questions which agitated
+the public not only by service on Commissions, but by delivering a
+large number of public addresses and writing a large number of essays
+on topics of special interest. Much of his work on scientific,
+educational, and general subjects took its first shape in the form of
+addresses given to some public audience. University audiences in
+England, Scotland, and America were familiar to him, and from time to
+time he addressed large gatherings of a mixed character. But probably
+his favourite audience was composed of working men, and he had the
+greatest respect for the intelligence and sympathy of hearers who like
+himself passed the greater portion of their time in hard work.
+Professor Howes, his pupil, friend, and successor, writes of him:
+
+     "He gave workmen of his best. The substance of _Man's Place in
+     Nature_, one of the most successful and popular of his writings,
+     and of his _Crayfish_, perhaps the most perfect zoölogical
+     treatise ever published, was first communicated to them. In one
+     of the last communications I had with him, I asked his views as
+     to the desirability of discontinuing the workmen's lectures at
+     Jermyn Street, since the development of workmen's colleges and
+     institutes was regarded by some as rendering their continuance
+     unnecessary. He replied, almost with indignation, 'With our
+     central situation and resources we ought to be in a position to
+     give the workmen that which they cannot get elsewhere,' adding
+     that he would deeply deplore any such discontinuance."
+
+Huxley had no natural facility for speech. He tells us that at first
+he disliked it, and that he had a firm conviction that he would break
+down every time he opened his mouth. The only two possible faults of a
+public speaker which he believed himself to be without, were "talking
+at random and indulging in rhetoric." With practice, he lost this
+earlier hesitancy, and before long became known as one of the finest
+speakers of his time. Certain natural gifts aided him; his well-set
+figure and strong features, of which the piercing eyes and firm,
+trap-like mouth were the most striking, riveted attention, while his
+voice had a wide range and was beautifully modulated. But it was above
+all things the matter and not the manner of his speech that commanded
+success. He cared little or nothing for the impression he might
+make--everything for the ideas which he wished to convey. He was
+concerned only to set forth these ideas in their clear and logical
+order, convinced in his own mind that, were the facts as he knew them
+placed before the minds of his hearers, only one possible result could
+follow. The facts had convinced him: they must equally convince any
+honest and intelligent person placed in possession of them. He had not
+the smallest intention of overbearing by authority or of swaying by
+skilfully aroused emotion. Such weapons of the orator seemed to him
+dishonest in the speaker and most perilous to the audience. For him,
+speaking on any subject was merely a branch of scientific exposition;
+when emotion was to be roused or enthusiasm to be kindled the
+inspiration was to come from the facts and not from the orator. The
+arts he allowed himself were those common to all forms of exposition;
+he would explain a novel set of ideas by comparison with simpler ideas
+obvious to all his listeners; and he sought to arrest attention or to
+drive home a conclusion by some brilliant phrase that bit into the
+memory. These two arts, the art of the phrase-maker and the art of
+explaining by vivacious and simple comparison, he brought to a high
+perfection. The fundamental method of his exposition was simply the
+method of comparative anatomy, the result of a habit of thinking which
+makes it impossible to have any set of ideas brought into the mind
+without an immediate, almost unconscious, overhauling of the memory
+for any other ideas at all congruous. In a strict scientific
+exposition Huxley would choose from the multitude of possible
+comparisons that most simple and most intelligible to his audience;
+when in a lighter vein, he gave play to a natural humour in his
+choice. Instances of his method of exposition by comparison abound in
+his published addresses. Let us take one or two. In the course of an
+address to a large mixed audience so early in his public career as
+1854, in making plain to them the proposition, somewhat novel for
+those days, that the natural history sciences had an educational
+value, he explained that the faculties employed in that subject were
+simply those of the common sense of every-day life.
+
+     "The vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical
+     faculties, by no mental processes other than those which are
+     practised by every one of us, in the humblest and meanest affairs
+     of life. A detective policeman discovers a burglar from the marks
+     made by his shoe, by a mental process identical with that by
+     which Cuvier restored the extinct animals of Montmartre from
+     fragments of their bones. Nor does that process of induction and
+     deduction by which a lady, finding a stain of a peculiar kind on
+     her dress, concludes that somebody has upset the inkstand
+     thereon, differ in any way, in kind, from that by which Adams and
+     Leverrier discovered a new planet."
+
+In one of his addresses to working men on _Man's Place in Nature_ he
+shewed that from time to time in the history of the world average
+persons of the human race have accepted some kind of answer to the
+insoluble riddles of existence, but that from time to time the race
+has outgrown the current answers, ceasing to take comfort from them.
+
+     "In a well-worn metaphor a parallel is drawn between the life of
+     man and the metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly; but
+     the comparison may be more just as well as more novel, if for its
+     former term we take the mental progress of the race. History
+     shews that the human mind, fed by constant accessions of
+     knowledge, periodically grows too large for its theoretical
+     coverings, and bursts them asunder to appear in new habiliments,
+     as the feeding and growing grub, at intervals, casts its too
+     narrow skin and assumes another, itself but temporary. Truly, the
+     imago state of man seems to be terribly distant, but every moult
+     is a step gained, and of such there have been many."
+
+As another instance, the following from his address on a "Liberal
+Education" may be taken. He had been discussing the intellectual
+advantage to be derived from classical studies, and had been
+comparing, to the disadvantage of the latter, the intellectual
+discipline which might be got from a study of fossils with the
+discipline claimed by the ordinary experts upon education to be the
+results of classical training. He wished to anticipate the obvious
+objection to his argument: that the subject-matter of palæontology had
+no direct bearing on human interests and emotions, while the classical
+authors were rich in the finest humanity.
+
+     "But it will be said that I forget the beauty and the human
+     interest, which appertain to classical studies. To this I reply
+     that it is only a very strong man who can appreciate the charms
+     of landscape as he is toiling up a steep hill, along a bad road.
+     What with short-windedness, stones, nits, and a pervading sense
+     of the wisdom of rest and be thankful, most of us have little
+     enough sense of the beautiful under these circumstances. The
+     ordinary schoolboy is precisely in this case. He finds Parnassus
+     uncommonly steep, and there is no chance of his having much time
+     or inclination to look about him till he gets to the top. And
+     nine times out of ten he does not get to the top."
+
+The last example we shall take comes from a speech made after dinner
+at a much later period of his life. The occasion was a complimentary
+dinner to the editor of the English scientific periodical _Nature_,
+which had been for long the leading semi-popular journal of English
+science. Huxley, in proposing the health of the editor, declared that
+he did not quite know how to say what he wanted to say, but that he
+would explain by a story.
+
+     "A poor woman," he said, "was brought into one of our hospitals
+     in a shockingly battered condition. When her wounds had been
+     cleaned and sewn, and when the care of the surgeons had restored
+     her to comparative comfort, someone said to her, 'I am afraid
+     your husband has been knocking you about.' 'What!' she said, 'my
+     Jim bash me? no it worn't by him; he's always been more like a
+     friend to me than a husband.' That," went on Huxley, "is what I
+     wish to say about our guest of to-night. In all our intercourse
+     with him he has been more like a friend to us than an editor."
+
+It is impossible to make a real distinction between the essays and the
+addresses of Huxley. Many of the most important of his addresses, as
+for instance his Romanes lecture on "Evolution and Ethics," were
+written and printed before he delivered them; most of them were
+carefully prepared, and revised and printed after delivery. It is
+therefore not remarkable to find a close resemblance in matter and
+manner between what was originally spoken and what was published
+without a _vivâ voce_ delivery. Everything that may be said of the one
+set applies with an equal fitness to the other set. There are many
+who assert with confidence that Huxley is one of the great masters of
+English, and although an examination of this opinion involves
+discussion of the elusive quality termed "style," it is necessary to
+attempt it.
+
+In that totality which consists of an essay or of a printed address,
+and of which we are, most of us, ready to discuss the style, there are
+at least three separable elements, each contributing after its kind to
+the effect on our minds. When the general effect is to throw us into a
+state of pleasure, it is our habit to qualify the style with an
+adjective of praise, selecting the adjective according to the degree
+of restraint or of enthusiasm with which we are accustomed to express
+our emotions; when the general effect is to throw us into a condition
+of boredom or of distaste, we make a corresponding choice of
+appropriate adjectives. When we wish to be specially critical we pass
+a little way beyond an empirical judgment by pleasure or annoyance and
+take into account the degree of harmony between matter and manner. In
+such a frame of mind we discount the pleasure obtained from verbal
+quips, if these occur in a grave exposition, or that received from
+solemn and stately harmonies of language if these be employed on
+insignificant trifles. In a condition of unusual critical exaltation
+we may even admit an excellence of language and phrasing though these
+have as their contents ideas which we dislike, or press towards
+conclusions from which we dissent. But if we desire to make an exact
+appreciation of literary style, it is requisite to examine separately
+the three elements which contribute to the effect produced on us by
+any written work. These three elements are the words or raw materials
+employed, the building of words into sentences and of sentences into
+paragraphs, which may be designated as the architectural work, and,
+finally, the ideas conveyed, that is to say, the actual object of the
+writing.
+
+Huxley was a wide and omnivorous reader, and so had an unusually large
+fund of words at his disposal. His writings abound with quotations and
+allusions taken from the best English authors, and he had a profound
+and practical belief in the advantage to be gained from the reading of
+English. "If a man," he wrote, "cannot get literary culture out of his
+Bible, and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and Hobbes, and
+Bishop Berkeley, to mention only a few of our illustrious writers--I
+say, if he cannot get it out of these writers, he cannot get it out of
+anything." He had at least a fair knowledge of Greek in the original,
+and a very wide acquaintance with Greek phrasing and Greek ideas
+derived from a study of Greek authors in English versions. He had an
+unusual knowledge of Latin, both of the classical writers and of the
+early Church fathers and mediæval writers on science and metaphysics.
+French and German, the two foreign languages which are a necessary
+part of the mental equipment of an English-speaking man of science,
+were familiar to him. Finally, he had of necessity the wide and varied
+vocabulary of the natural and technical sciences at his disposal. From
+these varied sources, Huxley had a fund of words, a store of the raw
+material for expressing ideas, very much greater and more varied than
+that in the possession of most writers. You will find in his writings
+abundant and omnipresent evidence of the enormous wealth of verbal
+material ready for the ideas he wished to set forth: a Greek phrase, a
+German phrase, a Latin or French phrase, or a group of words borrowed
+from one of our own great writers always seemed to await his wish.
+General Booth's scheme for elevating the masses by cymbals and dogma
+was "corybantic Christianity"; to explain what he thought was the
+Catholic attitude to the doctrine of evolution, he said it would have
+been called _damnabilis_ by Father Suarez, and that he would have
+meant "not that it was to be damned, but that it was an active
+principle capable of damning." Huxley was like a builder who did not
+limit himself while he was constructing a house to the ordinary
+materials from the most convenient local quarry, but who collected
+endlessly from all the quarries and brickfields of the world, and
+brought to his heaps curiously wrought stones taken from a thousand
+old buildings. The swift choice from such a varied material gave an
+ease and appearance of natural growth to his work; it produced many
+surprising and delightful combinations, and it never sacrificed
+convenience of expression to exigencies of the materials for
+expression. On the other hand, Huxley lacked the sedulous concern for
+words themselves as things valuable and delightful; the delight of the
+craftsman in his tools; the dainty and respectful tribute paid to the
+words themselves; in fine, he took little pleasure in words themselves
+and used them as counters rather than as coins. Careful reflection and
+examination will make it plain that the pleasure to be got from
+Huxley's style is not due in any large measure to his choice and
+handling of words. There is no evidence that he deliberately and
+fastidiously preferred one word to another, that he took delight in
+the savour of individual words, in the placing of plain words in a
+context to make them sparkle, in the avoidance of some, in the
+deliberate preference of other words,--in fact, in all the conscious
+tricks and graces that distinguish the lover of words from their mere
+user.
+
+A close examination discovers a similar absence from Huxley's work of
+the second contributory to the total effect produced by written words.
+Anything that may be said about absence of artistry in the use of
+words, may be said as to absence of artistry in building of the words
+into sentences, of the sentences into paragraphs and pages. In the
+first place, actual infelicities of sentence-building are frequent.
+Clause is piled on clause, qualifying phrases are interpolated, the
+easy devices of dashes and repetitions are employed wherever
+convenience suggests them. It is striking to find how infrequent is
+the occurrence of passages marked in any way by sonorous rhythm or by
+the charm of a measured proportion. The purple passages themselves,
+those which linger in the memory and to which the reader turns back,
+linger by their sense and not by their sound. For indeed the truth of
+the matter is that Huxley's style was a style of ideas and not of
+words and sentences. The more closely you analyse his pages the more
+certainly you find that the secret of the effect produced on you lies
+in the gradual development of the precise and logical ideas he wished
+to convey, in the brilliant accumulation of argument upon argument, in
+the logical subordination of details to the whole, in fact, in the
+arts of the convinced, positive, and logical thinker, who knew exactly
+what he meant you to know and who set about telling you it with the
+least possible concern for the words he used or for the sentences into
+which he formed his words. The ideas and their ordering are the root
+and the branches, the beginning and the end of his style. To put it
+in another way: it would be extremely easy to translate any of
+Huxley's writings into French or German, and they would lose extremely
+little of the personal flavour of their author. The present writer has
+just been reading French translations of Huxley's _Physiography_ and
+_Crayfish_, made at different times by different translators. At first
+reading it seems almost miraculous how identically the effect produced
+by the original is reproduced by the French rendering, but the secret
+is really no secret at all. Huxley produced his effects by the
+ordering of his ideas and not by the ordering of his words. From the
+technical point of view of literary craftsmanship, he cannot be
+assigned a high place; he is one of our great English writers, but he
+is not a great writer of English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM
+
+     Science and Metaphysics--Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes--Existence of
+     Matter and Mind--Descartes's Contribution--Materialism and
+     Idealism--Criticism of Materialism--Berkeley's
+     Idealism--Criticism of Idealism--Empirical Idealism--Materialism
+     as opposed to Supernaturalism--Mind and Brain--Origin of
+     Life--Teleology, Chance, and the Argument from Design.
+
+
+The prosecution of independent thinking in any branch of knowledge
+leads to the ultimate problems of philosophy. The mathematician cannot
+ponder over the meaning of his figures, the chemist that of his
+reactions, the biologist that of his tissues and cells, the
+psychologist that of sensations and conceptions, without being tempted
+from the comparatively secure ground of observations and the
+arrangement of observations into the perilous regions of metaphysics.
+Most scientific men return quickly, repelled and perhaps a little
+scared by the baffling confusion of that windy region of thought where
+no rules of logic seem incontrovertible, no conclusions tenable, and
+no discussions profitable. Huxley, however, not only entered into
+metaphysical questions with enthusiasm, but gave a great deal of time
+to the study of some of the great metaphysical writers. His views are
+to be found scattered through very many of his ordinary scientific
+writings, but are specially set forth in a volume on _Hume_, which he
+wrote for Mr. John Morley's series, _English Men of Letters_, and in
+essays on Berkeley and on Descartes, all of which are republished in
+the _Collected Essays_. He contrived to preserve, in the most
+abstrusely philosophical of these writings, a simplicity and clarity
+which, although they have not commended him to professional
+metaphysicians, make his attitude to the problems of metaphysics
+extremely intelligible. The greatest barrier and cause of confusion to
+the novice in metaphysics is that the writings of most of the great
+authorities are overburdened by their great knowledge of the history
+of philosophy. Huxley, in a characteristic piece of "parting advice"
+in the preface to his work on Hume attacked this confusion between the
+history of a subject and the subject itself.
+
+     "If it is your desire," he wrote, "to discourse fluently and
+     learnedly about philosophical questions, begin with the Ionians
+     and work steadily through to the latest new speculative treatise.
+     If you have a good memory and a fair knowledge of Greek, Latin,
+     French, and German, three or four years spent in this way should
+     enable you to attain your object. If, on the contrary, you are
+     animated by the much rarer desire for real knowledge; if you want
+     to get a clear conception of the deepest problems set before the
+     intellect of man, there is no need, so far as I can see, for you
+     to go beyond the limits of the English tongue. Indeed, if you are
+     pressed for time, three English authors will suffice, namely,
+     Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes."
+
+The first and perhaps the greatest problem in metaphysics can be put
+very shortly. What is the reality behind the apparent universe of
+matter and mind we see around us? Or, rather, what do we know of that
+reality? To the uninitiated in philosophical thinking it seems
+sufficiently plain that there are two entities, body and soul in man,
+matter and mind in the whole universe; and various types of
+intelligent dogmatists, ranging from the sturdy if somewhat stupid
+shrewdness of Dr. Johnson to the agile casuistry of Catholic
+metaphysicians, have supported this simple verdict of "common sense."
+Trouble begins, however, with any attempt to analyse the relations
+between what we call "matter" and what we call "mind." It appears, for
+instance, that what we call matter we only know in terms of mind. In
+an essay on Descartes's _Discourse on Method_, Huxley explains this by
+simple examples.
+
+     "I take up a marble and I find it to be a red, round, hard,
+     single body. We call the redness, the roundness, the hardness and
+     the singleness, 'qualities' of the marble; and it sounds, at
+     first, the height of absurdity to say that all these qualities
+     are modes of our own consciousness, which cannot even be
+     conceived to exist in the marble. But consider the redness, to
+     begin with. How does the sensation of redness arise? The waves of
+     a certain very attenuated matter, the particles of which are
+     vibrating with vast rapidity, but with very different velocities,
+     strike upon the marble, and those which vibrate with one
+     particular velocity are thrown off from its surface in all
+     directions. The optical apparatus of the eye gathers some of
+     these together, and gives them such a course that they impinge
+     upon the surface of the retina, which is a singularly delicate
+     apparatus connected with the terminations of the fibres of the
+     optic nerve. The impulses of the attenuated matter, or ether,
+     affect this apparatus and the fibres of the optic nerve in a
+     certain way; and the change in the fibres of the optic nerve
+     produces yet other changes in the brain; and these, in some
+     fashion unknown to us, give rise to the feeling, or
+     consciousness, of redness. If the marble could remain unchanged,
+     and either the vibrations of the ether, or the nature of the
+     retina, could be altered, the marble would seem not red, but some
+     other colour. There are many people who are what are called
+     colour-blind, being unable to distinguish one colour from
+     another. Such an one might declare our marble to be green; and
+     he would be quite as right in saying that it is green as we are
+     in declaring it to be red. But then, as the marble itself cannot
+     be both green and red, at the same time, this shews that the
+     quality redness must be in our consciousness and not in the
+     marble."
+
+In similar fashion he shewed that the hardness, roundness, and even
+the singleness of the marble were, so far as we know, states of our
+consciousness and not in the marble. The argument is capable of
+application to all that we call matter, and it thus appears, on
+analysis, that what we know of matter is simply a series of states of
+our consciousness, or mind. In similar fashion, it turns out that what
+we call mind is, so far as practical experience goes, always
+associated with and dependent on what we call matter. We have no
+direct knowledge of thinking without a brain, or of consciousness
+without a body. Alterations and changes in matter, as for instance in
+the tissues and nutrition of the body, are, so far as our experience
+goes, inseparably associated with mental operations. In the animal
+kingdom we see the development of the mind creeping slowly after the
+development of the material nervous system, until, in man, the most
+complex mind and most complex consciousness of which we have knowledge
+accompany the most complex body and brain.
+
+Two great rival solutions to this fundamental problem are Materialism
+and Idealism. Materialism supposes that what we call matter is the
+real substance of the universe, and that mind is merely one of the
+forms of its activity. The advance of physical science has done much
+to make the materialistic hypothesis more plausible. When matter was
+believed to be inert, the mere vehicle or theatre of forces,
+materialism remained a singularly crude and unsatisfying position. But
+now that science has shewn all that we call matter--the most solid
+metals and the most attenuated vapours, the most stable and resisting
+inorganic bodies, and the unstable tissues of living bodies--to be
+alike in restless, orderly motion, to be, in fact, motion itself and
+not the thing moved, to be changeable but indestructible, passing
+through phases but eternal, there seems less difficulty in assuming it
+to be the ultimate reality, and mind and consciousness to be its most
+highly specialised qualities. Huxley, while stating this view plainly
+enough, refused to accept it as a legitimate conclusion from the
+facts.
+
+     "For anything that may be proved to the contrary, there may be a
+     real something which is the cause of all our impressions; that
+     sensations, though not likenesses, are symbols of that something;
+     and that the part of that something, which we call the nervous
+     system, is an apparatus for supplying us with a sort of algebra
+     of fact, based on these symbols. A brain may be the machinery by
+     which the material universe becomes conscious of itself. But it
+     is important to notice that, even if this conception of the
+     uuiverse and of the relation of consciousness to its other
+     components should be true, we should, nevertheless, be still
+     bound by the limits of thought, still unable to refute the
+     arguments of pure idealism. The more completely the materialistic
+     position is admitted, the easier it is to show that the
+     idealistic position is unassailable, if the idealist confines
+     himself within the limits of positive knowledge."
+
+However we attempt to form what philosophers call "ejects," to imagine
+that what is really in our consciousness is really the world outside
+ourselves, these ejects remain mere phenomena of our minds. Matter
+itself and its changes may, in the long run, be but modes of motion,
+but "our knowledge of motion is nothing but that of a change in the
+place and order of our sensations; just as our knowledge of matter is
+restricted to those feelings of which we assume it to be the cause."
+Huxley's exact position in regard to materialism is most plain in his
+expositions of the writings of Berkeley, with whom began in England
+the greatest movement towards an idealistic philosophy.
+
+     "Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the materialists:
+     'You tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into
+     matter and its affections. I assent to your statement, and now I
+     put to you the further question, What is matter? In answering
+     this question you shall be bound by your own conditions; and I
+     demand, in the terms of the Cartesian axiom, that you in turn
+     give your assent only to such conclusions as are perfectly clear
+     and obvious.'"
+
+Huxley then goes on to state the general lines of the arguments by
+which Berkeley arrived at the apparently paradoxical conclusion "that
+all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth--in a word, all
+those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world," have an
+existence only so far as they are in a perceiving mind. And he
+proceeds at length to explain the immense importance of the truths
+underlying Berkeley's position.
+
+     "The key to all philosophy lies in the clear apprehension of
+     Berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor less than one of
+     the shapes of the greatest of all questions, 'What are the limits
+     of our faculties?' And it is worth any amount of trouble to
+     comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which Berkeley
+     arrived at his results, and to know by one's own knowledge the
+     great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous
+     following up of the argument which leads us to materialism
+     inevitably carries us beyond it."
+
+Huxley, however, while he opposed a materialistic explanation of the
+universe with the strength of exposition and acute reasoning at his
+disposal, did not pass directly into the other camp and become a pure
+idealist.
+
+     "Granting the premisses," he wrote, "I do not see any escape from
+     Berkeley's conclusion, that the substance of matter is a
+     metaphysical unknown quantity, of the existence of which there is
+     no proof. What Berkeley does not seem to have so clearly
+     perceived is that the non-existence of a substance of mind is
+     equally arguable; and that the result of the impartial
+     application of his reasonings is the reduction of the all to
+     co-existences and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond
+     which there is nothing cognoscible."
+
+Hume had written: "What we call a mind is nothing but a heap or
+collection of different perceptions, united together by certain
+relations, and supposed, though falsely, to be endowed with a perfect
+simplicity and identity." Here was mind rejected for the same negative
+reasons as matter, and Huxley was as ready to point out that while we
+can know nothing of the
+
+     "substance of the thinking thing, we go beyond legitimate
+     reasoning if we therefore deny its existence." ... "Hume may be
+     right or wrong, but the most he or anyone else can prove in
+     favour of his conclusions is, that we know nothing more of the
+     mind than that it is a series of perceptions. Whether there is
+     something in the mind that lies beyond the reach of observation,
+     or whether perceptions themselves are the products of something
+     which can be observed and which is not mind, are questions which
+     can in no wise be settled by direct observation."
+
+In another passage he writes:
+
+     "To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe and all
+     its phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion, Berkeley
+     replies, True; but what you call matter and motion are known to
+     us only as forms of consciousness; their being is to be conceived
+     or known; and the existence of a state of consciousness, apart
+     from a thinking mind, is a contradiction in terms. I conceive
+     that this reasoning is irrefragable. And therefore, if I were
+     obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute
+     idealism, I should feel compelled to accept the latter
+     alternative. Indeed, upon this point Locke does, practically, go
+     as far in the direction of idealism as Berkeley, when he admits
+     that the 'simple ideas which we receive from sensation and
+     reflection are the boundaries of our thoughts, beyond which the
+     mind, whatever efforts it would make, is not able to advance one
+     jot.'"
+
+Locke went further, and Huxley agreed with him. He declared that the
+mind cannot "make any discoveries when it would pry into the nature
+and hidden cause of these ideas." We must, in fact, definitely reject
+what we know as matter as the absolute reality of the universe, for it
+becomes very plain that what we call matter we know merely as
+affections of our own consciousness. In a sense, then, so far as it is
+opposed to materialism, idealism, according to Huxley, must be the
+philosophical position of a scientific man. But the idealism is not
+the absolute idealism of Berkeley, as we have no logical right to deny
+or to affirm the existence of absolute matter or of absolute mind. The
+real truth of the philosophy of science lies in a separation between
+metaphysical theory and actual pursuits. In ultimate philosophical
+theory it is impossible to rest content with a plain natural
+conception of the universe. When any conception of matter, or of its
+affections, is pushed as far as analysis can take us, what we know
+resolves itself into affections of mind, into what without
+metaphysical finesse may be called ideas. But this empirical idealism
+must be taken positively as being merely the limits of our knowledge,
+and it must carry with it neither an undue exaltation of mind nor an
+undue depreciation of matter.
+
+     "The Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example of the
+     unscientific use of the imagination extant; and it would be hard
+     to estimate the amount of detriment to clear thinking effected,
+     directly and indirectly, by the theory of ideas, on the one hand,
+     and by the unfortunate doctrine of the baseness of matter, on the
+     other."
+
+Materialism was dismissed by Huxley as being an inadequate
+philosophical explanation of the universe, and as being based on a
+logical delusion. There remains, however, a practical application of
+the word in which the conceptions it involves are almost an inevitable
+part of science, and which was strenuously urged by Huxley. In the
+earlier days of the world and of science almost all the phenomena of
+nature were regarded as random or wilful displays of living
+intelligence. The earth itself and the sun, the moon, and the stars
+were endowed with life; legions of unseen intelligences ruled the
+operations of nature, and although these might be bribed or
+threatened, pleased or made angry, their actions were regarded as
+beyond prediction or control. The procession of the seasons, the
+routine of day and night, the placid appeasement of the rains, the
+devastating roar of storms, the shining of the rainbow, the bubbling
+of springs, the terrors of famine and pestilence; all these--the
+varying environment which makes or mars human life--were regarded as
+inevitable and capricious. The whole progress of physical science has
+been attended with a gradual elimination of these supernatural
+agencies and with a continual replacement of them by conceptions of
+physical sequence.
+
+     "In singular contrast with natural knowledge, the acquaintance of
+     mankind with the supernatural appears the more exact, and the
+     influence of supernatural doctrine on conduct the greater, the
+     further we go back in time and the lower the stage of
+     civilisation submitted to investigation. Historically, indeed,
+     there would seem to be an inverse relation between supernatural
+     and natural knowledge. As the latter has widened, gained in
+     precision and trustworthiness, so has the former shrunk, grown
+     vague and questionable; as the one has more and more filled the
+     sphere of action, so has the other retreated into the region of
+     meditation, or vanished behind the screen of mere verbal
+     recognition. Whether this difference of the fortunes of
+     Naturalism and Supernaturalism is an indication of the progress,
+     or of the regress of humanity, of a fall from or an advance
+     towards the higher life, is a matter of opinion. The point to
+     which I wish to direct attention is that the difference exists
+     and is making itself felt. Men are growing seriously alive to the
+     fact that the historical evolution of humanity, which is
+     generally, and I venture to think, not unreasonably, regarded as
+     progress, has been and is being accompanied by a co-ordinate
+     elimination of the supernatural from its originally large
+     occupation of men's thought."
+
+Every stage in this long process, every new attempt to place physical
+phenomena in a chain of direct causation has been denounced as
+dangerous and degrading materialism, and in this sense Huxley was not
+only an adherent but one of the foremost champions of materialism. As
+everyone knows, some of the greatest advances in this process of
+co-ordinating physical phenomena were made during Huxley's life; and
+his vigorous onslaughts on those who tried to thwart all attempts at
+material explanations in favour of unknown agencies made him specially
+open to abusive criticism. The battle was almost invariably between
+those who had not special knowledge and those in possession of it, and
+it occurred in practically the whole field of science, but
+particularly in the biological sciences. A single example will serve
+to shew what is meant by materialism in this sense and the attitude of
+Huxley to it. The study of the human mind naturally has attracted the
+attention of thinkers almost since the beginning of philosophy, but
+until this century, with a few crude exceptions, it has been conducted
+entirely apart from anatomy and physiology. Advances in these physical
+sciences, however, have changed that, and the modern psychologist has
+to begin by being a physiologist and anatomist.
+
+     "Surely no one who is cognisant of the facts of the case,
+     nowadays, doubts that the roots of psychology lie in the
+     physiology of the nervous system. What we call the operations of
+     the mind are the functions of the brain, and the materials of
+     consciousness are products of cerebral activity. Cabanis may have
+     made use of crude and misleading phraseology when he said that
+     the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile; but the
+     conception which that much-abused phrase embodies is,
+     nevertheless, far more consistent with fact than the popular
+     notion that the mind is a metaphysical entity seated in the head,
+     but as independent of the brain as a telegraph operator is of his
+     instrument. It is hardly necessary to point out that the doctrine
+     just laid down is what is commonly called materialism. I am not
+     sure that the adjective 'crass,' which appears to have a special
+     charm for rhetorical sciolists, would not be applied to it. But
+     it is, nevertheless, true that the doctrine contains nothing
+     inconsistent with the purest idealism."
+
+The whole doctrine of evolution is similarly a materialistic account
+of natural phenomena, in the popular and not the philosophical meaning
+of the term. But even within this popular meaning, it is extremely
+necessary to have an exact conception of the limits within which
+Huxley was materialistic. Take for instance the question of the origin
+of life. It would be one of the greatest achievements of physical
+science could it shew that life was not inco-ordinate with non-living
+physical phenomena, but was a special case of them. Huxley knew that
+this advance had not yet been made.
+
+     "It may be that, by-and-by, philosophers will discover some
+     higher laws of which the facts of life are particular cases--very
+     possibly they will find out some bond between physico-chemical
+     phenomena on the one hand, and vital phenomena on the other. At
+     present, however, we assuredly know of none; and I think we shall
+     exercise a wise humility in confessing that, for us at least,
+     this successive assumption of different states (external
+     conditions remaining the same)--this spontaneity of action--if I
+     may use a term which implies more than I would be answerable
+     for--which constitutes so vast and plain a practical distinction
+     between living bodies and those which do not live, is an ultimate
+     fact; indicating as such, the existence of a broad line of
+     demarcation between the subject matter of biological and of all
+     other science."
+
+In another passage he wrote:
+
+     "Looking back through the prodigious vista of the past I find no
+     record of the commencement of life, and therefore I am devoid of
+     any means of forming a definite conclusion as to the conditions
+     of its appearance. Belief, in the scientific sense of the word,
+     is a serious matter, and needs strong foundations. To say,
+     therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence, that I have any
+     belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have
+     originated, would be using words in a wrong sense. But
+     expectation is permissible where belief is not; and if it were
+     given me to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time
+     to the still more remote period when the earth was passing
+     through physical and chemical conditions which it can no more see
+     again than a man can recall his infancy, I should expect to be a
+     witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from non-living
+     matter. I should expect to see it appear under forms of great
+     simplicity, endowed, like existing fungi, with the power of
+     determining the formation of new protoplasm from such matters as
+     ammonium carbonates, oxalates, and tartrates, alkaline and earthy
+     phosphates, and water, without the aid of light. That is the
+     expectation to which analogical reasoning leads me, but I beg you
+     once more to recollect that I have no right to call my opinion
+     anything but an act of philosophical faith."
+
+Since these words were written the reasons for Huxley's "philosophic
+faith" have been strengthened by later discoveries, and perhaps a
+majority of biologists would take the view that except for practical
+purposes there is no sound reason for placing living and inorganic
+aggregations of matter in totally different categories. But even if
+the main outline of the theory of evolution were proved beyond the
+possibility of doubt, if we could trace existing plants and animals
+backwards with the accuracy of a genealogist and find that they had
+been developed, under purely physical "laws" from a few simple forms,
+and if we could understand exactly how these few simple forms of
+living matter took origin from non-living matter, we would not, if we
+followed Huxley, be able to rest in a purely materialistic position.
+As he, in different words, repeatedly said:
+
+     "It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not an
+     explanation of the cosmos, but merely a generalised statement of
+     the method and results of that process. And, further, that, if
+     there is any proof that the cosmic process was set going by any
+     agent, then that agent will be the creator of it and of all its
+     products, although supernatural intervention may remain strictly
+     excluded from its further course."
+
+The doctrine of evolution was, for him, no attempt to reinstate the
+"old pagan goddess, Chance." Darwin had again and again explained, and
+Huxley again and again had called attention to the explanation, that
+when words like "chance" and "spontaneous" were used, no more was
+intended to be implied than an ignorance of the causes. In the true
+sense of the word "chance" did not exist for Huxley and Darwin. So far
+as all scientific and common experience goes, every event is connected
+with foregoing events in an orderly and inevitable chain of
+sequences,--a chain that could have been predicted or predetermined
+by any sufficient intelligence. Moreover, Huxley did not believe that
+Darwin's views, rightly interpreted, "abolished teleology and
+eviscerated the argument from design." They only abolished that crude
+expression of teleology which supposed all structures among animals
+and plants to have been created in their present forms for their
+present purposes. Under the stimulus given to biology by the doctrine
+of evolution that science has progressed far beyond conceptions so
+rudely mechanical. We know that behind each existing structure there
+is a long history of change; of change not only in form and
+appearance, but also in function. In the development of living
+organisms to-day, as they grow up into tree or animal from seed or
+egg, we can trace the record of these changes of form; in some cases
+we can follow the actual change of function. But in a wider sense
+there is no incongruity between evolution and teleology.
+
+     "There is a wider teleology," Huxley wrote, "which is not touched
+     by the doctrine of evolution, but is actually based on the
+     fundamental proposition of evolution. This proposition is that
+     the whole world, living and not living, is the result of the
+     mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of the forces
+     possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of
+     the universe was composed. That acute champion of teleology,
+     Paley, saw no difficulty in admitting that the 'production of
+     things' may be the result of mechanical dispositions fixed
+     beforehand by intelligent appointment and kept in action by a
+     power at the centre."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FREEDOM OF THOUGHT
+
+     Authority and Knowledge in Science--The Duty of Doubt--Authority
+     and Individual Judgment in Religion--The Protestant Position--Sir
+     Charles Lyell and the Deluge--Infallibility--The Church and
+     Science--Morality and Dogma--Civil and Religious
+     Liberty--Agnosticism and Clericalism--Meaning of
+     Agnosticism--Knowledge and Evidence--The Method of Agnosticism.
+
+
+In the practice of modern law-courts, a witness rarely is allowed to
+offer as evidence any statement for which he himself is not the direct
+authority. What he himself saw or heard or did with regard to the
+matter at issue--these, and not what others told him they had seen or
+heard or done, are the limits within which he is allowed to be a
+competent witness. As a matter of fact, in the business of life we
+have to act differently. A large proportion of our opinions, beliefs,
+and reasons for conduct must come to us on the authority of others. We
+have no direct experience of the past; of the present we can see
+little and only the little immediately surrounding us. In a multitude
+of affairs we have to act on authority, to accept from books or from
+persons what we have not ourselves the opportunity of knowing. It
+would seem, then, to be a primary duty to learn to distinguish in our
+minds those matters which we know directly from those matters which we
+have accepted on trust; and, secondly, to learn and to apply the best
+modes of choosing the good and of rejecting the bad authorities. The
+work of the scientific man is a lifelong exercise of these primary
+duties. From the first moment he begins to observe living things or to
+dissect their dead frameworks, to mix chemical substances, to make
+experiments with magnets and wires, he begins to build, and as long as
+he continues to work he continues to build for himself a body of
+first-hand knowledge. But, however he work arduously or through long
+years, he can visit only the smallest portion of the field of nature
+in which he is working. It is necessary for him to employ the work of
+others, submitting, from time to time such accepted work to the tests
+suggested by his own observations. He learns to regard in a different
+light all knowledge taken on the authority of others; to distrust it a
+little until he has learned to weigh its general credibility by his
+own standards, and its particular credibility by subjecting portions
+of it to his own tests; to distrust it still more when even small
+portions fail to answer his tests, and to reject it altogether when
+the percentage of detected error is large. He learns, in fact, what
+Huxley called the duty of doubt.
+
+This duty has not been universally accepted. In the history of
+Christian civilisation (and a parallel series of events might be
+portrayed from the history of other civilisations), many great
+institutions and very many great and good men have condemned and
+feared the habit and attitude of doubt in all its forms. Certain
+doctrines believed to be of supreme importance to mankind were held to
+rest on authority independent of, and perhaps not susceptible to, the
+kind of testing employed in science. Around these doctrines there
+grew, in time, a body of traditions, customs, new dogmas, and
+fantasies; and the duty of belief in the first was extended to cover
+the whole system, the central jewel as well as the accretions and
+encrustations of time. The domain of religious authority was extended
+to the whole field of human thought and of human action, and the more
+unreasonable the dominion became, the more strenuously was the duty of
+belief urged. The Protestant Reformation was one of the great stages
+in the conflict for freedom against the universal tyranny that had
+arisen, but the reformers very naturally retained a considerable
+portion of the bias against which they had fought. In Protestant
+countries, in the first half of this century, the duty of belief in
+the Protestant doctrines, traditions, philosophy, history, and
+attitude to science reigned supreme, and all weapons, from legitimate
+argument to abusive invective and social ostracism, were employed
+against those who acted in accordance with the duty of doubt.
+Allegations of "unsoundness" or of "free thinking" became barriers to
+success in life, and those against whom they were made became lowered
+in the esteem of their fellows.
+
+At the present time, when the advance of science and of civilisation
+has almost won the battle for freedom of thought, it is difficult to
+realise the strength of the forces against which Huxley and many
+others had to fight. Huxley himself said with perfect justice: "I
+hardly know of a great physical truth whose universal reception has
+not been preceded by an epoch in which most estimable persons have
+maintained that the phenomena investigated were directly dependent on
+the Divine Will, and that the attempt to investigate them was not
+only futile but blasphemous." As a particular instance of this he
+cited some episodes in the history of geological science.
+
+     "At the present time, it is difficult to persuade serious
+     scientific enquirers to occupy themselves, in any way, with the
+     Noachian Deluge. They look at you with a smile and a shrug, and
+     say they have more important matters to attend to than mere
+     antiquarianism. But it was not so in my youth. At that time
+     geologists and biologists could hardly follow to the end any path
+     of enquiry without finding the way blocked by Noah and his ark,
+     or by the first chapter of Genesis; and it was a serious matter,
+     in this country at any rate, for a man to be suspected of
+     doubting the literal truth of the Diluvial or any other
+     Pentateuchal history. The fiftieth anniversary of the foundation
+     of the Geological Club (in 1824) was, if I remember rightly, the
+     last occasion on which the late Sir Charles Lyell spoke to even
+     so small a public as the members of that body. Our veteran leader
+     lighted up once more; and, referring to the difficulties which
+     beset his early efforts to create a rational science of geology,
+     spoke, with his wonted clearness and vigour, of the social
+     ostracism which pursued him after the publication of the
+     _Principles of Geology_, in 1830, on account of the obvious
+     tendency of that noble work to discredit the Pentateuchal
+     accounts of the Creation and the Deluge. If my younger
+     contemporaries find this hard to believe, I may refer them to a
+     grave book _On the Doctrine of the Deluge_, published eight years
+     later, and dedicated by the author to his father, the then
+     Archbishop of York. The first chapter refers to the treatment of
+     the 'Mosaic Deluge,' by Dr. Buckland and Mr. Lyell, in the
+     following terms: 'Their respect for revealed religion has
+     prevented them from arraying themselves openly against the
+     Scriptural account of it--much less do they deny its truth--but
+     they are in a great hurry to escape from the consideration of it,
+     and evidently concur in the opinion of Linnæus, that no proofs
+     whatever of the Deluge are to be discovered in the structure of
+     the earth.' And after an attempt to reply to some of Lyell's
+     arguments, which it would be cruel to reproduce, the writer
+     continues:--'When, therefore, upon such slender grounds, it is
+     determined, in answer to those who insist on its universality,
+     that the Mosaic Deluge must be considered a preternatural event,
+     far beyond the reach of philosophical enquiry; not only as to the
+     causes employed to produce it, but as to the effects most likely
+     to result from it; that determination wears an aspect of
+     scepticism, which, however much soever it may be unintentional in
+     the mind of the writer, yet cannot but produce an evil impression
+     on those who are already predisposed to carp and cavil at the
+     evidence of Revelation.'"
+
+The great evil of authority was its tendency to erect itself into some
+form of infallibility of universal application. When, for a time, the
+geological victory was won, and the supporters of authority had
+comforted themselves with reconciliations, there arose the much
+greater and more serious opposition between authority and the
+conceptions involved in evolution. Huxley, as we have seen in an
+earlier chapter, found that all the old weapons of authority were
+resumed with a renewed assurance, and his advocacy of the duty of
+doubt became not merely the defence of a great principle but a means
+of self-defence. The conception of infallible authority had been
+transferred by Protestants from the Church to the Bible, and against
+this Huxley strove with all his might. It is convenient to reserve a
+full treatment of Huxley's attitude to the Bible for a separate
+chapter, but at this point a quotation will shew his general view.
+
+[Illustration: SIR CHARLES LYELL]
+
+     "The truth is that the pretension to infallibility, by whomsoever
+     made, has done endless mischief; with impartial malignity it has
+     proved a curse, alike to those who have made it and those who
+     have accepted it; and its most baneful shape is book
+     infallibility. For sacerdotal corporations and schools of
+     philosophy are able, under due compulsion of opinion, to retreat
+     from positions that have become untenable; while the dead hand of
+     a book sets and stiffens, amidst texts and formulæ, until it
+     becomes a mere petrifaction, fit only for that function of
+     stumbling-block, which it so admirably performs. Wherever
+     bibliolatry has prevailed, bigotry and cruelty have accompanied
+     it. It lies at the root of the deep-seated, sometimes disguised,
+     but never absent, antagonism of all varieties of ecclesiasticism
+     to the freedom of thought and to the spirit of scientific
+     investigation."
+
+Moreover, Presbyter is but Priest writ large, and the Protestant
+clergy were the leaders in denunciation of every person and every
+branch of investigation or of thought in any way connected with
+evolution. Huxley was no respecter of persons, and, following the
+example of Darwin, he was ready to study carefully any arguments for
+or against any scientific doctrines by whomsoever or howsoever brought
+forward. The right of criticism and duty of doubt, which he insisted
+on for himself, he was extremely willing to extend to others, and, as
+a matter of fact he was on terms of intimate friendship with some of
+his most distinguished clerical opponents. But to an extent which it
+is almost impossible now to realise, the clergy generally abused their
+legitimate position and authority, and demanded or assumed a right to
+give authoritative opinions on questions which did not come within
+their domain. It was the old attempt of the Church to make its
+authority felt in all departments of thought and of action, and the
+attempt was made in the traditional fashion. Questions of fact were
+associated with questions of morality, and those who held one view as
+to the meaning and implication of certain facts were denounced as
+wicked. Huxley at once carried the war into the enemy's own country:
+
+     "And, seeing how large a share of this clamour is raised by the
+     clergy of one denomination or another, may I say, in conclusion,
+     that it really would be well if ecclesiastical persons would
+     reflect that ordination, whatever deep-seated graces it may
+     confer, has never been observed to be followed by any visible
+     increase in the learning or the logic of its subject. Making a
+     man a Bishop, or entrusting him with the office of ministering to
+     even the largest of Presbyterian congregations, or setting him up
+     to lecture to a church congress, really does not in the smallest
+     degree augment such title to respect as his opinions may
+     intrinsically possess. And when such a man presumes on an
+     authority, which was conferred on him for other purposes, to sit
+     in judgment on matters his incompetence to deal with which is
+     patent, it is permissible to ignore his sacerdotal pretensions,
+     and to tell him, as one would tell a mere, common, unconsecrated
+     layman: that it is not necessary for any man to occupy himself
+     with problems of this kind unless he so choose; life is filled
+     full enough with the performance of its ordinary and obvious
+     duties. But that, if a man elect to become a judge of these grave
+     questions; still more if he assume the responsibility of
+     attaching praise or blame to his fellow-men for the conclusions
+     at which they arrive touching them, he will commit a sin more
+     grievous than most breaches of the decalogue, unless he avoid a
+     lazy reliance upon the information that is gathered by prejudice
+     and filtered through passion, unless he go back to the prime
+     sources of knowledge--the facts of Nature, and the thoughts of
+     those wise men who for generations past have been her best
+     interpreters."
+
+In the campaign for absolute freedom of thought, for the duty of not
+believing anything except on sufficient evidence, Huxley was
+frequently met by an argument of superficial strength, and which no
+doubt was in the minds of many of his clerical opponents. In the minds
+of a majority of people, it was said, and particularly of slightly
+educated people, the reasons for right conduct and the distinctions
+between right and wrong are firmly associated with the Bible and with
+religion. If you allow doubts as to the absolute veracity of the
+Bible, or as to the supernatural origin of religion to reach such
+persons, you run a grave risk that they will reflect the uncertainty
+on the canons of morality. In taking from them what you believe to be
+false, inevitably you will unsettle their ideas on moral questions
+although you might be in full agreement as to these moral questions.
+Huxley refused to accept the asserted association between morality and
+particular metaphysical or religious doctrines.
+
+     "Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the
+     incompatibility of pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt
+     about the immortality of the soul, with religion and morality is
+     to be held as an axiomatic truth. I confess that I have a certain
+     difficulty in accepting this dogma. For the Stoics were
+     notoriously materialists and pantheists of the most extreme
+     character; and while no strict Stoic believed in the eternal
+     duration of the individual soul, some even denied its persistence
+     after death. Yet it is equally certain, that, of all gentile
+     philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical development,
+     is animated by the most religious spirit, and has exerted the
+     profoundest influence upon the moral and religious development
+     not merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the
+     moderns down to our own day."
+
+He held the view now generally taken by students of the history of
+man, that standards of conduct and religious beliefs arose in separate
+ways and developed independently, and that it was only comparatively
+recently that "religion took morality under its protection." But he
+met the argument in a still more direct fashion by rejecting entirely
+the possibility or advisability of founding any system of ethics upon
+a false basis.
+
+     "It is very clear to me," he wrote, "that, as Beelzebub is not
+     to be cast out by Beelzebub, so morality is not to be established
+     by immorality. It is, we are told, the special peculiarity of the
+     devil that he was a liar from the beginning. If we set out in
+     life with pretending to know that which we do not know; with
+     professing to accept for proof evidence which we are well aware
+     is inadequate; with wilfully shutting our eyes and our ears to
+     facts which militate against this or that comfortable hypothesis;
+     we are assuredly doing our best to deserve the same character."
+
+Freedom of thought meant for Huxley all that is best in liberalism
+applied to life. In an essay on Joseph Priestley, he described the
+condition of affairs in England last century, when scientific
+investigation and all forms of independent thinking laboured under the
+most heavy restrictions that could be imposed by dominant
+ecclesiastical and civil prejudice. He pointed out the astounding
+changes between these times and the times of to-day.
+
+     "If we ask," he wrote, "what is the deeper meaning of all these
+     vast changes, there can be but one reply. They mean that reason
+     has asserted and exercised her primacy over all the provinces of
+     human activity; that ecclesiastical authority has been relegated
+     to its proper place; that the good of the governed has been
+     finally recognised as the end of government, and the complete
+     responsibility of governors to the people as its means; and that
+     the dependence of natural phenomena in general on the laws of
+     action of what we call matter has become an axiom."
+
+The common ground of those who advocate the duty of belief and those
+who insist on the duty of doubt is clear. Both are agreed as to the
+necessity of accepting whatever has sufficient evidence to support it;
+both agree that there is room for doubt though not necessarily for
+rejection in cases where the evidence is contaminated or insufficient.
+It is in the application that the difference lies. The scientific
+theologian admits the agnostic principle, however widely his results
+may differ from those reached by the majority of agnostics. "But, as
+between agnosticism and ecclesiasticism, or, as our neighbours across
+the Channel call it, clericalism, there can be neither peace nor
+truce. The cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe
+certain propositions, whatever the results of a strict scientific
+investigation of the evidence of these propositions. He tells us that
+"religious error is, in itself, of an immoral nature" (Newman). It
+necessarily follows that, for him, the attainment of faith, not the
+ascertainment of truth, is the highest aim of mental life."
+
+Huxley helped largely in the modern movement which has made it
+impossible to blame people for doubt, and this was what he strove for
+most strenuously. Freedom of thought, like freedom of the Press, by no
+means implies that what is free must necessarily be good. In both
+cases there may be a rank growth of weeds, nurtured in vicious
+imagination, and finding a ready market with the credulous mob. For
+the detection and rejection of these, the critical method of science
+serves as well as it does against the loftier errors supported by
+authority.
+
+It was on Descartes and on Hume that Huxley founded the precise form
+in which he urged the duty of doubt, and his exact words are worth
+quoting.
+
+     "It was in 1619, while meditating in solitary winter quarters,
+     that Descartes (being about the same age as Hume when he wrote
+     the _Treatise on Human Nature_) made that famous resolution, to
+     "take nothing for truth without clear knowledge that it is such,"
+     the great practical effect of which is the sanctification of
+     doubt; the recognition that the profession of belief in
+     propositions, of the truth of which there is no sufficient
+     evidence, is immoral; the discrowning of authority as such; the
+     repudiation of the confusion, beloved of sophists of all sorts,
+     between free assent and merely piously gagged dissent, and the
+     admission of the obligation to reconsider even one's own axioms
+     on due demand."
+
+This was the healthy and active scepticism which took no direct
+pleasure in doubting, but used doubt only as a means of making
+knowledge doubly secure, and which prevented false ideas being
+bolstered up by privilege or by tyranny.
+
+     "The development of exact natural knowledge in all its vast
+     range, from physics to history and criticism, is the consequence
+     of the working out, in this province, of the resolution to take
+     nothing for truth without clear knowledge that it is such; to
+     consider all beliefs open to criticism; to regard the value of
+     authority as neither greater nor less than as much as it can
+     prove itself to be worth. The modern spirit is not the spirit
+     'which always denies,' delighting only in destruction; still less
+     is it that which builds castles in the air rather than not
+     construct; it is the spirit which works and will work 'without
+     haste and without rest,' gathering harvest after harvest of truth
+     into its barns and devouring error with unquenchable fire."
+
+It is a special weakness of the modern human race to love inventing
+descriptive names by which particular modes of thought may be
+classified and labelled. In order to meet this demand, Huxley invented
+the word _agnosticism_, to serve as a label for his own attitude. The
+word rapidly became popular, and attempts were made to read into it
+far more than its inventor implied. For him it was no definite body of
+doctrine, no creed in any positive sense. It merely expressed the
+attitude he assumed towards all problems on which he regarded the
+evidence as insufficient. It was a habit of mind rather than a series
+of opinions or beliefs; an intellectual weapon and not materials on
+which to exercise the intellect.
+
+Hume had written that "the justest and most plausible objection
+against a considerable part of metaphysics was that they are not
+properly a science, but arise either from the fruitless efforts of
+human vanity, which would penetrate into subjects utterly inaccessible
+to the human understanding, or from the craft of popular
+superstitions, which, being unable to defend themselves on fair
+ground, raise these entangling brambles to cover and protect them." In
+these considerations he found reason not for leaving superstition in
+possession of its ground, but for making a bold and arduous attack
+upon it in its haunts. The great difficulty in the way of carrying the
+war into the enemy's own camp was that in those days so-called science
+was itself cumbered with many illogical and metaphysical ideas, and
+for the first time in the present century the great advances of
+physical science, and, in particular, the renewed life poured by
+Darwin into the doctrine of evolution, made it possible to bring a new
+series of exact arguments against hazy metaphysical dogmas. The
+militant side of agnosticism was directed against the camp of
+superstition and armed with the new weapons of exact science. Its
+stern refusal of belief without adequate evidence was a challenge to
+all the supporters of the sanguine philosophy which replaces proof by
+assured and emphatic statement and restatement. It is possible,
+although rare, for those who hold a positive belief upon evidence,
+howsoever insufficient, to leave their doubting neighbours in peace,
+and these neighbours, assured in their own beliefs, equally positive
+and perhaps equally unfounded, may return the lazy tolerance. But the
+agnostic position is at once a reproof and a challenge to all who do
+not hold it. Perhaps no one has ever put the agnostic attitude more
+clearly than Kant when he wrote that "the greatest and perhaps sole
+use of all philosophy of pure reason, is, after all, merely negative,
+since it serves, not as an organ on (for the enlargement of
+knowledge), but as a discipline for its delimitation: and instead of
+discovering truth has only the modest merit of preventing error." It
+is precisely because it is addressed against error that agnosticism
+brings not peace but a sword; precisely because, instead of adding to
+the beliefs of the world, it seeks to examine them and perhaps by the
+examination to diminish them, that it aroused passionate resentment.
+In this respect it stands entirely separate and apart from any other
+similar term, as all these implied a definite acceptance or rejection
+of some definite propositions. Agnosticism means none of these things.
+Huxley said of it:
+
+     "Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed but a method, the essence
+     of which lies in a rigorous application of a single principle.
+     That principle is of great antiquity; it is as old as Socrates;
+     as old as the writer who said, 'Try all things, hold fast by that
+     which is good'; it is the foundation of the Reformation, which
+     simply illustrated the axiom that every man should be able to
+     give reason for the faith that is in him; it is the great
+     principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of modern
+     science. Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of
+     the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you,
+     without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In
+     matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are
+     certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take
+     to be the agnostic faith, which, if a man keep whole and
+     undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look the universe in the
+     face, whatever the future may have in store for him."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES
+
+     Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible--A _Magna Charta_ of the
+     Poor--The Theological Use of the Bible--The Doctrine of Biblical
+     Infallibility--The Bible and Science--The Three Hypotheses of the
+     Earth's History--Changes in the Past Proved--The Creation
+     Hypothesis--Gladstone on Genesis--Genesis not a Record of
+     Fact--The Hypothesis of Evolution--The New Testament--Theory of
+     Inspiration--Reliance on the Miraculous--The Continuity of Nature
+     no _a priori_ Argument against Miracles--Possibilities and
+     Impossibilities--Miracles a Question of Evidence--Praise of the
+     Bible.
+
+
+Huxley was by training and habit of mind a naturalist, busy with
+dissections and drawings, pursuing his branch of science for itself
+and with no concern as to its possible relation to philosophical
+speculation or religious dogma. It is possible that, had his life been
+passed under different conditions, his intellectual activities might
+have been spent entirely on his scientific work. As it was, he became
+almost more widely known as a hostile critic of accepted religious
+doctrine than as a man of science. Many causes contributed to this
+effect, but the chief reason was the contemporary attitude of the
+churches to Darwinism. He tells us as a matter of fact that in 1850,
+nine years before the appearance of _The Origin of Species_, he had
+"long done with the Pentateuchal cosmogony which had been impressed on
+his childish understanding as divine truth." In the chapter he
+contributed to the _Life of Darwin_ he wrote that in his opinion "the
+doctrine of evolution does not even come into contact with theism,
+considered as a philosophical doctrine." The reason of his general
+attitude to the Bible was simply that his application to it of the
+agnostic method led him to the view that there was not sufficient
+evidence for the pretensions assigned to it; the reason of his coming
+forward as a public and active champion of his views in this matter
+was partly to make a counter attack on the enemies of science, and
+partly his innate respect for the propagation of truth. He had the
+inevitable respect of an Englishman for the English Bible as one of
+the greatest books in our language, and we have seen how he had
+advocated its adoption in schools. He had the veneration for its
+ethical contents common to the best thinkers of all ages since it came
+into existence, and few writers have ever employed loftier or more
+direct language to express their respect and admiration. As a
+venerator of freedom and of liberty he regarded the Bible as the
+greatest text-book of freedom.
+
+     "Throughout the history of the Western world," he wrote, "the
+     Scriptures, Jewish and Christian, have been the great instigators
+     of revolt against the worse forms of clerical and political
+     despotism. The Bible has been the _Magna Charta_ of the poor and
+     of the oppressed; down to modern times no State has had a
+     constitution in which the interests of the people are so largely
+     taken into account, in which the duties, so much more than the
+     privileges, of rulers are insisted upon, as that drawn up for
+     Israel in Deuteronomy and in Leviticus; nowhere is the
+     fundamental truth that the welfare of the State, in the long
+     run, depends on the uprightness of the citizen so strongly laid
+     down. Assuredly the Bible talks no trash about the rights of man;
+     but it insists on the equality of duties, on the liberty to bring
+     about that righteousness which is somewhat different from
+     struggling for 'rights'; on the fraternity of taking thought for
+     one's neighbour as for oneself."
+
+It was not against the Bible but against the applications made of it
+and implications read into it that he strove.
+
+     "In this nineteenth century, as at the dawn of modern physical
+     science, the cosmogony of the semi-barbarous Hebrew is the
+     incubus of the philosopher and the opprobrium of the orthodox.
+     Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth,
+     from the days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been
+     embittered and their good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of
+     Bibliolaters? Who shall count the host of weaker men whose sense
+     of truth has been destroyed in the effort to harmonise
+     impossibilities--whose life has been wasted in the attempt to
+     force the generous new wine of science into the old bottles of
+     Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party? It is
+     true that if philosophers have suffered, their cause has been
+     amply avenged. Extinguished theologians lie about the cradle of
+     every science as the strangled snakes beside that of Hercules;
+     and history records that whenever science and orthodoxy have been
+     fairly opposed, the latter has been forced to retire from the
+     lists, bleeding and crushed, if not annihilated; scotched, if not
+     slain. But orthodoxy is the Bourbon of the world of thought. It
+     learns not, neither can it forget; and though, at present,
+     bewildered and afraid to move, it is as willing as ever to insist
+     that the first chapter of Genesis contains the beginning and the
+     end of sound science; and to visit, with such petty thunderbolts
+     as its half-paralysed hands can hurl, those who refuse to degrade
+     Nature to the level of primitive Judaism."
+
+These words were written in 1860 and events have moved rapidly since
+Huxley wrote them. There is now practically no religious body
+containing a proportion of educated persons which does not allow
+within it a very wide range of opinion as to the inspiration of the
+Scriptures, the Biblical account of the Creation, the miraculous
+events of the Old Testament and the recorded miracles of the New.
+Within the last few months, Dr. St. George Mivart, a distinguished
+Catholic zoölogist and long an opponent of Huxley, has declared that
+within the Catholic Church itself a number of educated persons are
+prepared to accept most of Huxley's positions, as well as views more
+extremely iconoclastic than any advanced by Huxley. Although Dr.
+Mivart's outspoken words have called down on him the official thunders
+of Rome, it is an open secret that many good Catholics think this
+attempted exclusion of modern knowledge to be fraught with grave
+danger to the Church. In these matters the Protestant churches have
+advanced much farther.
+
+It was very different when Huxley wrote. The first and gravest
+difficulty placed in the way of science was the asserted infallibility
+of the Scriptures. In Catholic theology, at least until late in this
+century, the general tendency has been to regard the Bible rather as a
+quarry for doctrine than as a direct means of grace. The theory of
+religion rested on two pillars: the inspired Scriptures containing the
+necessary information and the inspired Church to interpret the
+Scriptures. Protestant theology had rejected the infallible
+inspiration of the Church, and, in consequence, had thrown a greater
+burden on the Scriptures. The Scriptures became the Word of God,
+verbally and literally true; in its extreme form this doctrine
+reverted almost to the ancient Rabbinical maxim that even the vowel
+points and accents were of divine origin. In practice, if not in
+theory, the halo was extended to cover even the marginal chronology,
+then a familiar feature in the editions of the English Bible. The
+present writer, even so lately as in 1888 was reproved with violence
+by a clergyman of considerable education and position for expressing a
+doubt as to the accuracy of these dates. Obviously there was no common
+measure between a church holding such views and advancing science. War
+was inevitable, until one side or the other should give way.
+
+Huxley conducted the attack in a series of controversies extending
+over many years, and in which his opponents were well-known laymen
+such as Mr. Gladstone, Dr. St. George Mivart, the Duke of Argyll, and
+many clerical dignitaries of different denominations. The most
+important of his contributions to these controversies, as well as
+several isolated essays and addresses, have been collected in two
+volumes, _Science and the Hebrew Tradition_, and _Science and the
+Christian Tradition_.
+
+The first stage in the controversy, and the stage most immediately
+pressing, was to shew that the Bible was misleading and inaccurate as
+a record of scientific fact, and that therefore it could not be
+brought forward as evidence against scientific doctrines supported by
+scientific evidence. The vital matter in this was the account given in
+Genesis of the origin of the world. If that disappeared then the whole
+ground was gained; science would be left free in its own sphere.
+
+In a lecture on Evolution, delivered in 1876, Huxley began by
+discussing the possibilities as to the past history of nature. He
+believed that there were only three hypotheses which had been
+entertained or which well could be entertained respecting this
+history. The first was to assume that phenomena of nature similar to
+those exhibited by the world at present had always existed; in fact
+that the universe had existed from all eternity in what might be
+termed, broadly, its present condition. The second hypothesis was that
+the present condition of things had had only a limited duration, and
+that, at some period of the past, what we now know came into existence
+without any relation of natural causation to an antecedent state. The
+third hypothesis also assumed that the present condition of things had
+had a limited duration, but it supposed that that condition had been
+derived by natural processes from an antecedent condition, the
+hypothesis attempting to set no limits to the series of changes.
+
+In a certain sense, the first hypothesis recalls the doctrine of
+uniformitarianism, which Hutton and Lyell had shaped from a rational
+interpretation of the present conditions of nature. But, although it
+is no longer necessary to imagine the past history of the earth as a
+series of gigantic catastrophes, yet the whole record of science is
+against the supposition that anything like the existing state of
+nature has had an eternal duration. The record of fossils shews that
+the living population of the earth has been entirely different at
+different epochs. Geological history shews that, whether these changes
+have come about by swift catastrophes, or by slow, enduring movements,
+the surface of the globe, its distribution into land and water, the
+character of these areas and the conditions of climate to which they
+have been subjected have passed through changes on a colossal scale.
+Moreover, if we look from this earth to the universe of stars and suns
+and planets, we see everywhere evidence of unceasing change. If we use
+scientific observation and reason, if we employ on the problem the
+only means we possess for attempting its solution, we cannot accept
+the hypothesis that the present condition of nature has been eternal.
+
+     "So far as that limited revelation of the nature of things, which
+     we call scientific knowledge, has yet gone, it tends, with
+     constantly increasing emphasis, to the belief that, not merely
+     the world of plants, but that of animals; not merely living
+     things but the whole fabric of the earth; not merely our planet
+     but the whole solar system, not merely our star and its
+     satellites, but the millions of similar bodies which bear witness
+     to the order which pervades boundless space and has endured
+     through boundless time, are all working out their predestined
+     courses of evolution."
+
+The second hypothesis is familiar to us in the sacred records of many
+religious and in the Hebrew Scriptures. Most of these have a
+fundamental similarity, inasmuch as they offer pictures in which the
+mode and order of creation are given in the minutest detail and with
+the simplest kind of anthropomorphism; in which the Creator is
+represented with familiar human characteristics. But these general
+considerations, so obvious now that we have learned to read the Bible
+narrative without passion or prejudice, were not plain to the early
+opponents of evolution, and it was necessary, step by step, to shew
+not only that the narrative in Genesis could not be reconciled with
+known facts if it were accepted in its literal meaning, but that the
+most strained interpretation of the language failed to bring it into
+accordance with scientific truth. Mr. Gladstone was the latest and
+most vigorous of those who attempted to reconcile Genesis with modern
+knowledge, and in his controversy with Huxley he brought to bear all
+the resources of an acute intellect trained by long practice in the
+devices of argument and inspired by a lofty if mistaken enthusiasm. In
+the course of his argument he wrote:
+
+
+      "But the question is not here of a lofty poem, or a skilfully
+     constructed narrative; it is whether natural science, in the
+     patient exercise of its high calling to examine facts, finds that
+     the works of God cry out against what we have fondly believed to
+     be His word and tell another tale; or whether, in this nineteenth
+     century of Christian progress, it substantially echoes back the
+     majestic sound, which, before it existed as a pursuit, went forth
+     into all lands.
+
+      First, looking largely at the latter portion of the narrative,
+     which describes the creation of living organisms, and waiving
+     details, on some of which (as in v. 24) the Septuagint seems to
+     vary from the Hebrew, there is a grand fourfold division, set
+     forth in an orderly succession of times as follows: on the fifth
+     day
+         1. The water-population.
+         2. The air-population,
+      and, on the sixth day,
+         3. The land-population of animals.
+         4. The land-population consummated in man.
+
+      Now this same fourfold order is understood to have been so
+     affirmed in our time by natural science, that it may be taken as
+     a demonstrated conclusion and established fact."
+
+The defence itself shewed that already a large part of the original
+position had been abandoned. The literal meaning and belief in
+detailed accuracy were given up and Mr. Gladstone sought to establish
+only a general correspondence between the Biblical narrative and the
+results of science. But even in that form Huxley shewed the defence to
+be untenable.
+
+     "I can meet the statement in the last paragraph of the above
+     citation," he replied, "with nothing but a direct negative. If I
+     know anything at all about the results attained by the natural
+     science of our time, it is a 'demonstrated conclusion and
+     established fact' that the fourfold order given by Mr. Gladstone
+     is not that in which the evidence at our disposal tends to shew
+     that the water, air, and land populations of our globe made their
+     appearance."
+
+With the most voluminous detail, he proceeds to shew that there is no
+possible relation between the order implied by the narrative and the
+order as revealed by science. Let us sum up, by two quotations, the
+result of the whole controversy. First, the literal meaning is
+untenable.
+
+     "The question whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of
+     its present living population were made in six natural days or
+     not is no longer one on which two opinions can be held. The fact
+     that it did not come so into being stands upon as sound a basis
+     as any fact of history whatever. It is not true that existing
+     plants and animals came into being within three days of the
+     creation of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that
+     innumerable generations of other plants and animals lived upon
+     the earth before its present population. And when, Sunday after
+     Sunday, men who profess to be our instructors in righteousness
+     read out the statement, 'In six days the Lord made heaven and
+     earth, the sea, and all that in them is,' in innumerable
+     churches, they are either propagating what they may easily know,
+     and, therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities; or, if they
+     use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall below the
+     moral standard of the much abused Jesuit."
+
+The attenuated meaning equally must be given up.
+
+     "Even if they (the reconcilers) now allow that the words 'the
+     evening and the morning' have not the least reference to a
+     natural day, but mean a period of any number of millions of years
+     that may be necessary; even if they are driven to admit that the
+     word 'creation,' which so many millions of pious Jews and
+     Christians have held, and still hold, to mean a sudden act of the
+     Deity, signifies a process of gradual evolution of one species
+     from another, extending through immeasurable time; even if they
+     are willing to grant that the asserted coincidence of the order
+     of nature with the 'fourfold order' ascribed to Genesis is an
+     obvious error instead of an established truth, they are surely
+     prepared to make a last stand upon the conception which underlies
+     the whole, and which constitutes the essence of Mr. Gladstone's
+     'fourfold division, set forth in an orderly succession of times.'
+     It is that the animal species which compose the water-population,
+     the air-population, and the land-population, respectively,
+     originated during three distinct and successive periods of time,
+     and only during these periods of time.... But even this
+     sublimated essence of the Pentateuchal doctrine remains as
+     discordant with natural science as ever."
+
+There remains the third, or evolutionary hypothesis regarding the
+origin of the existing order of nature. As Huxley held it, it was
+rigidly limited within the possibilities afforded by the agnostic
+attitude. With regard to the real nature, the origin and destiny of
+the whole universe, there was not sufficient evidence before the human
+mind, if indeed the human mind were capable of receiving such
+evidence, to come to any conclusion. For the rest, for the actual
+condition of the earth itself, science was gradually accumulating
+overwhelming evidence in favour of a continuous evolution, under
+natural agencies, from the beginning of life to the existing forms of
+animals and plants, and the actual origin of life from inorganic
+matter under similarly natural agencies was becoming more and more a
+legitimate inference.
+
+Huxley's relation to the New Testament may be summed up in few words.
+It was simply that there was not sufficient evidence for ascribing to
+it the supernatural sanction demanded for it by dogmatic theology.
+
+     "From the dawn of scientific Biblical criticism until the present
+     day, the evidence against the long-cherished notion that the
+     three synoptic gospels are the work of three independent authors,
+     each prompted by Divine inspiration, has steadily accumulated,
+     until, at the present time, there is no visible escape from the
+     conclusion that each of the three is a compilation consisting of
+     a groundwork common to all three--the three-fold tradition; and
+     of a superstructure consisting, firstly, of matter common to it
+     with one of the others, and, secondly, of matter common to each."
+
+Again:--"There is no proof, nothing more than a fair presumption, that
+any one of the gospels existed, in the state in which we find it in
+the authorised version of the Bible, before the second century, or, in
+other words, sixty or seventy years after the events recorded." These
+considerations with slight differences in details are now practically
+admitted among the abler apologists, with the result that, as Huxley
+claimed, the New Testament, like the Old, must be treated as
+literature rather than as Dogma. As Literature everyone has the right
+to examine the contents critically, and, considering the importance
+attributed to the contents, the right becomes a duty. No doubt, had
+Huxley not lived there would have been others equally ready and
+equally able to gain the battle for freedom of thought in its special
+application to the claim of the Bible to stand in the way of the
+advance of scientific knowledge; but as it is, it cannot be denied
+that the existing prevalence of liberal views, inside and outside the
+churches, on the nature and interpretation of the Scriptures is
+largely due to him.
+
+After the question of inspiration, the most striking feature of the
+Bible is its appeal to miracles and the miraculous element. It is now
+necessary to examine the position assumed by Huxley towards these. Two
+great _a priori_ difficulties have been brought against accepting any
+record of miracles as true. The first of these is very simple,
+depending on the history of all times and peoples. It is that the
+human race has shewn itself universally credulous in this matter. It
+has cried "Wolf!" so readily, so honestly, and on so many occasions
+that the cry has ceased to carry conviction with it. Every religion
+has its series of miraculous events; every savage tribe and every
+uneducated race has its miracle-workers implicitly accepted. In
+mediæval and modern Europe up to our own times, miracles have been so
+constantly recorded on testimony of such undoubted integrity that we
+must either believe that miracles can be performed by numberless
+persons with no other claim to special regard, or that it is
+singularly easy to get false but honest evidence regarding them.
+Huxley supported the latter alternative strongly, and held the view
+that to believe in any particular miracles would require evidence very
+much more direct and very much stronger than would be necessary in the
+case of inherently probable events.
+
+The second _a priori_ objection to the credibility of miracles has
+been urged more strongly, but was not accepted by Huxley. It is that
+miracles are inherently incredible inasmuch as they are "violations of
+the order of nature." Hume, attacking miracles, had made this
+objection the chief ground of his argument. Huxley paid a logical
+respect, at least as great, to the continuity of nature.
+
+     "When the experience of generation after generation is recorded,
+     and a single book tells us more than Methuselah could have
+     learned, had he spent every waking hour of his thousand years in
+     learning; when apparent disorders are found to be only the
+     recurrent pulses of a slow-working order, and the wonder of a
+     year becomes the commonplace of a century; when repeated and
+     minute examination never reveals a break in the chain of causes
+     and effects; and the whole edifice of practical life is built
+     upon our faith in its continuity; the belief that that chain has
+     never been broken and will never be broken, becomes one of the
+     strongest and most justifiable of human convictions. And it must
+     be admitted to be a reasonable request, if we ask those who would
+     have us put faith in the actual occurrence of interruptions of
+     that order, to produce evidence in favour of their view, not only
+     equal, but superior, in weight, to that which leads us to adopt
+     ours."
+
+But out of the mouth of Hume himself he declared against making the
+recorded experience of man, however lengthy and impressive, a
+necessary ground for rejecting the possibility of the miraculous. Hume
+had said, "Whatever is intelligible and can be distinctly conceived
+implies no contradiction, and can never be proved false by any
+demonstration, argument, or reasoning, _a priori_." This or the like
+applies to most of the recorded miracles. Huxley was extremely careful
+not to assert that they were incredible merely because they might
+involve conditions outside our existing experience. It is a vulgar
+mistake, for which science certainly gives no warrant, to assert that
+things are impossible because they contradict our experience. In such
+a sense many of the most common modern conveniences of life would have
+seemed impossible a century ago. To travel with safety sixty miles an
+hour, to talk through the telephone with a friend an hundred miles
+away, to receive intelligible messages across the Atlantic by a cable,
+and, still more, to communicate by wireless telegraphy would have
+seemed impossible until recently. At the present time, the conversion
+of a baser metal into gold would be called impossible by everyone with
+a little knowledge of elementary chemistry. This last example leads
+admirably to a right understanding of the scientific view of
+impossibility. The older alchemists, partly from ignorance and partly
+from credulity, believed absolutely in the possibility of transmuting
+the metals. The advance of chemical science led to definite
+conceptions of the differences between compounds and elementary
+bodies, and of the independence of these elements. The methods and
+reasoning of the alchemists became absurd, and no one would attempt
+seriously to transmute the metals on their lines. These advances,
+however, do not give us the right to assume that the elements are
+absolutely independent, and that transmutation is therefore
+impossible. Some of the most recent progress in chemistry has opened
+up the suggestion that the elements themselves are different
+combinations of a common substance. Huxley applied this particular
+argument to the miracle at the marriage of Cana.
+
+     "You are quite mistaken in supposing that anybody who is
+     acquainted with the possibilities of physical science will
+     undertake categorically to deny that water may be turned into
+     wine. Many very competent judges are inclined to think that the
+     bodies which we have hitherto regarded as elementary are really
+     composite arrangements of the particles of a uniform primitive
+     matter. Supposing that view to be correct, there would be no more
+     theoretical difficulty about turning water into alcohol, ethereal
+     and colouring matters, than there is, at this present moment, any
+     practical difficulty in working other such miracles; as when we
+     turn sugar into alcohol, carbonic acid, glycerine, and succinic
+     acid; or transmute gas-refuse into perfumes rarer than musk and
+     dyes richer than Tyrian purple."
+
+Unless we make the unscientific and preposterous assumption that our
+present knowledge of nature and of natural forces is absolute and
+complete, it is unscientific and illogical to declare at once that any
+supposed events could not have happened merely because they seem to
+have contradicted so-called natural laws.
+
+     "Strictly speaking," Huxley wrote, "I am unaware of anything that
+     has a right to the title of an 'impossibility' except a
+     contradiction in terms. There are impossibilities logical, but
+     none natural. A 'round square,' a 'present past,' 'two parallel
+     lines that intersect,' are impossibilities, because the ideas
+     denoted by the predicates, round, present, intersect, are
+     contradictory of the ideas denoted by the subjects, square, past,
+     parallel. But walking on water, or turning water into wine, or
+     procreation without male intervention, or raising the dead, are
+     plainly not impossibilities in this sense."
+
+The whole matter turns on the question of sufficient evidence.
+
+     "Hume's arguments resolve themselves into a simple statement of
+     the dictates of common sense which may be expressed in this
+     canon: the more a statement of fact conflicts with previous
+     experience, the more complete must be the evidence which is to
+     justify us in believing it."
+
+Again, expressing the same idea in different words, he wrote:
+
+     "Nobody can presume to say what the order of nature must be; all
+     that the widest experience (even if it extended over all past
+     time and through all space) that events had happened in a certain
+     way could justify, would be a proportionately strong expectation
+     that events will go on so happening, and the demand for a
+     proportional strength of evidence in favour of any assertion that
+     they had happened otherwise. It is this weighty consideration,
+     the truth of which everyone who is capable of logical thought
+     must surely admit, which knocks the bottom out of all _a priori_
+     objections either to ordinary 'miracles' or to the efficacy of
+     prayer, in so far as the latter implies the miraculous
+     intervention of a higher power. No one is entitled to say, _a
+     priori_, that prayer for some change in the ordinary course of
+     nature cannot possibly avail."
+
+It was a question of evidence, and not only did the evidence not
+convince Huxley, but the thaumaturgic nature of the Biblical miracles
+provided him with additional reason for refusing to attach any
+extrinsic value to the contents of the book.
+
+On the other hand, although he declined to accept the Bible as a
+miraculous and authentic revelation, again and again he expressed
+himself in the strongest terms as to its value to mankind, and as to
+the impossibility of any scientific advance diminishing in any way
+whatsoever that value.
+
+     "The antagonism between religion and science, about which we hear
+     so much, appears to me to be purely factitious--fabricated, on
+     the one hand, by shortsighted religious people who confound a
+     certain branch of science, theology, with religion; and, on the
+     other, by equally shortsighted scientific people who forget that
+     science takes for its province only that which is susceptible of
+     clear intellectual comprehension; and that, outside the
+     boundaries of that province, they must be content with
+     imagination, with hope, and with ignorance."
+
+And again;
+
+     "In the eighth century B.C., in the heart of a world of
+     idolatrous polytheists, the Hebrew prophets put forth a
+     conception of religion which appears to me to be as wonderful an
+     inspiration of genius as the art of Pheidias or the science of
+     Aristotle. 'And what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do
+     justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?' If
+     any so-called religion takes away from this great saying of
+     Micah, I think it wantonly mutilates, while if it adds thereto, I
+     think it obscures, the perfect ideal of religion."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ETHICS OF THE COSMOS
+
+     Conduct and Metaphysics--Conventional and Critical Minds--Good
+     and Evil--Huxley's Last Appearance at Oxford--The Ethical Process
+     and the Cosmic Process--Man's Intervention--The Cosmic Process
+     Evil--Ancient Reconciliations--Modern Acceptance of the
+     Difficulties--Criticism of Huxley's Pessimism--Man and his
+     Ethical Aspirations Part of the Cosmos.
+
+
+We have seen that Huxley refused to acquiesce in the current orthodox
+doctrine that our systems of morality rested on a special revelation,
+miraculous in its origin, and vouched for by the recorded miracles of
+its Founder, or by those entrusted by the Founder with miraculous
+power. He supported the view that, historically and actually, there is
+no necessary connection between religion and morality. The one is an
+attempt, in his opinion always unsuccessful, to lift the veil from the
+unseen, to know the unknowable; the other is simply the code that
+social man, through the ages, has elaborated for his own guidance, and
+proved by his own experience. So far as the conduct of life goes, the
+morality of one who accepts the agnostic position with regard to
+revelation and the unseen universe differs in no respect from the code
+taken under the protection of the modern forms of religion. As John
+Morley, in his _Essay on Voltaire_ wrote of such a person:
+
+     "There are new solutions for him, if the old have fallen dumb. If
+     he no longer believe death to be a stroke from the sword of God's
+     justice, but the leaden footfall of an inflexible law of matter,
+     the humility of his awe is deepened, and the tenderness of his
+     pity made holier, that creatures who can love so much should have
+     their days so shut round with a wall of darkness. The purifying
+     anguish of remorse will be stronger, not weaker, when he has
+     trained himself to look upon every wrong in thought, every duty
+     omitted from act, each infringement of the inner spiritual law
+     which humanity is constantly perfecting for its own guidance and
+     advantage, less as a breach of the decrees of an unseen tribunal
+     than as an ungrateful infection weakening and corrupting the
+     future of his brothers."
+
+But there are wider questions than the immediate problems of conduct. A
+certain type of mind finds it almost impossible not to attempt ethical
+judgments on the whole universe, not to speculate whether the Cosmos, as
+we can imagine it from the part of it within the cognisance of man,
+offers a spectacle of moral or immoral or of non-moral significance. In
+the old times of Greece and in the modern world many have been devoid of
+the taste for argument on such subjects. Those who are uninterested in
+these abstract discussions are rarely in opposition to the mode of faith
+surrounding them, as to reject the doctrines held by the majority of
+one's friends and associates implies either a disagreeable disposition
+or an unusual interest in ultimate problems; they are usually orthodox
+according to their environment--Stoics, Epicureans, Jews, Episcopalians,
+Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Mormons, Mohammedans, Buddhists, or
+whatever may be the prevailing dogma around them. The attitude of
+indifference to moral philosophy has practically no relation to what may
+be considered good or bad moral conduct; those characterised by it live
+above or below or round about their own moral standards in a fashion as
+variable as that of moral philosophers. Many of the saints, ancient and
+modern, have been notorious instances; question them as to their faith
+or as to the logical foundation of their renunciations and they will
+tell you in simple honesty or make it plain by their answers that they
+have no head for logic, that they cannot argue, but only know and feel
+their position to be true. In addition to the saints, many of the best
+and most of the pleasant people in the world are of this type.
+
+The type strongly in contrast with the foregoing is found in persons
+of a more strenuous, perhaps more admirable but less agreeable
+character. The savour of acerbity may be a natural attribute of the
+critical character, and it is certainly not lessened where moral
+philosophy is the subject-matter of the criticism. The continual
+search after solutions of problems that may be insoluble at least
+makes the seekers excellent judges of wrong solutions. Like Luther and
+Loyola and Kant, they may be able to satisfy themselves, or, like
+Huxley, they may remain in doubt, but in either case they are
+excellent critics of the solutions of others. They are the firebrands
+of faith or of negation; they are possessed by an intellectual fury
+that will not let them cease from propagandising. They must go through
+the world as missionaries; and the missionary spirit is dual, one side
+zealous to proclaim the new, the other equally zealous to denounce the
+old. But theirs is the great work, "to burn old falsehood bare," to
+tear away the incrustations of time which people have come to accept
+as the thing itself, and in their track new and lively truth springs
+up, as fresh green follows the devastations of fire.
+
+To most of us it seems of sufficient importance and of sufficient
+difficulty to make our decisions in the little eddies of good and evil
+that form as the world-stream breaks round our individual lives.
+Huxley strove to interpret the world-stream itself, to translate its
+movements into the ethical language of man. As knowledge of the forces
+and movements of the Cosmos has increased so has our general
+conception been intensified, our conception of it as a wondrous
+display of power and grandeur and superhuman fixity of order. But are
+the forces of the Cosmos good or evil? Are we, and the Cosmos of which
+we are a part, the sport of changeable and capricious deities, the
+pawns in a game of the gods, as some of the Greeks held; or of a power
+drunkenly malicious, as Heine once cynically suggested; or a
+battle-ground for a force of good and a force of evil as in so many
+Eastern religions? Are we dominated by pure evil, as some dark creeds
+have held, or by pure good, as the religion of the Western world
+teaches? And if we are dominated by pure evil, whence come good and
+the idea of good, or, if by pure good, whence evil and the idea of
+evil?
+
+Huxley's interest in these great problems appears and reappears
+throughout his published writings, but his views are most clearly and
+systematically exposed in his "Romanes" lecture on "Evolution and
+Ethics" delivered and published at Oxford in 1894, and afterwards
+republished with a prefatory essay in the last volume of his
+_Collected Essays_. Not long before his death, Professor Romanes, who
+had come to live in Oxford, founded a University lectureship, the
+purpose of which was that once a year a distinguished man should
+address the University on a subject neither religious nor political.
+Mr. Gladstone was the first lecturer, and, at the suggestion of the
+founder, Huxley was chosen as the second. For years he had been taking
+a special interest in both religion and politics, and he was not a
+little embarrassed by the restrictions imposed by the terms of the
+foundation, for he determined to make ethical science the subject of
+his address, and
+
+     "ethical science is, on all sides, so entangled with religion and
+     politics, that the lecturer who essays to touch the former
+     without coming in contact with either of the latter, needs all
+     the dexterity of an egg-dancer, and may even discover that his
+     sense of clearness and his sense of propriety come into conflict,
+     by no means to the advantage of the former."
+
+As Huxley, on that great occasion, ascended the rostrum in the
+Sheldonian theatre, very white and frail in his scarlet doctor's
+robes, there must have been present in his mind memories of the
+occasion, four-and-thirty years before, when he first addressed an
+audience in the University of Oxford. Then he was a young man, almost
+unknown, rising to lead what seemed a forlorn hope for an idea utterly
+repugnant to most of his hearers. Now, and largely by his own efforts,
+the idea had become an inseparable part of human thought, and Huxley
+himself was the guest to whom the whole University was doing honour.
+Graduates from all parts of England had come to hear what, it was
+feared, might be his last public speech, and practically every member
+of the University who could gain admission was present. The press of
+the world attended to report his words as if they were those of a
+great political leader, about to decide the fate of nations. Although
+his voice had lost much of its old sonorous reach, and although the
+old clear rhythms were occasionally broken by hesitancies, the magic
+of his personality oriented to him every face.
+
+It is a curious and striking circumstance, a circumstance fully
+recognised by Huxley himself, that in this exposition of his ethical
+conception of the Cosmos he reconstructed, on the lines of his
+evolutionary philosophy one of the oldest and most widespread
+theories, a theory again and again reached by men of different
+civilisations and epochs. Manes, the Persian, from whose name the word
+"Manicheism" has been coined to denote his doctrine, taught in perhaps
+the most explicit fashion that the Cosmos was the battle-ground of two
+contending powers,--Ahriman, the principle of evil, and Ormuzd, the
+principle of good. This doctrine in some form or other is implicit in
+most of the greater religions, some of which have assumed an ultimate
+triumph for the principle of good, while others have left the issue
+doubtful. The Ahriman of Huxley, the principle of evil, is what he
+termed the cosmic process, that great play of forces, by which, in a
+ruthless struggle for existence, the fittest (by which is meant the
+most suited to the surrounding conditions and not necessarily the
+ethically best) have survived at the expense of the less fit. The
+Ormuzd, the principle of good, is what Huxley called the Ethical
+process, the process by which sentient, intelligent, and moral man has
+striven to replace the "old ape and tiger methods" of the cosmic
+process, by methods in which justice and mercy, sacrifice and
+consideration for others have a part.
+
+To explain clearly the distinction he made between the ethical and
+cosmic processes. Huxley, in the prefatory essay ("Prolegomena")
+published in the volume with his Romanes lecture, developed the
+analogy of a cultivated garden reclaimed from surrounding wild nature.
+He described how the countryside, visible from his windows at
+Eastbourne, had certainly been in a "state of nature" about two
+thousand years ago when Cæsar had set foot in Britain and had made the
+Roman camps, the remains of which still mark the chalk downs of
+England.
+
+     "Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as
+     those which still, here and there, break the flowing contours of
+     the Downs, man's hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin
+     veil of vegetation which overspread the broad-backed heights and
+     the shelving sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry.
+     The native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse,
+     contended with one another for possession of the scanty surface
+     soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of
+     winter, and the furious gales, which swept with unbroken force,
+     now from the Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times
+     of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps made in
+     their ranks by all sorts of overground and underground ravagers.
+     One year with another, an average population, the floating
+     balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the
+     indigenous plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be
+     doubted that an essentially similar state of nature prevailed in
+     this region for many thousand years before the coming of Cæsar;
+     and there is no assignable reason for denying that it might
+     continue to exist through an equally prolonged futurity except
+     for the intervention of man."
+
+This present state of nature, he explained, is only a fleeting phase
+of a process that has gone on for millions of years. Under the thin
+layer of soil are the chalk cliffs, hundreds of feet thick and
+witnesses of the entirely different phases of the struggle that went
+on while the cliffs were being formed at the bottom of the chalk sea,
+when the vegetation of the nearest land was as different from the
+existing vegetation as that is different from the trees and flowers of
+an African forest.
+
+     "Before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly longer period
+     elapsed, throughout which it is easy to follow the traces of the
+     same process of ceaseless modification and of the same
+     internecine struggle for existence of living things; and when we
+     can go no further back, it is not because there is any reason to
+     think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail of the
+     most ancient life remains hidden or has become obliterated."
+
+The state of nature, then, is a fleeting and impermanent process.
+
+     "That which endures is not one or other association of living
+     forms, but the process of which the Cosmos is the product and of
+     which these are among the transitory expressions. And in the
+     living world, one of the most characteristic features of this
+     cosmic process is the struggle for existence, the competition of
+     each with all, the result of which is the selection, that is to
+     say, the survival of those forms which, on the whole, are best
+     adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain; and which
+     are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the
+     fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation
+     of the Downs is seen in the turf with its weeds and gorse. Under
+     the conditions, they have come out of the struggle victorious;
+     and, by surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to
+     survive."
+
+For three or four years, the state of nature in a small portion of the
+Downs surrounding Huxley's house had been put an end to by the
+intervention of man.
+
+     "The patch was cut off from the rest by a wall; within the area
+     thus protected the native vegetation was, as far as possible,
+     extirpated, while a colony of strange plants was imported and set
+     down in its place. In short, it was made into a garden. This
+     artificially treated area presents an aspect extraordinarily
+     different from that of so much of the land as still remains in
+     the state of nature outside the wall. Trees, shrubs and herbs,
+     many of them appertaining to the state of nature in remote parts
+     of the globe, abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable
+     quantities of vegetables, fruit, and flowers are produced, of
+     kinds which neither now exist nor have ever existed except under
+     conditions such as obtain in the garden and which therefore are
+     as much works of the art of man as the frames and glass-houses in
+     which some of them are raised. That the 'state of art' thus
+     created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and
+     dependent on him, would at once become apparent if the watchful
+     supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic
+     influences of the general cosmic process were no longer
+     sedulously warded off, or counteracted."
+
+He proceeds to describe how, under such circumstances, the artificial
+barriers would decay, and the delicate inhabitants of the garden would
+perish under the assaults of animal and vegetable foes. External
+forces would reassert themselves and wild nature would resume its
+sway. While, in a sense, he had strenuously advocated the unity of all
+nature, he found in it two rivals: the artificial products of sentient
+man and the forces and products of wild nature. These two he believed
+to be in inevitable opposition and to represent the good and the evil
+forces of the world.
+
+In the dim ages of the past, the forces that have gone to the making
+of man have been part of the cosmic process. In the endless and
+wonderful series of kaleidoscopic changes by which, under the
+operation of natural laws, the body, habits, and the character of man
+have been elaborated slowly from the natal dust, there is the widest
+field for the operation of the most acute intelligence to study and
+trace the stages in the process. But if intellectual delight in
+studying the process be left out of account, a serious question at
+once appears. In the higher stages of evolution the cosmic forces,
+ceasing to act merely on insentient matter, have operated on sentient
+beings, and in so doing have given rise to the mystery of pain and
+suffering. When the less fit of chemical combinations or even of the
+lower forms of life perished in the struggle, we may regard the
+process with the unemotional eye of pure intelligence. But "pain, the
+baleful product of evolution, increases in quantity and in intensity
+with advancing stages of animal organisation, until it attains its
+highest level in man." And so it comes about that the cosmic process
+produces evil, sorrow, and suffering. Consideration of the cosmic
+process leads up against the mystery of evil.
+
+Huxley argued that the various philosophies and civilisations of the
+past had led by different paths to a similar conclusion. The primitive
+ethical codes of man were not unlike the compacts of a wolf-pack, the
+understanding to refrain from mutual attack during the chase of a
+common prey. Conceptions of this kind became arranged in codes and
+invested with supernatural sanction. But in Hindustan and Ionia alike,
+material prosperity, no doubt partly the result of the accepted codes,
+produced culture of the intellect and culture of the pleasures. With
+these came the "beneficent demon, doubt, whose name is legion and who
+dwells amongst the tombs of old faiths." The doubting intellect,
+acting on the codes, produced the conception of justice-in-itself, of
+merit as divorced from the effect of action on others, the abstract
+idea of goodness.
+
+The old philosopher, turning from this new conception to the Cosmos,
+found that incompatible with goodness. Suffering and sorrow, sunshine
+and rain, were distributed independently of merit. With Greek and
+Semite and Indian the conscience of man revolted against the moral
+indifference of nature. Instead of bringing in a verdict of guilty,
+they attempted reconciliation in various ways. Indian speculation
+invented or elaborated the theory of transmigration, in which the
+Karma or soul-character passed from individual to individual, the
+algebraic sums of happiness in the whole chain being proportional to
+merit. The Stoics were metaphysicians and imagined an immanent,
+omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent First Cause. Evil was
+incompatible with this, and so they held, against experience, that
+either it did not exist, or that it was inflicted for our benefit or
+due to our fault. In one fashion or another, all the great systems of
+thought had recognised the antagonism and had attempted some
+explanation of it. Huxley's view was that the modern world with its
+new philosophy was only retreading the toil-worn paths of the old.
+Scientific optimism was being replaced by a frank pessimism. Cosmic
+evolution might be accountable for both good and evil, but knowledge
+of it provided no better reason for choice of the good than did
+earlier speculation. The cosmic process was not only non-moral but
+immoral; goodness did not lead to success in it, and laws and moral
+precepts could only be addressed to the curbing of it.
+
+In a sense these conclusions of Huxley seemed to lead to absolute
+pessimism, but he offered some mitigating considerations. Society
+remains subject to the cosmic process, but the less as civilisation
+advances and ethical man is the more ready to combat it. The history
+of civilisation shows that we have some hope of this, for "when
+physiology, psychology, ethics, and political science, now befogged by
+crude anticipations and futile analogies, have emerged from their
+childhood, they may work as much change on human affairs as the
+earlier-ripened physical sciences wrought on material progress." And
+so, remembering that the evil cosmic nature in us has the foothold of
+millions of years, and never hoping to abandon sorrow and pain, we may
+yet, in the manhood of our race, accept our destiny, and, with clear
+and steady eyes, address ourselves to the task of living, that we and
+others may live better.
+
+These gloomy views come from Huxley with such weight and authority
+that even in a sketch of his life and opinions it may be noticed that
+they do not seem necessary deductions from the evolutionary conception
+of the world. The first count adduced against the cosmic process is
+its connection with suffering. It may be doubted, so far as the animal
+world is concerned, if Huxley has not exaggerated the gravity of this.
+The two greatest contributors to the modern conception of evolution
+are not in agreement with him. Alfred Russel Wallace wrote:
+
+     "On the whole, then, we conclude that the popular idea of the
+     struggle for existence entailing misery and pain on the animal
+     world is the very reverse of the truth. What it really brings
+     about is the maximum of life and of the enjoyment of life with
+     the minimum of suffering and pain. Given the necessity of death
+     and reproduction--and without those there could have been no
+     progressive development of the animal world--and it is difficult
+     even to imagine a system by which a greater balance of happiness
+     could have been secured."
+
+This view was evidently that also of Darwin himself, who thus
+concluded his chapter on the struggle for existence: "When we reflect
+on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief that
+the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death
+is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy
+survive and multiply." As for man himself, though it be true that in
+him the consummation of pain is reached, still this is no isolated
+fact of far-reaching ethical importance. It is in direct dependence on
+the increased physical and mental development of man, and these are
+equally necessary for and equally susceptible to increased pleasure
+and increased happiness. It is not necessary to regard the cosmic
+process as evil. Even when man, in various ages, had elaborated the
+conception of abstract goodness, and had endeavoured to make his
+justice a doling out of reward and punishment according to merit, it
+was not inevitable to bring in a verdict of guilty against the Cosmos.
+It is quite true that, in all the ages, man has seen the sun shine on
+the unjust as on the just. But it is an easy reflection that the world
+could not turn round on individual merit, and if few are so guilty as
+to deserve the agonies of grief that may come to all, still fewer
+deserve some of the simpler and more common joys of life. The
+conception that was implicit in the disciplines of the older
+philosophies is still open to the philosophy of evolution. Behind it,
+as behind the "self-hypnotised catalepsy of the devotee of Brahma,"
+the Buddhist aspirations to Nirvana, the _apatheia_ of the Stoics,
+there may lie a recognition of the worthlessness of the individual: an
+equable acceptation of one's self as part of a process: a triumph of
+intelligence over selfishness. Finally, behind the sharp division made
+between man and the Cosmos, there still lurks one of the oldest and
+most enduring fallacies of the world, a fallacy that Huxley himself
+spent a great part of his intellectual life in discovering and
+routing. The fallacy is the conception of the Cosmos as something
+separate and apart from man, as something through which he, however
+briefly, passes. Thus Omar sang:
+
+    "Myself, when young, did eagerly frequent
+    Doctor and saint, and heard great argument
+      About it and about: but evermore
+    Came out by the same door where in I went.
+
+    "With them the seed of wisdom did I sow,
+    And with mine own hand wrought to make it grow;
+      And this was all the Harvest that I reaped--
+    'I came like Water, and like Wind I go.'
+
+    "Into this Universe, and _Why_ not knowing
+    Nor _Whence_, like water willy-nilly flowing;
+      And out of it, like Wind along the Waste
+    I know not _Whither_, willy-nilly blowing."
+
+But, the more profoundly does the conception of evolution lay hold of
+human thought, the more inevitable it becomes to recognise that man
+and all that is best in man--his aspirations, ideas, virtues, and
+practical and abstract justice and goodness--are just as much the
+product of the cosmic process and part of the Cosmos as the most
+sinister results of the struggle for existence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY
+
+     Huxley's Life in London--Decennial
+     Periods--Ill-health--Retirement to Eastbourne--Death--Personal
+     Appearance--Methods of Work--Personal Characteristics--An
+     Inspirer of Others--His Influence in Science--A Naturalist by
+     Vocation--His Aspirations.
+
+
+Huxley's life followed the quiet and even tenor of that of a
+professional man of science and letters. The great adventure in it was
+his youthful voyage on the _Rattlesnake_. That over, and his choice
+made in favour of science as against medicine, he settled down in
+London. He married happily and shared in the common joys and sorrows
+of domestic life. Advancement came to him steadily, and, although he
+was never rich, after the first few years of life in London, his
+income was always adequate to his moderate needs. For the greater part
+of his working life, he lived actually in London, in the ordinary
+style and with the ordinary social enjoyments of a professional man.
+His duties in connection with the Royal College of Science and with
+the Geological Survey were not arduous but constant; his time was
+fully occupied with these, with his scientific and literary work, with
+the business of scientific societies, with the occasional obligations
+of royal commissions, public boards, and lecturing engagements. The
+quiet routine of his life was diversified by many visits to provincial
+towns to deliver lectures or addresses, by meetings of the British
+Association, by holidays in Switzerland, during which, with Tyndall,
+he made special studies of the phenomena of glaciation, and in the
+usual Continental resorts, and by several trips to America.
+
+In a rough-and-ready fashion, Huxley's active life may be broken into
+a set of decennial periods, each with tolerably distinctive
+characters. The first period, roughly from 1850 to 1860, was almost
+purely scientific. It was occupied by his voyage, by his transition to
+science as a career, his researches into the invertebrate forms of
+life, the beginning of his palæontological investigations, and a
+comparatively small amount of lecturing and literary work. The second
+decennium still found him employed chiefly in research, vertebrate and
+extinct forms absorbing most of his attention. He was occupied
+actively with teaching, but the dominant feature of the decennium was
+his assumption of the Darwinian doctrines. In connection with these
+latter, his literary and lecturing work increased greatly, and the
+side issues of what was, in itself, purely a scientific controversy
+began to lead him into metaphysical and religious studies. The third
+period, from 1870 to 1880, was considerably different in character. He
+had become the most prominent man in biological science in England, at
+a time when biological science was attracting a quite unusual amount
+of scientific and public attention. Public honours and public duties,
+some of them scientific, others general, began to crowd upon him, and
+the time at his disposal for the quiet labours of investigation
+became rapidly more limited within this period. He was secretary of
+the Royal Society, a member of the London School Board, president of
+the British Association, Lord Rector at several universities, member
+of many royal commissions, government inspector of fisheries,
+president of the Geological Society. In this multitude of duties it
+was natural that the bulk of strictly scientific output was limited,
+but, on the other hand, his literary output was much larger. Between
+1880 and 1890 he had reached the full maturity of a splendid
+reputation, and honours and duties pressed thick upon him. For part of
+the time he was president of the Royal Society, the most distinguished
+position to which a scientific man in England can attain, and he was
+held by the general public at least in as high esteem as by his
+scientific contemporaries. A small amount of original scientific work
+still appeared from his pen, but he was occupied chiefly with more
+general contributions to thought.
+
+[Illustration: CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF
+Reproduced by permission from _Natural Science_, vol. vii., No. 46]
+
+Throughout his life, Huxley had never been robust. From his youth
+upwards he had been troubled by dyspepsia with its usual accompaniment
+of occasional fits of severe mental and physical depression. In 1872
+he was compelled to take a long holiday in Egypt, and, although he
+returned to resume full labour, it is doubtful if from that time
+onwards he recovered even the strength normal to him. In 1885, his
+ill-health became grave; in the following years he had two attacks of
+pleurisy, and symptoms of cardiac mischief became pressing. He
+gradually withdrew from his official posts, and, in 1890, retired to
+Eastbourne, where he had built himself a house on the Downs. The more
+healthy conditions and the comparative leisure he permitted himself
+had a good effect, and he was able to write some of his most
+brilliant essays and to make a few public appearances: at Oxford in
+1893, when he delivered the Romanes lecture; at the meeting of the
+British Association in 1894, when he spoke on the vote of thanks to
+the President, the Marquis of Salisbury; at the Royal Society in the
+same year when he received the recently established "Darwin Medal."
+Early in the spring of 1895, he had a prostrating attack of influenza,
+and from that time until his death on June 29, 1895, he was an
+invalid. He was buried in the Marylebone cemetery at Finchley, to the
+north of London.
+
+Huxley was of middle stature and rather slender build. His face, as
+Professor Ray Lankester described it, was "grave, black-browed, and
+fiercely earnest." His hair, plentiful and worn rather long, was black
+until in old age it became silvery white. He wore short side whiskers,
+but shaved the rest of his face, leaving fully exposed an obstinate
+chin, and mobile lips, grim and resolute in repose, but capable of
+relaxation into a smile of almost feminine charm.
+
+He was a very hard worker and took little exercise. Professor Howes
+describes a typical day as occupied by lecture and laboratory work at
+the College of Science until his hurried luncheon; then a cab-drive to
+the Home Office for his work as Inspector of Fisheries; then a cab
+home for an hour's work before dinner, and the evening after dinner
+spent in literary work or scientific reading. While at work, his whole
+attention was engrossed, and he disliked being disturbed. This
+abstraction of his attention is illustrated humorously by a story told
+by one of his demonstrators. Huxley was engaged in the investigations
+required for his book on the Crayfish, and his demonstrator came in to
+ask a question about a codfish. "Codfish?" said Huxley; "that's a
+vertebrate, isn't it? Ask me in a fortnight and I'll consider it."
+While at work he smoked almost continuously, and from time to time he
+took a little relaxation, for the strains of a fiddle were
+occasionally heard from his room. Indeed he was devoted to music,
+regarding it as one of the highest of the æsthetic pleasures. He tells
+us himself:
+
+     "When I was a boy, I was very fond of music, and I am so now; and
+     it so happened that I had the opportunity of hearing much good
+     music. Among other things, I had abundant opportunities of
+     hearing that great old master, Sebastian Bach. I remember
+     perfectly well--although I knew nothing about music then, and, I
+     may add, know nothing whatever about it now--the intense
+     satisfaction and delight which I had in listening, by the hour
+     together, to Bach's fugues. It is a pleasure which remains with
+     me, I am glad to think; but, of late years, I have tried to find
+     out the why and wherefore, and it has often occurred to me that
+     the pleasure derived from musical compositions of this kind is
+     essentially of the same nature as that which is derived from
+     pursuits which are commonly regarded as purely intellectual. I
+     mean, that the source of pleasure is exactly the same as in most
+     of my problems in morphology--that you have the theme in one of
+     the old masters' works followed out in all its endless
+     variations, always appearing and always reminding you of unity in
+     variety."
+
+He had a hot temper, and did not readily brook opposition, especially
+when that seemed to him to be the result of stupidity or of prejudice
+rather than of reason, and his own reason was of a very clear,
+decided, and exact order. He had little sympathy with vacillation of
+any kind, whether it arose from mere infirmity of purpose or from the
+temperament which delights in balancing opposing considerations. He
+said on one occasion:
+
+     "A great lawyer-statesman and philosopher of a former age--I mean
+     Francis Bacon--said that truth came out of error much more
+     rapidly than out of confusion. There is a wonderful truth in that
+     saying. Next to being right in this world, the best of all things
+     is to be clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out
+     somewhere. If you go buzzing about between right and wrong,
+     vibrating and fluctuating, you come out nowhere; but if you are
+     absolutely and thoroughly and persistently wrong, you must, some
+     of these days, have the extreme good fortune of knocking your
+     head against a fact, and that sets you all straight again. So I
+     will not trouble myself as to whether I may be right or wrong in
+     what I am about to say, but at any rate I hope to be clear and
+     definite; and then you will be able to judge for yourselves
+     whether, in following out the train of thought I have to
+     introduce, you knock your heads against facts or not."
+
+The particular suggestions to which these remarks were the
+characteristic introduction related to definite problems of education,
+that is to say, to questions upon which some action was urgent. It was
+in all cases of life, in science or affairs, that Huxley was resolute
+for clear ideas and definite courses of conduct. As a matter of fact,
+no one ever took greater care to satisfy himself as best he could as
+to what was right and what was wrong; but where action rather than
+reflection was needed, then his principle was to act, and to know
+definitely and clearly why you acted and for what you acted. In
+matters of opinion, on the other hand, he was all for not coming to a
+definite opinion when the facts obtainable did not justify such an
+opinion. In thought, agnosticism, the refusal to accept any ideas or
+principles except on sufficient evidence; in action, positivism, to
+act promptly in definite and known directions for definite and known
+objects: these were his principles.
+
+Another aspect of the same trait of character, he shewed in an address
+to medical students at a distribution of prizes. After congratulating
+the victors he confessed to "an undercurrent of sympathy for those who
+have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have been
+overthrown in their tourney, and have not made their appearance in
+public." After recounting an early failure of his own, he proceeded:
+
+     "I said to myself, 'Never mind; what's the next thing to be
+     done?' And I found that policy of 'never minding' and going on to
+     the next thing to be done, to be the most important of all
+     policies in the conduct of practical life. It does not matter how
+     many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you do not get
+     dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to stop to
+     be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race. You
+     learn that which is of inestimable importance--that there are a
+     great many people in the world who are just as clever as you are.
+     You learn to put your trust, by and by, in an economy and
+     frugality of the exercise of your powers both moral and
+     intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have not found
+     it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are worth
+     more than twice their weight of cleverness."
+
+All Huxley's work was marked by a quality which may be called
+conscientiousness or thoroughness. Looking through his memoirs,
+written many years ago, the subjects of which have since been handled
+and rehandled by other writers with new knowledge and with new methods
+at their disposal, one is struck that all the observations he made
+have stood their ground. With new facts new generalisations have often
+been reached, and some of the positions occupied by Huxley have been
+turned. But what he saw and described had not to be redescribed; the
+citations he made from the older authorities were always so chosen as
+to contain the exact gist of the writers. These qualities, admirable
+in scientific work, became at once admirable and terrible in his
+controversial writings. His own exactness made him ruthless in
+exposing any inexactness in his adversaries, and there were few
+disputants who left an argument with Huxley in an undamaged condition.
+The consciousness which he had of his own careful methods, added to a
+natural pugnacity, gave him an intellectual courage of a very high
+order. As he knew himself to have made sure of his premisses, he did
+not care whither his conclusions might lead him, against whatsoever
+established doctrine or accepted axiom.
+
+There was, however, a strong spice of natural combativeness in his
+nature, the direct result of his native and highly trained critical
+faculty. He tells us that in the pre-Darwinian days he was accustomed
+to defend the fixity of species in the company of evolutionists and in
+the presence of the orthodox to attack the same doctrine. Later in
+life, when evolution had become fashionable, and the principles of
+Darwinism were being elevated into a new dogmatism, he was as ready to
+criticise the loose adherents of his own views as he had been to
+expose the weakness of the conventional dogmatists.
+
+Perhaps the most striking feature of Huxley's work as a whole was its
+infectious nature. His vigorous and decided personality was reflected
+on all the subjects to which he gave attention, and in the same
+fashion as his presence infected persons with a personal enthusiasm so
+his writings stimulated readers to efforts along the same lines. His
+great influence is clear in the number and distinction of the
+biologists who came under his personal care, and in the great army of
+writers and thinkers who have been inspired by his views and methods
+on general questions. His position as an actual contributor to science
+has to a certain extent been lost sight of for two reasons. In the
+first place, his effect on the world as an expositor of the scientific
+method in its general application to life has overshadowed his exact
+work; in the second place, his exact work itself has been partly lost
+sight of in the new discoveries and advances to which it gave rise. It
+is therefore necessary to reiterate that, apart from all his other
+successes, he had made for himself an extremely distinguished position
+in the annals of exact science. Sir Michael Foster and Prof. Ray
+Lankester, in their preface to the collected edition of his scientific
+memoirs, make a just claim for him. These memoirs, they wrote, show
+that, "apart from the influence exerted by his popular writings, the
+progress of biology during the present century was largely due to
+labours of his of which the general public knew nothing, and that he
+was in some respects the most original and most fertile in discovery
+of all his fellow workers in the same branch of science."
+
+There can be little question that it was no accident that determined
+the direction of Huxley's career. He was a naturalist by inborn
+vocation. The contrast between a natural bent and an acquired habit of
+life was well seen in the case of Huxley and Macgillivray, his
+companion on the _Rattlesnake_. The former was appointed as a surgeon,
+and it was no part of his duties to busy himself with the creatures of
+the sea; and yet his observations on them made a series of real
+contributions to biological science and laid the sure foundation of a
+world-wide and enduring reputation. The latter was the son of a
+naturalist, a naturalist by profession, and appointed to the
+expedition as its official naturalist; and yet he made only a few
+observations and a limited collection of curiosities, and even his
+exiguous place in the annals of zoölogy is the accidental result of
+his companionship with Huxley. The special natural endowments which
+Huxley brought to the study of zoölogy were, in the first place, a
+faculty for the patient and assiduous observation of facts; in the
+second, a swift power of discriminating between the essential and the
+accessory among facts; in the third, the constructive ability to
+arrange these essentials in wide generalisations which we call laws or
+principles and which, within the limits necessarily set by inductive
+principles, are the starting-point for new deductions. These were the
+faculties which he brought to his science, but there were added to
+them two personal characteristics without which they would not have
+taken him far. They were impelled by a driving force which
+distinguishes the successful man from the muddler and without which
+the finest mental powers are as useless as a complicated machine
+disconnected from its driving-wheel. They were directed by a lofty and
+disinterested enthusiasm, without which the most talented man is a
+mere self-seeker, useless or dangerous to society. The faculties and
+qualities which made Huxley great as a zoölogist were practically
+those which he applied to the general questions of biological theory,
+to the problems of education and of society, and to philosophy and
+metaphysics. A comparison between his sane and forcible handling of
+questions that lay outside the special province to which the greater
+part of his life was devoted, with the dubious and involved treatment
+given such questions by the professional politicians to whom the
+English races tend to entrust their destinies, is a useful comment on
+that value of science as discipline to which Huxley so strenuously
+called attention.
+
+There can be no better way of ending this sketch of Huxley's life and
+work than by quoting his own account of the objects to which he had
+devoted himself consciously. These were:
+
+     "To promote the increase of natural knowledge and to forward the
+     application of scientific methods of investigation to all the
+     problems of life to the best of my ability, in the conviction
+     which has grown with my growth and strengthened with my strength,
+     that there is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except
+     veracity of thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the
+     world as it is when the garment of make-believe by which pious
+     hands have hidden its uglier features is stripped off.
+
+      "It is with this intent that I have subordinated any reasonable
+     or unreasonable ambition for scientific fame which I may have
+     permitted myself to entertain to other ends; to the
+     popularisation of science; to the development and organisation of
+     scientific education; to the endless series of battles and
+     skirmishes over evolution; and to untiring opposition to that
+     ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as
+     everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is
+     the deadly enemy of science.
+
+      "In striving for the attainment of these objects, I have been
+     but one among many, and I shall be well content to be remembered,
+     or even not remembered, as such. Circumstances, among which I am
+     proud to reckon the devoted kindness of many friends, have led to
+     my occupation of various prominent positions, among which the
+     presidency of the Royal Society is the highest. It would be mock
+     modesty on my part, with these and other scientific honours which
+     have been bestowed upon me, to pretend that I have not succeeded
+     in the career which I have followed, rather because I was driven
+     into it than of my own free will; but I am afraid I should not
+     count even these things as marks of success if I could not hope
+     that I had not somewhat helped that movement of opinion which has
+     been called the New Reformation."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+A
+
+Adams, 209
+
+Admiralty, 14, 48, 49
+
+Agassiz, 68, 91, 99
+
+Age of the earth, 84, 85
+
+Agnosticism, 239, 241-243, 279
+
+Ahriman, 265
+
+Alchemists, 256, 257
+
+Alternation of generations, 53, 54
+
+Ameghino, 141
+
+America, 70
+
+American addresses, 71
+
+American fossils, 75
+
+American monkeys, 163
+
+Amphibia, 143
+
+Amphioxus, 22, 134
+
+Anatomy of man and ape, 161
+
+Anchitherium, 70, 74, 76
+
+Animal kingdom, old views of, 35
+
+Animals and plants, 97
+
+Anthracosaurus, 69
+
+Anthropomorphism, 250
+
+Anthropoid apes, 149-153
+
+"Ape and Tiger" methods, 265
+
+Appendicularia, 56, 57
+
+Apprenticeship in medicine, 183
+
+Archæopteryx, 136
+
+Archetype of molluscs, 58, 59, 61
+
+Archetype of Vertebrata, Articulata, and Radiata, 62
+
+Arctogoea, 140
+
+Argyll, Duke of, 248
+
+Aristotle, 100, 259
+
+Arnold, Matthew, 185
+
+Articulata of Cuvier, 38
+
+Ascaris, egg of, 176
+
+Ascidians, 55-57, 96
+
+Australia and South America, land connection, 141
+
+Authority, 175, 231, 232, 241
+
+Authority and investigation, 179
+
+Authority and knowledge, 104, 105
+
+Axioms, 240
+
+
+B
+
+Bach, Sebastian, 278
+
+Balfour, F.M., 135
+
+Barrier Reef of Australia, 20
+
+Basi-cranium of vertebrates, 132
+
+_Beagle_, voyage of, 28
+
+Beelzebub, 238
+
+Belief, duty of, 238, 239
+
+Belief, nature of scientific, 228
+
+Beneden, van, 59, 176
+
+Berkeley, Bishop, 218, 221, 224
+
+Berkeley, quotation from, 221
+
+Bible, 189, 192, 194, 213, 235, 237, 244, 245, 247, 248, 250, 253, 254, 259
+
+Bible and geology, 80
+
+Bibliolatry, 235, 246
+
+Bimana, 164
+
+Biology and medical education, 184
+
+Birds, ancestry of, 69
+
+Birds, classification of, 135
+
+Birmingham, 185
+
+Bishop, 175
+
+Bishop Berkeley, 218, 221, 224
+
+Bishop of Norwich, 33
+
+Bishop of Oxford, _see_ Wilberforce
+
+Boards for elementary education, 188
+
+Bojanus, 173
+
+Bones of horse, 71, 72
+
+Bones, cartilage, and membrane, 134
+
+Books, value of, 175
+
+Booth, "General," 213
+
+Bourbon, 246
+
+Brahma, 272
+
+Brain of man and apes, 120, 145, 146, 162, 163
+
+Brain and mind, 220, 221
+
+Brain-weights, 164
+
+Breathing, 168
+
+Breeding, selective, 127
+
+Brehm, 153
+
+British Association, 68, 120, 125, 274
+
+Brooks, Professor W.K., 94
+
+Buckland, Professor, 80, 234
+
+Buddhists, 1, 272
+
+Buffon, 15, 90
+
+Burnett, Sir William, 11, 46
+
+Busk, George, 49
+
+
+C
+
+Cabanis, 228
+
+Cæsar, 265
+
+Cana, miracle at, 257
+
+Cape York, 25
+
+Carinates, 137
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, 111
+
+Cartesian axiom, 222
+
+Cartilage bones, 134
+
+Cartilaginous skulls, 134
+
+Catastrophism in geology, 80, 249
+
+Catholicism, 123, 214, 247
+
+Cells, 52, 53
+
+Cephalous molluscs, 58, 59
+
+Chalk, 266
+
+_Challenger_ expedition, 15
+
+Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, 80
+
+Chambers, R., 62
+
+Chamisso, 53, 56
+
+Chance, 229
+
+Change in universe, 249
+
+Charing Cross Hospital, 8, 9
+
+Chaucer, 213
+
+Chemistry and alchemy, 257
+
+Chess, life compared with, 169
+
+Children, education of, 189
+
+Chimpanzees, 149, 163
+
+Chondrocranium, 134
+
+Christianity and evolution, 122
+
+Christian civilisation and authority, 232
+
+Chronology of the Bible, 247
+
+Church of England, 111, 112
+
+Church, the, and science, 236
+
+Classical education, 185, 210
+
+Classification of birds, 135
+
+Classification by Cuvier, 38
+
+Classification by Linnæus, 38
+
+Classification of mammals, 142
+
+Classification of man, 146
+
+Classification by old authors, 37
+
+Classification of vertebrates, 143
+
+Clergy as critics of science, 236
+
+Clericalism, 239, 284
+
+Clodd, E., 90, 127
+
+Coelenterata, 42, 96
+
+Coelomata, 43, 44
+
+Commissions, royal, 195, 204
+
+Common sense and metaphysics, 218
+
+Common sense and science, 209
+
+Conduct and religion, 261
+
+Congo, 149
+
+Conscience, 269
+
+Conscientiousness, 280
+
+Consciousness, 220, 224
+
+Contemporaneity, geological, 79
+
+Continuity of nature, 255
+
+Cookery in schools, 190
+
+Cope, Professor, 69, 94
+
+Corals of Barrier Reef, 20
+
+"Corybantic Christianity," 215
+
+Cosmic process, 268, 270, 271
+
+Cosmogony of the Hebrews, 244, 246
+
+Cosmos, 229, 263, 265, 267, 272
+
+Cowper-Temple Clause, 188
+
+Crayfish, 158, 173, 277
+
+Creation, 139, 246, 252
+
+Creator, the, 250
+
+Credibility of authority, 232
+
+Criticism, Biblical, 194
+
+Criticism of life, 185
+
+Croonian lectures, 65, 129
+
+Ctenophora, 42
+
+Culture and science, 185, 186
+
+Curriculum of medical education, 184
+
+Cuttle-fish, 58
+
+Cuvier, 6, 38, 115, 132, 133, 136, 209, 211
+
+
+D
+
+Darwin, Charles, 27-29, 60, 61, 68, chapters viii. and ix., 138, 147,
+166, 229, 242
+
+Darwin medal, 108
+
+Darwin, voyage of, 27, 28
+
+Darwin, Erasmus, 90
+
+Darwinism, 103, 104, 106, 123
+
+Darwinism, Huxley's late and early opinions on, 106-109
+
+Darwinism and Lamarckism, 94
+
+"Days" of creation, 251, 252
+
+De la Beche, Sir Henry, 63, 64
+
+Deluge, the, 235
+
+Descartes, 219, 240, 243
+
+Design, argument from, 230
+
+Despotism and the Bible, 245
+
+Devonian fishes, 68
+
+Deuteronomy, 245
+
+Dinosaurs and the ancestry of birds, 69
+
+Diprotodonts, 142
+
+Dissection in laboratories, 181
+
+Divine will and science, 233
+
+_Doctrine of the Deluge_, 235
+
+Dogma and literature in the Bible, 254
+
+Doliolum, 56
+
+Domestic economy, 190
+
+Doubt, duty of, 232, 239, 269
+
+Drawing for children, 193
+
+Dredging, 22
+
+Drill for children, 189
+
+Durckheim, Strauss, 173
+
+
+E
+
+Earth, age of, 84, 85
+
+Eastbourne, 277
+
+Ecclesiasticism, 235, 239
+
+Echidna, 156
+
+Economy, domestic, 190
+
+Edinburgh, 174
+
+_Edinburgh Review_, 115, 116
+
+Education, classical, 185, 210
+
+Education of children, 170
+
+Education, elementary, 187, 188
+
+Education, general, 184
+
+Education, liberal, 169, 186, 210
+
+Education, medical, 181
+
+Education and religion, 188
+
+Education, scientific, 168
+
+Education of teachers, 195
+
+Education, university, 195
+
+Eggs of Mammalia, 156
+
+Egypt, 276
+
+Ejects, 221
+
+Elementary education, 188
+
+Elementary lessons in physiology, 172
+
+Embryology and zoölogy, 177
+
+Embryology of brain and skull, 130-133
+Embryology of Mammals, 156, 157
+
+Embryology of man, 159
+
+Embryos, marine, 176
+
+Embryos of vertebrates, 157
+
+Endostyle of Ascidians, 56
+
+England in eighteenth century, 239
+
+English Bible, 245
+
+English men of letters, 218
+
+English philosophers, 218
+
+Eohippus, 78
+
+_Erdkunde_, 170, 171
+
+Error, 243
+
+Established church and Education, 189
+
+Ether, 219
+
+Ethics and evolution, 263
+
+Ethical process, 265
+
+Eutheria, 142
+
+Evidence, limitations of, 231
+
+Evidence for miraculous, 258
+
+Evil, 268, 269, 271
+
+Evolution, 60, 62, 63, 108, 110, 122, 168, 248
+
+Evolution and Christianity, 122
+
+Evolution of Cosmos, 250-253
+
+Evolution not an explanation of Cosmos, 229
+
+Evolution and Darwinism, 94
+
+Evolution before Darwin, 91, 93, 100
+
+Evolution, Darwin's contribution to, 93, 104
+
+Evolution and ethics, 263
+
+Evolution of horse, 73
+
+Evolution and natural selection, 124-127
+
+Evolution and pain, 268
+
+Evolution, philosophy of, 272
+
+Evolution and palæontology, 86, 87
+
+Evolution and Theism, 244
+
+Evolutionist, 281
+
+Exposition, Huxley's method of, 208
+
+
+F
+
+Faith, agnostic, 243
+
+Falkenstein, 153
+
+Fayrer, Sir Joseph, 10, 11
+
+Feet of anthropoids, 164
+
+Fertility of artificial breeds, 127
+
+Fiddle, 278
+
+_Fisgard_, H.M.S., 46
+
+Fish, fossil, 68
+
+Fisheries, Inspector of, 277
+
+Flower, Sir William, 146
+
+Forbes, Edward, 47, 63
+
+Foreign languages, 196, 213
+
+_Forms of Animal Life_, 178
+
+Fossils, 67, 68
+
+Fossils, chronological arrangement of, 87
+
+Fossils and evolution, 87
+
+Foundation membranes of Medusæ, 40-43
+
+Foster, Sir Michael, 47, 64, 180, 283
+
+Freedom of the Press, 240
+
+Freedom of thought, 231, 233
+
+French, 213
+
+French Revolution, 111
+
+French translations, 216
+
+Fullerian Professor, 64
+
+Function, changes in, 230
+
+
+G
+
+Galileo, 247
+
+Gallinaceous birds, 139
+
+Gambit, 169
+
+Game of life, 170
+
+Garden, as an instance of interference with cosmic process, 267
+
+Garnier, 151
+
+Gasteropoda, 58
+
+Gegenbauer, 59
+
+Genesis, 234, 248, 250, 251, 252
+
+Geographical distribution, 137-141
+
+Geological addresses, 79, 80
+
+Geological club, 234
+Geological contemporaneity, 79
+
+Geological history, 249
+
+Geological Society of London, 70, 78, 80, 86
+
+Geological time, 84, 85
+
+Geology and the Bible, 80
+
+Geology and catastrophism, 80, 81
+
+Geology compared with biology, 82
+
+Geology, history of, 234
+
+German, 213
+
+Gibbons, 149
+
+Girls, education of, 190
+
+Glacial acetic acid, 176
+
+Gladstone, W.E., 248, 250, 251, 263
+
+Goethe, 99, 130, 132
+
+Goethe, quotations from, 130
+
+Gold, transmutation of, 256
+
+Goodness, 269, 273
+
+Gorilla, 87, 149, 161
+
+Gospels, 254
+
+Gosse, P.H., 118
+
+Government, 239
+
+Greek, 213;
+  in education, 186
+
+Greek ethics, 269
+
+Groos, Prof., 154
+
+
+H
+
+Haeckel, Prof. E., 91, 136
+
+Hands of Anthropoids, 164
+
+Haslar Hospital, 11, 12
+
+Heathorn, Miss H.A., 19
+
+Hebrew Cosmogony, 246
+
+Hebrew Morality, 259
+
+Hebrew Scriptures, 250
+
+Heine, 261
+
+Henle and Meissner, reports of, 182
+
+Hercules, 246
+
+Hertwig, 134
+
+Hindustan, 269
+
+Hipparion, 74-76
+
+Hippocampus minor, 162, 163
+
+Histological methods, 177
+
+Hobbes, 218
+
+Home office, 277
+
+Homo, classification of, 160
+
+Homology in organs of Medusæ, 123
+
+Homotaxis in geology, 80
+
+Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, 47, 98, 101
+
+Horse, 68-78, 174
+
+Hospitals in London, 181
+
+Howes, Professor G.B., 173, 174, 207, 277
+
+Humboldt, 92
+
+Hume, David, 217, 218, 223, 240, 255, 256
+
+Hume, David, quotations from, 223, 241, 256
+
+Humour, 209
+
+Hunterian Professor, 129
+
+Hutton, James, 81, 249
+
+Huxley, birth, 2;
+  parents, 2, 3;
+  school, 4;
+  apprenticed to medicine, 5;
+  enters Charing Cross Hospital, 8;
+  first original paper, 9;
+  graduates at London University, 10;
+  becomes M.R.C.S., 11;
+  appointed to Haslar Hospital, 11;
+  appointed to _Rattlesnake_, 12;
+  meets his future wife at Sydney, 19;
+  first paper to Royal Society, 33;
+  Royal medals, 34;
+  becomes F.R.S., 47;
+  leaves naval service, 48;
+  appointed to Geological Survey and School of Mines, 63;
+  becomes Fullerian Professor, 64;
+  marriage, 64;
+  examiner, 65;
+  Croonian lecturer, 66;
+  visits America, 70;
+  becomes Secretary and President of Geological Society, 78;
+  accepts Darwinism, 101;
+  receives Darwin medal, 108;
+  becomes Hunterian Professor,129;
+  starts laboratory courses at South Kensington, 180;
+  becomes candidate for London School Board, 189;
+  serves on Royal Commissions,196, 204;
+  becomes member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, 205;
+  marriage, 274;
+  ill-health and retirement, 276;
+  death, 277;
+  personal appearance, 277
+
+Huxley's layer in root-sheath of hairs, 10
+
+Hydra, 50
+
+Hypothesis as to History of Nature, 248, 249
+
+
+I
+
+Ichthyopsida, 143
+
+Idealism, 220, 224
+
+Ideals and culture, 186
+
+Indian speculation, 269
+
+Individuality of animals, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55
+
+Infallibility, 123, 236
+
+Inspiration, 246, 247, 253, 254
+
+Instincts, 154
+
+Intellect, 243
+
+Intermediate and linear types, 87
+
+_International Scientific Series_, 173
+
+_Invertebrata, Manual of_, 175
+
+Ionia, 169
+
+Israel, 245
+
+
+J
+
+Jermyn Street lectures to working men, 207
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 219
+
+Judaism and science, 246
+
+Justice, 265, 269, 271, 273
+
+
+K
+
+Kant, 84, 242, 262
+
+Karma, 269
+
+Kelvin, Lord, 84
+
+Knowledge and authority, 104, 105
+
+Kölliker, 49, 59
+
+Kowalevsky, 57
+
+
+L
+
+Laboratory work, 177, 179, 180
+
+Labyrinthodonts, 69
+
+Lamarck, 90, 91, 97
+
+Lamarckism and Darwinism, 94, 97
+
+Languages, modern, 6, 7
+
+Lankester, Professor E. Ray, 57, 60, 94, 180, 277, 282
+
+Larvæ, 158
+
+Latin, 186, 213
+
+Law-courts and evidence, 231
+
+Lawrence, Sir W., 144
+
+Lectures at the School of Mines, 180
+
+Lemurs, 163
+
+Leutemann, 153
+
+Leverrier, 209
+
+Leviticus, 245
+
+Liberal education, 228
+
+Life, origin of, 227, 228
+
+Limbs of Man and Gorilla, 162
+
+Linear and intermediate types, 87
+
+Linnæan Society of London, 33, 49, 115, 138, 145
+
+Linnæus, 38, 234
+
+Literary culture, 186
+
+_Literary Gazette_, 48
+
+Literary style, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215
+
+Literature, the Bible as, 254
+
+Liverpool, 169
+
+Living bodies, nature of, 228
+
+Locke, 224
+
+Lockyer, Sir Norman, 211
+
+London, medical education in, 181
+
+London, school board of, 189
+
+Loyola, 262
+
+Loxomma, 69
+
+Lucas, Mr., 113
+
+Luther, 262
+
+Lyell, Sir Charles, 81, 91, 98, 144, 234, 249
+
+Lyonet, 173
+
+
+M
+
+MacGillivray, John, 16, 17, 282
+
+MacGillivray, William, 16, 100
+
+Macmillan and Co., 171
+
+Magna Charta, the Bible as, 245
+
+Mammalia, classification of, 142
+
+Man and the Apes, 155
+
+Man, classification of, 146
+
+Man and Gorilla, 161
+
+Man, origin of, 144
+
+_Man and the Apes_, 165
+
+_Man's Place in Nature_, 147, 148
+
+Manes and Manicheism, 265
+
+Mantle of molluscs, 58
+
+_Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_, 175
+
+_Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, 175
+
+Marine embryos, 176
+
+Marmosets, 163
+
+Marriage, 19, 274
+
+Marsh, Professor, 70-78
+
+Marsupials, 141
+
+Mason, Sir Josiah, 185
+
+Materialism, 217, 220, 222, 225, 227
+
+Matter and ideas, 224
+
+Matter, nature of, 219-221
+
+Matthew, Patrick, 100
+
+Mauritius, 18
+
+Medical education, 167, 181, 184
+
+Medical students, 181, 279
+
+Medusæ, 33, 39, 40, 41, 42, 96, 123
+
+Membrane bones, 134
+
+Mental capacity of apes, 152
+
+Mercy, 265
+
+Mertens, 56
+
+Mesohippus, 77
+
+Metals, transmutation of, 257
+
+Metaphysics, 241
+
+Metaphysics and science, 217
+
+Metatheria, 142
+
+Methods in histology, 177
+
+Microscope, 32, 176
+
+Microtomes, 177
+
+Milton, 213
+
+Mind and body, 220
+
+Mind, growth of, 210
+
+Miohippus, 76
+
+Miracles, 246, 254-259
+
+Missionary spirit, 262
+
+Mitral valve, 175
+
+Mivart, Dr. St. George, 246-248
+
+Modern spirit, 241
+
+Modification of species, 92
+
+Mollusca, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 96
+
+Morality and religion, 237, 238
+
+Morality of Stoics, 238
+
+Morley, John, 217, 260
+
+Mosaic Deluge, 235
+
+Moseley, Professor H.N., 15
+
+Mucous layer of germ, 43
+
+Müller, Johannes, 6, 37, 56
+
+Music, 278
+
+
+N
+
+Naples, International Zoölogical Station at, 176
+
+Naturalism, 226
+
+Natural selection, 94, 99, 100, 103, 105, 124-127
+
+Nature, continuity of, 255
+
+Nature, history of, 248
+
+Nature, state of, 266
+
+_Nature_, 211
+
+_Naval Architecture and Timber_, 100
+
+Nebular hypothesis, 230
+
+Newman, Cardinal, 240
+
+New Testament, 253, 254
+
+Nirvana, 272
+
+Noah's Deluge, 235
+
+Notochord, 134
+
+Notogoea, 140
+
+
+O
+
+Oken, 130, 132, 133
+
+Old Testament, 90
+
+Omar, 272
+
+Optimism, 270
+
+Orangs, 149
+
+Order of nature, 255, 258
+
+Organic _versus_ Inorganic, 229
+
+Organon, 242
+
+Origin of species, 89, 95, 101, 102, 110
+
+_Origin of Species_, reviews of, 113, 114, 115, 146
+
+Ormuzd, 265
+
+Ornithology, 136
+
+Ornithorhynchus, 156
+
+Ornithoscelida, 69
+
+Orohippus, 77
+
+Orthodoxy, 246
+
+Owen, Sir Richard, 65, 66, 115, 118-121, 131, 133, 136, 145, 146, 162
+
+Oxford, 120, 125, 263, 264
+
+Oxford, Bishop of, _see_ Wilberforce
+
+
+P
+
+Pain, 268, 270, 271
+
+Palæontology and evolution, 68, 86
+
+Palæotherium, 74
+
+Paley, 230
+
+Pascal, 122
+
+Payment of teachers by results, 195
+
+Pelagic life, 30, 31
+
+Pelvis of man and gorilla, 161
+
+Pentateuch, 234, 244
+
+Pessimism, 270
+
+Phillips, Professor, 69
+
+_Philosophic Zoölogique_, 97, 98
+
+Philosophy, Huxley's advice on, 218
+
+Phosphorescence, 55
+
+Physical education, 189
+
+Physical geography, 170
+
+_Physics_ of Aristotle, 100
+
+_Physiography_, 171
+
+Physiology, 172
+
+Pigafetta, 149
+
+Pigmies, 149
+
+_Pioneers of Evolution_, 127
+
+Plankton, 30, 31
+
+Plato's Archetypes, 59
+
+Plato's philosophy, 224
+
+Pliohippus, 76
+
+"Portuguese man-of-war," 41, 50
+
+Possibilities in logic, 258
+
+Poulton, Professor E.B., 109, 127
+
+Prayer, efficacy of, 258
+
+Priestley, Joseph, 239
+
+Primers of science, 171
+
+Primitive groove, 135
+
+_Principles of Geology_, 234
+
+Professional education, 183
+
+Protestantism, 123, 233, 235, 236
+
+Protestant churches and knowledge, 247
+
+Protestants and the Bible, 247
+
+Protohippus, 74
+
+Protoplasm, 52, 228
+
+Prototheria, 142
+
+Psychology, 227
+
+Pterodactyls, 69
+
+Pteropods, 56
+
+Pyrosoma, 55
+
+
+Q
+
+_Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_, 49
+
+_Quarterly Review_, 115, 116, 117
+
+
+R
+
+Rabbinical maxim of inspiration, 247
+
+Radiata of Cuvier, 38
+
+Rathke, 65
+
+Ratites, 137
+
+_Rattlesnake_, H.M.S., 13, 20, 21, 46, 282
+
+Reade lecture, 146
+
+Reason, age of, 239
+
+Reformation, New, 284
+
+Reformation, Protestant, 122, 233
+
+Religion in education, 188, 191
+
+Religion and morality, 237, 238
+
+Religion and science, 120, 259
+
+Religion, teaching, 191
+
+Results, payment by, 195
+
+Retina and light, 219
+
+Revelation, 260
+
+Revolution, French, 111
+
+Richardson, Sir John, 12
+
+Rights of man, 245
+
+Robertson, Charles, 179
+
+Rolleston, Professor, 152, 153, 266
+
+Romanes, Professor, 152, 153, 263
+
+Romanes lecture, 263
+
+Rome, 247
+
+Roscoe, Professor, 171
+
+Rosse, Earl of, 34
+
+Royal College of Science, 176, 180, 204, 274, 277
+
+Royal College of Surgeons, 11, 129, 132
+
+Royal Commissions, 204, 274
+
+Royal Institution, 49, 52, 62, 64
+
+Royal Society, 33, 34, 47, 49, 53, 58, 108, 129, 276
+
+Rutherford, Professor, 180
+
+
+S
+
+Salisbury, Marquis of, 125
+
+"Sally," the chimpanzee, 153
+
+Salps, 50, 53, 54, 55, 96
+
+Salt, Dr., 5
+
+Sauropsida, 143
+
+Saururæ, 136
+
+Savages, 23, 24, 165
+
+Sawyer, Bob, 184
+
+Scepticism, 240
+
+Schematic mollusc, 60
+
+School boards, 188, 189
+
+School of Mines, 180
+
+Schwann, 52
+
+Science and Art Department, 195
+
+Science and culture, 185
+
+Science and Judaism, 246
+
+Science and medical education, 184
+
+Science and metaphysics, 217
+
+Science and religion, 259
+
+_Science and the Christian Tradition_, 248
+
+_Science and the Hebrew Tradition_, 248
+
+Science primers, 171
+
+Scientific education, 168
+
+Sclater, P.L., 138, 139, 142
+
+Scottish universities, 167
+
+Scriptures, 246
+
+Section-cutting, 177
+
+Secular education, 191, 194
+
+Sedgwick, Professor Adam, 80, 115
+
+Segmentation of eggs, 157
+
+Segmentation of skull, 133
+
+Selection and education, 190
+
+Selective breeding, 103
+
+Semite, ethics of, 269
+
+Septuagint, 251
+
+Serous layer of germ, 43
+
+Sheldonian theatre, 264
+
+Singing for children, 193
+
+_Skepsis, thätige_, of Goethe, 99
+
+Skull of vertebrates, 65, 129, 130, 131, 132
+
+Socrates, 243
+
+Southern hemisphere, former land in, 141
+
+Speaking, public, 208
+
+Species, 92, 98, 106, 107, 108, 125, 126, 127
+
+Specialists as teachers, 182
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 91, 94, 123
+
+Sponges, 42
+
+Spontaneity of living matter, 228
+
+Stanley, Captain Owen, 12, 13
+
+State of nature, 266
+
+Stevenson, R.L., quotation from, 174
+
+Stewart, Professor Balfour, 171
+
+Stoic morality, 192, 238
+
+Stoics, 238, 269, 272
+
+Struggle for existence, 93, 94, 95, 104, 266, 267, 271
+
+Style, analysis of, 211, 212
+
+Suarez, Father, 214
+
+Substance of mind and matter, 223
+
+Supernaturalism, 226
+
+Superstition, 242
+
+Survival of the fittest, 93, 94, 104
+
+Suspensoria of jaws, 133
+
+Switzerland, 275
+
+Sydney, 19, 32
+
+Synoptic Gospels, 254
+
+
+T
+
+Tapirs, 78
+
+Teachers, education of, 195
+
+Teeth of anthropoids, 149
+
+Teeth of the horse, 73
+
+Teleology, 230
+
+Temper, 278
+
+Theism and evolution, 244
+
+Theology, 259
+
+Theology in education, 191
+
+Theoretical work in medical education, 184
+
+Thomas, Oldfield, 142
+
+Thomson, Sir W., now Lord Kelvin, _q.v._
+
+Thread-cells of Medusæ, 41
+
+Time required for evolution, 84, 85
+
+_Times_, the London, 66, 108, 113
+
+Todd and Bowman's _Cyclopædia of Anatomy_, 49
+
+Toronto, University of, 48
+
+Tow-net material, 31
+
+Transmigration, 269
+
+Transmutation of species, 99
+
+_Treatise on Human Nature_, 240
+
+Tree of evolution, 35
+
+Tyndall, Professor John, 47, 48, 275
+
+Types, 36, 96, 166
+
+Types for laboratory dissection, 178, 180, 181
+
+Types, intermediate and linear, 165
+
+
+U
+
+Uniformitarianism in geology, 81, 240
+
+University education, 195
+
+University of London, 65
+
+University of Toronto, 48
+
+
+V
+
+Variation in anatomy, 166
+
+Verification, method of, 179
+
+Vertebræ, structure of, 131
+
+Vertebral theory of the skull, 129-132
+
+Vertebrata, 128
+
+Vertebrata, ancestors of, 57
+
+Vertebrata, classification of, 43
+
+Vertebrata, embryos of, 157
+
+_Vestiges of Creation_, 63, 97
+
+Vivisection, 205
+
+Voltaire, 260
+
+Von Baer, 37, 43, 62, 96
+
+Voyage of _Beagle_, 28
+
+Voyage of _Challenger_, 15
+
+Voyage of _Rattlesnake_, 20, 21
+
+
+W
+
+Wallace, Alfred Russel, 95, 101, 271
+
+Weight of brains, 164
+
+Weismann, Professor A., 94
+
+Wells, W.C., 100
+
+_Westminster Review_, 107, 114
+
+Wharton Jones, Dr., 9, 37
+
+Whewell, 115
+
+Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121
+
+Willey, Arthur, 57
+
+Wine miracle at Cana, 257
+
+Wollaston, 98
+
+Words, use of, 213, 214
+
+Workmen, lectures to, 207
+
+
+Y
+
+York, Archbishop of, 234
+
+
+Z
+
+Zoölogical Society, 138
+
+Zoölogical science and laboratories, 177
+
+Zoölogist, Huxley as a, 283
+
+Zoölogy, 173
+
+Zoöphytes, 40
+
+
+
+
+The Story of the Nations.
+
+
+Messrs. G.P. Putnam's Sons take pleasure in announcing that they have
+in course of publication, in co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of
+London, a series of historical studies, intended to present in a
+graphic manner the stories of the different nations that have attained
+prominence in history.
+
+In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly
+indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are
+presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+as well as to universal history.
+
+It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into
+the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as
+they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and
+wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the
+myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be
+overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the
+actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical
+authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.
+
+The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover
+connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so
+that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it
+is, of course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in
+their chronological order.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
+
+The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in handsome 12mo
+form. They are adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and
+indexes. Price per vol., cloth, $1.50; half morocco, gilt top, $1.75.
+
+The following are now ready:
+
+GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.
+ROME. Arthur Gilman.
+THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.
+CHALDEA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.
+NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
+SPAIN. Rev. E.E. and Susan Hale.
+HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vámbéry.
+CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.
+THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.
+PERSIA. S.G.W. Benjamin.
+ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.
+ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J.P. Mahaffy.
+ASSYRIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.
+IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.
+TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+MEDIÆVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.
+HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.
+MEXICO. Susan Hale.
+PHOENICIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.
+EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Pool.
+RUSSIA. W.R. Morfill.
+THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W.D. Morrison.
+SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.
+SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.
+PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.
+THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C.W.C. Oman.
+SICILY. E.A. Freeman.
+THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.
+POLAND. W.R. Morfill.
+PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+JAPAN. David Murray.
+THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H.E. Watts.
+AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.
+SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.
+VENICE. Alethea Wiel.
+THE CRUSADES. T.S. Archer and C.L. Kingsford.
+VEDIC INDIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+BOHEMIA. C.E. Maurice.
+CANADA. J.G. Bourinot.
+THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.
+BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R.W. Frazer.
+MODERN FRANCE. André Le Bon.
+THE BUILDING OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.
+THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.
+THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.
+THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.
+AUSTRIA, THE HOME OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY, FROM 1282 TO THE PRESENT DAY.
+  Sidney Whitman.
+CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.
+MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A.S. Hume.
+MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.
+THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
+
+Other volumes in preparation are:
+
+THE UNITED STATES, 1775-1897. Prof. A.C. McLaughlin. Two vols.
+BUDDHIST INDIA. Prof. T.W. Rhys-Davids.
+MOHAMMEDAN INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+
+
+Heroes of the Nations.
+
+EDITED BY
+
+EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD.
+
+
+A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of
+representative historical characters about whom have gathered the
+great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a
+picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
+
+The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities
+on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as
+history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men
+and of the events connected with them.
+
+To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume,
+handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately
+illustrated according to the special requirements of the several
+subjects. The volumes will be sold separately as follows:
+
+Large 12^o, cloth extra              $1 50
+Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top   1 75
+
+
+
+
+HEROES OF THE NATIONS.
+
+
+A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of certain
+representative historical characters, about whom have gathered the
+great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+ideals.
+
+The volumes will be sold separately as follows: cloth extra, $1.50;
+half leather, uncut edges, gilt top, $1.75.
+
+The following are now ready:
+
+NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.
+GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C.R.L. Fletcher.
+PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.
+THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.
+SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By. H.R. Fox-Bourne.
+JULIUS CÆSAR. By W. Warde Fowler.
+WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.
+NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P.F. Willert.
+CICERO. By J.L. Strachan-Davidson.
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.
+PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C.R. Beazley.
+JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.
+LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.
+CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.
+LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.
+JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.
+ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.
+HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.
+ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.
+THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.
+SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.
+BISMARCK. By J.W. Headlam.
+ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.
+CHARLEMAGNE. By H.W.C. Davis.
+OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.
+RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.
+DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.
+SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX., of France). By Frederick Perry.
+LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.
+
+Other volumes in preparation are:
+
+MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.
+JUDAS MACCABÆUS. By Israel Abrahams.
+HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford.
+SOBIESKI. By F.A. Pollard.
+ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.
+FREDERICK II. By A.L. Smith.
+MARLBOROUGH. By C.W.C. Oman.
+RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. By T.A. Archer.
+WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.
+JUSTINIAN. By Edward Jenks.
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His
+Life And Work, by P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type"
+    content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Thomas Henry Huxley - A
+      Sketch of His Life and Work by P. Chalmers Mitchell, M.A.
+      (Oxon.).
+    </title>
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+  <body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life
+And Work, by P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life And Work
+
+Author: P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2005 [EBook #16935]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, LN Yaddanapudi and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="frontispiece"
+      id="frontispiece">[Frontispiece]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 301px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-huxley-front.jpg"
+        alt="THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY-ill-huxley-front.jpg"
+        title="THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY" height="403" width="301" />
+        <span class="caption">THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY</span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <h3 style="text-align: left; text-decoration: underline;">
+      Leaders in Science
+    </h3>
+    <h1>
+      THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+    </h1>
+    <h2>
+      A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE AND WORK
+    </h2>
+    <br />
+     <br />
+
+    <h5>
+      BY
+    </h5>
+    <br />
+
+    <h3>
+      P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A. (<i>Oxon.</i>)
+    </h3>
+    <br />
+     <br />
+
+    <hr style="width: 15%;" />
+    <h3>
+      G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+    </h3>
+    <br />
+
+    <div class="center">
+      <table
+      style="text-align: center; width: auto; font-size: small;"
+      border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="15" summary="">
+        <tbody>
+          <tr>
+            <td>
+              NEW YORK<br />
+               27 WEST TWENTY THIRD STREET<br />
+            </td>
+            <td>
+              LONDON<br />
+               24 BEDFORD STREET STRAND<br />
+            </td>
+          </tr>
+          <tr>
+            <td colspan="2">
+              The Knickerbocker Press<br />
+               1900
+            </td>
+          </tr>
+        </tbody>
+      </table>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <div class="center">
+      <span class="smcap">Copyright 1900</span><br />
+       BY<br />
+       G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS<br />
+      <br />
+      <br />
+      <br />
+       The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+    </div>
+    <br />
+     <br />
+
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="v" id="v">[v]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-v.png" alt="" title="" height="82"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      This volume is in no sense an intimate or authorised
+      biography of Huxley. It is simply an outline of the
+      external features of his life and an account of his
+      contributions to biology, to educational and social
+      problems, and to philosophy and metaphysics. In preparing
+      it, I have been indebted to his own Autobiography, to the
+      obituary notice written by Sir Michael Foster for the Royal
+      Society of London, to a sketch of him by Professor Howes,
+      his successor at the Royal College of Science, and to his
+      published works. The latter consist of many well-known
+      separate volumes which are familiar to all zo&ouml;logists,
+      and of a vast number of memoirs and essays scattered in
+      various scientific and general publications. The general
+      Essays were collected into nine volumes, revised by himself
+      in the later years of his life, and published by Messrs.
+      Macmillan. The Scientific Memoirs, thanks to the generous
+      enterprise of the same publishing firm, with which he was
+      so long associated, and to the pious labours of Sir Michael
+      Foster and Professor Ray Lankester, are in process of
+      reissue in the form of four volumes, two of which have now
+      appeared. These will contain all his important
+      contributions to science, with the exception of a large
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="vi" id="vi">[vi]</a></span>
+      separate treatise on the <i>Oceanic Hydrozoa</i> published
+      by the Ray Society in 1859. There is also announced a
+      formal Biography, prepared by his son, so that future
+      admirers or students of Huxley's work will be in an
+      exceptionally favourable position.
+    </p>
+    <p class="smcap" style="margin-left: 1em;">
+      London, 1900. <span class="ralign">P. CHALMERS
+      MITCHELL.</span>
+    </p>
+    <br />
+     <br />
+     <br />
+
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-vi.png" alt="" title="" height="197"
+        width="337" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <br />
+     <br />
+
+    <hr />
+    <h2>
+      Leaders in Science
+    </h2>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="vii"
+      id="vii">[vii]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-vii.png" alt="" title="" height="84"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a>
+    </h2>
+    <hr style="width: 15%;" />
+    <p style="text-align: right;">
+      PAGE
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#v">v</a></span><a
+      href="#PREFACE">PREFACE</a>
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p1">1</a></span>FROM SCHOOL
+      TO LIFE-WORK
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Birth&mdash;Parentage&mdash;School-days&mdash;Choice of
+      Medical Profession&mdash;Charing Cross Hospital&mdash;End
+      of Medical Studies&mdash;Admission to Naval Medical
+      Service.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p13">13</a></span>THE VOYAGE
+      OF THE RATTLESNAKE
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      The Objects of the Voyage&mdash;The Route&mdash;The
+      Naturalist and the Surgeon&mdash;Collecting and
+      Dredging&mdash;Stay in Sydney&mdash;Adventures with the
+      Natives&mdash;Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the
+      <i>Beagle</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p30">30</a></span>FLOATING
+      CREATURES OF THE SEA
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      The Nature of Floating Life&mdash;Memoir on Medus&aelig;
+      Accepted by the Royal Society&mdash;Old and New Ideas of
+      the Animal Kingdom&mdash;What Huxley Discovered in
+      Medus&aelig;&mdash;His Comparison of them with Vertebrate
+      Embryos
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="viii"
+      id="viii">[viii]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p46">46</a></span>EARLY DAYS
+      IN LONDON
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Scientific Work as Unattached
+      Ship-Surgeon&mdash;Introduction to London Scientific
+      Society&mdash;Translating, Receiving, and
+      Lecturing&mdash;Ascidians&mdash;Molluscs and the
+      Archetype&mdash;Criticism of Pre-Darwinian
+      Evolution&mdash;Appointment to Geological Survey.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p67">67</a></span>CREATURES
+      OF THE PAST
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Beginning Pal&aelig;ontological Work&mdash;Fossil Amphibia
+      and Reptilia&mdash;Ancestry of Birds&mdash;Ancestry of the
+      Horse&mdash;Imperfect European Series Completed by Marsh's
+      American Fossils&mdash;Meaning of Geological
+      Contemporaneity&mdash;Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+      Compared with Evolution in Geology&mdash;Age of the
+      Earth&mdash;Intermediate and Linear Types.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p89">89</a></span>HUXLEY AND
+      DARWIN
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Early Ideas on Evolution&mdash;Erasmus
+      Darwin&mdash;Lamarck&mdash;Herbert Spencer&mdash;Difference
+      between Evolution and Natural Selection&mdash;Huxley's
+      Preparation for Evolution&mdash;The Novelty of Natural
+      Selection&mdash;The Advantage of Natural Selection as a
+      Working Hypothesis&mdash;Huxley's Unchanged Position with
+      regard to Evolution and Natural Selection from 1860 to
+      1894.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p110">110</a></span>THE
+      BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Huxley's Prevision of the Battle&mdash;The Causes of the
+      Battle&mdash;The <i>Times</i> Review&mdash;Sir Richard Owen
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="ix" id="ix">[ix]</a></span>
+      attacks Darwinism in the <i>Edinburgh
+      Review</i>&mdash;Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the
+      <i>Quarterly</i> Review&mdash;Huxley's Scathing
+      Replies&mdash;The British Association Debates at
+      Oxford&mdash;Huxley and
+      Wilberforce&mdash;R&eacute;sum&eacute; of Huxley's Exact
+      Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a
+      href="#p128">128</a></span>VERTEBRATE ANATOMY
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull&mdash;Goethe, Oken,
+      Cuvier, and Owen&mdash;Huxley Defends Goethe&mdash;His own
+      Contributions to the Theory&mdash;The Classification of
+      Birds&mdash;Huxley Treats them as "Extinct
+      Animals"&mdash;Geographical Distribution&mdash;Sclater's
+      Regions&mdash;Huxley's Suggestions.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p144">144</a></span>MAN AND
+      THE APES
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Objections to Zo&ouml;logical Discussion of Man's
+      Place&mdash;Owen's Prudence&mdash;Huxley's Determination to
+      Speak out&mdash;Account of his Treatment of <i>Man's Place
+      in Nature</i>&mdash;Additions Made by More Recent Work.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p167">167</a></span>SCIENCE
+      AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago&mdash;Huxley's Insistence
+      on Reform&mdash;Science
+      Primers&mdash;Physiography&mdash;Elementary
+      Physiology&mdash;<i>The Crayfish</i>&mdash;Manuals of
+      Anatomy&mdash;Modern Microscopical Methods&mdash;Practical
+      Work in Biological Teaching&mdash;Invention of the Type
+      System&mdash;Science in Medical Education&mdash;Science and
+      Culture.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p188">188</a></span>GENERAL
+      PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="x" id="x">[x]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Establishment of Compulsory Education in England&mdash;The
+      Religious Controversy&mdash;Huxley Advocates the Bible
+      without Theology&mdash;His Compromise on the
+      "Cowper-Temple" Clause&mdash;Influence of the New
+      Criticism&mdash;Science and Art Instruction&mdash;Training
+      of Teachers&mdash;University Education&mdash;The Baltimore
+      Address&mdash;Technical Education&mdash;So-called "Applied
+      Science"&mdash;National Systems of Education as
+      "Capacity-Catchers."
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p204">204</a></span>CITIZEN,
+      ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs&mdash;Official in
+      Scientific Societies&mdash;Royal
+      Commissions&mdash;Vivisection&mdash;Characteristics of his
+      Public Speaking&mdash;His Method of Exposition&mdash;His
+      Essays&mdash;Vocabulary&mdash;Phrase-Making&mdash;His Style
+      Essentially One of Ideas.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p218">218</a></span>THE
+      OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Science and Metaphysics&mdash;Berkeley, Hume, and
+      Hobbes&mdash;Existence of Matter and Mind&mdash;Descartes's
+      Contribution&mdash;Materialism and Idealism&mdash;Criticism
+      of Materialism&mdash;Berkeley's Idealism&mdash;Criticism of
+      Idealism&mdash;Empirical Idealism&mdash;Materialism as
+      opposed to Supernaturalism&mdash;Mind and
+      Brain&mdash;Origin of Life&mdash;Teleology, Chance, and the
+      Argument from Design.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p232">232</a></span>FREEDOM
+      OF THOUGHT
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Authority and Knowledge in Science&mdash;The Duty of
+      Doubt&mdash;Authority and Individual Judgment in
+      Religion&mdash;The Protestant Position&mdash;Sir Charles
+      Lyell and the Deluge&mdash;Infallibility&mdash;The Church
+      and Science&mdash;Morality and Dogma&mdash;Civil and
+      Religious Liberty&mdash;Agnosticism and <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="xi" id="xi">[xi]</a></span>
+      Clericalism&mdash;Meaning of Agnosticism&mdash;Knowledge
+      and Evidence&mdash;The Method of Agnosticism.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p245">245</a></span>THE
+      BIBLE AND MIRACLES
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible&mdash;A <i>Magna
+      Charta</i> of the Poor&mdash;The Theological Use of the
+      Bible&mdash;The Doctrine of Biblical
+      Infallibility&mdash;The Bible and Science&mdash;The Three
+      Hypotheses of the Earth's History&mdash;Changes in the Past
+      Proved&mdash;The Creation Hypothesis&mdash;Gladstone on
+      Genesis&mdash;Genesis not a Record of Fact&mdash;The
+      Hypothesis of Evolution&mdash;The New
+      Testament&mdash;Theory of Inspiration&mdash;Reliance on the
+      Miraculous&mdash;The Continuity of Nature no <i>a
+      priori</i> Argument against Miracles&mdash;-Possibilities
+      and Impossibilities&mdash;Miracles a Question of
+      Evidence&mdash;Praise of the Bible.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p261">261</a></span>ETHICS
+      OF THE COSMOS
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Conduct and Metaphysics&mdash;Conventional and Critical
+      Minds&mdash;Good and Evil&mdash;Huxley's Last Appearance at
+      Oxford&mdash;The Ethical Process and the Cosmic
+      Process&mdash;Man's Intervention&mdash;The Cosmic Process
+      Evil&mdash;Ancient Reconciliations&mdash;Modern Acceptance
+      of the Difficulties&mdash;Criticism of Huxley's
+      Pessimism&mdash;Man and his Ethical Aspirations Part of the
+      Cosmos.
+    </p>
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      <a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p275">275</a></span>CLOSING
+      DAYS AND SUMMARY
+    </p>
+    <p class="blockquot">
+      Huxley's Life in London&mdash;Decennial Periods&mdash;
+      Ill-health&mdash;Retirement to
+      Eastbourne&mdash;Death&mdash;Personal
+      Appearance&mdash;Methods of Work&mdash;Personal
+      Characteristics&mdash;An Inspirer of Others&mdash;His
+      Influence in Science&mdash;A Naturalist by
+      Vocation&mdash;His Aspirations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p287">287</a></span><a
+      href="#INDEX">INDEX</a>
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="xiii"
+      id="xiii">[xiii]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-xiiia.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="83" width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      ILLUSTRATIONS
+    </h2>
+    <hr style="width: 15%;" />
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign">PAGE</span>
+    </p>
+    <br />
+
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a
+      href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></span> THOMAS HENRY
+      HUXLEY<br />
+          <i>From a photograph by London Stereoscopic Company</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p64">64</a></span>THOMAS
+      HENRY HUXLEY, 1857<br />
+          <i>Reproduced by permission from "Natural Science,"
+      vol. vii., No. 42</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p98">98</a></span>SIR JOSEPH
+      DALTON HOOKER<br />
+          <i>From a photograph by Elliott and Fry, London</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p146">146</a></span>CHARLES
+      DARWIN<br />
+          <i>From the painting by Hon. John Collier in the
+      National Portrait Gallery</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a href="#p236">236</a></span>SIR
+      CHARLES LYELL<br />
+          <i>From a photograph by London Stereoscopic Company</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign"><a
+      href="#p276">276</a></span>CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY
+      HIMSELF<br />
+          <i>Reproduced by permission from "Natural Science,"
+      vol. vii., No. 46.</i>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 203px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-xiiib.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="47" width="203" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="xv" id="xv">[xv]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-xv.png" alt="" title="" height="82"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      LIST OF HUXLEY'S WRITINGS
+    </h2>
+    <hr style="width: 15%;" />
+    <p>
+      This list is offered, not as a bibliography in the
+      technical sense, but as an indication of the sources in
+      which the vast majority of Huxley's scientific and general
+      work may be consulted most conveniently.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley</i>.
+      Edited by Professor Sir Michael Foster and Professor E. Ray
+      Lankester; in four volumes. London, Macmillan &amp; Co.;
+      New York, D. Appleton.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        This magnificent collection is intended to contain all
+        Huxley's original scientific papers, brought together
+        from the multitude of scientific periodicals in which
+        they appeared, with reproductions of the original
+        illustrations. The only exception is the monograph on
+        <i>Oceanic Hydrozoa</i>. The first volume appeared in
+        1898; the second in 1899, and the others are to follow
+        quickly.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>Collected Essays by T.H. Huxley</i>; nine volumes of the
+      Eversley Series. Macmillan &amp; Co. London, 1893-95.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        This set, edited by Huxley himself, contains the more
+        important of his more general contributions to science
+        and his literary, philosophical, and political and
+        critical essays. Each volume has a preface specially
+        written, and the first volume contains his autobiography.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="xvi"
+      id="xvi">[xvi]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Oceanic Hydrozoa</i>; a description of the
+      Calycophorid&aelig; and Physophorid&aelig; observed during
+      the Voyage of H.M.S. <i>Rattlesnake</i> in the years
+      1846-50, with a general introduction. Ray Society. London,
+      1859.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature</i>. Williams &amp;
+      Norgate. London, 1863.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>On our Knowledge of the Causes of Organic Phenomena</i>;
+      being Six Lectures to Working Men. Hardwicke. London, 1863.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy</i>. On
+      the Classification of Animals and the Vertebrate Skull.
+      Churchill &amp; Sons. London, 1864.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>An Elementary Atlas of Comparative Osteology</i>. In
+      twelve plates. Williams &amp; Norgate. London, 1864.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Lessons in Elementary Physiology</i>. Macmillan &amp;
+      Co. London, 1866.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>An Introduction to the Classification of Animals</i>.
+      Churchill. London, 1869.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>A Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals</i>.
+      Churchill. London, 1871.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>A Course of Practical Instruction in Elementary
+      Biology</i>, assisted by H.N. Martin. Macmillan. London,
+      1875.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>A Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals</i>.
+      Churchill. London, 1877.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="xvii"
+      id="xvii">[xvii]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Lay Sermons, Essays, and Reviews</i>. Macmillan. London,
+      1877.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of
+      Biology</i>. Macmillan. London, 1877.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Physiography, an Introduction to the Study of
+      Zo&ouml;logy</i>. International Scientific Series. Kegan
+      Paul. London, 1880.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Introductory Primer</i>. Science Primers. Macmillan.
+      London, 1880.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin</i>. Edited by
+      his son, Francis Darwin. Volume II., with Chapter V. by
+      Professor Huxley on the Reception of the <i>Origin of
+      Species</i>. John Murray. London, 1887.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Life of Richard Owen</i>. By his grandson. With an Essay
+      on Owen's Position in Anatomical Science, by T.H. Huxley.
+      John Murray. London, 1894.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-xvii.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="133" width="305" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p1" id="p1">[1]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-001.png" alt="" title="" height="86"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+    </h2>
+    <hr style="width: 15%;" />
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Birth&mdash;Parentage&mdash;School-days&mdash;Choice of
+        Medical Profession&mdash;Charing Cross Hospital&mdash;End
+        of Medical Studies&mdash;Admission to Naval Medical
+        Service.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Some men are born to greatness: even before their arrival
+      in the world their future is marked out for them. All the
+      advantages that wealth and the experience of friends can
+      bring attend their growth to manhood, and their success
+      almost loses its interest because of the ease with which it
+      is attained. Few of the leaders of science were in such a
+      position: many of them, such as Priestley, Davy, Faraday,
+      John Hunter, and Linn&aelig;us were of humble parentage,
+      and received the poorest education: most of them, like
+      Huxley himself, have come from parents who were able to do
+      little more for their children than set them out into life
+      along the ordinary educational avenues. In Huxley's boyhood
+      at least a comfortable income was necessary for this: in
+      every civilised country nowadays, state endowments, <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p2" id="p2">[2]</a></span> or
+      private endowments, are ready to help every capable boy, as
+      far as Huxley was helped, and in his progress from boyhood
+      to supreme distinction, there is nothing that cannot be
+      emulated by every boy at school to-day. The minds of human
+      beings when they are born into the world are as naked as
+      their bodies; it matters not if parents, grandparents, and
+      remoter ancestors were unlettered or had the wisdom of all
+      the ages, the new mind has to build up its own wisdom from
+      the beginning. We cannot even say with certainty that
+      children inherit mental aptitudes and capacities from their
+      parents; for as tall sons may come from short parents or
+      beautiful daughters from ugly parents, so we may find in
+      the capacities of the parents no traces of the future
+      greatness of their children. None the less it is
+      interesting to learn what we can about the parents of great
+      men; and Huxley tells us that he thinks himself to have
+      inherited many characters of his body and mind from his
+      mother.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thomas Henry Huxley was born on the 4th of May, 1825, at
+      Ealing, then a little country village, now united to London
+      as a great suburb. He was the seventh child of George
+      Huxley, who was second master at the school of Dr.
+      Nicholson at Ealing. In these days private schools of
+      varying character were very numerous in England, and this
+      establishment seems to have been of high-class character,
+      for Cardinal Newman and many other distinguished men
+      received part of their education there. His mother, whose
+      maiden name was Rachel Withers, was, he tells us himself:<a
+      name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a
+      href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p3" id="p3">[3]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "A slender brunette of an emotional and energetic
+        temperament, and possessed of the most piercing black
+        eyes I ever saw in a woman's head. With no more education
+        than other women of the middle classes in her day, she
+        had an excellent mental capacity. Her most distinguishing
+        characteristic, however, was rapidity of thought. If one
+        ventured to suggest she had not taken much time to arrive
+        at any conclusion, she would say, 'I cannot help it.
+        Things flash across me.' That peculiarity has been passed
+        on to me in full strength: it has often stood me in good
+        stead: it has sometimes played me sad tricks, and it has
+        always been a danger. But, after all, if my time were to
+        come over again there is nothing I would less willingly
+        part with than my inheritance of 'mother wit.'"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From his father he thinks that he inherited little except
+      an inborn capacity for drawing, "a hot temper, and that
+      amount of tenacity of purpose which unfriendly observers
+      sometimes call obstinacy." As it happened, this natural
+      gift for drawing proved of the greatest service to him
+      throughout his career. It is imperative that every
+      investigator of the anatomy of plants and animals should be
+      able to sketch his observations, and there is no greater
+      aid to seeing things as they are than the continuous
+      attempt to reproduce them by pencil or brush.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was christened Thomas Henry, and he was unaware why
+      these names were chosen, but he humorously records the
+      curious chance that his parents should have chosen for him
+      the "name of that particular apostle with whom he had
+      always felt most sympathy."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Of his childhood little is recorded. He remembers being
+      vain of his curls, and his mother's expressed regret that
+      he soon lost the beauty of early childhood. He attended for
+      some time the school at Ealing with which his father was
+      associated, but he has little to say for the training he
+      received there. He writes:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p4" id="p4">[4]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "My regular school training was of the briefest, perhaps
+        fortunately: for, though my way of life has made me
+        acquainted with all sorts and conditions of men, from the
+        highest to the lowest, I deliberately affirm that the
+        society I fell into at school was the worst I have ever
+        known. We boys were average lads with much the same
+        inherent capacity for good and evil as any others; but
+        the people who were set over us cared about as much for
+        our intellectual and moral welfare as if they were
+        baby-farmers. We were left to the operation of the
+        struggle for existence among ourselves, and bullying was
+        the least of the ill practices current among us. Almost
+        the only cheerful reminiscence in connection with the
+        place which arises in my mind is that of a battle which I
+        had with one of my class-mates, who had bullied me until
+        I could stand it no longer. I was a very slight lad, but
+        there was a wild-cat element in me which, when roused,
+        made up for my lack of weight, and I licked my adversary
+        effectually. However, one of my first experiences of the
+        extremely rough and ready nature of justice, as exhibited
+        by the course of things in general, arose out of the fact
+        that <i>I</i>&mdash;the victor&mdash;had a black eye,
+        while he&mdash;the vanquished&mdash;had none, so that I
+        got into disgrace and he did not. One of the greatest
+        shocks I ever received in my life was to be told, a dozen
+        years afterwards by the groom who brought me my horse in
+        a stable-yard in Sydney, that he was my quondam
+        antagonist. He had a long story of family misfortune to
+        account for his position&mdash;but at that time it was
+        necessary to deal very cautiously with mysterious
+        strangers in New South Wales, and on enquiry I found that
+        the unfortunate young man had not only been 'sent out,'
+        but had undergone more than one colonial conviction."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was soon removed from school and continued his own
+      education for several years, by reading of the most
+      desultory sort. His special inclinations were towards
+      mechanical problems, and had he been able to follow his own
+      wishes there is little doubt but that he would have entered
+      on the profession of an engineer. It is probable that there
+      was a great deal more in his wishes than the familiar
+      inclination of a clever boy to <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p5" id="p5">[5]</a></span> engineering. All through
+      the pursuit of anatomy, which was the chief business of his
+      life, it was the structure of animals, the different
+      modifications of great ground-plans which they presented,
+      that interested him. But the opportunity for engineering
+      did not present itself, and at an exceedingly early age he
+      began to study medicine. Two brothers-in-law were doctors,
+      and this accidental fact probably determined his choice. In
+      these days the study of medicine did not begin as now with
+      a general and scientific education, but the young medical
+      student was apprenticed to a doctor engaged in practice. He
+      was supposed to learn the compounding of drugs in the
+      dispensary attached to the doctor's consulting-room; to be
+      taught the dressing of wounds and the superficial details
+      of the medical craft while he pursued his studies in
+      anatomy under the direction of the doctor. Huxley's master
+      was his brother-in-law, Dr. Salt, a London practitioner,
+      and he began his work when only twelve or thirteen years of
+      age. In this system everything depended upon the superior;
+      under the careful guidance of a conscientious and able man
+      it was possible for an apt pupil to learn a great deal of
+      science and to become an expert in the treatment of
+      disease. Huxley, however, had only a short experience of
+      this kind of training. He was taken by some senior student
+      friends to a post-mortem examination, and although then, as
+      all through his life, he was most sensitive to the
+      disagreeable side of anatomical pursuits, on this occasion
+      he gratified his curiosity too ardently. He did not cut
+      himself, but in some way poisonous matter from the body
+      affected him, and he fell into so bad a state of health
+      that he had to be sent into the country to recruit. He
+      lived for some time at a farmhouse in Warwickshire with
+      friends of <span class="pagenum"><a name="p6"
+      id="p6">[6]</a></span> his father and slowly recovered
+      health. From that time, however, all through his life, he
+      suffered periodically from prostrating dyspepsia. After
+      some months devoted to promiscuous reading he resumed his
+      work under his brother-in-law in London. He confesses that
+      he was far from a model student.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I worked extremely hard when it pleased me, and when it
+        did not,&mdash;which was a frequent case,&mdash;I was
+        extremely idle (unless making caricatures of one's
+        pastors and masters is to be called a branch of
+        industry), or else wasted my energies in wrong
+        directions. I read everything I could lay hands upon,
+        including novels, and took up all sorts of pursuits to
+        drop them again quite speedily."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is almost certain, however, that Huxley underestimated
+      the value of this time. He stored his mind with both
+      literature and science, and laid the foundation of the
+      extremely varied intellectual interests which afterwards
+      proved to him of so much value. It is certain, also, that
+      during this time he acquired a fair knowledge of French and
+      German. It would be difficult to exaggerate the value to
+      him of this addition to his weapons for attacking
+      knowledge. To do the best work in any scientific pursuit it
+      is necessary to freshen one's own mind by contact with the
+      ideas and results of other workers. As these workers are
+      scattered over different countries it is necessary to
+      transcend the confusion of Babel and read what they write
+      in their own tongues. When Huxley was young, the great
+      reputation of Cuvier overshadowed English anatomy, and
+      English anatomists did little more than seek in nature what
+      Cuvier had taught them to find. In Germany other men and
+      other ideas were to be found. Johannes Mueller and Von Baer
+      were attacking the problems of <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p7" id="p7">[7]</a></span> nature in a spirit that
+      was entirely different, and Huxley, by combining what he
+      was taught in England with what he learned from German
+      methods, came to his own investigations with a wider mind.
+      But his conquest of French and German brought with it
+      advantages in addition to these technical gains. There is
+      no reason to believe that he troubled himself with
+      grammatical details and with the study of these languages
+      as subjects in themselves. He acquired them simply to
+      discover the new ideas concealed in them, and he by no
+      means confined himself to the reading of foreign books on
+      the subjects of his own studies. He read French and German
+      poetry, literature, and philosophy, and so came to have a
+      knowledge of the ideas of those outside his own race on all
+      the great problems that interest mankind. A good deal has
+      been written as to the narrowing tendency of scientific
+      pursuits, but with Huxley, as with all the scientific men
+      the present writer has known, the mechanical necessity of
+      learning to read other languages has brought with it that
+      wide intellectual sympathy which is the beginning of all
+      culture and which is not infrequently missed by those who
+      have devoted themselves to many grammars and a single
+      literature. The old proverb, "Whatever is worth doing is
+      worth doing well," has only value when "well" is properly
+      interpreted. Although the science of language is as great
+      as any science, it is not the science of language, but the
+      practical interpretation of it, that is of value to most
+      people, and there is much to be said for the method of
+      anatomists like Huxley, who passed lightly over grammatical
+      <i>minuti&aelig;</i> and went straight with a dictionary to
+      the reading of each new tongue.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      After a short period of apprenticeship, or sometimes <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p8" id="p8">[8]</a></span> during
+      the course of it, the young medical students "walked" a
+      hospital. This consisted in attending the demonstrations of
+      the physicians and surgeons in the wards of the hospital
+      and in pursuing anatomical, chemical, and physiological
+      study in the medical school attached to the hospital. A
+      large fee was charged for the complete course, but at many
+      of the hospitals there were entrance scholarships which
+      relieved those who gained them of all cost. In 1842 Huxley
+      and his elder brother, James, applied for such free
+      scholarships at Charing Cross Hospital. There is no record
+      in the books of the hospital as to what persons supported
+      the application. The entry in the minutes for September 6,
+      1842, states that
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Applications from the following gentlemen (including the
+        two sons of Mr. George Huxley, late senior assistant
+        master in Ealing School), were laid before the meeting,
+        and their testimonials being approved of, it was decided
+        that those gentlemen should be admitted as free scholars,
+        if their classical attainments should be found upon
+        examination to be satisfactory."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It appears that the two Huxleys were able to satisfy the
+      probably unexacting demands of the classical examiners, for
+      they began their hospital work in October of the same year.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Those who know the magnificent laboratories and
+      lecture-rooms which have grown up in connection with the
+      larger London hospitals must have difficulty in realising
+      the humble arrangements for teaching students in the early
+      forties. What endowments there were&mdash;and Charing Cross
+      was never a richly endowed hospital&mdash;were devoted
+      entirely to the hospital as opposed to the teaching school.
+      There were no separate buildings for anatomy, physiology,
+      and so forth. <span class="pagenum"><a name="p9"
+      id="p9">[9]</a></span> At Charing Cross the dissecting-room
+      was in a cellar under the hospital, and subjects like
+      chemistry, botany, physiology, and so forth were crowded
+      into inconvenient side rooms. The teachers were not
+      specialists, devoting their whole attention to particular
+      branches of science, but were doctors engaged in practice,
+      who, in addition to their private duties and their work at
+      the hospital, each undertook to lecture upon a special
+      scientific subject. Huxley came specially under the
+      influence of Mr. Wharton Jones, who had begun to teach
+      physiology at the hospital a year before. Mr. Jones
+      throughout his life was engaged in professional work, his
+      specialty being ophthalmic surgery, but he was a devoted
+      student of anatomy and physiology, and made several
+      classical contributions to scientific knowledge, his
+      best-known discoveries relating to blood corpuscles and to
+      the nature of the mammalian egg-cell. But perhaps his
+      greatest claim to fame is that it was he who first imbued
+      Huxley with a love for anatomical science and with a
+      knowledge of the methods of investigation. At the end of
+      his first session, in 1843, Huxley received the first prize
+      in the senior physiology class, while his brother got a
+      "good conduct" prize. Of Wharton Jones Huxley writes:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The extent and precision of his knowledge impressed me
+        greatly, and the severe exactness of his method of
+        lecturing was quite to my taste. I do not know that I
+        have ever felt so much respect for anybody as a teacher
+        before or since. I worked hard to obtain his approbation,
+        and he was extremely kind and helpful to the youngster
+        who, I am afraid, took up more of his time than he had
+        any right to do. It was he who suggested the publication
+        of my first scientific paper&mdash;a very little
+        one&mdash;in the <i>Medical Gazette</i> of 1845, and most
+        kindly corrected the literary faults which abounded in it
+        short as it <span class="pagenum"><a name="p10"
+        id="p10">[10]</a></span>was. For at that time, and for
+        many years afterwards, I detested the trouble of writing
+        and would take no pains over it."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This little paper, although Huxley deprecates it, was
+      remarkable as the work of so young an investigator. In it
+      he demonstrated the existence of a hitherto unrecognised
+      layer in the inner root-sheath of hairs, a layer that has
+      been known since as Huxley's layer.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no record in the minutes of the hospital school
+      that Huxley gained any other school prizes. His name
+      reappears only in formal applications at the beginning of
+      each session for the renewal of his free scholarship. In
+      this respect he is in marked contrast to his
+      fellow-student, afterwards Sir Joseph Fayrer, who appears
+      to have taken almost every prize open to him. On the other
+      hand, his attainments in anatomy and physiology brought him
+      distinction in a wider field than the hospital school, for
+      he obtained, in the "honours" division of the first
+      examination for the degree of Bachelor of Medicine at the
+      University of London, the second place with a medal. And it
+      is certain that he was far from neglecting his strictly
+      professional work, although, no doubt, he devoted much time
+      to reading and research in pure science, for in the winter
+      of 1845-46, having completed his course at the hospital, he
+      was prepared to offer himself at the examination for the
+      membership of the Royal College of Surgeons; but, being as
+      yet under twenty-one years of age, could not be admitted as
+      a candidate.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was now time for Huxley definitely to enter on his
+      profession. He would have preferred to continue his
+      investigations in London and to wait for the chance of a
+      teaching post in physiology, but it was necessary to earn a
+      living. One of those whom he consulted was <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p11" id="p11">[11]</a></span>his
+      fellow-student, Joseph Fayrer, who, hailing from Bermuda,
+      knew something of those who go down to the sea in ships. He
+      advised Huxley to write to Sir William Burnett, at that
+      time Director-General for the medical service of the navy,
+      for an appointment.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I thought this rather a strong thing to do," says Huxley
+        in his autobiography, "as Sir William was personally
+        unknown to me; but my cheery friend would not listen to
+        my scruples, so I went to my lodgings and wrote the best
+        letter I could devise. A few days afterwards I received
+        the usual official circular of acknowledgement, but at
+        the bottom was written an instruction to call at Somerset
+        House on such a day. I thought that looked like business,
+        so, at the appointed time I called and sent in my card,
+        while I waited in Sir William's ante-room. He was a tall,
+        shrewd-looking old gentleman, with a broad Scotch
+        accent&mdash;and I think I see him now as he entered with
+        my card in his hand. The first thing he did was to return
+        it with the frugal reminder that I should probably find
+        it useful on some other occasion. The second was to ask
+        whether I was an Irishman. I suppose the air of modesty
+        about my appeal must have struck him. I satisfied the
+        Director-General that I was English to the backbone, and
+        he made some enquiries as to my student career, finally
+        desiring me to hold myself ready for examination. Having
+        passed this, I was in Her Majesty's service, and entered
+        on the books of Nelson's old ship, the <i>Victory</i>,
+        for duty at Haslar Hospital, about a couple of months
+        after I made my application."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About the same time he passed the examination of the Royal
+      College of Surgeons and so became a fully qualified medical
+      man. Haslar Hospital was the chief naval hospital to which
+      invalided sailors were sent. There was a considerable staff
+      of young surgeons, as navy surgeons were usually sent for a
+      term to work in the hospital before being gazetted to a
+      ship in commission. In connection with the hospital, there
+      was a <span class="pagenum"><a name="p12"
+      id="p12">[12]</a></span>museum of natural history
+      containing a collection of considerable importance slowly
+      gathered from the gifts of sailors and officers. The museum
+      curator was an enthusiastic naturalist, and Huxley must
+      have had the opportunity of extending his knowledge of at
+      least the external characters of many forms of life
+      hitherto unknown to him. A few years later, the curator of
+      the museum, with the help of two of Huxley's successors,
+      published a <i>Manual of Natural History for the Use of
+      Travellers</i>, and it is certain that Huxley at least did
+      not lose at Haslar any of the enthusiasm for zo&ouml;logy
+      with which he had been inspired at the Charing Cross
+      Hospital. The chief of the hospital was Sir John
+      Richardson, an excellent naturalist, and well known as an
+      arctic explorer. He seems to have recognised the peculiar
+      ability of his young assistant, and although he was a
+      silent, reserved man, who seldom encouraged his assistants
+      by talking to them, he made several attempts to obtain a
+      suitable post for Huxley. Such a post was that of surgeon
+      to H.M.S. <i>Rattlesnake</i>, then about to start under the
+      command of Captain Owen Stanley for surveying work in the
+      Torres Straits. Captain Stanley had expressed a wish for a
+      surgeon who knew something of science, and, on the
+      recommendation of Sir John Richardson, obtained the post
+      for Huxley. There was, however, to be a special naturalist
+      attached to the expedition, but Huxley had the opportunity
+      he wanted. After a brief stay of seven months at the Haslar
+      Hospital he left it for his ship, and thus definitely
+      entered on his work in the world.
+    </p>
+    <div class="footnotes">
+      <h3>
+        FOOTNOTES:
+      </h3>
+      <div class="footnote">
+        <p>
+          <a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a
+          href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a>
+          This and many other details in this chapter are taken
+          from an autobiographical sketch in the first volume of
+          Huxley's collected essays published by Macmillan,
+          London, 1894.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p13" id="p13">[13]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-013.png" alt="" title="" height="84"
+        width="399" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      THE VOYAGE OF THE "RATTLESNAKE"
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        The Objects of the Voyage&mdash;The Route&mdash;The
+        Naturalist and the Surgeon&mdash;Collecting and
+        Dredging&mdash;Stay in Sydney&mdash;Adventures with the
+        Natives&mdash;Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the
+        <i>Beagle</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Her Majesty's ship the <i>Rattlesnake</i>, one of the old
+      class of 28-gun ships, sailed from Plymouth for the Torres
+      Straits and the Australian seas on December 12, 1846. Her
+      commander was Captain Owen Stanley, a young but
+      distinguished officer, the son of the Bishop of Norwich and
+      a brother of Dean Stanley, who afterwards played so great a
+      part in the social and religious history of England. She
+      carried a complement of 180 officers and men, and was
+      attended by the <i>Bramble</i> and the <i>Castlereagh</i>,
+      two small vessels of light draught, whose purpose was to
+      precede her in shallow waters. The young colonies of
+      Australia were developing commerce with the mother country,
+      and the business of the <i>Rattlesnake</i> was to survey
+      the waters round about the Torres Straits, that the passage
+      towards India on the homeward trip might be made safer.
+      Incidentally the vessel was to land a treasure of
+      &pound;50,000 at the Cape of Good Hope, and another of
+      &pound;15,000 at the Mauritius. The Admiralty Commissioners
+      left full <span class="pagenum"><a name="p14"
+      id="p14">[14]</a></span>powers to Captain Stanley to carry
+      out the details of his mission according to his own
+      judgment, but he was solemnly warned upon two points. Many
+      very unfortunate casualties had occurred when sailors came
+      in contact with the little-known savages of the southern
+      seas, and the Admiralty instructed him as follows:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In stretching off from the Barrier Reefs to the
+        eastward, in order to explore the safety of the sea
+        intervening between them and Louisiade and New Guinea,
+        you will have occasion to approach these shores, in which
+        case you must constantly be on your guard against the
+        treacherous disposition of their inhabitants. All barter
+        for refreshments must be conducted under the eye of an
+        officer, and every pains be taken to avoid giving any
+        just cause of offence to their prejudices, especially
+        with respect to their women."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The second warning concerned grave international matters.
+      European politics were in the unsettled condition which,
+      after the illusive international courtesies of the Great
+      Exhibition of 1851, ended in the Crimean War, and it was
+      feared that in the event of hostilities breaking out, the
+      zeal of the officers for their country might tempt them to
+      transcend their peaceful occupation. The instructions with
+      regard to this ran as follows:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In the event of this country being involved in
+        hostilities during your absence, you will take care never
+        to be surprised; but you are to refrain from any act of
+        aggression towards the vessels or settlements of any
+        nation with which we may be at war, as expeditions
+        employed on behalf of discovery and science have always
+        been considered by all civilised communities as acting
+        under a general safeguard."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The great scientific expeditions sent out in recent times
+      by the governments of Britain, Germany, and the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p15"
+      id="p15">[15]</a></span>United States, were fitted with
+      every convenience for the staff of naturalists, and the
+      luxuries and comforts of civilisation attended them round
+      the world. The late Professor Mosely, for instance, who was
+      a naturalist on the English <i>Challenger</i> expedition,
+      told the present writer of a pleasant way in which a
+      peculiarity of the deep sea was made to pay toll to the
+      comfort of those on board ship. The great ocean depths all
+      over the world, under the burning skies of the tropics, or
+      below the arctic ice-fields, are extremely cold, the water
+      at the bottom always being only a few degrees above
+      freezing point. When the dredge brought up a sample of the
+      abysmal mud at a convenient time, it was used to ice the
+      wine for the officers' mess. There was, however, no cooled
+      champagne for Huxley.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Life on board Her Majesty's ships in those days," he
+        writes, "was a very different affair from what it is now,
+        and ours was exceptionally rough, as we were often many
+        months without receiving letters or seeing any civilised
+        people but ourselves. In exchange, we had the interest of
+        being about the latest voyagers, I suppose, to whom it
+        could be possible to meet with people who knew nothing of
+        fire-arms&mdash;as we did on the south coast of New
+        Guinea&mdash;and of making acquaintances with a variety
+        of interesting savage and semi-civilised people. But
+        apart from experience of this kind, and the opportunities
+        offered for scientific work, to me personally the cruise
+        was extremely valuable. It was good for me to live under
+        sharp discipline; to be down on the realities of
+        existence by living on bare necessities; to find out how
+        extremely well worth living life seemed to be when one
+        woke up from a night's rest on a soft plank with the sky
+        for canopy, and cocoa and weevilly biscuit the sole
+        prospect for breakfast; and more especially to learn to
+        work for the sake of what I got for myself out of it,
+        even if it all went to the bottom and I myself along with
+        it. My brother officers were as good fellows as sailors
+        ought to be, and generally are, but naturally they
+        neither knew nor cared anything about my pursuits, nor
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p16"
+        id="p16">[16]</a></span> understood why I should be so
+        zealous in pursuit of the objects which my friends the
+        middies christened 'Buffons,' after the title conspicuous
+        on a volume of the <i>Suites &agrave; Buffon</i> which
+        stood on my shelf in the chart-room."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was only the surgeon on board the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>, and his pursuit of natural history was
+      his own affair. There was a special naturalist appointed to
+      the expedition, no doubt chosen because four years earlier,
+      as assistant to Professor Jukes, he had been attached as
+      naturalist to the expedition of the <i>Fly</i> in the same
+      waters. His name was John MacGillivray, and he was the son
+      of an exceedingly able naturalist whose reputation has been
+      overshadowed by the greater names of the middle century.
+      William MacGillivray, the father, sometime professor at the
+      University of Aberdeen, was one of those driven by an
+      almost instinctive desire to the study of nature. In his
+      youth, when he was a poor lad, desiring to see as much as
+      possible of his native land, and above all to visit the
+      great museums and libraries of the south, he walked from
+      Aberdeen to London with no luggage but a copy of Smith's
+      <i>Flora Britannica</i>. He was an ardent botanist, a
+      collector of insects and molluscs, and one of the pioneers
+      in the anatomy of birds. There are many curious allusions
+      in his writings which seem to shew that he too was
+      beginning to doubt the fixity of species, and to guess at
+      the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest
+      which the great Darwin was the first to make a part of the
+      knowledge of the world. It must be confessed that his son
+      John, the companion of Huxley, had little of his father's
+      ability. He was three years older than Huxley, and broke
+      off his medical course at the University of Edinburgh to
+      sail in the <i>Fly</i>. After the return of the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>, he was appointed in 1852 as <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p17"
+      id="p17">[17]</a></span>naturalist to H.M.S. <i>Herald</i>,
+      then starting under Captain Denham for surveying work round
+      the shores of South America. He left that ship at Sydney,
+      and after many years' wandering about the southern seas,
+      accounts of which he communicated from time to time to
+      Sydney newspapers, he died in 1867. He was a zealous
+      collector of plants and animals, but apparently cared
+      little for the study of his captures, either in life, in
+      relation to their surroundings, like Darwin, or for the
+      structure of their bodies, like Huxley. The somewhat
+      unpleasing nature of his regard for animals appears in the
+      following story which he himself tells:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "While at dinner off Darnley Island near the Torres
+        Straits, news was brought that Dzum was under the stern
+        in a canoe, shouting out loudly for Dzoka (MacGillivray's
+        native name), and, on going up I found that he had
+        brought off the barit, which after a deal of trouble I
+        struck a bargain for and obtained. It was a very fine
+        specimen of Cuscus Maculatus, quite tame and kept in a
+        large cage of split bamboo. Dzum seemed very unwilling to
+        part with the animal, and repeatedly enjoined me to take
+        great care of it and feed it well, which to please him I
+        promised to do, although I valued it merely for its skin,
+        and was resolved to kill it for that purpose at my first
+        convenience."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, MacGillivray paid great attention to
+      native languages, and collected vocabularies of some value.
+      To him was entrusted the task of writing an account of the
+      voyage, and it is from his rather dull pages, brightened by
+      illustrations from Huxley's sketches, that the incidents of
+      the voyage are taken. The references to Huxley in the
+      narrative are slight, and seem to shew that no great
+      intimacy existed between the two young men, the one a
+      naturalist by profession, the other as yet a surgeon, but
+      more devoted to natural history than the naturalist. Such
+      references <span class="pagenum"><a name="p18"
+      id="p18">[18]</a></span>as occur relate to Huxley's
+      constant occupations on shore, sketching natives and their
+      dwellings, and his apparatus on board for trawling,
+      dredging, and dissecting.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The voyage out was uneventful. The ship touched at Madeira
+      and at Rio de Janeiro, and then crossed the South Atlantic
+      to Simon's Town at the Cape of Good Hope, where the first
+      quantity of treasure was to be landed. There they found the
+      colony distressed by the long continuance of the Kaffir
+      war. Prices for everything were extortionate, and the
+      colonists had no mind for any affairs than their own, so
+      after a short stay the voyagers were glad to set out for
+      the Mauritius. That island, although in the possession of
+      Britain, still retained a strong impress of its French
+      occupation, and the travellers were interested by the
+      mixture of population inhabiting it.<a name="FNanchor_B_2"
+      id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2"
+      class="fnanchor">[B]</a>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Passing through the closely packed lines of shipping,
+        and landing as a stranger at Port Louis, perhaps the
+        first thing to engage attention is the strange mixture of
+        nations,&mdash;representatives, he might at first be
+        inclined to imagine, of half the countries of the earth.
+        He stares at a coolie from Madras with a breech-cloth and
+        a soldier's jacket, or a stately bearded Moor striking a
+        bargain with a Parsee merchant. A Chinaman with two
+        bundles slung on a bamboo hurries past, jostling a group
+        of young Creole exquisites smoking their cheroots at a
+        corner, and talking of last night's Norma, or the
+        programme of the evening's performance at the Hippodrome
+        in the Champ de Mars. His eye next catches a couple of
+        sailors reeling out of a grogshop, to the amusement of a
+        group of laughing negresses, in white muslin dresses of
+        the latest Parisian fashion, contrasting strongly with a
+        modestly attired Cingalese woman, and an Indian ayah with
+        her young charge. Amidst all this, the <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p19"
+        id="p19">[19]</a></span>French language prevails; and
+        everything more or less pertains of the French character,
+        and an Englishman can scarcely believe that he is in one
+        of the colonies of his own country."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From Mauritius they proceeded to the English-looking colony
+      of Tasmania, and after a few days set out for Sydney,
+      arriving there on July 16th. The surveying officers had
+      tedious work to do there, and Huxley stayed in Sydney for
+      three months. Then, and in the course of three other
+      prolonged stays in that town during the expedition, Huxley
+      entered into the society of the town and became a general
+      favourite. He is still remembered there, and the
+      accompanying illustration<a name="FNanchor_C_3"
+      id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3"
+      class="fnanchor">[C]</a> is a copy of an original sketch of
+      himself, now in the possession of an Australian lady. He
+      drew it on the fly-leaf of a volume of Lytton's poems and
+      presented it on her birthday to the little daughter of a
+      friend. At Sydney, too, he met and gained the love of the
+      lady, then Miss Henrietta A. Heathorn, who afterwards
+      became his wife.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On October 11th the <i>Rattlesnake</i> sailed northwards to
+      begin the real work of the expedition. The great island of
+      New Guinea, lying to the north of Australia, is separated
+      from it only by the comparatively narrow Torres Straits.
+      Through these lies the natural route for the commerce
+      between Australia and the Northern Hemisphere. The eastward
+      prolongation of New Guinea, and the coast of Queensland,
+      enclose between them a great tropical sea which gradually
+      converges to the Straits. The waters are very tempestuous,
+      and the navigation is made more dangerous by the thousands
+      of coral islands and coral reefs that stud the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p20"
+      id="p20">[20]</a></span>ocean. Following the shoreline of
+      Queensland, at a distance of from ten to one hundred and
+      fifty miles, and stretching for twelve hundred and fifty
+      miles, is the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, one of the
+      wonders of the world. The shelving floor of the ocean rises
+      nearly to the surface along this line, and vast colonies of
+      coral building creatures have formed their reefs up to the
+      water's edge along the ridge. The turbulent waves scouring
+      over this living mass have carved and moulded it into
+      millions of fantastic islands, sometimes heaping detached
+      masses of dead debris high above the surface of the water.
+      At low tide the most wonderful fields of the animal flowers
+      of the sea are exposed. Some of them form branching systems
+      of hard skeletons like stony trees, the soft, brightly
+      coloured animals dotted over the stems like buds. Others
+      form solid masses; others, again, rounded skull like
+      boulders, or elevations like toadstools. The colours of the
+      skeletons and the animals are vivid scarlets and purples
+      and greens. Sea anemones, shell-fish, and starfish of the
+      most vivid hues are as abundant as the corals. Brilliant
+      fish dart through the blossoms of the marine gardens, and
+      sea birds scream and wheel in the air. The whole region is
+      a paradise for the naturalist. Along the seaward side of
+      the reef the great ocean surges and thunders perpetually.
+      Between it and the shore the quiet channel glows under the
+      tropical skies. It was amid such scenes as these that the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i> moved for nearly four years in the slow
+      work of taking soundings, fixing the exact position of
+      channels through the outer reef by slow triangular
+      measurements, and generally preparing for the safety of the
+      commerce of all nations. The ship went first up to Port
+      Curtis in Brisbane; then fetched back to Sydney. Its next
+      trip <span class="pagenum"><a name="p21"
+      id="p21">[21]</a></span>was south to the strait between
+      Tasmania and Australia, then back to Sydney; then again
+      along the Barrier Reef right up to the Torres Straits.
+      After work there, it returned again to Sydney, and then set
+      out for the Louisiade Archipelago, which stretches through
+      the coral sea south-eastward from New Guinea; then again to
+      the Australian shores of the Torres Straits, and finally
+      arrived in Sydney in March, 1850, where the Captain
+      suddenly died, and the ship was ordered to return to
+      England.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Throughout the voyage MacGillivray and Huxley busied
+      themselves with collecting animals on sea and on shore.
+      MacGillivray seems to have taken for his share of the spoil
+      chiefly such animals as provided shells or skins or
+      skeletons suitable for handing over to museums. Huxley
+      occupied himself incessantly with dissecting tools and with
+      the microscope, with results to be described in a later
+      chapter. The better equipped expeditions of modern times
+      were provided with elaborate appliances for bringing up
+      samples of living creatures from all depths of the floor of
+      the ocean, and with complicated towing nets for securing
+      the floating creatures of the surface of the seas. The
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i> naturalists had to content themselves
+      with simple apparatus devised by themselves. At an early
+      period of the voyage attempts were made to take deep
+      soundings, but no bottom was reached at a depth of two
+      thousand four hundred fathoms, and their later work was
+      confined to surface animals or to inshore dredging in
+      shallow waters. They began near Rio.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "None of the ship's boats could be spared, so I
+        [MacGillivray] hired one pulled by four negro slaves who,
+        although strong, active fellows, had great objections to
+        straining their backs at the oar, when the dredge was
+        down. No sieve having been <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p22" id="p22">[22]</a></span>supplied, we were
+        obliged to sift the contents of the dredge through our
+        hands&mdash;a tedious and superficial mode of
+        examination. Two days after, Mr. Huxley and I set to work
+        in Botafogo Bay, provided with a wire-gauze meat-cover
+        and a curious machine for cleaning rice; these answered
+        capitally as substitutes for sieves, and enabled us, by a
+        thorough examination of the contents of the dredge, to
+        detect some forty-five species of Mollusca and Radiata,
+        some of which were new to science."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      By "new to science" MacGillivray meant no more than that
+      the particular genera and species had not been captured
+      before. Huxley, by his anatomical work, showed many of the
+      most familiar creatures in a light "new to science," by
+      revealing their true structure and relationships.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Among the acquisitions," MacGillivray goes on, "I may
+        mention a new species of Amphioxus, a genus of small
+        fishes exhibiting more anomalies than any other known to
+        Ichthyologists, and the lowest organisation found in the
+        class. It somewhat resembles the sand-eels of Britain in
+        habits, like them moving with extraordinary rapidity
+        through the sand. By dint of bribery and ridicule we had
+        at length managed to get our boatmen to work tolerably
+        well, and when we were alike well-roasted by the sun and
+        repeatedly drenched, besides being tired out and hungry,
+        they had become quite submissive, and exchanged their
+        grumbling for merriment."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The towing net repeatedly produced a rich harvest. It was
+      constructed by themselves, and consisted of a bag of the
+      bunting used for flags, two feet deep, the mouth being sewn
+      round a wooden hoop fourteen inches in diameter; three
+      pieces of cord, a foot and a half long, were secured to the
+      hoop at equal intervals and had their ends tied together.
+      This net was towed behind the ship by a stout cord. The
+      water passed through the meshes of the cloth and left
+      behind in the pocket any small floating animals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p23"
+      id="p23">[23]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Excursions ashore to the little savage islands or to the
+      mainland were a source of constant interest, and it cannot
+      be doubted that the acquaintance Huxley thus gained with
+      many of the very low savages of Australia and New Guinea
+      prepared his mind for the revolutionary doctrine of descent
+      which he embraced a few years later. At the present time,
+      there are probably very few parts of earth where there are
+      yet to be found savages unaltered by civilisation. Some of
+      the low races with which Huxley came in contact are now
+      extinct. All the survivors have come in contact with white
+      races, and their habits and customs have been altered.
+      Before long the total extinction of these lower races is to
+      be expected, and there will then be left an enormous gap
+      between the lower animals and the dominant, aggressive,
+      yellow and white races which are spreading over the earth
+      and making the lower races perish before them, as the
+      smaller but more cunning European rat has exterminated the
+      native brown rat of Australia. In their various excursions
+      upon the Australian mainland they had no trouble of any
+      kind with the natives. These were at first suspicious of
+      the doings of the white men, and their total ignorance of
+      the use of firearms tempted them to rashness; but a few
+      friendly gifts, and the exercise of tact in negotiating
+      exchanges with them, made all the encounters pass off
+      pleasantly. On the other hand, in the Louisiade Archipelago
+      where the savages were of a higher type, difficulties
+      constantly occurred. On one occasion, in a bay on the south
+      side of Joannet Island the party was attacked.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In the grey of the morning the look-outs reported the
+        approach of three canoes with about ten men in each. On
+        two or three persons shewing themselves in the bow of the
+        pinnace, in front of the rain awning, the natives ceased
+        paddling, as if <span class="pagenum"><a name="p24"
+        id="p24">[24]</a></span>baulked in their design of
+        surprising the large boat; but, after a short
+        consultation, they came alongside in their usual noisy
+        manner. After a stay of about five minutes only they
+        pushed off to the galley, and some more sham bartering
+        was attempted, but they had nothing to give in exchange
+        for the wares they so much coveted. In a short time the
+        rudeness and overbearing insolence of the natives had
+        risen to a pitch which left no doubt of their hostile
+        intentions. The anchor was got up, when some of the
+        blacks seized the painter, and others, in trying to
+        capsize the boat, brought the gunwale down to the water's
+        edge, at the same time grappling with the men to pull
+        them out, and dragging the galley inshore towards the
+        shoal-water. The bowman, with the anchor in his hand, was
+        struck on the head with a stone-headed axe. The blow was
+        repeated, but fortunately took effect only on the
+        wash-streak. Another of the crew was struck at with a
+        similar weapon, but warded off the blow, although held
+        fast by one arm, when, just as the savage was making
+        another stroke, Lieutenant Dayman, who up till now had
+        exercised the utmost forbearance, fired at him with a
+        musket. The man did not drop, although wounded in the
+        thigh. But even this, unquestionably their first
+        experience of firearms, did not intimidate the natives,
+        one of whom, standing on a block of coral, threw a spear
+        which passed across the breast of one of the boat's crew
+        and lodged in the bend of one arm, opening a vein. They
+        raised a loud shout when the spear was seen to take
+        effect, and threw several others which missed. Lieutenant
+        Simpson, who had been watching what was going on, then
+        fired from the pinnace with buckshot and struck them,
+        when, finding that the large boat, though at anchor,
+        could assist the smaller one, the canoes were paddled
+        inshore in great haste and confusion. Some more musket
+        shots were fired, and the galley went in chase
+        endeavouring to turn the canoes, so as to bring them
+        under fire of the pinnace's twelve-pounder howitzer,
+        which was speedily mounted and fired. The shot either
+        struck one of the canoes or went within a few inches of
+        the mark, on which the natives instantly jumped overboard
+        into the shallow water, making for the mangroves, which
+        they succeeded in reaching, dragging their canoes with
+        them. Two rounds of grape-shot crashing through the
+        branches dispersed the party, but afterwards they moved
+        two of the canoes out of <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p25" id="p25">[25]</a></span>sight. The remaining
+        one was brought out after breakfast by the galley under
+        cover of the pinnace, and was towed off to some distance.
+        The paddles having been taken out and the spears broken
+        and left in her, she was let go to drift down toward a
+        village whence the attacking party were supposed to have
+        come. Some blood in this canoe, although not the one most
+        aimed at, showed that the firing had not been
+        ineffective. This act of deliberate treachery was
+        perpetrated by persons who had always been well treated
+        by us, for several of the natives present were recognised
+        as having been alongside the ship in Coral Haven. This,
+        their first act of positive hostility, affords, I think,
+        conclusive evidence of the savage disposition of the
+        natives of this part of the Louisiade Archipelago when
+        incited by the hope of plunder, and shews that no
+        confidence should ever be reposed in them, unless,
+        perhaps in the presence of a numerically superior force,
+        or in the close vicinity of a ship. At the same time, the
+        boldness of these savages in attacking, with thirty men
+        in three canoes, two boats known to contain at least
+        twenty persons&mdash;even in the hopes of taking them by
+        surprise&mdash;and in not being at once driven off upon
+        feeling the novel and deadly effects of firearms, shews
+        no little amount of bravery."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On their last visit to Cape York, in the extreme north of
+      Australia, the party had the remarkable experience of
+      rescuing a white woman from captivity among the natives.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In the afternoon some of our people on shore were
+        surprised to see a young white woman come up to claim
+        their protection from a party of natives from whom she
+        had recently made her escape, and who she thought would
+        otherwise bring her back. Of course she received every
+        attention, and was taken on board the ship by the first
+        boat, when she told her story which is briefly as
+        follows: Her name is Barbara Thomson. She was born at
+        Aberdeen in Scotland, and, along with her parents,
+        emigrated to New South Wales. About four years and a half
+        ago she left Moreton Bay with her husband in a small
+        cutter, called the <i>America</i>, of which he was the
+        owner, for the purpose of picking up some of the oil from
+        the wreck of a whaler, lost on <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p26" id="p26">[26]</a></span>the Bampton shoal, to
+        which place one of her late crew undertook to guide them;
+        their ultimate intention was to go on to Port Essington.
+        The man who acted as pilot was unable to find the wreck,
+        and after much quarreling on board in consequence, and
+        the loss of two men by drowning and of another who was
+        left on a small uninhabited island, they made their way
+        up to the Torres Straits, where, during a gale of wind
+        their vessel struck upon a reef on the eastern Prince of
+        Wales Island. The two remaining men were lost in
+        attempting to swim on shore through the surf, but the
+        woman was afterwards rescued by a party of natives on a
+        turtling excursion, who, when the gale subsided, swam on
+        board and supported her on shore between two of their
+        number. One of these blacks, Boroto by name, took
+        possession of the woman as his share of the plunder; she
+        was compelled to live with him, but was well treated by
+        all the men, although many of the women, jealous of the
+        attention shewn her, for a long time evinced anything but
+        kindness. A curious circumstance secured for her the
+        protection of one of the principal men of the tribe. This
+        person, acting upon the belief, universal throughout
+        Australia and the islands of the Torres Strait, so far as
+        hitherto known, that white people are the ghosts of the
+        aborigines, fancied that in the stranger he recognised a
+        long-lost daughter, and at once admitted her into the
+        relationship which he thought had formerly subsisted
+        between them. She was immediately acknowledged by the
+        whole tribe as one of themselves, thus securing an
+        extensive connection in relatives of all denominations.
+        The headquarters of the tribe being on an island which
+        all vessels passing through the Torres Strait from the
+        eastward must approach within two or three miles, she had
+        the mortification of seeing from twenty to thirty or more
+        ships go through every summer without anchoring in the
+        neighbourhood, so as to afford the slightest opportunity
+        of making her escape. Last year she heard of our two
+        vessels being at Cape York, only twenty miles distant
+        from some of the tribe who had communicated with us and
+        had been well treated, but they would not take her over
+        and watched her even more narrowly than before. On our
+        second and present visit, however, which the Cape York
+        people immediately announced by smoke signals to their
+        friends, she was successful in persuading some of her
+        more immediate <span class="pagenum"><a name="p27"
+        id="p27">[27]</a></span>friends to bring her across to
+        the mainland within a short distance of where the vessels
+        lay. The blacks were credulous enough to believe that as
+        she had been so long with them and had been so well
+        treated, she did not intend to leave them,&mdash;only
+        'she felt a strong desire to see the white people once
+        more and shake hands with them': adding that she would be
+        certain to purchase some axes, knives, tobacco, and other
+        much-prized articles."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Although the external adventures of the <i>Rattlesnake</i>
+      party were less varied and exciting than might have been
+      expected in a voyage of four years in the tropic seas and
+      among barbarian tribes, the mental adventures through which
+      Huxley passed in the time must have been of the most
+      surprising kind. It was a four-years' course in the great
+      university of nature, and when he had finished it he was no
+      longer a mere student, capricious and unsettled in his
+      mental tastes and inclinations, but had set his face
+      steadily towards his future life-work. It is interesting to
+      compare the importance in Huxley's life of the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i> voyage with the importance in Darwin's
+      life of the voyage on the <i>Beagle</i> undertaken some
+      fifteen years earlier. Huxley, when he started, was a young
+      surgeon with a taste of a vague kind for dissecting and for
+      drawing the peculiarities of structure of different animals
+      revealed by the knife and the microscope. Day after day,
+      month after month, year after year, in the abundant leisure
+      his slight professional duties left him, he dissected and
+      drew, dissected and drew, animal after animal, as he got
+      them from the dredge or tow-net, or from the surface of the
+      coral reefs. He was not in any sense of the word a
+      collecting naturalist. The identification and naming of
+      species interested him little. What he cared for was, he
+      tells us, "the architectural and engineering part of the
+      business: the working out of the wonderful unity <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p28" id="p28">[28]</a></span>of
+      plan in the thousands and thousands of divers living
+      constructions, and the modifications of similar apparatuses
+      to serve different ends." And so, on the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>, and in his work in continuation of the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i> investigations,&mdash;which occupied
+      most of his time for a few years after his return to
+      London,&mdash;there was gradually growing up in his mind a
+      dim conception of the animal kingdom as a group of
+      creatures, not built on half a dozen or more separate plans
+      or types, each unconnected with the other, but as a varied
+      set of modifications of a single type.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When Darwin set out on the <i>Beagle</i>, unlike Huxley, he
+      was an enthusiastic collecting naturalist. He had wandered
+      from county to county in England adding new specimens to
+      his collections of butterflies and beetles. As the
+      <i>Beagle</i> went round the world visiting remote islands,
+      far from land in the centre of the waters, archipelagoes of
+      islands crowding together, islands hugging the shore of
+      continents, and the great continents of the old and new
+      worlds, he continued to collect and to classify. Gradually
+      the resemblances and differences between the creatures
+      inhabiting different parts of the earth began to strike him
+      as exhibiting an orderly plan. He saw that under apparently
+      the same conditions of food and temperature and moisture,
+      in different parts of the world the genera and species were
+      different, and that they were most alike in regions between
+      which there was the most recent chance of migrations having
+      taken place. In the quietness of England, while Huxley was
+      on the <i>Rattlesnake</i>, Darwin was slowly working
+      towards the explanation of all he had seen: towards the
+      conception that animals and plants had spread slowly from
+      common centres, becoming more and more different from each
+      other as they <span class="pagenum"><a name="p29"
+      id="p29">[29]</a></span>spread. He realised on his voyage
+      that species had come into existence by descent with
+      modification, and before long he was to publish to the
+      world in the <i>Origin of Species</i> a vast and convincing
+      bulk of evidence as to the actual fact of a common descent
+      for all the different existing organisms, and, in his
+      theory of natural selection, a reasonable explanation of
+      how the fact of evolution had come about. Darwin's greatest
+      ally in bringing the new idea before the world was Huxley,
+      and Huxley was teaching himself the absolute unity of the
+      living world. The two men were dissimilar in tastes and
+      temperament, and they were at work on quite different sides
+      of nature. When the time came, Huxley, with his commanding
+      knowledge of the structure of animals, was ready to support
+      Darwin and to illustrate and amplify his arguments by a
+      thousand anatomical proofs. It is a curious and dramatic
+      coincidence to realise that both men learned their very
+      different lessons under very similar circumstances in the
+      tropical seas of the Southern Hemisphere.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-029.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="178" width="379" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="footnotes">
+      <h3>
+        FOOTNOTES:
+      </h3>
+      <div class="footnote">
+        <p>
+          <a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a
+          href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a>
+          <i>Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake</i>,"
+          by John MacGillivray, F.R.G.S. 2 vols. T.W. Boone,
+          London, 1852.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <div class="footnote">
+        <p>
+          <a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a
+          href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a>
+          This sketch was reproduced and described in <i>Natural
+          Science</i>, vol. vii., p. 381, and is now reproduced
+          here by the courtesy of the proprietors.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p30" id="p30">[30]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-030.png" alt="" title="" height="83"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        The Nature of Floating Life&mdash;Memoir on Medus&aelig;
+        Accepted by the Royal Society&mdash;Old and New Ideas of
+        the Animal Kingdom&mdash;What Huxley Discovered in
+        Medus&aelig;&mdash;His Comparison of them with Vertebrate
+        Embryos.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As the <i>Rattlesnake</i> sailed through the tropical seas
+      Huxley came in contact with the very peculiar and
+      interesting inhabitants of the surface of the sea, known
+      now to naturalists as pelagic life or "plankton." Although
+      a poet has spoken of the "unvintageable sea," all parts of
+      the ocean surface teem with life. Sometimes, as in high
+      latitudes, the cold is so great that only the simplest
+      microscopic forms are able to maintain existence. In the
+      tropics, animals and plants are abundant, and sometimes by
+      their numbers colour great areas of water; or, as in the
+      drift of the Gulf Stream, make a tangle of animal and plant
+      life through which a boat travels only with difficulty. The
+      basis of the food supply of this vast and hungry floating
+      life is, as on land, vegetable life; for plants are the
+      only creatures capable of building up food from the gases
+      of the air and the simple chemical salts found dissolved in
+      water. Occasionally, in shallow or warm seas, marine <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p31" id="p31">[31]</a></span>
+      floating plants, large and visible like the sea-weeds of
+      the coast, form the floating masses known as Sargasso seas;
+      more often the plants are minute, microscopic specks
+      visible only when a drop of water is placed under the
+      microscope, but occurring in incredible numbers, and, like
+      the green vegetation of the earth, forming the ultimate
+      food-supply of all the living things around them.
+      Innumerable animals, great and small, live on the plants or
+      upon their fellows, and, however far he may be from land,
+      the naturalist has always abundant material got by his
+      daily use of the tow-net. This drifting population floats
+      at the mercy of the waves. Most of the animals are
+      delicate, transparent creatures, their transparency helping
+      to protect them from the attacks of hungry fellows. Nerves,
+      muscles, skin, and the organs generally are clear, pale,
+      and hardly visible. Such structures as the liver, the
+      reproductive organs, and the stomach, which cannot easily
+      become transparent, are grouped together into small knots,
+      coloured brown like little masses of sea-weed. Other
+      floating creatures are vividly coloured, but the hues are
+      bright blues and greens closely similar to the sparkling
+      tints of sea-water in sunlight. The different members of
+      this marine flotsam frequently rise and fall periodically:
+      some of them sinking by day to escape the light, others
+      rising only by day; others, again, appearing on the surface
+      in spring, keeping deep down in winter. Perhaps the
+      majority of them are phosphorescent, sometimes shining by
+      their own light, sometimes borrowing a glory from
+      innumerable phosphorescent bacteria with which they are
+      infested. Nearly every class of the animal kingdom
+      contributes members to this strange population. The young
+      forms of many fish, as for instance of conger, flying
+      gurnards, and some flatfish, are <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p32" id="p32">[32]</a></span>pelagic and have
+      colourless blood, and pale, transparent, gelatinous or
+      cartilaginous skeletons. The tadpole-like stages of the
+      sea-squirts, which in adult life are to be found attached
+      to rocks like weeds, drift about in the surface waters
+      until their time comes for settling down in life. Many
+      other Ascidians pass their whole life as pelagic creatures.
+      A few molluscs, many kinds of worms, echinoderms, and their
+      allies, crab and lobster-like creatures in innumerable
+      different stages of development, are to be found there,
+      while unnumbered polyps and jelly-fish are always present.
+      It would be difficult to imagine a better training for the
+      naturalist than to spend years, as Huxley did, working at
+      this varied assortment of living creatures. Huxley declared
+      that the difficulties of examining such flimsy creatures
+      had been exaggerated.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "At least, with a good light and a good microscope, with
+        the ship tolerably steady, I never failed in procuring
+        all the information I required. The great matter is to
+        obtain a good successive supply of specimens, as the more
+        delicate oceanic species are usually unfit for
+        examination within a few hours after they are taken."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Day after day, as the <i>Rattlesnake</i> crept from island
+      to island, Huxley examined the animals brought up by his
+      tow-net. He made endless dissections, and gradually
+      accumulated a large portfolio of drawings. Much of the time
+      he passed at Sydney was spent in libraries and museums,
+      comparing his own observations with the recorded
+      observations of earlier workers, and receiving from the
+      combination of his own work and the work of others new
+      ideas for his future investigations. It was all entirely a
+      labour of love; it lay outside the professional duties by
+      which he made his living, and for a <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p33" id="p33">[33]</a></span>long
+      time it seemed as if he was not even to gain reputation by
+      the discoveries he knew himself to be making. He writes in
+      his autobiography:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "During the four years of our absence, I sent home
+        communication after communication to the 'Linn&aelig;an'
+        Society, with the same result as that obtained by Noah
+        when he sent the raven out of his ark. Tired at last of
+        hearing nothing about them, I determined to do or die,
+        and in 1849 I drew up a more elaborate paper and
+        forwarded it to the Royal Society. This was my dove, if I
+        had only known it; but owing to the movements of the ship
+        I heard nothing of that either until my return to England
+        in the latter end of the year 1850, when I found that it
+        was printed and published, and that a huge packet of
+        separate copies awaited me. When I hear some of my young
+        friends complain of want of sympathy and encouragement, I
+        am inclined to think that my naval life was not the least
+        valuable part of my education."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This first successful paper was a memoir <i>On the Anatomy
+      and the Affinities of the Family of Medus&aelig;</i>, and
+      was sent at Captain Stanley's suggestion to that officer's
+      father, the Bishop of Norwich, who communicated it to the
+      Royal Society. It is a curious circumstance that Huxley,
+      who afterwards met with so virulent opposition from
+      bishops, owed his first public success to one of them.
+      Professor Sir Michael Foster writes of this period in
+      Huxley's life:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The career of many a successful man has shewn that
+        obstacles often prove the mother of endeavour, and never
+        was this lesson clearer than in the case of Huxley.
+        Working amidst a host of difficulties, in want of room,
+        in want of light, seeking to unravel the intricacies of
+        minute structure with a microscope lashed to secure
+        steadiness, cramped within a tiny cabin, jostled by the
+        tumult of a crowded ship's life, with the scantiest
+        supply of books of reference, with no one at hand of whom
+        he could take counsel on the problems opening up before
+        him, he gathered for himself during these four years a
+        large mass of <span class="pagenum"><a name="p34"
+        id="p34">[34]</a></span>accurate, important, and in most
+        cases novel, observations and illustrated them with
+        skilful, pertinent drawings. Even his intellectual
+        solitude had its good effects: it drove him to ponder
+        over the new facts which came before him, and all his
+        observations were made alive with scientific thought."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Afterwards, in England, he received the Royal Medal of the
+      Royal Society for this memoir on Medus&aelig;, sharing this
+      supreme distinction of scientific England with men so
+      illustrious as Joule, the discoverer of the relation
+      between force and heat, Stokes, the great investigator of
+      optical physics, and Humboldt, the traveller, all of whom
+      received medals in the same year. In making the
+      presentation to Huxley, the Earl of Rosse, then President
+      of the Royal Society, declared:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In those papers you have for the first time fully
+        developed their structure (that of the Medus&aelig;), and
+        laid the foundation of a rational theory for their
+        classification. In your second paper, on the anatomy of
+        Salpa and Pyrosoma, the phenomena have received the most
+        ingenious and elaborate elucidations, and have given rise
+        to a process of reasoning, the results of which can
+        scarcely yet be anticipated, but must bear in a very
+        important degree upon some of the most abstruse points of
+        what may be called transcendental physiology."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many reasons make it difficult for us to realise, now, the
+      singular novelty and importance of Huxley's memoir on the
+      Medus&aelig;. The first is a reason which often prevents
+      great discoveries in almost every subject from receiving in
+      after years their due respect. The years that have passed
+      since 1850 have seen not only the most amazing progress in
+      our knowledge of comparative anatomy, but almost a
+      revolution in the methods of studying it. Huxley's work has
+      been incorporated in the very body of science. A large
+      number of later investigators have advanced upon the lines
+      he laid down; and just as the superstructures of a great
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p35"
+      id="p35">[35]</a></span> building conceal the foundations,
+      so later anatomical work, although it has only amplified
+      and extended Huxley's discoveries, has made them seem less
+      striking to the modern reader. The present writer, for
+      instance, learned all that he knows of anatomy in the last
+      ten years, and until he turned to it for the purpose of
+      this volume he had never referred to Huxley's original
+      paper. When he did so, he found from beginning to end
+      nothing that was new to him, nothing that was strange: all
+      the ideas in the memoir had passed into the currency of
+      knowledge and he had been taught them as fundamental facts.
+      It was only when he turned to the text-books of anatomy and
+      natural history current in Huxley's time that he was able
+      to realise how the conclusions of the young ship-surgeon
+      struck the Fellows and President of the Royal Society as
+      luminous and revolutionary ideas.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the first half of the century, a conception of the
+      animal kingdom prevailed which was entirely different from
+      our modern ideas. We know now that all animals are bound
+      together by the bond of a common descent, and we seek in
+      anatomy a clue to the degrees of relationship existing
+      among the different animals we know. We regard the animal
+      kingdom as a thicket of branches all springing from a
+      common root. Some of these spring straight up from the
+      common root unconnected with their fellows. Others branch
+      repeatedly, and all the branches of the same stem have
+      features in common. What we see in the living world is only
+      the surface of the thicket, the tops of the twigs; and it
+      is by examination of the structure of this surface that we
+      reconstruct in imagination the whole system of branches,
+      and know that certain twigs, from their likeness, meet each
+      other a little way down; that others are connected only
+      very deep down, and that others, again, spring free almost
+      from the beginning. The fossils of beds of rock of
+      different geological ages give us incomplete views of the
+      surface of the thicket of life, as it was in earlier times.
+      These views we have of the past aspects of the animal
+      kingdom are always much more incomplete than our knowledge
+      of the existing aspect; partly because many animals, from
+      the softness of their bodies, have left either no fossil
+      remains at all, or only very <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p36" id="p36">[36]</a></span>imperfect casts of the
+      external surfaces of their bodies; and partly because the
+      turning of any animal into a fossil, and its subsequent
+      discovery by a geologist, are occasional accidents; but,
+      although the evidence is much less perfect than we could
+      wish, there is enough of it to convince anatomists that
+      existing animals are all in definite blood-relationship to
+      each other, and to make them, in the investigation of any
+      new animal, study its anatomy with the definite view of
+      finding out its place in the family tree of the living
+      world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When Huxley made his first discoveries, entirely different
+      ideas prevailed. The animal kingdom was supposed to offer a
+      series of types, of moulds, into which the Creator at the
+      beginning of the world had cast the substance of life.
+      These types were independent of each other, and had been so
+      since the beginning of things. Anatomists were concerned
+      chiefly with systematic work, with detecting and recording
+      the slight differences that existed among the numbers of
+      animals grouped around each type. No attempt was made to
+      see connection between type and type, for where these had
+      been separately created there was nothing to connect them
+      except possibly some idea in the mind of the Creator. This
+      apparently barren attitude to nature was stronger in men's
+      minds because <span class="pagenum"><a name="p37"
+      id="p37">[37]</a></span>it had inspired the colossal
+      achievements of Cuvier, a genius who, under whatever
+      misconceptions he had worked, would have added greatly to
+      knowledge. As we have seen in the first chapter, Huxley,
+      through Wharton Jones, and through his own reading, had
+      been brought under the more modern German thought of
+      Johannes Mueller and Von Baer. He had learned to study the
+      problems of living nature in the spirit of a physicist
+      making investigations into dead nature. In the anatomy of
+      animals, as in the structure of rocks and crystals, there
+      were to be sought out "laws of growth" and shaping and
+      moulding influences which accounted for the form of the
+      structures. To use the technical term, he was a
+      morphologist: one who studied the architecture of animals
+      not merely in a spirit of admiring wonder, but with the
+      definite idea of finding out the guiding principles which
+      had determined these shapes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not only was the prevailing method of investigation faulty,
+      but actual knowledge of a large part of the animal kingdom
+      was extremely limited. In the minds of most zo&ouml;logists
+      the animal kingdom was divided into two great groups: the
+      vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrate, or
+      back-boned, animals were well known; comparatively speaking
+      they are all built upon the type of man; and human
+      anatomists, who indeed made up the greater number of all
+      anatomists, using their exact knowledge of the human body,
+      had studied many other vertebrates with minute care, and,
+      from man to fishes, had arranged living vertebrates very
+      much in the modern order. But the invertebrates were a
+      vague and ill-assorted heap of animals. It was not
+      recognised that among them there were many series of
+      different grades of ascending complexity, and there <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p38" id="p38">[38]</a></span>was
+      no well-known form to serve as a standard of comparison for
+      all the others in the fashion that the body of man served
+      as a standard of comparison for all vertebrates. Here and
+      there, a few salient types such as insects and snails had
+      been picked out, but knowledge of them helped but little
+      with a great many of the invertebrates. The great
+      Linn&aelig;us had divided the animal kingdom into four
+      groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and
+      fishes, but for the invertebrates he had done no more than
+      to pick out the insects as one group and to call everything
+      else "Vermes" or worms. The insects included all creatures
+      possessed of an external skeleton or hard skin divided into
+      jointed segments, and included forms so different as
+      insects, spiders, crabs, and lobsters. But Vermes included
+      all the members of the animal kingdom that were neither
+      vertebrates nor insects. Cuvier advanced a little. He got
+      rid of the comprehensive title Vermes&mdash;the label of
+      the rubbish-heap of zo&ouml;logists. He divided animals
+      into four great subkingdoms: Vertebrates, Mollusca,
+      Articulata, Radiata. These names, however, only covered
+      very superficial resemblances among the animals designated
+      by them. The word <i>Mollusca</i> only meant that the
+      creatures grouped together had soft bodies, unsupported by
+      internal or external articulated skeletons; and this
+      character, or, rather, absence of character, was applied
+      alike to many totally dissimilar creatures. The term
+      <i>Articulata</i> included not only Linn&aelig;us's insects
+      but a number of soft-skinned, apparently jointed, worm-like
+      animals such as the leech and earthworm. Lastly, the name
+      <i>Radiata</i> meant no more than that the organs of the
+      creatures so designated were more or less disposed around a
+      centre, as the sepals and petals of a flower are grouped
+      around the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p39"
+      id="p39">[39]</a></span>central pistil; and it included
+      animals so different as the starfish and sea-anemones and
+      Medus&aelig;. The names used in the classification were not
+      only loosely applied but were based on the most superficial
+      observation, and took no account of the intimate structures
+      of the tissues and organs of the animals. With slight
+      modifications, due to individual taste or special knowledge
+      of small groups, later writers had followed Linn&aelig;us
+      and Cuvier.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was with a view of the animal kingdom not much clearer
+      than this that Huxley began his work on the Medus&aelig; of
+      the tropic seas. He began to study them no doubt simply
+      because they were among the most abundant of the animals
+      that could be obtained from the ship. He made endless
+      dissections and drawings, and, above all, studied their
+      minute anatomy with the microscope. They were all placed
+      among Cuvier's <i>Radiata</i>, but, as Huxley said in the
+      first line of his memoir:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Perhaps no class of animals has been investigated with
+        so little satisfactory and comprehensive result, and this
+        not for the want of patience and ability on the part of
+        the observers, but rather because they have contented
+        themselves with stating matters of detail concerning
+        particular genera and species, instead of giving broad
+        and general views of the whole class, considered as
+        organised upon a given type, and inquiring into its
+        relations with other families."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He found that fully developed Medus&aelig; consisted each
+      of a disc with tentacles and vesicular bodies at the
+      margins, a stomach, and canals proceeding from it, and
+      generative organs. He traced this simple common structure
+      through the complications and modifications in which it
+      appeared in the different groups of Medus&aelig;, in all
+      this work bringing out the prevailing features of <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p40" id="p40">[40]</a></span>the
+      anatomy in contrast to the individual peculiarities. He
+      shewed that microscopically all the complicated systems of
+      canals and organs were composed of two
+      "foundation-membranes," two thin webs of cells, one of
+      which formed the outermost layer of the body, while the
+      inner formed the lining of the stomach and canals in the
+      thinner parts of the body, such as the edges of the
+      umbrella-like disc, and towards the ends of the tentacles.
+      These thin webs formed practically all the body. In the
+      thicker parts there was interposed between them an almost
+      structureless layer of jelly, placed like padding between
+      the lining and the cloth of a coat. He shewed that
+      blood-vessels and blood were absent, in which he has been
+      confirmed by all other observers. He declared more
+      doubtfully against the existence of a special nervous
+      system, and it was not until long after, when the methods
+      of microscopic investigation were much more perfect, that
+      the delicate nerve-cells and nerve-fibres, which we now
+      know to exist, were discovered.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Having thus shewn the peculiar organisation of the group he
+      turned to seek out its allies among other families. The
+      Medus&aelig; consisted essentially of two membranes
+      inclosing a variously shaped cavity inasmuch as all its
+      organs were so composed. The generative organs were
+      external, being variously developed processes of the two
+      membranes. The peculiar organs called
+      thread-cells&mdash;poisoned darts by the discharge of which
+      prey could be paralysed&mdash;were universally present.
+      What other families presented these peculiarities?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are to be found abundantly in sea-water, and less
+      frequently in fresh water, innumerable forms of animal life
+      called Zo&ouml;phytes or animal plants because they occur
+      as encrusting masses like lichens, or <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p41"
+      id="p41">[41]</a></span>branched forests like moss, on the
+      surface of stones and shells. A common habit gave this set
+      of creatures their common name; but, although they were
+      grouped together, there was no greater affinity among them
+      than there is racial affinity among people who clothe
+      themselves for an evening party in the same conventional
+      dress. Huxley examined a large number of these, and picked
+      out from them two great families of polyps, the Hydroid and
+      Sertularian polyps, which each consist of colonies of
+      creatures very much like the little fresh-water hydra. He
+      shewed that the tubular body of these and the ring of
+      tentacles surrounding the mouth were composed of the same
+      two foundation-membranes of which all the organs of
+      Medus&aelig; are composed. He found in them the poisoned
+      arrows or thread-cells of the Medus&aelig;, and the same
+      external position of the reproductive organs. And, lastly,
+      he separated from all other creatures, and associated with
+      his new group, some of the strangest and most beautiful
+      animals of the tropic seas, known to science as the
+      Physophorid&aelig; and the Diphyid&aelig;. The best-known
+      of these is the "Portuguese man-of-war," the body of which
+      consists of a large pear-shaped vesicle which floats on the
+      water like a bladder. From the lower part of this depend
+      into the water large and small nutritive branches, each
+      ending in a mouth surrounded by a circle of waving
+      tentacles armed with batteries of thread-cells, while
+      another set of hanging protrusions bear the grape-like
+      reproductive organs. On the upper surface of the bladder is
+      fixed a purple sail of the most brilliant colour, by which
+      the floating creature is blown through the water. When the
+      weather is rough, the bladder empties, and the creature
+      sinks down into the quiet water below the waves, <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p42" id="p42">[42]</a></span> to
+      rise again when the storm is over. This, and its equally
+      wonderful allies, Huxley showed to be a complicated colony
+      of hydra-like creatures, each part being composed of two
+      membranes, and therefore essentially similar to
+      Medus&aelig;. Thus, by a great piece of constructive work,
+      an assemblage of animals was gathered into a new group and
+      shewn to be organised upon one simple and uniform plan,
+      and, even in the most complex and aberrant forms, reducible
+      to the same type. The group, and Huxley's conception of its
+      structure, are now absolutely accepted by anatomists, and
+      have made one of the corner-stones of our modern idea of
+      the arrangement of the animal kingdom. With the exception
+      of sponges, concerning the exact relations of which there
+      is still dispute, and of a few sets of parasitic and
+      possibly degenerate creatures, all animals, the bodies of
+      which are multicellular, from the simple fresh-water hydra
+      up to man, are divided into two great groups. The structure
+      of the simpler of these groups is exactly what Huxley found
+      to be of importance in the Medus&aelig;. The body wall,
+      from which all the organs protrude, consists merely of a
+      web of cells arranged in two sheets or membranes, and the
+      single cavity consists of a central stomach, surrounded by
+      these membranes, the cavity remaining simple or giving rise
+      to a number of branching canals. The members of this great
+      division of the animal kingdom are the creatures which
+      Huxley selected and placed together, with the addition of
+      the sea-anemones and the medusa-like Ctenophora, which,
+      indeed, he mentioned in his memoir as being related to the
+      others, but reserved fuller consideration for a future
+      occasion. This group is now called the C&oelig;lenterata,
+      the name implying that the creatures are simply hollow
+      stomachs, and it is <span class="pagenum"><a name="p43"
+      id="p43">[43]</a></span>contrasted in the strongest way
+      with the group C&oelig;lomata, in which are placed all the
+      higher animals, from the simplest worm up to man; animals
+      in which, in addition to the two foundation-membranes of
+      the C&oelig;lenterata, there is a third
+      foundation-membrane, and in which, in addition to the
+      simple stomach cavity with its offshoots, there is a true
+      body-cavity or c&oelig;lome, and usually a set of spaces
+      and channels containing a blood-fluid. The older method of
+      naming groups of animals after some obvious superficial
+      character lingered on for some years in text-books and
+      treatises, but in this memoir the young ship-surgeon had
+      replaced it by the modern scientific method of grouping
+      animals together only because of real identity of
+      structure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is yet left to be noticed perhaps the most wonderful
+      of all the ideas in this first memoir by Huxley. In the
+      course of describing the two foundation membranes of the
+      Medus&aelig; he remarks:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It is curious to remark, that throughout, the outer and
+        inner membranes appear to bear the same physiological
+        relation to one another as do the serous and mucous
+        layers of the germ: the outer becoming developed into the
+        muscular system, and giving rise to the organs of offence
+        and defence: the inner on the other hand appearing to be
+        more closely subservient to the purposes of nutrition and
+        generation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the whole range of science it would be difficult to
+      select an utterance more prophetic of future knowledge than
+      these few words. Huxley had been reading the investigations
+      of Von Baer into the early development of back-boned
+      animals. He had learned from them the great generalisation,
+      that the younger stages of these animals resemble one
+      another more closely than the adult stages, and that in an
+      early stage in the development of all these animals the
+      beginning of the embryo <span class="pagenum"><a name="p44"
+      id="p44">[44]</a></span>consists of two layers of cells, in
+      fact of two foundation-membranes, one forming specially the
+      wall of the future digestive canal, the other forming the
+      most external portion of the future animal. In these days
+      nothing could have seemed a remoter or more unlikely
+      comparison than one instituted between Medus&aelig; and the
+      embryonic stages of back-boned animals. But Huxley made it,
+      not allowing the evidence brought before his reason to be
+      swamped by preconceived ideas. At the time he did no more
+      than to make the comparison. It was much later that the
+      full importance of it became known, when more extended work
+      on the embryology of vertebrates and of the different
+      groups of the invertebrates had made it plain that the two
+      foundation-membranes of Huxley occur in all animals from
+      the Medus&aelig; up to man. In the group of
+      C&oelig;lenterata the organisation remains throughout life
+      as nothing more than a folding in and folding out of these
+      membranes. The early stages of all the higher animals
+      similarly consist of complications of the two membranes;
+      but later on there is added to them a third membrane. Thus
+      the group that Huxley gathered together comprises those
+      animals that as adults remain in a condition of development
+      which is passed through in the embryonic life of all higher
+      animals. The immense importance of this conclusion becomes
+      plain, and the conclusion itself seems obvious, when seen
+      in the light of the doctrine of descent. The group of
+      C&oelig;lenterata represents a surviving, older condition
+      in the evolution of animals. Huxley himself, when on the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>, regarded evolution only as a vague
+      metaphysical dream, and he made the comparison which has
+      been described without any afterthought of what it implied.
+      In this we have the earliest authentic instance of the
+      peculiar integrity <span class="pagenum"><a name="p45"
+      id="p45">[45]</a></span>of mind which was so characteristic
+      of him in his dealings with philosophy and tradition. He
+      never allowed any weight of authority or any apparent
+      disturbance of existing ideas to alter the conclusions to
+      which his reason led him. This intellectual courage made
+      him fitted to be the leader in the battle for evolution and
+      against traditional thought, and we shall find again and
+      again in consideration of his work that it was the keynote
+      of his life.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-045.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="178" width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p46" id="p46">[46]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-046.png" alt="" title="" height="84"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      EARLY DAYS IN LONDON
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Scientific Work as Unattached
+        Ship-Surgeon&mdash;Introduction to London Scientific
+        Society&mdash;Translating, Reviewing, and
+        Lecturing&mdash;Ascidians&mdash;Molluscs and the
+        Archetype&mdash;Criticism of Pre-Darwinian
+        Evolution&mdash;Appointment to Geological Survey.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The <i>Rattlesnake</i> was paid off at Chatham on November
+      9, 1850. In the natural course of events Huxley would have
+      been appointed before long to active service upon another
+      ship. But he had no intention of relapsing into the
+      position of a mere navy doctor; he had accumulated
+      sufficient scientific material to keep him employed on
+      scientific investigation for years, and so he applied to
+      the Admiralty to "be borne on the books" of H.M.S.
+      <i>Fisgard</i> at Woolwich,&mdash;that is to say, to be
+      appointed assistant-surgeon to the ship "for particular
+      service," so that he should not be compelled to live on
+      board, but might remain in town, and, with free access to
+      libraries and museums, work up the observations he had made
+      on the <i>Rattlesnake</i> into serious and substantial
+      contributions to science. His request was granted, largely
+      by the aid of his old chief, Sir W. Burnett, who continued
+      to take the most useful interest in the young man he had
+      originally <span class="pagenum"><a name="p47"
+      id="p47">[47]</a></span> nominated to the service. In a
+      letter to him Huxley described the investigations which he
+      desired to continue as being chiefly those on "the anatomy
+      of certain Gasteropod and Pteropod Mollusca, of Firola and
+      Atlantis, of Salpa and Pyrosoma, of two new Ascidians,
+      namely, Appendicularia and Doliolum, of Sagitta and certain
+      Annelids, of the auditory and circulatory organs of certain
+      transparent Crustacea, and of the Medus&aelig; and Polyps."
+      His request was granted, and for the next three years
+      Huxley lived in London with his brother, on the exiguous
+      income of an assistant-surgeon, and devoted himself to
+      research. He became almost at once of the first rank among
+      English anatomists. The result of the paper on Medus&aelig;
+      in the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society</i> was that he
+      was elected a Fellow of the Society on June 5, 1851, and a
+      year later received a Royal Medal of the Society. He made
+      many warm friendships both among the older and the younger
+      generations of scientific men. In his obituary notice of
+      Huxley, Sir Michael Foster wrote:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "By Edward Forbes, in whose nature there was much that
+        was akin to his own, and with whom he had some
+        acquaintance before his voyage, he was at once greeted as
+        a comrade, and with Joseph Dalton Hooker, to whom he was
+        drawn at the very first by their common experience as
+        navy surgeons, he began an attachment which, strengthened
+        by like biological aspirations, grew closer as their
+        lives went on. In the first year after his return, in the
+        autumn of 1851, he made the acquaintance of John Tyndall
+        at the meeting of the British Association at Ipswich, and
+        the three, Hooker, Huxley, and Tyndall, finding how much
+        in common were all their scientific views and desires,
+        formed then and there a triple scientific alliance."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Repeated efforts were made by these three, and by more
+      influential friends, to induce the Admiralty to contribute
+      to the expense of publishing Huxley's scientific <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p48" id="p48">[48]</a></span>
+      results, as they had given a pledge to encourage officers
+      who had done scientific work. These efforts lasted
+      unavailingly for nearly three years, and then, as Huxley
+      says: "The Admiralty, getting tired, I suppose, cut short
+      the discussion by ordering me to join a ship, which thing I
+      declined to do, and, as Rastignac, in the <i>P&egrave;re
+      Goriot</i>, says to Paris, I said to London, <i>&agrave;
+      nous deux</i>." This light phrase conceals a courageous and
+      momentous decision. He was absolutely without private
+      resources, and having abandoned his professional work he
+      had no salary of any kind. For a year or so he supported
+      himself by writing reviews and popular scientific articles,
+      striving all the time not only to gain his bread but to
+      continue his scientific work and make it known to the
+      public. He desired to get a professorship of physiology or
+      of comparative anatomy, and as vacancies occurred he
+      applied, but unsuccessfully. At the same time, he tells us,
+      he and his friend, John Tyndall, were
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "candidates, he for the Chair of Physics, and I for that
+        of Natural History in the University of Toronto, which,
+        fortunately, as it turned out, would not look at either
+        of us. I say fortunately, not from any lack of respect
+        for the University of Toronto; but because I soon made up
+        my mind that London was the place for me, and hence I
+        have steadily declined the inducements to leave it which
+        have at various times been offered."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In these early years in London Huxley's work was most
+      varied. A large number of anonymous articles by him
+      appeared in the <i>Literary Gazette</i>, and in other
+      periodicals. He assisted to remove the insular narrowness
+      from English scientific work by translating many foreign
+      memoirs. With the collaboration of Mr. Henfrey, he edited a
+      series of scientific memoirs, all of <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p49" id="p49">[49]</a></span>
+      which were translated from foreign languages, and many by
+      his own pen. With the assistance of Mr. George Busk he made
+      a translation of K&ouml;lliker's <i>Histology</i>, a great
+      treatise on microscopic anatomy which played a large part
+      in the development of the modern English schools of anatomy
+      and physiology. He made some valuable contributions to Todd
+      and Bowman's <i>Cyclop&aelig;dia of Anatomy</i>, an
+      elaborate publication now nearly forgotten and practically
+      superseded, but which was the standard anatomical work of
+      the middle of this century. He was unable to progress
+      rapidly with his work upon oceanic Medus&aelig;, as he was
+      uncertain how to have it published; the Admiralty refused
+      to assist, and it was too lengthy for publication in the
+      volumes of the learned Societies. As a matter of fact, he
+      did not publish it until 1858, when it appeared as a
+      separate memoir. To the <i>Quarterly Journal of
+      Microscopical Science</i> and to the <i>Transactions of the
+      Royal and Linn&aelig;an Societies</i> he contributed a
+      large number of memoirs dealing with the microscopic
+      anatomy and relationships of invertebrates, and, lastly, he
+      gave a series of addresses at the Royal Institution, which
+      had been founded as a means by which leading men of science
+      might give accounts of their work to London society.
+      Abstracts of these lectures are published in the early
+      volumes of the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Institution</i>
+      and are interesting as shewing the kinds of zo&ouml;logical
+      subjects which were attracting the attention of Huxley and
+      which he considered of sufficient interest and importance
+      to bring to the notice of the general public. The first of
+      these lectures, and probably the first given in public by
+      Huxley, occurred on April 30, 1852, and was entitled
+      "Animal Individuality." The problem as to what is meant by
+      an individual had been raised in <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p50" id="p50">[50]</a></span> his mind by
+      consideration of many of the forms of marine life, notably
+      compound structures like the Portuguese man-of-war, and
+      creatures like the salps, which form floating chains often
+      many yards in length. He explained that the word
+      <i>individual</i> covers at least three quite different
+      kinds of conceptions. There is, first, what he described as
+      arbitrary individuality, an individuality which is given by
+      the mind of the observer and does not actually exist in the
+      thing considered. Thus a landscape is in a sense an
+      individual thing, but only so far as it is a particular
+      part of the surface of the earth, isolated for the time in
+      the mind of the person looking at it. If the observer shift
+      his position, the range of the landscape alters and becomes
+      something else. Next there are material, or practically
+      accidental individual things, such as crystals or pieces of
+      stone; and, lastly, there are living individuals which, as
+      he pointed out, were cycles. All living things are born
+      into the world, grow up, and die, and it was to the cycle
+      of life, from the egg to the adult which produces eggs,
+      that he gave the name individual. In a simple animal like
+      Hydra there is no difficulty in accepting this plain
+      definition of individuality; but Huxley went on to compare
+      with Hydra a compound creature like the Portuguese
+      man-of-war, which really is composed of a colony of
+      Hydra-like creatures, the different members of the colony
+      being more or less altered to serve different functions.
+      All these have come from the branching of a single simple
+      creature produced from an egg, and to the whole colony
+      Huxley gave the name of zo&ouml;logical individual. The
+      salps give a still wider interpretation to this view of
+      individuality. The original salp produced from the egg
+      gives rise to many salps, which may either remain attached
+      in a chain, or, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p51"
+      id="p51">[51]</a></span> breaking away from one another,
+      may live separately. Huxley extended the use of the word
+      <i>individual</i> so as to include as a single
+      zo&ouml;logical individual the whole set of creatures
+      cohering in chains or breaking apart, which had been
+      produced by budding from the product of a single egg-cell.
+      This subtle analysis of ideas delighted and interested his
+      contemporaries, and the train of logical examination of
+      what is meant by individuality has persisted to the present
+      time. Like all other zo&ouml;logical ideas, this has been
+      considerably altered by the conception of evolution.
+      Zo&ouml;logists no longer attempt to stretch logical
+      conceptions until they fit enormous and different parts of
+      the living world. They recognise that the living world,
+      because it is alive, is constantly changing, and that
+      living things pass through different stages or kinds of
+      individuality in the course of their lives. A single
+      egg-cell is one kind, perhaps the simplest kind, of
+      zo&ouml;logical individual; when it has grown up into a
+      simple polyp it has passed into a second grade of
+      individuality; when, by budding, the polyp has become
+      branched, a third grade is reached, and when the branches
+      have become different, in obedience to the different
+      purposes which they are to serve in the whole compound
+      creature, a still further grade is reached. Huxley's
+      attempt to find a meaning for individuality that would
+      apply equally to a single simple creature, to a compound
+      creature, and to the large number of separate creatures,
+      all developed by budding from one creature, is a striking
+      instance of his singular capacity for bringing apparently
+      dissimilar facts into harmony, by finding out the common
+      underlying principle, and, although we no longer accept
+      this particular conclusion, we cannot fail to notice in it
+      the peculiar powers of his mind.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p52"
+      id="p52">[52]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A second and even more interesting Royal Institution
+      lecture dealt with the "Identity of Structure in Animals
+      and Plants." At the present time every educated person
+      knows that the life of animals and plants alike depends on
+      the fact that their bodies are composed of a living
+      material called protoplasm, a material which is identical
+      in every important respect in both kingdoms of the living
+      world. In the early fifties, scientific opinion was by no
+      means clear on this matter, and certainly public opinion
+      was most vague. Huxley discussed what was meant by
+      organisation, and shewed that in every essential respect
+      plants and animals alike were organised beings. Then he
+      went on to explain the cellular theory of Schwann, which
+      was then a novelty to a general audience. Schwann, in
+      studying the microscopic structure of plants, noticed that
+      their bodies were made up of little cases with firm walls;
+      these he called <i>cells</i>, and declared that the whole
+      body of the plant was composed of cells. As the walls of
+      these cells were the most obvious and visible feature, it
+      was supposed that they were the most essential part of the
+      structure, and there was some difficulty in applying the
+      cellular theory to the bodies of animals, as in most cases
+      there are no easily visible cell-walls in animal tissues.
+      As the result of his own observation, and from his reading
+      of the work of others, Huxley laid down in the clearest way
+      what is now accepted by everyone&mdash;that the presence of
+      walls is of minor importance, and that it is the slimy
+      contents of the cells, what is called "protoplasm," that is
+      the important element. He declared that the protoplasm of
+      animals was identical with the protoplasm of plants, and
+      that plants were "animals confined in wooden cases." He
+      agreed with Schwann that the cell, using the term to imply
+      the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p53"
+      id="p53">[53]</a></span> contents rather than the wall, was
+      of fundamental importance, and was the unit of structure of
+      the whole world of life. On the other hand, he declared
+      that it could not be looked at as the unit of function: he
+      denied that the powers and properties of a living body were
+      simply the sum of the powers and properties of the single
+      cells. In this opinion he was not followed by physiologists
+      until quite recently. For many years physiologists held
+      that cells were units of function just as much as they are
+      units of structure; but in the last ten years there has
+      been a strong return to the opinion of Huxley.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1851 two very important memoirs were published in the
+      <i>Transactions of the Royal Society</i>, which contained
+      the results of Huxley's observations of the interesting
+      animals known as "tunicates." The first of these papers
+      begins as follows:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The Salp&aelig;, those strange gelatinous animals,
+        through masses of which the voyager in the great ocean
+        sometimes sails day after day, have been the subject of a
+        great controversy since the time of the publication of
+        the celebrated work of Chamisso, <i>De Animalibus
+        Quibusdam e Classe Vermium Linn&aelig;ana</i>. In this
+        work there were set forth, for the first time, the
+        singular phenomena presented by the reproductive
+        processes of these animals,&mdash;phenomena so strange,
+        and so utterly unlike anything then known to occur in the
+        whole province of zo&ouml;logy, that Chamisso's admirably
+        clear and truthful account was received with almost as
+        much distrust as if he had announced the existence of a
+        veritable Peter Schlemihl."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      According to Chamisso, salps appeared in two forms:
+      solitary forms, and forms in which a number of salps are
+      united into a long chain. Each salp of the aggregate form
+      contains within it an embryo receiving nutrition from the
+      mother by a connection similar to the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p54" id="p54">[54]</a></span>
+      placenta by which the embryo of a mammal receives
+      nourishment from the blood of the mother. These embryos
+      grow up into the solitary form, and the solitary form gives
+      rise to a long chain of the aggregate form which developes
+      in the interior of the body. Chamisso compared this
+      progress to the development of insects. "Supposing," he
+      said, "caterpillars did not bodily change into butterflies,
+      but by a process of sexual breeding produced young which
+      grew into the ordinary adults, and that these adults, as
+      indeed they do, gave rise to caterpillars by sexual
+      reproduction, then there would be a true alternation of
+      generations." The first generation would give rise to a
+      second generation totally unlike itself, and this second
+      generation would reproduce, not its kind, but the first
+      generation; such an alternation of generations he stated to
+      occur among the salps. Huxley had an excellent opportunity
+      to study this question at Cape York in November, 1849. "For
+      a time the sea was absolutely crowded with Salp&aelig;, in
+      all stages of growth, and of size very convenient for
+      examination." He was able to verify the general truth of
+      Chamisso's statement. The aggregate form of Salpa always
+      gives rise to the solitary salps, and the solitary salps
+      always give rise to chains of the aggregate salps. But the
+      process of reproduction he shewed to be quite different in
+      the two cases. The solitary salp produces in its interior a
+      little stolon or diverticulum which contains an outgrowth
+      from the circulatory system, and this stolon gradually
+      becomes pinched off into the members of the chain of the
+      aggregate form. The salps of the aggregate form are
+      therefore merely buds from the solitary form, and are not
+      produced in the ordinary way, by sexual generation. On the
+      other hand, each salp of the chain has within it <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p55" id="p55">[55]</a></span> a
+      true egg-cell. This is fertilised by a male cell, and
+      within the body of the parent, nourished by the blood of
+      the parent, grows up into the solitary form. There is then
+      an alternation of generations, but there are not two sexual
+      generations. The sexual generation of chain salps gives
+      rise to forms which reproduce by buds. From this
+      conclusion, with which all later observers have agreed,
+      Huxley went on to his theory of individuality. Different
+      names had been given to the two forms, but Huxley declared
+      that neither form was a true zo&ouml;logical individual;
+      they were only parts of individuals or organs, and the true
+      individual was the complete cycle involving both forms.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In addition to determining the interesting method of
+      reproduction, Huxley made an elaborate investigation of the
+      structure of Salpa. On one occasion only the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i> came across a quantity of an allied
+      Ascidian, Pyrosoma, which had received its name from its
+      phosphorescence.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The sky was clear but moonless, and the sea calm; and a
+        more beautiful sight can hardly be imagined than that
+        presented from the deck of the ship as she drifted, hour
+        after hour, through this shoal of miniature pillars of
+        fire gleaming out of the dark sea, with an ever-waning,
+        ever brightening, soft bluish light, as far as the eye
+        could reach on every side. The Pyrosomata floated deep,
+        and it was only with difficulty that some were procured
+        for examination and placed in a bucketful of sea-water.
+        The phosphorescence was intermittent, periods of darkness
+        alternating with periods of brilliancy. The light
+        commenced in one spot, apparently on the surface of one
+        of the zo&ouml;ids, and gradually spread from this as a
+        centre in all directions; then the whole was lighted up:
+        it remained brilliant for a few seconds, and then
+        gradually faded and died away, until the whole mass was
+        dark again. Friction at any point induces the light at
+        that point, and from thence the phosphorescence spreads
+        over the whole, while the creature is <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p56" id="p56">[56]</a></span>
+        quite freshly taken; afterwards, the illumination arising
+        from friction is only local."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dealing with these creatures in the broad anatomical spirit
+      with which he had studied the Medus&aelig;, Huxley shewed
+      the typical structure manifested in the different forms,
+      and that was common to them and the Ascidians or
+      sea-squirts of the seashore. In a second paper on
+      "Appendicularia and Doliolum" he made further contributions
+      to our knowledge of these interesting creatures.
+      Appendicularia is a curious little Ascidian, differing from
+      all the others in its possession of a tail. Earlier
+      observers had obtained it on various parts of the ocean
+      surface, but had failed entirely to detect its relationship
+      to the ordinary Ascidians. Chamisso got it near Behring's
+      Straits and thought that it was more nearly allied to
+      "Venus's Girdle," a C&oelig;lenterate. Mertens, another
+      distinguished zo&ouml;logist, had declared that "the
+      relation of this animal with the Pteropods (a peculiar
+      group of molluscs) is unmistakable"; while M&uuml;ller, a
+      prince among German anatomists, confessed that "he did not
+      know in what division of the animal kingdom to place this
+      creature." Huxley shewed that it possessed all the
+      characteristic features of the Ascidians, the same
+      arrangement of organs, the same kind of nervous system, a
+      respiratory chamber formed from the fore part of the
+      alimentary canal, and a peculiar organ running along the
+      pharynx which Huxley called the endostyle and which is one
+      of the most striking peculiarities of the whole group. The
+      real nature of the tail was Huxley's most striking
+      discovery. He pointed out that ordinary Ascidians begin
+      life as tiny tadpole-like creatures which swim freely by
+      the aid of a long caudal appendage; and that while these
+      better-known Ascidians lose their tails when they <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p57" id="p57">[57]</a></span>
+      settle down into adult life, the Appendiculari&aelig; are
+      Ascidians which retain this larval structure throughout
+      life. Von Baer had shown that in the great natural groups
+      of higher animals some forms occur which typify, in their
+      adult condition, the larval state of the higher forms of
+      the group. Thus, among the amphibia, frogs have tails in
+      the larval or tadpole condition; but newts throughout life
+      remain in the larval or tailed condition. Appendicularia he
+      considered to be the lowest form of the Ascidians, and to
+      typify in its adult condition the larval stages of the
+      higher Ascidians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By this remarkable investigation of the structure of the
+      group of Ascidians, and display of the various grades of
+      organisation, Huxley paved the way for one of the great
+      modern advances in knowledge. When, later on, the idea of
+      evolution was accepted, and zo&ouml;logists began hunting
+      out the pedigree of the back-boned animals, it was
+      discovered that Ascidians were modern representatives of an
+      important stage in the ancestry of vertebrate animals, and,
+      therefore, of man himself. There are few more interesting
+      chapters in genealogical zo&ouml;logy than those which
+      reveal the relationship between Amphioxus and fish on the
+      one hand, and Ascidians on the other; for fish are
+      vertebrates, and Ascidians, on the old view, are lowly
+      invertebrates. The details of these relationships have been
+      made known to us by the brilliant investigations of several
+      Germans, by Kowalevsky, a Russian, by the Englishmen Ray
+      Lankester and Willey, and by several Americans and
+      Frenchmen. But behind the work of all these lies the
+      pioneer work of Huxley, who first gathered the group of
+      Ascidians together, and in a series of masterly
+      investigations described its typical structure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p58"
+      id="p58">[58]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley's next great piece of work was embodied in a memoir
+      published in the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society</i>
+      in 1853, and which remains to the present day a model of
+      luminous description and far-reaching ideas. It was a
+      treatise on the structure of the great group of molluscs,
+      and displays in a striking fashion his method of handling
+      anatomical facts, and deducing from them the great
+      underlying principles of construction. The shell-fish with
+      which he dealt specially were those distinguished as
+      cephalous, because, unlike creatures such as the oyster and
+      mussel, they had something readily comparable with the head
+      of vertebrates. He began by pointing out what problems he
+      hoped to solve. The anatomy of many of the cephalous
+      molluscs was known, but the relation of structures present
+      in one to structures present in another group had not been
+      settled.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It is not settled whether the back of a cuttle-fish
+        answers to the dorsal or ventral surface of a gasteropod.
+        It is not decided whether the arms and funnels of the one
+        have or have not their homologues in the other. The
+        dorsal integument of a Doris and the cloak of a whelk are
+        both called 'mantle,' without any evidence to show that
+        they are really homologous. Nor do very much more
+        definite notions seem to have prevailed with regard to
+        the archetypal molluscous form, and the mode in which (if
+        such an archetype exist) it becomes modified in the
+        different secondary types."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had taken from the surface of the sea a number of
+      transparent shell-fish, and had been able to study the
+      structure and arrangement of their organs "by simple
+      inspection, without so much as disturbing a single beat of
+      their hearts." From knowledge gained in this fashion, and
+      from ordinary dissection of a number of common snails,
+      cephalopods, and pteropods, he was able to describe in a
+      very complete way the anatomical <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p59" id="p59">[59]</a></span> structure of cephalous
+      molluscs. The next natural step, he stated, would have been
+      to describe the embryonic development of the organs of
+      these different creatures in order that a true knowledge
+      might be gained of what were the homologous or really
+      corresponding parts in each. Having had no opportunity to
+      make such embryological studies for himself, he fell back
+      on numerous accounts of development by K&ouml;lliker, Van
+      Beneden, Gegenbauer, and others, and so gradually arrived
+      at a conception of what he called the "archetype" of the
+      cephalous molluscs. As the word <i>archetype</i> was
+      borrowed from old metaphysical ideas dating back to the
+      time of Plato, he took care to state that what he meant by
+      it was no more than a form embodying all that could be
+      affirmed equally respecting every single kind of cephalous
+      mollusc, and by no means an "idea" upon which it could be
+      supposed that animal forms had been modelled. He described
+      this archetype, and showed the condition of the different
+      systems of organs which it could be supposed to possess,
+      and how these organs were modified in the different
+      existing groups. This archetypal mollusc of Huxley's was a
+      creature with a bilaterally symmetrical head and body. On
+      the ventral side of the body it possessed a peculiar
+      locomotor appendage, the so-called foot, and the dorsal
+      surface of the body secreted a shell. Its nervous system
+      consisted of three pairs of ganglia or brains, one pair in
+      the head, one in the foot, and a third in the viscera. He
+      shewed how the widely different groups of cephalous
+      molluscs could be conceived as modifications of this
+      structure, and extended the conception so as to cover all
+      other molluscs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Quite apart from the anatomical value of this paper, and
+      although all technical details have been omitted <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p60" id="p60">[60]</a></span>
+      here, it is necessary to say that merely as a series of
+      intricate anatomical descriptions and comparisons, this
+      memoir was one of the most valuable of any that Huxley
+      wrote. The working out of the theory of the archetype is
+      peculiarly interesting to compare with modern conceptions.
+      To those of us who began biological work after the idea of
+      evolution had been impressed upon anatomical work, it is
+      very difficult to follow Huxley's papers without reading
+      into them evolutionary ideas. In the article upon Mollusca,
+      written for the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia
+      Britannica</i>, by Professor Ray Lankester, the same device
+      of an archetypal or, as Lankester calls it, a schematic
+      mollusc, is employed in order to explain the relations of
+      the different structures found in different groups of
+      molluscs to one another. Lankester's schematic mollusc
+      differs from Huxley's archetypal mollusc only as a finished
+      modern piece of mechanism, the final result of years of
+      experiment, differs from the original invention. The method
+      of comparing the schematic mollusc with the different
+      divergent forms in different groups is identical, and yet,
+      while the ideas of Darwin are accepted in every line of
+      Lankester's work, Huxley was writing six years before the
+      publication of <i>The Origin of Species</i>. There was
+      growing up in Huxley's mind, partly from his own attempts
+      to arrange the anatomical facts he discovered in an
+      intelligible series, the idea that within a group the
+      divergencies of structure to be found had come about by the
+      modification of an original type. Not only did he conceive
+      of such an evolution as the only possible explanation of
+      the facts, but he definitely used the word <i>evolution</i>
+      to convey his ideas. On the other hand, he was firmly
+      convinced that such evolution was confined within the great
+      groups. For each <span class="pagenum"><a name="p61"
+      id="p61">[61]</a></span> group there was a typical
+      structure, and modifications by defect or excess of the
+      parts of the definite archetype gave rise to the different
+      members of the group. Moreover, he confined this evolution
+      in the strictest possible way to each group; he did not
+      believe that what was called anamorphosis&mdash;the
+      transition of a lower type into a higher type&mdash;ever
+      occurred. To use his own words:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "If, however, all Cephalous Mollusca, <i>i.e.</i>, all
+        Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, and Lamellibranchiata, be only
+        modifications by excess or defect of the parts of a
+        definite archetype, then, I think, it follows as a
+        necessary consequence, that no anamorphosis takes place
+        in this group. There is no progression from a lower to a
+        higher type, but merely a more or less complete evolution
+        of one type. It may indeed be a matter of very grave
+        consideration whether true anamorphosis ever occurs in
+        the whole animal kingdom. If it do, then the doctrine
+        that every natural group is organised after a definite
+        archetype, a doctrine which seems to me as important for
+        zo&ouml;logy as the theory of definite proportions for
+        chemistry, must be given up."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is of great historical interest to notice how closely
+      actual consideration of the facts of the animal kingdom
+      took zo&ouml;logists to an idea of evolution, and yet how
+      far they were from it as we hold it now. It is fashionable
+      at the present time to attempt to depreciate the immense
+      change introduced by Darwin into zo&ouml;logical
+      speculation, and the method employed is largely partial
+      quotation, or reference to the kind of ideas found in
+      papers such as this memoir by Huxley. The comparison
+      between the types of the great groups and the combining
+      proportions of the chemical elements shows clearly that
+      Huxley regarded the structural plans of the great groups as
+      properties necessary and inherent in these groups, just as
+      the property of a chemical element to <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p62" id="p62">[62]</a></span>
+      combine with another chemical substance only in a fixed
+      proportion is necessary and inherent in the existing
+      conception of it. There was no glimmer of the idea that
+      these types were not inherent, but merely historical
+      results of a long and slow series of changes produced by
+      the interaction of the varied conditions of life and the
+      intrinsic qualities of living material.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In two lectures delivered at the Royal Institution in 1854
+      and 1855, the one on "The Common Plan of Animal Forms," the
+      other on "The Zo&ouml;logical Arguments Adduced in Favour
+      of the Progressive Development of Animal Life in Time,"
+      show, so far as the published abstracts go, the same
+      condition of mind. The idea of progressive development of
+      all life from common forms was not unknown to Huxley and
+      his contemporaries, but was rejected by them. In the first
+      of these two lectures he took four great groups of animals,
+      the Vertebrates, the Articulata, the Mollusca, and the
+      Radiata, and explained what was the archetype of each. He
+      shewed the distinctiveness of each plan of structure, and
+      then discussed the relations of the ideas suggested by Von
+      Baer to these archetypes. He stated explicitly that while
+      the adult forms were quite unlike one another, there were
+      traces of a common plan to be derived from a study of their
+      embryonic development. Such a trace of a common plan he had
+      himself suggested when he compared the foundation-membranes
+      of the Medus&aelig; with the first foundation-membranes of
+      vertebrate embryos. This was going a long way towards
+      modern ideas; but he stopped short, and gave no hint that
+      he believed in the possibility of the development of one
+      plan from a lower or simpler plan. The second lecture dealt
+      with the kind of ideas which were crystallised in the
+      popular but striking work of Chambers, entitled <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p63" id="p63">[63]</a></span>
+      <i>Vestiges of Creation</i>. Chambers attacked the
+      theological view that all animals and plants had been
+      created at the beginning of the world, and maintained that
+      geological evidence showed the occurrence of a progressive
+      development of animal life. Huxley, like all
+      zo&ouml;logists and geologists who knew anything of the
+      occurrence of fossils in the rocks of past ages, agreed
+      with the general truth of the conception that a progressive
+      development had occurred which showed that the species now
+      existing were represented in the oldest rocks by species
+      now extinct. But the examples he brought forward were all
+      limited to evolution within the great groups, and did not
+      affect his idea that archetypes were fixed and did not pass
+      into each other. Moreover, he summed up strongly against
+      the suggestion that there was any parallel between the
+      succession of life in the past and the forms assumed by
+      modern animals in their embryological development. So far
+      as the present writer is able to judge from study of the
+      literature of this period, the possibility of evolution was
+      present in an active form in the minds of Huxley and of his
+      contemporaries, and in an extraordinary way they brought
+      together evidence which afterwards became of firstrate
+      importance; but the idea in its modern sense was rejected
+      by them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1854 Huxley's uncomfortable period of probation came to
+      an end. Edward Forbes, who held the posts of
+      Pal&aelig;ontologist to the Geological Survey, and Lecturer
+      on General Natural History at the Metropolitan School of
+      Science Applied to Mining and the Arts, vacated these on
+      his appointment to the Chair of Natural History in the
+      University of Edinburgh, and Sir H. De La Beche, the then
+      Director-General of the Geological Survey, offered both the
+      posts to Huxley&mdash;who in June <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p64" id="p64">[64]</a></span> and July of that year
+      had given lectures at the school in place of Forbes. Huxley
+      says himself:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I refused the former point-blank, and accepted the
+        latter only provisionally, telling Sir Henry that I did
+        not care for fossils, and that I should give up natural
+        history as soon as I could get a physiological post. But
+        I held the office for thirty-one years, and a large part
+        of my work has been pal&aelig;ontological."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The salary of the post of Lecturer on Natural History was
+      scanty, but De La Beche, who evidently recognised Huxley's
+      genius, and was anxious to have him attached even against
+      his will to pal&aelig;ontological work, created a place for
+      him as Naturalist to the Geological Survey, by which a more
+      suitable income was found for him. His official duties were
+      at first in the Geological Museum of the Survey, but were
+      distinguished from those of the special
+      Pal&aelig;ontologist, Mr. Harvey. His income was now
+      assured, and for the rest of his life, until towards its
+      close, when he retired to Eastbourne, he lived the ordinary
+      life of a professional man of science in London. He was now
+      able to marry, and on July 21, 1855, he was married to a
+      lady whom he had met in Sydney in 1847, and whom he had not
+      seen since the <i>Rattlesnake</i> left Sydney finally in
+      the beginning of May, 1850.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      During the years 1856, 1857, and 1858, he held the post of
+      Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution,
+      choosing as the title of his first two courses of lectures
+      Physiology and Comparative Anatomy, as he still cherished
+      the idea of being in the first place a physiologist.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-huxley-1857.jpg"
+        alt="THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857" title="" height="438"
+        width="321" /> <span class="caption">THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY,
+        1857<br />
+         Reproduced by permission from Natural Science, vol.
+        vii., No. 42</span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Moreover," writes Professor Michael Foster, "like most
+        other young professional men of science, he had to eke
+        out his not too ample income by labours undertaken
+        chiefly for their <span class="pagenum"><a name="p65"
+        id="p65">[65]</a></span> pecuniary reward. He acted as
+        examiner, conducting for instance, during the years 1856
+        to 1863, and again 1865 to 1870, the examinations in
+        physiology and comparative anatomy at the University of
+        London, making even an examination paper feel the
+        influence of the new spirit in biology; and among his
+        examinees at that time there was at least one who,
+        knowing Huxley's writings, but his writings only, looked
+        forward to the <i>viva voce</i> test, not as a trial but
+        as an occasion of delight. He wrote almost incessantly
+        for all editors who were prepared to give adequate pay to
+        a pen able to deal with scientific themes in a manner at
+        once exact and popular, incisive and correct. During this
+        period he was gradually passing from his first anatomical
+        love, the structure of the Invertebrates, to Vertebrate
+        work, and although he continued to take a deep interest
+        in the course of the progress of research in that group
+        of animals, the publication of his great work on oceanic
+        hydrozoa by the Ray Society was the last piece of
+        important work he wrote upon any anatomical subject apart
+        from vertebrates. His work in connection with the
+        Geological Survey naturally attracted his attention most
+        closely to vertebrates, and, towards the close of the
+        fifties, he was led to make a special study of vertebrate
+        embryology, a subject which the investigations of
+        K&ouml;lliker and others in Germany were bringing into
+        prominence. The first result of this new direction of his
+        enquiries was embodied in a Croonian Lecture delivered in
+        1858 'On the Theory of the Vertebrate Skull.' Sir Richard
+        Owen, who was at that time the leading vertebrate
+        anatomist in England, had given his support to an
+        extremely complicated view of the skull as being formed
+        of a series of expanded vertebr&aelig; moulded together.
+        The theory was really a legacy from an old German school
+        of which the chief members were Goethe, the poet, and
+        Oken, a naturalist, who was more of a metaphysical
+        philosopher than of a morphologist. Huxley pointed out
+        the futility of attempting to regard the skull as a
+        series of segments, and of supporting this view by
+        trusting to superficial resemblances and abstract
+        reasoning, when there was a definite method by which the
+        actual building up of the skull might be followed.
+        Following the lines laid down by Rathke, another of the
+        great Germans from whose investigations he was always so
+        willing to find corroboration and assistance in his own
+        labours, he traced the <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p66" id="p66">[66]</a></span> actual development of
+        the skull in the individual. He shewed that the
+        foundations of the skull and of the backbone were laid
+        down in a fashion quite different, and that it was
+        impossible to regard both skull and backbone as
+        modifications of a common type laid down right along the
+        axis of the body. The spinal column and the skull start
+        from the same primitive condition, whence they
+        immediately begin to diverge. It may be true to say that
+        there is a primitive identity of structure between the
+        spinal or vertebral column and the skull; but it is no
+        more true that the adult skull is a modified vertebral
+        column than it would be to affirm that the vertebral
+        column is a modified skull."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Since this famous lecture, a number of distinguished
+      anatomists have studied the development of the skull more
+      fully; but they have not departed from the methods of
+      investigation laid down by Huxley, and their conclusions
+      have differed only in greater elaboration of detail from
+      the broad lines laid down by him. Apart from its direct
+      scientific value, this lecture was of importance as marking
+      the place to which Huxley had attained in the scientific
+      world. Two years later, it is true, the London
+      <i>Times</i>, referring to a famous debate at a meeting of
+      the British Association at Oxford, spoke of him as "a Mr.
+      Huxley"; but in the scientific world he was accepted as the
+      leader of the younger anatomists, and as one at least
+      capable of rivalling Owen, who was then at the height of
+      his fame. The Croonian Lecture was in a sense a deliberate
+      challenge to Owen, and in these days before Darwin, to
+      challenge Owen was to claim equality with the greatest name
+      in anatomical science.
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p67" id="p67">[67]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-067.png" alt="" title="" height="84"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      CREATURES OF THE PAST
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Beginning Pal&aelig;ontological Work&mdash;Fossil
+        Amphibia and Reptilia&mdash;Ancestry of
+        Birds&mdash;Ancestry of the Horse&mdash;Imperfect
+        European Series Completed by Marsh's American
+        Fossils&mdash;Meaning of Geological
+        Contemporaneity&mdash;Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+        Compared with Evolution in Geology&mdash;Age of the
+        Earth&mdash;Intermediate and Linear Types.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Although Huxley took a post connected with Geology only
+      because it was the most convenient opening for him, it was
+      not long before he became deeply interested not only in the
+      fossils, which at first he despised, but in the general
+      problems of geology. He began by co-operation with Mr.
+      Salter in the determination of fossils for the Geological
+      Survey. The mere work of defining genera and species and
+      naming and describing new species appealed very little to
+      him. He had none of the collector's passion for new
+      species; his interest in a creature being not whether or no
+      it was new to science, but what general problems of biology
+      its structure helped to elucidate. While he assisted in the
+      routine work of determining the zo&ouml;logical position of
+      the fossils sent in to the museum by the Survey, he carried
+      investigations much farther than the duties of <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p68" id="p68">[68]</a></span> the
+      post required when interesting zo&ouml;logical problems
+      arose. His earliest notes were written in association with
+      his colleague, and consisted of technical descriptions of
+      some small fossils from the Downton Sandstones which were
+      supposed to be fish-shields. The peculiarities of structure
+      presented by these aroused his interest, and he began an
+      elaborate series of investigations upon pal&aelig;ozoic
+      fishes in general. Earlier zo&ouml;logists, such as the
+      great Agassiz, had devoted most of their attention to
+      careful and exact description of the different fossil
+      fishes with which they became acquainted. Huxley at once
+      began to investigate the relations that existed among the
+      different kinds of structure exhibited in the different
+      fish. He laid down the lines upon which future work has
+      been conducted, and, precisely as he did in the case of
+      molluscs, he started future investigators upon lines of
+      research the ends of which have not yet been reached. His
+      work upon <i>Devonian Fishes</i>, published in 1861, threw
+      an entirely new light upon the affinities of these
+      creatures, and still remains a standard work.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He made a similar, although less important, series of
+      investigations upon some of the great extinct Crustacea;
+      but, perhaps, his most important pal&aelig;ontological work
+      was done later, after he had been convinced by Darwin of
+      the fact of evolution. In 1855 he had expressed the opinion
+      that the study of fossils was hopeless if one sought in it
+      confirmation of the doctrine of evolution; but
+      five-and-twenty years' continuous work completely reversed
+      his opinion, and in 1881, addressing the British
+      Association at York he declared that "if zo&ouml;logists
+      and embryologists had not put forward the theory, it would
+      have been necessary for pal&aelig;ontologists to invent
+      it." In three special groups of <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p69" id="p69">[69]</a></span> animals his study of
+      fossils enabled him to assist in bridging over the gaps
+      between surviving groups of creatures by study of creatures
+      long extinct. He began to study the structure of the
+      Labyrinthodonts, a group of extinct monsters which received
+      their name from the peculiar structure of their teeth. He
+      published elaborate descriptions of Anthracosaurus from the
+      coal-measures of Northumberland, of Loxomma from the lower
+      carboniferous of Scotland, and of several small forms from
+      the coal-measures of Kilkenny, in Ireland, as well as
+      describing skulls from Africa and a number of fragmentary
+      bones from different localities. But in all this work it
+      was the morphology of the creatures that interested him,
+      and the light which their structure threw upon the
+      structure of each other and of their nearest allies. He
+      shewed that these monsters stood on the borderland between
+      fishes, amphibia, and reptiles, and he added much to our
+      knowledge of the true structure of these great groups.
+      Next, he turned to the extinct reptiles of the Mesozoic
+      age. It was generally believed that the Pterodactyls, or
+      flying reptiles, were the nearest allies of birds, but
+      Huxley insisted that the resemblances between the wings
+      were simply such superficial resemblances as necessarily
+      exist in organs adapted to the same purpose. About the same
+      time, Cope in America, and Phillips and Huxley, in England,
+      from study of the bones of the Dinosaurs, another great
+      group of extinct reptiles, declared that these were the
+      nearest in structure to birds. In association with the
+      upright posture, the ilium or great haunch-bone of birds
+      extends far forwards in front of the articulation of the
+      thigh-bone, so that the pelvis in this region has a
+      T-shape, the ilium forming the cross-bar of the T, and the
+      femur or thigh-bone the downward limb. Huxley <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p70" id="p70">[70]</a></span>
+      shewed that a large number of the Dinosaurs had this and
+      other peculiarities of the bird's pelvis, and separated
+      these into a group which he called the "Ornithoscelida,"
+      seeing in them the closest representatives of the probable
+      reptilian ancestors of birds. While further work and the
+      discovery of a still greater number of extinct reptiles has
+      made it less probable that these were the actual ancestors
+      of birds, Huxley's work in this, as in the many other cases
+      we have shown, proved not only of great value in itself,
+      but led to a continually increasing series of
+      investigations by others. It is not always the pioneer that
+      makes the greatest discoveries in a new country, but the
+      work of the pioneer makes possible and easier the more
+      assured discoveries of his followers.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A third great piece of pal&aelig;ontological investigation
+      with which the name of Huxley will always be associated, is
+      the most familiar of all the instances taken from fossils
+      in support of the evolution of animals. This famous case is
+      the pedigree of the horse. In 1870, in an address delivered
+      to the Geological Society of London, Huxley had shewn that
+      there was a series of animals leading backwards from the
+      modern horse to a more generalised creature called
+      Anchitherium, and found in the rocks of the Miocene period.
+      He suggested that there were, no doubt, similar fossils
+      leading still further backwards towards the common
+      mammalian type of animal, with five fingers and five toes,
+      and went the length of suggesting one or two fossils which
+      might stand in the direct line of ancestry. But in 1876 he
+      visited America, and had the opportunity of consulting the
+      marvellous series of fossils which Professor Marsh had
+      collected from American Tertiary beds. Professor Marsh
+      allowed him the freest use of his materials and <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p71" id="p71">[71]</a></span> of
+      his conclusions, and the credit of the final result is to
+      be shared at least equally between Marsh and Huxley. The
+      final result was a demonstrative proof of the possible
+      course of evolution of the horse, given in a lecture
+      delivered by Huxley in New York on Sept. 22, 1876, and
+      illustrated by drawings from specimens in Marsh's
+      collection. The matter of the lecture has become so
+      important a part of all descriptive writing on evolution,
+      and the treatment is so characteristic of Huxley's
+      brilliant exposition, that it is worth while to make some
+      rather long quotations from it. The lecture was published
+      in the New York papers, and afterwards with other matter
+      formed a volume of <i>American Addresses</i>, published by
+      Macmillan, in London.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the forearm
+        contains distinct bones called the radius and the ulna.
+        The corresponding region in the horse seems at first to
+        possess but one bone. Careful observation, however,
+        enables us to distinguish in this bone a part which
+        clearly answers to the upper end of the ulna. This is
+        closely united with the chief mass of the bone which
+        represents the radius, and runs out into a slender shaft
+        which may be traced for some distance downwards on the
+        back of the radius, and then in most cases thins out and
+        vanishes. It takes still more trouble to make sure of
+        what is nevertheless the fact, that a small part of the
+        lower end of the bone of the horse's forearm, which is
+        only distinct in a very young foal, is really the lower
+        extremity of the ulna.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its
+        wrist. The 'cannon bone' answers to the middle bone of
+        the five metacarpal bones which support the palm of the
+        hand in ourselves. The 'pastern,' 'coronary,' and
+        'coffin' bones of veterinarians answer to the joints of
+        our middle fingers, while the hoof is simply a greatly
+        enlarged and thickened nail. But, if what lies below the
+        horse's 'knee' thus corresponds to the middle finger in
+        ourselves, what has become of the four other fingers or
+        digits? We find in the places of the second and fourth
+        digits only two slender splint-like bones, about <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p72" id="p72">[72]</a></span>
+        two-thirds as long as the cannon bone, which gradually
+        taper to their lower ends and bear no finger joints, or,
+        as they are termed, phalanges. Sometimes small bony or
+        gristly nodules are to be found at the bases of these two
+        metacarpal splints, and it is probable that these
+        represent rudiments of the first and fifth digits. Thus
+        the part of the horse's skeleton which corresponds with
+        that of the human hand contains one overgrown middle
+        digit, and at least two imperfect lateral digits; and
+        these answer, respectively, to the third, the second, and
+        the fourth digits in man.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb.
+        In ourselves, and in most quadrupeds, the leg contains
+        two distinct bones, a large bone, the tibia, and a
+        smaller and more slender bone, the fibula. But, in the
+        horse, the fibula seems, at first, to be reduced to its
+        upper end; a short slender bone united with the tibia and
+        ending in a point below occupying its place. Examination
+        of the lower end of a young foal's shin-bone, however,
+        shews a distinct portion of osseous matter, which is the
+        lower end of the fibula; so that the apparently single
+        lower end of the shin-bone is really made up of the
+        coalesced ends of the tibia and fibula, just as the
+        apparently single lower end of the fore-arm bone is
+        composed of the coalesced radius and ulna.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "The heel of the horse is the part commonly known as the
+        hock; the hinder cannon bone answers to the middle
+        metatarsal bone of the human foot, the pastern, coronary,
+        and coffin bones, to the middle-toe bones; the hind hoof
+        to the nail, as in the fore foot. And, as in the fore
+        foot, there are merely two splints to represent the
+        second and fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a fifth
+        toe appears to be traceable."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Having in the same fashion described the highly complicated
+      and peculiar structure of the teeth of modern horses,
+      Huxley proceeded:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "To anyone who is acquainted with the morphology of
+        vertebrated animals, these characteristic structures of
+        the horse show that it deviates widely from the general
+        structure of mammals; and that the horse type is, in many
+        respects, an extreme modification of the general
+        mammalian plan. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="p73"
+        id="p73">[73]</a></span> least modified mammals, in fact,
+        have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct
+        and separate. They have five distinct and complete digits
+        on each foot, and no one of these digits is very much
+        larger than the rest. Moreover, in the least modified
+        mammals, the total number of the teeth is very generally
+        forty-four, while in the horse the usual number is forty,
+        and, in the absence of the canines, it may be reduced to
+        thirty-six; the incisor teeth are devoid of the fold seen
+        in those of the horse; the grinders regularly diminish in
+        size from the middle of the series to its front end;
+        while their crowns are short, early attain their full
+        length, and exhibit simple ridges or tubercles, in place
+        of the complex foldings of the horse's grinders.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Hence the general principles of the hypothesis of
+        evolution lead to the conclusion that the horse must have
+        been derived from some quadruped which possessed five
+        complete digits on each foot; which had the bones of the
+        forearm and of the leg complete and separate; and which
+        possessed forty-four teeth, among which the crown of the
+        incisors and grinders had a simple structure; while the
+        latter gradually increased in size from before backwards,
+        at any rate in the anterior part of the series, and had
+        short crowns.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "And if the horse had been thus evolved, and the remains
+        of the different stages of its evolution have been
+        preserved, they ought to present us with a series of
+        forms in which the number of the digits becomes reduced;
+        the bones of the forearm and leg gradually take on the
+        equine condition; and the form and arrangement of the
+        teeth successively approximate to those which obtain in
+        existing horses.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Let us turn to the facts and see how far they fulfill
+        these requirements of the doctrine of evolution.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "In Europe abundant remains of horses are found in the
+        Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far as the
+        Pliocene formation. But these horses, which are so common
+        in the cave-deposits and in the gravel of Europe, are in
+        all essential respects like existing horses, and that is
+        true of all the horses of the later part of the Pliocene
+        epoch. But, in the deposits which belong to the earlier
+        Pliocene, and later Miocene epochs, and which occur in
+        Britain, in France, in Germany, in Greece, in India, we
+        find animals which are extremely like <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p74" id="p74">[74]</a></span>
+        horses&mdash;which in fact are so similar to horses, that
+        you may follow descriptions given in works upon the
+        anatomy of the horse, upon the skeletons of these
+        animals&mdash;but which differ in some important
+        particulars. For example, the structure of their fore and
+        hind limbs is somewhat different. The bones, which, in
+        the horse are represented by two long splints, imperfect
+        below, are as long as the middle metacarpal and
+        metatarsal bones; and, attached to the extremity of each,
+        is a digit with three joints of the same general
+        character as those of the middle digit, only very much
+        smaller. These small digits are so disposed that they
+        could have had but very little functional importance, and
+        they must have been rather of the nature of the
+        dew-claws, such as are to be found in many ruminant
+        animals. The <i>Hipparion</i>, as the extinct European
+        three-toed horse is called, in fact presents a foot
+        similar to that of the American <i>Protohippus</i> except
+        that in <i>Hipparion</i> the smaller digits are situated
+        further back, and are of smaller proportional size than
+        in the <i>Protohippus</i>.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the horse;
+        and the whole length of it, as a very slender shaft,
+        intimately united with the radius, is completely
+        traceable. The fibula appears to be in the same condition
+        as in the horse. The teeth of the <i>Hipparion</i> are
+        essentially similar to those of the horse, but the
+        pattern of the grinders is in some respects a little more
+        complex, and there is a depression on the face of the
+        skull in front of the orbit, which is not seen in
+        existing horses.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "In the earlier Miocene and perhaps in the Eocene
+        deposits of some parts of Europe, another distinct animal
+        has been discovered, which Cuvier, who first described
+        some fragments of it, considered to be a
+        <i>Pal&aelig;otherium</i>, but as further discoveries
+        threw new light on its structure, it was recognised as a
+        distinct genus, under the name of <i>Anchitherium</i>.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "In its general characters the skeleton of
+        <i>Anchitherium</i> is very similar to that of the horse,
+        in fact Lartet and De Blainville called it
+        <i>Pal&aelig;otherium equinum</i> or <i>Hippoides</i>;
+        and De Cristol, in 1847, said that it differed from
+        <i>Hipparion</i> in little more than the characters of
+        the teeth, and gave it the name of <i>Hipparitherium</i>.
+        Each foot possesses three complete toes: while the
+        lateral toes are much larger in proportion to the middle
+        toe than in <i>Hipparion</i>, and doubtless rested on the
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p75"
+        id="p75">[75]</a></span> ground in ordinary locomotion.
+        The ulna is complete and quite distinct from the radius,
+        although firmly united with the latter. The fibula seems
+        also to have been complete; its lower end, though
+        intimately united with that of the tibia, is clearly
+        united with that of the latter bone. There are forty-four
+        teeth; the incisors have no strong pit. The canines seem
+        to have been well developed in both sexes. The first of
+        the seven grinders, which, as I have said, is frequently
+        absent, and, when it does exist, is small in the horse,
+        is a good-sized and permanent tooth, while the grinder
+        which follows it is but little larger than the hinder
+        ones. The crowns of the grinders are short, and, although
+        the fundamental pattern of the horse-tooth is
+        discernible, the front and back ridges are less curved,
+        the accessory pillars are wanting, and the valleys, much
+        shallower, are not filled up with cement."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Then, after describing his early efforts to trace the
+      descent of the horse from European fossils, Huxley goes on
+      to relate the new light thrown on the matter from the
+      American discoveries of Professor Marsh:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "You are all aware that, when your country was first
+        discovered by Europeans, there were no traces of the
+        existence of the horse in any part of the American
+        continent. The accounts of the conquest of Mexico dwell
+        on the astonishment of the natives of that country when
+        they first became acquainted with that astounding
+        phenomenon, a man seated upon a horse. Nevertheless, the
+        investigations of American geologists have proved that
+        the remains of horses occur in the most superficial
+        deposits of both North and South America, just as they do
+        in Europe. Therefore, for some reason or other,&mdash;no
+        feasible suggestion on that subject, so far as I know,
+        has been made,&mdash;the horse must have died out on this
+        continent at some period preceding the discovery of
+        America. Of late years there has been discovered in your
+        Western territories that marvellous accumulation of
+        deposits, admirably adapted for the preservation of
+        organic remains, to which I referred the other evening,
+        and which furnishes us with a consecutive series of
+        records of the fauna of the older half of the Tertiary
+        epoch, for which we <span class="pagenum"><a name="p76"
+        id="p76">[76]</a></span> have no parallel in Europe. The
+        researches of Leidy and others have shewn that forms
+        allied to the <i>Hipparion</i> and the
+        <i>Anchitherium</i> are to be found among these remains.
+        Rut it is only recently that the admirably conceived and
+        most thoroughly and patiently worked-out investigations
+        of Professor Marsh have given us a just idea of the vast
+        fossil wealth and of the scientific importance of these
+        deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing over the
+        collections in Yale Museum; and I can truly say that, so
+        far as my knowledge extends, there is no collection from
+        any one region and series of strata comparable, for
+        extent, or for care with which the remains have been got
+        together, or for their scientific importance, to the
+        series of fossils which he has deposited there. This vast
+        collection has yielded evidence bearing on the question
+        of the pedigree of the horse of the most striking
+        character. It tends to show that we must look to America
+        rather than to Europe for the original seat of the equine
+        series; and that the archaic forms and successive
+        modifications of the horse's ancestry are far better
+        preserved here than in Europe.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to put before
+        you a diagram, every figure of which is an actual
+        representation of some specimen which is to be seen at
+        Yale at this present time.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "The succession of forms which he has brought together
+        carries us from the top to the bottom of the Tertiaries.
+        Firstly, there is the true horse. Next we have the
+        American Pliocene form of the horse (<i>Pliohippus</i>):
+        in the conformation of its limbs it presents some very
+        slight deviations from the ordinary horse, and the crowns
+        of the grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the
+        <i>Protohippus</i>, which represents the European
+        <i>Hipparion</i>, having one large digit and two small
+        ones on each foot, and the general characters of the
+        forearm and leg to which I have referred. But it is more
+        valuable than the European <i>Hipparion</i> for the
+        reason that it is devoid of some of the peculiarities of
+        that form&mdash;peculiarities which tend to show that the
+        European <i>Hipparion</i> is rather a member of a
+        collateral branch than a form in the direct line of
+        succession. Next, in the backward order in time, is the
+        <i>Miohippus</i>, which corresponds pretty nearly with
+        the <i>Anchitherium</i> of Europe. It presents three
+        complete toes&mdash;one large median and two smaller
+        lateral ones: <span class="pagenum"><a name="p77"
+        id="p77">[77]</a></span> and there is a rudiment of that
+        digit which answers to the little finger of the human
+        race.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "The European pedigree of the horse stops here; in the
+        America Tertiaries, on the contrary, the series of
+        ancestral equine forms is continued into the Eocene
+        formations. An older Miocene form, called
+        <i>Mesohippus</i>, has three toes in front, with a large
+        splint-like rudiment representing the little finger; and
+        three toes behind. The radius and ulna, the tibia and
+        fibula, are distinct, and the short crowned molar teeth
+        are <i>Anchitherioid</i> in pattern.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "But the most important discovery of all is the
+        <i>Orohippus</i> which comes from the Eocene formation,
+        and is the oldest member of the equine series yet known.
+        Here we find four complete toes on the front limb, three
+        toes on the hind limb, a well-developed ulna, a
+        well-developed fibula, and short-crowned grinders of a
+        simple pattern.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Thus, thanks to these important researches, it has
+        become evident that, so far as our present knowledge
+        extends, the history of the horse type is exactly and
+        precisely that which could have been predicted from a
+        knowledge of the principles of evolution; and the
+        knowledge we now possess justifies us completely in the
+        anticipation that, when the still lower Eocene deposits,
+        and those which belong to the Cretaceous period have
+        yielded up their remains of ancestral equine animals, we
+        shall find, first, a form with four complete toes and a
+        rudiment of the innermost or first digit in front, with
+        probably a rudiment of the fifth digit in the hind foot;
+        while, in the older forms, the series of digits will be
+        more and more complete until we come to the five-toed
+        animals, in which, if the doctrine of evolution is well
+        founded, the whole series must have taken its origin."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Just as Huxley was successful, when only the ancestry to
+      Miocene times was known, in predicting the discovery of
+      older forms in the older Miocene and upper Eocene, so his
+      prediction of older Eocene forms carrying the chain back to
+      five-toed creatures proved correct. One of the new links
+      was indeed discovered before his lecture had passed through
+      the press, and he was able to add in a footnote some
+      details of the structure of the <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p78" id="p78">[78]</a></span> four-toed Eohippus from
+      the lower Eocene beds. Further discoveries have connected
+      these with the five-toed ancestors of the Tapirs, and there
+      is the strongest reason to suppose that we now know as
+      nearly as possible the line of ancestry of the horse back
+      to the primitive forms common to all the higher mammals. It
+      would, of course, be beyond possibility of proof that the
+      exact fossils described were the actual ancestors of the
+      horse; but that they are exceedingly close allies of these,
+      and that among them some actual ancestors exist cannot
+      reasonably be doubted.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Although he had embarked upon geological work with some
+      distaste, Huxley became very closely associated with it as
+      years went on, and indeed, about the seventies, had
+      abandoned his intention to devote himself specially to
+      physiology, and declared himself to be in the first place a
+      pal&aelig;ontologist. In 1876 he had accomplished so much
+      that the Geological Society gave him its chief distinction,
+      awarding him the Wollaston Medal in recognition of his
+      services to geological science. He acted as Secretary to
+      the Geological Society from 1859 to 1862, and he was
+      President from 1868 to 1870. In 1862, the President being
+      incapacitated, Huxley delivered as Deputy-President the
+      Presidential Address. This address is famous in the history
+      of geology, because for the first time it stated clearly
+      and in permanent form a doctrine now taken as a first
+      principle in all geological text-books. A large part of
+      geology is the attempt to read the past history of the
+      earth from the evidence given by the successive strata of
+      rocks that form its crust.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It is mathematically certain that, in any given vertical
+        linear section of an undisturbed series of sedimentary
+        deposits, the bed which lies lowest is the oldest. In
+        many other vertical <span class="pagenum"><a name="p79"
+        id="p79">[79]</a></span> linear sections of the same
+        series, of course corresponding beds will occur in a
+        similar order."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is of the utmost importance to determine whether or no
+      the same series occurring vertically in the same order in
+      different parts of the earth were deposited at the same
+      time. To explain the problem, Huxley took the following
+      concrete example:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The Lias of England and the Lias of Germany, the
+        Cretaceous rocks of Britain and the Cretaceous rocks of
+        Southern India, are termed by geologists
+        'Contemporaneous' formations; but whenever any thoughtful
+        geologist is asked whether he means to say that they were
+        deposited at the same time, he says, 'No, only within the
+        same great epoch.' And if, in pursuing the enquiry, he is
+        asked what may be the approximate value in time of a
+        'great epoch'&mdash;whether it means a hundred years, or
+        a thousand, or a million, or ten million years&mdash;his
+        reply is, 'I cannot tell.'"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Most of the standard writers on pal&aelig;ontology had
+      assumed that the presence in two beds at different parts of
+      the world of the same fossils implied that the beds were
+      contemporaneous, that they had been formed at the same
+      time. Huxley pointed out that the fact of identical fossils
+      being present was, on the whole, evidence against the beds
+      having been formed at the same time. Even some of the older
+      writers who believed in species having been created at
+      definite places at definite times had seen that time must
+      have been required for sets of animals to wander from the
+      places in which they had come into existence. The newer
+      theory of evolution was equally opposed to the notion of
+      the appearance of similar animals at the same time on
+      far-distant parts of the earth. For such reasons he
+      proposed to reject the use of the word
+      <i>Contemporaneous</i> as applied to rockbeds in different
+      localities which contained the <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p80" id="p80">[80]</a></span> same fossils, and to
+      replace it by the word <i>Homotaxial</i>, which meant no
+      more than that the beds occupied corresponding places in
+      the geological history of the earth. Huxley did not pretend
+      that these arguments were entirely original: they
+      represented the drift of the best geological opinion, and
+      he seized hold of them and set them down as permanent
+      geological truths.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1869, in a Presidential Address to the Geological
+      Society, Huxley took up one of the burning questions of the
+      day. In the early part of the century, the discoveries of
+      geologists had been the occasion of great distress to those
+      good people who clung to a literal interpretation of
+      everything in the Bible. Long before the doctrine of
+      evolution and the descent of man from lower animals had
+      taken practical shape, there had been a battle royal
+      between geologists who declared that the earth was many
+      million years old, and had been inhabited at least by
+      animals and plants for enormous periods, and those who
+      clung to the traditional chronology which placed the date
+      of creation only a few thousand years from now. The
+      continued progress of geology, and the sturdy championship
+      of it by men like Sedgwick, Chalmers, and Buckland, who
+      were at the same time reputable theologians and
+      distinguished men of science, had decided the battle in
+      favour of the conclusions of science, and it was accepted
+      generally that the earth was almost indefinitely old. At
+      the same time, another and more strictly scientific dispute
+      had been in progress. The older school of geologists,
+      looking on the face of the world, and seeing it scarred by
+      mighty fissures, displaying huge distortions of the beds in
+      the crust, had argued that geological change had taken
+      place by a series of mighty catastrophes. The tremendous
+      results which they saw seemed to them <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p81" id="p81">[81]</a></span> only
+      possible on the theory that unusual and gigantic displays
+      of force had caused them. On the other hand, Hutton and
+      Lyell attempted to find adequate explanation of the
+      greatest changes in the slow forces which may be seen in
+      operation at the present time. Slow movements of upheaval
+      and depression, amounting at most to an inch or two in a
+      century, may be shown to be actually in existence now, and
+      such slow changes acting for very many centuries would
+      account for the raising of continents above the sea, so
+      that old sea-bottoms became the surface of the land, and
+      for the depression of land areas so that new sedimentary
+      rocks might be deposited upon them. They shewed how air and
+      water slowly crumbled away the hardest rocks, and how
+      rivers deepened their beds steadily but excessively slowly;
+      and they held that while great catastrophic changes might
+      occasionally have occurred, there was ample evidence of the
+      present operation of forces which, granted sufficient time
+      for their operation, would have made the crust of the earth
+      such as it is. This doctrine of <i>Uniformitarianism</i>,
+      of the action of similar forces in the past and present
+      history of the earth, had almost completely triumphed over
+      the older catastrophic views. As Huxley put it, the school
+      of catastrophe put no limit to the violence of forces which
+      had operated; the uniformitarians put no limit to the
+      length of time during which forces had operated.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Catastrophism has insisted upon the existence of a
+        practically unlimited bank of force, on which the
+        theorist might draw; and it has cherished the idea of
+        development of the earth from a state in which its form,
+        and the forces which it exerted, were very different from
+        those which we now know.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Uniformitarianism, on the other hand, has with equal
+        justice insisted upon a practically unlimited bank of
+        time, ready to <span class="pagenum"><a name="p82"
+        id="p82">[82]</a></span> discount any quantity of
+        hypothetical paper. It has kept before our eyes the power
+        of the infinitely little, time being granted, and has
+        compelled us to exhaust known causes before flying to the
+        unknown."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But there was a third influence at work in geology, an
+      influence which may best be described in Huxley's own
+      words:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I shall not make what I have to say on this head clear
+        unless I diverge, or seem to diverge, for a while, from
+        the direct path of my discourse so far as to explain what
+        I take to be the scope of geology itself. I conceive
+        geology to be the history of the earth, in precisely the
+        same sense as biology is the history of living beings;
+        and I trust you will not think that I am overpowered by
+        the influence of a dominant pursuit if I say that I trace
+        a close analogy between these two histories.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "If I study a living being, under what heads does the
+        knowledge I obtain fall? I can learn its structure, or
+        what we call its Anatomy; and its development, or the
+        series of changes it passes through to acquire its
+        complete structure. Then I find that the living being has
+        certain powers resulting from its own activities, and the
+        interaction of these with the activities of other
+        things&mdash;the knowledge of which is Physiology. Beyond
+        this, the living being has a position in space and time,
+        which is its Distribution. All these form the body of
+        ascertainable facts which constitute the <i>status
+        quo</i> of the living creature. But these facts have
+        their causes; and the ascertainment of these causes is
+        the doctrine of &AElig;tiology.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "If we consider what is knowable about the earth, we
+        shall find that such earth-knowledge&mdash;if I may so
+        translate the word geology&mdash;falls into the same
+        categories.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "What is termed stratigraphical geology is neither more
+        nor less than the anatomy of the earth; and the history
+        of the succession of the formations is a history of the
+        succession of such anatomies, or corresponds with
+        development, as distinct from generation.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and
+        depression of its crust, its belching forth of vapours,
+        ashes, and lava, are <span class="pagenum"><a name="p83"
+        id="p83">[83]</a></span> its activities, in as strict a
+        sense as are warmth and the movements and products of
+        respiration the activities of an animal. The phenomena of
+        the seasons, of the trade-winds, of the Gulf Stream, are
+        as much the results of the reaction between these inner
+        activities and outward forces, as are the budding of the
+        leaves in spring, and their falling in autumn the effects
+        of the interaction between the organisation of a plant
+        and the solar light and heat. And, as the study of the
+        activities of the living being is called its physiology,
+        so are these phenomena the subject matter of an analogous
+        telluric physiology, to which we sometimes give the name
+        of meteorology; sometimes of physical geography,
+        sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth has a place
+        in space and time, and relations to other bodies in both
+        these respects, which constitute its distribution. This
+        subject is usually left to the astronomer; but a
+        knowledge of its broad outlines seems to me to be an
+        essential constituent of the stock of geological ideas.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "All that can be ascertained concerning the structure,
+        succession of conditions, actions, and position in space
+        of the earth, is the matter of its natural history. But,
+        as in Biology, there remains the matter of reasoning from
+        these facts to their causes, which is just as much
+        science as the other, and indeed more; and this
+        constitutes geological &aelig;tiology.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Having regard to this general scheme of geological
+        knowledge and thought, it is obvious that geological
+        speculation may be, so to speak, anatomical and
+        developmental speculation, so far as it relates to points
+        of stratigraphical arrangement which are out of reach of
+        direct observation; or, it may be physiological
+        speculation so far as it relates to undetermined problems
+        relative to the activities of the earth; or, it may be
+        distributional speculation, if it deals with
+        modifications of the earth's place in space; or, finally,
+        it will be &aelig;tiological speculation if it attempts
+        to deduce the history of the world, as a whole, from the
+        known properties of the matter of the earth, in the
+        conditions in which the earth has been placed."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley then proceeded to shew that uniformitarianism and
+      catastrophism had neglected this last and most important
+      branch of geology, the attempt to trace the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p84" id="p84">[84]</a></span>
+      interaction of causes which had brought the world into its
+      present condition. He gave a striking display of the wide
+      knowledge of his reading by going back to the foundation of
+      this branch of modern science, and giving a masterly
+      account of the then little-known treatise of Immanuel Kant,
+      who in 1775 had written <i>An Attempt to Account for the
+      Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the Universe upon
+      Newtonian Principles</i>. Next he declared that evolution
+      embraced all that was sound in both catastrophism and
+      uniformitarianism while rejecting the arbitrary limits and
+      assumptions of both.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Finally he came to the great question to which these
+      observations upon the existing schools of geology had led.
+      The most distinguished physicist of the age, then Sir
+      William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, and Huxley's immediate
+      successor in the Presidential Chair of the Royal Society,
+      had stated that the English school of geology had assumed
+      an impossible age for the earth. By physical reasonings,
+      Thomson stated that he was able to prove "That the existing
+      state of things on the earth&mdash;all geological history
+      showing continuity of life&mdash;must be limited within
+      some such period of time as one hundred million years."
+      This pronouncement had been received with acclamation by
+      those who feared the geological and biological sciences, as
+      a sign of internal dissensions within the house of science.
+      Huxley, then, as all through the latter part of his life,
+      at once constituted himself the champion of science, and,
+      taking Thomson's arguments one by one, shewed by a series
+      of masterly deductions from known facts that there was a
+      great deal to be said for the other side, and that
+      physicists were as little certain as geologists could be of
+      the exact duration of time that had elapsed since the dawn
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p85"
+      id="p85">[85]</a></span> of life. His plea for more time
+      since the cooling of the globe than physicists were willing
+      to allow remains one of the classics of geological
+      literature. But he carried the question much farther. The
+      inference which was widely drawn by the enemies of
+      evolution from the arguments of Sir William Thomson was
+      that if geologists had overestimated the age of the cooled
+      earth there was not time for the evolution of animals and
+      plants to have taken place. Huxley pointed out a fact which
+      should be quite obvious, but which even yet is frequently
+      neglected. The evidence for the gradual appearance of life
+      in the past history of the earth depends simply on the fact
+      that the successive forms of life appear in successive
+      strata, and the length of time taken for these changes
+      simply depends upon the length of time which was taken up
+      by the formation of the strata. Our only reason for
+      supposing the evolution of life, made plain by fossil
+      records, to have taken place very slowly is that geologists
+      have stated that the deposition of the strata took place
+      very slowly. Whether these strata were deposited slowly or
+      less slowly, we know that the forms of life changed at the
+      same rate.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Biology takes her time from geology. The only reason we
+        have for believing in the slow rate of change in living
+        forms is the fact that they persist through a series of
+        deposits which, geology informs us, have taken a long
+        while to make. If the geological clock is wrong, all the
+        naturalist will have to do is to modify his notion of the
+        rapidity of change accordingly; and I venture to point
+        out that, when we are told that the limitation of the
+        period during which living beings have inhabited this
+        planet to one, two, or three hundred million years
+        requires a complete revolution in geological speculation,
+        the <i>onus probandi</i> rests on the maker of the
+        assertion, who brings forward not a shadow of evidence in
+        its support."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Perhaps, although this is now an old controversy, it is
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p86"
+      id="p86">[86]</a></span> worth while to recall that the
+      keenness of Huxley's language was not directed against Sir
+      William Thomson, between whom and Huxley there was no more
+      than the desire to argue out an interesting scientific
+      question upon which their conclusions differed, but between
+      Huxley and those outsiders who were always ready to turn
+      any dubious question in science into an argument
+      discrediting the general conclusions of science.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The last time that Huxley occupied the Presidential Chair
+      of the Geological Society was in 1870, and he occupied his
+      Presidential address by a review of the "old judgments"
+      which he had given in the course of his first address in
+      1862. The address was entitled "Pal&aelig;ontology and
+      Evolution," and the most important part of it was a
+      complete withdrawal of the fears he had expressed that
+      geology would not supply definite evidence of the
+      transformation of species. Important discoveries had come
+      thick and fast; and, at least in the case of the higher
+      vertebrates, he declared that, however one might "sift and
+      criticise them," they left a clear balance in favour of the
+      doctrine of the evolution of living forms one from another.
+      But, with his usual critical spirit, examining arguments
+      that bore against a conclusion for which he hoped almost
+      more stringently than arguments apparently favourable to
+      what he expected to be true, Huxley made an important
+      distinction, the value of which becomes more and more
+      apparent as time goes on. In the first flush of enthusiasm
+      for Darwinism, zo&ouml;logists and pal&aelig;ontologists
+      allowed their zeal to outrun discretion in the formation of
+      family trees. They examined large series of living or
+      extinct creatures, and so soon as they found gradations of
+      structure present, they arranged their <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p87" id="p87">[87]</a></span>
+      specimens in a linear series, from the simplest to the most
+      complex, and declared that the arrangement was a
+      representation of the family tree. The fact that the line
+      of descent apparently could have followed along the
+      direction they suggested they were inclined to take as
+      evidence that it had so followed. Huxley made the most
+      careful distinction between what he called intermediate
+      types and types with a right to be placed in linear order,
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between
+        forms of life already known may be said, so far as it is
+        intermediate, to be evidence in favour of evolution,
+        inasmuch as it shews a possible road by which evolution
+        may have taken place. But the mere discovery of such a
+        form does not, in itself, prove that evolution took place
+        by and through it, nor does it constitute more than a
+        presumptive evidence in favour of evolution in general.
+        The fact that <i>Anoplotherid&aelig;</i> are intermediate
+        between pigs and ruminants does not tell us whether the
+        ruminants have come from the pigs or the pigs from the
+        ruminants, or both from <i>Anoplotherid&aelig;</i>, or
+        whether pigs, ruminants, and <i>Anoplotherid&aelig;</i>;
+        alike may not have diverged from some common stock.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A familiar instance will make the point at issue plain.
+      Everyone knows that in many respects, in the structure of
+      the skeleton, and the curve of the backbone, and in the
+      development of the brain, the man-like monkeys, the gorilla
+      and its allies, are intermediate between man and the lower
+      monkeys. In the early days of evolution it was assumed
+      frequently that the gorilla, etc., were therefore to be
+      regarded as ancestors of man, and they appear as such in
+      more than one well-known treatise on evolutionary biology.
+      We now know that it is exceedingly probable that the
+      gorilla and its allies, although truly intermediate types,
+      and truly shewing a possible path of evolution from the
+      brute to man, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p88"
+      id="p88">[88]</a></span> are not the actual ancestors of
+      man, but cousins, descendants like man from some more or
+      less remote common ancestor. And the tendency of recent
+      advances in knowledge is more and more to throw stress on
+      the value of Huxley's distinction, and to minimise
+      confusion between "intermediate" and truly ancestral types.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-088.png" alt="ill-088.png" title=""
+        height="180" width="357" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p89" id="p89">[89]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-089.png" alt="ill-089.png" title=""
+        height="81" width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      HUXLEY AND DARWIN
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Early Ideas on Evolution&mdash;Erasmus
+        Darwin&mdash;Lamarck&mdash;Herbert
+        Spencer&mdash;Difference between Evolution and Natural
+        Selection&mdash;Huxley's Preparation for
+        Evolution&mdash;The Novelty of Natural
+        Selection&mdash;The Advantage of Natural Selection as a
+        Working Hypothesis&mdash;Huxley's Unchanged Position with
+        regard to Evolution and Natural Selection from 1860 to
+        1894.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From our attempt to place together as much as possible of
+      Huxley's geological work in the last chapter, it followed
+      that we anticipated much that falls properly within this
+      chapter. The year 1859, the date of publication of <i>The
+      Origin of Species</i>, is a momentous date in the history
+      of this century, as it was the year in which there was
+      given to the world a theory that not only revolutionised
+      scientific opinion, but altered the trend of almost every
+      branch of thought. To understand this great change, and the
+      part played in it by Huxley, it is necessary to be quite
+      clear as to what Darwin did. In the first place, he did not
+      invent evolution. The idea that all the varied structures
+      in the world, the divergent forms of rocks and minerals and
+      crystals, the innumerable trees and herbs that cover the
+      face of the earth like a mantle, and all the animal <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p90" id="p90">[90]</a></span> host
+      of creatures great and small that dwell on the land or dart
+      through the air or people the waters,&mdash;that all these
+      had arisen by natural laws from a primitive unformed
+      material was known to the Greeks, was developed by the
+      Romans, and even received the approval of early Christian
+      Fathers, who wrote long before the idea had been invented
+      that the naive legends of the Old Testament were an
+      authoritative and literal account of the origin of the
+      world. After a long interval, in which scientific thought
+      was stifled by theological dogmatism, the theory of
+      evolution, particularly in its application to animals,
+      began to reappear, long before Darwin published <i>The
+      Origin of Species</i>. Buffon, the great French naturalist,
+      and Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, had
+      expressed in the clearest way the possibility that species
+      had not been created independently, but had arisen from
+      other species. Lamarck had worked out a theory of descent
+      in the fullest detail, and regarded it as the foundation of
+      the whole science of biology. He taught that the beginning
+      of life consisted only of the simplest and lowest plants
+      and animals; that the more complex animals and plants arose
+      from these, and that even man himself had come from
+      ape-like mammals. He held that the course of development of
+      the earth and of all the creatures upon it was a slow and
+      continuous change, uninterrupted by violent revolutions. He
+      summed up the causes of organic evolution in the following
+      propositions<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a
+      href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a>:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "1. Life tends by its inherent forces to increase the
+        volume of each living body and of all its parts up to a
+        limit determined by its own needs.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p91"
+        id="p91">[91]</a></span>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "2. New wants in animals give rise to new movements which
+        produce organs.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "3. The development of these organs is in proportion to
+        their employment.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "4. New developments are transmitted to offspring."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He supported especially the last two propositions by a
+      series of examples as to the effects of use and disuse; and
+      the most famous of these, the theory that giraffes had
+      produced their long necks by continually stretching up
+      towards the trees on which they fed, is well known to
+      everyone. However, the ingenious speculations of Lamarck
+      were unsupported by a sufficient range of actual knowledge
+      of anatomy, and lacked experimental proof. He entirely
+      failed to convince his contemporaries; and Darwin himself,
+      in a letter to Lyell, declared that he had gained nothing
+      from two readings of Lamarck's book. There can be little
+      doubt but that several Continental writers, in particular
+      Haeckel, have exaggerated Lamarck's services to the
+      development of the idea of evolution. On the other hand,
+      Lyell, although he strongly opposed the ideas of Lamarck
+      and some curious notions of progressional creation due to
+      the great Agassiz, had prepared the way for Darwin by his
+      advocacy of natural causes and slow changes in opposition
+      to the catastrophic and miraculous views in vogue. Above
+      all, Herbert Spencer had argued most strenuously in favour
+      of evolution. Thus, in an important passage quoted by Mr.
+      Clodd from the <i>Leader</i> of March 20, 1852, Spencer had
+      written as follows:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Those who cavalierly reject the theory of evolution, as
+        not adequately supported by facts, seem quite to forget
+        that their own theory is not supported by facts at all.
+        Like the majority of men who are born to a given belief,
+        they demand the most rigorous proof of any adverse
+        belief, but assume that their own <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p92" id="p92">[92]</a></span>
+        needs none. Here we find, scattered over the globe,
+        vegetable and animal organisms numbering, of the one kind
+        (according to Humboldt) some 320,000 species, and of the
+        other, some 2,000,000 species (see Carpenter); and if to
+        these we add the numbers of animal and vegetable species
+        that have become extinct, we may safely estimate the
+        number of species that have existed, and are existing, on
+        the earth, at no less than ten millions. Well, which is
+        the most rational theory about these ten millions of
+        species? Is it most likely that there have been ten
+        millions of special creations; or is it most likely that
+        by continual modifications, due to change of
+        circumstances, ten millions of varieties have been
+        produced, as varieties are being produced still?... Even
+        could the supporters of the development hypothesis merely
+        shew that the origination of species by the process of
+        modification is conceivable, they would be in a better
+        position than their opponents. But they can do much more
+        than this. They can shew that the process of modification
+        has effected, and is effecting, decided changes in all
+        organisms subject to modifying influences.... They can
+        shew that in successive generations these changes
+        continue, until ultimately the new conditions become the
+        natural ones. They can shew that in cultivated plants,
+        domesticated animals, and in the several races of men,
+        such alterations have taken place. They can show that the
+        degrees of difference so produced are often, as in dogs,
+        greater than those on which distinctions of species have
+        been founded. They can shew, too, that the changes daily
+        taking place in ourselves&mdash;the facility that attends
+        long practice, and the loss of aptitude that begins when
+        practice ceases,&mdash;the strengthening of the passions
+        habitually gratified, and the weakening of those
+        habitually curbed,&mdash;the development of every
+        faculty, bodily, moral, intellectual, according to the
+        use made of it&mdash;are all explicable on this
+        principle. And thus they can shew that throughout all
+        organic nature there is at work a modifying influence of
+        the kind they assign as the cause of these specific
+        differences; an influence which, though slow in its
+        action, does, in time, if the circumstances demand it,
+        produce marked changes&mdash;an influence which, to all
+        appearance, would produce in the millions of years, and
+        under the great varieties of condition which geological
+        records imply, any amount of change."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p93"
+      id="p93">[93]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These and many other instances which might be brought
+      together from the published writings of the half-century
+      before the publication of the <i>Origin</i>, show
+      conclusively that the idea of evolution was far from new,
+      and that all through the first part of this century
+      dissatisfaction with the doctrine of the fixity of species
+      and of their miraculous creation was growing. The great
+      contribution of Darwin was this: First, by his theory of
+      natural selection, he brought together the known facts of
+      variation, of struggle for existence, and of adaptation to
+      varying conditions, in such a way that they provided men
+      with a rational and known cause, a cause the operation of
+      which could be seen, for the origin of species by means of
+      preservation of favoured races. Next, as to the origin of
+      species, he brought together not only proofs of the actual
+      operation of natural selection, but a body of evidence in
+      favour of the fact of evolution that was, beyond all
+      comparison, more striking than had been adduced by any
+      earlier philosophical or biological writer. He convinced
+      naturalists that evolution was by far the most probable way
+      in which the living world had come to be what it is, and he
+      made them turn to examination of the animal and vegetable
+      kingdoms with a lively hope that the past history of the
+      living world was not an insoluble problem. Darwin's
+      doctrine brought a new life into biological study, and the
+      result of the incomparably greater bulk of investigation
+      that followed the year 1859 was a continual increase of
+      evidence in favour of the probability of evolution, until
+      now the whole scientific world, and the majority of those
+      who are unscientific, are content to accept evolution as
+      the only reasonable explanation of the living world. It is
+      well to remember that while Darwin, by bringing forward the
+      theory of struggle for <span class="pagenum"><a name="p94"
+      id="p94">[94]</a></span> existence and resulting survival
+      of the fittest, was the actual cause of the present assured
+      position of evolution as a first principle of science, it
+      by no means follows that the survival of the fittest has
+      become similarly a first principle of science. At cross
+      roads a traveller may choose the right path from a quite
+      unsatisfactory reason. Darwin himself, in the act of
+      bringing forward his own theory of natural selection,
+      admitted the possibility of the co-operation of many other
+      agencies in evolution, and at various times during the
+      course of his life he was inclined to attach, now more now
+      less, importance to these additional agencies. Huxley, as
+      we shall soon come to see, never wavered in his adhesion to
+      the facts of evolution after 1859; but, from first to last,
+      regarded natural selection as only the most probable cause
+      of the occurrence of evolution. Other naturalists, of whom
+      the best-known are Weismann in Germany, Ray Lankester in
+      England, and W.K. Brooks in America, have come to attach a
+      continually increasing importance to the purely Darwinian
+      factor of natural selection; while others again, such as
+      Herbert Spencer in England, and the late Professor Cope and
+      a large American school, have advocated more and more
+      strongly the importance of what may be called the
+      Lamarckian factors of evolution,&mdash;the inherited
+      effects of increased or diminished use of organs, the
+      direct influence of the environment, and so forth. From the
+      fact that Darwin has persuaded the world of the truth of
+      evolution, evolution is often called Darwinism; and in this
+      historically just though scientifically inaccurate sense of
+      the term, Huxley was a strict Darwinian, a Darwinian of the
+      Darwinians. From the facts that, although natural selection
+      had been formulated by several writers before Darwin, and
+      had been simultaneously <span class="pagenum"><a name="p95"
+      id="p95">[95]</a></span> elaborated by Wallace and Darwin,
+      the <i>Origin of Species</i> was the foundation of the
+      modern acceptation of evolution, and natural selection was
+      the key-note of the origin of species, natural selection
+      may be called Darwinism with both historical and scientific
+      accuracy; and in this sense of the term Huxley was a
+      Darwinian; a convinced but free-thinking and broad-minded
+      Darwinian, who was far from persuaded that his tenet had a
+      monopoly of truth, and who delighted in shewing the
+      distinctions between what seemed to him probable and what
+      was proved, and in absorbing from other doctrines whatever
+      he thought worthy to be absorbed. The present writer has
+      thought it so important to distinguish between these two
+      sides of the word <i>Darwinism</i>, that for the sake of
+      clearness he has stated what he believes to be the truth of
+      Huxley's relation to Darwin before beginning detailed
+      exposition of it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In consideration of Huxley's position before 1859, the most
+      interesting feature of his zo&ouml;logical work is the
+      gradual preparation that it was making in his mind for the
+      doctrine of the <i>Origin</i>. He was like an engineer
+      boring a tunnel through a mountain, but ignorant of how
+      near he was to the pleasant valley on the other side; and,
+      above all, ignorant how rapidly he was being met by a much
+      more mighty excavation from the other side. To use what is
+      perhaps a more exact simile: he was like a child with half
+      the pieces of a puzzle-map, slowly linking them together as
+      far as they would fit, and quite ignorant that presently
+      the remaining half would suddenly be given him, and with
+      almost no trouble would at once fit into the gaps he had
+      necessarily left, and transform a meaningless pattern into
+      a perfect and intelligible whole. Let us consider some
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p96"
+      id="p96">[96]</a></span> of these map pieces. The ultimate
+      picture was the conception of the whole world of life, past
+      and present, as a single family tree growing up from the
+      simplest possible roots, and gradually spreading out first
+      into the two main branches of animals and plants, and then
+      into the endless series of complicated ramifications that
+      make up living and extinct animals and plants. Huxley was
+      piecing together the scattered fragments, and gradually
+      learning to see here and there whole branches, as yet
+      separate at their lower ends, but in themselves shapely,
+      and showing a general resemblance to one another in the
+      gradual progression from simple to complex. The greatest of
+      these branches that he had pieced together was the group of
+      Medus&aelig; and their allies, now known as
+      C&oelig;lenterates. He had formed similar branches for the
+      Molluscs and minor branches for the Salps and Ascidians,
+      and, in his general lectures on the whole animal kingdom,
+      he had shadowed out the broad arrangement of the main
+      divisions, or, as he called them, <i>types</i>. He had seen
+      in each particular branch the clearest evidence of the laws
+      of growth which had directed its development, and had
+      realised that these laws of growth, consisting of gradual
+      modifications of common typical structures, were identical
+      in the different branches. He had taken clear hold of Von
+      Baer's conception that the younger stages of different
+      types were more alike than the adult stages, and here and
+      there he had made comparisons between the younger stages or
+      simplest forms of his different branches, and had shown
+      that, without completely realising it, he was ready for the
+      idea that just as the separate pieces could be arranged to
+      form orderly branches, so the separate branches might come
+      to be arranged as a single tree. And finally, in his
+      lectures <span class="pagenum"><a name="p97"
+      id="p97">[97]</a></span> on "Protoplasm and Cells," and on
+      the "Common Structure of the Animal and Plant Kingdoms," he
+      had reached the conclusion that the two main divisions of
+      the living world were formed of the same stuff, displayed
+      in identical fashion the elementary functions of life, and
+      were creatures of the same order. But, notwithstanding this
+      close approach to modern conceptions, he was not an
+      evolutionist. When, in public, he expressed deliberate
+      convictions, these convictions were against the general
+      idea of evolution, until very shortly before 1859. In this
+      opposition he was supported partly by the critical
+      scepticism of his mind, which in all things made him
+      singularly unwilling to accept any theories of any kind,
+      but chiefly from the fact that the books of the two chief
+      supporters of evolutionary conceptions impressed him very
+      unfavourably. Huxley writes:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I had studied Lamarck attentively, and I had read the
+        <i>Vestiges</i> with due care; but neither of them
+        afforded me any good ground for changing my negative and
+        critical attitude. As for the <i>Vestiges</i>, I confess
+        that the book simply irritated me by the prodigious
+        ignorance and thoroughly unscientific habit of mind
+        manifested by the writer. If it had any influence on me
+        at all, it set me against evolution; and the only review
+        I ever have qualms of conscience about, on the ground of
+        needless savagery is one I wrote on the <i>Vestiges</i>
+        while under that influence. With respect to the
+        <i>Philosophie Zoologique</i>, it is no reproach to
+        Lamarck to say that the discussion of the species
+        question in that work, whatever might be said for it in
+        1809, was miserably below the level of the knowledge of
+        half a century later. In that interval of time, the
+        elucidation of the structure of the lower animals and
+        plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of their
+        relations; histology and embryology, in the modern sense,
+        had been created; physiology had been reconstituted; the
+        facts of distribution, geological and geographical, had
+        been prodigiously multiplied and reduced to order. To any
+        biologist whose studies had carried <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p98" id="p98">[98]</a></span>
+        him beyond mere species-mongering, in 1850 one-half of
+        Lamarck's arguments were obsolete, and the other half
+        erroneous or defective, in virtue of omitting to deal
+        with the various classes of evidence which had been
+        brought to light since his time. Moreover his one
+        suggestion as to the cause of the gradual modification of
+        species&mdash;effort excited by change of
+        conditions&mdash;was, on the face of it, inapplicable to
+        the whole vegetable world. I do not think that any
+        impartial judge who reads the <i>Philosophie
+        Zoologique</i> now, and who afterwards takes up Lyell's
+        trenchant and effective criticism (published as far back
+        as 1830) will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much
+        higher place in the establishment of biological evolution
+        than that which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to
+        physical science generally&mdash;<i>buccinator
+        tantum</i>".
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, Huxley's friendship with Darwin and with
+      Lyell began to make him less certain about the fixity of
+      species. He tells us that during his first interview with
+      Darwin, which occurred soon after his return from the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>, he
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "expressed his belief in the sharpness of the lines of
+        demarcation between natural groups and in the absence of
+        transitional forms, with all the confidence of youth and
+        imperfect knowledge. I was not aware at that time that he
+        had been many years brooding over the species question;
+        and the humorous smile which accompanied his gentle
+        answer, that such was not altogether his view, long
+        haunted and puzzled me."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      An elaborate study of Lyell's works helped largely in
+      destroying this youthful confidence, and a letter written
+      by Lyell and quoted by Huxley in the chapter he
+      communicated to Darwin's <i>Life and Letters</i>, states
+      that in April, 1856, "when Huxley, Hooker, and Wollaston
+      were at Darwin's last week they (all four of them) ran a
+      tilt against species; further I believe, than they are
+      prepared to go." Another quotation from Huxley's essay on
+      <i>The Reception of the Origin of Species</i> will make
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p99"
+      id="p99">[99]</a></span> it plain beyond all doubt that he
+      was not a Darwinian before Darwin.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-hooker.jpg"
+        alt="SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER" title="" height="427"
+        width="343" /> <span class="caption">SIR JOSEPH DALTON
+        HOOKER</span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Thus, looking back into the past, it seems to me that my
+        own position of critical expectancy was just and
+        reasonable, and must have been taken up, on the same
+        grounds, by many other persons. If Agassiz had told me
+        that the forms of life which had successively tenanted
+        the globe were the incarnations of successive thoughts of
+        the Deity; and that He had wiped out one set of these
+        embodiments by an appalling geological catastrophe as
+        soon as His ideas took a more advanced shape, I found
+        myself not only unable to admit the accuracy of the
+        deductions from the facts of pal&aelig;ontology, upon
+        which this astounding hypothesis was founded, but I had
+        to confess my want of means of testing the correctness of
+        his explanation of them. And besides that, I could by no
+        means see what the explanation explained. Neither did it
+        help me to be told by an eminent anatomist that species
+        had succeeded one another in time, in virtue of a
+        'continuously operative creational law'. That seemed to
+        me to be no more than saying that species had succeeded
+        one another in the form of a vote-catching resolution,
+        with 'law' to please the man of science and 'creational'
+        to draw the orthodox. So I took refuge in that
+        <i>th&auml;tige Skepsis</i> which Goethe has so well
+        defined; and, reversing the apostolic precept to be all
+        things to all men, I usually defended the tenability of
+        the received doctrines when I had to do with the
+        transmutationists, and stood up for the possibility of
+        transmutation among the orthodox&mdash;thereby, no doubt,
+        increasing an already current, but quite undeserved,
+        reputation for needless combativeness."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      What transformed Huxley's views and the views of his
+      contemporaries who accepted Darwinism was not so much the
+      evidence in favour of evolution contained in the
+      <i>Origin</i>, as theilluminating doctrine of natural
+      selection which for the first time supplied naturalists
+      with a reasonable explanation of how evolution might have
+      come about, both in the animal and vegetable <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p100" id="p100">[100]</a></span>
+      kingdoms. As soon as this reason was provided them, they
+      turned to the store of facts within their own knowledge,
+      and rapidly arranged the evidence which had been lurking
+      only partly visible in favour of the fact of evolution. It
+      cannot be disputed that here and there earlier writers than
+      Darwin and Wallace had suggested the possibility of natural
+      selection acting upon existing variations so as to cause
+      survival of the fittest. MacGillivray, the Scots
+      naturalist, and the father of Huxley's companion on the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>, had published suggestions which came
+      exceedingly near to Darwin's theory. In 1831 Mr. Patrick
+      Matthew had published a work on <i>Naval Architecture and
+      Timber</i>, and in it had stated the essential principle of
+      the Darwinian doctrine of struggle and survival. Still
+      earlier, in 1813, a Dr. W.C. Wells, in a paper to the Royal
+      Society on "A White Female, Part of whose Skin Resembles
+      that of a Negro," had, as Darwin himself freely admitted,
+      distinctly recognised the principle of natural
+      selection&mdash;but applied it only to the races of man,
+      and to certain characters alone. Finally, long before
+      either of these, Aristotle himself had written, in
+      <i>Physics</i>, ii., 8: "Why are not the things which seem
+      the result of design, merely spontaneous variations, which,
+      being useful, have been preserved, while others are
+      continually eliminated as unsuitable?" None of these
+      foreshadowings were supported by lengthy evidence, nor
+      worked out into an elaborate theory; and it was not until
+      Darwin had done this that we can say the birth of natural
+      selection really took place. Huxley writes:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The suggestion that new species may result from the
+        selective action of external conditions upon the
+        variations from their specific type which individuals
+        present,&mdash;and which we call 'spontaneous,' because
+        we are ignorant of their causation,&mdash;is <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p101" id="p101">[101]</a></span>
+        as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as
+        it was to biological specialists before 1858."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But that suggestion is the central idea of the origin of
+      species, and contains the quintessence of Darwinism.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Some weeks before the <i>Origin</i> was published, Darwin
+      wrote to Huxley, sending him a copy of the work, and asking
+      him for the names of eminent foreigners to whom it should
+      be sent. In the course of his letter he wrote: "I shall be
+      intensely curious to hear what effect the book produces on
+      you," and it was clear that he had no very confident
+      expectation of a favourable opinion. Huxley replied the day
+      before the <i>Origin</i> was published, saying that he had
+      finished the volume, and stating that it had completely
+      convinced him of the fact of evolution, and that he fully
+      accepted natural selection as a "true cause for the
+      production of species." Darwin, in a letter to Wallace,
+      telling of his doubts and fears concerning the reception of
+      his book, had added the postscript: "I think I told you
+      before that Hooker is a complete convert. If I can convert
+      Huxley, I shall be content." When he received Huxley's
+      letter he replied at once:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Like a good Catholic who has received extreme unction, I
+        can now sing <i>Nunc Dimittis</i>. I should have been
+        more than contented with one quarter of what you have
+        said. Exactly fifteen months ago, when I first put pen to
+        paper for this volume, I had awful misgivings, and
+        thought perhaps I had deluded myself, like so many have
+        done; and I then fixed in my mind three judges, on whose
+        decision I determined mentally to abide. The judges were
+        Lyell, Hooker, and yourself. It was this which made me so
+        excessively anxious for your verdict. I am now contented,
+        and can sing my <i>Nunc Dimittis</i>."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The effect of the new theory on Huxley's mind has been
+      expressed most fully and clearly by himself:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p102"
+      id="p102">[102]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I imagine that most of my contemporaries who thought
+        seriously about the matter were very much in my own state
+        of mind&mdash;inclined to say to Mosaists and
+        Evolutionists, 'a plague on both your houses!' and
+        disposed to turn aside from an interminable and
+        apparently fruitless discussion to labour in the fertile
+        fields of ascertainable fact. And I may, therefore,
+        further suppose that the publication of the Darwin and
+        Wallace papers in 1858, and still more that of the
+        <i>Origin</i> in 1859, had the effect upon them of that
+        of a flash of light which, to a man who has lost himself
+        in a dark night, suddenly reveals a road which, whether
+        it takes him straight home or not, certainly goes his
+        way. That which we were looking for and could not find,
+        was a hypothesis respecting the origin of known organic
+        forms, which assumed the operation of no causes but such
+        as could be proved to be actually at work. We wanted, not
+        to pin our faith to that or any other speculation, but to
+        get hold of clear and definite conceptions which could be
+        brought face to face with facts and have their validity
+        tested. The <i>Origin</i> provided us with the working
+        hypothesis we sought. Moreover, it did us the immense
+        service of freeing us for ever from the
+        dilemma&mdash;refuse to accept the creation hypothesis,
+        and what have you to propose that can be accepted by any
+        cautious reasoner? In 1857 I had no answer ready, and I
+        do not think that anyone else had. A year later, we
+        reproached ourselves with dulness for being perplexed by
+        such an enquiry. My reflection, when I first made myself
+        master of the central idea of the <i>Origin</i> was, 'how
+        exceedingly stupid not to have thought of that.' I
+        suppose that Columbus's companions said much the same
+        when he made the egg to stand on end. The facts of
+        variability, of the struggle for existence, of adaptation
+        to conditions, were notorious enough; but none of us had
+        suspected that the road to the heart of the species
+        problem lay through them, until Darwin and Wallace
+        dispelled the darkness, and the beacon-fire of the
+        <i>Origin</i> guided the benighted.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Whether the particular shape which the doctrine of
+        evolution, as applied to the organic world, took in
+        Darwin's hands, would prove to be final or not, was, to
+        me, a matter of indifference. In my earliest criticisms
+        of the <i>Origin</i> I ventured to point out that its
+        logical foundation was insecure so long as <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p103" id="p103">[103]</a></span>
+        experiments in selective breeding had not produced
+        varieties which were more or less infertile; and that
+        insecurity remains up to the present time. But, with any
+        and every critical doubt which my sceptical ingenuity
+        could suggest, the Darwinian hypothesis remained
+        incomparably more probable than the creation hypothesis.
+        And if we had none of us been able to discern the
+        paramount significance of some of the most patent and
+        notorious of natural facts, until they were, so to speak,
+        thrust under our noses, what force remained in the
+        dilemma&mdash;creation or nothing? It was obvious that,
+        hereafter, the probability would be immensely greater
+        that the links of natural causation were hidden from our
+        purblind eyes, than that natural causation should be
+        unable to produce all the phenomena of nature. The only
+        rational course for those who had no other object than
+        the attainment of truth, was to accept 'Darwinism' as a
+        working hypothesis, and see what could be made of it.
+        Either it would prove its capacity to elucidate the fact
+        of organic life, or it would break down under the strain.
+        This was surely the dictate of common sense, and for once
+        common-sense carried the day. The result has been that
+        complete <i>volte-face</i> of the whole scientific world
+        which must seem so surprising to the present generation.
+        I do not mean to say that all the leaders of biological
+        science have avowed themselves Darwinians; but I do not
+        think that there is a single zo&ouml;logist, or botanist,
+        or pal&aelig;ontologist, among the multitude of active
+        workers of this generation, who is other than an
+        evolutionist profoundly influenced by Darwin's views.
+        Whatever may be the ultimate fate of the particular
+        theory put forth by Darwin, I venture to affirm that, so
+        far as my knowledge goes, all the ingenuity and all the
+        learning of hostile critics has not enabled them to
+        adduce a solitary fact of which it can be said that it is
+        irreconcilable with the Darwinian theory. In the
+        prodigious variety and complexity of organic nature,
+        there are multitudes of phenomena which are not deducible
+        from any generalisation we have yet reached. But the same
+        may be said of every other class of natural objects. I
+        believe that astronomers cannot yet get the moon's
+        motions into perfect accordance with the theory of
+        gravitation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These quotations make plain the historical fact that <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p104" id="p104">[104]</a></span>
+      Huxley was convinced of evolution because Darwin, by his
+      theory of natural selection, brought forward an actual
+      cause that could be seen in operation, and that was
+      competent to produce new species. As soon as the "flash of
+      light" came, it revealed to Huxley the vast store of
+      evidence that he had unconsciously accumulated, and it set
+      him at once to work collecting more evidence. If we bear in
+      mind the distinction between evolution and natural
+      selection, the well-known subsequent history of the
+      relations between Huxley and what was known popularly as
+      Darwinism becomes clear and intelligible. From first to
+      last he accepted evolution; from first to last he accepted
+      natural selection as by far the most reasonable hypothesis
+      that had been brought forward, and as infinitely more in
+      accordance with the observed facts of nature than any
+      theory of the immediate action of supernatural creative
+      power. As time went on, and the influence of Darwin's
+      theory made evolution acceptable to a wider and wider range
+      of people, until it passed into the common knowledge of the
+      world, that confusion of which we have spoken arose between
+      evolution and Darwin's particular theory. And as knowledge
+      grew, and the number of biologists increased in the
+      striking fashion of this last half-century, while the
+      evidence for evolution continued to increase with an
+      unexpected rapidity, every detail of the purely Darwinian
+      theory became more and more subjected to rigid scrutiny.
+      Most educated people, unless their education has been
+      largely in an experimental science, find difficulty in
+      understanding the relation in the minds of naturalists
+      between "authority" and "knowledge." We do not <i>know</i>,
+      for instance, that the structure of the Medus&aelig;
+      consists essentially of two foundation-membranes, because
+      Huxley, one of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p105"
+      id="p105">[105]</a></span> greatest authorities in anatomy
+      that the world has seen, told us that it was so. We know it
+      because, Huxley having told us that it was so, we are able
+      at any time with a microscope and dissecting needles to
+      observe the fact for ourselves. It is true, that unless we
+      are making a special study of the Medus&aelig; we do not
+      repeat the observation in the case of so many different
+      forms of Medus&aelig; as Huxley studied; but it is partof
+      our training to observe for ourselves in a sufficient
+      number of cases to test the correspondence between
+      statement and fact before we accept the generalisation of
+      any authority. And we learn, or at least have the
+      opportunity of learning, in the whole habit of our lives as
+      naturalists, to distinguish carefully between knowledge of
+      which personal observation is an essential part, and
+      opinion or belief which may or may not be based upon
+      authority, but which in any case is devoid of the
+      corroboration of personal observation. When a piece of new
+      anatomical or physiological work is published in a
+      technical journal, it is read by a large number of
+      anatomists and physiologists, and if the work is apparently
+      of an important kind, bearing on the general problems that
+      even specialists have to follow, they all at once set to
+      work in their laboratories to make corroborative
+      dissections or experiments, and it is part of every modern
+      account of a biological discovery to tell exactly the
+      methods by which results were got, in order that this
+      process of corroboration may be set about easily. The
+      question as to whether or no natural selection were the
+      sole or chief cause, or indeed a cause at all, of evolution
+      is not yet, and perhaps never will be, a matter of
+      knowledge in the scientific sense. At the most, we can see
+      for ourselves only that selection does bring about changes
+      at least as great as the differences <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p106" id="p106">[106]</a></span>
+      between natural species. The evidence for this we have
+      before our eyes, if we choose to see, on a stock farm; in
+      the breeding yards of any keeper of "fancy" animals; or in
+      the nursery gardens of any florist. So far, Huxley accepted
+      the Darwinian principle as a definite contribution to
+      knowledge; and so far the whole body of biologists has
+      followed him. Beyond this the truth of the Darwinian
+      principle is a matter of inference or judgment; of
+      balancing probabilities and improbabilities. In multitude
+      of counsellors there is said to be wisdom, and what we
+      learn from the counsellors of biology all over the world is
+      that some maintain that natural selection is the only
+      probable agency in effecting evolution, and that it is
+      competent to account for all the changes which we know to
+      have taken place; others hold that its probable influence
+      has been over-rated; and others, again, think that it has
+      been one of the many causes that have brought about the
+      kaleidoscopic variety of organic nature. Huxley remained to
+      the last among those who distinguished in the clearest way
+      between natural selection as an exceedingly ingenious and
+      probable hypothesis, and a proved cause; and he was always
+      careful, especially when he was writing for or speaking in
+      the presence of those who like himself accepted the fact of
+      evolution as proven, to distinguish between this
+      provisional hypothesis as to how evolution had come about,
+      and definite knowledge that it had come about in this way.
+      Two passages from Huxley's writings, one written in 1860 in
+      the <i>Westminster Review</i>, and the second written in
+      1893, in the preface to the volume of his collected essays
+      which contained a reprint of the <i>Westminster</i>
+      article, will make plain the continuity of Huxley's
+      attitude:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "There is no fault to be found with Mr. Darwin's method,
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p107"
+        id="p107">[107]</a></span> then; but it is another
+        question whether he has fulfilled all the conditions
+        imposed by that method. Is it satisfactorily proved, in
+        fact, that species may be originated by selection? That
+        there is such a thing as natural selection? That none of
+        the phenomena exhibited by species are inconsistent with
+        the origin of species in this way? If these questions can
+        be answered in the affirmative, Mr. Darwin's view steps
+        out of the rank of hypotheses into those of proved
+        theories; but, so long as the evidence at present adduced
+        falls short of enforcing that affirmation, so long, to
+        our minds, must the new doctrine be content to remain
+        among the former&mdash;an extremely valuable, and in the
+        highest degree probable, doctrine; indeed, the only
+        extant hypothesis which is worth anything in a scientific
+        point of view; but still a hypothesis, and not yet the
+        theory of species.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "After much consideration, and assuredly with no bias
+        against Mr. Darwin's views, it is our clear conviction
+        that, as the evidence stands, it is not absolutely proven
+        that a group of animals having all the characters
+        exhibited by species in nature, has ever been originated
+        by selection, whether natural or artificial. Groups
+        having the morphological character of species, distinct
+        and permanent races, in fact, have been so produced over
+        and over again; but there is no positive evidence at
+        present that any group of animals has, by variation and
+        selective breeding, given rise to another group which was
+        in the least degree infertile with the first. Mr. Darwin
+        is perfectly aware of this weak point, and brings forward
+        a multitude of ingenious and important arguments to
+        diminish the force of the objection. We admit the value
+        of these arguments to the fullest extent; nay, we will go
+        so far as to express our belief that experiments,
+        conducted by a skilful physiologist, would very probably
+        obtain the desired production of mutually more or less
+        infertile breeds from a common stock in a comparatively
+        few years; but still, as the case stands at present, this
+        little 'rift within the lute' is not to be disguised or
+        overlooked."&mdash;(<i>Westminster Review</i>, 1860.)
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "We should leave a very wrong impression on the reader's
+        mind if we permitted him to suppose that the value of
+        Darwin's work depends wholly on the ultimate
+        justification of the theoretical views which it contains.
+        On the contrary, if they were <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p108" id="p108">[108]</a></span> disproved
+        to-morrow, the book would still be the best of its
+        kind&mdash;the most compendious statement of well-sifted
+        facts bearing on the doctrine of species that has ever
+        appeared. The chapters on variation, on the struggle for
+        existence, on instinct, on hybridism, on the imperfection
+        of the geological record, on geographical distribution,
+        have not only no equals, but, so far as our knowledge
+        goes, no competitors, within the range of biological
+        literature. And viewed as a whole, we do not believe
+        that, since the publication of Von Baer's <i>Researches
+        on Development</i>, thirty years ago, any work has
+        appeared calculated to exert so large an influence, not
+        only on the future of biology, but in extending the
+        domination of science over regions of thought into which
+        she has, as yet, hardly penetrated."&mdash;(<i>Ibid.</i>)
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Those who take the trouble to read the essays published
+        in 1859 and 1860, will, I think, do me the justice to
+        admit that my zeal to secure fair play for Mr. Darwin did
+        not drive me into the position of a mere advocate; and
+        that, while doing justice to the greatness of the
+        argument, I did not fail to indicate its weak points. I
+        have never seen any reason for departing from the
+        position which I took up in these two essays; and the
+        assertion which I sometimes meet with nowadays that I
+        have 'recanted' or changed my opinions about Mr. Darwin's
+        views is quite unintelligible to me.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "As I have said in the seventh essay, the fact of
+        evolution is to my mind sufficiently evidenced by
+        pal&aelig;ontology; and I remain of the opinion expressed
+        in the second, that until selective breeding is
+        definitely proved to give rise to varieties infertile
+        with one another, the logical foundation of the theory of
+        natural selection is quite incomplete. We still remain
+        very much in the dark about the causes of variation; the
+        apparent inheritance of acquired characters in some
+        cases; and the struggle for existence within the
+        organism, which probably lies at the bottom of both these
+        phenomena."&mdash;(1893, <i>Preface</i>.)
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Finally, when he was awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal
+      Society, on November 30, 1894, in the course of an address
+      at the anniversary dinner of the Society, he said, as
+      reported in the <i>Times</i> next day:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p109"
+      id="p109">[109]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I am as much convinced now as I was thirty-four years
+        ago that the theory propounded by Mr. Darwin, I mean that
+        which he propounded&mdash;not that which has been
+        reported to be his by too many ill-instructed, both
+        friends and foes&mdash;has never yet been shewn to be
+        inconsistent with any positive observations, and if I may
+        use a phrase which I know has been objected to, and which
+        I use in a totally different sense from that in which it
+        was first proposed by its first propounder, I do believe
+        that on all grounds of pure science it 'holds the field'
+        as the only hypothesis at present before us which has a
+        sound scientific foundation.... I am sincerely of opinion
+        that the views which were propounded by Mr. Darwin
+        thirty-four years ago may be understood hereafter as
+        constituting an epoch in the intellectual history of the
+        human race. They will modify the whole system of our
+        thought and opinion, our most intimate convictions. But I
+        do not know, I do not think anybody knows, whether the
+        particular views he held will be hereafter fortified by
+        the experience of the ages which come after us....
+        Whether the particular form in which he has put before us
+        the Darwinian doctrines may be such as to be destined to
+        survive or not, is more, I venture to think, than anybody
+        is capable at this present moment of saying."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Further details of Huxley's relation to natural selection
+      may be gained from an interesting chapter in Professor
+      Poulton's volume on <i>Charles Darwin</i> (Cassell and Co.,
+      London, 1896).
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 227px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-109.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="110" width="227" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="footnotes">
+      <h3>
+        FOOTNOTES:
+      </h3>
+      <div class="footnote">
+        <p>
+          <a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a
+          href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a>
+          See E. Clodd's <i>Pioneers of Evolution</i>, London,
+          1897, and Osborn's <i>From the Greeks to Darwin</i>,
+          New York, 1896.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p110" id="p110">[110]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-110.png" alt="" title="" height="82"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Huxley's Prevision of the Battle&mdash;The Causes of the
+        Battle&mdash;The <i>Times</i> Review&mdash;Sir Richard
+        Owen attacks Darwinism in the <i>Edinburgh
+        Review</i>&mdash;Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the
+        <i>Quarterly Review</i>&mdash;Huxley's Scathing
+        Replies&mdash;The British Association Debates at
+        Oxford&mdash;Huxley and
+        Wilberforce&mdash;R&eacute;sum&eacute; of Huxley's Exact
+        Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural
+        Selection.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When Huxley wrote thanking Darwin for the first copy of the
+      <i>Origin</i>, he warned him of the annoyance and abuse he
+      might expect from those whose opinions were too suddenly
+      disturbed by the new exposition of evolution, and assured
+      him of the strongest personal support:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I trust you will not allow yourself to be in any way
+        disgusted or annoyed by the considerable abuse and
+        misrepresentation which, unless I greatly mistake, is in
+        store for you. Depend upon it, you have earned the
+        lasting gratitude of all thoughtful men; and as to the
+        curs which will bark and yelp, you must recollect that
+        some of your friends, at any rate, are endowed with an
+        amount of combativeness which (though you have often and
+        justly rebuked it) may stand you in good stead.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "I am sharpening my claws and beak in readiness."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was absolutely right in his prediction as to the
+      magnitude of the prejudices to be overcome before <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p111" id="p111">[111]</a></span>
+      evolution became accepted, and for the next thirty years of
+      his life he was the leader in the battle for Darwinism. It
+      was natural that the new views, especially in their
+      extension to man himself, should arouse the keenest
+      opposition. To those of the present generation, who have
+      grown up in an atmosphere impregnated by the doctrine of
+      descent, the position of the world in 1860 seems "older
+      than a tale written in any book." As we have tried to shew
+      in the preceding chapter, biological science was partially
+      prepared; the mutability of species and the orderly
+      succession of organic life were in the air. But the
+      application of the doctrine to man came as a greater shock
+      to civilised sentiment than would have occurred a century
+      earlier. It came as a disaster even to the clearest and
+      calmest intellects, for it seemed to drag down to the dirt
+      the nobility of man. Out of the fierce flame of the French
+      Revolution, there had come purged and clean the conception
+      of man as an individual and soul. As this century advanced,
+      the conception of the dignity and worth of each individual
+      man, rich or poor, bond or free, had spread more and more
+      widely, bearing as its fruit the emancipation of slaves,
+      the spread of political freedom, the amelioration of the
+      conditions of the dregs of humanity, the right of all to
+      education, the possibility of universal peace based on the
+      brotherhood of man; and all that was best in philosophy and
+      in political practice seemed bound up with a lofty view of
+      the unit of mankind. Carlyle himself, to whom many of the
+      freest and noblest spirits in Europe were beginning to look
+      as to an inspired prophet, could see in it nothing but a
+      "monkey damnification of mankind." The dogmatic world saw
+      in it nothing but a deliberate and malicious assault upon
+      religion. The Church of England in <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p112" id="p112">[112]</a></span> particular was
+      beginning to recover from a long period of almost
+      incredible supineness, and there was arising a large body
+      of clergy full of faith and zeal and good works, but quite
+      unacquainted with science, who frankly regarded Darwin as
+      Antichrist, and Huxley and Tyndall as emissaries of the
+      devil. Against evolutionists there was left unused no
+      weapon that ignorant prejudice could find, whether that
+      prejudice was inspired by a lofty zeal for what it
+      conceived to be the highest interests of humanity, or by a
+      crafty policy which saw in the new doctrine a blow to the
+      coming renewed supremacy of the Church. To us, now, it may
+      seem that Huxley had "sharpened his beak and claws" with
+      the spirit of a gladiator rather than with that of the mere
+      defender of a scientific doctrine; but a very short study
+      of contemporary literature will convince anyone that for a
+      time the defenders of evolution had to defend not only what
+      they knew to be scientific truth, but their personal and
+      private reputation. The new doctrine, like perhaps all the
+      great doctrines that have come into the world, brought not
+      peace but a sword, and had to be defended by the sword.
+      Darwin had not the kind of disposition nor the particular
+      faculties necessary for a deadly contest of this kind; he
+      was interested indeed above all things in convincing a few
+      leading naturalists of the truth of his opinions; but, that
+      done, he would have been contented to continue his own work
+      quietly, in absolute carelessness as to what the world in
+      general thought of him. Huxley, on the other hand, was
+      incapable of restraining himself from propagating what he
+      knew to be the truth; his reforming missionary spirit was
+      not content simply with self-defence; it drove him to be a
+      bishop <i>in partibus infidelium</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p113"
+      id="p113">[113]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By a curious and interesting accident, Huxley had the
+      opportunity of beginning his propagandism by writing the
+      first great review of <i>The Origin of Species</i> in the
+      <i>Times</i>, at that period without question the leading
+      journal in the world. Huxley's own account of this happy
+      chance is given in <i>Darwin's Life and Letters</i>, vol.
+      ii.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The <i>Origin</i> was sent to Mr. Lucas, one of the
+        staff of the <i>Times</i> writers at that day, in what I
+        suppose was the ordinary course of business. Mr. Lucas,
+        though an excellent journalist, and at a later period
+        editor of <i>Once a Week</i>, was as innocent of any
+        knowledge of science as a babe, and bewailed himself to
+        an acquaintance on having to deal with such a book,
+        whereupon he was recommended to ask me to get him out of
+        his difficulty, and he applied to me accordingly,
+        explaining, however, that it would be necessary for him
+        formally to adopt anything I might be disposed to write,
+        by prefacing it with two or three paragraphs of his own.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "I was too anxious to seize on the opportunity thus
+        offered of giving the book a fair chance with the
+        multitudinous readers of the <i>Times</i> to make any
+        difficulty about conditions; and being then very full of
+        the subject, I wrote the article faster, I think, than I
+        ever wrote anything in my life, and sent it to Mr. Lucas,
+        who duly prefixed his opening sentences. When the article
+        appeared, there was much speculation as to its
+        authorship. The secret leaked out in time, as all secrets
+        will, but not by my aid; and then I used to derive a good
+        deal of innocent amusement from the vehement assertions
+        of some of my more acute friends, that they knew it was
+        mine from the first paragraph." "As the <i>Times</i> some
+        years since referred to my connection with the review, I
+        suppose there will be no breach of confidence in the
+        publication of this little history."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This review was one of the few favourable notices, and
+      naturally it delighted Darwin greatly. He wrote to Hooker
+      about it: "Have you seen the splendid essay and notice of
+      my book in the <i>Times</i>? I cannot avoid a strong
+      suspicion that it is by Huxley; but I <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p114" id="p114">[114]</a></span>
+      have never heard that he wrote in the <i>Times</i>. It will
+      do grand service." On the same day, writing to Huxley
+      himself, he said of the review:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It included an eulogium of me which quite touched me,
+        although I am not vain enough to think it all deserved.
+        The author is a literary man and a German scholar. He has
+        read my book attentively; but, what is very remarkable,
+        it seems that he is a profound naturalist. He knows my
+        barnacle book and appreciates it too highly. Lastly, he
+        writes and thinks with quite uncommon force and
+        clearness; and, what is even still rarer, his writing is
+        seasoned with most pleasant wit. We all laughed heartily
+        over some of the sentences.... Who can it be? Certainly I
+        should have said that there was only one man in England
+        who could have written this essay, and that you were the
+        man; but I suppose that I am wrong, and that there is
+        some hidden genius of great calibre; for how could you
+        influence Jupiter Olympus and make him give you three and
+        a half columns to pure science? The old fogies will think
+        the world will come to an end. Well, whoever the man is,
+        he has done great service to the cause."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The essay in the <i>Times</i> was followed shortly
+      afterwards by a "Friday Evening Discourse" in 1860 on
+      "Species, Races, and their Origin," in which Huxley,
+      addressing a cultivated audience, laid the whole weight of
+      his brilliant scientific reputation on the side of
+      evolution. Next, in April, 1860, he published a long
+      article in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, then a leading
+      organ of advanced opinion, on <i>The Origin of Species</i>,
+      some quotations from which article were made in the last
+      chapter. Apart from its strong support of the doctrine of
+      evolution, its whole-hearted praise of Darwin's
+      achievements, and the clear way in which, while it showed
+      the value of natural selection as the only satisfactory
+      hypothesis in the field, it gave reasons for regarding it
+      strictly as an hypothesis, the review is specially <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p115" id="p115">[115]</a></span>
+      interesting as a contrast to reviews which appeared about
+      the same time in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> and in the
+      <i>Quarterly</i>. Both these were not only exceedingly
+      unfavourable, but were written in a spirit of personal
+      abuse singularly unworthy of their authors and still more
+      of their subject. The review in the <i>Edinburgh</i> had
+      come as a particularly great shock to Darwin, Huxley, and
+      their friends. Sir Richard Owen, in many ways, was at that
+      time the most distinguished anatomist in England. He had
+      been an ardent follower of Cuvier, and in England had
+      carried on the pal&aelig;ontological work of the great
+      Frenchman. He was a personal friend of the court, a
+      well-known man in the best society, and in many ways a
+      worthy upholder of the best traditions of science. In the
+      particular matter of species, he was known to be by no
+      means a firm supporter of the orthodox views. When Darwin's
+      paper was read at the Linn&aelig;an Society, and afterwards
+      when the <i>Origin</i> was published, the verdict of Owen
+      was looked to with the greatest interest by the general
+      public. For a time he wavered, and even expressed himself
+      of the opinion that he had already in his published works
+      included a considerable portion of Darwin's views. But two
+      things seemed to have influenced him: First, Wilberforce,
+      the Bishop of Oxford, and Sedgwick and Whewell, the two
+      best-known men at Cambridge, urged him to stamp once for
+      all, as he only could do, upon this "new and pernicious
+      doctrine." Secondly, combined with his great abilities, he
+      had the keenest personal interest in his own position as
+      the leader of English science, and had no particular
+      friendship for men or for views that seemed likely to
+      threaten his own supreme position. In a very short time he
+      changed from being neutral, with a tendency in favour <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p116" id="p116">[116]</a></span>of
+      the new views, to being a bitter opponent of them. In
+      scientific societies and in London generally, naturally
+      enough he constantly came across the younger scientific
+      men, such as Huxley and Hooker, who had declared for
+      Darwin, and he made the irretrievable mistake of for a time
+      attempting to disguise his opposition while he was writing
+      the most bitter of all the articles against Darwinism. That
+      appeared in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> in April, 1860, and
+      the range of knowledge it displayed, and the form of
+      arguments employed, naturally enough betrayed the secret of
+      its authorship, although Owen for very long attempted to
+      conceal his connection with it. Darwin, who had the most
+      unusual generosity towards his opponents, found this review
+      too much for him. Writing to Lyell soon after its
+      publication, he said:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I have just read the <i>Edinburgh</i>, which, without
+        doubt is by &mdash;&mdash;. It is extremely malignant,
+        clever, and, I fear, will be very damaging. He is
+        atrociously severe on Huxley's lecture, and very bitter
+        against Hooker. So we three <i>enjoyed</i> it together.
+        Not that I really enjoyed it, for it made me
+        uncomfortable for one night; but I have quite got over it
+        to-day. It requires much study to appreciate all the
+        bitter spite of many of the remarks against me; indeed I
+        did not discover all myself. It scandalously
+        misrepresents many parts. He misquotes some passages,
+        altering words within inverted commas.... It is painful
+        to be hated in the intense degree with which
+        &mdash;&mdash; hates me."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As Owen was still alive when this letter was published in
+      <i>Darwin's Life</i>, the authorship of the review was not
+      actually mentioned; but it is necessary to mention it, as
+      it justifies the sternness with which Huxley exposed Owen
+      on an occasion shortly to be described. The review in the
+      <i>Quarterly</i> was written by Wilberforce, the Bishop of
+      Oxford, in July, 1860, and almost at once <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p117" id="p117">[117]</a></span>
+      the authorship of it became known to Darwin's friends. In
+      connection with this, Huxley wrote in 1887, in <i>Darwin's
+      Life and Letters</i>:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I doubt if there was any man then living who had a
+        better right (than Darwin) to expect that anything he
+        might choose to say on such a question as the Origin of
+        Species would be listened to with profound attention, and
+        discussed with respect. And there was certainly no man
+        whose personal character should have afforded a better
+        safeguard against attacks, instinct with malignity and
+        spiced with shameless impertinences. Yet such was the
+        portion of one of the kindest and truest men that it was
+        ever my good fortune to know; and years had to pass away
+        before misrepresentation, ridicule, and denunciation
+        ceased to be the most notable constituents of the
+        majority of the multitudinous criticisms of his work
+        which poured from the press. I am loth to rake up any of
+        these ancient scandals from their well-deserved oblivion;
+        but I must make good a statement which may seem
+        overcharged to the present generation, and there is no
+        <i>pi&egrave;ce justificative</i> more apt for the
+        purpose or more worthy of such dishonour than the article
+        in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> for July, 1860. Since Lord
+        Brougham assailed Dr. Young, the world has seen no such
+        specimen of the insolence of a shallow pretender to a
+        Master in Science as this remarkable production, in which
+        one of the most exact of observers, most cautious of
+        reasoners, and most candid of expositors, of this or any
+        other age, is held up to scorn as a 'flighty' person who
+        endeavours to 'prop up his utterly rotten fabric of guess
+        and speculation,' and whose 'mode of dealing with nature'
+        is reprobated as 'utterly dishonourable to natural
+        science.' And all this high and mighty talk, which would
+        have been indecent in one of Mr. Darwin's equals,
+        proceeds from a writer whose want of intelligence, or of
+        conscience, or of both, is so great, that, by way of an
+        objection to Mr. Darwin's views, he can ask, 'Is it
+        credible that all favourable varieties of turnips are
+        tending to become men'; who is so ignorant of
+        pal&aelig;ontology that he can talk of the 'flowers and
+        fruits' of the plants of the carboniferous epoch; of
+        comparative anatomy, that he can gravely affirm the
+        poison apparatus of venomous snakes to be 'entirely
+        separate from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p118"
+        id="p118">[118]</a></span>ordinary laws of animal life,
+        and peculiar to themselves'; of the rudiments of
+        physiology, that he can ask, 'what advantage of life
+        could alter the shape of the corpuscles into which the
+        blood can be evaporated?' Nor does the reviewer fail to
+        flavour this outpouring of incapacity with a little
+        stimulation of the <i>odium theologicum</i>. Some inkling
+        of the history of the conflicts between astronomy,
+        geology, and theology leads him to keep a retreat open by
+        the proviso that he cannot 'consent to test the truth of
+        Natural Science by the Word of Revelation,' but for all
+        that he devotes pages to the exposition of his conviction
+        that Mr. Darwin's theory 'contradicts the revealed
+        relation of the creation to its Creator,' and is
+        'inconsistent with the fulness of His glory.'"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In a footnote to this passage, Huxley wrote that he was not
+      aware when writing these lines that the authorship of the
+      article had been avowed publicly. He adds, however:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Confession unaccompanied by penitence, however, affords
+        no ground for mitigation of judgment; and the kindliness
+        with which Mr. Darwin speaks of his assailant, Bishop
+        Wilberforce, is so striking an exemplification of his
+        singular gentleness and modesty, that it rather increases
+        one's indignation against the presumption of his critic."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As a matter of fact Wilberforce was a man of no particular
+      information in letters or in philosophy, and his knowledge
+      of science was of the vaguest: a little natural history
+      picked up from Gosse, the naturalist of the seashore, in
+      the course of a few days' casual acquaintance at the
+      seaside, and some pieces of anatomical facts with which he
+      was provided, it is supposed, by Owen, for the purposes of
+      the review. But he bore a great name, and misused a great
+      position; he was a man of facile intelligence, smooth,
+      crafty, and popular, and in this case he was convinced that
+      he was doing the best possible for the great interests of
+      religion <span class="pagenum"><a name="p119"
+      id="p119">[119]</a></span> by authoritatively denouncing a
+      man whose character he was incapable of realising, and on
+      whose work he was incompetent to pronounce an opinion.
+      Against an enemy of this kind, Huxley was implacable and
+      relentless. He was constitutionally incapable of tolerating
+      pretentious ignorance, and he had realised from the first
+      that there could be no question of giving and taking
+      quarter from persons who were more concerned to suppress
+      doctrines they conceived to be dangerous than to examine
+      into their truth. On the other hand, much as Huxley
+      disliked Owen's devious ways, and although in after life
+      there occurred many and severe differences of opinion
+      between Huxley and Owen, Huxley had a sincere respect for
+      much of Owen's anatomical and pal&aelig;ontological work,
+      and when, in 1894, Owen's <i>Life</i> was published, one of
+      the most interesting parts of it was a long, fair, and
+      appreciative review by Huxley of Owen's contributions to
+      knowledge.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The middle of 1860, however, was not a time for Huxley, in
+      his capacity as Darwin's chief defender, to make truce with
+      the enemy. In England a certain number of well-known
+      scientific men had given a general support to Darwinism.
+      From France, Germany, and America there had come some
+      support and a good deal of cold criticism, but most people
+      were simmering with disturbed emotions. The newspapers and
+      the reviews were full of the new subject; political
+      speeches and sermons were filled with allusions to it.
+      Wherever educated people talked the conversation came round
+      to the question of evolution. Were animals and plants the
+      results of special creations, or were they, including man,
+      the result of the gradual transformations of a few simple
+      primitive types evolving under the stress of some such
+      force as Darwin's natural selection? To many <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p120" id="p120">[120]</a></span>
+      people it seemed to be a choice between a world with God
+      and a world without God; and the accredited defenders of
+      religion gathered every force of argument, of
+      misrepresentation, conscious and unconscious, of
+      respectability, and of prejudice to crush once for all the
+      obnoxious doctrine and its obnoxious supporters. In the
+      autumn of that year it fell that the meeting of the British
+      Association, then coming into prominence as the annual
+      parliament of the sciences, was to be held at Oxford. It
+      was inevitable that evolution should be debated formally
+      and informally in the sessions of the Association, and it
+      must have seemed to the orthodox that there, in that
+      beautiful city, its air vibrant with tinkling calls to
+      faith, its halls and libraries crowded with the devout and
+      the learned, its history and traditions alike calling on
+      all to defend the old fair piety, in such an uncongenial
+      air, the supporters of evolution must be overwhelmed.
+      Almost the whole weight of the attack had to be resisted by
+      Huxley. In the various sectional meetings he had combat
+      after combat with professors and clerics. Of these
+      dialectic fights the most notable were one with Owen on the
+      anatomical structure of the brain, and another with
+      Wilberforce upon the general question of evolution. Owen
+      contended that there were anatomical differences not merely
+      of degree but of kind between the brain of man and the
+      brain of the highest ape, and his remarks were accepted by
+      the audience as a complete and authoritative blow to the
+      theory of descent. Huxley at once met Owen with a direct
+      and flat contradiction, and pledged his reputation to
+      justify his contradiction with all due detail on a further
+      occasion. As a matter of fact, he did justify the
+      contradiction, and no anatomist would now dream of
+      attempting the support of the proposition <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p121" id="p121">[121]</a></span>
+      rashly made by Owen; but, at the time, the position of Owen
+      and the sympathies of the audience took away much of their
+      effect from Huxley's words. Two days later, Wilberforce, in
+      a scene of considerable excitement, made a long, eloquent,
+      and declamatory speech against evolution and against
+      Huxley. From the incomplete reports of the debate that were
+      published, it is difficult to gain a very clear idea of the
+      Bishop's speech; but it is certain that it was eloquent and
+      facile, and that it appealed strongly to the religious
+      prejudices of the majority of the audience. He ended by a
+      gibe which, under ordinary circumstances, might have passed
+      simply as the rude humour of a popular orator, but which in
+      that electric atmosphere stung Huxley into a retort that
+      has become historical. He asked Huxley whether he was
+      related by his grandfather's or grandmother's side to an
+      ape. Huxley replied:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        I asserted, and I repeat, that a man has no reason to be
+        ashamed of having an ape for his grandfather. If there
+        were an ancestor whom I should feel shame in recalling,
+        it would be a <i>man</i>, a man of restless and versatile
+        intellect, who, not content with an equivocal success in
+        his own sphere of activity, plunges into scientific
+        questions with which he has no real acquaintance, only to
+        obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and distract the
+        attention of his hearers from the real point at issue by
+        eloquent digressions, and skilled appeals to religious
+        prejudice.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      An eye-witness has told the present writer that Huxley's
+      speech produced little effect at the time. In the minds of
+      those of the audience best qualified to weigh biological
+      arguments, there was little doubt but that he had refuted
+      Owen, and simply dispelled the vaporous effusions of the
+      Bishop; but the majority of the audience retained the old
+      convictions. The combat was removed to a wider tribunal.
+      From that time forwards Huxley, <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p122" id="p122">[122]</a></span> by a series of
+      essays, addresses, and investigations, continued almost to
+      the end of his life, tried to convince, and succeeded in
+      convincing, the intellectual world. At the risk of wearying
+      by repetition we shall again insist upon the side of
+      Darwinism that Huxley fought for and triumphed for.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Long before the time of Darwin and Huxley, almost at the
+      beginning of recorded thought, philosophers busied
+      themselves with the wonderful diversity of the living world
+      and with speculations as to how it had assumed its present
+      form. From the earliest times to this century, theories as
+      to the living world fell into one or other of two main
+      groups. The key-note of one group was the fixity of
+      species: the belief that from their first appearance
+      species were separate, independent entities, one never
+      springing from another, new species never arising by the
+      modification in different directions of descendants of
+      already existing species. The key-note of the other group
+      of theories was the idea of progressive change: that
+      animals and plants as they passed along the stream of time
+      were continually being moulded by the forces surrounding
+      them, and that the farther back the mind could go in
+      imagination the fewer and simpler species would be; until,
+      in the first beginning, all the existing diverse kinds of
+      living creatures would converge to a single point. It may
+      be that, on the whole, the idea of fixity prevailed more
+      among thinkers with a religious bias; but for the most part
+      the theories were debated independently of the tenets of
+      any faith, Christian or other. There were sceptical
+      defenders of fixity and religious upholders of evolution.
+      However, in Christian countries, from the time of the
+      Reformation onwards, a change in this neutrality of
+      religion to theories of the living world took place. As
+      Pascal <span class="pagenum"><a name="p123"
+      id="p123">[123]</a></span> prophesied, Protestantism
+      rejected the idea of an infallible Church in favour of the
+      idea of an infallible book, and, because it happened that
+      this book included an early legend of the origin of the
+      world in a form apparently incompatible with evolution,
+      Protestantism and, to a lesser and secondary extent,
+      Catholicism, assumed the position that there was no place
+      for evolution in a Christian philosophy. At the end of last
+      century, and up to the middle of this century, the problem
+      was not raised in any acute form. The chief anatomists and
+      botanists were occupied with the investigation and
+      discovery of facts, and, in an ordinary way, without taking
+      any particular trouble about it, accepted more or less
+      loosely the idea that species were fixed. Now and then an
+      evolutionist propounded his views; but, as a rule, he
+      supported them with a knowledge of facts very much inferior
+      to that possessed by the more orthodox school. Then came
+      Herbert Spencer, reasserting evolution in the old broad
+      spirit, not merely in its application to species, but as
+      the guiding principle of the whole universe from the
+      integrations of nebul&aelig; into systems of suns and
+      planets to the transformations of chemical bodies. Before
+      his marvellous generalisations had time to grip biologists,
+      there came Darwin; and Darwin brought two things: first, a
+      re-statement of the fact of evolution as applied to the
+      living world, supported by an enormous body of evidence,
+      new and old, presented with incomparably greater force,
+      clearness, patience, and knowledge than had ever been seen
+      before; and, second, the exposition of the principle of
+      natural selection as a mechanism which might have caused,
+      and probably did cause, evolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley, as has been shewn, like many other anatomists, was
+      ready for the general principle of evolution. <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p124" id="p124">[124]</a></span>
+      In fact, so far as it concerned the great independent types
+      which he believed to exist among animals, he was more than
+      prepared for it. Let us take a single definite example of
+      his position. In his work on the Medus&aelig;, he had shewn
+      how a large number of creatures, at first sight diverse,
+      were really modifications of a single great type, and he
+      used language which, now that all zo&ouml;logists accept
+      evolution in the fullest way, requires no change to be
+      understood:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "What has now been advanced will, perhaps, be deemed
+        evidence sufficient to demonstrate,&mdash;first, that the
+        organs of these various families are traceable back to
+        the same point in the way of development; or, secondly,
+        when this cannot be done, that they are connected by
+        natural gradations with organs which are so traceable; in
+        which case, according to the principles advanced in 57,
+        the various organs are homologous, and the families have
+        a real affinity to one another and should form one
+        group.... It appears, then, that these five families are
+        by no means so distinct as has hitherto been supposed,
+        but that they are members of one great group, organised
+        upon one simple and uniform plan, and, even in their most
+        complex and aberrant forms, reducible to the same type.
+        And I may add, finally, that on this theory it is by no
+        means difficult to account for the remarkable forms
+        presented by the Medus&aelig; in their young state. The
+        Medus&aelig; are the most perfect, the most
+        individualised animals of the series, and it is only in
+        accordance with what very generally obtains in the animal
+        kingdom, if, in their early condition, they approximate
+        towards the simplest forms of the group to which they
+        belong."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Such words, written before 1849, only differ from those
+      that would have been written by a convinced evolutionist by
+      a hair's breadth. But Huxley was not an evolutionist then:
+      it was Darwin's work, containing a new exposition of
+      evolution and the new principle of natural selection, that
+      convinced him, not of natural selection but of evolution.
+      At Oxford, in 1860, it was <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p125" id="p125">[125]</a></span> for evolution, and
+      not for natural selection, that he spoke; and throughout
+      his life afterwards, as he expressed it, it was this
+      "ancient doctrine of evolution, rehabilitated and placed
+      upon a sound scientific foundation, since, and in
+      consequence of, the publication of <i>The Origin of
+      Species</i>," that furnished him with the chief inspiration
+      of his work. The clear accuracy of his original judgment
+      upon Darwin's work has been abundantly justified by
+      subsequent history. Since 1859 the case for evolution has
+      become stronger and stronger until it can no longer be
+      regarded as one of two possible hypotheses in the field,
+      but as the only view credible to those who have even a
+      moderate acquaintance with the facts. In 1894, thirty years
+      after the famous meeting at Oxford, the British Association
+      again met in that historic town. The President, Lord
+      Salisbury, a devout Churchman and with a notably critical
+      intellect, declared of Darwin:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "He has, as a matter of fact, disposed of the doctrine of
+        the immutability of species.... Few now are found to
+        doubt that animals separated by differences far exceeding
+        those that distinguish what we know as species have yet
+        descended from common ancestors."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley, in replying to the address, used the following
+      words:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "As he noted in the Presidential Address to which they
+        had just listened with such well deserved interest, he
+        found it stated, on what was then and at this time the
+        highest authority for them, that as a matter of fact the
+        doctrine of the immutability of species was disposed of
+        and gone. He found that few were now found to doubt that
+        animals separated by differences far exceeding those
+        which they knew as species were yet descended from a
+        common ancestry. Those were their propositions; those
+        were the fundamental principles of the doctrine of
+        evolution."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p126"
+      id="p126">[126]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, Huxley all through his life, while
+      holding that natural selection was by far the most probable
+      hypothesis as to the mode in which evolution had come
+      about, maintained that it was only a hypothesis, and,
+      unlike evolution, not a proved fact. In 1863, in a course
+      of lectures to workingmen, he declared:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I really believe that the alternative is either
+        Darwinism or nothing, for I do not know of any rational
+        conception or theory of the organic universe which has
+        any scientific position at all beside Mr. Darwin's....
+        But you must recollect that when I say I think it is
+        either Mr. Darwin's hypothesis or nothing; that either we
+        must take his view, or look upon the whole of organic
+        nature as an enigma, the meaning of which is wholly
+        hidden from us; you must understand that I mean that I
+        accept it provisionally, in exactly the same way as I
+        accept any other hypothesis."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In 1878 he wrote:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "How far natural selection suffices for the production of
+        species remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not
+        the whole cause, it is a very important factor in that
+        operation; and that it must play a great part in the
+        sorting out of varieties into those which are transitory
+        and those which are permanent."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The difficulty in accepting natural selection as more than
+      a hypothesis is simply that we have no experimental
+      knowledge of its being able to produce the mutual
+      infertility which is so striking a character of species.
+      This difficulty is, in the first place, the difficulty of
+      proving a negative. It might be possible to prove that its
+      operation actually does produce species; it will always be
+      impossible to prove that, in the past, natural selection,
+      and no other known or unknown <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p127" id="p127">[127]</a></span> agency or
+      combination of agencies, had a share in the process. All
+      naturalists are now agreed that, as a matter of historical
+      fact, it was the propounding of natural selection by Darwin
+      that led to the acceptance of evolution, to the fact that
+      evolution "takes its place alongside of those accepted
+      truths which must be reckoned with by philosophers of all
+      schools." The difficulty as to natural selection still
+      exists, and there is no better way to express it than in
+      Huxley's words, written in the early sixties:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "But, for all this, our acceptance of the Darwinian
+        hypothesis must be provisional so long as one link in the
+        chain of evidence is wanting; and, so long as all the
+        animals and plants certainly produced by selective
+        breeding from a common stock are fertile with one
+        another, that link will be wanting; for, so long,
+        selective breeding will not be proved to be competent to
+        do all that is required of it to produce natural
+        species.... I adopt Mr. Darwin's hypothesis, therefore,
+        subject to the production of proof that physiological
+        species may be produced by selective breeding; just as a
+        physical philosopher may accept the undulatory theory of
+        light, subject to the proof of the existence of the
+        hypothetical ether; or as the chemist adopts the atomic
+        theory, subject to the proof of the existence of atoms;
+        and for exactly the same reasons, namely, that it has an
+        immense amount of <i>prima facie</i> probability; that it
+        is the only means at present within reach of reducing the
+        chaos of observed facts to order; and, lastly, that it is
+        the most powerful instrument of investigation which has
+        been presented to the naturalists since the invention of
+        the natural system of classification, and the
+        commencement of the systematic study of
+        embryology."&mdash;<i>Man's Place in Nature</i>, p.
+        149.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a
+        href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class="footnotes">
+      <h3>
+        FOOTNOTES:
+      </h3>
+      <div class="footnote">
+        <p>
+          <a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a
+          href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a>
+          Further details on the subject of this chapter may be
+          obtained in Clodd's excellent volume, <i>Pioneers of
+          Evolution</i>, where an account of the history of the
+          idea of evolution from the earliest times is given; and
+          in Poulton's <i>Charles Darwin and the Theory of
+          Natural Selection</i>, where there is a particularly
+          valuable chapter upon Huxley's relation to Darwinism.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p128" id="p128">[128]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-128.png" alt="" title="" height="86"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      VERTEBRATE ANATOMY
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull&mdash;Goethe, Oken,
+        Cuvier, and Owen&mdash;Huxley Defends Goethe&mdash;His
+        Own Contributions to the Theory&mdash;The Classification
+        of Birds&mdash;Huxley Treats them as "Extinct
+        Animals"&mdash;Geographical Distribution&mdash;Sclater's
+        Regions&mdash;Huxley's Suggestions.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We have seen that some of the most important of the
+      contributions made by Huxley to zo&ouml;logical knowledge
+      were in the field of the lower animals, especially of those
+      marine forms for the study of which he had so great
+      opportunities on the <i>Rattlesnake</i>. A great bulk of
+      his zo&ouml;logical work, however, related to the group of
+      back-boned animals. These, by their natural affinities and
+      anatomical structure, are more closely related to man, and,
+      as Huxley began his scientific work as a medical student,
+      the groundwork of all his knowledge was study of the
+      anatomy and physiology of man. Moreover, throughout the
+      greater part of his working life, he had more to do with
+      the extinct forms of life. The vertebrate animals, from the
+      great facility for preservation which their hard skeleton
+      presents, as well as from the extremely important
+      anatomical characters of the skeleton, bulk more largely in
+      the study of pal&aelig;ontology than does any other group.
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p129"
+      id="p129">[129]</a></span> In each of the great groups of
+      vertebrate animals, in fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds,
+      and mammals, Huxley did important work. Much of this is
+      embodied in his treatise on <i>Vertebrate Anatomy</i>, but
+      to some particular parts of it special attention may now be
+      directed, as much because these serve as excellent examples
+      of his method of work as because of their intrinsic
+      importance.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The skull is the most striking feature in the skeleton of
+      vertebrate animals, and to the theory and structure of the
+      vertebrate skull Huxley paid special attention, and his
+      views and summary of the views of others form the basis of
+      our modern knowledge. This work was put before the public
+      in the course of a series of lectures on Comparative
+      Anatomy given in 1863, while Huxley was Hunterian Professor
+      at the Royal College of Surgeons, and the beginnings of it
+      were contained in a Croonian lecture to the Royal Society
+      in 1858.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The theory of the skull which held the field was known as
+      the vertebral theory. The great bulk of the nervous system
+      of vertebrate animals consists of a mass of tissue lying
+      along the dorsal line of the body and enclosed in a
+      cartilaginous or bony sheath. The nerve tissue is the brain
+      and spinal cord; the sheath is the skull in front and the
+      vertebral column along the greater part of the length of
+      the animal. The brain may be taken simply as an anterior
+      portion of the nerve mass, corresponding in a general way
+      to an expansion of the spinal cord in the region of the
+      anterior limbs and an expansion in the region of the hind
+      limbs, the latter indeed having recently been shown in some
+      extinct creatures to surpass the brain in size. In a
+      similar simple fashion the skull may be taken as an
+      expanded anterior part of the vertebral column, serving as
+      an expanded box for the brain, just as in the regions of
+      the pectoral <span class="pagenum"><a name="p130"
+      id="p130">[130]</a></span> and pelvic expansions of the
+      cord there are similar expansions of the surrounding bony
+      case. We know now, from greater knowledge of its
+      embryological development, that the brain contains
+      structures quite peculiar to itself, and differs from the
+      spinal cord in kind as well as in size; but, at the same
+      time, when the vertebral theory of the skull was
+      inaugurated, embryological knowledge and the importance of
+      its relation to anatomical structure were less considered.
+      What Huxley did was to show that the skull, in its mode of
+      origin and real nature, was not merely an expanded portion
+      of the vertebral column, but that it differed from it in
+      kind.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The hypothesis of the vertebral structure of the skull was
+      due both to Goethe, the great German poet, and Oken, a most
+      able but somewhat mystic German anatomist. An attempt had
+      been made by a well-known English anatomist to cast on
+      Goethe the stigma of having tried to rob Oken of the credit
+      for this theory. Huxley set that matter finally at rest,
+      disproving and repelling with indignation the unworthy
+      suggestion. Oken gave out his theory in 1807, and described
+      how it had been first suggested to his mind by the accident
+      of picking up a dried and battered sheep's skull, in which
+      the apparent vertebral structure was very obvious, as,
+      indeed, anyone may see at a glance. It was in 1820, long
+      after the theory had been made current, that the poet first
+      publicly narrated that in a similar way he had long before
+      come to the same conclusion; but Huxley was able to show
+      that, although announcing it later, Goethe had in reality
+      anticipated the anatomist. A passage occurs in a letter to
+      a friend, of a date in 1790, which admits of no doubt. "By
+      the oddest happy chance, my servant picked up a bit of an
+      animal's skull <span class="pagenum"><a name="p131"
+      id="p131">[131]</a></span> in the Jews' cemetery at Venice,
+      and, by way of a joke, held it out to me as if he were
+      offering me a Jew's skull. I have made a great step in the
+      formation of animals." It is an interesting trait in
+      Huxley's character, to find him zealous in defence of the
+      reputation of a great man, even although that man had been
+      dead more than half a century; but it may be added that his
+      just zeal was at least stimulated by the fact that the
+      maligner of Goethe was Owen, the conduct of whom, with
+      regard to Darwin and Huxley, Huxley had had just reason for
+      resenting.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The theory, then, which had dropped stillborn from Goethe,
+      but which Oken developed, was simply that the skull
+      consisted of a series of expanded vertebr&aelig;. Each
+      vertebra consists of a basal piece or centrum, the anterior
+      and posterior faces of which are closely applied to the
+      face of an adjoining vertebra, and of a bony arch or ring
+      which encloses and protects the nervous cord. Oken supposed
+      that there were four such vertebr&aelig; in the skull, the
+      centra being firmly fused and the arches expanded to form
+      the dome of the skull. Quite correctly, he divided the
+      skull into four regions, corresponding to what he called an
+      ear vertebra, at the back, through which the auditory
+      nerves passed; a jaw vertebra, in the sphenoidal region,
+      through which the nerves to the jaws passed; an eye
+      vertebra in front, pierced by the optic nerves, and again
+      in front a nose vertebra, the existence of which he doubted
+      at first. Quite rightly, he discriminated between the
+      ordinary bones of the skull and the special structures
+      surrounding the inner ear which he declared to be additions
+      derived from another source. So far it cannot be doubted
+      that the vertebral theory made a distinct advance in our
+      knowledge of the skull. It was to a certain extent, <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p132" id="p132">[132]</a></span>
+      however, thrown into disrepute by various fantastic
+      theories with which Oken surrounded it. Later on, Cuvier
+      removed from it these wilder excrescences, and amplified
+      the basis of observation upon which the underlying theory
+      of the unity of type of the skull throughout the
+      vertebrates was based. Cuvier, however, came to reject the
+      theory, except so far as it applied to the posterior or
+      occipital segment of the skull. Later on, Owen resuscitated
+      the theory, first throwing doubt on the merit of Goethe,
+      and then suggesting that Oken, instead of relying on the
+      observed facts, had deduced the whole theory from his own
+      imagination. Owen, although he made no new contribution to
+      fact or theory in this matter, practically claimed the
+      whole credit of it as a scientific hypothesis.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      When Huxley took up the subject, the position was that the
+      vertebral theory was in full possession of the field, under
+      the auspices of Owen. Huxley began afresh from observed
+      facts. The first object of his investigation was to settle
+      once for all the question as to whether the skulls of all
+      vertebrates were essentially modifications of the same
+      type. He took in succession the skulls of man, sheep, bird,
+      turtle, and carp, and showed that in all these there were
+      to be distinguished the same four basi-cranial regions: the
+      basi-occipital, basi-sphenoid, pre-sphenoid, and ethmoid.
+      These were essentially identical with the centra of the
+      four vertebr&aelig; of Oken. Similarly, he showed the
+      composition of the lateral and dorsal walls, proving the
+      essential identity of the structures involved and of their
+      relations to the nerve exits in the great types he had
+      chosen. In the series of lectures delivered before the
+      College of Surgeons, he extended his observations to a much
+      larger series of vertebrates, and substantially laid <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p133" id="p133">[133]</a></span>
+      down the main lines of our knowledge of the skull. In two
+      important respects his statements were not merely a
+      codification of existing knowledge, but an important
+      extension of it. He distinguished the different modes in
+      which the jaws may be suspended to the skull, and
+      established for these different kinds of suspensoria the
+      names which have ever since been employed. He proved
+      clearly what had been suggested by Oken, that the region of
+      the ear is a lateral addition to the skull, and he
+      distinguished in it three bones, his names for which have
+      since become the common property of anatomists. Finally, he
+      made it plain beyond any possible doubt that the skulls of
+      all vertebrates were built upon a common plan.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Having established the facts, he proceeded to enquire into
+      the theory. There was now a new method for investigating
+      such problems, the method of embryology, which,
+      practically, had not been available to Oken, and of which
+      neither Cuvier nor Owen had made proper use. By putting
+      together the investigations of a number of embryologists,
+      by adding to these himself, and, lastly, by interpreting
+      the facts which his investigations into comparative anatomy
+      had brought to light, he shewed that the vertebral theory
+      could not be maintained. He shewed, by these methods, that,
+      though both skull and vertebral column are segmented, the
+      one and the other, after an early stage, are fashioned on
+      lines so different as to exclude the possibility of
+      regarding the details of each as mere modifications of a
+      common type. "The spinal column and the skull start from
+      the same primitive condition, whence they immediately begin
+      to diverge." "It may be true to say that there is a
+      primitive identity of structure between the spinal or
+      vertebral column and the skull; but it is no more true
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p134"
+      id="p134">[134]</a></span> that the adult skull is a
+      modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that
+      the vertebral column is a modified skull." Taking the
+      embryological facts, he shewed that the skull arose out of
+      elements quite different from those of the vertebral
+      column. The notochord alone is common to both. The skull is
+      built up of longitudinal cartilaginous pieces, now known as
+      the "parachordals" and "trabecul&aelig;," of sense capsules
+      enclosing the nose and ear, and of various roofing bones.
+      In the historical development of the skull three grades
+      become apparent; a primitive stage, as seen in Amphioxus,
+      where there is nothing but a fibrous investment of the
+      nervous structures; a cartilaginous grade, as seen in the
+      skate or shark, where the skull is formed of cartilage,
+      very imperfectly hardened by earthy deposits; a bony stage,
+      seen in most of the higher animals. He shewed that in
+      actual development of the higher animals these historical
+      grades are repeated, the skull being at first a mere
+      membranous or fibrous investment of the developing nervous
+      masses, then becoming cartilaginous, and, lastly, bony. He
+      made some important prophetic remarks as to the probable
+      importance that future embryological work would give to the
+      distinction between cartilage and membrane bones&mdash;a
+      prophecy that has been more than fully realised by the
+      investigations of Hertwig and of others. Our present
+      knowledge of the skull differs from Huxley's conception
+      practically only in a fuller knowledge of details. We know
+      now that throughout the series there is a primitive set of
+      structures common to all animals higher in the scale than
+      Amphioxus, and forming the base and lateral walls of the
+      skull. This is termed the Chondrocraninm, because it is
+      laid down in cartilage; it is composed of the separate
+      elements which <span class="pagenum"><a name="p135"
+      id="p135">[135]</a></span> Huxley indicated, and, in
+      different animals, as Huxley suggested, the exact limits of
+      the ossification of the primitive cartilages differ in
+      extent, but occur in homologous situations. This primitive
+      skull is roofed over by a series of membrane bones which
+      have no connection in origin with the other portions of the
+      skull, and which have no representative in the vertebral
+      column, but which are the direct descendants of the bony
+      scales clothing the external skin in cartilaginous fishes.
+      In one respect only was Huxley erroneous. Partly by
+      inadvertence, and partly because the minute details of
+      vertebrate embryology became really familiar to
+      zo&ouml;logists only after the elaborate work of Balfour of
+      Cambridge, Huxley, in his account of the formation of the
+      first beginnings of the skeleton in the embryo, made
+      confusion between the walls of the primitive groove, which,
+      in reality, give rise to the nervous structures, and those
+      embryonic tissues which form the skeletal system.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The next great piece of work which we may take as typical
+      of Huxley's contributions to vertebrate anatomy, is his
+      classical study on the classification of birds. The great
+      group of birds contains a larger number of species than is
+      known in any other group of vertebrates, and, in this vast
+      assemblage of forms there is strikingly little anatomical
+      difference. The ostrich and the humming-bird might perhaps
+      be taken as types of the extremest differences to be found,
+      and yet, although these differ in size, plumage,
+      adaptations, habits, mode of life, and almost everything
+      that can separate living things, the two conform so closely
+      to the common type of bird structure that knowledge of the
+      anatomy of one would be a sufficient guide, down to minute
+      details, for dissection of the other. None <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p136" id="p136">[136]</a></span>
+      the less, there are hundreds of thousands of species of
+      birds between these two types. It is not surprising that to
+      reduce this vast assemblage of similar creatures to an
+      ordered system of classification has proved one of the most
+      difficult tasks attempted by zo&ouml;logists. Before
+      Huxley, it had been attempted by a number of distinguished
+      zo&ouml;logists; but, for the most part, these had relied
+      too much on merely external characters and on superficial
+      modifications in obvious relation to habits. When Huxley,
+      in the course of a set of lectures on Comparative Anatomy,
+      was about to approach the subject of birds he was asked by
+      a zo&ouml;logist how he proposed to treat them. "I intend,"
+      he replied, "to treat them as extinct animals." By that he
+      meant that it was his purpose to make a prolonged study of
+      their skeletal structures the basis of his grouping,
+      following the lines which Cuvier, Owen, and he himself had
+      pursued so successfully in the case of the fossil remains
+      of vertebrates. The result was that this first systematic
+      study of even one set of the anatomical characters of the
+      group completely reformed the method by which all
+      subsequent workers have tried to grapple with the problem;
+      ornithology was raised from a process akin to
+      stamp-collecting to a reasoned scientific study. The
+      immediate practical results were equally important. He was
+      able to shew that among the innumerable known forms there
+      were three grades of structure. The lowest had already been
+      recognised and named by Haeckel; it consisted of the
+      Saurur&aelig;, or reptile-like, birds, and contained a
+      single fossil form, Arch&aelig;opteryx, distinguished from
+      all living birds by the presence of a hand-like wing in
+      which the metacarpal bones were well developed and freely
+      movable, and by the possession of a long lizard-like tail
+      actually exceeding <span class="pagenum"><a name="p137"
+      id="p137">[137]</a></span> in length the remainder of the
+      spinal column. The next group of Ratites, although it
+      contained only the Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, and
+      Apteryx, he shewed to be equivalent in anatomical coherence
+      to the third great group of Carinates, which includes the
+      vast majority of living birds. In his arrangement of the
+      latter group, he laid most stress on the characters of the
+      bony structures which form the palate, and by this simple
+      means was able to lay down clearly at least the main lines
+      of a natural classification of the group.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley's work upon birds, like his work in many other
+      branches of anatomy, has been so overlaid by the
+      investigations of subsequent zo&ouml;logists that it is
+      easy to overlook its importance. His employment of the
+      skeleton as the basis of classification was succeeded by
+      the work of others who made a similar use of the muscular
+      anatomy, of the intestinal canal, of the windpipe, of the
+      tendons of the feet, and many other structures which
+      display anatomical modifications in different birds. The
+      modern student finds that all these new sets of facts are
+      much greater in bulk than the work of Huxley, and it is
+      easy for him to remain in ignorance that they were all
+      suggested and inspired by the method which Huxley employed.
+      He finds that further research has supplanted some of
+      Huxley's conclusions, and it is easy for him to remain in
+      ignorance that the conclusions themselves suggested the
+      investigations which have modified them. Huxley's
+      anatomical work was essentially living and stimulating, and
+      too often it has become lost to sight simply because of the
+      vast superstructures of new facts to which it gave rise.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Closely associated with vertebrate anatomy is the subject
+      of geographical distribution. In 1857 the study of this
+      important department of zo&ouml;logy was placed on <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p138" id="p138">[138]</a></span> a
+      scientific basis, practically for the first time, by a
+      memoir on the geographical distribution of birds published
+      in the <i>Journal</i> of the Linn&aelig;an Society of
+      London. It was known in a general way that different kinds
+      of creatures were found in different parts of the world,
+      but little attempt had been made to map out the world into
+      regions characterised by their animal and vegetable
+      inhabitants, as the political divisions of the world are
+      characterised by their different governments and policies.
+      Mr. Sclater, who two years later became secretary of the
+      Zo&ouml;logical Society of London, in his memoir introduced
+      the subject in the following words:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It is a well-known and universally acknowledged fact
+        that we can choose two portions of the globe of which the
+        respective fauna and flora shall be so different that we
+        should not be far wrong in supposing them to have been
+        the result of distinct creations. Assuming, then, that
+        there are, or may be, more areas of creation than one,
+        the question naturally arises how many of them are there,
+        and what are their respective extents and boundaries; or,
+        in other words, what are the most natural primary
+        ontological divisions of the earth's surface?"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Mr. Sclater's answer was that there are six great regions;
+      Neotropical, Nearctic, Pal&aelig;arctic, Ethiopian, Indian,
+      and Australian, and his answer, with minor alterations and
+      the addition of a great wealth of detail, has been accepted
+      by zo&ouml;logy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Two years later, however, Darwin gave a new meaning and a
+      new importance to Sclater's work, by the new interpretation
+      he caused to be placed on the words "centres of creation."
+      Sclater's facts and areas remained the same; Darwin
+      rejected the idea of separate creations in the older sense
+      of the words, and laid stress on the impossibility of
+      accounting for the resemblances within a region and for the
+      differences between regions <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p139" id="p139">[139]</a></span> by climatic
+      differences and so forth. He raised the questions of modes
+      of dispersal and of barriers to dispersal, of similarities
+      due to common descent, and of the modifying results
+      produced by isolation. He gave, in fact, a theory of the
+      "creations" which Mr. Sclater had shewn to be a probable
+      assumption. It was in the nature of things that Huxley
+      should make a contribution to a set of problems so novel
+      and of so much importance to zo&ouml;logy. In 1868, in the
+      course of a memoir on the anatomy of the gallinaceous birds
+      and their allies, he made a useful attempt, nearly the
+      first of its kind, to correlate anatomical facts with
+      geographical distribution. Having shewn the diverging lines
+      of anatomical structure that existed in the group of
+      creatures he had been considering, he went on to shew that
+      there was a definite relation between the varieties of
+      structure and the different positions on the surface of the
+      globe occupied at the present time by the creatures in
+      question. He made, in fact, the geographical position a
+      necessary part of the whole idea of a species or of a
+      group, and so introduced a conception which has become a
+      permanent part of zo&ouml;logical science.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With regard to the number and limits of the zo&ouml;logical
+      regions into which the world may be divided, Huxley raised
+      a number of problems which have not yet reached a full
+      solution. Mr. Sclater had divided the world into six great
+      regions: the Nearctic, including the continent of North
+      America, with an overlap into what is called South America
+      by geographers; the Pal&aelig;arctic, comprising Europe and
+      the greater part of Asia; the Oriental, containing certain
+      southern portions of Asia, such as India south of the
+      Himalayas and many of the adjacent islands; the Ethiopian,
+      including Africa, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p140"
+      id="p140">[140]</a></span> except north of the Sahara, and
+      Madagascar; the Australian, containing Australia and New
+      Zealand and some of the more southeastern of the islands of
+      Malay; the Neotropical, including South America. Huxley
+      first called attention to certain noteworthy resemblances
+      between the Neotropical and the Australian regions of
+      Sclater, and held that a primary division of the world was
+      into <i>Arctog&aelig;a</i>, comprising the great land
+      masses of the Northern Hemisphere with a part of their
+      extension across the equator, and <i>Notog&aelig;a</i>,
+      which contained Australia but not New Zealand and South
+      America. Although this acute suggestion has not been
+      generally accepted as a modification of Mr. Sclater's
+      scheme, it called attention in a striking fashion to some
+      very remarkable features in the distribution of animals.
+      Subsequent writers have considerably extended Huxley's
+      conception of the similarities to be found among the more
+      southern land areas. They have pointed out that the most
+      striking idea of the distribution of land and water on the
+      surface of the globe is to be got by considering the globe
+      alternately from one pole and from the other. In the south,
+      a clump of ice-bound land, well within the Antarctic
+      Circle, surrounds the pole. All else is a wide domain of
+      ocean broken only where tapering and isolated tongues of
+      land, South America, the Cape, Australia, lean down from
+      the great land masses of the north. On the other hand, all
+      the great land masses expand in the Northern Hemisphere,
+      and shoulder one another round the North Pole. America is
+      separated from Asia only by the shallowest and narrowest of
+      straits; an elevation of a few fathoms would unite
+      Greenland with Europe. Science points definitely to some
+      part of the great northern land area as the centre of life
+      for at least the larger terrestrial forms of <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p141" id="p141">[141]</a></span>
+      life. We know that these arose successively, primitive
+      birds like the ostriches being older than higher forms like
+      the parrots and singing birds; the pouched marsupials
+      preceding the antelopes and the lion; the lemurs coming
+      before the man-like apes. Each wave of life spread over the
+      whole area producing after its kind; then, pressing round
+      the northern land area, it met a thousand different
+      conditions of environment, different foods, enemies, and
+      climates, and broke up into different genera and species.
+      But there was never a wave of life that was not followed by
+      another wave. In the struggle for existence between the
+      newer and the older forms, the older forms were gradually
+      driven southwards towards the diverging fringes of the land
+      masses. The vanquished left behind them on the field of
+      battle only their bones, to become fossils. Sometimes
+      succeeding waves swept along to the extreme limits of the
+      land, and many early types were utterly destroyed. But
+      others found sanctuary in the ends of the South, and such
+      survivors of older and earlier types of life cause a
+      similarity between the southern lands that Huxley called
+      Notog&aelig;a, although the extent of his region must be
+      increased.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Recently, however, there has been a recurrence to Huxley's
+      suggested union of South America and Australia, based on
+      new evidence of a direct kind, quite different from that
+      which had just been given. Various groups of naturalists
+      have stated that there are similarities between the
+      invertebrate inhabitants of Australia and of South America
+      of a kind which makes the existence of a direct land
+      connection in the Southern Hemisphere extremely probable.
+      Moreover, Ameghino has recently described some marsupial
+      fossils from South America which, he states, belong to the
+      Australian <span class="pagenum"><a name="p142"
+      id="p142">[142]</a></span> group of Dasyurid&aelig;, and
+      Oldfield Thomas has described a new mammal from South
+      America which is unlike the opossums of America and like
+      the diprotodonts of Australia. So that, while the general
+      opinion has been against Huxley's division, Notog&aelig;a,
+      in the strict meaning which he gave to it, there has
+      recently been an opinion growing in its favour.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley also made minor alterations in Mr. Sclater's scheme
+      by forming an additional circumpolar region for the
+      Northern Hemisphere, and by elevating New Zealand into a
+      separate region, distinct from Australia. On these points
+      there is a balance of opinion against his views.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Before leaving the subject of Huxley's contributions to
+      vertebrate anatomy, the actual details of which would
+      occupy far too much space, it is necessary to mention the
+      great importance to zo&ouml;logy of the new terms and new
+      ideas he introduced into classification. His mind was,
+      above all things, orderly and comprehensive, and while, in
+      innumerable minute points, from the structure of the palate
+      of birds to the structure of the roots of human hair
+      (actually the subject of Huxley's first published
+      contribution to scientific knowledge), he added to the
+      number of known facts, he did even more important work in
+      co-ordinating and grouping together the known body of
+      facts. To him are due not only the names, but the idea,
+      that the mammalian animals fall into three grades of
+      ascending complexity of organisation: the reptile-like
+      Prototheria, which lay large eggs, and which have many
+      other reptilian characters; the Metatheria, or marsupial
+      animals; the Eutheria, or higher animals, which include all
+      the common animals from the mole or rabbit up to man. In a
+      similar fashion, he grouped the vertebrates into three
+      divisions, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p143"
+      id="p143">[143]</a></span> and named them: Ichthyopsida,
+      which include the fish and Amphibia, creatures in which the
+      aquatic habit dominates the life history and the anatomical
+      structure; Sauropsida, including birds and reptiles, on the
+      close connection between which he threw so much light;
+      Mammalia.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-143.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="157" width="340" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p144" id="p144">[144]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-144.png" alt="" title="" height="85"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      MAN AND THE APES
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Objections to Zo&ouml;logical Discussion of Man's
+        Place&mdash;Owen's Prudence&mdash;Huxley's Determination
+        to Speak out&mdash;Account of his Treatment of <i>Man's
+        Place in Nature</i>&mdash;Additions Made by More Recent
+        Work.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Even before the publication of <i>The Origin of Species</i>
+      there was a considerable nervousness in the minds of the
+      more orthodox as to discussions on the position of the
+      human species in zo&ouml;logical classification. Men of the
+      broadest minds, such as Lyell, who himself had suffered
+      considerably from outside interference with the scientific
+      right to publish scientific conclusions, was strongly
+      opposed to anything that seemed to tend towards breaking
+      down the barrier between man and the lower creatures. Sir
+      William Lawrence, a very distinguished and able man, had
+      been criticised with the greatest severity, and had been
+      nearly ostracised, for a very mild little book <i>On
+      Man</i>; and Huxley tells us that the electors to the Chair
+      of a Scotch University had refused to invite a
+      distinguished man, to whom the post would have been
+      acceptable, because he had advocated the view that there
+      were several species of man. The court political leaders,
+      and society generally, resented <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p145" id="p145">[145]</a></span> strongly anything
+      that seemed at all likely to disturb the somewhat narrow
+      orthodoxy prevalent in those times; and, as there were
+      comparatively few posts open to scientific men, and
+      comparatively greater chances of posts being made for men
+      of talent and ability who adhered to the respectable
+      traditions, those who tampered with so serious a question
+      as the place of man were likely to burn their fingers
+      severely. However, the difficulties of discussing these
+      problems were much greater immediately after 1859. One of
+      the most surprising things in the history of this century
+      is the sudden intensity of the opposition of the public,
+      particularly the respectable and religious public, to
+      zo&ouml;logical writing upon man, immediately after the
+      publication of the <i>Origin</i>. Before that time
+      anatomists did not necessarily hesitate to point out the
+      close resemblance between the anatomy of man and that of
+      the higher apes, and the difficulties anatomists had in
+      making anatomical distinction of value between them. Thus
+      Professor Owen, who, as a writer, was rather unusually
+      nervous about expressing facts to which any objection might
+      be raised by those outside the strictly scientific world,
+      had written the following paragraph in the course of an
+      essay on the characters of the class Mammalia, published,
+      in 1857, in the <i>Journal of the Proceedings of the
+      Linn&aelig;an Society</i>:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the
+        distinction between the psychical phenomena of a
+        chimpanzee and of a Boschisman or of an Aztec, with
+        arrested brain-growth, as being of a nature so essential
+        as to preclude a comparison between them, or as being
+        other than a difference of degree, I cannot shut my eyes
+        to the significance of that all-pervading similitude of
+        structure&mdash;every tooth, every bone, strictly
+        homologous&mdash;which makes the determination of the
+        difference between <i>Homo</i> and <i>Pithecus</i> the
+        anatomist's difficulty."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p146"
+      id="p146">[146]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is true, he went on to explain his belief in the
+      existence of certain characters in the brain which seemed
+      to him to justify the separation of man in a different
+      group from that in which the apes were placed; but it is
+      certain that he regretted having said anything which seemed
+      to support the Darwinian view; and, two years later, when
+      the opposition to Darwin was in its acutest stage, Owen
+      withdrew his words. His "Reade Lecture," delivered in the
+      University of Cambridge, was in all respects a reprint of
+      the essay from which we have just quoted, but the
+      apparently dangerous words were omitted. More than that,
+      the points insisted on in the essay as being sufficient for
+      the purpose of separating man in zo&ouml;logical
+      classification were elevated into a reason against descent.
+      Although Huxley, in several addresses and publications,
+      disproved the existence of the alleged differences, and
+      although Sir William Flower gave an actual demonstration
+      shewing the essential identity of the brain of man and of
+      the apes in the matter in question, Owen never admitted his
+      error.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-darwin.jpg" alt="CHARLES DARWIN"
+        title="" height="479" width="321" /> <span
+        class="caption">CHARLES DARWIN<br />
+         From the painting by Hon. John Collier in the National
+        Portrait Gallery</span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is not surprising that, if an anatomist so distinguished
+      and acute as was Owen allowed his judgment to be completely
+      overborne by the storm of prejudice against Darwinism,
+      those who were not anatomists should have held up to
+      ridicule all idea of comparison between man and the apes.
+      In <i>The Origin of Species</i> itself, no elaborate
+      attempt had been made to set forth the anatomical arguments
+      in favour of or against a community of descent for man and
+      the apes. But it was made sufficiently plain, and the
+      public laid hold of the point eagerly, that the doctrine of
+      descent was not meant to exclude man from the field of its
+      operation. Huxley, in the course of his ordinary work as
+      Professor of Biology, had, among many other subjects,
+      naturally <span class="pagenum"><a name="p147"
+      id="p147">[147]</a></span> turned his attention to the
+      anatomy and classification of the higher animals. When
+      Owen's essay appeared, he found that he was unable to agree
+      with many of the conclusions contained in it, and had set
+      about a renewed investigation of the matter. Thus it
+      happened that, when the question became prominent, in 1860,
+      Huxley was ready with material contributions to it. He
+      believed, moreover, that, as Darwin was not specially
+      acquainted with the anatomy and development of vertebrates,
+      there was an opportunity for doing a real service to the
+      cause of evolution. Accordingly, in 1860, he took for the
+      subject of a series of lectures to workingmen the "Relation
+      of Man to the Lower Animals," and, in 1862, expanded the
+      lectures into a volume called <i>Man's Place in Nature</i>.
+      When it was ready, he was prepared to say with a good
+      conscience that his conclusions "had not been formed
+      hastily or enunciated crudely."
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I thought," he wrote in the preface to the 1894 edition,
+        "I had earned the right to publish them, and even fancied
+        I might be thanked, rather than reproved, for so doing.
+        However, in my anxiety to promulgate nothing erroneous, I
+        asked a highly competent anatomist and very good friend
+        of mine to look through my proofs, and, if he could,
+        point out any errors of fact. I was well pleased when he
+        returned them without any criticism on that score; but my
+        satisfaction was speedily dashed by the very earnest
+        warning, as to the consequences of publication, which my
+        friend's interest in my welfare led him to give; but, as
+        I have confessed elsewhere, when I was a young man there
+        was just a little&mdash;a mere
+        <i>soup&ccedil;on</i>&mdash;in my composition of that
+        tenacity of purpose which has another name, and I felt
+        sure that all the evil things prophesied would not be so
+        painful to me as the giving up of that which I had
+        resolved to do, upon grounds which I conceived to be
+        right. So the book came out, and I must do my friend the
+        justice to say that his forecast was completely
+        justified. The Boreas of criticism blew his hardest <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p148" id="p148">[148]</a></span>
+        blasts of misrepresentation and ridicule for some years;
+        and I was even as one of the wicked. Indeed, it surprises
+        me, at times, to think how anyone who had sunk so low
+        could have emerged into, at any rate, relative
+        respectability."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Further, in the same preface, Huxley strongly advises
+      others to imitate his action in this matter. There are now,
+      and no doubt there always will be, truths "plainly obvious
+      and generally denied." Whoever attacks the current ideas is
+      certain, unless human nature changes greatly, to encounter
+      a bitter opposition, and there will always be those among
+      his friends who recommend him to temper truth by prudence.
+      Huxley's advice is different:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "If there is a young man of the present generation who
+        has taken as much trouble as I did to assure himself that
+        they are truths, let him come out with them, without
+        troubling his head about the barking of the dogs of St.
+        Ernulphus. <i>Veritas pr&aelig;valebit</i>&mdash;some
+        day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time, he
+        himself will be all the better and wiser for having tried
+        to help her. And let him recollect that such great reward
+        is full payment for all his labour and pains."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Although they were written so long ago, the lectures on
+      "Man's Place in Nature" are still the best existing
+      treatise on the subject, and we shall give an outline of
+      them, mentioning the chief points in which further work has
+      been done. Information concerning the man-like apes was
+      scattered in very different places, in the grave records of
+      scientific societies, in the letters of travellers and
+      missionaries, in the reports of the zo&ouml;logical
+      societies which had been in possession of living specimens.
+      The facts had to be sifted out from a great mass of
+      verbiage and unfounded statement. With a characteristic
+      desire for historical accuracy, more usual in a man of
+      letters than in an anatomist, Huxley began <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p149" id="p149">[149]</a></span>
+      with a study of classical and medi&aelig;val legends of the
+      existence of pigmies and man-like creatures; but, while
+      recognising that legends of satyrs and fauns were presages
+      of the discovery of man-like apes, he was unable to find
+      any actual record earlier than that contained in
+      Pigafetta's <i>Description of the Kingdom of Congo</i>,
+      drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor and
+      published in 1598. The descriptions and figures in this
+      work apparently referred to chimpanzees. From this date
+      onwards he traces the literature of the animals in
+      question, and then proceeds to give an account of them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There are four distinct kinds of man-like apes: in Eastern
+      Asia the Orangs and the Gibbons (although some later
+      writers differ from Huxley in removing the Gibbons from the
+      group of anthropoids); in Western Africa, the Chimpanzees
+      and the Gorillas. All these have certain characters in
+      common. They are inhabitants of the old world; they all
+      have the same number of teeth as man, possessing four
+      incisors, two canines, four premolars, and six true molars
+      in each jaw, in the adult condition, while the milk
+      dentition, as in man, consists of twenty teeth,&mdash;four
+      incisors, two canines, and four molars in each jaw. Since
+      Huxley wrote, a large bulk of additional work upon teeth
+      has been published, and we now know that man and the
+      anthropoid apes display the same kind of degenerative
+      specialisation in their jaws. Simpler and older forms of
+      mammals had a much larger number of teeth, and these
+      differed among themselves more than the teeth of the higher
+      forms. In the Anthropoids and Man, the jaws are
+      proportionately shorter and less heavy than in simpler
+      forms, and, in correspondence with this, the number of the
+      teeth has become reduced, while the teeth themselves tend
+      to form a more even row. The canine or <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p150" id="p150">[150]</a></span>
+      eye-teeth are relatively smaller in the gorilla than in
+      primitive mammals; they are still smaller in the lower
+      races of man; while in ordinary civilised man they do not
+      project above the others. The shortening of the jaw is
+      still proceeding, and, although in lower races of man the
+      last molar or wisdom tooth is almost as large as the molars
+      in front of it, in the higher races the wisdom tooth is
+      much smaller and frequently does not develop at all, or
+      begins to decay very soon after its appearance. If the
+      process of extinction of lower races were to proceed much
+      further, so that civilised white races became the only
+      human inhabitants of the earth, then the gap between the
+      Anthropoids and Man would be wider than it now is; man
+      would be characterised by the presence of one tooth less
+      than the anthropoids, just as the anthropoids and some
+      lower monkeys are characterised by having one tooth less
+      than monkeys still lower.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In all, the nostrils have a narrow partition and look
+      downwards as in man. The arms are always longer than the
+      legs, the difference being greatest in the orang and least
+      in the chimpanzee. We know now that in the lower races of
+      man, the arms are proportionately longer than in higher
+      races, and it has recently been shewn that, although there
+      is a general proportion between the length of the long
+      bones and the height of the whole body in man, so that the
+      height may be calculated with an average error from these
+      bones, yet the probable error is greater when the
+      calculation is made from the arms than when it is made from
+      the legs. In fact, the length of arm as compared to the
+      length of leg and to whole height is a more variable
+      feature in man than the length of leg.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In all the anthropoids, the forelimbs end in hands <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p151" id="p151">[151]</a></span>
+      with longer or shorter thumbs, and the great toe, always
+      smaller than in man, is far more movable and can be opposed
+      like a thumb to the other toes. Since Huxley wrote, a
+      considerable amount of evidence has been collected shewing
+      that partial opposability of the toe in man is not
+      uncommon, and that there is evidence as to a tendency to
+      increase of length of the great toe within historical
+      times. None of the great apes have tails, and none of them
+      have the cheek pouches common among lower monkeys.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley then gives an account of the natural history of
+      these animals, an account which still remains the best in
+      literature. He sums up the habits of the Asiatic forms as
+      follows:
+    </p>
+    <ol>
+      <li>
+        They may readily move along the ground in the erect, or
+        semi-erect position, and without direct support from the
+        arms.
+      </li>
+      <li>
+        They may possess an extremely loud voice, so loud as to
+        be readily heard one or two miles.
+      </li>
+      <li>
+        They may be capable of great viciousness and violence
+        when irritated; and this is especially true of adult
+        males.
+      </li>
+      <li>
+        They may build a nest to sleep in.
+      </li>
+    </ol>
+    <p>
+      He finds the same general characters in the case of the
+      gorilla and chimpanzee, but in their case there was not
+      quite so reliable evidence upon which to go.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Although, since Huxley wrote, there has been much greater
+      opportunity of studying anthropoid apes, both in
+      confinement and in their native haunts, there is not much
+      to add to his account. Some little time ago, the world was
+      interested by the assertion of a clever American that he
+      had discovered a kind of language used by the higher apes,
+      and that he was able to communicate with them. Mr. Garnier,
+      the person in question, <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p152" id="p152">[152]</a></span> declared his
+      intention of going out to tropical Africa and establishing
+      himself in a strong cage in the forests inhabited by
+      gorillas and chimpanzees, in the hope that, impelled by
+      curiosity, they would look upon him as we look on monkeys
+      in a zo&ouml;logical garden, and that he would thus be able
+      to make his knowledge and records of monkey language more
+      perfect. As a matter of fact he went to Africa, and on his
+      return published a volume which aroused the indignation of
+      naturalists. There was internal evidence that he had gone
+      no further than the garden of a coast station, and his
+      pretended account of the habits of monkeys as they lived in
+      their native haunts contained nothing that was not already
+      known. There is no doubt but that the anthropoid apes, like
+      many other animals, use modulations of their voice to
+      express emotional states; that, in fact, they have
+      love-cries and cries of warning, of alarm, and of pleasure;
+      but there is not the smallest evidence to suppose that in
+      the case of the anthropoids these cries approach more
+      nearly to speech than the cries of any other of the higher
+      mammals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Since Huxley's volume was published, a large amount of
+      information has been published by Darwin, Romanes, and
+      others upon the mental capacities of anthropoids kept in
+      confinement, and the result of this has been to prove that
+      the anthropoids, in especial the chimpanzees, possess
+      mental powers more akin to those of man than are to be
+      found in the most intelligent of the quadrupeds. We may
+      cite some instances of these higher powers. Vosmaern had a
+      tame female orang-outang that was able to untie the most
+      intricate knot with fingers or teeth, and took such
+      pleasure in doing it that she regularly untied the shoes of
+      those who came near her. The female chimpanzee called
+      Sally, that lived <span class="pagenum"><a name="p153"
+      id="p153">[153]</a></span> for many years in the
+      Zo&ouml;logical Society's Gardens in London, was taught by
+      its keeper and by Romanes an interesting variety of
+      "tricks" involving at least the rudiments of what may be
+      called human intelligence. Among other feats, it would pick
+      up from the floor and present to the keeper or to a
+      visitor, a stated number of straws up to five. Many monkeys
+      seem nearly purely destructive in their dealings with
+      objects within their reach; but Leutemann tells of an
+      orang-outang which "tried to put to its proper use whatever
+      was given to him. To my great surprise he attempted to put
+      on a pair of gloves. He supported himself on a light
+      walking cane and, when it bent under him, made ridiculous
+      motions to right it again." Brehm tells of a chimpanzee:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "After eating, he at once begins to clean up. He holds a
+        stick of wood in front of him, or puts his hands in his
+        master's slippers, and slides about the room, then takes
+        a cloth and scrubs the floor. Scouring, sweeping, and
+        dusting are his favourite occupations; and, when he once
+        gets hold of the cloth, he never wants to give it up."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Falkenstein has given a detailed description of a gorilla
+      which was remarkable for his delicacy in eating.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "He would take a cup or glass with the greatest care,
+        using both hands to carry it to his mouth, and setting it
+        down so carefully that I do not remember having lost a
+        single piece of crockery through him, though we had never
+        tried to teach him the use of such vessels, wishing to
+        bring him to Europe as nearly in his natural condition as
+        possible."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These and a multitude of similar observations which have
+      been made since Huxley wrote are typical of the increase of
+      our knowledge on the habits and capacities of the
+      anthropoid apes. They all serve to show that in <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p154" id="p154">[154]</a></span>
+      them the instinct for experimental investigation of
+      everything with which they are surrounded, and their
+      imitative faculties are peculiarly great. The importance of
+      this, from the point of view of Huxley's argument, is
+      great. The difference between the instincts of the lower
+      animals and the intelligence of man is that instincts are
+      to a large extent fixed and mechanical. The proper
+      performance of an instinct demands the presence of exactly
+      the right external conditions for its accomplishment. In
+      the absence of these conditions, the call to perform the
+      instinctive action is equally great, and results in useless
+      performances. In many of the higher animals these elaborate
+      instincts are more general in their character, and are
+      supplemented by a considerable but varying aptitude for
+      modification of instinctive action to suit varieties of
+      surrounding circumstances. As this intelligence becomes
+      more and more developed, the blind, mechanical instinct
+      becomes weaker. A large number of instances might be given
+      of such instincts modified by dawning intelligence. The
+      chief factors in producing the change are, as has been
+      shewn by Professor Groos, the possession of a general
+      instinct to imitate and to experiment, and the existence of
+      a period of youth in which the young creature may practise
+      these instincts, and so prepare itself for the more serious
+      purposes of adult life. The anthropoid apes seem to possess
+      these experimental instincts to an extent much greater than
+      that observed in any other class of animals, and, as they
+      have a long period of youth, they have the opportunity of
+      putting them into practice to the fullest possible extent.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From the natural history of the anthropoid apes, Huxley
+      passed to consideration of their relation to man, prefacing
+      his observations with a passage defending the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p155" id="p155">[155]</a></span>
+      utility of the enquiry, a passage necessary enough in these
+      days of prejudice, but now chiefly with historical
+      interest:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It will be admitted that some knowledge of man's
+        position in the animate world is an indispensable
+        preliminary to the proper understanding of his relations
+        to the universe; and this again resolves itself in the
+        long run into an enquiry into the nature and the
+        closeness of the ties which connect him with those
+        singular creatures whose history has been sketched in the
+        preceding pages.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "The importance of such an enquiry is, indeed,
+        intuitively manifest. Brought face to face with these
+        blurred copies of himself, the least thoughtful of men is
+        conscious of a certain shock; due perhaps not so much to
+        disgust at the aspect of what looks like an insulting
+        caricature, as to the awakening of a sudden and profound
+        mistrust of time-honoured theories and strongly rooted
+        prejudices regarding his own position in nature, and his
+        relations to the underworld of life; while that which
+        remains a dim suspicion for the unthinking, becomes a
+        vast argument, fraught with the deepest consequences, for
+        all who are acquainted with the recent progress of the
+        anatomical and physiological sciences."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley then proceeded to elaborate the argument from
+      development for the essential identity of man and the apes.
+      This argument has now become more or less familiar to us
+      all, as it has gained additional support from recent
+      extension of embryological knowledge, and as it has been
+      used in every work on evolution since Huxley first laid
+      stress on it. The adult forms of animals are much more
+      complex than their embryonic stages, and the series of
+      changes passed through in attaining the adult condition
+      make up the embryological history of the animal. Huxley
+      took the embryology of the dog as an example of the process
+      in the higher animals generally, and as it had been worked
+      out in <span class="pagenum"><a name="p156"
+      id="p156">[156]</a></span> detail by a set of
+      investigators. The dog, like all vertebrate animals, begins
+      its existence as an egg; and this body is just as much an
+      egg as that of a fowl, although, in the case of the dog,
+      there is not the accumulation of nutritive material which
+      bloats the egg of the hen into its enormous size. Since
+      Huxley wrote, it has been shewn clearly that among the
+      mammalian animals there has been a gradual reduction in the
+      size of the egg. The ancestors of the mammals laid large
+      eggs, like those of birds or reptiles; and there still
+      exist two strange mammalian creatures, the Ornithorhynchus
+      and Echidna of Australia, which lay large, reptilian-like
+      eggs. The ancestors of most living mammalia acquired the
+      habit of retaining the eggs within the body until they were
+      hatched; and, as a result of this, certain structures which
+      grow out from the embryo while it is still within the egg
+      and become applied to the inner wall of the porous shell
+      for the purpose of obtaining air, got their supply of
+      oxygen, not from the outer air, but from the blood-vessels
+      of the maternal tissues. When this connection (called the
+      placenta) between embryo and mother through the egg-shell
+      became more perfect, not only oxygen but food-material was
+      obtained from the blood-vessels of the mother; and, in
+      consequence, it became unnecessary for the eggs to be
+      provided with a large supply of food-yolk. Among existing
+      marsupial animals, which, on the whole, represent a lower
+      type of mammalian structure than ordinary mammals, there is
+      more food-yolk than in ordinary mammals, and less food-yolk
+      than in the two egg-laying mammals. In the ordinary
+      mammals, such as the rabbit, dog, monkey, and man, there is
+      practically no yolk whatever deposited in the egg; the egg
+      is of minute size, and the embryo obtains most of its food
+      from the maternal blood.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p157"
+      id="p157">[157]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The small egg of the mammal divides into a number of cells,
+      which form a hollow sphere; on the upper surface of this
+      the development of organs begins with the formation of a
+      depression which indicates the future middle line of the
+      animal, and is, in fact, the beginning of the nervous
+      system. Under this is formed a straight rod of gelatinous
+      material, the foundation of the vertebral column, and the
+      body of the embryo is gradually pinched off from the
+      surface of the hollow sphere. After tracing the details of
+      this process, Huxley proceeded as follows:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The history of the development of any other vertebrate
+        animal, lizard, snake, frog or fish, tells the same
+        story. There is always, to begin with, an egg, having the
+        same essential structure as that of the dog; the yolk of
+        that egg always undergoes division, or segmentation, as
+        it is often called; the ultimate products of that
+        segmentation constitute the building materials for the
+        body of the young animal; and this is built up round a
+        primitive groove, in the floor of which a notochord is
+        developed. Furthermore, there is a period in which the
+        young of all these animals resemble one another, not
+        merely in outward form, but in all essentials of
+        structure, so closely, that the differences between them
+        are inconsiderable, while in their subsequent course they
+        diverge more and more widely from one another. And it is
+        a general law, that, the more closely any animals
+        resemble one another in adult structure, the longer and
+        the more intimately do their embryos resemble one
+        another; so that, for example, the embryos of a snake and
+        of a lizard remain like one another longer than do those
+        of a snake and of a bird; and the embryos of a dog and of
+        a cat remain like one another for a far longer period
+        than do those of a dog and a bird; or of a dog and an
+        opossum; or even than those of a dog and a monkey."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This general rule, that the longer the paths of embryonic
+      development of two animals keep identical the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p158" id="p158">[158]</a></span>
+      more nearly the two animals are related, when Huxley wrote,
+      was founded on a much smaller number of facts than now are
+      known. Since 1860 an enormous bulk of embryological
+      investigation has been published, and the total result has
+      been to confirm Huxley's position in the fullest possible
+      way. A certain number of exceptions have been found, but
+      these exceptions are so obviously special adaptations to
+      special circumstances that their existence only makes the
+      general truth of the proposition more clear. The most
+      common kind of exception occurs when two closely related
+      animals live under very different conditions. For instance,
+      many marine animals have close allies that in comparatively
+      recent times have taken to live in fresh water. The
+      conditions of life in fresh water are very different,
+      especially for delicate creatures susceptible to rapid
+      changes of temperature, or unable to withstand strong
+      currents. Thus most of the allies of the fresh-water
+      crayfish, which live in the sea, lay eggs from which there
+      are soon hatched minute, almost transparent larv&aelig;,
+      exceedingly unlike the adult. In the comparatively equable
+      temperature of sea-water, and in the usual absence of
+      strong currents, these small larv&aelig;, as Huxley shewed
+      later in his volume on the <i>Crayfish</i>, live a free
+      life, obtaining their own food, and by a series of slow
+      transformations gradually acquire the adult form. In fresh
+      water, however, the delicate larv&aelig; would be unable to
+      live, and the mode of development is different. The series
+      of slow transformations is condensed, and takes place
+      almost entirely inside the egg-shell; so that, when
+      hatching occurs, the young crayfish is exceedingly like the
+      adult. Apart from such special cases, it is true that the
+      study of development affords a clear test of closeness of
+      structural affinity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p159"
+      id="p159">[159]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley then proceeds to discuss the development of man.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Is he something apart? Does he originate in a totally
+        different way from dog, bird, frog, and fish, thus
+        justifying those who assert him to have no place in
+        nature, and no real affinity with the lower world of
+        animal life? Or does he originate in a similar germ, pass
+        through the same slow and gradually progressive
+        modifications, depend on the same contrivances for
+        protection and nutrition, and finally enter the world by
+        the help of the same mechanism? The reply is not doubtful
+        for a moment, and has not been doubtful any time these
+        thirty years. Without question, the mode of origin, and
+        the early stages of the development of man are identical
+        with those of animals immediately below him in the scale;
+        without doubt, in these respects, he is far nearer the
+        apes than the apes are to the dog."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Then, on lines with which, by continuous repetition and
+      expansion by authors subsequent to him, we have now become
+      familiar, Huxley compared, stage by stage, the development
+      of man with that of other animals, and shewed, first, its
+      essential similarity, and then that in every case where it
+      departed from the development of the dog it resembled more
+      closely the development of the ape. He went on to review
+      the anatomy of man:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+        originates,&mdash;identical, in the early stages of his
+        formation&mdash;identical in the mode of his nutrition
+        before and after birth, with the animals which lie
+        immediately below him in the scale,&mdash;Man, if his
+        adult and perfect structure be compared with theirs
+        exhibits, as might be expected, a marvellous likeness of
+        organisation. He resembles them as they resemble one
+        another&mdash;he differs from, them as they differ from
+        one another. And, though these differences cannot be
+        weighed and measured, their value may be readily
+        estimated; the scale or standard of judgment, touching
+        that value, being afforded and <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p160" id="p160">[160]</a></span> expressed by the
+        system of classification of animals now current among
+        zo&ouml;logists."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Having explained the general system of zo&ouml;logical
+      classification, he tried to dispel preliminary prejudice by
+      inducing his readers or bearers to take an outside view of
+      themselves.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Let us endeavour for a moment to disconnect our thinking
+        selves from the mask of humanity; let us imagine
+        ourselves scientific Saturnians, if you will, fairly
+        acquainted with such animals as now inhabit the earth,
+        and employed in discussing the relations they bear to a
+        new and singular 'erect and featherless biped,' which
+        some enterprising traveller, overcoming the difficulties
+        of space and gravitation, has brought from that distant
+        planet for our inspection, well preserved, may be, in a
+        cask of rum. We should all, at once, agree upon placing
+        him among the mammalian vertebrates; and his lower jaw,
+        his molars, and his brain, would leave no room for
+        doubting the systematic position of the new genus among
+        those mammals whose young are nourished during gestation
+        by means of a placenta, or what are called the placental
+        mammals.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Further, the most superficial study would at once
+        convince us that, among the orders of placental mammals,
+        neither the whales, nor the hoofed creatures, nor the
+        sloths and ant-eaters, nor the carnivorous cats, dogs,
+        and bears, still less the rodent rats and rabbits, or the
+        insectivorous moles and hedgehogs, or the bats, could
+        claim our <i>Homo</i> as one of themselves.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "There would remain, then, but one order for comparison,
+        that of the apes (using that word in its broadest sense),
+        and the question for discussion would narrow itself to
+        this&mdash;Is Man so different from any of these apes
+        that he must form an order by himself? Or does he differ
+        less from them than they differ from one
+        another,&mdash;and hence must take his place in the same
+        order with them?
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Being happily free from all real or imaginary personal
+        interest in the results of the enquiry thus set afoot, we
+        should proceed to weigh the arguments on one side and on
+        the other, with as much judicial calmness as if the
+        question related to a <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p161" id="p161">[161]</a></span> new opossum. We
+        should endeavour to ascertain, without seeking either to
+        magnify or diminish them, all the characters by which our
+        new mammal differed from the apes; and if we found that
+        these were of less structural value than those which
+        distinguish certain members of the ape order from others
+        universally admitted to be of the same order, we should
+        undoubtedly place the newly discovered tellurian genus
+        with them."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In pursuit of this method, and taking the gorilla as the
+      type for immediate comparison with man, he passed in review
+      the various anatomical structures, shewing that in every
+      case man did not differ more from the gorilla than that
+      differed from other anthropoids. We shall take a few
+      examples of his method and results, reminding our readers,
+      however, that Huxley carried his comparisons into every
+      important part of the anatomical structure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There is no part of the skeleton so characteristically
+      human as the bones which form the pelvis, or bony girdle of
+      the hips. The expanded haunch-bones form a basin-like
+      structure which affords support to the soft internal
+      viscera during the habitually upright position, and gives
+      space for the attachment of the very large muscles which
+      help man to assume and support that attitude. In the
+      gorilla this region differs considerably from that in man.
+      The haunch-bones are narrower and much shallower, so that
+      they do not form so convenient a supporting basin; they
+      have much less surface for the attachment of muscles. The
+      gibbon, however, differs more vastly from the gorilla than
+      that differs from man. The haunch-bones are flat and
+      narrow, and totally devoid of any basin-like formation; the
+      passage through the pelvis is long and narrow, and the
+      ischia have outwardly curved prominences, which, in <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p162" id="p162">[162]</a></span>
+      life, are coated by callosities on which the animal
+      habitually rests, and which are coarse, corn-like patches
+      of skin wholly absent in the gorilla, in the chimpanzee, in
+      the orang, and in man.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the characters of the hands, the feet, and the brain,
+      certain real or supposed structural distinctions between
+      man and the apes had been relied upon.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Man has been defined as the only animal possessed of two
+        hands terminating his fore-limbs, and of two feet
+        terminating his hind-limbs, while it has been said that
+        all the apes possess four hands; and he has been affirmed
+        to differ fundamentally from all the apes in the
+        characters of his brain, which alone, it has been
+        strangely asserted and reasserted, exhibits the
+        structures known to anatomists as the posterior lobe, the
+        posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle, and the
+        hippocampus minor.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "That the former proposition should have gained general
+        acceptance is not surprising&mdash;indeed, at first
+        sight, appearances are much in its favour; but, as for
+        the second, one can only admire the surpassing courage of
+        its enunciator, seeing that it is an innovation which is
+        not only opposed to generally and justly accepted
+        doctrines, but which is directly negatived by the
+        testimony of all original enquirers who have specially
+        investigated the matter; and that it has neither been,
+        nor can be, supported by a single anatomical preparation.
+        It would, in fact, be unworthy of serious refutation
+        except for the general and natural belief that deliberate
+        and reiterated assertions must have some foundation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The last remarks referred, of course, to the statements of
+      Owen, which had made a great impression at the time and the
+      result of which still lingers in some of the worse-informed
+      treatises attacking evolution. Huxley gave a lucid account
+      of the general structure and arrangement of the brain in
+      the vertebrate series, explaining the well-known fact that
+      from fish up to man the general ground-plan of the brain is
+      identical, but that there is a progressive increase in the
+      complexity <span class="pagenum"><a name="p163"
+      id="p163">[163]</a></span> and in the size of some parts
+      compared with others. Next, he showed that, so far from its
+      being possible to erect any barrier in the structure of the
+      brain between man and the apes, there exists among the
+      mammals an almost complete series of gradations from brains
+      a little higher than that of the rabbit to brains a little
+      lower than that of man. He laid great stress on
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "the remarkable circumstance that though, so far as our
+        present knowledge extends, there <i>is</i> one structural
+        break in the series of forms of simian brains, this
+        hiatus does not lie between man and the man-like apes,
+        but between the lower and the lowest simians; or, in
+        other words, between the old-and new-world apes and
+        monkeys, and the lemurs. Every lemur which has yet been
+        examined, in fact, has its cerebellum partially visible
+        from above, and its posterior lobe, with the contained
+        posterior cornu and hippocampus minor, more or less
+        rudimentary. Every marmoset, American monkey, old-world
+        monkey, baboon, or man-like ape, on the contrary, has its
+        cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by the cerebral
+        lobes, and possesses a large posterior cornu, with a
+        well-developed hippocampus minor." ... "So far from the
+        posterior lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus
+        minor being structures peculiar to, and characteristic of
+        man, as they have over and over again been asserted to
+        be, even after the publication of the clearest
+        demonstration of the reverse, it is precisely these
+        structures which are the most marked cerebral characters
+        common to man with the apes. They are among the most
+        distinctly simian peculiarities which the human organism
+        exhibits." ... "Man differs from the chimpanzee or the
+        orang, so far as cerebral structure goes, less than these
+        do from the monkeys, and the difference between the
+        brains of the chimpanzee and of man is almost
+        insignificant, when compared with that between the
+        chimpanzee brain and that of a lemur."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Although Huxley found no structural differences between the
+      brains of man and of anthropoid apes, he was careful to lay
+      great stress on the important difference <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p164" id="p164">[164]</a></span>
+      in size and weight. A full-grown gorilla is nearly twice as
+      heavy as a European woman, and yet the heaviest known
+      gorilla brain probably does not exceed twenty ounces in
+      weight, while healthy adult human brains probably never
+      weigh less than thirty-one or thirty-two ounces. This
+      difference is not of systematic importance; for cranial
+      capacities shew that relatively and absolutely there is a
+      greater difference in brain-weight between the lowest and
+      highest human beings than there is between the highest ape
+      and the lowest human being.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In dealing with the suggestion that man differs from the
+      apes in being bimanous, while the apes are quadrumanous,
+      Huxley first explained and discussed what the exact
+      differences between hands and feet are. He shewed that in
+      man the foot is absolutely distinguished from the hand by
+      three structural points, although the two organs are
+      similar in general ground-plan. These structural points
+      are:
+    </p>
+    <ol>
+      <li>
+        The arrangement of the tarsal bones.
+      </li>
+      <li>
+        The possession of a short flexor and short extensor
+        muscle of the digits.
+      </li>
+      <li>
+        The possession of a muscle named <i>peron&aelig;us
+        longus</i>.
+      </li>
+    </ol>
+    <p>
+      Then he described the foot of the gorilla, and shewed that
+      although it was superficially hand-like, it possessed all
+      the structural characters that distinguish a foot from a
+      hand. Tracing the structure of the foot downwards through
+      the series of anthropoids and monkeys, he established
+      clearly that, while important differences existed in nearly
+      every single creature, the differences between the gorilla
+      and man were not greater than those between the gorilla and
+      other anthropoids, and less than between the gorilla and
+      lower monkeys.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p165"
+      id="p165">[165]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This wonderful series of lectures ranks very high among the
+      important works of Huxley. It is true that a considerable
+      proportion of the work was not absolutely original, but it
+      had all been specially verified by him. It was a task
+      undertaken with the greatest courage, and with a care equal
+      to the courage; and it settled conclusively for all time
+      the impossibility of making between man and the anthropoids
+      any anatomical barriers greater than those which exist
+      between the different although closely related members of
+      any of the other family groups in the animal kingdom. The
+      advance of knowledge has only added to the details of
+      Huxley's argument; it has not made any reconstruction of it
+      necessary. A writer on the same subject to-day would to all
+      certainty make use of the same general methods. The chief
+      differences, perhaps, that would be made are two: First,
+      greater stress would be laid on the distinction, first made
+      by Huxley himself, between intermediate and linear types.
+      (See p. 87). To use the popular phrase, a great deal of
+      water has passed under the bridges since the separation of
+      man from the ape-like progenitors common to him and to the
+      existing anthropoids. It has already been pointed out that
+      the gradual extinction of lower races of man is widening
+      the apparent gap between existing man and existing apes;
+      and evidence accumulates that many still more primitive and
+      more ape-like races of man than the lowest existing savages
+      have disappeared from the surface of the earth. Moreover,
+      we know that existing anthropoids are the degenerate and
+      scattered remnants of what was once a much more widely
+      spread and more important group. We have some reason for
+      believing the contrary, and no reason for believing that
+      the surviving anthropoids represent the most man-like apes
+      that have lived.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p166"
+      id="p166">[166]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The second great point in which a modern writer would amend
+      Huxley's statement of the case is more purely anatomical.
+      One result of Darwin's work has been that anatomists attend
+      much more closely to the slight variations of anatomical
+      structure to be found among individuals of the same
+      species. A comparison between an individual human body and
+      the body of an individual gorilla is not now considered
+      sufficient. The comparison must be made between the results
+      of dissection of a very large number of men and of a very
+      large number of gorillas. The anatomy of a type is not the
+      anatomy of an individual; it is a kind of central point
+      around which there oscillate the variations presented by
+      the individuals belonging to the type. So far as this newer
+      method has been applied, it has been found that the
+      variations of the gorilla type frequently, in the case of
+      individual organs, overlap the variations of the human
+      type, and that the structure of man differs from the
+      structure of any anthropoid type only in that the abstract
+      central point of its variations is slightly different from
+      the abstract central point of the variations presented by
+      individual orangs, gorillas, and chimpanzees.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-166.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="152" width="302" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p167" id="p167">[167]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-167.png" alt="" title="" height="85"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago&mdash;Huxley's
+        Insistence on Reform&mdash;Science
+        Primers&mdash;Physiography&mdash;Elementary
+        Physiology&mdash;<i>The Crayfish</i>&mdash;Manuals of
+        Anatomy&mdash;Modern Microscopical
+        Methods&mdash;Practical Work in Biological
+        Teaching&mdash;Invention of the Type System&mdash;Science
+        in Medical Education&mdash;Science and Culture.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Less than half a century ago, there was practically no
+      generally diffused knowledge of even the elements of
+      science and practically no provision for teaching it.
+      Medical students, in the course of their professional
+      education, received some small instruction in botany,
+      chemistry, and physiology; in the greater universities of
+      England and the Continent there were not in all a dozen
+      professorships of science apart from special branches of
+      medicine; in the Scottish universities there were one or
+      two dreamy chairs of "Natural and Civil History," the
+      occupiers of which were supposed to dispense instruction in
+      half a dozen sciences. There was no scientific teaching at
+      the public schools; there were practically no books
+      available for beginners in science, and even the idea of
+      guides to laboratory work had not been invented. Huxley,
+      addressing in 1854 a particularly select audience in St.
+      Martin's Hall, London, spoke to them of the
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p168"
+      id="p168">[168]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "utter ignorance as to the simplest laws of their own
+        animal life, which prevails among even the most highly
+        educated persons in this country." "I am addressing," he
+        said, "I imagine, an audience of cultivated persons; and
+        yet I dare venture to assert that, with the exception of
+        those of my hearers who may chance to have received a
+        medical education, there is not one who could tell me
+        what is the meaning and use of an act which he performs a
+        score of times every minute, and whose suspension would
+        involve his immediate death:&mdash;I mean the act of
+        breathing&mdash;or who could state in precise terms why
+        it is that a confined atmosphere is injurious to health."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The power to express the precise meaning of even a common
+      physiological act is probably not yet possessed by all
+      educated people: but no one can doubt that there is now a
+      very generally diffused knowledge of and interest in the
+      ordinary processes of living bodies. It is almost
+      impossible for any of us to escape some amount of
+      scientific education at school, at college, from lectures,
+      or from books. Certainly those of us who have a natural
+      inclination towards knowledge of that kind can hardly fail
+      to have the opportunity of acquiring it. Every library
+      abounds in elementary and advanced scientific books; every
+      university and many schools have their lectures and
+      laboratories for science, and there is scientific teaching
+      involved in every educational curriculum. To attempt a
+      complete account of how this radical change in the attitude
+      of the world to science has come about would be to attempt
+      to write the history of European civilisation in the last
+      half-century. A thousand causes have been contributory; but
+      among these causes two have been of extraordinary
+      importance&mdash;an idea and a man. The idea is the
+      conception of organic evolution, and the man was Huxley.
+      The idea of evolution clothed <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p169" id="p169">[169]</a></span> the dead bones of
+      anatomy with a fair and living flesh, and the new body left
+      the dusty corners of museums to pervade the world, arousing
+      the attention and interest of all. A large part of the
+      prodigious mental activities of Huxley was devoted to
+      compelling the world to take an interest in biological
+      science. Had his life-work been no more than this side of
+      it, it would have been of commanding importance. A mere
+      enumeration of the modes in which he assisted in arousing
+      attention to science among all classes would fill many
+      pages. Almost before he was settled in London, in the
+      lecture from which we quoted at the beginning of this
+      chapter he urged the "educational value of the natural
+      history sciences." In 1869 in a speech in Liverpool; in
+      1870 at University College, London; in 1874 as his
+      Rectorial address in the University of Aberdeen; in 1876 at
+      the opening ceremonial of the Johns Hopkins University at
+      Baltimore; in the same year at South Kensington; in 1877 in
+      a separate essay; in 1881 in an address to the
+      International Medical Congress: at these different times
+      and addressing different and important audiences he
+      continued to urge the absolute necessity of a knowledge of
+      nature. A well-known and eloquent passage from an address
+      on "a liberal education" delivered to working men in 1868
+      contains the gist of his reiterated argument:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Suppose it were perfectly certain that the life and
+        fortune of every one of us would, one day or other,
+        depend on his winning or losing a game of chess, don't
+        you think that we should all consider it to be a primary
+        duty to learn at least the names and the moves of the
+        pieces; to have a notion of a gambit, and a keen eye for
+        all the means of giving and getting out of check? Do you
+        not think that we should look with a disapprobation
+        amounting to scorn upon the father who <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p170" id="p170">[170]</a></span>
+        allowed his son, or the state which allowed its members,
+        to grow up without knowing a pawn from a knight?
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Yet it is a very plain and elementary truth, that the
+        life, the fortune, and the happiness of every one of us,
+        and more or less of those who are connected with us, do
+        depend upon our knowing something of the rules of a game
+        infinitely more difficult and complicated than chess. It
+        is a game which has been played for untold ages, every
+        man and woman of us being one of the two players in a
+        game of his or her own. The chess-board is the world, the
+        pieces are the phenomena of the universe, the rules of
+        the game are what we call the laws of nature. The player
+        on the other side is hidden from us. We know that his
+        play is always fair, just, and patient. But also we know,
+        to our cost, that he never overlooks a mistake, or makes
+        the smallest allowance for ignorance. To the man who
+        plays well, the highest stakes are paid, with that sort
+        of overflowing generosity with which the strong shows
+        delight in strength, and one who plays ill is
+        checkmated&mdash;without haste, but without remorse."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley wished that this scientific education should begin
+      at an early period of every child's training. In 1869 he
+      wrote:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Let every child be instructed in those general views of
+        the ph&aelig;nomena of nature for which we have no exact
+        English name. The nearest approximation to a name for
+        what I mean which we possess is physical geography; the
+        Germans have a better, 'Erdkunde' (earth knowledge or
+        geology in its etymological sense), that is to say, a
+        general knowledge of the earth, and what is on it and in
+        it and about it. If anyone who has experience of the ways
+        of young children will call to mind their questions, he
+        will find that so far as they can be put in any
+        scientific category, they will come under this head of
+        'Erdkunde.' The child asks, 'What is the moon, and why
+        does it shine?' 'What is this water, and where does it
+        run?' 'What is the wind?' 'What makes these waves in the
+        sea?' 'Where does this animal live, and what is the use
+        of that plant?' And if not snubbed and stunted by <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p171" id="p171">[171]</a></span>
+        being told not to ask foolish questions, there is no
+        limit to the intellectual craving of a young child; nor
+        any bounds to the slow but solid accretion of knowledge
+        and development of the thinking faculty in this way. To
+        all such questions, answers which are necessarily
+        incomplete, though true as far as they go, may be given
+        by any teacher whose ideas represent real knowledge and
+        not mere book learning: and a panoramic view of nature,
+        accompanied by a strong infusion of the scientific habit
+        of mind, may thus be placed within the reach of every
+        child of nine or ten."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In 1880 Huxley, in association with Professor Roscoe, the
+      chemist, and Professor Balfour Stewart, the physicist, took
+      a great practical step toward securing the widest possible
+      extension of elementary knowledge in science. They became
+      general editors, for the English publishing house of
+      Macmillan, of a series of "Science Primers." These were
+      written in simple language, suitable for those with no
+      preliminary knowledge of science, but were the work of the
+      chief authorities in the leading branches of science. They
+      were published at what was then the phenomenally cheap
+      price of a shilling, and they sold in almost incredible
+      numbers. Huxley himself wrote the introductory volume to
+      this great series of tracts, taking for his subject the
+      simplest and most natural phenomena of the world and the
+      simplest chains of cause and effect that can be observed
+      around us. The keynote of the little book was that
+      knowledge of nature could be gained only by observation and
+      experiment, and that for these the ordinary things in the
+      world around us provided ample material. A few years later
+      he wrote a more advanced volume on the same subject. He had
+      now found an English name for the German <i>Erdkunde</i>,
+      and his book on <i>Physiography</i> was simply an account
+      of the leading things and forces of <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p172" id="p172">[172]</a></span>
+      nature. A traveller set down in a foreign land will at once
+      get into difficulties unless he has provided himself with a
+      guide to the geography, the manners and customs, and the
+      regulations of the country in which he finds himself.
+      Huxley's aim was to provide a similar guide to nature; an
+      outline of elementary knowledge of the world into which we
+      all come as strangers. He wrote of force and energy, of the
+      forms of water, of heat and cold, of the atmosphere, of
+      winds and tides and weather, and of the main features of
+      the lives of plants and animals. There was nothing new in
+      what he wrote; he simply took from the chief sciences their
+      leading principles and elementary facts, and set them forth
+      in plain and simple language so that all could read and
+      understand. The novelty was that an attempt should be made
+      to bring these facts within the reach of all. The idea
+      proved extremely infectious; in Europe and America, in many
+      languages and by many authors, Huxley's main lines were
+      followed, with the result that a new branch of education,
+      and almost of science, was created.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The body of man and the processes of life, in the earlier
+      part of the century, were almost as unknown to most people
+      as were the structure of the earth and the great processes
+      of nature. What was known of human anatomy and physiology
+      was contained in ponderous treatises, written in difficult
+      and technical language suitable only for students of
+      medicine and doctors. It was thought to be not only
+      unnecessary but slightly coarse for those not in the
+      profession to know anything of the viscera of digestion,
+      circulation, and so forth. Huxley laid low this great
+      superstition by his <i>Elementary Lessons in
+      Physiology</i>, a little volume first published in 1866,
+      which ran through many <span class="pagenum"><a name="p173"
+      id="p173">[173]</a></span> editions. In it he wrote
+      primarily for teachers and learners in boys' and girls'
+      schools, and selected from the great bulk of knowledge and
+      opinion called human physiology only the important and
+      well-established truths. So successful was he in his
+      selection that, notwithstanding the immense increase in
+      knowledge since he wrote, the book still remains an
+      adequate and useful elementary treatise, and by this time
+      must have given their main knowledge of the human body to
+      hundreds and thousands of readers who otherwise would have
+      remained ignorant.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The books of which we have been writing were addressed to
+      the general public, but, in addition, Huxley wrote several,
+      of which three are specially important, for those students
+      who devote themselves specially to anatomy. <i>The
+      Crayfish</i>, his famous volume in the International
+      Scientific Series, has been called by Professor Howes, the
+      assistant and successor of Huxley at the Royal College of
+      Science, "probably the best biological treatise ever
+      written." Many naturalists have written elaborate
+      monographs on single animals: Lyonet worked for years on
+      the willow caterpillar, Strauss Durckheim devoted an even
+      minuter attention to the common cockchafer, and the great
+      Bojanus investigated almost every fibre in the structure of
+      the tortoise. The volumes produced by these anatomists were
+      valuable and memorable, and occupy an honoured place in the
+      library of science, but Huxley's aim was wider and greater.
+      He showed how careful study of one of the commonest and
+      most insignificant of animals leads, step by step, from
+      every-day knowledge to the widest generalisations and the
+      most difficult problems of zo&ouml;logy. He made study of a
+      single creature an introduction to a whole science, and
+      taught <span class="pagenum"><a name="p174"
+      id="p174">[174]</a></span> students to regard any form of
+      life not merely as a highly complicated and deeply
+      interesting anatomical study, but as a creature that is
+      only one out of an innumerable host of living things, every
+      fibre in its body, every rhythm in its functions
+      proclaiming the degree and nature of its relationship to
+      other animals. R. Louis Stevenson, writing of his native
+      town, tried to give "a vision of Edinburgh, not as you see
+      her, in the midst of a little neighbourhood, but as a boss
+      upon the round world, with all Europe and the deep sea for
+      her surroundings. For every place is a centre to the earth,
+      whence highways radiate, or ships set sail for foreign
+      ports; the limit of a parish is not more imaginary than the
+      frontier of an empire." It is this wider sweep, this
+      attempt to see and to teach not merely the facts about
+      things but the relations of these facts to the similar
+      facts in other things, that makes the difference between
+      the new knowledge and the old. The questions to be asked
+      and answered are not merely, What are the structures in
+      this animal? but, How and why do they come to be what they
+      are? Huxley was a ruthless enemy of the books and teachers
+      which or who made the mere acquisition of details of
+      knowledge their chief object.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I remember," he wrote, "in my youth there were
+        detestable books which ought to have been burned by the
+        hands of the common hangman, for they contained questions
+        and answers to be learned by heart, of this sort, 'What
+        is a horse? The horse is termed <i>Equus caballus</i>;
+        belongs to the class Mammalia; order, Pachydermata;
+        family, Solidungula.' Was any human being the wiser for
+        learning that magic formula? Was he not more foolish
+        inasmuch as he was deluded into taking words for
+        knowledge?"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley himself admitted his difficulty in remembering <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p175" id="p175">[175]</a></span>
+      apparently meaningless facts, and occasionally aided his
+      memory by inventing for them a humorous significance.
+      Professor Howes relates a story of this kind. While
+      examining the papers of candidates for some examination,
+      Huxley came across one in which the mitral or bicuspid
+      valve of the heart was erroneously described as being
+      placed in the right cavity. "Poor little beggar," said
+      Huxley; "I never could get them myself until I reflected
+      that a bishop could never be in the right." This insistence
+      on the uselessness of formal knowledge applied only to
+      those who were being taught or who were learning from books
+      or lectures. Of the value and discipline of knowledge of
+      facts gained at first hand from objects themselves either
+      in original investigation or with the aid of books, Huxley
+      had the highest possible opinion. By such a method of work
+      alone he believed it possible to distinguish what we
+      believe on authority from what we have convinced ourselves
+      to be true, and, as we shall see later, he regarded it as
+      the most important duty of a man to have acquired the habit
+      of classifying the mass of ideas in his brain into those
+      which he knew and those which he thought to be true from
+      having read or heard or imagined them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The two other of the three great treatises for anatomical
+      students are the <i>Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated
+      Animals</i>, published in 1871, and the <i>Manual of the
+      Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals</i>, published in 1877. Of
+      these two volumes it is sufficient to say that they formed
+      the chief introduction to the study of animal zo&ouml;logy
+      for many years, and that a large number of the best-known
+      zo&ouml;logists of the end of this century received from
+      them their first instruction in the science. As text-books
+      they have been <span class="pagenum"><a name="p176"
+      id="p176">[176]</a></span> superseded lately by larger
+      volumes in which there is found more space for some of the
+      recent advances in knowledge, especially comparative
+      embryology, and the more intricate knowledge of the
+      structure of the soft parts of marine invertebrates made
+      possible by the newer and more successful methods of
+      preserving delicate tissues. Just before Huxley ceased his
+      regular work as a teacher at the Royal College of Science,
+      there arrived a series of marine embryos, beautifully
+      preserved and prepared for microscopic work by the
+      zo&ouml;logists at the International Zo&ouml;logical
+      Station at Naples. Huxley is reported to have exclaimed at
+      their beauty, and to have said: "You young men cannot
+      realise your advantages; you have brought to you for study
+      at your leisure in London, creatures that I had to lash my
+      microscope to the mast to get a glimpse of." Huxley's books
+      were written for students with fewer advantages, and,
+      naturally, laid more stress on the harder skeletal parts
+      and such structures as could be more easily preserved; but
+      with this inevitable limitation they still serve as
+      luminous and comprehensive guides to the subjects of which
+      they treat. There is no doubt but that if he had been a
+      younger man when the new technical methods made their
+      appearance, he would have adopted them and their results in
+      his volumes. One of the first great pieces of work which
+      utilised methods more like those now used in all
+      laboratories than those employed during the greater part of
+      Huxley's life as a teacher was the classical investigation
+      by Van Beneden into the changes in the egg of Ascaris which
+      accompany the process of fertilisation. When Huxley read
+      the memoir he exclaimed, "All this by the use of glacial
+      acetic acid&mdash;is it possible!" At once, Professor Howes
+      relates, he repeated the whole investigation <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p177" id="p177">[177]</a></span>
+      himself, and, when satisfied, declared that the "history of
+      the histological investigation of the future would be the
+      history of its methods." Not only have the chemical
+      substances used in preparing tissues for examination
+      greatly increased since Huxley's time as an active worker,
+      but a very important method of investigation has come into
+      general use. In Huxley's time tissues or animals too large
+      or too opaque to be examined microscopically as whole
+      structures were either teased by needles or were cut with a
+      razor by hand into comparatively thick slices. The process
+      of cutting, however practised the operator, was tedious and
+      uncertain, and it was almost impossible to cut a piece of
+      tissue into a series of thin slices without losing or
+      destroying considerable portions. Microtomes, with various
+      accessory mechanical appliances, have now been invented,
+      and by means of these not only are slices of great tenuity
+      made with ease, but there is little difficulty in cutting
+      the most delicate organism into a ribbon of consecutive
+      slices. Such new methods have made almost a revolution in
+      the study of zo&ouml;logy, particularly of the lower forms
+      of life and of the embryonic stages of higher animals, and
+      books written before these methods became common have
+      naturally been superseded.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley did far more for the teaching of science than the
+      preparation of books, however useful these were. He was the
+      practical inventor of the laboratory system of teaching
+      zo&ouml;logical science, and all over the world the methods
+      invented by him have been adopted in university
+      laboratories and technical schools. He had always declared
+      that since zo&ouml;logy was a physical science, the method
+      of studying it must needs be analogous to that which is
+      followed in other physical sciences. <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p178" id="p178">[178]</a></span>
+      If a man wishes to be a chemist, it is necessary not only
+      that he should read chemical books and attend chemical
+      lectures, but that he should actually perform the
+      fundamental experiments in the laboratory for himself, and
+      thus learn exactly what the words which he reads in his
+      books and hears from his teachers, mean. "If you want a man
+      to be a tea-merchant, you don't tell him to read books
+      about China or about tea, but you put him into a
+      tea-merchant's office where he has the handling, the
+      smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the sort of
+      knowledge which can be gained only in this practical way,
+      his exploits as a tea-merchant will soon come to a bankrupt
+      termination." The great and obvious difficulty in the
+      practical teaching of biology appeared to be the immense
+      number of different kinds of animals and plants in
+      existence. A human life would not suffice for the
+      examination of a hundredth part of these. Huxley met the
+      difficulty by the "type" system.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "There are certainly more than 100,000 species of
+        insects, and yet anyone who knows one insect, if a
+        properly chosen one, will be able to have a fair
+        conception of the structure of the whole. I do not mean
+        to say he will know that structure thoroughly, or as well
+        as is desirable that he should know it; but he will have
+        enough real knowledge to enable him to understand what he
+        reads, to have genuine images in his mind of these
+        structures which become so variously modified in all the
+        forms of insects he has not seen. In fact, there are such
+        things as types of form among animals and vegetables, and
+        for the purpose of getting a definite knowledge of what
+        constitutes the leading modifications of animal and plant
+        life, it is not needful to examine more than a
+        comparatively small number of animals and plants."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The type system in itself was not absolutely new.
+      Rolleston, the Linacre professor at Oxford, in his
+      <i>Forms</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="p179"
+      id="p179">[179]</a></span> <i>of Animal Life</i> had
+      devised the method of teaching comparative anatomy by the
+      study of a graded series of animals. But his method
+      depended on the existence of a series of dissections and
+      preparations made by a skilled craftsman; the tradition of
+      teaching by authority instead of by investigation was
+      maintained, although the authority of books and lectures
+      was aided by museum specimens in glass bottles, the actual
+      basis of the book being a series of dissections prepared by
+      Mr. Charles Robertson, Rolleston's laboratory assistant,
+      for the great International Exhibition of 1861. The
+      authorities of Huxley's students were to be found in nature
+      itself. The green scum from the nearest gutter, a handful
+      of weed from a pond, a bean-plant, some fresh-water mud, a
+      frog, and a pigeon were the ultimate authorities of his
+      course. His students were taught how to observe them, and
+      how to draw and record their observations. However familiar
+      the objects, each student had to verify every fact afresh
+      for himself. The business of the teacher was explanation of
+      the methods of verification, insistence on the
+      accomplishment of verification. It was a training in the
+      immemorial attitude of the scientific mind, codified by
+      Huxley and made an integral part in national education.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      As a matter of fact it was comparatively late in his life
+      as a teacher that Huxley had complete opportunity for
+      putting into practice his scheme for the laboratory
+      teaching of biology. In 1854 there was no laboratory
+      attached to the Natural History Department of the School of
+      Mines. Lectures alone were given, and the only opportunity
+      the student had of any practical acquaintance with the
+      facts was in a short interview with the professor at the
+      lecture table after <span class="pagenum"><a name="p180"
+      id="p180">[180]</a></span> the lecture. This condition
+      continued practically to 1872. But a few years before that
+      Huxley and his colleagues got up a kind of pronunciamento
+      deploring the existing state of affairs. In his evidence
+      before the Royal Commission of 1870 Huxley said: "There is
+      a complete want in the School of Mines, as it now exists,
+      of any means of teaching several of the subjects
+      practically. For example, I am set there to teach natural
+      history without a biological laboratory and without the
+      means of shewing a single dissection." Against strong
+      internal opposition and at considerable pecuniary loss
+      Huxley and some of his colleagues succeeded, in 1872, in
+      getting the School of Mines transferred to South
+      Kensington, where it became the Royal College of Science.
+      For the first course of instruction given in the new
+      buildings, Huxley obtained the aid of Prof. M. Foster,
+      Prof. Rutherford, and Prof. Ray Lankester. The laboratory
+      course originated by Huxley and shaped by him with these
+      three distinguished assistants became the model of the
+      regular courses given subsequently, and, with various
+      slight modifications, has since been adopted almost
+      universally. Later on, Huxley described it as follows:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I lecture to a class of students daily for about four
+        months and a half, and my class have, of course, their
+        text-books; but the essential part of the whole teaching,
+        and that which I regard as really the most important part
+        of it, is a laboratory for practical work, which is
+        simply a room with all the appliances needed for ordinary
+        dissection. We have tables properly arranged in regard to
+        light, microscopes and dissecting instruments, and we
+        work through the structure of a certain number of plants
+        and animals. As, for example, among the plants we take
+        the yeast-plant, a Protococcus, a common mould, a Chara,
+        a fern, and some flowering plant; among animals we
+        examine such things as an Am&oelig;ba, a Vorticella, and
+        a fresh-water <span class="pagenum"><a name="p181"
+        id="p181">[181]</a></span> polyp. We dissect a starfish,
+        an earthworm, a snail, a squid, and a fresh-water mussel.
+        We examine a lobster and a crayfish, and a black beetle.
+        We go on to a common skate, a codfish, a frog, a
+        tortoise, a pigeon, and a rabbit, and that takes us about
+        all the time we have to give. The purpose of this course
+        is not to make skilled dissectors, but to give every
+        student a clear and definite conception, by means of
+        sense images, of the characteristic structure of each of
+        the leading modifications of the animal kingdom; and that
+        is perfectly possible by going no further than the length
+        of that list of forms which I have enumerated. If a man
+        knows the structure of the animals I have mentioned, he
+        has a clear and exact, however limited apprehension of
+        the essential features of the organization of all those
+        great divisions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms to
+        which the forms I have mentioned severally belong. And it
+        then becomes possible to him to read with profit; because
+        every time he meets with the name of a structure, he has
+        a definite image in his mind of what the name means in
+        the particular creature he is reading about, and
+        therefore the reading is not mere reading. It is not mere
+        repetition of words; but every term employed in the
+        description, we will say of a horse, or of an elephant,
+        will call up the image of the things he had seen in the
+        rabbit, and he is able to form a distinct conception of
+        that which he has not seen, as a modification of that
+        which he has seen."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley himself was originally a medical man; all through
+      his life he was chiefly interested in the biological
+      sciences which underlie a scientific practice of medicine,
+      and as teacher and examiner he had much to do with the
+      shaping of medical education in London. Acting in various
+      public capacities, as a member of commissions dealing with
+      medical education, or as a witness before them, in magazine
+      articles and in public speeches he made many contributions
+      to the problems to be faced in medical education. Some of
+      these related to the conditions peculiar to medical
+      training in London. In the greatest city of the world there
+      was <span class="pagenum"><a name="p182"
+      id="p182">[182]</a></span> during Huxley's life and there
+      is still nothing comparable with the great universities of
+      Europe and America, of Scotland and Ireland. Some dozen
+      hospitals, supported partly by endowments, partly by
+      charities, attempt each to maintain a complete, independent
+      medical school. As the requirements of medical education in
+      staff, laboratories, and general equipment has advanced,
+      these hospitals have made heroic efforts to advance with
+      them. Notwithstanding the zeal and public spirit of the
+      staff and managers of the hospitals, this want of system
+      has naturally resulted in a multiplication of inefficient
+      institutions and a number of makeshift arrangements. Huxley
+      repeatedly urged the concentration of all this diffuse
+      effort into a few centres, but this inevitable reform has
+      not yet become possible.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A second important consideration, and one that has a much
+      wider application, relates to the kind of person by whom
+      the scientific sides of medical teaching should be given.
+      Primitively, all the instruction to medical students was
+      given by those actually engaged in the practice of
+      medicine. Huxley was strongly of the opinion that the
+      teachers of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and so forth,
+      should be specialists devoted to these subjects for life,
+      and not merely surgeons and physicians who engaged in
+      teaching until their practice grew sufficiently to
+      monopolise their attention.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I get every year," he said, "the elaborate reports of
+        Henle and Meissner&mdash;volumes of I suppose 400 pages
+        altogether&mdash;and they consist merely of abstracts of
+        the memoirs and works which have been written on Anatomy
+        and Physiology&mdash;only abstracts of them. How is a man
+        to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing in the
+        physiological world&mdash;in a world advancing with
+        enormous strides every day and every hour&mdash;if he has
+        to be distracted with the cares of practice?"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p183"
+      id="p183">[183]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There would always be found men, he declared, who would
+      make the choice between the wealth which may come by
+      successful practice and a modest competency, when that
+      modest competency was to be combined with a scientific
+      career and the means of advancing knowledge. It was to
+      those who made the latter choice that he would entrust the
+      teaching of the sciences underlying medicine; partly
+      because from the mere mechanical reason of time these men
+      would be better able to keep pace with the most recent
+      advances in knowledge, and partly because their teaching
+      would be stimulated by their own work in advancing
+      knowledge. In this great matter the world is rapidly
+      advancing towards the standard of Huxley; as each new
+      appointment is made it becomes more and more probable that
+      the man chosen will be a teacher and investigator rather
+      than a practitioner.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In another general question of the politics of medical
+      education Huxley took a strong line, and the tendency of
+      change is toward his view. One of the first results of the
+      awakening of medical education in the middle of this
+      century was a tendency to throw an almost intolerable
+      burden of new subjects upon the medical student. In the
+      revolt from the old apprenticeship system, in which the
+      student, from the very first, gave his chief attention to
+      practice, and was left almost to himself to pick up a
+      scanty knowledge of the principles and theories underlying
+      his profession, the pendulum swung too far the other way,
+      and there was almost no branch of the biological and
+      physical sciences in which he was not expected to go
+      through a severe training. On the old system the greater
+      part of his time was spent in the wards of the hospital; on
+      the new system it was only at an advanced stage of his
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p184"
+      id="p184">[184]</a></span> career that he entered the wards
+      at all, a great part of his time and energy being spent in
+      the purely scientific teaching of the medical college.
+      Huxley, although he had largely aided in the overthrow of
+      the happy-go-lucky older system, of which Mr. Bob Sawyer
+      was no exaggerated type, was equally severe on the reckless
+      extensions of the new system. "If I were a despot," he
+      said, "I would cut down the theoretical branches to a very
+      considerable extent." He would discard comparative anatomy
+      and botany, materia medica, and chemistry and physics,
+      except as applied to physiology, from the medical student's
+      course. At first sight, this seems a hard saying, but it is
+      to be remembered that at that time the normal curriculum of
+      a medical student lasted only four years, a space of time
+      barely sufficient for the necessary minimum of purely
+      medical and surgical work. Huxley's view was that chemistry
+      and physics, botany and zo&ouml;logy, should be part of the
+      general education, not of the special medical education; he
+      wished students to spend one or two years after their
+      ordinary career at school in work on these elementary
+      scientific subjects, and then to begin their medical course
+      free from the burden of extra-professional subjects. With
+      certain limits due to the different local conditions in
+      different teaching centres Huxley's system is being
+      adopted. In most cases the authorities in medical education
+      are unable to leave the whole responsibility of the
+      elementary education in science to the schools from which
+      medical students come, as the conditions under which
+      scientific subjects are still taught in schools leave much
+      to be desired. The average length of the medical curriculum
+      has been extended and the elementary scientific subjects
+      are taken first, sometimes at the medical <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p185" id="p185">[185]</a></span>
+      colleges, sometimes in the scientific departments of
+      universities. The interesting general point of view is that
+      Huxley, although himself a biologist and teacher of
+      biology, took too broad an outlook on the general policy of
+      education to insist upon his own subject to the detriment
+      of the precise practical objects of the training of medical
+      students.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the days of Huxley's greatest activity, while by the
+      natural force of events and by his special efforts science
+      was becoming more and more recognised as a necessary and
+      important branch of general education, the cry was raised
+      against it that scientific education was not capable of
+      giving what is called culture. A scientific man was
+      regarded as a mere scientific specialist, and science was
+      considered to have no place in, and in fact to be an enemy
+      of, "liberal education." In 1880, at Birmingham, Huxley
+      attacked this view in a speech delivered at the opening of
+      the Mason College. Sir Josiah Mason, the benevolent founder
+      of that great institution, had made it one of the
+      conditions of the foundation that the College should make
+      no provision for "mere literary instruction and education."
+      This gave Huxley a text for raising the whole question of
+      the relation of science to culture. He declared that he
+      held very strongly by two convictions.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The first is, that neither the discipline nor the
+        subject matter of classical education is of such direct
+        value to the student of physical science as to justify
+        the expenditure of valuable time on either; and the
+        second is, that for the purpose of attaining real
+        culture, an exclusively scientific education is at least
+        as effectual as an exclusively literary education."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He quoted from Matthew Arnold, then in the zenith of his
+      fame as a chief apostle of culture, and shewed <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p186" id="p186">[186]</a></span>
+      that there were two propositions involved in the "literary"
+      view of culture. The first was that a "criticism of life"
+      was the essence of culture; the second, that literature
+      contained the materials which sufficed for the construction
+      of such a criticism. With the first proposition he had no
+      dispute, taking the view that culture was something quite
+      different from learning or technical skill. "It implies the
+      possession of an ideal, and the habit of critically
+      estimating the value of things by comparison with a
+      theoretic standard. Perfect culture should supply a
+      complete theory of life, based upon a clear knowledge alike
+      of its possibilities and its limitations." Against the
+      second proposition he urged in the first place that it was
+      self-evident that after having learned all that Greek,
+      Roman, and Eastern antiquity have thought and said, and all
+      that modern literature has to tell us, it was still
+      necessary to have a deeper foundation for criticism of
+      life. An acquaintance with what physical science had done,
+      particularly in later years, was as necessary to criticism
+      of life as any of the literary materials. Next, following
+      the biological habit of examining anything by studying its
+      development, he shewed how the connection between "culture"
+      and study of classical literature had come into existence.
+      For many centuries Latin grammar, with logic and rhetoric,
+      studied through Latin, were the fundamentals of education.
+      A liberal education was possible only through study of the
+      language in which all or nearly all the materials for it
+      were written. With the changes produced by the Renascence
+      there came a battle between Latin and Greek, and Greek came
+      to be part of a liberal education. Later on, there came a
+      similar battle between the classical and modern languages,
+      and now the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p187"
+      id="p187">[187]</a></span> modern languages have included
+      and absorbed all the necessary material for knowledge and
+      criticism. Those who cling to classics as the basis of
+      culture and education are clinging to old weapons long
+      after these have ceased to be effective, simply because at
+      one time in history only these weapons were available in
+      the struggle for knowledge.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 356px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-187.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="180" width="356" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p188" id="p188">[188]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-188.png" alt="" title="" height="85"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Establishment of Compulsory Education in
+        England&mdash;The Religious Controversy&mdash;Huxley
+        Advocates the Bible without Theology&mdash;His Compromise
+        on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause&mdash;Influence of the New
+        Criticism&mdash;Science and Art
+        Instruction&mdash;Training of Teachers&mdash;University
+        Education&mdash;The Baltimore Address&mdash;Technical
+        Education&mdash;So-called "Applied
+        Science"&mdash;National Systems of Education as
+        "Capacity-Catchers."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the last chapter, the special relation of Huxley to
+      scientific education was described, and, naturally enough,
+      it is in special connection with scientific education that
+      his influence is best known. But he was keenly interested
+      in all the larger problems of general, university, and
+      technical education, and he played a great part in shaping
+      the lines upon which these problems have been solved in
+      England.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the years immediately before 1870, all England was
+      wrestling with the great problem of elementary education,
+      in the arrangements for which it was far behind not only
+      the leading European countries but even its sister-kingdom,
+      Scotland. In 1870 there came into operation an Act of
+      Parliament for the regulation of elementary education under
+      the supervision of locally elected school boards. Hitherto
+      elementary <span class="pagenum"><a name="p189"
+      id="p189">[189]</a></span> education had been controlled by
+      the Established Church, and by other denominational
+      religious bodies, and the quality and quantity of the
+      instruction provided, for financial and various other
+      reasons, had been extremely unsatisfactory. But a long and
+      furious battle had raged around the religious question;
+      elementary education was now to be national, compulsory,
+      and universal; where religious bodies maintained schools
+      that complied with certain fixed standards of efficiency,
+      attendance of children at these was to be regarded as
+      satisfactory, and in addition to the ordinary subjects,
+      such theological and religious teaching as the supporting
+      bodies chose might be added. But in the schools for all and
+      sundry, under the control of boards representing the whole
+      population, and deriving that part of their income
+      represented by the subscriptions of the religious bodies in
+      the denominational schools from public rates, levied on the
+      whole population, was any definite creed to be inculcated?
+      The extreme Church party, perhaps naturally, held that the
+      creed established by law in the land should be taught in
+      these new schools; extreme supporters of other creeds, and
+      a majority of ordinary people of all creeds or of no
+      creeds, objected to a new establishment of a sectarian
+      doctrine, even though that sectarian doctrine were the
+      doctrine of the national religion. The final result of the
+      dispute as codified in the Act of Parliament was what was
+      known as the Cowper-Temple Clause: "No religious catechism
+      or religious formulary which is distinctive of any
+      particular denomination shall be taught in the school." The
+      actual value of any clause, however it may appear to be a
+      fair compromise, depends on the spirit in which it is
+      practically interpreted, and no sooner had the Act been
+      passed <span class="pagenum"><a name="p190"
+      id="p190">[190]</a></span> than the battle was renewed
+      again over the interpretation of the clause. Many of the
+      Church controversialists held that the liberal or more
+      advanced party intended to exclude all reference to the
+      Bible or to religion, on the plea that some sect could be
+      found to which the most attenuated expression of religion
+      would appear to be against the plain meaning of the clause,
+      and Huxley, who had been in the forefront of the
+      controversy, and who was a candidate for the first London
+      School Board, was decried as an enemy of the Bible and of
+      all religion and morality because he had expressed what he
+      called a secular interpretation of the clause. In an
+      article published in the <i>Contemporary Review</i>
+      immediately after the election, Huxley explained precisely
+      what he took the clause to mean, and, afterwards, at all
+      events during the existence of the Board to which he was
+      elected, succeeded in carrying out his intentions in the
+      main.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      His first general point was to deprecate the action of
+      those extremists of both sides who tried to make the
+      education of children a mere battle-ground of religious
+      dogmas. He then laid down what he conceived to be the lines
+      of most general utility upon which, under the provisions of
+      the Act, the education of children should be conducted. In
+      the foreground he placed physical training and drill, as of
+      supreme importance to young children, especially in the
+      case of the poor children of large towns.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "All the conditions of the lives of such are unfavourable
+        to their physical well-being. They are badly lodged,
+        badly housed, badly fed, and live from one year's end to
+        another in bad air, without a chance of a change. They
+        have no play-grounds; they amuse themselves with marbles
+        and chuck-farthing, instead of cricket and
+        hare-and-hounds; and if it were <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p191" id="p191">[191]</a></span> not for the
+        wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of
+        tender years to throw themselves under the feet of
+        cab-horses whenever they can, I know not how they would
+        learn to use their limbs with agility."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This, humanitarianism as it was, was not the mere emotional
+      sentiment of the typical humanitarian; he went on to give
+      the soundest practical reasons for physical development.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy
+        of natural selection, there can be none about artificial
+        selection; and the breeder who should attempt to make, or
+        keep up, a fine stock of pigs, or sheep, under the
+        conditions to which the children of the poor are exposed,
+        would be the laughing stock even of the bucolic mind.
+        Parliament has already done something in this direction
+        by declining to be an accomplice in the asphyxiation of
+        school children. It refuses to make any grant to a school
+        in which the cubical contents of the school-room are
+        inadequate to allow of proper respiration."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He wished to see physical training put on the same system.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The second great point upon which he laid stress was the
+      necessity of providing training in domestic economy,
+      cookery, and other household accomplishments, for poor
+      girls. These demands of Huxley seem simple and obvious, now
+      that by his efforts and the efforts of others they have
+      been accomplished, but in England, even thirty years ago,
+      it required more than an ordinary prevision and boldness to
+      insist upon them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley passed next to the burning question of the time. He
+      treated it in the broadest and least sectarian spirit.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The boys and girls for whose education the School Boards
+        have to provide, have not merely to discharge domestic
+        duties, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p192"
+        id="p192">[192]</a></span> but each of them is a member
+        of a social and political organisation of great
+        complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into
+        that organisation, or be crushed by it. To this end it is
+        surely needful, not only that they should be made
+        acquainted with the elementary laws of conduct, but that
+        their affections should be trained, so as to love with
+        all their hearts that conduct which tends to the
+        attainment of the highest good for themselves and their
+        fellow-men, and to hate with all their hearts that
+        opposite course of action which is fraught with evil."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He then proceeded to point out the distinction between the
+      affection which is called religion, and the science which
+      is called theology, and, without entering into the question
+      as to whether the latter were or were not a true science,
+      he insisted on the danger of a confusion between the two.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "We are divided into two parties&mdash;the advocates of
+        so-called 'religious' teaching on the one hand, and those
+        of so-called 'secular' teaching on the other. And both
+        parties seem to me to be not only hopelessly wrong, but
+        in such a position that if either succeeded completely,
+        it would discover, before many years were over, that it
+        had made a great mistake and done serious evil to the
+        cause of education. For, leaving aside the more
+        far-seeing minority on either side, what the religious
+        party is crying for is mere theology, under the name of
+        religion; while the secularists have unwisely and
+        wrongfully admitted the assumption of their opponents,
+        and demand the abolition of all religious teaching, when
+        they only want to be free of theology&mdash;burning your
+        ship to get rid of the cockroaches." ... "If I were
+        compelled to choose for one of my own children, between a
+        school in which real religious instruction is given, and
+        one without it, I should prefer the former, even though
+        the child might have to take a good deal of theology with
+        it. Nine-tenths of a dose of bark is mere half-rotten
+        wood; but one swallows it for the sake of the particles
+        of quinine, the beneficial effect of which may be
+        weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden dilution,
+        unless in the case of a few <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p193" id="p193">[193]</a></span> exceptionally
+        tender stomachs. Hence, when the great mass of the
+        English people declare that they want to have the
+        children in the elementary schools taught the Bible, and
+        when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates
+        in and out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic
+        declarations of the Vice-President of the Council that it
+        was intended that such Bible-teaching should be
+        permitted, unless good cause for prohibiting it could be
+        shewn, I do not see what reason there is for opposing
+        that wish."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He went on to explain that, although he had always been
+      strongly in favour of secular education, by that term he
+      meant only education without theology, and he praised the
+      English Bible in language as noble as has ever been applied
+      to it by the most ardent of theologians.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The Pagan moralists lack life and colour, and even the
+        noble Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high and refined
+        for an ordinary child. Take the Bible as a whole; make
+        the severest deductions which fair criticism can dictate
+        for shortcomings and positive errors; eliminate, as a
+        sensible lay-teacher would do, if left to himself, all
+        that is not desirable for children to occupy themselves
+        with; and there still remains in this old literature a
+        vast residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then
+        consider the great historical fact that, for three
+        centuries, this book has been woven into the life of all
+        that is best and noblest in English history; that it has
+        become the national epic of Britain, and is as familiar
+        to noble and simple, from Land's End to John-o'-Groat's
+        House, as Dante and Tasso once were to the Italians; that
+        it is written in the noblest and purest English, and
+        abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary form; and,
+        finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left
+        his village to be ignorant of the existence of other
+        countries and other civilisations, and of a great past,
+        stretching back to the furthest limits of the oldest
+        nations in the world. By the study of what other book
+        could children be so much humanised and made to feel that
+        each figure in that vast historical procession fills,
+        like themselves, but a momentary space <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p194" id="p194">[194]</a></span>
+        in the interval between two eternities; and earns the
+        blessings and the curses of all time, according to its
+        effort to do good and hate evil, even as they also are
+        earning their payment for their work."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Lastly, he laid down the lines of the general education to
+      be given. He pointed out that already in the existing
+      schools a very considerable burden of work was imposed on
+      the children in the form of catechism, lists of the kings
+      of Israel, geography of Palestine, and that when these
+      fantastic modes of education had been eliminated there was
+      plenty of time and energy to be employed. The instruction
+      in physical training was more than half play; that in the
+      domestic subjects had an engrossing interest of its own. He
+      proposed, first, the necessary discipline in the means for
+      acquiring knowledge, the tools for employing it, that is to
+      say, reading, writing, and arithmetic. After that, he
+      believed that a certain amount of knowledge, of
+      intellectual discipline, and of artistic training should be
+      conveyed in the elementary schools, and for these purposes
+      he proposed to teach some rudiments of physical science,
+      drawing, and singing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In most respects the progress of primary education in
+      England has been a continuous progress along these lines
+      suggested by Huxley, and he may be regarded as in this
+      fashion one of the great shapers of the destinies of his
+      race, for nothing can have a bearing more important on the
+      character and fate of a race than the manner of training
+      provided for the masses of individuals composing it. It is
+      only in the matter of the religious instruction that the
+      course of events has been widely different from the neutral
+      exposition of the Bible as suggested by him. In 1870 a
+      great majority of the people of England who reflected upon
+      the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p195"
+      id="p195">[195]</a></span> matter at all, and all those who
+      accepted current ideas without reflection, accepted the
+      Bible as an inspired, direct, and simple authority on all
+      great matters of faith and morality. Therefore, when
+      Huxley, as by far the most important man among those who
+      advocated a secular education, was an advocate and not in
+      the least an opponent of Bible teaching, they were well
+      content to let the matter rest. There were, it is true, a
+      certain number of zealots who entered the boards with the
+      avowed purpose, on the one hand, of getting as much
+      dogmatic teaching and interpretation added as it might be
+      possible to smuggle in, and, on the other, to reduce the
+      simplest Bible teaching to a minimum. But the vast majority
+      of persons were out of sympathy with these fanaticisms.
+      Since 1870, however, a gradual change has occurred in the
+      attitude of the majority to the Bible in England. The
+      growth of the new criticism and of knowledge of it has
+      produced the result that now only a small minority of
+      reflecting people in England accept the Bible in the old
+      simple way; the majority thinks that it requires
+      interpretation and explanation by the authority of the
+      Church. And so a new battle over dogma has begun; moderate
+      Church people no longer accept the compromise of Huxley,
+      but strive for an interpretation which must be dogmatic,
+      and there is a new dispute as to what may be regarded as
+      undenominational religion. When a majority of reasonable
+      persons accepted Huxley's suggestions of simple Bible
+      teaching they did so not because they believed, as he did,
+      that the Bible was simply great literature, great
+      tradition, and great morality, but because they believed it
+      to be direct, inspired authority. It is a curious
+      coincidence that Huxley himself did so much to spread
+      knowledge of the new criticism, <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p196" id="p196">[196]</a></span> and that a first
+      result of this diffusion was to overthrow the compromise
+      arranged largely by his influence, and which for many years
+      provided a middle way in which sensible persons avoided the
+      extremes of theological and anti-theological zealots.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Early in the course of his career as a member of the London
+      School Board, Huxley crystallised his views as to the
+      general policy of education in a phrase which perhaps has
+      done more than any other phrase ever invented to bring home
+      to men's minds the ideal of a national system of education.
+      "I conceive it to be our duty," he said, "to make a ladder
+      from the gutter to the university along which any child may
+      climb." We have seen the nature of his views as to the
+      lowest rungs of this ladder; we may now turn to his work
+      and views as to the higher stages. He expressed these views
+      in occasional speeches and articles, and he had many
+      important opportunities in aiding to carry them into actual
+      practice. He was a member of a number of important Royal
+      Commissions: Commission on the Royal College of Science for
+      Ireland, 1866; Commission on Science and Art Instruction in
+      Ireland, 1868; Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction
+      and the Advancement of Science, 1870-75; Royal Commission
+      to enquire into the Universities of Scotland, 1876-78;
+      Royal Commission on the Medical Acts, 1881-82. From the
+      beginning, he was closely associated with the Science and
+      Art Department, the operations of which threw a web of
+      education, intermediate between primary and university
+      education, all over Britain. A number of the teachers under
+      that department were trained by him, and as examiner to the
+      department he took the greatest care to reduce to a minimum
+      the evils necessarily attendant on the mode of payment by
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p197"
+      id="p197">[197]</a></span> results. A certain number of
+      teachers made it their chief effort to secure the largest
+      possible number of grants. Huxley regarded these as
+      poachers of the worst kind, and did all he could to foil
+      them. He did all he could to promote systematic practical
+      instruction in the classes, and to aid teachers who desired
+      to learn their business more thoroughly. He insisted again
+      and again upon the popular nature of the classes; their
+      great advantage was that they were accessible to all who
+      chose to avail themselves of them after working hours, and
+      that they brought the means of instruction to the doors of
+      the factories and workshops. The subjects which he
+      considered of most importance were foreign languages,
+      drawing, and elementary sciences, and he wished them to be
+      used first of all by those who were handicraftsmen and who
+      therefore left the elementary schools at the age of
+      thirteen or fourteen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In a lecture given at the formal opening of the Johns
+      Hopkins University at Baltimore in 1876, and in a Rectorial
+      address to the University of Aberdeen two years earlier,
+      Huxley laid down the general lines of university education
+      as he conceived it. He began by supposing that a good
+      primary education had already been received.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Such an education should enable an average boy of
+        fifteen or sixteen to read and write his own language
+        with ease and accuracy, and with a sense of literary
+        excellence derived from the study of our classic writers;
+        to have a general acquaintance with the history of his
+        own country and with the great laws of social existence;
+        to have acquired the rudiments of the physical and
+        psychological sciences, and a fair knowledge of
+        elementary arithmetic and geometry. He should have
+        obtained an acquaintance with logic rather by example
+        than by precept; <span class="pagenum"><a name="p198"
+        id="p198">[198]</a></span> while the acquirement of the
+        elements of music and drawing should have been a pleasure
+        rather than work."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had not much to say for secondary or intermediate
+      education, partly because at that time, in England at
+      least, the secondary schools were in a hopeless state of
+      incapacity, and differed from primary schools not only in
+      their greater expense, their adaptation to the class-spirit
+      which demanded the separation of the boys of the upper and
+      middle classes from those in the lower ranks of society,
+      but chiefly in the futility of the education given at the
+      majority of them. But where intermediate schools did exist,
+      he demanded that they should keep on the same wide track of
+      general knowledge, not sacrificing one branch of knowledge
+      for another. He held that the elementary instruction to
+      which he had referred embraced all the real kinds of
+      knowledge and mental activity possible to man. The
+      university could add no new fields of mental activity, no
+      new departments of knowledge. What it could do was to
+      intensify and specialise the instruction in each
+      department.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Thus literature and philology, represented in the
+        elementary school by English alone, in the university
+        will extend over the ancient and modern languages.
+        History, which like charity, best begins at home, but,
+        like charity, should not end there, will ramify into
+        anthropology, arch&aelig;ology, political history, and
+        geography, with the history of the growth of the human
+        mind and of its products, in the shape of philosophy,
+        science, and art, and the university will present to the
+        student libraries, museums of antiquities, collections of
+        coins, and the like, which will efficiently subserve
+        these studies. Instruction in the elements of political
+        economy, a most essential but hitherto sadly neglected
+        part of elementary education, will develop in the
+        university into political economy, sociology, and law.
+        Physical science will have its great divisions, of <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p199" id="p199">[199]</a></span>
+        physical geography, with geology and astronomy; physics;
+        chemistry and biology; represented not merely by
+        professors and their lectures, but by laboratories in
+        which the students, under guidance of demonstrators, will
+        work out facts for themselves and come into that direct
+        contact with reality which constitutes the fundamental
+        distinction of scientific education. Mathematics will
+        soar into its highest regions; while the high peaks of
+        philosophy may be scaled by those whose aptitude for
+        abstract thought has been awakened by elementary logic.
+        Finally, schools of pictorial and plastic art, of
+        architecture, and of music will offer a thorough
+        discipline in the principles and practice of art to those
+        in whom lies nascent the rare faculty of &aelig;sthetic
+        representation, or the still rarer powers of creative
+        genius."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Early in the seventies the problems connected with what is
+      called technical education became prominent in the minds of
+      the most far-seeing of this nation. It became plain that
+      England was not advancing with the same strides as some
+      other nations in arts and manufactures, and the most
+      obvious difference between England and the rivals whose
+      advance was causing anxiety lay in her deficiency in
+      education. Science or knowledge of nature lies at the root
+      of all the arts and manufactures, and it was our relation
+      to scientific teaching and research that required
+      investigation. Naturally enough, Huxley took the keenest
+      interest in this question and made large contributions to
+      its solution, contributions which have not yet been put
+      completely into operation. He insisted most strongly upon a
+      point that we as a nation have not yet completely grasped.
+      There is no difference between applied science and any
+      other kind of science. The chemistry of manufactures, the
+      physics of industrial machinery, the biology of agriculture
+      and of fisheries, are not different from other chemistries
+      and physics and <span class="pagenum"><a name="p200"
+      id="p200">[200]</a></span> biologies. They are merely
+      special cases of the application of the same general fund
+      of knowledge, and the same general principles of
+      investigation. Huxley wished that the term "applied
+      science" had never been invented, or that it could be
+      destroyed. A man cannot study the chemistry of dyeing or
+      make advances in it unless he be a thoroughly trained
+      chemist in the full sense of the word. More than that, many
+      of the greatest discoveries, using the word "great" as
+      applied to commercial advantage rather than to abstract
+      progress in knowledge, have been made by those who were
+      pursuing research for its own sake rather than for any
+      immediate commercial advantage to be derived from it. Hence
+      he regarded it of vital importance, from the mere point of
+      view of the prosperity of the country, that there should be
+      a sufficiently large number of scientific men provided with
+      the means for research in the shape of income and
+      appliances. The most immediately utilitarian fashion for
+      the nation to encourage science, was to encourage science
+      in its highest and most advanced aspects. This meant the
+      endowment of research and the support of universities and
+      other institutions in which research might be conducted,
+      and Huxley strove unceasingly for the benefit of all such
+      great organisations. One of the last public occasions of
+      his life was his appearance as leader of a deputation to
+      urge upon the government the formation of a real university
+      in London which should unite the scattered institutions of
+      that great city and promote the highest spheres of the
+      pursuit of knowledge. He held the view, strongly, that a
+      useful combination was to be made by uniting the functions
+      of teaching and investigation. A teacher taught better when
+      his mind was kept fresh by the advances he himself was
+      making, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p201"
+      id="p201">[201]</a></span> and an investigator, by having a
+      moderate amount of teaching to do, gained from the need of
+      forcing his mind from time to time to take broad surveys of
+      the whole field a part of which he was engaged in tilling.
+      The first great object, then, in promoting science so as to
+      reap the most direct national advantage from it, was to
+      encourage science in its highest and widest forms. It
+      cannot be said that England has yet learned this lesson.
+      The number of institutions in Germany where advanced
+      investigation is continuously pursued is absolutely and
+      relatively greater than the number in England.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The second part of technical education is that to which
+      general attention is more commonly given. It consists of
+      the kind of training to be given to the great army of
+      workers in the country. In regard to this, as in regard to
+      research work, Huxley insisted on the absence of
+      distinction between technical or applied science and
+      science without such a limiting prefix. So far as technical
+      instruction meant definite teaching of a handicraft, he
+      believed that it could be learned satisfactorily only in
+      the workshop itself.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The workshop is the only real school for a handicraft.
+        The education which precedes that of the workshop should
+        be entirely devoted to the strengthening of the body, the
+        elevation of the moral faculties, and the cultivation of
+        the intelligence; and, especially, to the imbuing of the
+        mind with a broad and clear view of the laws of that
+        natural world with the components of which the
+        handicraftsman will have to deal. And, the earlier the
+        period of life at which the handicraftsman has to enter
+        into the actual practice of his craft, the more important
+        is it that he should devote the precious hours of
+        preliminary education to things of the mind, which have
+        no direct and immediate bearing on his branch of
+        industry, though they lie at the foundation of all the
+        realities."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p202"
+      id="p202">[202]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He compared his own handicraft as an anatomist with the
+      handicrafts of artisans, and declared that the kind of
+      preliminary training he would choose for himself or for his
+      pupils was precisely the training he would provide for
+      them. He did not wish that one who proposed to be a
+      biologist should learn dissection during his school-days;
+      that would come later, and, in the meantime, broader and
+      deeper foundations had to be laid. These were the ordinary
+      subjects of a liberal education: physical training,
+      drawing, and a little music, French and German, the
+      ordinary English subjects, and the elements of physical
+      science. Against such costly schemes of education for the
+      whole population of a nation, many objections have been
+      urged. Of these, perhaps the chief is that the majority of
+      human beings even in the most civilised country are not
+      capable of profiting by or taking an interest in, or
+      certainly of advancing far in, most subjects. Huxley met
+      such objections in a spirit of the widest statesmanship.
+      There were two reasons for making the general education of
+      all what he called a liberal education. The first was that,
+      even in a liberal education such as he advocated, no
+      subject was pursued beyond the broad elementary stages, and
+      that during the early years of life, while the framework
+      and the character were forming, it was of first-rate
+      importance not to stunt either by lack of material. The
+      second great principle was that until any individual had
+      had the opportunity, it was impossible to say whether or no
+      he would profit much or little, and the gain to the whole
+      nation by not missing any of those who were born with
+      unusual natural capacity was more than worth the cost of
+      affording opportunities to all.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The great mass of mankind have neither the liking, nor
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p203"
+        id="p203">[203]</a></span> the aptitude, for either
+        literary or scientific or artistic pursuits; nor, indeed,
+        for excellence of any sort. Their ambition is to go
+        through life with moderate exertion and a fair share of
+        ease, doing common things in a common way. And a great
+        blessing and comfort it is that the majority of men are
+        of this mind; for the majority of things to be done are
+        common things, and are quite well enough done when
+        commonly done. The great end of life is not knowledge but
+        action. What men need is as much knowledge as they can
+        assimilate and organise into a basis for action; give
+        them more and it may become injurious. One knows people
+        who are as heavy and stupid from undigested learning as
+        others are from over-fulness of meat and drink. But a
+        small percentage of the population is born with that most
+        excellent quality, a desire for excellence, or with
+        special aptitude of some sort or another.... Now, the
+        most important object of all educational schemes is to
+        catch these exceptional people, and turn them to account
+        for the good of society. No man can say where they will
+        crop up; like their opposites, the fools and the knaves,
+        they appear sometimes in the palace, and sometimes in the
+        hovel; but the great thing to be aimed at, I was almost
+        going to say, the most important end of all social
+        arrangements, is to keep these glorious sports of Nature
+        from being either corrupted by luxury or starved by
+        poverty, and to put them into the position in which they
+        can do the work for which they are specially fitted.... I
+        weigh my words when I say that if the nation could
+        purchase a potential Watt or Davy or Faraday, at the cost
+        of a hundred thousand pounds down, he would be dirt cheap
+        at the money."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The beginning and end of the whole matter was that a
+      national system of education was above all things a
+      "capacity-catcher," designed to secure against the loss of
+      the incalculable advantages to be gained by cultivating the
+      best genius born in the land.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 182px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-203.png" alt="" title="" height="47"
+        width="182" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p204" id="p204">[204]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-204.png" alt="" title="" height="82"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs&mdash;Official in
+        Scientific Societies&mdash;Royal
+        Commissions&mdash;Vivisection&mdash;Characteristics of
+        his Public Speaking&mdash;His Method of
+        Exposition&mdash;His
+        Essays&mdash;Vocabulary&mdash;Phrase-Making&mdash;His
+        Style Essentially one of Ideas.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A great body of fine work in science and literature has
+      been produced by persons who may be described as typically
+      academic. Such persons confine their interest in life
+      within the boundaries of their own immediate pursuits; they
+      are absorbed so completely by their avocations that the
+      hurly-burly of the world seems needlessly distracting and a
+      little vulgar. No doubt the thoughts of those who cry out
+      most loudly against disturbance by the intruding claims of
+      the world are, for the most part, hardly worth disturbing;
+      the attitude to extrinsic things of those who are absorbed
+      by their work is aped not infrequently by those who are
+      absorbed only in themselves. None the less it is important
+      to recognise that a genuine aversion from affairs is
+      characteristic of many fine original investigators, and it
+      is on such persons that the idea of the simple and
+      childlike nature of philosophers, a simplicity often
+      reaching real incapacity for the affairs of life, is <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p205" id="p205">[205]</a></span>
+      based. There was no trace of this natural isolation in the
+      character of Huxley. He was not only a serious student of
+      science but a keen and zealous citizen, eagerly conscious
+      of the great social and political movements around him,
+      with the full sense that he was a man living in society
+      with other men and that there was a business of life as
+      well as a business of the laboratory. We have seen with
+      what zeal he brought his trained intelligence to bear not
+      only on his own province of scientific education, but on
+      the wider problems of general education, and yet the time
+      he gave to these was only a small part of that which he
+      spared from abstract science for affairs. In scientific
+      institutions as in others, there is always a considerable
+      amount of business, involving the management of men and the
+      management of money, and Huxley's readiness and aptitude
+      led to his being largely occupied with these. For many
+      years he was Dean of the Royal College of Science at South
+      Kensington, and for a considerable time he served the
+      Geological Society and the Royal Society as secretary. In
+      all these posts, Huxley displayed great capacity as a
+      leader of men and as a manager of affairs, and contributed
+      largely to the successful working of the institutions which
+      he served.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In England, when troublesome questions press and seem to
+      call for new legislation, it frequently happens that the
+      collection and sifting of evidence preliminary to
+      legislation is a task for which the methods and routine of
+      Parliament are unsuitable. The Queen, acting through her
+      responsible advisers, appoints a Royal Commission,
+      consisting of a small body of men, to which is entrusted
+      the preliminary task of collecting and weighing evidence,
+      or of making recommendations on evidence already collected.
+      To such honourable <span class="pagenum"><a name="p206"
+      id="p206">[206]</a></span> posts Huxley was repeatedly
+      called. He served on the following Commissions: 1. Royal
+      Commission on the Operation of Acts relating to Trawling
+      for Herrings on the Coast of Scotland, 1862. 2. Royal
+      Commission to Enquire into the Sea Fisheries of the United
+      Kingdom, 1864-65. 3. Commission on the Royal College of
+      Science for Ireland, 1866. 4. Commission on Science and Art
+      Instruction in Ireland, 1868. 5. Royal Commission on the
+      Administration and Operation of the Contagious Diseases
+      Acts, 1870-71. 6. Royal Commission on Scientific
+      Instruction and the Advancement of Science, 1870-75. 7.
+      Royal Commission on the Practice of Subjecting Live Animals
+      to Experiments for Scientific Purposes, 1876. 8. Royal
+      Commission to Enquire into the Universities of Scotland,
+      1876-78. 9. Royal Commission on the Medical Acts, 1881-82.
+      10. Royal Commission on Trawl, Net, and Beam-Trawl Fishing,
+      1884. This is a great record for any man, especially for
+      one in whose life work of this kind was outside his
+      habitual occupation. It was no doubt in special recognition
+      of the important services given his country by such work,
+      as well as in general recognition of his distinction in
+      science, that he was sworn a member of Her Majesty's Privy
+      Council, so attaining a distinction more coveted than the
+      peerage.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The voluminous reports of the Commissions shew that Huxley,
+      very far from being a silent member of them, took a large
+      part in framing the questions which served to direct
+      witnesses into useful lines, and that his clear and orderly
+      habit of thought proved as useful in the elucidation of
+      these subjects as they were in matters of scientific
+      research. For the most part, the problems brought before
+      the Commissions have lost their interest for readers of
+      later years, but there are matters still <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p207" id="p207">[207]</a></span>
+      unsettled on which the opinions of Huxley as expressed then
+      remain useful. The Commission of 1876, for instance, dealt
+      with vivisection, a matter on which the conscience of the
+      ordinary man is not yet at rest. Although Huxley was
+      intensely interested in the problems of physiology, and
+      although at one time he hoped to devote his life to them,
+      fortune directed otherwise, and the investigations for
+      which he is famed did not in any way involve the kind of
+      experiments known as vivisection. The greater part of his
+      work was upon the remains of creatures dead for thousands
+      of years or upon the lifeless skeletons of modern forms. On
+      the other hand, he was keenly interested in the progress of
+      physiological science, he had personal acquaintance with
+      most of the distinguished workers in physiology of his time
+      at home and abroad, and from this knowledge of their
+      character and aspirations he was well able to judge of the
+      wholesale and reckless accusations brought against them. He
+      was a man full of the finest humanity, with an unusual
+      devotion to animals as pets, and with knowledge of the
+      degrees of pain involved in experimenting on living
+      creatures. He insisted strongly on the necessity of
+      limiting or abolishing pain, wherever it was possible; he
+      agreed that any experiments which involved pain should not
+      be permitted for the purpose of demonstrating known
+      elementary facts. But, from his knowledge of the
+      incalculable benefits which had been gained from
+      experimental research, and from his confidence in those who
+      conducted it, he declined to give support to the misguided
+      fanatics who desired to make such experimental research a
+      penal offence, even when conducted by the most skilled
+      experts for the highest purposes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley contributed his share to the great questions <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p208" id="p208">[208]</a></span>
+      which agitated the public not only by service on
+      Commissions, but by delivering a large number of public
+      addresses and writing a large number of essays on topics of
+      special interest. Much of his work on scientific,
+      educational, and general subjects took its first shape in
+      the form of addresses given to some public audience.
+      University audiences in England, Scotland, and America were
+      familiar to him, and from time to time he addressed large
+      gatherings of a mixed character. But probably his favourite
+      audience was composed of working men, and he had the
+      greatest respect for the intelligence and sympathy of
+      hearers who like himself passed the greater portion of
+      their time in hard work. Professor Howes, his pupil,
+      friend, and successor, writes of him:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "He gave workmen of his best. The substance of <i>Man's
+        Place in Nature</i>, one of the most successful and
+        popular of his writings, and of his <i>Crayfish</i>,
+        perhaps the most perfect zo&ouml;logical treatise ever
+        published, was first communicated to them. In one of the
+        last communications I had with him, I asked his views as
+        to the desirability of discontinuing the workmen's
+        lectures at Jermyn Street, since the development of
+        workmen's colleges and institutes was regarded by some as
+        rendering their continuance unnecessary. He replied,
+        almost with indignation, 'With our central situation and
+        resources we ought to be in a position to give the
+        workmen that which they cannot get elsewhere,' adding
+        that he would deeply deplore any such discontinuance."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley had no natural facility for speech. He tells us that
+      at first he disliked it, and that he had a firm conviction
+      that he would break down every time he opened his mouth.
+      The only two possible faults of a public speaker which he
+      believed himself to be without, were "talking at random and
+      indulging in rhetoric." With practice, he lost this earlier
+      hesitancy, <span class="pagenum"><a name="p209"
+      id="p209">[209]</a></span> and before long became known as
+      one of the finest speakers of his time. Certain natural
+      gifts aided him; his well-set figure and strong features,
+      of which the piercing eyes and firm, trap-like mouth were
+      the most striking, riveted attention, while his voice had a
+      wide range and was beautifully modulated. But it was above
+      all things the matter and not the manner of his speech that
+      commanded success. He cared little or nothing for the
+      impression he might make&mdash;everything for the ideas
+      which he wished to convey. He was concerned only to set
+      forth these ideas in their clear and logical order,
+      convinced in his own mind that, were the facts as he knew
+      them placed before the minds of his hearers, only one
+      possible result could follow. The facts had convinced him:
+      they must equally convince any honest and intelligent
+      person placed in possession of them. He had not the
+      smallest intention of overbearing by authority or of
+      swaying by skilfully aroused emotion. Such weapons of the
+      orator seemed to him dishonest in the speaker and most
+      perilous to the audience. For him, speaking on any subject
+      was merely a branch of scientific exposition; when emotion
+      was to be roused or enthusiasm to be kindled the
+      inspiration was to come from the facts and not from the
+      orator. The arts he allowed himself were those common to
+      all forms of exposition; he would explain a novel set of
+      ideas by comparison with simpler ideas obvious to all his
+      listeners; and he sought to arrest attention or to drive
+      home a conclusion by some brilliant phrase that bit into
+      the memory. These two arts, the art of the phrase-maker and
+      the art of explaining by vivacious and simple comparison,
+      he brought to a high perfection. The fundamental method of
+      his exposition was simply <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p210" id="p210">[210]</a></span> the method of
+      comparative anatomy, the result of a habit of thinking
+      which makes it impossible to have any set of ideas brought
+      into the mind without an immediate, almost unconscious,
+      overhauling of the memory for any other ideas at all
+      congruous. In a strict scientific exposition Huxley would
+      choose from the multitude of possible comparisons that most
+      simple and most intelligible to his audience; when in a
+      lighter vein, he gave play to a natural humour in his
+      choice. Instances of his method of exposition by comparison
+      abound in his published addresses. Let us take one or two.
+      In the course of an address to a large mixed audience so
+      early in his public career as 1854, in making plain to them
+      the proposition, somewhat novel for those days, that the
+      natural history sciences had an educational value, he
+      explained that the faculties employed in that subject were
+      simply those of the common sense of every-day life.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The vast results obtained by Science are won by no
+        mystical faculties, by no mental processes other than
+        those which are practised by every one of us, in the
+        humblest and meanest affairs of life. A detective
+        policeman discovers a burglar from the marks made by his
+        shoe, by a mental process identical with that by which
+        Cuvier restored the extinct animals of Montmartre from
+        fragments of their bones. Nor does that process of
+        induction and deduction by which a lady, finding a stain
+        of a peculiar kind on her dress, concludes that somebody
+        has upset the inkstand thereon, differ in any way, in
+        kind, from that by which Adams and Leverrier discovered a
+        new planet."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In one of his addresses to working men on <i>Man's Place in
+      Nature</i> he shewed that from time to time in the history
+      of the world average persons of the human race have
+      accepted some kind of answer to the insoluble riddles of
+      existence, but that from time to <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p211" id="p211">[211]</a></span> time the race has
+      outgrown the current answers, ceasing to take comfort from
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In a well-worn metaphor a parallel is drawn between the
+        life of man and the metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a
+        butterfly; but the comparison may be more just as well as
+        more novel, if for its former term we take the mental
+        progress of the race. History shews that the human mind,
+        fed by constant accessions of knowledge, periodically
+        grows too large for its theoretical coverings, and bursts
+        them asunder to appear in new habiliments, as the feeding
+        and growing grub, at intervals, casts its too narrow skin
+        and assumes another, itself but temporary. Truly, the
+        imago state of man seems to be terribly distant, but
+        every moult is a step gained, and of such there have been
+        many."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As another instance, the following from his address on a
+      "Liberal Education" may be taken. He had been discussing
+      the intellectual advantage to be derived from classical
+      studies, and had been comparing, to the disadvantage of the
+      latter, the intellectual discipline which might be got from
+      a study of fossils with the discipline claimed by the
+      ordinary experts upon education to be the results of
+      classical training. He wished to anticipate the obvious
+      objection to his argument: that the subject-matter of
+      pal&aelig;ontology had no direct bearing on human interests
+      and emotions, while the classical authors were rich in the
+      finest humanity.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "But it will be said that I forget the beauty and the
+        human interest, which appertain to classical studies. To
+        this I reply that it is only a very strong man who can
+        appreciate the charms of landscape as he is toiling up a
+        steep hill, along a bad road. What with short-windedness,
+        stones, nits, and a pervading sense of the wisdom of rest
+        and be thankful, most of us have little enough sense of
+        the beautiful under these circumstances. The ordinary
+        schoolboy is precisely in this case. He <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p212" id="p212">[212]</a></span>
+        finds Parnassus uncommonly steep, and there is no chance
+        of his having much time or inclination to look about him
+        till he gets to the top. And nine times out of ten he
+        does not get to the top."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The last example we shall take comes from a speech made
+      after dinner at a much later period of his life. The
+      occasion was a complimentary dinner to the editor of the
+      English scientific periodical <i>Nature</i>, which had been
+      for long the leading semi-popular journal of English
+      science. Huxley, in proposing the health of the editor,
+      declared that he did not quite know how to say what he
+      wanted to say, but that he would explain by a story.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "A poor woman," he said, "was brought into one of our
+        hospitals in a shockingly battered condition. When her
+        wounds had been cleaned and sewn, and when the care of
+        the surgeons had restored her to comparative comfort,
+        someone said to her, 'I am afraid your husband has been
+        knocking you about.' 'What!' she said, 'my Jim bash me?
+        no it worn't by him; he's always been more like a friend
+        to me than a husband.' That," went on Huxley, "is what I
+        wish to say about our guest of to-night. In all our
+        intercourse with him he has been more like a friend to us
+        than an editor."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is impossible to make a real distinction between the
+      essays and the addresses of Huxley. Many of the most
+      important of his addresses, as for instance his Romanes
+      lecture on "Evolution and Ethics," were written and printed
+      before he delivered them; most of them were carefully
+      prepared, and revised and printed after delivery. It is
+      therefore not remarkable to find a close resemblance in
+      matter and manner between what was originally spoken and
+      what was published without a <i>viv&acirc; voce</i>
+      delivery. Everything that may be said of the one set
+      applies with an equal <span class="pagenum"><a name="p213"
+      id="p213">[213]</a></span> fitness to the other set. There
+      are many who assert with confidence that Huxley is one of
+      the great masters of English, and although an examination
+      of this opinion involves discussion of the elusive quality
+      termed "style," it is necessary to attempt it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In that totality which consists of an essay or of a printed
+      address, and of which we are, most of us, ready to discuss
+      the style, there are at least three separable elements,
+      each contributing after its kind to the effect on our
+      minds. When the general effect is to throw us into a state
+      of pleasure, it is our habit to qualify the style with an
+      adjective of praise, selecting the adjective according to
+      the degree of restraint or of enthusiasm with which we are
+      accustomed to express our emotions; when the general effect
+      is to throw us into a condition of boredom or of distaste,
+      we make a corresponding choice of appropriate adjectives.
+      When we wish to be specially critical we pass a little way
+      beyond an empirical judgment by pleasure or annoyance and
+      take into account the degree of harmony between matter and
+      manner. In such a frame of mind we discount the pleasure
+      obtained from verbal quips, if these occur in a grave
+      exposition, or that received from solemn and stately
+      harmonies of language if these be employed on insignificant
+      trifles. In a condition of unusual critical exaltation we
+      may even admit an excellence of language and phrasing
+      though these have as their contents ideas which we dislike,
+      or press towards conclusions from which we dissent. But if
+      we desire to make an exact appreciation of literary style,
+      it is requisite to examine separately the three elements
+      which contribute to the effect produced on us by any
+      written work. These three elements are the words or raw
+      materials employed, the building of words into <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p214" id="p214">[214]</a></span>
+      sentences and of sentences into paragraphs, which may be
+      designated as the architectural work, and, finally, the
+      ideas conveyed, that is to say, the actual object of the
+      writing.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was a wide and omnivorous reader, and so had an
+      unusually large fund of words at his disposal. His writings
+      abound with quotations and allusions taken from the best
+      English authors, and he had a profound and practical belief
+      in the advantage to be gained from the reading of English.
+      "If a man," he wrote, "cannot get literary culture out of
+      his Bible, and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and
+      Hobbes, and Bishop Berkeley, to mention only a few of our
+      illustrious writers&mdash;I say, if he cannot get it out of
+      these writers, he cannot get it out of anything." He had at
+      least a fair knowledge of Greek in the original, and a very
+      wide acquaintance with Greek phrasing and Greek ideas
+      derived from a study of Greek authors in English versions.
+      He had an unusual knowledge of Latin, both of the classical
+      writers and of the early Church fathers and medi&aelig;val
+      writers on science and metaphysics. French and German, the
+      two foreign languages which are a necessary part of the
+      mental equipment of an English-speaking man of science,
+      were familiar to him. Finally, he had of necessity the wide
+      and varied vocabulary of the natural and technical sciences
+      at his disposal. From these varied sources, Huxley had a
+      fund of words, a store of the raw material for expressing
+      ideas, very much greater and more varied than that in the
+      possession of most writers. You will find in his writings
+      abundant and omnipresent evidence of the enormous wealth of
+      verbal material ready for the ideas he wished to set forth:
+      a Greek phrase, a German phrase, a Latin or French <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p215" id="p215">[215]</a></span>
+      phrase, or a group of words borrowed from one of our own
+      great writers always seemed to await his wish. General
+      Booth's scheme for elevating the masses by cymbals and
+      dogma was "corybantic Christianity"; to explain what he
+      thought was the Catholic attitude to the doctrine of
+      evolution, he said it would have been called
+      <i>damnabilis</i> by Father Suarez, and that he would have
+      meant "not that it was to be damned, but that it was an
+      active principle capable of damning." Huxley was like a
+      builder who did not limit himself while he was constructing
+      a house to the ordinary materials from the most convenient
+      local quarry, but who collected endlessly from all the
+      quarries and brickfields of the world, and brought to his
+      heaps curiously wrought stones taken from a thousand old
+      buildings. The swift choice from such a varied material
+      gave an ease and appearance of natural growth to his work;
+      it produced many surprising and delightful combinations,
+      and it never sacrificed convenience of expression to
+      exigencies of the materials for expression. On the other
+      hand, Huxley lacked the sedulous concern for words
+      themselves as things valuable and delightful; the delight
+      of the craftsman in his tools; the dainty and respectful
+      tribute paid to the words themselves; in fine, he took
+      little pleasure in words themselves and used them as
+      counters rather than as coins. Careful reflection and
+      examination will make it plain that the pleasure to be got
+      from Huxley's style is not due in any large measure to his
+      choice and handling of words. There is no evidence that he
+      deliberately and fastidiously preferred one word to
+      another, that he took delight in the savour of individual
+      words, in the placing of plain words in a context to make
+      them sparkle, in the avoidance of some, in the deliberate
+      preference of <span class="pagenum"><a name="p216"
+      id="p216">[216]</a></span> other words,&mdash;in fact, in
+      all the conscious tricks and graces that distinguish the
+      lover of words from their mere user.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A close examination discovers a similar absence from
+      Huxley's work of the second contributory to the total
+      effect produced by written words. Anything that may be said
+      about absence of artistry in the use of words, may be said
+      as to absence of artistry in building of the words into
+      sentences, of the sentences into paragraphs and pages. In
+      the first place, actual infelicities of sentence-building
+      are frequent. Clause is piled on clause, qualifying phrases
+      are interpolated, the easy devices of dashes and
+      repetitions are employed wherever convenience suggests
+      them. It is striking to find how infrequent is the
+      occurrence of passages marked in any way by sonorous rhythm
+      or by the charm of a measured proportion. The purple
+      passages themselves, those which linger in the memory and
+      to which the reader turns back, linger by their sense and
+      not by their sound. For indeed the truth of the matter is
+      that Huxley's style was a style of ideas and not of words
+      and sentences. The more closely you analyse his pages the
+      more certainly you find that the secret of the effect
+      produced on you lies in the gradual development of the
+      precise and logical ideas he wished to convey, in the
+      brilliant accumulation of argument upon argument, in the
+      logical subordination of details to the whole, in fact, in
+      the arts of the convinced, positive, and logical thinker,
+      who knew exactly what he meant you to know and who set
+      about telling you it with the least possible concern for
+      the words he used or for the sentences into which he formed
+      his words. The ideas and their ordering are the root and
+      the branches, the beginning and the end of his style. <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p217" id="p217">[217]</a></span>
+      To put it in another way: it would be extremely easy to
+      translate any of Huxley's writings into French or German,
+      and they would lose extremely little of the personal
+      flavour of their author. The present writer has just been
+      reading French translations of Huxley's <i>Physiography</i>
+      and <i>Crayfish</i>, made at different times by different
+      translators. At first reading it seems almost miraculous
+      how identically the effect produced by the original is
+      reproduced by the French rendering, but the secret is
+      really no secret at all. Huxley produced his effects by the
+      ordering of his ideas and not by the ordering of his words.
+      From the technical point of view of literary craftsmanship,
+      he cannot be assigned a high place; he is one of our great
+      English writers, but he is not a great writer of English.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-217.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="118" width="231" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p218" id="p218">[218]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-218.png" alt="" title="" height="85"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Science and Metaphysics&mdash;Berkeley, Hume, and
+        Hobbes&mdash;Existence of Matter and
+        Mind&mdash;Descartes's Contribution&mdash;Materialism and
+        Idealism&mdash;Criticism of Materialism&mdash;Berkeley's
+        Idealism&mdash;Criticism of Idealism&mdash;Empirical
+        Idealism&mdash;Materialism as opposed to
+        Supernaturalism&mdash;Mind and Brain&mdash;Origin of
+        Life&mdash;Teleology, Chance, and the Argument from
+        Design.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The prosecution of independent thinking in any branch of
+      knowledge leads to the ultimate problems of philosophy. The
+      mathematician cannot ponder over the meaning of his
+      figures, the chemist that of his reactions, the biologist
+      that of his tissues and cells, the psychologist that of
+      sensations and conceptions, without being tempted from the
+      comparatively secure ground of observations and the
+      arrangement of observations into the perilous regions of
+      metaphysics. Most scientific men return quickly, repelled
+      and perhaps a little scared by the baffling confusion of
+      that windy region of thought where no rules of logic seem
+      incontrovertible, no conclusions tenable, and no
+      discussions profitable. Huxley, however, not only entered
+      into metaphysical questions with enthusiasm, but gave a
+      great deal of time to the study of some of the great
+      metaphysical writers. His views are to be <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p219" id="p219">[219]</a></span>
+      found scattered through very many of his ordinary
+      scientific writings, but are specially set forth in a
+      volume on <i>Hume</i>, which he wrote for Mr. John Morley's
+      series, <i>English Men of Letters</i>, and in essays on
+      Berkeley and on Descartes, all of which are republished in
+      the <i>Collected Essays</i>. He contrived to preserve, in
+      the most abstrusely philosophical of these writings, a
+      simplicity and clarity which, although they have not
+      commended him to professional metaphysicians, make his
+      attitude to the problems of metaphysics extremely
+      intelligible. The greatest barrier and cause of confusion
+      to the novice in metaphysics is that the writings of most
+      of the great authorities are overburdened by their great
+      knowledge of the history of philosophy. Huxley, in a
+      characteristic piece of "parting advice" in the preface to
+      his work on Hume attacked this confusion between the
+      history of a subject and the subject itself.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "If it is your desire," he wrote, "to discourse fluently
+        and learnedly about philosophical questions, begin with
+        the Ionians and work steadily through to the latest new
+        speculative treatise. If you have a good memory and a
+        fair knowledge of Greek, Latin, French, and German, three
+        or four years spent in this way should enable you to
+        attain your object. If, on the contrary, you are animated
+        by the much rarer desire for real knowledge; if you want
+        to get a clear conception of the deepest problems set
+        before the intellect of man, there is no need, so far as
+        I can see, for you to go beyond the limits of the English
+        tongue. Indeed, if you are pressed for time, three
+        English authors will suffice, namely, Berkeley, Hume, and
+        Hobbes."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The first and perhaps the greatest problem in metaphysics
+      can be put very shortly. What is the reality behind the
+      apparent universe of matter and mind we see around us? Or,
+      rather, what do we know of that reality? To the uninitiated
+      in philosophical thinking <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p220" id="p220">[220]</a></span> it seems
+      sufficiently plain that there are two entities, body and
+      soul in man, matter and mind in the whole universe; and
+      various types of intelligent dogmatists, ranging from the
+      sturdy if somewhat stupid shrewdness of Dr. Johnson to the
+      agile casuistry of Catholic metaphysicians, have supported
+      this simple verdict of "common sense." Trouble begins,
+      however, with any attempt to analyse the relations between
+      what we call "matter" and what we call "mind." It appears,
+      for instance, that what we call matter we only know in
+      terms of mind. In an essay on Descartes's <i>Discourse on
+      Method</i>, Huxley explains this by simple examples.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I take up a marble and I find it to be a red, round,
+        hard, single body. We call the redness, the roundness,
+        the hardness and the singleness, 'qualities' of the
+        marble; and it sounds, at first, the height of absurdity
+        to say that all these qualities are modes of our own
+        consciousness, which cannot even be conceived to exist in
+        the marble. But consider the redness, to begin with. How
+        does the sensation of redness arise? The waves of a
+        certain very attenuated matter, the particles of which
+        are vibrating with vast rapidity, but with very different
+        velocities, strike upon the marble, and those which
+        vibrate with one particular velocity are thrown off from
+        its surface in all directions. The optical apparatus of
+        the eye gathers some of these together, and gives them
+        such a course that they impinge upon the surface of the
+        retina, which is a singularly delicate apparatus
+        connected with the terminations of the fibres of the
+        optic nerve. The impulses of the attenuated matter, or
+        ether, affect this apparatus and the fibres of the optic
+        nerve in a certain way; and the change in the fibres of
+        the optic nerve produces yet other changes in the brain;
+        and these, in some fashion unknown to us, give rise to
+        the feeling, or consciousness, of redness. If the marble
+        could remain unchanged, and either the vibrations of the
+        ether, or the nature of the retina, could be altered, the
+        marble would seem not red, but some other colour. There
+        are many people who are what are called colour-blind,
+        being unable to distinguish one colour from another. Such
+        an <span class="pagenum"><a name="p221"
+        id="p221">[221]</a></span> one might declare our marble
+        to be green; and he would be quite as right in saying
+        that it is green as we are in declaring it to be red. But
+        then, as the marble itself cannot be both green and red,
+        at the same time, this shews that the quality redness
+        must be in our consciousness and not in the marble."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In similar fashion he shewed that the hardness, roundness,
+      and even the singleness of the marble were, so far as we
+      know, states of our consciousness and not in the marble.
+      The argument is capable of application to all that we call
+      matter, and it thus appears, on analysis, that what we know
+      of matter is simply a series of states of our
+      consciousness, or mind. In similar fashion, it turns out
+      that what we call mind is, so far as practical experience
+      goes, always associated with and dependent on what we call
+      matter. We have no direct knowledge of thinking without a
+      brain, or of consciousness without a body. Alterations and
+      changes in matter, as for instance in the tissues and
+      nutrition of the body, are, so far as our experience goes,
+      inseparably associated with mental operations. In the
+      animal kingdom we see the development of the mind creeping
+      slowly after the development of the material nervous
+      system, until, in man, the most complex mind and most
+      complex consciousness of which we have knowledge accompany
+      the most complex body and brain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Two great rival solutions to this fundamental problem are
+      Materialism and Idealism. Materialism supposes that what we
+      call matter is the real substance of the universe, and that
+      mind is merely one of the forms of its activity. The
+      advance of physical science has done much to make the
+      materialistic hypothesis more plausible. When matter was
+      believed to be inert, the mere vehicle or theatre of
+      forces, materialism remained a singularly crude and
+      unsatisfying position. But now <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p222" id="p222">[222]</a></span> that science has
+      shewn all that we call matter&mdash;the most solid metals
+      and the most attenuated vapours, the most stable and
+      resisting inorganic bodies, and the unstable tissues of
+      living bodies&mdash;to be alike in restless, orderly
+      motion, to be, in fact, motion itself and not the thing
+      moved, to be changeable but indestructible, passing through
+      phases but eternal, there seems less difficulty in assuming
+      it to be the ultimate reality, and mind and consciousness
+      to be its most highly specialised qualities. Huxley, while
+      stating this view plainly enough, refused to accept it as a
+      legitimate conclusion from the facts.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "For anything that may be proved to the contrary, there
+        may be a real something which is the cause of all our
+        impressions; that sensations, though not likenesses, are
+        symbols of that something; and that the part of that
+        something, which we call the nervous system, is an
+        apparatus for supplying us with a sort of algebra of
+        fact, based on these symbols. A brain may be the
+        machinery by which the material universe becomes
+        conscious of itself. But it is important to notice that,
+        even if this conception of the uuiverse and of the
+        relation of consciousness to its other components should
+        be true, we should, nevertheless, be still bound by the
+        limits of thought, still unable to refute the arguments
+        of pure idealism. The more completely the materialistic
+        position is admitted, the easier it is to show that the
+        idealistic position is unassailable, if the idealist
+        confines himself within the limits of positive
+        knowledge."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      However we attempt to form what philosophers call "ejects,"
+      to imagine that what is really in our consciousness is
+      really the world outside ourselves, these ejects remain
+      mere phenomena of our minds. Matter itself and its changes
+      may, in the long run, be but modes of motion, but "our
+      knowledge of motion is nothing but that of a change in the
+      place and order <span class="pagenum"><a name="p223"
+      id="p223">[223]</a></span> of our sensations; just as our
+      knowledge of matter is restricted to those feelings of
+      which we assume it to be the cause." Huxley's exact
+      position in regard to materialism is most plain in his
+      expositions of the writings of Berkeley, with whom began in
+      England the greatest movement towards an idealistic
+      philosophy.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the
+        materialists: 'You tell me that all the phenomena of
+        nature are resolvable into matter and its affections. I
+        assent to your statement, and now I put to you the
+        further question, What is matter? In answering this
+        question you shall be bound by your own conditions; and I
+        demand, in the terms of the Cartesian axiom, that you in
+        turn give your assent only to such conclusions as are
+        perfectly clear and obvious.'"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley then goes on to state the general lines of the
+      arguments by which Berkeley arrived at the apparently
+      paradoxical conclusion "that all the choir of heaven and
+      furniture of the earth&mdash;in a word, all those bodies
+      which compose the mighty frame of the world," have an
+      existence only so far as they are in a perceiving mind. And
+      he proceeds at length to explain the immense importance of
+      the truths underlying Berkeley's position.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The key to all philosophy lies in the clear apprehension
+        of Berkeley's problem&mdash;which is neither more nor
+        less than one of the shapes of the greatest of all
+        questions, 'What are the limits of our faculties?' And it
+        is worth any amount of trouble to comprehend the exact
+        nature of the argument by which Berkeley arrived at his
+        results, and to know by one's own knowledge the great
+        truth which he discovered&mdash;that the honest and
+        rigorous following up of the argument which leads us to
+        materialism inevitably carries us beyond it."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley, however, while he opposed a materialistic
+      explanation of the universe with the strength of exposition
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p224"
+      id="p224">[224]</a></span> and acute reasoning at his
+      disposal, did not pass directly into the other camp and
+      become a pure idealist.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Granting the premisses," he wrote, "I do not see any
+        escape from Berkeley's conclusion, that the substance of
+        matter is a metaphysical unknown quantity, of the
+        existence of which there is no proof. What Berkeley does
+        not seem to have so clearly perceived is that the
+        non-existence of a substance of mind is equally arguable;
+        and that the result of the impartial application of his
+        reasonings is the reduction of the all to co-existences
+        and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond which
+        there is nothing cognoscible."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Hume had written: "What we call a mind is nothing but a
+      heap or collection of different perceptions, united
+      together by certain relations, and supposed, though
+      falsely, to be endowed with a perfect simplicity and
+      identity." Here was mind rejected for the same negative
+      reasons as matter, and Huxley was as ready to point out
+      that while we can know nothing of the
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "substance of the thinking thing, we go beyond legitimate
+        reasoning if we therefore deny its existence." ... "Hume
+        may be right or wrong, but the most he or anyone else can
+        prove in favour of his conclusions is, that we know
+        nothing more of the mind than that it is a series of
+        perceptions. Whether there is something in the mind that
+        lies beyond the reach of observation, or whether
+        perceptions themselves are the products of something
+        which can be observed and which is not mind, are
+        questions which can in no wise be settled by direct
+        observation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In another passage he writes:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe
+        and all its phenomena are resolvable into matter and
+        motion, Berkeley replies, True; but what you call matter
+        and motion are known to us only as forms of
+        consciousness; their being is to be conceived or known;
+        and the existence of a state of <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p225" id="p225">[225]</a></span> consciousness,
+        apart from a thinking mind, is a contradiction in terms.
+        I conceive that this reasoning is irrefragable. And
+        therefore, if I were obliged to choose between absolute
+        materialism and absolute idealism, I should feel
+        compelled to accept the latter alternative. Indeed, upon
+        this point Locke does, practically, go as far in the
+        direction of idealism as Berkeley, when he admits that
+        the 'simple ideas which we receive from sensation and
+        reflection are the boundaries of our thoughts, beyond
+        which the mind, whatever efforts it would make, is not
+        able to advance one jot.'"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Locke went further, and Huxley agreed with him. He declared
+      that the mind cannot "make any discoveries when it would
+      pry into the nature and hidden cause of these ideas." We
+      must, in fact, definitely reject what we know as matter as
+      the absolute reality of the universe, for it becomes very
+      plain that what we call matter we know merely as affections
+      of our own consciousness. In a sense, then, so far as it is
+      opposed to materialism, idealism, according to Huxley, must
+      be the philosophical position of a scientific man. But the
+      idealism is not the absolute idealism of Berkeley, as we
+      have no logical right to deny or to affirm the existence of
+      absolute matter or of absolute mind. The real truth of the
+      philosophy of science lies in a separation between
+      metaphysical theory and actual pursuits. In ultimate
+      philosophical theory it is impossible to rest content with
+      a plain natural conception of the universe. When any
+      conception of matter, or of its affections, is pushed as
+      far as analysis can take us, what we know resolves itself
+      into affections of mind, into what without metaphysical
+      finesse may be called ideas. But this empirical idealism
+      must be taken positively as being merely the limits of our
+      knowledge, and it must carry with it neither an undue
+      exaltation of mind nor an undue depreciation of matter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p226"
+      id="p226">[226]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example
+        of the unscientific use of the imagination extant; and it
+        would be hard to estimate the amount of detriment to
+        clear thinking effected, directly and indirectly, by the
+        theory of ideas, on the one hand, and by the unfortunate
+        doctrine of the baseness of matter, on the other."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Materialism was dismissed by Huxley as being an inadequate
+      philosophical explanation of the universe, and as being
+      based on a logical delusion. There remains, however, a
+      practical application of the word in which the conceptions
+      it involves are almost an inevitable part of science, and
+      which was strenuously urged by Huxley. In the earlier days
+      of the world and of science almost all the phenomena of
+      nature were regarded as random or wilful displays of living
+      intelligence. The earth itself and the sun, the moon, and
+      the stars were endowed with life; legions of unseen
+      intelligences ruled the operations of nature, and although
+      these might be bribed or threatened, pleased or made angry,
+      their actions were regarded as beyond prediction or
+      control. The procession of the seasons, the routine of day
+      and night, the placid appeasement of the rains, the
+      devastating roar of storms, the shining of the rainbow, the
+      bubbling of springs, the terrors of famine and pestilence;
+      all these&mdash;the varying environment which makes or mars
+      human life&mdash;were regarded as inevitable and
+      capricious. The whole progress of physical science has been
+      attended with a gradual elimination of these supernatural
+      agencies and with a continual replacement of them by
+      conceptions of physical sequence.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In singular contrast with natural knowledge, the
+        acquaintance of mankind with the supernatural appears the
+        more exact, and the influence of supernatural doctrine on
+        conduct the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p227"
+        id="p227">[227]</a></span> greater, the further we go
+        back in time and the lower the stage of civilisation
+        submitted to investigation. Historically, indeed, there
+        would seem to be an inverse relation between supernatural
+        and natural knowledge. As the latter has widened, gained
+        in precision and trustworthiness, so has the former
+        shrunk, grown vague and questionable; as the one has more
+        and more filled the sphere of action, so has the other
+        retreated into the region of meditation, or vanished
+        behind the screen of mere verbal recognition. Whether
+        this difference of the fortunes of Naturalism and
+        Supernaturalism is an indication of the progress, or of
+        the regress of humanity, of a fall from or an advance
+        towards the higher life, is a matter of opinion. The
+        point to which I wish to direct attention is that the
+        difference exists and is making itself felt. Men are
+        growing seriously alive to the fact that the historical
+        evolution of humanity, which is generally, and I venture
+        to think, not unreasonably, regarded as progress, has
+        been and is being accompanied by a co-ordinate
+        elimination of the supernatural from its originally large
+        occupation of men's thought."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Every stage in this long process, every new attempt to
+      place physical phenomena in a chain of direct causation has
+      been denounced as dangerous and degrading materialism, and
+      in this sense Huxley was not only an adherent but one of
+      the foremost champions of materialism. As everyone knows,
+      some of the greatest advances in this process of
+      co-ordinating physical phenomena were made during Huxley's
+      life; and his vigorous onslaughts on those who tried to
+      thwart all attempts at material explanations in favour of
+      unknown agencies made him specially open to abusive
+      criticism. The battle was almost invariably between those
+      who had not special knowledge and those in possession of
+      it, and it occurred in practically the whole field of
+      science, but particularly in the biological sciences. A
+      single example will serve to shew what is meant by
+      materialism in this sense and the attitude of Huxley to
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p228"
+      id="p228">[228]</a></span> it. The study of the human mind
+      naturally has attracted the attention of thinkers almost
+      since the beginning of philosophy, but until this century,
+      with a few crude exceptions, it has been conducted entirely
+      apart from anatomy and physiology. Advances in these
+      physical sciences, however, have changed that, and the
+      modern psychologist has to begin by being a physiologist
+      and anatomist.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Surely no one who is cognisant of the facts of the case,
+        nowadays, doubts that the roots of psychology lie in the
+        physiology of the nervous system. What we call the
+        operations of the mind are the functions of the brain,
+        and the materials of consciousness are products of
+        cerebral activity. Cabanis may have made use of crude and
+        misleading phraseology when he said that the brain
+        secretes thought as the liver secretes bile; but the
+        conception which that much-abused phrase embodies is,
+        nevertheless, far more consistent with fact than the
+        popular notion that the mind is a metaphysical entity
+        seated in the head, but as independent of the brain as a
+        telegraph operator is of his instrument. It is hardly
+        necessary to point out that the doctrine just laid down
+        is what is commonly called materialism. I am not sure
+        that the adjective 'crass,' which appears to have a
+        special charm for rhetorical sciolists, would not be
+        applied to it. But it is, nevertheless, true that the
+        doctrine contains nothing inconsistent with the purest
+        idealism."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The whole doctrine of evolution is similarly a
+      materialistic account of natural phenomena, in the popular
+      and not the philosophical meaning of the term. But even
+      within this popular meaning, it is extremely necessary to
+      have an exact conception of the limits within which Huxley
+      was materialistic. Take for instance the question of the
+      origin of life. It would be one of the greatest
+      achievements of physical science could it shew that life
+      was not inco-ordinate with non-living physical phenomena,
+      but was a special case of them. Huxley knew that this
+      advance had not yet been made.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p229"
+      id="p229">[229]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It may be that, by-and-by, philosophers will discover
+        some higher laws of which the facts of life are
+        particular cases&mdash;very possibly they will find out
+        some bond between physico-chemical phenomena on the one
+        hand, and vital phenomena on the other. At present,
+        however, we assuredly know of none; and I think we shall
+        exercise a wise humility in confessing that, for us at
+        least, this successive assumption of different states
+        (external conditions remaining the same)&mdash;this
+        spontaneity of action&mdash;if I may use a term which
+        implies more than I would be answerable for&mdash;which
+        constitutes so vast and plain a practical distinction
+        between living bodies and those which do not live, is an
+        ultimate fact; indicating as such, the existence of a
+        broad line of demarcation between the subject matter of
+        biological and of all other science."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In another passage he wrote:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Looking back through the prodigious vista of the past I
+        find no record of the commencement of life, and therefore
+        I am devoid of any means of forming a definite conclusion
+        as to the conditions of its appearance. Belief, in the
+        scientific sense of the word, is a serious matter, and
+        needs strong foundations. To say, therefore, in the
+        admitted absence of evidence, that I have any belief as
+        to the mode in which the existing forms of life have
+        originated, would be using words in a wrong sense. But
+        expectation is permissible where belief is not; and if it
+        were given me to look beyond the abyss of geologically
+        recorded time to the still more remote period when the
+        earth was passing through physical and chemical
+        conditions which it can no more see again than a man can
+        recall his infancy, I should expect to be a witness of
+        the evolution of living protoplasm from non-living
+        matter. I should expect to see it appear under forms of
+        great simplicity, endowed, like existing fungi, with the
+        power of determining the formation of new protoplasm from
+        such matters as ammonium carbonates, oxalates, and
+        tartrates, alkaline and earthy phosphates, and water,
+        without the aid of light. That is the expectation to
+        which analogical reasoning leads me, but I beg you once
+        more to recollect that I have no right to call my opinion
+        anything but an act of philosophical faith."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p230"
+      id="p230">[230]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Since these words were written the reasons for Huxley's
+      "philosophic faith" have been strengthened by later
+      discoveries, and perhaps a majority of biologists would
+      take the view that except for practical purposes there is
+      no sound reason for placing living and inorganic
+      aggregations of matter in totally different categories. But
+      even if the main outline of the theory of evolution were
+      proved beyond the possibility of doubt, if we could trace
+      existing plants and animals backwards with the accuracy of
+      a genealogist and find that they had been developed, under
+      purely physical "laws" from a few simple forms, and if we
+      could understand exactly how these few simple forms of
+      living matter took origin from non-living matter, we would
+      not, if we followed Huxley, be able to rest in a purely
+      materialistic position. As he, in different words,
+      repeatedly said:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not
+        an explanation of the cosmos, but merely a generalised
+        statement of the method and results of that process. And,
+        further, that, if there is any proof that the cosmic
+        process was set going by any agent, then that agent will
+        be the creator of it and of all its products, although
+        supernatural intervention may remain strictly excluded
+        from its further course."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The doctrine of evolution was, for him, no attempt to
+      reinstate the "old pagan goddess, Chance." Darwin had again
+      and again explained, and Huxley again and again had called
+      attention to the explanation, that when words like "chance"
+      and "spontaneous" were used, no more was intended to be
+      implied than an ignorance of the causes. In the true sense
+      of the word "chance" did not exist for Huxley and Darwin.
+      So far as all scientific and common experience goes, every
+      event is connected with foregoing events in an orderly and
+      inevitable chain of sequences,&mdash;a chain that could
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p231"
+      id="p231">[231]</a></span> have been predicted or
+      predetermined by any sufficient intelligence. Moreover,
+      Huxley did not believe that Darwin's views, rightly
+      interpreted, "abolished teleology and eviscerated the
+      argument from design." They only abolished that crude
+      expression of teleology which supposed all structures among
+      animals and plants to have been created in their present
+      forms for their present purposes. Under the stimulus given
+      to biology by the doctrine of evolution that science has
+      progressed far beyond conceptions so rudely mechanical. We
+      know that behind each existing structure there is a long
+      history of change; of change not only in form and
+      appearance, but also in function. In the development of
+      living organisms to-day, as they grow up into tree or
+      animal from seed or egg, we can trace the record of these
+      changes of form; in some cases we can follow the actual
+      change of function. But in a wider sense there is no
+      incongruity between evolution and teleology.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "There is a wider teleology," Huxley wrote, "which is not
+        touched by the doctrine of evolution, but is actually
+        based on the fundamental proposition of evolution. This
+        proposition is that the whole world, living and not
+        living, is the result of the mutual interaction,
+        according to definite laws, of the forces possessed by
+        the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of the
+        universe was composed. That acute champion of teleology,
+        Paley, saw no difficulty in admitting that the
+        'production of things' may be the result of mechanical
+        dispositions fixed beforehand by intelligent appointment
+        and kept in action by a power at the centre."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 234px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-231.png" alt="" title="" height="40"
+        width="234" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p232" id="p232">[232]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-232.png" alt="" title="" height="83"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      FREEDOM OF THOUGHT
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Authority and Knowledge in Science&mdash;The Duty of
+        Doubt&mdash;Authority and Individual Judgment in
+        Religion&mdash;The Protestant Position&mdash;Sir Charles
+        Lyell and the Deluge&mdash;Infallibility&mdash;The Church
+        and Science&mdash;Morality and Dogma&mdash;Civil and
+        Religious Liberty&mdash;Agnosticism and
+        Clericalism&mdash;Meaning of Agnosticism&mdash;Knowledge
+        and Evidence&mdash;The Method of Agnosticism.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the practice of modern law-courts, a witness rarely is
+      allowed to offer as evidence any statement for which he
+      himself is not the direct authority. What he himself saw or
+      heard or did with regard to the matter at
+      issue&mdash;these, and not what others told him they had
+      seen or heard or done, are the limits within which he is
+      allowed to be a competent witness. As a matter of fact, in
+      the business of life we have to act differently. A large
+      proportion of our opinions, beliefs, and reasons for
+      conduct must come to us on the authority of others. We have
+      no direct experience of the past; of the present we can see
+      little and only the little immediately surrounding us. In a
+      multitude of affairs we have to act on authority, to accept
+      from books or from persons what we have not ourselves the
+      opportunity of knowing. It would seem, then, to be a
+      primary duty to <span class="pagenum"><a name="p233"
+      id="p233">[233]</a></span> learn to distinguish in our
+      minds those matters which we know directly from those
+      matters which we have accepted on trust; and, secondly, to
+      learn and to apply the best modes of choosing the good and
+      of rejecting the bad authorities. The work of the
+      scientific man is a lifelong exercise of these primary
+      duties. From the first moment he begins to observe living
+      things or to dissect their dead frameworks, to mix chemical
+      substances, to make experiments with magnets and wires, he
+      begins to build, and as long as he continues to work he
+      continues to build for himself a body of first-hand
+      knowledge. But, however he work arduously or through long
+      years, he can visit only the smallest portion of the field
+      of nature in which he is working. It is necessary for him
+      to employ the work of others, submitting, from time to time
+      such accepted work to the tests suggested by his own
+      observations. He learns to regard in a different light all
+      knowledge taken on the authority of others; to distrust it
+      a little until he has learned to weigh its general
+      credibility by his own standards, and its particular
+      credibility by subjecting portions of it to his own tests;
+      to distrust it still more when even small portions fail to
+      answer his tests, and to reject it altogether when the
+      percentage of detected error is large. He learns, in fact,
+      what Huxley called the duty of doubt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This duty has not been universally accepted. In the history
+      of Christian civilisation (and a parallel series of events
+      might be portrayed from the history of other
+      civilisations), many great institutions and very many great
+      and good men have condemned and feared the habit and
+      attitude of doubt in all its forms. Certain doctrines
+      believed to be of supreme importance to mankind were held
+      to rest on authority independent of, <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p234" id="p234">[234]</a></span>
+      and perhaps not susceptible to, the kind of testing
+      employed in science. Around these doctrines there grew, in
+      time, a body of traditions, customs, new dogmas, and
+      fantasies; and the duty of belief in the first was extended
+      to cover the whole system, the central jewel as well as the
+      accretions and encrustations of time. The domain of
+      religious authority was extended to the whole field of
+      human thought and of human action, and the more
+      unreasonable the dominion became, the more strenuously was
+      the duty of belief urged. The Protestant Reformation was
+      one of the great stages in the conflict for freedom against
+      the universal tyranny that had arisen, but the reformers
+      very naturally retained a considerable portion of the bias
+      against which they had fought. In Protestant countries, in
+      the first half of this century, the duty of belief in the
+      Protestant doctrines, traditions, philosophy, history, and
+      attitude to science reigned supreme, and all weapons, from
+      legitimate argument to abusive invective and social
+      ostracism, were employed against those who acted in
+      accordance with the duty of doubt. Allegations of
+      "unsoundness" or of "free thinking" became barriers to
+      success in life, and those against whom they were made
+      became lowered in the esteem of their fellows.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the present time, when the advance of science and of
+      civilisation has almost won the battle for freedom of
+      thought, it is difficult to realise the strength of the
+      forces against which Huxley and many others had to fight.
+      Huxley himself said with perfect justice: "I hardly know of
+      a great physical truth whose universal reception has not
+      been preceded by an epoch in which most estimable persons
+      have maintained that the phenomena investigated were
+      directly dependent on the <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p235" id="p235">[235]</a></span> Divine Will, and
+      that the attempt to investigate them was not only futile
+      but blasphemous." As a particular instance of this he cited
+      some episodes in the history of geological science.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "At the present time, it is difficult to persuade serious
+        scientific enquirers to occupy themselves, in any way,
+        with the Noachian Deluge. They look at you with a smile
+        and a shrug, and say they have more important matters to
+        attend to than mere antiquarianism. But it was not so in
+        my youth. At that time geologists and biologists could
+        hardly follow to the end any path of enquiry without
+        finding the way blocked by Noah and his ark, or by the
+        first chapter of Genesis; and it was a serious matter, in
+        this country at any rate, for a man to be suspected of
+        doubting the literal truth of the Diluvial or any other
+        Pentateuchal history. The fiftieth anniversary of the
+        foundation of the Geological Club (in 1824) was, if I
+        remember rightly, the last occasion on which the late Sir
+        Charles Lyell spoke to even so small a public as the
+        members of that body. Our veteran leader lighted up once
+        more; and, referring to the difficulties which beset his
+        early efforts to create a rational science of geology,
+        spoke, with his wonted clearness and vigour, of the
+        social ostracism which pursued him after the publication
+        of the <i>Principles of Geology</i>, in 1830, on account
+        of the obvious tendency of that noble work to discredit
+        the Pentateuchal accounts of the Creation and the Deluge.
+        If my younger contemporaries find this hard to believe, I
+        may refer them to a grave book <i>On the Doctrine of the
+        Deluge</i>, published eight years later, and dedicated by
+        the author to his father, the then Archbishop of York.
+        The first chapter refers to the treatment of the 'Mosaic
+        Deluge,' by Dr. Buckland and Mr. Lyell, in the following
+        terms: 'Their respect for revealed religion has prevented
+        them from arraying themselves openly against the
+        Scriptural account of it&mdash;much less do they deny its
+        truth&mdash;but they are in a great hurry to escape from
+        the consideration of it, and evidently concur in the
+        opinion of Linn&aelig;us, that no proofs whatever of the
+        Deluge are to be discovered in the structure of the
+        earth.' And after an attempt to reply to some of Lyell's
+        arguments, which it would be cruel to <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p236" id="p236">[236]</a></span>
+        reproduce, the writer continues:&mdash;'When, therefore,
+        upon such slender grounds, it is determined, in answer to
+        those who insist on its universality, that the Mosaic
+        Deluge must be considered a preternatural event, far
+        beyond the reach of philosophical enquiry; not only as to
+        the causes employed to produce it, but as to the effects
+        most likely to result from it; that determination wears
+        an aspect of scepticism, which, however much soever it
+        may be unintentional in the mind of the writer, yet
+        cannot but produce an evil impression on those who are
+        already predisposed to carp and cavil at the evidence of
+        Revelation.'"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The great evil of authority was its tendency to erect
+      itself into some form of infallibility of universal
+      application. When, for a time, the geological victory was
+      won, and the supporters of authority had comforted
+      themselves with reconciliations, there arose the much
+      greater and more serious opposition between authority and
+      the conceptions involved in evolution. Huxley, as we have
+      seen in an earlier chapter, found that all the old weapons
+      of authority were resumed with a renewed assurance, and his
+      advocacy of the duty of doubt became not merely the defence
+      of a great principle but a means of self-defence. The
+      conception of infallible authority had been transferred by
+      Protestants from the Church to the Bible, and against this
+      Huxley strove with all his might. It is convenient to
+      reserve a full treatment of Huxley's attitude to the Bible
+      for a separate chapter, but at this point a quotation will
+      shew his general view.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 157px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-lyell.jpg" alt="SIR CHARLES LYELL"
+        title="" height="293" width="157" /> <span
+        class="caption">SIR CHARLES LYELL</span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The truth is that the pretension to infallibility, by
+        whomsoever made, has done endless mischief; with
+        impartial malignity it has proved a curse, alike to those
+        who have made it and those who have accepted it; and its
+        most baneful shape is book infallibility. For sacerdotal
+        corporations and schools <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p237" id="p237">[237]</a></span> of philosophy are
+        able, under due compulsion of opinion, to retreat from
+        positions that have become untenable; while the dead hand
+        of a book sets and stiffens, amidst texts and
+        formul&aelig;, until it becomes a mere petrifaction, fit
+        only for that function of stumbling-block, which it so
+        admirably performs. Wherever bibliolatry has prevailed,
+        bigotry and cruelty have accompanied it. It lies at the
+        root of the deep-seated, sometimes disguised, but never
+        absent, antagonism of all varieties of ecclesiasticism to
+        the freedom of thought and to the spirit of scientific
+        investigation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Moreover, Presbyter is but Priest writ large, and the
+      Protestant clergy were the leaders in denunciation of every
+      person and every branch of investigation or of thought in
+      any way connected with evolution. Huxley was no respecter
+      of persons, and, following the example of Darwin, he was
+      ready to study carefully any arguments for or against any
+      scientific doctrines by whomsoever or howsoever brought
+      forward. The right of criticism and duty of doubt, which he
+      insisted on for himself, he was extremely willing to extend
+      to others, and, as a matter of fact he was on terms of
+      intimate friendship with some of his most distinguished
+      clerical opponents. But to an extent which it is almost
+      impossible now to realise, the clergy generally abused
+      their legitimate position and authority, and demanded or
+      assumed a right to give authoritative opinions on questions
+      which did not come within their domain. It was the old
+      attempt of the Church to make its authority felt in all
+      departments of thought and of action, and the attempt was
+      made in the traditional fashion. Questions of fact were
+      associated with questions of morality, and those who held
+      one view as to the meaning and implication of certain facts
+      were denounced as wicked. Huxley at once carried the war
+      into the enemy's own country:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p238"
+      id="p238">[238]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "And, seeing how large a share of this clamour is raised
+        by the clergy of one denomination or another, may I say,
+        in conclusion, that it really would be well if
+        ecclesiastical persons would reflect that ordination,
+        whatever deep-seated graces it may confer, has never been
+        observed to be followed by any visible increase in the
+        learning or the logic of its subject. Making a man a
+        Bishop, or entrusting him with the office of ministering
+        to even the largest of Presbyterian congregations, or
+        setting him up to lecture to a church congress, really
+        does not in the smallest degree augment such title to
+        respect as his opinions may intrinsically possess. And
+        when such a man presumes on an authority, which was
+        conferred on him for other purposes, to sit in judgment
+        on matters his incompetence to deal with which is patent,
+        it is permissible to ignore his sacerdotal pretensions,
+        and to tell him, as one would tell a mere, common,
+        unconsecrated layman: that it is not necessary for any
+        man to occupy himself with problems of this kind unless
+        he so choose; life is filled full enough with the
+        performance of its ordinary and obvious duties. But that,
+        if a man elect to become a judge of these grave
+        questions; still more if he assume the responsibility of
+        attaching praise or blame to his fellow-men for the
+        conclusions at which they arrive touching them, he will
+        commit a sin more grievous than most breaches of the
+        decalogue, unless he avoid a lazy reliance upon the
+        information that is gathered by prejudice and filtered
+        through passion, unless he go back to the prime sources
+        of knowledge&mdash;the facts of Nature, and the thoughts
+        of those wise men who for generations past have been her
+        best interpreters."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the campaign for absolute freedom of thought, for the
+      duty of not believing anything except on sufficient
+      evidence, Huxley was frequently met by an argument of
+      superficial strength, and which no doubt was in the minds
+      of many of his clerical opponents. In the minds of a
+      majority of people, it was said, and particularly of
+      slightly educated people, the reasons for right conduct and
+      the distinctions between right and <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p239" id="p239">[239]</a></span> wrong are firmly
+      associated with the Bible and with religion. If you allow
+      doubts as to the absolute veracity of the Bible, or as to
+      the supernatural origin of religion to reach such persons,
+      you run a grave risk that they will reflect the uncertainty
+      on the canons of morality. In taking from them what you
+      believe to be false, inevitably you will unsettle their
+      ideas on moral questions although you might be in full
+      agreement as to these moral questions. Huxley refused to
+      accept the asserted association between morality and
+      particular metaphysical or religious doctrines.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the
+        incompatibility of pantheism, of materialism, and of any
+        doubt about the immortality of the soul, with religion
+        and morality is to be held as an axiomatic truth. I
+        confess that I have a certain difficulty in accepting
+        this dogma. For the Stoics were notoriously materialists
+        and pantheists of the most extreme character; and while
+        no strict Stoic believed in the eternal duration of the
+        individual soul, some even denied its persistence after
+        death. Yet it is equally certain, that, of all gentile
+        philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical
+        development, is animated by the most religious spirit,
+        and has exerted the profoundest influence upon the moral
+        and religious development not merely of the best men
+        among the Romans, but among the moderns down to our own
+        day."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He held the view now generally taken by students of the
+      history of man, that standards of conduct and religious
+      beliefs arose in separate ways and developed independently,
+      and that it was only comparatively recently that "religion
+      took morality under its protection." But he met the
+      argument in a still more direct fashion by rejecting
+      entirely the possibility or advisability of founding any
+      system of ethics upon a false basis.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It is very clear to me," he wrote, "that, as Beelzebub
+        is <span class="pagenum"><a name="p240"
+        id="p240">[240]</a></span> not to be cast out by
+        Beelzebub, so morality is not to be established by
+        immorality. It is, we are told, the special peculiarity
+        of the devil that he was a liar from the beginning. If we
+        set out in life with pretending to know that which we do
+        not know; with professing to accept for proof evidence
+        which we are well aware is inadequate; with wilfully
+        shutting our eyes and our ears to facts which militate
+        against this or that comfortable hypothesis; we are
+        assuredly doing our best to deserve the same character."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Freedom of thought meant for Huxley all that is best in
+      liberalism applied to life. In an essay on Joseph
+      Priestley, he described the condition of affairs in England
+      last century, when scientific investigation and all forms
+      of independent thinking laboured under the most heavy
+      restrictions that could be imposed by dominant
+      ecclesiastical and civil prejudice. He pointed out the
+      astounding changes between these times and the times of
+      to-day.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "If we ask," he wrote, "what is the deeper meaning of all
+        these vast changes, there can be but one reply. They mean
+        that reason has asserted and exercised her primacy over
+        all the provinces of human activity; that ecclesiastical
+        authority has been relegated to its proper place; that
+        the good of the governed has been finally recognised as
+        the end of government, and the complete responsibility of
+        governors to the people as its means; and that the
+        dependence of natural phenomena in general on the laws of
+        action of what we call matter has become an axiom."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The common ground of those who advocate the duty of belief
+      and those who insist on the duty of doubt is clear. Both
+      are agreed as to the necessity of accepting whatever has
+      sufficient evidence to support it; both agree that there is
+      room for doubt though not necessarily for rejection in
+      cases where the evidence is contaminated or insufficient.
+      It is in the application that <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p241" id="p241">[241]</a></span> the difference lies.
+      The scientific theologian admits the agnostic principle,
+      however widely his results may differ from those reached by
+      the majority of agnostics. "But, as between agnosticism and
+      ecclesiasticism, or, as our neighbours across the Channel
+      call it, clericalism, there can be neither peace nor truce.
+      The cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe
+      certain propositions, whatever the results of a strict
+      scientific investigation of the evidence of these
+      propositions. He tells us that "religious error is, in
+      itself, of an immoral nature" (Newman). It necessarily
+      follows that, for him, the attainment of faith, not the
+      ascertainment of truth, is the highest aim of mental life."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley helped largely in the modern movement which has made
+      it impossible to blame people for doubt, and this was what
+      he strove for most strenuously. Freedom of thought, like
+      freedom of the Press, by no means implies that what is free
+      must necessarily be good. In both cases there may be a rank
+      growth of weeds, nurtured in vicious imagination, and
+      finding a ready market with the credulous mob. For the
+      detection and rejection of these, the critical method of
+      science serves as well as it does against the loftier
+      errors supported by authority.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was on Descartes and on Hume that Huxley founded the
+      precise form in which he urged the duty of doubt, and his
+      exact words are worth quoting.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "It was in 1619, while meditating in solitary winter
+        quarters, that Descartes (being about the same age as
+        Hume when he wrote the <i>Treatise on Human Nature</i>)
+        made that famous resolution, to "take nothing for truth
+        without clear knowledge that it is such," the great
+        practical effect of which is the sanctification of doubt;
+        the recognition that the profession of belief in
+        propositions, of the truth of which there is no
+        sufficient evidence, is immoral; the discrowning of
+        authority as <span class="pagenum"><a name="p242"
+        id="p242">[242]</a></span> such; the repudiation of the
+        confusion, beloved of sophists of all sorts, between free
+        assent and merely piously gagged dissent, and the
+        admission of the obligation to reconsider even one's own
+        axioms on due demand."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This was the healthy and active scepticism which took no
+      direct pleasure in doubting, but used doubt only as a means
+      of making knowledge doubly secure, and which prevented
+      false ideas being bolstered up by privilege or by tyranny.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The development of exact natural knowledge in all its
+        vast range, from physics to history and criticism, is the
+        consequence of the working out, in this province, of the
+        resolution to take nothing for truth without clear
+        knowledge that it is such; to consider all beliefs open
+        to criticism; to regard the value of authority as neither
+        greater nor less than as much as it can prove itself to
+        be worth. The modern spirit is not the spirit 'which
+        always denies,' delighting only in destruction; still
+        less is it that which builds castles in the air rather
+        than not construct; it is the spirit which works and will
+        work 'without haste and without rest,' gathering harvest
+        after harvest of truth into its barns and devouring error
+        with unquenchable fire."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is a special weakness of the modern human race to love
+      inventing descriptive names by which particular modes of
+      thought may be classified and labelled. In order to meet
+      this demand, Huxley invented the word <i>agnosticism</i>,
+      to serve as a label for his own attitude. The word rapidly
+      became popular, and attempts were made to read into it far
+      more than its inventor implied. For him it was no definite
+      body of doctrine, no creed in any positive sense. It merely
+      expressed the attitude he assumed towards all problems on
+      which he regarded the evidence as insufficient. It was a
+      habit of mind rather than a series of opinions or beliefs;
+      an intellectual weapon and not materials on which to
+      exercise the intellect.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p243"
+      id="p243">[243]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Hume had written that "the justest and most plausible
+      objection against a considerable part of metaphysics was
+      that they are not properly a science, but arise either from
+      the fruitless efforts of human vanity, which would
+      penetrate into subjects utterly inaccessible to the human
+      understanding, or from the craft of popular superstitions,
+      which, being unable to defend themselves on fair ground,
+      raise these entangling brambles to cover and protect them."
+      In these considerations he found reason not for leaving
+      superstition in possession of its ground, but for making a
+      bold and arduous attack upon it in its haunts. The great
+      difficulty in the way of carrying the war into the enemy's
+      own camp was that in those days so-called science was
+      itself cumbered with many illogical and metaphysical ideas,
+      and for the first time in the present century the great
+      advances of physical science, and, in particular, the
+      renewed life poured by Darwin into the doctrine of
+      evolution, made it possible to bring a new series of exact
+      arguments against hazy metaphysical dogmas. The militant
+      side of agnosticism was directed against the camp of
+      superstition and armed with the new weapons of exact
+      science. Its stern refusal of belief without adequate
+      evidence was a challenge to all the supporters of the
+      sanguine philosophy which replaces proof by assured and
+      emphatic statement and restatement. It is possible,
+      although rare, for those who hold a positive belief upon
+      evidence, howsoever insufficient, to leave their doubting
+      neighbours in peace, and these neighbours, assured in their
+      own beliefs, equally positive and perhaps equally
+      unfounded, may return the lazy tolerance. But the agnostic
+      position is at once a reproof and a challenge to all who do
+      not hold it. Perhaps no one has ever put the agnostic
+      attitude more clearly than Kant when <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p244" id="p244">[244]</a></span>
+      he wrote that "the greatest and perhaps sole use of all
+      philosophy of pure reason, is, after all, merely negative,
+      since it serves, not as an organ on (for the enlargement of
+      knowledge), but as a discipline for its delimitation: and
+      instead of discovering truth has only the modest merit of
+      preventing error." It is precisely because it is addressed
+      against error that agnosticism brings not peace but a
+      sword; precisely because, instead of adding to the beliefs
+      of the world, it seeks to examine them and perhaps by the
+      examination to diminish them, that it aroused passionate
+      resentment. In this respect it stands entirely separate and
+      apart from any other similar term, as all these implied a
+      definite acceptance or rejection of some definite
+      propositions. Agnosticism means none of these things.
+      Huxley said of it:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed but a method, the
+        essence of which lies in a rigorous application of a
+        single principle. That principle is of great antiquity;
+        it is as old as Socrates; as old as the writer who said,
+        'Try all things, hold fast by that which is good'; it is
+        the foundation of the Reformation, which simply
+        illustrated the axiom that every man should be able to
+        give reason for the faith that is in him; it is the great
+        principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of
+        modern science. Positively the principle may be
+        expressed: In matters of the intellect, follow your
+        reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any
+        other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the
+        intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain
+        which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take
+        to be the agnostic faith, which, if a man keep whole and
+        undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look the universe
+        in the face, whatever the future may have in store for
+        him."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p245" id="p245">[245]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-245.png" alt="" title="" height="82"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible&mdash;A <i>Magna
+        Charta</i> of the Poor&mdash;The Theological Use of the
+        Bible&mdash;The Doctrine of Biblical
+        Infallibility&mdash;The Bible and Science&mdash;The Three
+        Hypotheses of the Earth's History&mdash;Changes in the
+        Past Proved&mdash;The Creation Hypothesis&mdash;Gladstone
+        on Genesis&mdash;Genesis not a Record of Fact&mdash;The
+        Hypothesis of Evolution&mdash;The New
+        Testament&mdash;Theory of Inspiration&mdash;Reliance on
+        the Miraculous&mdash;The Continuity of Nature no <i>a
+        priori</i> Argument against Miracles&mdash;Possibilities
+        and Impossibilities&mdash;Miracles a Question of
+        Evidence&mdash;Praise of the Bible.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was by training and habit of mind a naturalist, busy
+      with dissections and drawings, pursuing his branch of
+      science for itself and with no concern as to its possible
+      relation to philosophical speculation or religious dogma.
+      It is possible that, had his life been passed under
+      different conditions, his intellectual activities might
+      have been spent entirely on his scientific work. As it was,
+      he became almost more widely known as a hostile critic of
+      accepted religious doctrine than as a man of science. Many
+      causes contributed to this effect, but the chief reason was
+      the contemporary attitude of the churches to Darwinism.
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p246"
+      id="p246">[246]</a></span> He tells us as a matter of fact
+      that in 1850, nine years before the appearance of <i>The
+      Origin of Species</i>, he had "long done with the
+      Pentateuchal cosmogony which had been impressed on his
+      childish understanding as divine truth." In the chapter he
+      contributed to the <i>Life of Darwin</i> he wrote that in
+      his opinion "the doctrine of evolution does not even come
+      into contact with theism, considered as a philosophical
+      doctrine." The reason of his general attitude to the Bible
+      was simply that his application to it of the agnostic
+      method led him to the view that there was not sufficient
+      evidence for the pretensions assigned to it; the reason of
+      his coming forward as a public and active champion of his
+      views in this matter was partly to make a counter attack on
+      the enemies of science, and partly his innate respect for
+      the propagation of truth. He had the inevitable respect of
+      an Englishman for the English Bible as one of the greatest
+      books in our language, and we have seen how he had
+      advocated its adoption in schools. He had the veneration
+      for its ethical contents common to the best thinkers of all
+      ages since it came into existence, and few writers have
+      ever employed loftier or more direct language to express
+      their respect and admiration. As a venerator of freedom and
+      of liberty he regarded the Bible as the greatest text-book
+      of freedom.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Throughout the history of the Western world," he wrote,
+        "the Scriptures, Jewish and Christian, have been the
+        great instigators of revolt against the worse forms of
+        clerical and political despotism. The Bible has been the
+        <i>Magna Charta</i> of the poor and of the oppressed;
+        down to modern times no State has had a constitution in
+        which the interests of the people are so largely taken
+        into account, in which the duties, so much more than the
+        privileges, of rulers are insisted upon, as that drawn up
+        for Israel in Deuteronomy and in Leviticus; nowhere is
+        the fundamental truth that the welfare of the State, in
+        the long <span class="pagenum"><a name="p247"
+        id="p247">[247]</a></span> run, depends on the
+        uprightness of the citizen so strongly laid down.
+        Assuredly the Bible talks no trash about the rights of
+        man; but it insists on the equality of duties, on the
+        liberty to bring about that righteousness which is
+        somewhat different from struggling for 'rights'; on the
+        fraternity of taking thought for one's neighbour as for
+        oneself."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was not against the Bible but against the applications
+      made of it and implications read into it that he strove.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In this nineteenth century, as at the dawn of modern
+        physical science, the cosmogony of the semi-barbarous
+        Hebrew is the incubus of the philosopher and the
+        opprobrium of the orthodox. Who shall number the patient
+        and earnest seekers after truth, from the days of Galileo
+        until now, whose lives have been embittered and their
+        good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of Bibliolaters?
+        Who shall count the host of weaker men whose sense of
+        truth has been destroyed in the effort to harmonise
+        impossibilities&mdash;whose life has been wasted in the
+        attempt to force the generous new wine of science into
+        the old bottles of Judaism, compelled by the outcry of
+        the same strong party? It is true that if philosophers
+        have suffered, their cause has been amply avenged.
+        Extinguished theologians lie about the cradle of every
+        science as the strangled snakes beside that of Hercules;
+        and history records that whenever science and orthodoxy
+        have been fairly opposed, the latter has been forced to
+        retire from the lists, bleeding and crushed, if not
+        annihilated; scotched, if not slain. But orthodoxy is the
+        Bourbon of the world of thought. It learns not, neither
+        can it forget; and though, at present, bewildered and
+        afraid to move, it is as willing as ever to insist that
+        the first chapter of Genesis contains the beginning and
+        the end of sound science; and to visit, with such petty
+        thunderbolts as its half-paralysed hands can hurl, those
+        who refuse to degrade Nature to the level of primitive
+        Judaism."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These words were written in 1860 and events have moved
+      rapidly since Huxley wrote them. There is now practically
+      no religious body containing a proportion of educated
+      persons which does not allow within it <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p248" id="p248">[248]</a></span> a
+      very wide range of opinion as to the inspiration of the
+      Scriptures, the Biblical account of the Creation, the
+      miraculous events of the Old Testament and the recorded
+      miracles of the New. Within the last few months, Dr. St.
+      George Mivart, a distinguished Catholic zo&ouml;logist and
+      long an opponent of Huxley, has declared that within the
+      Catholic Church itself a number of educated persons are
+      prepared to accept most of Huxley's positions, as well as
+      views more extremely iconoclastic than any advanced by
+      Huxley. Although Dr. Mivart's outspoken words have called
+      down on him the official thunders of Rome, it is an open
+      secret that many good Catholics think this attempted
+      exclusion of modern knowledge to be fraught with grave
+      danger to the Church. In these matters the Protestant
+      churches have advanced much farther.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was very different when Huxley wrote. The first and
+      gravest difficulty placed in the way of science was the
+      asserted infallibility of the Scriptures. In Catholic
+      theology, at least until late in this century, the general
+      tendency has been to regard the Bible rather as a quarry
+      for doctrine than as a direct means of grace. The theory of
+      religion rested on two pillars: the inspired Scriptures
+      containing the necessary information and the inspired
+      Church to interpret the Scriptures. Protestant theology had
+      rejected the infallible inspiration of the Church, and, in
+      consequence, had thrown a greater burden on the Scriptures.
+      The Scriptures became the Word of God, verbally and
+      literally true; in its extreme form this doctrine reverted
+      almost to the ancient Rabbinical maxim that even the vowel
+      points and accents were of divine origin. In practice, if
+      not in theory, the halo was extended to cover even the
+      marginal chronology, then a familiar feature in the
+      editions of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="p249"
+      id="p249">[249]</a></span> English Bible. The present
+      writer, even so lately as in 1888 was reproved with
+      violence by a clergyman of considerable education and
+      position for expressing a doubt as to the accuracy of these
+      dates. Obviously there was no common measure between a
+      church holding such views and advancing science. War was
+      inevitable, until one side or the other should give way.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley conducted the attack in a series of controversies
+      extending over many years, and in which his opponents were
+      well-known laymen such as Mr. Gladstone, Dr. St. George
+      Mivart, the Duke of Argyll, and many clerical dignitaries
+      of different denominations. The most important of his
+      contributions to these controversies, as well as several
+      isolated essays and addresses, have been collected in two
+      volumes, <i>Science and the Hebrew Tradition</i>, and
+      <i>Science and the Christian Tradition</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first stage in the controversy, and the stage most
+      immediately pressing, was to shew that the Bible was
+      misleading and inaccurate as a record of scientific fact,
+      and that therefore it could not be brought forward as
+      evidence against scientific doctrines supported by
+      scientific evidence. The vital matter in this was the
+      account given in Genesis of the origin of the world. If
+      that disappeared then the whole ground was gained; science
+      would be left free in its own sphere.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In a lecture on Evolution, delivered in 1876, Huxley began
+      by discussing the possibilities as to the past history of
+      nature. He believed that there were only three hypotheses
+      which had been entertained or which well could be
+      entertained respecting this history. The first was to
+      assume that phenomena of nature similar to those exhibited
+      by the world at present had always existed; in fact that
+      the universe had existed from <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p250" id="p250">[250]</a></span> all eternity in what
+      might be termed, broadly, its present condition. The second
+      hypothesis was that the present condition of things had had
+      only a limited duration, and that, at some period of the
+      past, what we now know came into existence without any
+      relation of natural causation to an antecedent state. The
+      third hypothesis also assumed that the present condition of
+      things had had a limited duration, but it supposed that
+      that condition had been derived by natural processes from
+      an antecedent condition, the hypothesis attempting to set
+      no limits to the series of changes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In a certain sense, the first hypothesis recalls the
+      doctrine of uniformitarianism, which Hutton and Lyell had
+      shaped from a rational interpretation of the present
+      conditions of nature. But, although it is no longer
+      necessary to imagine the past history of the earth as a
+      series of gigantic catastrophes, yet the whole record of
+      science is against the supposition that anything like the
+      existing state of nature has had an eternal duration. The
+      record of fossils shews that the living population of the
+      earth has been entirely different at different epochs.
+      Geological history shews that, whether these changes have
+      come about by swift catastrophes, or by slow, enduring
+      movements, the surface of the globe, its distribution into
+      land and water, the character of these areas and the
+      conditions of climate to which they have been subjected
+      have passed through changes on a colossal scale. Moreover,
+      if we look from this earth to the universe of stars and
+      suns and planets, we see everywhere evidence of unceasing
+      change. If we use scientific observation and reason, if we
+      employ on the problem the only means we possess for
+      attempting its solution, we cannot accept the <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p251" id="p251">[251]</a></span>
+      hypothesis that the present condition of nature has been
+      eternal.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "So far as that limited revelation of the nature of
+        things, which we call scientific knowledge, has yet gone,
+        it tends, with constantly increasing emphasis, to the
+        belief that, not merely the world of plants, but that of
+        animals; not merely living things but the whole fabric of
+        the earth; not merely our planet but the whole solar
+        system, not merely our star and its satellites, but the
+        millions of similar bodies which bear witness to the
+        order which pervades boundless space and has endured
+        through boundless time, are all working out their
+        predestined courses of evolution."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The second hypothesis is familiar to us in the sacred
+      records of many religious and in the Hebrew Scriptures.
+      Most of these have a fundamental similarity, inasmuch as
+      they offer pictures in which the mode and order of creation
+      are given in the minutest detail and with the simplest kind
+      of anthropomorphism; in which the Creator is represented
+      with familiar human characteristics. But these general
+      considerations, so obvious now that we have learned to read
+      the Bible narrative without passion or prejudice, were not
+      plain to the early opponents of evolution, and it was
+      necessary, step by step, to shew not only that the
+      narrative in Genesis could not be reconciled with known
+      facts if it were accepted in its literal meaning, but that
+      the most strained interpretation of the language failed to
+      bring it into accordance with scientific truth. Mr.
+      Gladstone was the latest and most vigorous of those who
+      attempted to reconcile Genesis with modern knowledge, and
+      in his controversy with Huxley he brought to bear all the
+      resources of an acute intellect trained by long practice in
+      the devices of argument and inspired by a lofty if mistaken
+      enthusiasm. In the course of his argument he wrote:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p252"
+      id="p252">[252]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "But the question is not here of a lofty poem, or a
+        skilfully constructed narrative; it is whether natural
+        science, in the patient exercise of its high calling to
+        examine facts, finds that the works of God cry out
+        against what we have fondly believed to be His word and
+        tell another tale; or whether, in this nineteenth century
+        of Christian progress, it substantially echoes back the
+        majestic sound, which, before it existed as a pursuit,
+        went forth into all lands.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        First, looking largely at the latter portion of the
+        narrative, which describes the creation of living
+        organisms, and waiving details, on some of which (as in
+        v. 24) the Septuagint seems to vary from the Hebrew,
+        there is a grand fourfold division, set forth in an
+        orderly succession of times as follows: on the fifth day
+      </p>
+      <div class="blockquot">
+        <p>
+          1. The water-population.<br />
+           2. The air-population,
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        and, on the sixth day,
+      </p>
+      <div class="blockquot">
+        <p>
+          3. The land-population of animals.<br />
+           4. The land-population consummated in man.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Now this same fourfold order is understood to have been
+        so affirmed in our time by natural science, that it may
+        be taken as a demonstrated conclusion and established
+        fact."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The defence itself shewed that already a large part of the
+      original position had been abandoned. The literal meaning
+      and belief in detailed accuracy were given up and Mr.
+      Gladstone sought to establish only a general correspondence
+      between the Biblical narrative and the results of science.
+      But even in that form Huxley shewed the defence to be
+      untenable.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I can meet the statement in the last paragraph of the
+        above citation," he replied, "with nothing but a direct
+        negative. If I know anything at all about the results
+        attained by the natural science of our time, it is a
+        'demonstrated conclusion and established fact' that the
+        fourfold order given by Mr. Gladstone is not that in
+        which the evidence at our disposal tends to shew that the
+        water, air, and land populations of our globe made their
+        appearance."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p253"
+      id="p253">[253]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With the most voluminous detail, he proceeds to shew that
+      there is no possible relation between the order implied by
+      the narrative and the order as revealed by science. Let us
+      sum up, by two quotations, the result of the whole
+      controversy. First, the literal meaning is untenable.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The question whether the earth and the immediate
+        progenitors of its present living population were made in
+        six natural days or not is no longer one on which two
+        opinions can be held. The fact that it did not come so
+        into being stands upon as sound a basis as any fact of
+        history whatever. It is not true that existing plants and
+        animals came into being within three days of the creation
+        of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that
+        innumerable generations of other plants and animals lived
+        upon the earth before its present population. And when,
+        Sunday after Sunday, men who profess to be our
+        instructors in righteousness read out the statement, 'In
+        six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all
+        that in them is,' in innumerable churches, they are
+        either propagating what they may easily know, and,
+        therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities; or, if
+        they use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall
+        below the moral standard of the much abused Jesuit."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The attenuated meaning equally must be given up.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Even if they (the reconcilers) now allow that the words
+        'the evening and the morning' have not the least
+        reference to a natural day, but mean a period of any
+        number of millions of years that may be necessary; even
+        if they are driven to admit that the word 'creation,'
+        which so many millions of pious Jews and Christians have
+        held, and still hold, to mean a sudden act of the Deity,
+        signifies a process of gradual evolution of one species
+        from another, extending through immeasurable time; even
+        if they are willing to grant that the asserted
+        coincidence of the order of nature with the 'fourfold
+        order' ascribed to Genesis is an obvious error instead of
+        an established truth, they are surely prepared to make a
+        last stand upon the conception which underlies the whole,
+        and which constitutes <span class="pagenum"><a
+        name="p254" id="p254">[254]</a></span> the essence of Mr.
+        Gladstone's 'fourfold division, set forth in an orderly
+        succession of times.' It is that the animal species which
+        compose the water-population, the air-population, and the
+        land-population, respectively, originated during three
+        distinct and successive periods of time, and only during
+        these periods of time.... But even this sublimated
+        essence of the Pentateuchal doctrine remains as
+        discordant with natural science as ever."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      There remains the third, or evolutionary hypothesis
+      regarding the origin of the existing order of nature. As
+      Huxley held it, it was rigidly limited within the
+      possibilities afforded by the agnostic attitude. With
+      regard to the real nature, the origin and destiny of the
+      whole universe, there was not sufficient evidence before
+      the human mind, if indeed the human mind were capable of
+      receiving such evidence, to come to any conclusion. For the
+      rest, for the actual condition of the earth itself, science
+      was gradually accumulating overwhelming evidence in favour
+      of a continuous evolution, under natural agencies, from the
+      beginning of life to the existing forms of animals and
+      plants, and the actual origin of life from inorganic matter
+      under similarly natural agencies was becoming more and more
+      a legitimate inference.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley's relation to the New Testament may be summed up in
+      few words. It was simply that there was not sufficient
+      evidence for ascribing to it the supernatural sanction
+      demanded for it by dogmatic theology.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "From the dawn of scientific Biblical criticism until the
+        present day, the evidence against the long-cherished
+        notion that the three synoptic gospels are the work of
+        three independent authors, each prompted by Divine
+        inspiration, has steadily accumulated, until, at the
+        present time, there is no visible escape from the
+        conclusion that each of the three is a compilation
+        consisting of a groundwork common to all three&mdash;the
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p255"
+        id="p255">[255]</a></span> three-fold tradition; and of a
+        superstructure consisting, firstly, of matter common to
+        it with one of the others, and, secondly, of matter
+        common to each."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Again:&mdash;"There is no proof, nothing more than a fair
+      presumption, that any one of the gospels existed, in the
+      state in which we find it in the authorised version of the
+      Bible, before the second century, or, in other words, sixty
+      or seventy years after the events recorded." These
+      considerations with slight differences in details are now
+      practically admitted among the abler apologists, with the
+      result that, as Huxley claimed, the New Testament, like the
+      Old, must be treated as literature rather than as Dogma. As
+      Literature everyone has the right to examine the contents
+      critically, and, considering the importance attributed to
+      the contents, the right becomes a duty. No doubt, had
+      Huxley not lived there would have been others equally ready
+      and equally able to gain the battle for freedom of thought
+      in its special application to the claim of the Bible to
+      stand in the way of the advance of scientific knowledge;
+      but as it is, it cannot be denied that the existing
+      prevalence of liberal views, inside and outside the
+      churches, on the nature and interpretation of the
+      Scriptures is largely due to him.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      After the question of inspiration, the most striking
+      feature of the Bible is its appeal to miracles and the
+      miraculous element. It is now necessary to examine the
+      position assumed by Huxley towards these. Two great <i>a
+      priori</i> difficulties have been brought against accepting
+      any record of miracles as true. The first of these is very
+      simple, depending on the history of all times and peoples.
+      It is that the human race has shewn itself universally
+      credulous in this matter. It <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p256" id="p256">[256]</a></span> has cried "Wolf!" so
+      readily, so honestly, and on so many occasions that the cry
+      has ceased to carry conviction with it. Every religion has
+      its series of miraculous events; every savage tribe and
+      every uneducated race has its miracle-workers implicitly
+      accepted. In medi&aelig;val and modern Europe up to our own
+      times, miracles have been so constantly recorded on
+      testimony of such undoubted integrity that we must either
+      believe that miracles can be performed by numberless
+      persons with no other claim to special regard, or that it
+      is singularly easy to get false but honest evidence
+      regarding them. Huxley supported the latter alternative
+      strongly, and held the view that to believe in any
+      particular miracles would require evidence very much more
+      direct and very much stronger than would be necessary in
+      the case of inherently probable events.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The second <i>a priori</i> objection to the credibility of
+      miracles has been urged more strongly, but was not accepted
+      by Huxley. It is that miracles are inherently incredible
+      inasmuch as they are "violations of the order of nature."
+      Hume, attacking miracles, had made this objection the chief
+      ground of his argument. Huxley paid a logical respect, at
+      least as great, to the continuity of nature.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "When the experience of generation after generation is
+        recorded, and a single book tells us more than Methuselah
+        could have learned, had he spent every waking hour of his
+        thousand years in learning; when apparent disorders are
+        found to be only the recurrent pulses of a slow-working
+        order, and the wonder of a year becomes the commonplace
+        of a century; when repeated and minute examination never
+        reveals a break in the chain of causes and effects; and
+        the whole edifice of practical life is built upon our
+        faith in its continuity; the belief that that chain has
+        never been broken and will never be broken, becomes one
+        of the strongest and most justifiable <span
+        class="pagenum"><a name="p257" id="p257">[257]</a></span>
+        of human convictions. And it must be admitted to be a
+        reasonable request, if we ask those who would have us put
+        faith in the actual occurrence of interruptions of that
+        order, to produce evidence in favour of their view, not
+        only equal, but superior, in weight, to that which leads
+        us to adopt ours."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But out of the mouth of Hume himself he declared against
+      making the recorded experience of man, however lengthy and
+      impressive, a necessary ground for rejecting the
+      possibility of the miraculous. Hume had said, "Whatever is
+      intelligible and can be distinctly conceived implies no
+      contradiction, and can never be proved false by any
+      demonstration, argument, or reasoning, <i>a priori</i>."
+      This or the like applies to most of the recorded miracles.
+      Huxley was extremely careful not to assert that they were
+      incredible merely because they might involve conditions
+      outside our existing experience. It is a vulgar mistake,
+      for which science certainly gives no warrant, to assert
+      that things are impossible because they contradict our
+      experience. In such a sense many of the most common modern
+      conveniences of life would have seemed impossible a century
+      ago. To travel with safety sixty miles an hour, to talk
+      through the telephone with a friend an hundred miles away,
+      to receive intelligible messages across the Atlantic by a
+      cable, and, still more, to communicate by wireless
+      telegraphy would have seemed impossible until recently. At
+      the present time, the conversion of a baser metal into gold
+      would be called impossible by everyone with a little
+      knowledge of elementary chemistry. This last example leads
+      admirably to a right understanding of the scientific view
+      of impossibility. The older alchemists, partly from
+      ignorance and partly from credulity, believed absolutely in
+      the possibility of transmuting the <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p258" id="p258">[258]</a></span> metals. The advance
+      of chemical science led to definite conceptions of the
+      differences between compounds and elementary bodies, and of
+      the independence of these elements. The methods and
+      reasoning of the alchemists became absurd, and no one would
+      attempt seriously to transmute the metals on their lines.
+      These advances, however, do not give us the right to assume
+      that the elements are absolutely independent, and that
+      transmutation is therefore impossible. Some of the most
+      recent progress in chemistry has opened up the suggestion
+      that the elements themselves are different combinations of
+      a common substance. Huxley applied this particular argument
+      to the miracle at the marriage of Cana.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "You are quite mistaken in supposing that anybody who is
+        acquainted with the possibilities of physical science
+        will undertake categorically to deny that water may be
+        turned into wine. Many very competent judges are inclined
+        to think that the bodies which we have hitherto regarded
+        as elementary are really composite arrangements of the
+        particles of a uniform primitive matter. Supposing that
+        view to be correct, there would be no more theoretical
+        difficulty about turning water into alcohol, ethereal and
+        colouring matters, than there is, at this present moment,
+        any practical difficulty in working other such miracles;
+        as when we turn sugar into alcohol, carbonic acid,
+        glycerine, and succinic acid; or transmute gas-refuse
+        into perfumes rarer than musk and dyes richer than Tyrian
+        purple."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Unless we make the unscientific and preposterous assumption
+      that our present knowledge of nature and of natural forces
+      is absolute and complete, it is unscientific and illogical
+      to declare at once that any supposed events could not have
+      happened merely because they seem to have contradicted
+      so-called natural laws.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p259"
+      id="p259">[259]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Strictly speaking," Huxley wrote, "I am unaware of
+        anything that has a right to the title of an
+        'impossibility' except a contradiction in terms. There
+        are impossibilities logical, but none natural. A 'round
+        square,' a 'present past,' 'two parallel lines that
+        intersect,' are impossibilities, because the ideas
+        denoted by the predicates, round, present, intersect, are
+        contradictory of the ideas denoted by the subjects,
+        square, past, parallel. But walking on water, or turning
+        water into wine, or procreation without male
+        intervention, or raising the dead, are plainly not
+        impossibilities in this sense."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The whole matter turns on the question of sufficient
+      evidence.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Hume's arguments resolve themselves into a simple
+        statement of the dictates of common sense which may be
+        expressed in this canon: the more a statement of fact
+        conflicts with previous experience, the more complete
+        must be the evidence which is to justify us in believing
+        it."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Again, expressing the same idea in different words, he
+      wrote:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Nobody can presume to say what the order of nature must
+        be; all that the widest experience (even if it extended
+        over all past time and through all space) that events had
+        happened in a certain way could justify, would be a
+        proportionately strong expectation that events will go on
+        so happening, and the demand for a proportional strength
+        of evidence in favour of any assertion that they had
+        happened otherwise. It is this weighty consideration, the
+        truth of which everyone who is capable of logical thought
+        must surely admit, which knocks the bottom out of all
+        <i>a priori</i> objections either to ordinary 'miracles'
+        or to the efficacy of prayer, in so far as the latter
+        implies the miraculous intervention of a higher power. No
+        one is entitled to say, <i>a priori</i>, that prayer for
+        some change in the ordinary course of nature cannot
+        possibly avail."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was a question of evidence, and not only did the
+      evidence not convince Huxley, but the thaumaturgic <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p260" id="p260">[260]</a></span>
+      nature of the Biblical miracles provided him with
+      additional reason for refusing to attach any extrinsic
+      value to the contents of the book.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the other hand, although he declined to accept the Bible
+      as a miraculous and authentic revelation, again and again
+      he expressed himself in the strongest terms as to its value
+      to mankind, and as to the impossibility of any scientific
+      advance diminishing in any way whatsoever that value.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The antagonism between religion and science, about which
+        we hear so much, appears to me to be purely
+        factitious&mdash;fabricated, on the one hand, by
+        shortsighted religious people who confound a certain
+        branch of science, theology, with religion; and, on the
+        other, by equally shortsighted scientific people who
+        forget that science takes for its province only that
+        which is susceptible of clear intellectual comprehension;
+        and that, outside the boundaries of that province, they
+        must be content with imagination, with hope, and with
+        ignorance."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      And again;
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "In the eighth century B.C., in the heart of a world of
+        idolatrous polytheists, the Hebrew prophets put forth a
+        conception of religion which appears to me to be as
+        wonderful an inspiration of genius as the art of Pheidias
+        or the science of Aristotle. 'And what doth the Lord
+        require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and
+        to walk humbly with thy God?' If any so-called religion
+        takes away from this great saying of Micah, I think it
+        wantonly mutilates, while if it adds thereto, I think it
+        obscures, the perfect ideal of religion."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-260.png" alt="" title="" height="74"
+        width="280" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p261" id="p261">[261]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-261.png" alt="" title="" height="85"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      ETHICS OF THE COSMOS
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Conduct and Metaphysics&mdash;Conventional and Critical
+        Minds&mdash;Good and Evil&mdash;Huxley's Last Appearance
+        at Oxford&mdash;The Ethical Process and the Cosmic
+        Process&mdash;Man's Intervention&mdash;The Cosmic Process
+        Evil&mdash;Ancient Reconciliations&mdash;Modern
+        Acceptance of the Difficulties&mdash;Criticism of
+        Huxley's Pessimism&mdash;Man and his Ethical Aspirations
+        Part of the Cosmos.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We have seen that Huxley refused to acquiesce in the
+      current orthodox doctrine that our systems of morality
+      rested on a special revelation, miraculous in its origin,
+      and vouched for by the recorded miracles of its Founder, or
+      by those entrusted by the Founder with miraculous power. He
+      supported the view that, historically and actually, there
+      is no necessary connection between religion and morality.
+      The one is an attempt, in his opinion always unsuccessful,
+      to lift the veil from the unseen, to know the unknowable;
+      the other is simply the code that social man, through the
+      ages, has elaborated for his own guidance, and proved by
+      his own experience. So far as the conduct of life goes, the
+      morality of one who accepts the agnostic position with
+      regard to revelation and the unseen universe differs in no
+      respect from the code taken under the protection of <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p262" id="p262">[262]</a></span>
+      the modern forms of religion. As John Morley, in his
+      <i>Essay on Voltaire</i> wrote of such a person:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "There are new solutions for him, if the old have fallen
+        dumb. If he no longer believe death to be a stroke from
+        the sword of God's justice, but the leaden footfall of an
+        inflexible law of matter, the humility of his awe is
+        deepened, and the tenderness of his pity made holier,
+        that creatures who can love so much should have their
+        days so shut round with a wall of darkness. The purifying
+        anguish of remorse will be stronger, not weaker, when he
+        has trained himself to look upon every wrong in thought,
+        every duty omitted from act, each infringement of the
+        inner spiritual law which humanity is constantly
+        perfecting for its own guidance and advantage, less as a
+        breach of the decrees of an unseen tribunal than as an
+        ungrateful infection weakening and corrupting the future
+        of his brothers."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But there are wider questions than the immediate problems
+      of conduct. A certain type of mind finds it almost
+      impossible not to attempt ethical judgments on the whole
+      universe, not to speculate whether the Cosmos, as we can
+      imagine it from the part of it within the cognisance of
+      man, offers a spectacle of moral or immoral or of non-moral
+      significance. In the old times of Greece and in the modern
+      world many have been devoid of the taste for argument on
+      such subjects. Those who are uninterested in these abstract
+      discussions are rarely in opposition to the mode of faith
+      surrounding them, as to reject the doctrines held by the
+      majority of one's friends and associates implies either a
+      disagreeable disposition or an unusual interest in ultimate
+      problems; they are usually orthodox according to their
+      environment&mdash;Stoics, Epicureans, Jews, Episcopalians,
+      Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Mormons, Mohammedans,
+      Buddhists, or whatever may be the prevailing dogma around
+      them. The attitude of indifference to moral <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p263" id="p263">[263]</a></span>
+      philosophy has practically no relation to what may be
+      considered good or bad moral conduct; those characterised
+      by it live above or below or round about their own moral
+      standards in a fashion as variable as that of moral
+      philosophers. Many of the saints, ancient and modern, have
+      been notorious instances; question them as to their faith
+      or as to the logical foundation of their renunciations and
+      they will tell you in simple honesty or make it plain by
+      their answers that they have no head for logic, that they
+      cannot argue, but only know and feel their position to be
+      true. In addition to the saints, many of the best and most
+      of the pleasant people in the world are of this type.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The type strongly in contrast with the foregoing is found
+      in persons of a more strenuous, perhaps more admirable but
+      less agreeable character. The savour of acerbity may be a
+      natural attribute of the critical character, and it is
+      certainly not lessened where moral philosophy is the
+      subject-matter of the criticism. The continual search after
+      solutions of problems that may be insoluble at least makes
+      the seekers excellent judges of wrong solutions. Like
+      Luther and Loyola and Kant, they may be able to satisfy
+      themselves, or, like Huxley, they may remain in doubt, but
+      in either case they are excellent critics of the solutions
+      of others. They are the firebrands of faith or of negation;
+      they are possessed by an intellectual fury that will not
+      let them cease from propagandising. They must go through
+      the world as missionaries; and the missionary spirit is
+      dual, one side zealous to proclaim the new, the other
+      equally zealous to denounce the old. But theirs is the
+      great work, "to burn old falsehood bare," to tear away the
+      incrustations of time which people have come to accept as
+      the thing itself, and in their track new and <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p264" id="p264">[264]</a></span>
+      lively truth springs up, as fresh green follows the
+      devastations of fire.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To most of us it seems of sufficient importance and of
+      sufficient difficulty to make our decisions in the little
+      eddies of good and evil that form as the world-stream
+      breaks round our individual lives. Huxley strove to
+      interpret the world-stream itself, to translate its
+      movements into the ethical language of man. As knowledge of
+      the forces and movements of the Cosmos has increased so has
+      our general conception been intensified, our conception of
+      it as a wondrous display of power and grandeur and
+      superhuman fixity of order. But are the forces of the
+      Cosmos good or evil? Are we, and the Cosmos of which we are
+      a part, the sport of changeable and capricious deities, the
+      pawns in a game of the gods, as some of the Greeks held; or
+      of a power drunkenly malicious, as Heine once cynically
+      suggested; or a battle-ground for a force of good and a
+      force of evil as in so many Eastern religions? Are we
+      dominated by pure evil, as some dark creeds have held, or
+      by pure good, as the religion of the Western world teaches?
+      And if we are dominated by pure evil, whence come good and
+      the idea of good, or, if by pure good, whence evil and the
+      idea of evil?
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley's interest in these great problems appears and
+      reappears throughout his published writings, but his views
+      are most clearly and systematically exposed in his
+      "Romanes" lecture on "Evolution and Ethics" delivered and
+      published at Oxford in 1894, and afterwards republished
+      with a prefatory essay in the last volume of his
+      <i>Collected Essays</i>. Not long before his death,
+      Professor Romanes, who had come to live in Oxford, founded
+      a University lectureship, the purpose of which was that
+      once a year a distinguished man <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p265" id="p265">[265]</a></span> should address the
+      University on a subject neither religious nor political.
+      Mr. Gladstone was the first lecturer, and, at the
+      suggestion of the founder, Huxley was chosen as the second.
+      For years he had been taking a special interest in both
+      religion and politics, and he was not a little embarrassed
+      by the restrictions imposed by the terms of the foundation,
+      for he determined to make ethical science the subject of
+      his address, and
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "ethical science is, on all sides, so entangled with
+        religion and politics, that the lecturer who essays to
+        touch the former without coming in contact with either of
+        the latter, needs all the dexterity of an egg-dancer, and
+        may even discover that his sense of clearness and his
+        sense of propriety come into conflict, by no means to the
+        advantage of the former."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As Huxley, on that great occasion, ascended the rostrum in
+      the Sheldonian theatre, very white and frail in his scarlet
+      doctor's robes, there must have been present in his mind
+      memories of the occasion, four-and-thirty years before,
+      when he first addressed an audience in the University of
+      Oxford. Then he was a young man, almost unknown, rising to
+      lead what seemed a forlorn hope for an idea utterly
+      repugnant to most of his hearers. Now, and largely by his
+      own efforts, the idea had become an inseparable part of
+      human thought, and Huxley himself was the guest to whom the
+      whole University was doing honour. Graduates from all parts
+      of England had come to hear what, it was feared, might be
+      his last public speech, and practically every member of the
+      University who could gain admission was present. The press
+      of the world attended to report his words as if they were
+      those of a great political leader, about to decide the fate
+      of nations. Although his voice had lost much of its old
+      sonorous reach, and although the old clear rhythms were
+      occasionally broken by <span class="pagenum"><a name="p266"
+      id="p266">[266]</a></span> hesitancies, the magic of his
+      personality oriented to him every face.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is a curious and striking circumstance, a circumstance
+      fully recognised by Huxley himself, that in this exposition
+      of his ethical conception of the Cosmos he reconstructed,
+      on the lines of his evolutionary philosophy one of the
+      oldest and most widespread theories, a theory again and
+      again reached by men of different civilisations and epochs.
+      Manes, the Persian, from whose name the word "Manicheism"
+      has been coined to denote his doctrine, taught in perhaps
+      the most explicit fashion that the Cosmos was the
+      battle-ground of two contending powers,&mdash;Ahriman, the
+      principle of evil, and Ormuzd, the principle of good. This
+      doctrine in some form or other is implicit in most of the
+      greater religions, some of which have assumed an ultimate
+      triumph for the principle of good, while others have left
+      the issue doubtful. The Ahriman of Huxley, the principle of
+      evil, is what he termed the cosmic process, that great play
+      of forces, by which, in a ruthless struggle for existence,
+      the fittest (by which is meant the most suited to the
+      surrounding conditions and not necessarily the ethically
+      best) have survived at the expense of the less fit. The
+      Ormuzd, the principle of good, is what Huxley called the
+      Ethical process, the process by which sentient,
+      intelligent, and moral man has striven to replace the "old
+      ape and tiger methods" of the cosmic process, by methods in
+      which justice and mercy, sacrifice and consideration for
+      others have a part.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To explain clearly the distinction he made between the
+      ethical and cosmic processes. Huxley, in the prefatory
+      essay ("Prolegomena") published in the volume with his
+      Romanes lecture, developed the analogy of a cultivated
+      garden reclaimed from surrounding wild nature. <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p267" id="p267">[267]</a></span>
+      He described how the countryside, visible from his windows
+      at Eastbourne, had certainly been in a "state of nature"
+      about two thousand years ago when C&aelig;sar had set foot
+      in Britain and had made the Roman camps, the remains of
+      which still mark the chalk downs of England.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds,
+        such as those which still, here and there, break the
+        flowing contours of the Downs, man's hands had made no
+        mark upon it; and the thin veil of vegetation which
+        overspread the broad-backed heights and the shelving
+        sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry. The
+        native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse,
+        contended with one another for possession of the scanty
+        surface soil; they fought against the droughts of summer,
+        the frosts of winter, and the furious gales, which swept
+        with unbroken force, now from the Atlantic, and now from
+        the North Sea, at all times of the year; they filled up,
+        as they best might, the gaps made in their ranks by all
+        sorts of overground and underground ravagers. One year
+        with another, an average population, the floating balance
+        of the unceasing struggle for existence among the
+        indigenous plants, maintained itself. It is as little to
+        be doubted that an essentially similar state of nature
+        prevailed in this region for many thousand years before
+        the coming of C&aelig;sar; and there is no assignable
+        reason for denying that it might continue to exist
+        through an equally prolonged futurity except for the
+        intervention of man."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This present state of nature, he explained, is only a
+      fleeting phase of a process that has gone on for millions
+      of years. Under the thin layer of soil are the chalk
+      cliffs, hundreds of feet thick and witnesses of the
+      entirely different phases of the struggle that went on
+      while the cliffs were being formed at the bottom of the
+      chalk sea, when the vegetation of the nearest land was as
+      different from the existing vegetation as that is different
+      from the trees and flowers of an African forest.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p268"
+      id="p268">[268]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "Before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly longer
+        period elapsed, throughout which it is easy to follow the
+        traces of the same process of ceaseless modification and
+        of the same internecine struggle for existence of living
+        things; and when we can go no further back, it is not
+        because there is any reason to think we have reached the
+        beginning, but because the trail of the most ancient life
+        remains hidden or has become obliterated."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The state of nature, then, is a fleeting and impermanent
+      process.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "That which endures is not one or other association of
+        living forms, but the process of which the Cosmos is the
+        product and of which these are among the transitory
+        expressions. And in the living world, one of the most
+        characteristic features of this cosmic process is the
+        struggle for existence, the competition of each with all,
+        the result of which is the selection, that is to say, the
+        survival of those forms which, on the whole, are best
+        adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain; and
+        which are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that
+        respect, the fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic
+        process in the vegetation of the Downs is seen in the
+        turf with its weeds and gorse. Under the conditions, they
+        have come out of the struggle victorious; and, by
+        surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to
+        survive."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      For three or four years, the state of nature in a small
+      portion of the Downs surrounding Huxley's house had been
+      put an end to by the intervention of man.
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "The patch was cut off from the rest by a wall; within
+        the area thus protected the native vegetation was, as far
+        as possible, extirpated, while a colony of strange plants
+        was imported and set down in its place. In short, it was
+        made into a garden. This artificially treated area
+        presents an aspect extraordinarily different from that of
+        so much of the land as still remains in the state of
+        nature outside the wall. Trees, shrubs and herbs, many of
+        them appertaining to the state of nature in remote parts
+        of the globe, abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable
+        quantities of vegetables, fruit, and flowers are
+        produced, of kinds which neither now exist nor have ever
+        existed except under conditions such as obtain in the
+        garden and which <span class="pagenum"><a name="p269"
+        id="p269">[269]</a></span> therefore are as much works of
+        the art of man as the frames and glass-houses in which
+        some of them are raised. That the 'state of art' thus
+        created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by
+        and dependent on him, would at once become apparent if
+        the watchful supervision of the gardener were withdrawn,
+        and the antagonistic influences of the general cosmic
+        process were no longer sedulously warded off, or
+        counteracted."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He proceeds to describe how, under such circumstances, the
+      artificial barriers would decay, and the delicate
+      inhabitants of the garden would perish under the assaults
+      of animal and vegetable foes. External forces would
+      reassert themselves and wild nature would resume its sway.
+      While, in a sense, he had strenuously advocated the unity
+      of all nature, he found in it two rivals: the artificial
+      products of sentient man and the forces and products of
+      wild nature. These two he believed to be in inevitable
+      opposition and to represent the good and the evil forces of
+      the world.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the dim ages of the past, the forces that have gone to
+      the making of man have been part of the cosmic process. In
+      the endless and wonderful series of kaleidoscopic changes
+      by which, under the operation of natural laws, the body,
+      habits, and the character of man have been elaborated
+      slowly from the natal dust, there is the widest field for
+      the operation of the most acute intelligence to study and
+      trace the stages in the process. But if intellectual
+      delight in studying the process be left out of account, a
+      serious question at once appears. In the higher stages of
+      evolution the cosmic forces, ceasing to act merely on
+      insentient matter, have operated on sentient beings, and in
+      so doing have given rise to the mystery of pain and
+      suffering. When the less fit of chemical combinations or
+      even of the lower forms of life perished in the struggle,
+      we may regard the process <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p270" id="p270">[270]</a></span> with the unemotional
+      eye of pure intelligence. But "pain, the baleful product of
+      evolution, increases in quantity and in intensity with
+      advancing stages of animal organisation, until it attains
+      its highest level in man." And so it comes about that the
+      cosmic process produces evil, sorrow, and suffering.
+      Consideration of the cosmic process leads up against the
+      mystery of evil.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley argued that the various philosophies and
+      civilisations of the past had led by different paths to a
+      similar conclusion. The primitive ethical codes of man were
+      not unlike the compacts of a wolf-pack, the understanding
+      to refrain from mutual attack during the chase of a common
+      prey. Conceptions of this kind became arranged in codes and
+      invested with supernatural sanction. But in Hindustan and
+      Ionia alike, material prosperity, no doubt partly the
+      result of the accepted codes, produced culture of the
+      intellect and culture of the pleasures. With these came the
+      "beneficent demon, doubt, whose name is legion and who
+      dwells amongst the tombs of old faiths." The doubting
+      intellect, acting on the codes, produced the conception of
+      justice-in-itself, of merit as divorced from the effect of
+      action on others, the abstract idea of goodness.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The old philosopher, turning from this new conception to
+      the Cosmos, found that incompatible with goodness.
+      Suffering and sorrow, sunshine and rain, were distributed
+      independently of merit. With Greek and Semite and Indian
+      the conscience of man revolted against the moral
+      indifference of nature. Instead of bringing in a verdict of
+      guilty, they attempted reconciliation in various ways.
+      Indian speculation invented or elaborated the theory of
+      transmigration, in which the Karma or soul-character passed
+      from individual to <span class="pagenum"><a name="p271"
+      id="p271">[271]</a></span> individual, the algebraic sums
+      of happiness in the whole chain being proportional to
+      merit. The Stoics were metaphysicians and imagined an
+      immanent, omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent First
+      Cause. Evil was incompatible with this, and so they held,
+      against experience, that either it did not exist, or that
+      it was inflicted for our benefit or due to our fault. In
+      one fashion or another, all the great systems of thought
+      had recognised the antagonism and had attempted some
+      explanation of it. Huxley's view was that the modern world
+      with its new philosophy was only retreading the toil-worn
+      paths of the old. Scientific optimism was being replaced by
+      a frank pessimism. Cosmic evolution might be accountable
+      for both good and evil, but knowledge of it provided no
+      better reason for choice of the good than did earlier
+      speculation. The cosmic process was not only non-moral but
+      immoral; goodness did not lead to success in it, and laws
+      and moral precepts could only be addressed to the curbing
+      of it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In a sense these conclusions of Huxley seemed to lead to
+      absolute pessimism, but he offered some mitigating
+      considerations. Society remains subject to the cosmic
+      process, but the less as civilisation advances and ethical
+      man is the more ready to combat it. The history of
+      civilisation shows that we have some hope of this, for
+      "when physiology, psychology, ethics, and political
+      science, now befogged by crude anticipations and futile
+      analogies, have emerged from their childhood, they may work
+      as much change on human affairs as the earlier-ripened
+      physical sciences wrought on material progress." And so,
+      remembering that the evil cosmic nature in us has the
+      foothold of millions of years, and never hoping to abandon
+      sorrow and pain, we may yet, in the manhood of our race,
+      accept our <span class="pagenum"><a name="p272"
+      id="p272">[272]</a></span> destiny, and, with clear and
+      steady eyes, address ourselves to the task of living, that
+      we and others may live better.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These gloomy views come from Huxley with such weight and
+      authority that even in a sketch of his life and opinions it
+      may be noticed that they do not seem necessary deductions
+      from the evolutionary conception of the world. The first
+      count adduced against the cosmic process is its connection
+      with suffering. It may be doubted, so far as the animal
+      world is concerned, if Huxley has not exaggerated the
+      gravity of this. The two greatest contributors to the
+      modern conception of evolution are not in agreement with
+      him. Alfred Russel Wallace wrote:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "On the whole, then, we conclude that the popular idea of
+        the struggle for existence entailing misery and pain on
+        the animal world is the very reverse of the truth. What
+        it really brings about is the maximum of life and of the
+        enjoyment of life with the minimum of suffering and pain.
+        Given the necessity of death and reproduction&mdash;and
+        without those there could have been no progressive
+        development of the animal world&mdash;and it is difficult
+        even to imagine a system by which a greater balance of
+        happiness could have been secured."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This view was evidently that also of Darwin himself, who
+      thus concluded his chapter on the struggle for existence:
+      "When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves
+      with the full belief that the war of nature is not
+      incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally
+      prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy
+      survive and multiply." As for man himself, though it be
+      true that in him the consummation of pain is reached, still
+      this is no isolated fact of far-reaching ethical
+      importance. It is in direct dependence on the increased
+      physical and mental <span class="pagenum"><a name="p273"
+      id="p273">[273]</a></span> development of man, and these
+      are equally necessary for and equally susceptible to
+      increased pleasure and increased happiness. It is not
+      necessary to regard the cosmic process as evil. Even when
+      man, in various ages, had elaborated the conception of
+      abstract goodness, and had endeavoured to make his justice
+      a doling out of reward and punishment according to merit,
+      it was not inevitable to bring in a verdict of guilty
+      against the Cosmos. It is quite true that, in all the ages,
+      man has seen the sun shine on the unjust as on the just.
+      But it is an easy reflection that the world could not turn
+      round on individual merit, and if few are so guilty as to
+      deserve the agonies of grief that may come to all, still
+      fewer deserve some of the simpler and more common joys of
+      life. The conception that was implicit in the disciplines
+      of the older philosophies is still open to the philosophy
+      of evolution. Behind it, as behind the "self-hypnotised
+      catalepsy of the devotee of Brahma," the Buddhist
+      aspirations to Nirvana, the <i>apatheia</i> of the Stoics,
+      there may lie a recognition of the worthlessness of the
+      individual: an equable acceptation of one's self as part of
+      a process: a triumph of intelligence over selfishness.
+      Finally, behind the sharp division made between man and the
+      Cosmos, there still lurks one of the oldest and most
+      enduring fallacies of the world, a fallacy that Huxley
+      himself spent a great part of his intellectual life in
+      discovering and routing. The fallacy is the conception of
+      the Cosmos as something separate and apart from man, as
+      something through which he, however briefly, passes. Thus
+      Omar sang:
+    </p>
+    <div class="poem">
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <span class="i0">"Myself, when young, did eagerly
+        frequent<br />
+        </span> <span class="i0">Doctor and saint, and heard
+        great argument<br />
+        </span> <span class="i1">About it and about: but
+        evermore<br />
+        </span> <span class="i0">Came out by the same door where
+        in I went.<br />
+        </span>
+      </div>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p274"
+      id="p274">[274]</a></span>
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <span class="i0">"With them the seed of wisdom did I
+        sow,<br />
+        </span> <span class="i0">And with mine own hand wrought
+        to make it grow;<br />
+        </span> <span class="i1">And this was all the Harvest
+        that I reaped&mdash;<br />
+        </span> <span class="i0">'I came like Water, and like
+        Wind I go.'<br />
+        </span>
+      </div>
+      <div class="stanza">
+        <span class="i0">"Into this Universe, and <i>Why</i> not
+        knowing<br />
+        </span> <span class="i0">Nor <i>Whence</i>, like water
+        willy-nilly flowing;<br />
+        </span> <span class="i1">And out of it, like Wind along
+        the Waste<br />
+        </span> <span class="i0">I know not <i>Whither</i>,
+        willy-nilly blowing."<br />
+        </span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But, the more profoundly does the conception of evolution
+      lay hold of human thought, the more inevitable it becomes
+      to recognise that man and all that is best in man&mdash;his
+      aspirations, ideas, virtues, and practical and abstract
+      justice and goodness&mdash;are just as much the product of
+      the cosmic process and part of the Cosmos as the most
+      sinister results of the struggle for existence.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 304px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-274.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="153" width="304" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p275" id="p275">[275]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-275.png" alt="" title="" height="87"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h3>
+      CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY
+    </h3>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        Huxley's Life in London&mdash;Decennial
+        Periods&mdash;ill-health&mdash;Retirement to
+        Eastbourne&mdash;Death&mdash;Personal
+        Appearance&mdash;Methods of Work&mdash;Personal
+        Characteristics&mdash;An Inspirer of Others&mdash;His
+        Influence in Science&mdash;A Naturalist by
+        Vocation&mdash;His Aspirations.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Huxley's life followed the quiet and even tenor of that of
+      a professional man of science and letters. The great
+      adventure in it was his youthful voyage on the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>. That over, and his choice made in
+      favour of science as against medicine, he settled down in
+      London. He married happily and shared in the common joys
+      and sorrows of domestic life. Advancement came to him
+      steadily, and, although he was never rich, after the first
+      few years of life in London, his income was always adequate
+      to his moderate needs. For the greater part of his working
+      life, he lived actually in London, in the ordinary style
+      and with the ordinary social enjoyments of a professional
+      man. His duties in connection with the Royal College of
+      Science and with the Geological Survey were not arduous but
+      constant; his time was fully occupied with these, with his
+      scientific and literary work, with the business of
+      scientific <span class="pagenum"><a name="p276"
+      id="p276">[276]</a></span> societies, with the occasional
+      obligations of royal commissions, public boards, and
+      lecturing engagements. The quiet routine of his life was
+      diversified by many visits to provincial towns to deliver
+      lectures or addresses, by meetings of the British
+      Association, by holidays in Switzerland, during which, with
+      Tyndall, he made special studies of the phenomena of
+      glaciation, and in the usual Continental resorts, and by
+      several trips to America.
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-caricature.png"
+        alt="CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF" title=""
+        height="400" width="396" /> <span
+        class="caption">CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY
+        HIMSELF<br />
+         Reproduced by permission from Natural Science, vol.
+        vii., No. 46</span>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In a rough-and-ready fashion, Huxley's active life may be
+      broken into a set of decennial periods, each with tolerably
+      distinctive characters. The first period, roughly from 1850
+      to 1860, was almost purely scientific. It was occupied by
+      his voyage, by his transition to science as a career, his
+      researches into the invertebrate forms of life, the
+      beginning of his pal&aelig;ontological investigations, and
+      a comparatively small amount of lecturing and literary
+      work. The second decennium still found him employed chiefly
+      in research, vertebrate and extinct forms absorbing most of
+      his attention. He was occupied actively with teaching, but
+      the dominant feature of the decennium was his assumption of
+      the Darwinian doctrines. In connection with these latter,
+      his literary and lecturing work increased greatly, and the
+      side issues of what was, in itself, purely a scientific
+      controversy began to lead him into metaphysical and
+      religious studies. The third period, from 1870 to 1880, was
+      considerably different in character. He had become the most
+      prominent man in biological science in England, at a time
+      when biological science was attracting a quite unusual
+      amount of scientific and public attention. Public honours
+      and public duties, some of them scientific, others general,
+      began to crowd upon him, and the time at his disposal for
+      the quiet labours of <span class="pagenum"><a name="p277"
+      id="p277">[277]</a></span> investigation became rapidly
+      more limited within this period. He was secretary of the
+      Royal Society, a member of the London School Board,
+      president of the British Association, Lord Rector at
+      several universities, member of many royal commissions,
+      government inspector of fisheries, president of the
+      Geological Society. In this multitude of duties it was
+      natural that the bulk of strictly scientific output was
+      limited, but, on the other hand, his literary output was
+      much larger. Between 1880 and 1890 he had reached the full
+      maturity of a splendid reputation, and honours and duties
+      pressed thick upon him. For part of the time he was
+      president of the Royal Society, the most distinguished
+      position to which a scientific man in England can attain,
+      and he was held by the general public at least in as high
+      esteem as by his scientific contemporaries. A small amount
+      of original scientific work still appeared from his pen,
+      but he was occupied chiefly with more general contributions
+      to thought.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Throughout his life, Huxley had never been robust. From his
+      youth upwards he had been troubled by dyspepsia with its
+      usual accompaniment of occasional fits of severe mental and
+      physical depression. In 1872 he was compelled to take a
+      long holiday in Egypt, and, although he returned to resume
+      full labour, it is doubtful if from that time onwards he
+      recovered even the strength normal to him. In 1885, his
+      ill-health became grave; in the following years he had two
+      attacks of pleurisy, and symptoms of cardiac mischief
+      became pressing. He gradually withdrew from his official
+      posts, and, in 1890, retired to Eastbourne, where he had
+      built himself a house on the Downs. The more healthy
+      conditions and the comparative leisure he permitted himself
+      had a good effect, and he was able to <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p278" id="p278">[278]</a></span>
+      write some of his most brilliant essays and to make a few
+      public appearances: at Oxford in 1893, when he delivered
+      the Romanes lecture; at the meeting of the British
+      Association in 1894, when he spoke on the vote of thanks to
+      the President, the Marquis of Salisbury; at the Royal
+      Society in the same year when he received the recently
+      established "Darwin Medal." Early in the spring of 1895, he
+      had a prostrating attack of influenza, and from that time
+      until his death on June 29, 1895, he was an invalid. He was
+      buried in the Marylebone cemetery at Finchley, to the north
+      of London.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Huxley was of middle stature and rather slender build. His
+      face, as Professor Ray Lankester described it, was "grave,
+      black-browed, and fiercely earnest." His hair, plentiful
+      and worn rather long, was black until in old age it became
+      silvery white. He wore short side whiskers, but shaved the
+      rest of his face, leaving fully exposed an obstinate chin,
+      and mobile lips, grim and resolute in repose, but capable
+      of relaxation into a smile of almost feminine charm.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He was a very hard worker and took little exercise.
+      Professor Howes describes a typical day as occupied by
+      lecture and laboratory work at the College of Science until
+      his hurried luncheon; then a cab-drive to the Home Office
+      for his work as Inspector of Fisheries; then a cab home for
+      an hour's work before dinner, and the evening after dinner
+      spent in literary work or scientific reading. While at
+      work, his whole attention was engrossed, and he disliked
+      being disturbed. This abstraction of his attention is
+      illustrated humorously by a story told by one of his
+      demonstrators. Huxley was engaged in the investigations
+      required for his book on the Crayfish, and his demonstrator
+      came in to ask a question about a <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p279" id="p279">[279]</a></span> codfish. "Codfish?"
+      said Huxley; "that's a vertebrate, isn't it? Ask me in a
+      fortnight and I'll consider it." While at work he smoked
+      almost continuously, and from time to time he took a little
+      relaxation, for the strains of a fiddle were occasionally
+      heard from his room. Indeed he was devoted to music,
+      regarding it as one of the highest of the &aelig;sthetic
+      pleasures. He tells us himself:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "When I was a boy, I was very fond of music, and I am so
+        now; and it so happened that I had the opportunity of
+        hearing much good music. Among other things, I had
+        abundant opportunities of hearing that great old master,
+        Sebastian Bach. I remember perfectly well&mdash;although
+        I knew nothing about music then, and, I may add, know
+        nothing whatever about it now&mdash;the intense
+        satisfaction and delight which I had in listening, by the
+        hour together, to Bach's fugues. It is a pleasure which
+        remains with me, I am glad to think; but, of late years,
+        I have tried to find out the why and wherefore, and it
+        has often occurred to me that the pleasure derived from
+        musical compositions of this kind is essentially of the
+        same nature as that which is derived from pursuits which
+        are commonly regarded as purely intellectual. I mean,
+        that the source of pleasure is exactly the same as in
+        most of my problems in morphology&mdash;that you have the
+        theme in one of the old masters' works followed out in
+        all its endless variations, always appearing and always
+        reminding you of unity in variety."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had a hot temper, and did not readily brook opposition,
+      especially when that seemed to him to be the result of
+      stupidity or of prejudice rather than of reason, and his
+      own reason was of a very clear, decided, and exact order.
+      He had little sympathy with vacillation of any kind,
+      whether it arose from mere infirmity of purpose or from the
+      temperament which delights in balancing opposing
+      considerations. He said on one occasion:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p280"
+      id="p280">[280]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "A great lawyer-statesman and philosopher of a former
+        age&mdash;I mean Francis Bacon&mdash;said that truth came
+        out of error much more rapidly than out of confusion.
+        There is a wonderful truth in that saying. Next to being
+        right in this world, the best of all things is to be
+        clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out
+        somewhere. If you go buzzing about between right and
+        wrong, vibrating and fluctuating, you come out nowhere;
+        but if you are absolutely and thoroughly and persistently
+        wrong, you must, some of these days, have the extreme
+        good fortune of knocking your head against a fact, and
+        that sets you all straight again. So I will not trouble
+        myself as to whether I may be right or wrong in what I am
+        about to say, but at any rate I hope to be clear and
+        definite; and then you will be able to judge for
+        yourselves whether, in following out the train of thought
+        I have to introduce, you knock your heads against facts
+        or not."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The particular suggestions to which these remarks were the
+      characteristic introduction related to definite problems of
+      education, that is to say, to questions upon which some
+      action was urgent. It was in all cases of life, in science
+      or affairs, that Huxley was resolute for clear ideas and
+      definite courses of conduct. As a matter of fact, no one
+      ever took greater care to satisfy himself as best he could
+      as to what was right and what was wrong; but where action
+      rather than reflection was needed, then his principle was
+      to act, and to know definitely and clearly why you acted
+      and for what you acted. In matters of opinion, on the other
+      hand, he was all for not coming to a definite opinion when
+      the facts obtainable did not justify such an opinion. In
+      thought, agnosticism, the refusal to accept any ideas or
+      principles except on sufficient evidence; in action,
+      positivism, to act promptly in definite and known
+      directions for definite and known objects: these were his
+      principles.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p281"
+      id="p281">[281]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Another aspect of the same trait of character, he shewed in
+      an address to medical students at a distribution of prizes.
+      After congratulating the victors he confessed to "an
+      undercurrent of sympathy for those who have not been
+      successful, for those valiant knights who have been
+      overthrown in their tourney, and have not made their
+      appearance in public." After recounting an early failure of
+      his own, he proceeded:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "I said to myself, 'Never mind; what's the next thing to
+        be done?' And I found that policy of 'never minding' and
+        going on to the next thing to be done, to be the most
+        important of all policies in the conduct of practical
+        life. It does not matter how many tumbles you have in
+        this life, so long as you do not get dirty when you
+        tumble; it is only the people who have to stop to be
+        washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the
+        race. You learn that which is of inestimable
+        importance&mdash;that there are a great many people in
+        the world who are just as clever as you are. You learn to
+        put your trust, by and by, in an economy and frugality of
+        the exercise of your powers both moral and intellectual;
+        and you very soon find out, if you have not found it out
+        before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are worth
+        more than twice their weight of cleverness."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All Huxley's work was marked by a quality which may be
+      called conscientiousness or thoroughness. Looking through
+      his memoirs, written many years ago, the subjects of which
+      have since been handled and rehandled by other writers with
+      new knowledge and with new methods at their disposal, one
+      is struck that all the observations he made have stood
+      their ground. With new facts new generalisations have often
+      been reached, and some of the positions occupied by Huxley
+      have been turned. But what he saw and described had not to
+      be redescribed; the citations he made from the older
+      authorities were always so chosen as to <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p282" id="p282">[282]</a></span>
+      contain the exact gist of the writers. These qualities,
+      admirable in scientific work, became at once admirable and
+      terrible in his controversial writings. His own exactness
+      made him ruthless in exposing any inexactness in his
+      adversaries, and there were few disputants who left an
+      argument with Huxley in an undamaged condition. The
+      consciousness which he had of his own careful methods,
+      added to a natural pugnacity, gave him an intellectual
+      courage of a very high order. As he knew himself to have
+      made sure of his premisses, he did not care whither his
+      conclusions might lead him, against whatsoever established
+      doctrine or accepted axiom.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There was, however, a strong spice of natural combativeness
+      in his nature, the direct result of his native and highly
+      trained critical faculty. He tells us that in the
+      pre-Darwinian days he was accustomed to defend the fixity
+      of species in the company of evolutionists and in the
+      presence of the orthodox to attack the same doctrine. Later
+      in life, when evolution had become fashionable, and the
+      principles of Darwinism were being elevated into a new
+      dogmatism, he was as ready to criticise the loose adherents
+      of his own views as he had been to expose the weakness of
+      the conventional dogmatists.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Perhaps the most striking feature of Huxley's work as a
+      whole was its infectious nature. His vigorous and decided
+      personality was reflected on all the subjects to which he
+      gave attention, and in the same fashion as his presence
+      infected persons with a personal enthusiasm so his writings
+      stimulated readers to efforts along the same lines. His
+      great influence is clear in the number and distinction of
+      the biologists who came under his personal care, and in the
+      great army of writers and thinkers who have been inspired
+      by his <span class="pagenum"><a name="p283"
+      id="p283">[283]</a></span> views and methods on general
+      questions. His position as an actual contributor to science
+      has to a certain extent been lost sight of for two reasons.
+      In the first place, his effect on the world as an expositor
+      of the scientific method in its general application to life
+      has overshadowed his exact work; in the second place, his
+      exact work itself has been partly lost sight of in the new
+      discoveries and advances to which it gave rise. It is
+      therefore necessary to reiterate that, apart from all his
+      other successes, he had made for himself an extremely
+      distinguished position in the annals of exact science. Sir
+      Michael Foster and Prof. Ray Lankester, in their preface to
+      the collected edition of his scientific memoirs, make a
+      just claim for him. These memoirs, they wrote, show that,
+      "apart from the influence exerted by his popular writings,
+      the progress of biology during the present century was
+      largely due to labours of his of which the general public
+      knew nothing, and that he was in some respects the most
+      original and most fertile in discovery of all his fellow
+      workers in the same branch of science."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There can be little question that it was no accident that
+      determined the direction of Huxley's career. He was a
+      naturalist by inborn vocation. The contrast between a
+      natural bent and an acquired habit of life was well seen in
+      the case of Huxley and Macgillivray, his companion on the
+      <i>Rattlesnake</i>. The former was appointed as a surgeon,
+      and it was no part of his duties to busy himself with the
+      creatures of the sea; and yet his observations on them made
+      a series of real contributions to biological science and
+      laid the sure foundation of a world-wide and enduring
+      reputation. The latter was the son of a naturalist, a
+      naturalist by profession, and appointed to the expedition
+      as its official naturalist; <span class="pagenum"><a
+      name="p284" id="p284">[284]</a></span> and yet he made only
+      a few observations and a limited collection of curiosities,
+      and even his exiguous place in the annals of zo&ouml;logy
+      is the accidental result of his companionship with Huxley.
+      The special natural endowments which Huxley brought to the
+      study of zo&ouml;logy were, in the first place, a faculty
+      for the patient and assiduous observation of facts; in the
+      second, a swift power of discriminating between the
+      essential and the accessory among facts; in the third, the
+      constructive ability to arrange these essentials in wide
+      generalisations which we call laws or principles and which,
+      within the limits necessarily set by inductive principles,
+      are the starting-point for new deductions. These were the
+      faculties which he brought to his science, but there were
+      added to them two personal characteristics without which
+      they would not have taken him far. They were impelled by a
+      driving force which distinguishes the successful man from
+      the muddler and without which the finest mental powers are
+      as useless as a complicated machine disconnected from its
+      driving-wheel. They were directed by a lofty and
+      disinterested enthusiasm, without which the most talented
+      man is a mere self-seeker, useless or dangerous to society.
+      The faculties and qualities which made Huxley great as a
+      zo&ouml;logist were practically those which he applied to
+      the general questions of biological theory, to the problems
+      of education and of society, and to philosophy and
+      metaphysics. A comparison between his sane and forcible
+      handling of questions that lay outside the special province
+      to which the greater part of his life was devoted, with the
+      dubious and involved treatment given such questions by the
+      professional politicians to whom the English races tend to
+      entrust their destinies, is a useful comment on that value
+      of <span class="pagenum"><a name="p285"
+      id="p285">[285]</a></span> science as discipline to which
+      Huxley so strenuously called attention.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There can be no better way of ending this sketch of
+      Huxley's life and work than by quoting his own account of
+      the objects to which he had devoted himself consciously.
+      These were:
+    </p>
+    <div class="blockquot">
+      <p>
+        "To promote the increase of natural knowledge and to
+        forward the application of scientific methods of
+        investigation to all the problems of life to the best of
+        my ability, in the conviction which has grown with my
+        growth and strengthened with my strength, that there is
+        no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except
+        veracity of thought and of action, and the resolute
+        facing of the world as it is when the garment of
+        make-believe by which pious hands have hidden its uglier
+        features is stripped off.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "It is with this intent that I have subordinated any
+        reasonable or unreasonable ambition for scientific fame
+        which I may have permitted myself to entertain to other
+        ends; to the popularisation of science; to the
+        development and organisation of scientific education; to
+        the endless series of battles and skirmishes over
+        evolution; and to untiring opposition to that
+        ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in
+        England, as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination
+        it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "In striving for the attainment of these objects, I have
+        been but one among many, and I shall be well content to
+        be remembered, or even not remembered, as such.
+        Circumstances, among which I am proud to reckon the
+        devoted kindness of many friends, have led to my
+        occupation of various prominent positions, among which
+        the presidency of the Royal Society is the highest. It
+        would be mock modesty on my part, with these and other
+        scientific honours which have been bestowed upon me, to
+        pretend that I have not succeeded in the career which I
+        have followed, rather because I was driven into it than
+        of my own free will; but I am afraid I should not count
+        even these things as marks of success if I could not hope
+        that I had not somewhat helped that movement of opinion
+        which has been called the New Reformation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <p>
+      <span class="back"><a
+      href="#CONTENTS">[Contents]</a></span> <span
+      class="pagenum"><a name="p287" id="p287">[287]</a></span>
+    </p>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-287.png" alt="" title="" height="83"
+        width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      <a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a>
+    </h2>
+    <h4>
+      <a href="#InA">A</a>  <a href="#InB">B</a> <a
+      href="#InC">C</a>  <a href="#InD">D</a>    <a
+      href="#InE">E</a>  <a href="#InF">F</a>   <a
+      href="#InG">G</a>  <a href="#InH">H</a>   <a
+      href="#InI">I</a>  <a href="#InJ">J</a>   <a
+      href="#InK">K</a>  <a href="#InL">L</a>   <a
+      href="#InM">M</a>  <a href="#InN">N</a>   <a
+      href="#InO">O</a>  <a href="#InP">P</a>   <a
+      href="#InQ">Q</a>  <a href="#InR">R</a>   <a
+      href="#InS">S</a>  <a href="#InT">T</a>   <a
+      href="#InU">U</a>  <a href="#InV">V</a>   <a
+      href="#InW">W</a>  <a href="#InY">Y</a>   <a
+      href="#InZ">Z</a>
+    </h4>
+    <div style="margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%">
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InA" id="InA" href="#INDEX">A</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Adams, <a href="#p209">209</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Admiralty, <a href="#p14">14</a>, <a href="#p48">48</a>,
+        <a href="#p49">49</a>
+      </p>
+      Agassiz, <a href="#p68">68</a>, <a href="#p91">91</a>, <a
+      href="#p99">99</a>
+      <p>
+        Age of the earth, <a href="#p84">84</a>, <a
+        href="#p85">85</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Agnosticism, <a href="#p239">239</a>, <a
+        href="#p241">241</a>-<a href="#p243">243</a>, <a
+        href="#p279">279</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ahriman, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Alchemists, <a href="#p256">256</a>, <a
+        href="#p257">257</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Alternation of generations, <a href="#p53">53</a>, <a
+        href="#p54">54</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ameghino, <a href="#p141">141</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        America, <a href="#p70">70</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        American addresses, <a href="#p71">71</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        American fossils, <a href="#p75">75</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        American monkeys, <a href="#p163">163</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Amphibia, <a href="#p143">143</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Amphioxus, <a href="#p22">22</a>, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Anatomy of man and ape, <a href="#p161">161</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Anchitherium, <a href="#p70">70</a>, <a
+        href="#p74">74</a>, <a href="#p76">76</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Animal kingdom, old views of, <a href="#p35">35</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Animals and plants, <a href="#p97">97</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Anthracosaurus, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Anthropomorphism, <a href="#p250">250</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Anthropoid apes, <a href="#p149">149</a>-<a
+        href="#p153">153</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Ape and Tiger" methods, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Appendicularia, <a href="#p56">56</a>, <a
+        href="#p57">57</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Apprenticeship in medicine, <a href="#p183">183</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Arch&aelig;opteryx, <a href="#p136">136</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Archetype of molluscs, <a href="#p58">58</a>, <a
+        href="#p59">59</a>, <a href="#p61">61</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Archetype of Vertebrata, Articulata, and Radiata, <a
+        href="#p62">62</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Arctog&oelig;a, <a href="#p140">140</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Argyll, Duke of, <a href="#p248">248</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Aristotle, <a href="#p100">100</a>, <a
+        href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Arnold, Matthew, <a href="#p185">185</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Articulata of Cuvier, <a href="#p38">38</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ascaris, egg of, <a href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ascidians, <a href="#p55">55</a>-<a href="#p57">57</a>,
+        <a href="#p96">96</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Australia and South America, land connection, <a
+        href="#p141">141</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Authority, <a href="#p175">175</a>, <a
+        href="#p231">231</a>, <a href="#p232">232</a>, <a
+        href="#p241">241</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Authority and investigation, <a href="#p179">179</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Authority and knowledge, <a href="#p104">104</a>,
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Axioms, <a href="#p240">240</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InB" id="InB" href="#INDEX">B</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Bach, Sebastian, <a href="#p278">278</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Balfour, F.M., <a href="#p135">135</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Barrier Reef of Australia, <a href="#p20">20</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Basi-cranium of vertebrates, <a href="#p132">132</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Beagle</i>, voyage of, <a href="#p28">28</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Beelzebub, <a href="#p238">238</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Belief, duty of, <a href="#p238">238</a>, <a
+        href="#p239">239</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Belief, nature of scientific, <a href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Beneden, van, <a href="#p59">59</a>, <a
+        href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Berkeley, Bishop, <a href="#p218">218</a>, <a
+        href="#p221">221</a>, <a href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Berkeley, quotation from, <a href="#p221">221</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bible, <a href="#p189">189</a>, <a href="#p192">192</a>,
+        <a href="#p194">194</a>, <a href="#p213">213</a>, <a
+        href="#p235">235</a>, <a href="#p237">237</a>, <a
+        href="#p244">244</a>, <a href="#p245">245</a>, <a
+        href="#p247">247</a>, <a href="#p248">248</a>, <a
+        href="#p250">250</a>, <a href="#p253">253</a>, <a
+        href="#p254">254</a>, <a href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p288"
+        id="p288">[288]</a></span> Bible and geology, <a
+        href="#p80">80</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bibliolatry, <a href="#p235">235</a>, <a
+        href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bimana, <a href="#p164">164</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Biology and medical education, <a href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Birds, ancestry of, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Birds, classification of, <a href="#p135">135</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Birmingham, <a href="#p185">185</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bishop, <a href="#p175">175</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bishop Berkeley, <a href="#p218">218</a>, <a
+        href="#p221">221</a>, <a href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bishop of Norwich, <a href="#p33">33</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bishop of Oxford, <i>see</i> Wilberforce
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Boards for elementary education, <a href="#p188">188</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bojanus, <a href="#p173">173</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bones of horse, <a href="#p71">71</a>, <a
+        href="#p72">72</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bones, cartilage, and membrane, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Books, value of, <a href="#p175">175</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Booth, "General," <a href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Bourbon, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Brahma, <a href="#p272">272</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Brain of man and apes, <a href="#p120">120</a>, <a
+        href="#p145">145</a>, <a href="#p146">146</a>, <a
+        href="#p162">162</a>, <a href="#p163">163</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Brain and mind, <a href="#p220">220</a>, <a
+        href="#p221">221</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Brain-weights, <a href="#p164">164</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Breathing, <a href="#p168">168</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Breeding, selective, <a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Brehm, <a href="#p153">153</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        British Association, <a href="#p68">68</a>, <a
+        href="#p120">120</a>, <a href="#p125">125</a>, <a
+        href="#p274">274</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Brooks, Professor W.K., <a href="#p94">94</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Buckland, Professor, <a href="#p80">80</a>, <a
+        href="#p234">234</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Buddhists, <a href="#p1">1</a>, <a href="#p272">272</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Buffon, <a href="#p15">15</a>, <a href="#p90">90</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Burnett, Sir William, <a href="#p11">11</a>, <a
+        href="#p46">46</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Busk, George, <a href="#p49">49</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InC" id="InC" href="#INDEX">C</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Cabanis, <a href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        C&aelig;sar, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cana, miracle at, <a href="#p257">257</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cape York, <a href="#p25">25</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Carinates, <a href="#p137">137</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Carlyle, Thomas, <a href="#p111">111</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cartesian axiom, <a href="#p222">222</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cartilage bones, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cartilaginous skulls, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Catastrophism in geology, <a href="#p80">80</a>, <a
+        href="#p249">249</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Catholicism, <a href="#p123">123</a>, <a
+        href="#p214">214</a>, <a href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cells, <a href="#p52">52</a>, <a href="#p53">53</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cephalous molluscs, <a href="#p58">58</a>, <a
+        href="#p59">59</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chalk, <a href="#p266">266</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Challenger</i> expedition, <a href="#p15">15</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, <a href="#p80">80</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chambers, R., <a href="#p62">62</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chamisso, <a href="#p53">53</a>, <a href="#p56">56</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chance, <a href="#p229">229</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Change in universe, <a href="#p249">249</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Charing Cross Hospital, <a href="#p8">8</a>, <a
+        href="#p9">9</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chaucer, <a href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chemistry and alchemy, <a href="#p257">257</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chess, life compared with, <a href="#p169">169</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Children, education of, <a href="#p189">189</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chimpanzees, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a
+        href="#p163">163</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chondrocranium, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Christianity and evolution, <a href="#p122">122</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Christian civilisation and authority, <a
+        href="#p232">232</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Chronology of the Bible, <a href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Church of England, <a href="#p111">111</a>, <a
+        href="#p112">112</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Church, the, and science, <a href="#p236">236</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classical education, <a href="#p185">185</a>, <a
+        href="#p210">210</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification of birds, <a href="#p135">135</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification by Cuvier, <a href="#p38">38</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification by Linn&aelig;us, <a href="#p38">38</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification of mammals, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification of man, <a href="#p146">146</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification by old authors, <a href="#p37">37</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Classification of vertebrates, <a href="#p143">143</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Clergy as critics of science, <a href="#p236">236</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Clericalism, <a href="#p239">239</a>, <a
+        href="#p284">284</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Clodd, E., <a href="#p90">90</a>, <a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        C&oelig;lenterata, <a href="#p42">42</a>, <a
+        href="#p96">96</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        C&oelig;lomata, <a href="#p43">43</a>, <a
+        href="#p44">44</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Commissions, royal, <a href="#p195">195</a>, <a
+        href="#p204">204</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Common sense and metaphysics, <a href="#p218">218</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Common sense and science, <a href="#p209">209</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Conduct and religion, <a href="#p261">261</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Congo, <a href="#p149">149</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p289"
+        id="p289">[289]</a></span> Conscience, <a
+        href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Conscientiousness, <a href="#p280">280</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Consciousness, <a href="#p220">220</a>, <a
+        href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Contemporaneity, geological, <a href="#p79">79</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Continuity of nature, <a href="#p255">255</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cookery in schools, <a href="#p190">190</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cope, Professor, <a href="#p69">69</a>, <a
+        href="#p94">94</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Corals of Barrier Reef, <a href="#p20">20</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Corybantic Christianity," <a href="#p215">215</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cosmic process, <a href="#p268">268</a>, <a
+        href="#p270">270</a>, <a href="#p271">271</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cosmogony of the Hebrews, <a href="#p244">244</a>, <a
+        href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cosmos, <a href="#p229">229</a>, <a href="#p263">263</a>,
+        <a href="#p265">265</a>, <a href="#p267">267</a>,
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cowper-Temple Clause, <a href="#p188">188</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Crayfish, <a href="#p158">158</a>, <a
+        href="#p173">173</a>, <a href="#p277">277</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Creation, <a href="#p139">139</a>, <a
+        href="#p246">246</a>, <a href="#p252">252</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Creator, the, <a href="#p250">250</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Credibility of authority, <a href="#p232">232</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Criticism, Biblical, <a href="#p194">194</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Criticism of life, <a href="#p185">185</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Croonian lectures, <a href="#p65">65</a>, <a
+        href="#p129">129</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ctenophora, <a href="#p42">42</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Culture and science, <a href="#p185">185</a>, <a
+        href="#p186">186</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Curriculum of medical education, <a href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cuttle-fish, <a href="#p58">58</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Cuvier, <a href="#p6">6</a>, <a href="#p38">38</a>, <a
+        href="#p115">115</a>, <a href="#p132">132</a>, <a
+        href="#p133">133</a>, <a href="#p136">136</a>, <a
+        href="#p209">209</a>, <a href="#p211">211</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InD" id="InD" href="#INDEX">D</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Darwin, Charles, <a href="#p27">27</a>-<a
+        href="#p29">29</a>, <a href="#p60">60</a>, <a
+        href="#p61">61</a>, <a href="#p68">68</a>, chapters <a
+        href="#CHAPTER_VIII">viii</a>. and <a
+        href="#CHAPTER_IX">ix</a>., <a href="#p138">138</a>, <a
+        href="#p147">147</a>, <a href="#p166">166</a>, <a
+        href="#p229">229</a>, <a href="#p242">242</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Darwin medal, <a href="#p108">108</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Darwin, voyage of, <a href="#p27">27</a>, <a
+        href="#p28">28</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Darwin, Erasmus, <a href="#p90">90</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Darwinism, <a href="#p103">103</a>, <a
+        href="#p104">104</a>, <a href="#p106">106</a>, <a
+        href="#p123">123</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Darwinism, Huxley's late and early opinions on, <a
+        href="#p106">106</a>-<a href="#p109">109</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Darwinism and Lamarckism, <a href="#p94">94</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Days" of creation, <a href="#p251">251</a>, <a
+        href="#p252">252</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        De la Beche, Sir Henry, <a href="#p63">63</a>, <a
+        href="#p64">64</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Deluge, the, <a href="#p235">235</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Descartes, <a href="#p219">219</a>, <a
+        href="#p240">240</a>, <a href="#p243">243</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Design, argument from, <a href="#p230">230</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Despotism and the Bible, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Devonian fishes, <a href="#p68">68</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Deuteronomy, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Dinosaurs and the ancestry of birds, <a
+        href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Diprotodonts, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Dissection in laboratories, <a href="#p181">181</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Divine will and science, <a href="#p233">233</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Doctrine of the Deluge</i>, <a href="#p235">235</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Dogma and literature in the Bible, <a
+        href="#p254">254</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Doliolum, <a href="#p56">56</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Domestic economy, <a href="#p190">190</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Doubt, duty of, <a href="#p232">232</a>, <a
+        href="#p239">239</a>, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Drawing for children, <a href="#p193">193</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Dredging, <a href="#p22">22</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Drill for children, <a href="#p189">189</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Durckheim, Strauss, <a href="#p173">173</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InE" id="InE" href="#INDEX">E</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Earth, age of, <a href="#p84">84</a>, <a
+        href="#p85">85</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Eastbourne, <a href="#p277">277</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ecclesiasticism, <a href="#p235">235</a>, <a
+        href="#p239">239</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Echidna, <a href="#p156">156</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Economy, domestic, <a href="#p190">190</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Edinburgh, <a href="#p174">174</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, <a href="#p115">115</a>, <a
+        href="#p116">116</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, classical, <a href="#p185">185</a>, <a
+        href="#p210">210</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education of children, <a href="#p170">170</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, elementary, <a href="#p187">187</a>, <a
+        href="#p188">188</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, general, <a href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, liberal, <a href="#p169">169</a>, <a
+        href="#p186">186</a>, <a href="#p210">210</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, medical, <a href="#p181">181</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education and religion, <a href="#p188">188</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, scientific, <a href="#p168">168</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education of teachers, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Education, university, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Eggs of Mammalia, <a href="#p156">156</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Egypt, <a href="#p276">276</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ejects, <a href="#p221">221</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Elementary education, <a href="#p188">188</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Elementary lessons in physiology, <a href="#p172">172</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Embryology and zo&ouml;logy, <a href="#p177">177</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Embryology of brain and skull, <a href="#p130">130</a>-<a
+        href="#p133">133</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p290"
+        id="p290">[290]</a></span> Embryology of Mammals, <a
+        href="#p156">156</a>, <a href="#p157">157</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Embryology of man, <a href="#p159">159</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Embryos, marine, <a href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Embryos of vertebrates, <a href="#p157">157</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Endostyle of Ascidians, <a href="#p56">56</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        England in eighteenth century, <a href="#p239">239</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        English Bible, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        English men of letters, <a href="#p218">218</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        English philosophers, <a href="#p218">218</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Eohippus, <a href="#p78">78</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Erdkunde</i>, <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a
+        href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Error, <a href="#p243">243</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Established church and Education, <a href="#p189">189</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ether, <a href="#p219">219</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ethics and evolution, <a href="#p263">263</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ethical process, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Eutheria, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evidence, limitations of, <a href="#p231">231</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evidence for miraculous, <a href="#p258">258</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evil, <a href="#p268">268</a>, <a href="#p269">269</a>,
+        <a href="#p271">271</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution, <a href="#p60">60</a>, <a href="#p62">62</a>,
+        <a href="#p63">63</a>, <a href="#p108">108</a>, <a
+        href="#p110">110</a>, <a href="#p122">122</a>, <a
+        href="#p168">168</a>, <a href="#p248">248</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and Christianity, <a href="#p122">122</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution of Cosmos, <a href="#p250">250</a>-<a
+        href="#p253">253</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution not an explanation of Cosmos, <a
+        href="#p229">229</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and Darwinism, <a href="#p94">94</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution before Darwin, <a href="#p91">91</a>, <a
+        href="#p93">93</a>, <a href="#p100">100</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution, Darwin's contribution to, <a
+        href="#p93">93</a>, <a href="#p104">104</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and ethics, <a href="#p263">263</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution of horse, <a href="#p73">73</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and natural selection, <a
+        href="#p124">124</a>-<a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and pain, <a href="#p268">268</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution, philosophy of, <a href="#p272">272</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and pal&aelig;ontology, <a href="#p86">86</a>,
+        <a href="#p87">87</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolution and Theism, <a href="#p244">244</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Evolutionist, <a href="#p281">281</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Exposition, Huxley's method of, <a href="#p208">208</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InF" id="InF" href="#INDEX">F</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Faith, agnostic, <a href="#p243">243</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Falkenstein, <a href="#p153">153</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fayrer, Sir Joseph, <a href="#p10">10</a>, <a
+        href="#p11">11</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Feet of anthropoids, <a href="#p164">164</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fertility of artificial breeds, <a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fiddle, <a href="#p278">278</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Fisgard</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#p46">46</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fish, fossil, <a href="#p68">68</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fisheries, Inspector of, <a href="#p277">277</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Flower, Sir William, <a href="#p146">146</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Forbes, Edward, <a href="#p47">47</a>, <a
+        href="#p63">63</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Foreign languages, <a href="#p196">196</a>, <a
+        href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Forms of Animal Life</i>, <a href="#p178">178</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fossils, <a href="#p67">67</a>, <a href="#p68">68</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fossils, chronological arrangement of, <a
+        href="#p87">87</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fossils and evolution, <a href="#p87">87</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Foundation membranes of Medus&aelig;, <a
+        href="#p40">40</a>-<a href="#p43">43</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Foster, Sir Michael, <a href="#p47">47</a>, <a
+        href="#p64">64</a>, <a href="#p180">180</a>, <a
+        href="#p283">283</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Freedom of the Press, <a href="#p240">240</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Freedom of thought, <a href="#p231">231</a>, <a
+        href="#p233">233</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        French, <a href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        French Revolution, <a href="#p111">111</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        French translations, <a href="#p216">216</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Fullerian Professor, <a href="#p64">64</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Function, changes in, <a href="#p230">230</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InG" id="InG" href="#INDEX">G</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Galileo, <a href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gallinaceous birds, <a href="#p139">139</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gambit, <a href="#p169">169</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Game of life, <a href="#p170">170</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Garden, as an instance of interference with cosmic
+        process, <a href="#p267">267</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Garnier, <a href="#p151">151</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gasteropoda, <a href="#p58">58</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gegenbauer, <a href="#p59">59</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Genesis, <a href="#p234">234</a>, <a
+        href="#p248">248</a>, <a href="#p250">250</a>, <a
+        href="#p251">251</a>, <a href="#p252">252</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geographical distribution, <a href="#p137">137</a>-<a
+        href="#p141">141</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geological addresses, <a href="#p79">79</a>, <a
+        href="#p80">80</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geological club, <a href="#p234">234</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p291"
+        id="p291">[291]</a></span> Geological contemporaneity, <a
+        href="#p79">79</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geological history, <a href="#p249">249</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geological Society of London, <a href="#p70">70</a>, <a
+        href="#p78">78</a>, <a href="#p80">80</a>, <a
+        href="#p86">86</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geological time, <a href="#p84">84</a>, <a
+        href="#p85">85</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geology and the Bible, <a href="#p80">80</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geology and catastrophism, <a href="#p80">80</a>, <a
+        href="#p81">81</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geology compared with biology, <a href="#p82">82</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Geology, history of, <a href="#p234">234</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        German, <a href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gibbons, <a href="#p149">149</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Girls, education of, <a href="#p190">190</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Glacial acetic acid, <a href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gladstone, W.E., <a href="#p248">248</a>, <a
+        href="#p250">250</a>, <a href="#p251">251</a>, <a
+        href="#p263">263</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Goethe, <a href="#p99">99</a>, <a href="#p130">130</a>,
+        <a href="#p132">132</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Goethe, quotations from, <a href="#p130">130</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gold, transmutation of, <a href="#p256">256</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Goodness, <a href="#p269">269</a>, <a
+        href="#p273">273</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gorilla, <a href="#p87">87</a>, <a href="#p149">149</a>,
+        <a href="#p161">161</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gospels, <a href="#p254">254</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Gosse, P.H., <a href="#p118">118</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Government, <a href="#p239">239</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Greek, <a href="#p213">213</a>;<br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">in education, <a
+        href="#p186">186</a></span>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Greek ethics, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Groos, Prof., <a href="#p154">154</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InH" id="InH" href="#INDEX">H</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Haeckel, Prof. E., <a href="#p91">91</a>, <a
+        href="#p136">136</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hands of Anthropoids, <a href="#p164">164</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Haslar Hospital, <a href="#p11">11</a>, <a
+        href="#p12">12</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Heathorn, Miss H.A., <a href="#p19">19</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hebrew Cosmogony, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hebrew Morality, <a href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hebrew Scriptures, <a href="#p250">250</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Heine, <a href="#p261">261</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Henle and Meissner, reports of, <a href="#p182">182</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hercules, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hertwig, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hindustan, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hipparion, <a href="#p74">74</a>-<a href="#p76">76</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hippocampus minor, <a href="#p162">162</a>, <a
+        href="#p163">163</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Histological methods, <a href="#p177">177</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hobbes, <a href="#p218">218</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Home office, <a href="#p277">277</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Homo, classification of, <a href="#p160">160</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Homology in organs of Medus&aelig;, <a
+        href="#p123">123</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Homotaxis in geology, <a href="#p80">80</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, <a href="#p47">47</a>, <a
+        href="#p98">98</a>, <a href="#p101">101</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Horse, <a href="#p68">68</a>-<a href="#p78">78</a>, <a
+        href="#p174">174</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hospitals in London, <a href="#p181">181</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Howes, Professor G.B., <a href="#p173">173</a>, <a
+        href="#p174">174</a>, <a href="#p207">207</a>, <a
+        href="#p277">277</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Humboldt, <a href="#p92">92</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hume, David, <a href="#p217">217</a>, <a
+        href="#p218">218</a>, <a href="#p223">223</a>, <a
+        href="#p240">240</a>, <a href="#p255">255</a>, <a
+        href="#p256">256</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hume, David, quotations from, <a href="#p223">223</a>, <a
+        href="#p241">241</a>, <a href="#p256">256</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Humour, <a href="#p209">209</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hunterian Professor, <a href="#p129">129</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hutton, James, <a href="#p81">81</a>, <a
+        href="#p249">249</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Huxley, birth, <a href="#p2">2</a>;<br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">parents, <a
+        href="#p2">2</a>, <a href="#p3">3</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">school, <a
+        href="#p4">4</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">apprenticed to medicine,
+        <a href="#p5">5</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">enters Charing Cross
+        Hospital, <a href="#p8">8</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">first original paper, <a
+        href="#p9">9</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">graduates at London
+        University, <a href="#p10">10</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes M.R.C.S., <a
+        href="#p11">11</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed to Haslar
+        Hospital, <a href="#p11">11</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed to
+        <i>Rattlesnake</i>, <a href="#p12">12</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">meets his future wife at
+        Sydney, <a href="#p19">19</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">first paper to Royal
+        Society, <a href="#p33">33</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Royal medals, <a
+        href="#p34">34</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes F.R.S., <a
+        href="#p47">47</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves naval service, <a
+        href="#p48">48</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed to Geological
+        Survey and School of Mines, <a
+        href="#p63">63</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes Fullerian
+        Professor, <a href="#p64">64</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage, <a
+        href="#p64">64</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">examiner, <a
+        href="#p65">65</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Croonian lecturer, <a
+        href="#p66">66</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">visits America, <a
+        href="#p70">70</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes Secretary and
+        President of Geological Society, <a
+        href="#p78">78</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepts Darwinism, <a
+        href="#p101">101</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives Darwin medal,
+        <a href="#p108">108</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes Hunterian
+        Professor, <a href="#p129">129</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">starts laboratory
+        courses at South Kensington, <a
+        href="#p180">180</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes candidate for
+        London School Board, <a
+        href="#p189">189</a>;</span><br />
+         <span class="pagenum"><a name="p292"
+        id="p292">[292]</a></span> <span
+        style="margin-left: 1em;">serves on Royal Commissions, <a
+        href="#p196">196</a>, <a
+        href="#p204">204</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes member of Her
+        Majesty's Privy Council, <a
+        href="#p205">205</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage, <a
+        href="#p274">274</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">ill-health and
+        retirement, <a href="#p276">276</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a
+        href="#p277">277</a>;</span><br />
+         <span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal appearance, <a
+        href="#p277">277</a></span>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Huxley's layer in root-sheath of hairs, <a
+        href="#p10">10</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hydra, <a href="#p50">50</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Hypothesis as to History of Nature, <a
+        href="#p248">248</a>, <a href="#p249">249</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InI" id="InI" href="#INDEX">I</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Ichthyopsida, <a href="#p143">143</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Idealism, <a href="#p220">220</a>, <a
+        href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ideals and culture, <a href="#p186">186</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Indian speculation, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Individuality of animals, <a href="#p49">49</a>, <a
+        href="#p50">50</a>, <a href="#p51">51</a>, <a
+        href="#p52">52</a>, <a href="#p55">55</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Infallibility, <a href="#p123">123</a>, <a
+        href="#p236">236</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Inspiration, <a href="#p246">246</a>, <a
+        href="#p247">247</a>, <a href="#p253">253</a>, <a
+        href="#p254">254</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Instincts, <a href="#p154">154</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Intellect, <a href="#p243">243</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Intermediate and linear types, <a href="#p87">87</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>International Scientific Series</i>, <a
+        href="#p173">173</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Invertebrata, Manual of</i>, <a href="#p175">175</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ionia, <a href="#p169">169</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Israel, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InJ" id="InJ" href="#INDEX">J</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Jermyn Street lectures to working men, <a
+        href="#p207">207</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#p219">219</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Judaism and science, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Justice, <a href="#p265">265</a>, <a
+        href="#p269">269</a>, <a href="#p271">271</a>, <a
+        href="#p273">273</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InK" id="InK" href="#INDEX">K</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Kant, <a href="#p84">84</a>, <a href="#p242">242</a>, <a
+        href="#p262">262</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Karma, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Kelvin, Lord, <a href="#p84">84</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Knowledge and authority, <a href="#p104">104</a>, <a
+        href="#p105">105</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        K&ouml;lliker, <a href="#p49">49</a>, <a
+        href="#p59">59</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Kowalevsky, <a href="#p57">57</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InL" id="InL" href="#INDEX">L</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Laboratory work, <a href="#p177">177</a>, <a
+        href="#p179">179</a>, <a href="#p180">180</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Labyrinthodonts, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lamarck, <a href="#p90">90</a>, <a href="#p91">91</a>, <a
+        href="#p97">97</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lamarckism and Darwinism, <a href="#p94">94</a>, <a
+        href="#p97">97</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Languages, modern, <a href="#p6">6</a>, <a
+        href="#p7">7</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lankester, Professor E. Ray, <a href="#p57">57</a>, <a
+        href="#p60">60</a>, <a href="#p94">94</a>, <a
+        href="#p180">180</a>, <a href="#p277">277</a>, <a
+        href="#p282">282</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Larv&aelig;, <a href="#p158">158</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Latin, <a href="#p186">186</a>, <a href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Law-courts and evidence, <a href="#p231">231</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lawrence, Sir W., <a href="#p144">144</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lectures at the School of Mines, <a href="#p180">180</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lemurs, <a href="#p163">163</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Leutemann, <a href="#p153">153</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Leverrier, <a href="#p209">209</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Leviticus, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Liberal education, <a href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Life, origin of, <a href="#p227">227</a>, <a
+        href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Limbs of Man and Gorilla, <a href="#p162">162</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Linear and intermediate types, <a href="#p87">87</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Linn&aelig;an Society of London, <a href="#p33">33</a>,
+        <a href="#p49">49</a>, <a href="#p115">115</a>, <a
+        href="#p138">138</a>, <a href="#p145">145</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Linn&aelig;us, <a href="#p38">38</a>, <a
+        href="#p234">234</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Literary culture, <a href="#p186">186</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Literary Gazette</i>, <a href="#p48">48</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Literary style, <a href="#p211">211</a>, <a
+        href="#p212">212</a>, <a href="#p213">213</a>, <a
+        href="#p214">214</a>, <a href="#p215">215</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Literature, the Bible as, <a href="#p254">254</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Liverpool, <a href="#p169">169</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Living bodies, nature of, <a href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Locke, <a href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lockyer, Sir Norman, <a href="#p211">211</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        London, medical education in, <a href="#p181">181</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        London, school board of, <a href="#p189">189</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Loyola, <a href="#p262">262</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Loxomma, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lucas, Mr., <a href="#p113">113</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Luther, <a href="#p262">262</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p293"
+        id="p293">[293]</a></span> Lyell, Sir Charles, <a
+        href="#p81">81</a>, <a href="#p91">91</a>, <a
+        href="#p98">98</a>, <a href="#p144">144</a>, <a
+        href="#p234">234</a>, <a href="#p249">249</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Lyonet, <a href="#p173">173</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InM" id="InM" href="#INDEX">M</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        MacGillivray, John, <a href="#p16">16</a>, <a
+        href="#p17">17</a>, <a href="#p282">282</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        MacGillivray, William, <a href="#p16">16</a>, <a
+        href="#p100">100</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Macmillan and Co., <a href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Magna Charta, the Bible as, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mammalia, classification of, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Man and the Apes, <a href="#p155">155</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Man, classification of, <a href="#p146">146</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Man and Gorilla, <a href="#p161">161</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Man, origin of, <a href="#p144">144</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Man and the Apes</i>, <a href="#p165">165</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Man's Place in Nature</i>, <a href="#p147">147</a>, <a
+        href="#p148">148</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Manes and Manicheism, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mantle of molluscs, <a href="#p58">58</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals</i>, <a
+        href="#p175">175</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals</i>, <a
+        href="#p175">175</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Marine embryos, <a href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Marmosets, <a href="#p163">163</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Marriage, <a href="#p19">19</a>, <a href="#p274">274</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Marsh, Professor, <a href="#p70">70</a>-<a
+        href="#p78">78</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Marsupials, <a href="#p141">141</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mason, Sir Josiah, <a href="#p185">185</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Materialism, <a href="#p217">217</a>, <a
+        href="#p220">220</a>, <a href="#p222">222</a>, <a
+        href="#p225">225</a>, <a href="#p227">227</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Matter and ideas, <a href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Matter, nature of, <a href="#p219">219</a>-<a
+        href="#p221">221</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Matthew, Patrick, <a href="#p100">100</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mauritius, <a href="#p18">18</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Medical education, <a href="#p167">167</a>, <a
+        href="#p181">181</a>, <a href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Medical students, <a href="#p181">181</a>, <a
+        href="#p279">279</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Medus&aelig;, <a href="#p33">33</a>, <a
+        href="#p39">39</a>, <a href="#p40">40</a>, <a
+        href="#p41">41</a>, <a href="#p42">42</a>, <a
+        href="#p96">96</a>, <a href="#p123">123</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Membrane bones, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mental capacity of apes, <a href="#p152">152</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mercy, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mertens, <a href="#p56">56</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mesohippus, <a href="#p77">77</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Metals, transmutation of, <a href="#p257">257</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Metaphysics, <a href="#p241">241</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Metaphysics and science, <a href="#p217">217</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Metatheria, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Methods in histology, <a href="#p177">177</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Microscope, <a href="#p32">32</a>, <a
+        href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Microtomes, <a href="#p177">177</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Milton, <a href="#p213">213</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mind and body, <a href="#p220">220</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mind, growth of, <a href="#p210">210</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Miohippus, <a href="#p76">76</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Miracles, <a href="#p246">246</a>, <a
+        href="#p254">254</a>-<a href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Missionary spirit, <a href="#p262">262</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mitral valve, <a href="#p175">175</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mivart, Dr. St. George, <a href="#p246">246</a>-<a
+        href="#p248">248</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Modern spirit, <a href="#p241">241</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Modification of species, <a href="#p92">92</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mollusca, <a href="#p56">56</a>, <a href="#p58">58</a>,
+        <a href="#p59">59</a>, <a href="#p60">60</a>, <a
+        href="#p61">61</a>, <a href="#p96">96</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Morality and religion, <a href="#p237">237</a>, <a
+        href="#p238">238</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Morality of Stoics, <a href="#p238">238</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Morley, John, <a href="#p217">217</a>, <a
+        href="#p260">260</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mosaic Deluge, <a href="#p235">235</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Moseley, Professor H.N., <a href="#p15">15</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Mucous layer of germ, <a href="#p43">43</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        M&uuml;ller, Johannes, <a href="#p6">6</a>, <a
+        href="#p37">37</a>, <a href="#p56">56</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Music, <a href="#p278">278</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InN" id="InN" href="#INDEX">N</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Naples, International Zo&ouml;logical Station at, <a
+        href="#p176">176</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Naturalism, <a href="#p226">226</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Natural selection, <a href="#p94">94</a>, <a
+        href="#p99">99</a>, <a href="#p100">100</a>, <a
+        href="#p103">103</a>, <a href="#p105">105</a>, <a
+        href="#p124">124</a>-<a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Nature, continuity of, <a href="#p255">255</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Nature, history of, <a href="#p248">248</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Nature, state of, <a href="#p266">266</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Nature</i>, <a href="#p211">211</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Naval Architecture and Timber</i>, <a
+        href="#p100">100</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Nebular hypothesis, <a href="#p230">230</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Newman, Cardinal, <a href="#p240">240</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        New Testament, <a href="#p253">253</a>, <a
+        href="#p254">254</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Nirvana, <a href="#p272">272</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Noah's Deluge, <a href="#p235">235</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Notochord, <a href="#p134">134</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Notog&oelig;a, <a href="#p140">140</a>
+      </p>
+      <span class="pagenum"><a name="p294"
+      id="p294">[294]</a></span>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InO" id="InO" href="#INDEX">O</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Oken, <a href="#p130">130</a>, <a href="#p132">132</a>,
+        <a href="#p133">133</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Old Testament, <a href="#p90">90</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Omar, <a href="#p272">272</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Optimism, <a href="#p270">270</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Orangs, <a href="#p149">149</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Order of nature, <a href="#p255">255</a>, <a
+        href="#p258">258</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Organic <i>versus</i> Inorganic, <a href="#p229">229</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Organon, <a href="#p242">242</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Origin of species, <a href="#p89">89</a>, <a
+        href="#p95">95</a>, <a href="#p101">101</a>, <a
+        href="#p102">102</a>, <a href="#p110">110</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Origin of Species</i>, reviews of, <a
+        href="#p113">113</a>, <a href="#p114">114</a>, <a
+        href="#p115">115</a>, <a href="#p146">146</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ormuzd, <a href="#p265">265</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ornithology, <a href="#p136">136</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ornithorhynchus, <a href="#p156">156</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ornithoscelida, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Orohippus, <a href="#p77">77</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Orthodoxy, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Owen, Sir Richard, <a href="#p65">65</a>, <a
+        href="#p66">66</a>, <a href="#p115">115</a>, <a
+        href="#p118">118</a>-<a href="#p121">121</a>, <a
+        href="#p131">131</a>, <a href="#p133">133</a>, <a
+        href="#p136">136</a>, <a href="#p145">145</a>, <a
+        href="#p146">146</a>, <a href="#p162">162</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Oxford, <a href="#p120">120</a>, <a href="#p125">125</a>,
+        <a href="#p263">263</a>, <a href="#p264">264</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Oxford, Bishop of, <i>see</i> Wilberforce
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InP" id="InP" href="#INDEX">P</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Pain, <a href="#p268">268</a>, <a href="#p270">270</a>,
+        <a href="#p271">271</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pal&aelig;ontology and evolution, <a href="#p68">68</a>,
+        <a href="#p86">86</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pal&aelig;otherium, <a href="#p74">74</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Paley, <a href="#p230">230</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pascal, <a href="#p122">122</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Payment of teachers by results, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pelagic life, <a href="#p30">30</a>, <a
+        href="#p31">31</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pelvis of man and gorilla, <a href="#p161">161</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pentateuch, <a href="#p234">234</a>, <a
+        href="#p244">244</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pessimism, <a href="#p270">270</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Phillips, Professor, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Philosophic Zo&ouml;logique</i>, <a
+        href="#p97">97</a>, <a href="#p98">98</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Philosophy, Huxley's advice on, <a href="#p218">218</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Phosphorescence, <a href="#p55">55</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Physical education, <a href="#p189">189</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Physical geography, <a href="#p170">170</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Physics</i> of Aristotle, <a href="#p100">100</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Physiography</i>, <a href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Physiology, <a href="#p172">172</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pigafetta, <a href="#p149">149</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pigmies, <a href="#p149">149</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Pioneers of Evolution</i>, <a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Plankton, <a href="#p30">30</a>, <a href="#p31">31</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Plato's Archetypes, <a href="#p59">59</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Plato's philosophy, <a href="#p224">224</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pliohippus, <a href="#p76">76</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Portuguese man-of-war," <a href="#p41">41</a>, <a
+        href="#p50">50</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Possibilities in logic, <a href="#p258">258</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Poulton, Professor E.B., <a href="#p109">109</a>, <a
+        href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Prayer, efficacy of, <a href="#p258">258</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Priestley, Joseph, <a href="#p239">239</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Primers of science, <a href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Primitive groove, <a href="#p135">135</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Principles of Geology</i>, <a href="#p234">234</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Professional education, <a href="#p183">183</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Protestantism, <a href="#p123">123</a>, <a
+        href="#p233">233</a>, <a href="#p235">235</a>, <a
+        href="#p236">236</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Protestant churches and knowledge, <a
+        href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Protestants and the Bible, <a href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Protohippus, <a href="#p74">74</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Protoplasm, <a href="#p52">52</a>, <a
+        href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Prototheria, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Psychology, <a href="#p227">227</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pterodactyls, <a href="#p69">69</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pteropods, <a href="#p56">56</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Pyrosoma, <a href="#p55">55</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InQ" id="InQ" href="#INDEX">Q</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        <i>Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science</i>, <a
+        href="#p49">49</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Quarterly Review</i>, <a href="#p115">115</a>, <a
+        href="#p116">116</a>, <a href="#p117">117</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InR" id="InR" href="#INDEX">R</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Rabbinical maxim of inspiration, <a href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Radiata of Cuvier, <a href="#p38">38</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rathke, <a href="#p65">65</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Ratites, <a href="#p137">137</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Rattlesnake</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#p13">13</a>, <a
+        href="#p20">20</a>, <a href="#p21">21</a>, <a
+        href="#p46">46</a>, <a href="#p282">282</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Reade lecture, <a href="#p146">146</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p295"
+        id="p295">[295]</a></span> Reason, age of, <a
+        href="#p239">239</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Reformation, New, <a href="#p284">284</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Reformation, Protestant, <a href="#p122">122</a>, <a
+        href="#p233">233</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Religion in education, <a href="#p188">188</a>, <a
+        href="#p191">191</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Religion and morality, <a href="#p237">237</a>, <a
+        href="#p238">238</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Religion and science, <a href="#p120">120</a>, <a
+        href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Religion, teaching, <a href="#p191">191</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Results, payment by, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Retina and light, <a href="#p219">219</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Revelation, <a href="#p260">260</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Revolution, French, <a href="#p111">111</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Richardson, Sir John, <a href="#p12">12</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rights of man, <a href="#p245">245</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Robertson, Charles, <a href="#p179">179</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rolleston, Professor, <a href="#p152">152</a>, <a
+        href="#p153">153</a>, <a href="#p266">266</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Romanes, Professor, <a href="#p152">152</a>, <a
+        href="#p153">153</a>, <a href="#p263">263</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Romanes lecture, <a href="#p263">263</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rome, <a href="#p247">247</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Roscoe, Professor, <a href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rosse, Earl of, <a href="#p34">34</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Royal College of Science, <a href="#p176">176</a>, <a
+        href="#p180">180</a>, <a href="#p204">204</a>, <a
+        href="#p274">274</a>, <a href="#p277">277</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Royal College of Surgeons, <a href="#p11">11</a>, <a
+        href="#p129">129</a>, <a href="#p132">132</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Royal Commissions, <a href="#p204">204</a>, <a
+        href="#p274">274</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Royal Institution, <a href="#p49">49</a>, <a
+        href="#p52">52</a>, <a href="#p62">62</a>, <a
+        href="#p64">64</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Royal Society, <a href="#p33">33</a>, <a
+        href="#p34">34</a>, <a href="#p47">47</a>, <a
+        href="#p49">49</a>, <a href="#p53">53</a>, <a
+        href="#p58">58</a>, <a href="#p108">108</a>, <a
+        href="#p129">129</a>, <a href="#p276">276</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Rutherford, Professor, <a href="#p180">180</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InS" id="InS" href="#INDEX">S</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Salisbury, Marquis of, <a href="#p125">125</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Sally," the chimpanzee, <a href="#p153">153</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Salps, <a href="#p50">50</a>, <a href="#p53">53</a>, <a
+        href="#p54">54</a>, <a href="#p55">55</a>, <a
+        href="#p96">96</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Salt, Dr., <a href="#p5">5</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sauropsida, <a href="#p143">143</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Saurur&aelig;, <a href="#p136">136</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Savages, <a href="#p23">23</a>, <a href="#p24">24</a>, <a
+        href="#p165">165</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sawyer, Bob, <a href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Scepticism, <a href="#p240">240</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Schematic mollusc, <a href="#p60">60</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        School boards, <a href="#p188">188</a>, <a
+        href="#p189">189</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        School of Mines, <a href="#p180">180</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Schwann, <a href="#p52">52</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science and Art Department, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science and culture, <a href="#p185">185</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science and Judaism, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science and medical education, <a href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science and metaphysics, <a href="#p217">217</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science and religion, <a href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Science and the Christian Tradition</i>, <a
+        href="#p248">248</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Science and the Hebrew Tradition</i>, <a
+        href="#p248">248</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Science primers, <a href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Scientific education, <a href="#p168">168</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sclater, P.L., <a href="#p138">138</a>, <a
+        href="#p139">139</a>, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Scottish universities, <a href="#p167">167</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Scriptures, <a href="#p246">246</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Section-cutting, <a href="#p177">177</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Secular education, <a href="#p191">191</a>, <a
+        href="#p194">194</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sedgwick, Professor Adam, <a href="#p80">80</a>, <a
+        href="#p115">115</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Segmentation of eggs, <a href="#p157">157</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Segmentation of skull, <a href="#p133">133</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Selection and education, <a href="#p190">190</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Selective breeding, <a href="#p103">103</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Semite, ethics of, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Septuagint, <a href="#p251">251</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Serous layer of germ, <a href="#p43">43</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sheldonian theatre, <a href="#p264">264</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Singing for children, <a href="#p193">193</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Skepsis, th&auml;tige</i>, of Goethe, <a
+        href="#p99">99</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Skull of vertebrates, <a href="#p65">65</a>, <a
+        href="#p129">129</a>, <a href="#p130">130</a>, <a
+        href="#p131">131</a>, <a href="#p132">132</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Socrates, <a href="#p243">243</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Southern hemisphere, former land in, <a
+        href="#p141">141</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Speaking, public, <a href="#p208">208</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Species, <a href="#p92">92</a>, <a href="#p98">98</a>, <a
+        href="#p106">106</a>, <a href="#p107">107</a>, <a
+        href="#p108">108</a>, <a href="#p125">125</a>, <a
+        href="#p126">126</a>, <a href="#p127">127</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Specialists as teachers, <a href="#p182">182</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#p91">91</a>, <a
+        href="#p94">94</a>, <a href="#p123">123</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sponges, <a href="#p42">42</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Spontaneity of living matter, <a href="#p228">228</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Stanley, Captain Owen, <a href="#p12">12</a>, <a
+        href="#p13">13</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        State of nature, <a href="#p266">266</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Stevenson, R.L., quotation from, <a href="#p174">174</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p296"
+        id="p296">[296]</a></span> Stewart, Professor Balfour, <a
+        href="#p171">171</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Stoic morality, <a href="#p192">192</a>, <a
+        href="#p238">238</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Stoics, <a href="#p238">238</a>, <a href="#p269">269</a>,
+        <a href="#p272">272</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Struggle for existence, <a href="#p93">93</a>, <a
+        href="#p94">94</a>, <a href="#p95">95</a>, <a
+        href="#p104">104</a>, <a href="#p266">266</a>, <a
+        href="#p267">267</a>, <a href="#p271">271</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Style, analysis of, <a href="#p211">211</a>, <a
+        href="#p212">212</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Suarez, Father, <a href="#p214">214</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Substance of mind and matter, <a href="#p223">223</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Supernaturalism, <a href="#p226">226</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Superstition, <a href="#p242">242</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Survival of the fittest, <a href="#p93">93</a>, <a
+        href="#p94">94</a>, <a href="#p104">104</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Suspensoria of jaws, <a href="#p133">133</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Switzerland, <a href="#p275">275</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Sydney, <a href="#p19">19</a>, <a href="#p32">32</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Synoptic Gospels, <a href="#p254">254</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InT" id="InT" href="#INDEX">T</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Tapirs, <a href="#p78">78</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Teachers, education of, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Teeth of anthropoids, <a href="#p149">149</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Teeth of the horse, <a href="#p73">73</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Teleology, <a href="#p230">230</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Temper, <a href="#p278">278</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Theism and evolution, <a href="#p244">244</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Theology, <a href="#p259">259</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Theology in education, <a href="#p191">191</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Theoretical work in medical education, <a
+        href="#p184">184</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Thomas, Oldfield, <a href="#p142">142</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Thomson, Sir W., now Lord Kelvin, <i>q.v.</i>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Thread-cells of Medus&aelig;, <a href="#p41">41</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Time required for evolution, <a href="#p84">84</a>, <a
+        href="#p85">85</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Times</i>, the London, <a href="#p66">66</a>, <a
+        href="#p108">108</a>, <a href="#p113">113</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Todd and Bowman's <i>Cyclop&aelig;dia of Anatomy</i>, <a
+        href="#p49">49</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Toronto, University of, <a href="#p48">48</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Tow-net material, <a href="#p31">31</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Transmigration, <a href="#p269">269</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Transmutation of species, <a href="#p99">99</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Treatise on Human Nature</i>, <a href="#p240">240</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Tree of evolution, <a href="#p35">35</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Tyndall, Professor John, <a href="#p47">47</a>, <a
+        href="#p48">48</a>, <a href="#p275">275</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Types, <a href="#p36">36</a>, <a href="#p96">96</a>, <a
+        href="#p166">166</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Types for laboratory dissection, <a href="#p178">178</a>,
+        <a href="#p180">180</a>, <a href="#p181">181</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Types, intermediate and linear, <a href="#p165">165</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InU" id="InU" href="#INDEX">U</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Uniformitarianism in geology, <a href="#p81">81</a>, <a
+        href="#p240">240</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        University education, <a href="#p195">195</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        University of London, <a href="#p65">65</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        University of Toronto, <a href="#p48">48</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InV" id="InV" href="#INDEX">V</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Variation in anatomy, <a href="#p166">166</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Verification, method of, <a href="#p179">179</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vertebr&aelig;, structure of, <a href="#p131">131</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vertebral theory of the skull, <a href="#p129">129</a>-<a
+        href="#p132">132</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vertebrata, <a href="#p128">128</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vertebrata, ancestors of, <a href="#p57">57</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vertebrata, classification of, <a href="#p43">43</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vertebrata, embryos of, <a href="#p157">157</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Vestiges of Creation</i>, <a href="#p63">63</a>, <a
+        href="#p97">97</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Vivisection, <a href="#p205">205</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Voltaire, <a href="#p260">260</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Von Baer, <a href="#p37">37</a>, <a href="#p43">43</a>,
+        <a href="#p62">62</a>, <a href="#p96">96</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Voyage of <i>Beagle</i>, <a href="#p28">28</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Voyage of <i>Challenger</i>, <a href="#p15">15</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Voyage of <i>Rattlesnake</i>, <a href="#p20">20</a>, <a
+        href="#p21">21</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InW" id="InW" href="#INDEX">W</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Wallace, Alfred Russel, <a href="#p95">95</a>, <a
+        href="#p101">101</a>, <a href="#p271">271</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Weight of brains, <a href="#p164">164</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Weismann, Professor A., <a href="#p94">94</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Wells, W.C., <a href="#p100">100</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Westminster Review</i>, <a href="#p107">107</a>, <a
+        href="#p114">114</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Wharton Jones, Dr., <a href="#p9">9</a>, <a
+        href="#p37">37</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Whewell, <a href="#p115">115</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, <a
+        href="#p115">115</a>, <a href="#p116">116</a>, <a
+        href="#p117">117</a>, <a href="#p118">118</a>, <a
+        href="#p120">120</a>, <a href="#p121">121</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="p297"
+        id="p297">[297]</a></span> Willey, Arthur, <a
+        href="#p57">57</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Wine miracle at Cana, <a href="#p257">257</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Wollaston, <a href="#p98">98</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Words, use of, <a href="#p213">213</a>, <a
+        href="#p214">214</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Workmen, lectures to, <a href="#p207">207</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InY" id="InY" href="#INDEX">Y</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        York, Archbishop of, <a href="#p234">234</a>
+      </p>
+      <h4>
+        <a name="InZ" id="InZ" href="#INDEX">Z</a>
+      </h4>
+      <p>
+        Zo&ouml;logical Society, <a href="#p138">138</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Zo&ouml;logical science and laboratories, <a
+        href="#p177">177</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Zo&ouml;logist, Huxley as a, <a href="#p283">283</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Zo&ouml;logy, <a href="#p173">173</a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        Zo&ouml;phytes, <a href="#p40">40</a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-297.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="167" width="286" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr />
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-story.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="82" width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      The Story of the Nations.
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      Messrs. G.P. Putnam's Sons take pleasure in announcing that
+      they have in course of publication, in co-operation with
+      Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of London, a series of historical
+      studies, intended to present in a graphic manner the
+      stories of the different nations that have attained
+      prominence in history.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the story form the current of each national life is
+      distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy
+      periods and episodes are presented for the reader in their
+      philosophical relation to each other as well as to
+      universal history.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to
+      enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring them
+      before the reader as they actually lived, labored, and
+      struggled&mdash;as they studied and wrote, and as they
+      amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths,
+      with which the history of all lands begins, will not be
+      overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished
+      from the actual history, so far as the labors of the
+      accepted historical authorities have resulted in definite
+      conclusions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to
+      cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive
+      epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will
+      present in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in
+      the great <span class="smcap">Story of the Nations</span>;
+      but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue the
+      several volumes in their chronological order.
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <h2>
+      THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in
+      handsome 12mo form. They are adequately illustrated and
+      furnished with maps and indexes. Price per vol., cloth,
+      $1.50; half morocco, gilt top, $1.75.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The following are now ready:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.<br />
+       ROME. Arthur Gilman.<br />
+       THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.<br />
+       CHALDEA. Z.A. Ragozin.<br />
+       GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.<br />
+       NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.<br />
+       SPAIN. Rev. E.E. and Susan Hale.<br />
+       HUNGARY. Prof. A. V&aacute;mb&eacute;ry.<br />
+       CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br />
+       THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.<br />
+       THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+       THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.<br />
+       PERSIA. S.G.W. Benjamin.<br />
+       ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.<br />
+       ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J.P. Mahaffy.<br />
+       ASSYRIA. Z.A. Ragozin.<br />
+       THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.<br />
+       IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.<br />
+       TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+       MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z.A. Ragozin.<br />
+       MEDI&AElig;VAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.<br />
+       HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.<br />
+       MEXICO. Susan Hale.<br />
+       PH&OElig;NICIA. Geo. Rawlinson.<br />
+       THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.<br />
+       EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br />
+       THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Pool.<br />
+       RUSSIA. W.R. Morfill.<br />
+       THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W.D. Morrison.<br />
+       SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.<br />
+       SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.<br />
+       PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.<br />
+       THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C.W.C. Oman.<br />
+       SICILY. E.A. Freeman.<br />
+       THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.<br />
+       POLAND. W.R. Morfill.<br />
+       PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.<br />
+       JAPAN. David Murray.<br />
+       THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H.E. Watts.<br />
+       AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.<br />
+       SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.<br />
+       VENICE. Alethea Wiel.<br />
+       THE CRUSADES. T.S. Archer and C.L. Kingsford.<br />
+       VEDIC INDIA. Z.A. Ragozin.<br />
+       BOHEMIA. C.E. Maurice.<br />
+       CANADA. J.G. Bourinot.<br />
+       THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.<br />
+       BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R.W. Frazer.<br />
+       MODERN FRANCE. Andr&eacute; Le Bon.<br />
+       THE BUILDING OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two
+      vols.<br />
+       THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.<br />
+       THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.<br />
+       THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. Justin
+      McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.<br />
+       AUSTRIA, THE HOME OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY, FROM 1282 TO
+      THE PRESENT DAY. Sidney Whitman.<br />
+       CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.<br />
+       MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A.S. Hume.<br />
+       MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.<br />
+       THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.<br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Other volumes in preparation are:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      THE UNITED STATES, 1775-1897. Prof. A.C. McLaughlin. Two
+      vols.<br />
+       BUDDHIST INDIA. Prof. T.W. Rhys-Davids.<br />
+       MOHAMMEDAN INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+       WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards<br />
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <div class="center">
+      <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+        <img src="images/ill-heroes.png" alt="" title=""
+        height="84" width="400" />
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <h2>
+      Heroes of the Nations.
+    </h2>
+    <h5>
+      EDITED BY
+    </h5>
+    <h3>
+      EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A.,
+    </h3>
+    <h5 class="smcap">
+      Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
+    </h5>
+    <p>
+      A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a
+      number of representative historical characters about whom
+      have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which
+      they belonged, and who have been accepted, in many
+      instances, as types of the several National ideals. With
+      the life of each typical character will be presented a
+      picture of the National conditions surrounding him during
+      his career.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized
+      authorities on their several subjects, and, while
+      thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present picturesque
+      and dramatic "stories" of the Men and of the events
+      connected with them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo
+      volume, handsomely printed in large type, provided with
+      maps and adequately illustrated according to the special
+      requirements of the several subjects. The volumes will be
+      sold separately as follows:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign">$1 50</span>Large 12<sup>o</sup>,
+      cloth extra
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <span class="ralign">1 75</span>Half morocco, uncut edges,
+      gilt top
+    </p>
+    <hr />
+    <h2>
+      HEROES OF THE NATIONS.
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of
+      certain representative historical characters, about whom
+      have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which
+      they belonged, and who have been accepted, in many
+      instances, as types of the several National ideals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The volumes will be sold separately as follows: cloth
+      extra, $1.50; half leather, uncut edges, gilt top, $1.75.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The following are now ready:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.<br />
+       GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C.R.L. Fletcher.<br />
+       PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.<br />
+       THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.<br />
+       SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By. H.R. Fox-Bourne.<br />
+       JULIUS C&AElig;SAR. By W. Warde Fowler.<br />
+       WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.<br />
+       NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br />
+       HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P.F. Willert.<br />
+       CICERO. By J.L. Strachan-Davidson.<br />
+       ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.<br />
+       PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C.R.
+      Beazley.<br />
+       JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.<br />
+       LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.<br />
+       CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.<br />
+       LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.<br />
+       JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.<br />
+       CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.<br />
+       ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.<br />
+       HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br />
+       ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.<br />
+       ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.<br />
+       THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.<br />
+       SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.<br />
+       BISMARCK. By J.W. Headlam.<br />
+       ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.<br />
+       CHARLEMAGNE. By H.W.C. Davis.<br />
+       OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.<br />
+       RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.<br />
+       DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.<br />
+       SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX., of France). By Frederick
+      Perry.<br />
+       LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.<br />
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Other volumes in preparation are:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.<br />
+       JUDAS MACCAB&AElig;US. By Israel Abrahams.<br />
+       HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford.<br />
+       SOBIESKI. By F.A. Pollard.<br />
+       ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.<br />
+       FREDERICK II. By A.L. Smith.<br />
+       MARLBOROUGH. By C.W.C. Oman.<br />
+       RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. By T.A. Archer.<br />
+       WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.<br />
+       JUSTINIAN. By Edward Jenks.<br />
+    </p>
+    <hr style="width: 15%;" />
+    <p style="text-align: center;">
+      G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, <span class="smcap">Publishers, New
+      York and London.</span>
+    </p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His
+Life And Work, by P. Chalmers Mitchell
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+  </body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11231 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life
+And Work, by P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Thomas Henry Huxley; A Sketch Of His Life And Work
+
+Author: P. Chalmers Mitchell
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2005 [EBook #16935]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, LN Yaddanapudi and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY]
+
+
+
+
+Leaders in Science
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+
+A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE AND WORK
+
+
+BY
+
+P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A. (_Oxon._)
+
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+NEW YORK
+
+27 WEST TWENTY THIRD STREET
+
+LONDON
+
+24 BEDFORD STREET STRAND
+
+The Knickerbocker Press
+
+1900
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT 1900
+
+BY
+
+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+
+The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This volume is in no sense an intimate or authorised biography of
+Huxley. It is simply an outline of the external features of his life
+and an account of his contributions to biology, to educational and
+social problems, and to philosophy and metaphysics. In preparing it, I
+have been indebted to his own Autobiography, to the obituary notice
+written by Sir Michael Foster for the Royal Society of London, to a
+sketch of him by Professor Howes, his successor at the Royal College
+of Science, and to his published works. The latter consist of many
+well-known separate volumes which are familiar to all zooelogists, and
+of a vast number of memoirs and essays scattered in various scientific
+and general publications. The general Essays were collected into nine
+volumes, revised by himself in the later years of his life, and
+published by Messrs. Macmillan. The Scientific Memoirs, thanks to the
+generous enterprise of the same publishing firm, with which he was so
+long associated, and to the pious labours of Sir Michael Foster and
+Professor Ray Lankester, are in process of reissue in the form of four
+volumes, two of which have now appeared. These will contain all his
+important contributions to science, with the exception of a large
+separate treatise on the _Oceanic Hydrozoa_ published by the Ray
+Society in 1859. There is also announced a formal Biography, prepared
+by his son, so that future admirers or students of Huxley's work will
+be in an exceptionally favourable position.
+
+LONDON, 1900.
+
+P. CHALMERS MITCHELL.
+
+
+
+
+Leaders in Science
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                       PAGE
+PREFACE                                                 iii
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK                                  1
+
+    Birth--Parentage--School-days--Choice of Medical
+    Profession--Charing Cross Hospital--End of Medical
+    Studies--Admission to Naval Medical Service.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE RATTLESNAKE                            13
+
+    The Objects of the Voyage--The Route--The Naturalist and the
+    Surgeon--Collecting and Dredging--Stay in Sydney--Adventures with
+    the Natives--Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the _Beagle_.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA                            30
+
+    The Nature of Floating Life--Memoir on Medusae Accepted by the
+    Royal Society--Old and New Ideas of the Animal Kingdom--What
+    Huxley Discovered in Medusae--His Comparison of them with
+    Vertebrate Embryos
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY DAYS IN LONDON                                       46
+
+    Scientific Work as Unattached Ship-Surgeon--Introduction to
+    London Scientific Society--Translating, Receiving, and
+    Lecturing--Ascidians--Molluscs and the Archetype--Criticism of
+    Pre-Darwinian Evolution--Appointment to Geological Survey.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CREATURES OF THE PAST                                      67
+
+    Beginning Palaeontological Work--Fossil Amphibia and
+    Reptilia--Ancestry of Birds--Ancestry of the Horse--Imperfect
+    European Series Completed by Marsh's American Fossils--Meaning of
+    Geological Contemporaneity--Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+    Compared with Evolution in Geology--Age of the Earth--Intermediate
+    and Linear Types.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HUXLEY AND DARWIN                                          89
+
+    Early Ideas on Evolution--Erasmus Darwin--Lamarck--Herbert
+    Spencer--Difference between Evolution and Natural
+    Selection--Huxley's Preparation for Evolution--The Novelty of
+    Natural Selection--The Advantage of Natural Selection as a Working
+    Hypothesis--Huxley's Unchanged Position with regard to Evolution
+    and Natural Selection from 1860 to 1894.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION                                  110
+
+    Huxley's Prevision of the Battle--The Causes of the Battle--The
+    _Times_ Review--Sir Richard Owen attacks Darwinism in the
+    _Edinburgh Review_--Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the _Quarterly
+    Review_--Huxley's Scathing Replies--The British Association
+    Debates at Oxford--Huxley and Wilberforce--Resume of Huxley's
+    Exact Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VERTEBRATE ANATOMY                                        128
+
+    The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull--Goethe, Oken, Cuvier, and
+    Owen--Huxley Defends Goethe--His own Contributions to the
+    Theory--The Classification of Birds--Huxley Treats them as
+    "Extinct Animals"--Geographical Distribution--Sclater's
+    Regions--Huxley's Suggestions.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAN AND THE APES                                          144
+
+    Objections to Zooelogical Discussion of Man's Place--Owen's
+    Prudence--Huxley's Determination to Speak out--Account of his
+    Treatment of _Man's Place in Nature_--Additions Made by More
+    Recent Work.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION                           167
+
+    Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago--Huxley's Insistence on
+    Reform--Science Primers--Physiography--Elementary Physiology--_The
+    Crayfish_--Manuals of Anatomy--Modern Microscopical
+    Methods--Practical Work in Biological Teaching--Invention of the
+    Type System--Science in Medical Education--Science and Culture.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION                             188
+
+    Establishment of Compulsory Education in England--The Religious
+    Controversy--Huxley Advocates the Bible without Theology--His
+    Compromise on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause--Influence of the New
+    Criticism--Science and Art Instruction--Training of
+    Teachers--University Education--The Baltimore Address--Technical
+    Education--So-called "Applied Science"--National Systems of
+    Education as "Capacity-Catchers."
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST                             204
+
+    Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs--Official in Scientific
+    Societies--Royal Commissions--Vivisection--Characteristics of his
+    Public Speaking--His Method of Exposition--His
+    Essays--Vocabulary--Phrase-Making--His Style Essentially One of
+    Ideas.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM                               218
+
+    Science and Metaphysics--Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes--Existence of
+    Matter and Mind--Descartes's Contribution--Materialism and
+    Idealism--Criticism of Materialism--Berkeley's Idealism--Criticism
+    of Idealism--Empirical Idealism--Materialism as opposed to
+    Supernaturalism--Mind and Brain--Origin of Life--Teleology,
+    Chance, and the Argument from Design.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FREEDOM OF THOUGHT                                        232
+
+    Authority and Knowledge in Science--The Duty of Doubt--Authority
+    and Individual Judgment in Religion--The Protestant Position--Sir
+    Charles Lyell and the Deluge--Infallibility--The Church and
+    Science--Morality and Dogma--Civil and Religious
+    Liberty--Agnosticism and Clericalism--Meaning of
+    Agnosticism--Knowledge and Evidence--The Method of Agnosticism.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES                                    245
+
+    Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible--A _Magna Charta_ of the
+    Poor--The Theological Use of the Bible--The Doctrine of Biblical
+    Infallibility--The Bible and Science--The Three Hypotheses of the
+    Earth's History--Changes in the Past Proved--The Creation
+    Hypothesis--Gladstone on Genesis--Genesis not a Record of
+    Fact--The Hypothesis of Evolution--The New Testament--Theory of
+    Inspiration--Reliance on the Miraculous--The Continuity of Nature
+    no _a priori_ Argument against Miracles---Possibilities and
+    Impossibilities--Miracles a Question of Evidence--Praise of the
+    Bible.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ETHICS OF THE COSMOS                                      261
+
+    Conduct and Metaphysics--Conventional and Critical Minds--Good
+    and Evil--Huxley's Last Appearance at Oxford--The Ethical Process
+    and the Cosmic Process--Man's Intervention--The Cosmic Process
+    Evil--Ancient Reconciliations--Modern Acceptance of the
+    Difficulties--Criticism of Huxley's Pessimism--Man and his Ethical
+    Aspirations Part of the Cosmos.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY                                  275
+
+    Huxley's Life in London--Decennial
+    Periods--Ill-health--Retirement to Eastbourne--Death--Personal
+    Appearance--Methods of Work--Personal Characteristics--An Inspirer
+    of Others--His Influence in Science--A Naturalist by Vocation--His
+    Aspirations.
+
+
+INDEX                                                     287
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                         PAGE
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY--_From a photograph by
+  London Stereoscopic Company                    Frontispiece_
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857--_Reproduced by
+  permission from "Natural Science," vol. vii.,
+  No. 42_                                               64
+
+SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER--_From a photograph
+  by Elliott and Fry, London_                           98
+
+CHARLES DARWIN--_From the painting by Hon.
+  John Collier in the National Portrait Gallery_       146
+
+SIR CHARLES LYELL--_From a photograph by London
+  Stereoscopic Company_                                236
+
+CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF--_Reproduced
+  by permission from "Natural
+  Science," vol. vii., No. 46._                        276
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF HUXLEY'S WRITINGS
+
+
+This list is offered, not as a bibliography in the technical sense,
+but as an indication of the sources in which the vast majority of
+Huxley's scientific and general work may be consulted most
+conveniently.
+
+
+_The Scientific Memoirs of Thomas Henry Huxley_. Edited by Professor
+Sir Michael Foster and Professor E. Ray Lankester; in four volumes.
+London, Macmillan & Co.; New York, D. Appleton.
+
+     This magnificent collection is intended to contain all Huxley's
+     original scientific papers, brought together from the multitude
+     of scientific periodicals in which they appeared, with
+     reproductions of the original illustrations. The only exception
+     is the monograph on _Oceanic Hydrozoa_. The first volume appeared
+     in 1898; the second in 1899, and the others are to follow
+     quickly.
+
+
+_Collected Essays by T.H. Huxley_; nine volumes of the Eversley
+Series. Macmillan & Co. London, 1893-95.
+
+     This set, edited by Huxley himself, contains the more important
+     of his more general contributions to science and his literary,
+     philosophical, and political and critical essays. Each volume has
+     a preface specially written, and the first volume contains his
+     autobiography.
+
+_The Oceanic Hydrozoa_; a description of the Calycophoridae and
+Physophoridae observed during the Voyage of H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_ in the
+years 1846-50, with a general introduction. Ray Society. London, 1859.
+
+
+_Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature_. Williams & Norgate. London,
+1863.
+
+
+_On our Knowledge of the Causes of Organic Phenomena_; being Six
+Lectures to Working Men. Hardwicke. London, 1863.
+
+
+_Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy_. On the
+Classification of Animals and the Vertebrate Skull. Churchill & Sons.
+London, 1864.
+
+
+_An Elementary Atlas of Comparative Osteology_. In twelve plates.
+Williams & Norgate. London, 1864.
+
+
+_Lessons in Elementary Physiology_. Macmillan & Co. London, 1866.
+
+
+_An Introduction to the Classification of Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1869.
+
+
+_A Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1871.
+
+
+_A Course of Practical Instruction in Elementary Biology_, assisted by
+H.N. Martin. Macmillan. London, 1875.
+
+
+_A Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_. Churchill. London,
+1877.
+
+_Lay Sermons, Essays, and Reviews_. Macmillan. London, 1877.
+
+
+_American Addresses, with a Lecture on the Study of Biology_.
+Macmillan. London, 1877.
+
+
+_Physiography, an Introduction to the Study of Zooelogy_. International
+Scientific Series. Kegan Paul. London, 1880.
+
+
+_Introductory Primer_. Science Primers. Macmillan. London, 1880.
+
+
+_The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_. Edited by his son, Francis
+Darwin. Volume II., with Chapter V. by Professor Huxley on the
+Reception of the _Origin of Species_. John Murray. London, 1887.
+
+
+_Life of Richard Owen_. By his grandson. With an Essay on Owen's
+Position in Anatomical Science, by T.H. Huxley. John Murray. London,
+1894.
+
+
+
+
+THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+FROM SCHOOL TO LIFE-WORK
+
+     Birth--Parentage--School-days--Choice of Medical
+     Profession--Charing Cross Hospital--End of Medical
+     Studies--Admission to Naval Medical Service.
+
+
+Some men are born to greatness: even before their arrival in the world
+their future is marked out for them. All the advantages that wealth
+and the experience of friends can bring attend their growth to
+manhood, and their success almost loses its interest because of the
+ease with which it is attained. Few of the leaders of science were in
+such a position: many of them, such as Priestley, Davy, Faraday, John
+Hunter, and Linnaeus were of humble parentage, and received the poorest
+education: most of them, like Huxley himself, have come from parents
+who were able to do little more for their children than set them out
+into life along the ordinary educational avenues. In Huxley's boyhood
+at least a comfortable income was necessary for this: in every
+civilised country nowadays, state endowments, or private endowments,
+are ready to help every capable boy, as far as Huxley was helped, and
+in his progress from boyhood to supreme distinction, there is nothing
+that cannot be emulated by every boy at school to-day. The minds of
+human beings when they are born into the world are as naked as their
+bodies; it matters not if parents, grandparents, and remoter ancestors
+were unlettered or had the wisdom of all the ages, the new mind has to
+build up its own wisdom from the beginning. We cannot even say with
+certainty that children inherit mental aptitudes and capacities from
+their parents; for as tall sons may come from short parents or
+beautiful daughters from ugly parents, so we may find in the
+capacities of the parents no traces of the future greatness of their
+children. None the less it is interesting to learn what we can about
+the parents of great men; and Huxley tells us that he thinks himself
+to have inherited many characters of his body and mind from his
+mother.
+
+Thomas Henry Huxley was born on the 4th of May, 1825, at Ealing, then
+a little country village, now united to London as a great suburb. He
+was the seventh child of George Huxley, who was second master at the
+school of Dr. Nicholson at Ealing. In these days private schools of
+varying character were very numerous in England, and this
+establishment seems to have been of high-class character, for Cardinal
+Newman and many other distinguished men received part of their
+education there. His mother, whose maiden name was Rachel Withers,
+was, he tells us himself:[A]
+
+     "A slender brunette of an emotional and energetic temperament,
+     and possessed of the most piercing black eyes I ever saw in a
+     woman's head. With no more education than other women of the
+     middle classes in her day, she had an excellent mental capacity.
+     Her most distinguishing characteristic, however, was rapidity of
+     thought. If one ventured to suggest she had not taken much time
+     to arrive at any conclusion, she would say, 'I cannot help it.
+     Things flash across me.' That peculiarity has been passed on to
+     me in full strength: it has often stood me in good stead: it has
+     sometimes played me sad tricks, and it has always been a danger.
+     But, after all, if my time were to come over again there is
+     nothing I would less willingly part with than my inheritance of
+     'mother wit.'"
+
+From his father he thinks that he inherited little except an inborn
+capacity for drawing, "a hot temper, and that amount of tenacity of
+purpose which unfriendly observers sometimes call obstinacy." As it
+happened, this natural gift for drawing proved of the greatest service
+to him throughout his career. It is imperative that every investigator
+of the anatomy of plants and animals should be able to sketch his
+observations, and there is no greater aid to seeing things as they are
+than the continuous attempt to reproduce them by pencil or brush.
+
+Huxley was christened Thomas Henry, and he was unaware why these names
+were chosen, but he humorously records the curious chance that his
+parents should have chosen for him the "name of that particular
+apostle with whom he had always felt most sympathy."
+
+Of his childhood little is recorded. He remembers being vain of his
+curls, and his mother's expressed regret that he soon lost the beauty
+of early childhood. He attended for some time the school at Ealing
+with which his father was associated, but he has little to say for the
+training he received there. He writes:
+
+     "My regular school training was of the briefest, perhaps
+     fortunately: for, though my way of life has made me acquainted
+     with all sorts and conditions of men, from the highest to the
+     lowest, I deliberately affirm that the society I fell into at
+     school was the worst I have ever known. We boys were average lads
+     with much the same inherent capacity for good and evil as any
+     others; but the people who were set over us cared about as much
+     for our intellectual and moral welfare as if they were
+     baby-farmers. We were left to the operation of the struggle for
+     existence among ourselves, and bullying was the least of the ill
+     practices current among us. Almost the only cheerful reminiscence
+     in connection with the place which arises in my mind is that of a
+     battle which I had with one of my class-mates, who had bullied me
+     until I could stand it no longer. I was a very slight lad, but
+     there was a wild-cat element in me which, when roused, made up
+     for my lack of weight, and I licked my adversary effectually.
+     However, one of my first experiences of the extremely rough and
+     ready nature of justice, as exhibited by the course of things in
+     general, arose out of the fact that _I_--the victor--had a black
+     eye, while he--the vanquished--had none, so that I got into
+     disgrace and he did not. One of the greatest shocks I ever
+     received in my life was to be told, a dozen years afterwards by
+     the groom who brought me my horse in a stable-yard in Sydney,
+     that he was my quondam antagonist. He had a long story of family
+     misfortune to account for his position--but at that time it was
+     necessary to deal very cautiously with mysterious strangers in
+     New South Wales, and on enquiry I found that the unfortunate
+     young man had not only been 'sent out,' but had undergone more
+     than one colonial conviction."
+
+Huxley was soon removed from school and continued his own education
+for several years, by reading of the most desultory sort. His special
+inclinations were towards mechanical problems, and had he been able to
+follow his own wishes there is little doubt but that he would have
+entered on the profession of an engineer. It is probable that there
+was a great deal more in his wishes than the familiar inclination of a
+clever boy to engineering. All through the pursuit of anatomy, which
+was the chief business of his life, it was the structure of animals,
+the different modifications of great ground-plans which they
+presented, that interested him. But the opportunity for engineering
+did not present itself, and at an exceedingly early age he began to
+study medicine. Two brothers-in-law were doctors, and this accidental
+fact probably determined his choice. In these days the study of
+medicine did not begin as now with a general and scientific education,
+but the young medical student was apprenticed to a doctor engaged in
+practice. He was supposed to learn the compounding of drugs in the
+dispensary attached to the doctor's consulting-room; to be taught the
+dressing of wounds and the superficial details of the medical craft
+while he pursued his studies in anatomy under the direction of the
+doctor. Huxley's master was his brother-in-law, Dr. Salt, a London
+practitioner, and he began his work when only twelve or thirteen years
+of age. In this system everything depended upon the superior; under
+the careful guidance of a conscientious and able man it was possible
+for an apt pupil to learn a great deal of science and to become an
+expert in the treatment of disease. Huxley, however, had only a short
+experience of this kind of training. He was taken by some senior
+student friends to a post-mortem examination, and although then, as
+all through his life, he was most sensitive to the disagreeable side
+of anatomical pursuits, on this occasion he gratified his curiosity
+too ardently. He did not cut himself, but in some way poisonous matter
+from the body affected him, and he fell into so bad a state of health
+that he had to be sent into the country to recruit. He lived for some
+time at a farmhouse in Warwickshire with friends of his father and
+slowly recovered health. From that time, however, all through his
+life, he suffered periodically from prostrating dyspepsia. After some
+months devoted to promiscuous reading he resumed his work under his
+brother-in-law in London. He confesses that he was far from a model
+student.
+
+     "I worked extremely hard when it pleased me, and when it did
+     not,--which was a frequent case,--I was extremely idle (unless
+     making caricatures of one's pastors and masters is to be called a
+     branch of industry), or else wasted my energies in wrong
+     directions. I read everything I could lay hands upon, including
+     novels, and took up all sorts of pursuits to drop them again
+     quite speedily."
+
+It is almost certain, however, that Huxley underestimated the value of
+this time. He stored his mind with both literature and science, and
+laid the foundation of the extremely varied intellectual interests
+which afterwards proved to him of so much value. It is certain, also,
+that during this time he acquired a fair knowledge of French and
+German. It would be difficult to exaggerate the value to him of this
+addition to his weapons for attacking knowledge. To do the best work
+in any scientific pursuit it is necessary to freshen one's own mind by
+contact with the ideas and results of other workers. As these workers
+are scattered over different countries it is necessary to transcend
+the confusion of Babel and read what they write in their own tongues.
+When Huxley was young, the great reputation of Cuvier overshadowed
+English anatomy, and English anatomists did little more than seek in
+nature what Cuvier had taught them to find. In Germany other men and
+other ideas were to be found. Johannes Mueller and Von Baer were
+attacking the problems of nature in a spirit that was entirely
+different, and Huxley, by combining what he was taught in England with
+what he learned from German methods, came to his own investigations
+with a wider mind. But his conquest of French and German brought with
+it advantages in addition to these technical gains. There is no reason
+to believe that he troubled himself with grammatical details and with
+the study of these languages as subjects in themselves. He acquired
+them simply to discover the new ideas concealed in them, and he by no
+means confined himself to the reading of foreign books on the subjects
+of his own studies. He read French and German poetry, literature, and
+philosophy, and so came to have a knowledge of the ideas of those
+outside his own race on all the great problems that interest mankind.
+A good deal has been written as to the narrowing tendency of
+scientific pursuits, but with Huxley, as with all the scientific men
+the present writer has known, the mechanical necessity of learning to
+read other languages has brought with it that wide intellectual
+sympathy which is the beginning of all culture and which is not
+infrequently missed by those who have devoted themselves to many
+grammars and a single literature. The old proverb, "Whatever is worth
+doing is worth doing well," has only value when "well" is properly
+interpreted. Although the science of language is as great as any
+science, it is not the science of language, but the practical
+interpretation of it, that is of value to most people, and there is
+much to be said for the method of anatomists like Huxley, who passed
+lightly over grammatical _minutiae_ and went straight with a dictionary
+to the reading of each new tongue.
+
+After a short period of apprenticeship, or sometimes during the
+course of it, the young medical students "walked" a hospital. This
+consisted in attending the demonstrations of the physicians and
+surgeons in the wards of the hospital and in pursuing anatomical,
+chemical, and physiological study in the medical school attached to
+the hospital. A large fee was charged for the complete course, but at
+many of the hospitals there were entrance scholarships which relieved
+those who gained them of all cost. In 1842 Huxley and his elder
+brother, James, applied for such free scholarships at Charing Cross
+Hospital. There is no record in the books of the hospital as to what
+persons supported the application. The entry in the minutes for
+September 6, 1842, states that
+
+     "Applications from the following gentlemen (including the two
+     sons of Mr. George Huxley, late senior assistant master in Ealing
+     School), were laid before the meeting, and their testimonials
+     being approved of, it was decided that those gentlemen should be
+     admitted as free scholars, if their classical attainments should
+     be found upon examination to be satisfactory."
+
+It appears that the two Huxleys were able to satisfy the probably
+unexacting demands of the classical examiners, for they began their
+hospital work in October of the same year.
+
+Those who know the magnificent laboratories and lecture-rooms which
+have grown up in connection with the larger London hospitals must have
+difficulty in realising the humble arrangements for teaching students
+in the early forties. What endowments there were--and Charing Cross
+was never a richly endowed hospital--were devoted entirely to the
+hospital as opposed to the teaching school. There were no separate
+buildings for anatomy, physiology, and so forth. At Charing Cross the
+dissecting-room was in a cellar under the hospital, and subjects like
+chemistry, botany, physiology, and so forth were crowded into
+inconvenient side rooms. The teachers were not specialists, devoting
+their whole attention to particular branches of science, but were
+doctors engaged in practice, who, in addition to their private duties
+and their work at the hospital, each undertook to lecture upon a
+special scientific subject. Huxley came specially under the influence
+of Mr. Wharton Jones, who had begun to teach physiology at the
+hospital a year before. Mr. Jones throughout his life was engaged in
+professional work, his specialty being ophthalmic surgery, but he was
+a devoted student of anatomy and physiology, and made several
+classical contributions to scientific knowledge, his best-known
+discoveries relating to blood corpuscles and to the nature of the
+mammalian egg-cell. But perhaps his greatest claim to fame is that it
+was he who first imbued Huxley with a love for anatomical science and
+with a knowledge of the methods of investigation. At the end of his
+first session, in 1843, Huxley received the first prize in the senior
+physiology class, while his brother got a "good conduct" prize. Of
+Wharton Jones Huxley writes:
+
+     "The extent and precision of his knowledge impressed me greatly,
+     and the severe exactness of his method of lecturing was quite to
+     my taste. I do not know that I have ever felt so much respect for
+     anybody as a teacher before or since. I worked hard to obtain his
+     approbation, and he was extremely kind and helpful to the
+     youngster who, I am afraid, took up more of his time than he had
+     any right to do. It was he who suggested the publication of my
+     first scientific paper--a very little one--in the _Medical
+     Gazette_ of 1845, and most kindly corrected the literary faults
+     which abounded in it short as it was. For at that time, and for
+     many years afterwards, I detested the trouble of writing and
+     would take no pains over it."
+
+This little paper, although Huxley deprecates it, was remarkable as
+the work of so young an investigator. In it he demonstrated the
+existence of a hitherto unrecognised layer in the inner root-sheath of
+hairs, a layer that has been known since as Huxley's layer.
+
+There is no record in the minutes of the hospital school that Huxley
+gained any other school prizes. His name reappears only in formal
+applications at the beginning of each session for the renewal of his
+free scholarship. In this respect he is in marked contrast to his
+fellow-student, afterwards Sir Joseph Fayrer, who appears to have
+taken almost every prize open to him. On the other hand, his
+attainments in anatomy and physiology brought him distinction in a
+wider field than the hospital school, for he obtained, in the
+"honours" division of the first examination for the degree of Bachelor
+of Medicine at the University of London, the second place with a
+medal. And it is certain that he was far from neglecting his strictly
+professional work, although, no doubt, he devoted much time to reading
+and research in pure science, for in the winter of 1845-46, having
+completed his course at the hospital, he was prepared to offer himself
+at the examination for the membership of the Royal College of
+Surgeons; but, being as yet under twenty-one years of age, could not
+be admitted as a candidate.
+
+It was now time for Huxley definitely to enter on his profession. He
+would have preferred to continue his investigations in London and to
+wait for the chance of a teaching post in physiology, but it was
+necessary to earn a living. One of those whom he consulted was his
+fellow-student, Joseph Fayrer, who, hailing from Bermuda, knew
+something of those who go down to the sea in ships. He advised Huxley
+to write to Sir William Burnett, at that time Director-General for the
+medical service of the navy, for an appointment.
+
+     "I thought this rather a strong thing to do," says Huxley in his
+     autobiography, "as Sir William was personally unknown to me; but
+     my cheery friend would not listen to my scruples, so I went to my
+     lodgings and wrote the best letter I could devise. A few days
+     afterwards I received the usual official circular of
+     acknowledgement, but at the bottom was written an instruction to
+     call at Somerset House on such a day. I thought that looked like
+     business, so, at the appointed time I called and sent in my card,
+     while I waited in Sir William's ante-room. He was a tall,
+     shrewd-looking old gentleman, with a broad Scotch accent--and I
+     think I see him now as he entered with my card in his hand. The
+     first thing he did was to return it with the frugal reminder that
+     I should probably find it useful on some other occasion. The
+     second was to ask whether I was an Irishman. I suppose the air of
+     modesty about my appeal must have struck him. I satisfied the
+     Director-General that I was English to the backbone, and he made
+     some enquiries as to my student career, finally desiring me to
+     hold myself ready for examination. Having passed this, I was in
+     Her Majesty's service, and entered on the books of Nelson's old
+     ship, the _Victory_, for duty at Haslar Hospital, about a couple
+     of months after I made my application."
+
+About the same time he passed the examination of the Royal College of
+Surgeons and so became a fully qualified medical man. Haslar Hospital
+was the chief naval hospital to which invalided sailors were sent.
+There was a considerable staff of young surgeons, as navy surgeons
+were usually sent for a term to work in the hospital before being
+gazetted to a ship in commission. In connection with the hospital,
+there was a museum of natural history containing a collection of
+considerable importance slowly gathered from the gifts of sailors and
+officers. The museum curator was an enthusiastic naturalist, and
+Huxley must have had the opportunity of extending his knowledge of at
+least the external characters of many forms of life hitherto unknown
+to him. A few years later, the curator of the museum, with the help of
+two of Huxley's successors, published a _Manual of Natural History for
+the Use of Travellers_, and it is certain that Huxley at least did not
+lose at Haslar any of the enthusiasm for zooelogy with which he had
+been inspired at the Charing Cross Hospital. The chief of the hospital
+was Sir John Richardson, an excellent naturalist, and well known as an
+arctic explorer. He seems to have recognised the peculiar ability of
+his young assistant, and although he was a silent, reserved man, who
+seldom encouraged his assistants by talking to them, he made several
+attempts to obtain a suitable post for Huxley. Such a post was that of
+surgeon to H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_, then about to start under the command
+of Captain Owen Stanley for surveying work in the Torres Straits.
+Captain Stanley had expressed a wish for a surgeon who knew something
+of science, and, on the recommendation of Sir John Richardson,
+obtained the post for Huxley. There was, however, to be a special
+naturalist attached to the expedition, but Huxley had the opportunity
+he wanted. After a brief stay of seven months at the Haslar Hospital
+he left it for his ship, and thus definitely entered on his work in
+the world.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote A: This and many other details in this chapter are taken
+from an autobiographical sketch in the first volume of Huxley's
+collected essays published by Macmillan, London, 1894.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE "RATTLESNAKE"
+
+     The Objects of the Voyage--The Route--The Naturalist and the
+     Surgeon--Collecting and Dredging--Stay in Sydney--Adventures with
+     the Natives--Comparison with Darwin's Voyage on the _Beagle_.
+
+
+Her Majesty's ship the _Rattlesnake_, one of the old class of 28-gun
+ships, sailed from Plymouth for the Torres Straits and the Australian
+seas on December 12, 1846. Her commander was Captain Owen Stanley, a
+young but distinguished officer, the son of the Bishop of Norwich and
+a brother of Dean Stanley, who afterwards played so great a part in
+the social and religious history of England. She carried a complement
+of 180 officers and men, and was attended by the _Bramble_ and the
+_Castlereagh_, two small vessels of light draught, whose purpose was
+to precede her in shallow waters. The young colonies of Australia were
+developing commerce with the mother country, and the business of the
+_Rattlesnake_ was to survey the waters round about the Torres Straits,
+that the passage towards India on the homeward trip might be made
+safer. Incidentally the vessel was to land a treasure of L50,000 at
+the Cape of Good Hope, and another of L15,000 at the Mauritius. The
+Admiralty Commissioners left full powers to Captain Stanley to carry
+out the details of his mission according to his own judgment, but he
+was solemnly warned upon two points. Many very unfortunate casualties
+had occurred when sailors came in contact with the little-known
+savages of the southern seas, and the Admiralty instructed him as
+follows:
+
+     "In stretching off from the Barrier Reefs to the eastward, in
+     order to explore the safety of the sea intervening between them
+     and Louisiade and New Guinea, you will have occasion to approach
+     these shores, in which case you must constantly be on your guard
+     against the treacherous disposition of their inhabitants. All
+     barter for refreshments must be conducted under the eye of an
+     officer, and every pains be taken to avoid giving any just cause
+     of offence to their prejudices, especially with respect to their
+     women."
+
+The second warning concerned grave international matters. European
+politics were in the unsettled condition which, after the illusive
+international courtesies of the Great Exhibition of 1851, ended in the
+Crimean War, and it was feared that in the event of hostilities
+breaking out, the zeal of the officers for their country might tempt
+them to transcend their peaceful occupation. The instructions with
+regard to this ran as follows:
+
+     "In the event of this country being involved in hostilities
+     during your absence, you will take care never to be surprised;
+     but you are to refrain from any act of aggression towards the
+     vessels or settlements of any nation with which we may be at war,
+     as expeditions employed on behalf of discovery and science have
+     always been considered by all civilised communities as acting
+     under a general safeguard."
+
+The great scientific expeditions sent out in recent times by the
+governments of Britain, Germany, and the United States, were fitted
+with every convenience for the staff of naturalists, and the luxuries
+and comforts of civilisation attended them round the world. The late
+Professor Mosely, for instance, who was a naturalist on the English
+_Challenger_ expedition, told the present writer of a pleasant way in
+which a peculiarity of the deep sea was made to pay toll to the
+comfort of those on board ship. The great ocean depths all over the
+world, under the burning skies of the tropics, or below the arctic
+ice-fields, are extremely cold, the water at the bottom always being
+only a few degrees above freezing point. When the dredge brought up a
+sample of the abysmal mud at a convenient time, it was used to ice the
+wine for the officers' mess. There was, however, no cooled champagne
+for Huxley.
+
+     "Life on board Her Majesty's ships in those days," he writes,
+     "was a very different affair from what it is now, and ours was
+     exceptionally rough, as we were often many months without
+     receiving letters or seeing any civilised people but ourselves.
+     In exchange, we had the interest of being about the latest
+     voyagers, I suppose, to whom it could be possible to meet with
+     people who knew nothing of fire-arms--as we did on the south
+     coast of New Guinea--and of making acquaintances with a variety
+     of interesting savage and semi-civilised people. But apart from
+     experience of this kind, and the opportunities offered for
+     scientific work, to me personally the cruise was extremely
+     valuable. It was good for me to live under sharp discipline; to
+     be down on the realities of existence by living on bare
+     necessities; to find out how extremely well worth living life
+     seemed to be when one woke up from a night's rest on a soft plank
+     with the sky for canopy, and cocoa and weevilly biscuit the sole
+     prospect for breakfast; and more especially to learn to work for
+     the sake of what I got for myself out of it, even if it all went
+     to the bottom and I myself along with it. My brother officers
+     were as good fellows as sailors ought to be, and generally are,
+     but naturally they neither knew nor cared anything about my
+     pursuits, nor understood why I should be so zealous in pursuit
+     of the objects which my friends the middies christened 'Buffons,'
+     after the title conspicuous on a volume of the _Suites a Buffon_
+     which stood on my shelf in the chart-room."
+
+Huxley was only the surgeon on board the _Rattlesnake_, and his
+pursuit of natural history was his own affair. There was a special
+naturalist appointed to the expedition, no doubt chosen because four
+years earlier, as assistant to Professor Jukes, he had been attached
+as naturalist to the expedition of the _Fly_ in the same waters. His
+name was John MacGillivray, and he was the son of an exceedingly able
+naturalist whose reputation has been overshadowed by the greater names
+of the middle century. William MacGillivray, the father, sometime
+professor at the University of Aberdeen, was one of those driven by an
+almost instinctive desire to the study of nature. In his youth, when
+he was a poor lad, desiring to see as much as possible of his native
+land, and above all to visit the great museums and libraries of the
+south, he walked from Aberdeen to London with no luggage but a copy of
+Smith's _Flora Britannica_. He was an ardent botanist, a collector of
+insects and molluscs, and one of the pioneers in the anatomy of birds.
+There are many curious allusions in his writings which seem to shew
+that he too was beginning to doubt the fixity of species, and to guess
+at the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest which the
+great Darwin was the first to make a part of the knowledge of the
+world. It must be confessed that his son John, the companion of
+Huxley, had little of his father's ability. He was three years older
+than Huxley, and broke off his medical course at the University of
+Edinburgh to sail in the _Fly_. After the return of the _Rattlesnake_,
+he was appointed in 1852 as naturalist to H.M.S. _Herald_, then
+starting under Captain Denham for surveying work round the shores of
+South America. He left that ship at Sydney, and after many years'
+wandering about the southern seas, accounts of which he communicated
+from time to time to Sydney newspapers, he died in 1867. He was a
+zealous collector of plants and animals, but apparently cared little
+for the study of his captures, either in life, in relation to their
+surroundings, like Darwin, or for the structure of their bodies, like
+Huxley. The somewhat unpleasing nature of his regard for animals
+appears in the following story which he himself tells:
+
+     "While at dinner off Darnley Island near the Torres Straits, news
+     was brought that Dzum was under the stern in a canoe, shouting
+     out loudly for Dzoka (MacGillivray's native name), and, on going
+     up I found that he had brought off the barit, which after a deal
+     of trouble I struck a bargain for and obtained. It was a very
+     fine specimen of Cuscus Maculatus, quite tame and kept in a large
+     cage of split bamboo. Dzum seemed very unwilling to part with the
+     animal, and repeatedly enjoined me to take great care of it and
+     feed it well, which to please him I promised to do, although I
+     valued it merely for its skin, and was resolved to kill it for
+     that purpose at my first convenience."
+
+On the other hand, MacGillivray paid great attention to native
+languages, and collected vocabularies of some value. To him was
+entrusted the task of writing an account of the voyage, and it is from
+his rather dull pages, brightened by illustrations from Huxley's
+sketches, that the incidents of the voyage are taken. The references
+to Huxley in the narrative are slight, and seem to shew that no great
+intimacy existed between the two young men, the one a naturalist by
+profession, the other as yet a surgeon, but more devoted to natural
+history than the naturalist. Such references as occur relate to
+Huxley's constant occupations on shore, sketching natives and their
+dwellings, and his apparatus on board for trawling, dredging, and
+dissecting.
+
+The voyage out was uneventful. The ship touched at Madeira and at Rio
+de Janeiro, and then crossed the South Atlantic to Simon's Town at the
+Cape of Good Hope, where the first quantity of treasure was to be
+landed. There they found the colony distressed by the long continuance
+of the Kaffir war. Prices for everything were extortionate, and the
+colonists had no mind for any affairs than their own, so after a short
+stay the voyagers were glad to set out for the Mauritius. That island,
+although in the possession of Britain, still retained a strong impress
+of its French occupation, and the travellers were interested by the
+mixture of population inhabiting it.[B]
+
+     "Passing through the closely packed lines of shipping, and
+     landing as a stranger at Port Louis, perhaps the first thing to
+     engage attention is the strange mixture of
+     nations,--representatives, he might at first be inclined to
+     imagine, of half the countries of the earth. He stares at a
+     coolie from Madras with a breech-cloth and a soldier's jacket, or
+     a stately bearded Moor striking a bargain with a Parsee merchant.
+     A Chinaman with two bundles slung on a bamboo hurries past,
+     jostling a group of young Creole exquisites smoking their
+     cheroots at a corner, and talking of last night's Norma, or the
+     programme of the evening's performance at the Hippodrome in the
+     Champ de Mars. His eye next catches a couple of sailors reeling
+     out of a grogshop, to the amusement of a group of laughing
+     negresses, in white muslin dresses of the latest Parisian
+     fashion, contrasting strongly with a modestly attired Cingalese
+     woman, and an Indian ayah with her young charge. Amidst all this,
+     the French language prevails; and everything more or less
+     pertains of the French character, and an Englishman can scarcely
+     believe that he is in one of the colonies of his own country."
+
+From Mauritius they proceeded to the English-looking colony of
+Tasmania, and after a few days set out for Sydney, arriving there on
+July 16th. The surveying officers had tedious work to do there, and
+Huxley stayed in Sydney for three months. Then, and in the course of
+three other prolonged stays in that town during the expedition, Huxley
+entered into the society of the town and became a general favourite.
+He is still remembered there, and the accompanying illustration[C] is
+a copy of an original sketch of himself, now in the possession of an
+Australian lady. He drew it on the fly-leaf of a volume of Lytton's
+poems and presented it on her birthday to the little daughter of a
+friend. At Sydney, too, he met and gained the love of the lady, then
+Miss Henrietta A. Heathorn, who afterwards became his wife.
+
+On October 11th the _Rattlesnake_ sailed northwards to begin the real
+work of the expedition. The great island of New Guinea, lying to the
+north of Australia, is separated from it only by the comparatively
+narrow Torres Straits. Through these lies the natural route for the
+commerce between Australia and the Northern Hemisphere. The eastward
+prolongation of New Guinea, and the coast of Queensland, enclose
+between them a great tropical sea which gradually converges to the
+Straits. The waters are very tempestuous, and the navigation is made
+more dangerous by the thousands of coral islands and coral reefs that
+stud the ocean. Following the shoreline of Queensland, at a distance
+of from ten to one hundred and fifty miles, and stretching for twelve
+hundred and fifty miles, is the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, one
+of the wonders of the world. The shelving floor of the ocean rises
+nearly to the surface along this line, and vast colonies of coral
+building creatures have formed their reefs up to the water's edge
+along the ridge. The turbulent waves scouring over this living mass
+have carved and moulded it into millions of fantastic islands,
+sometimes heaping detached masses of dead debris high above the
+surface of the water. At low tide the most wonderful fields of the
+animal flowers of the sea are exposed. Some of them form branching
+systems of hard skeletons like stony trees, the soft, brightly
+coloured animals dotted over the stems like buds. Others form solid
+masses; others, again, rounded skull like boulders, or elevations like
+toadstools. The colours of the skeletons and the animals are vivid
+scarlets and purples and greens. Sea anemones, shell-fish, and
+starfish of the most vivid hues are as abundant as the corals.
+Brilliant fish dart through the blossoms of the marine gardens, and
+sea birds scream and wheel in the air. The whole region is a paradise
+for the naturalist. Along the seaward side of the reef the great ocean
+surges and thunders perpetually. Between it and the shore the quiet
+channel glows under the tropical skies. It was amid such scenes as
+these that the _Rattlesnake_ moved for nearly four years in the slow
+work of taking soundings, fixing the exact position of channels
+through the outer reef by slow triangular measurements, and generally
+preparing for the safety of the commerce of all nations. The ship went
+first up to Port Curtis in Brisbane; then fetched back to Sydney. Its
+next trip was south to the strait between Tasmania and Australia,
+then back to Sydney; then again along the Barrier Reef right up to the
+Torres Straits. After work there, it returned again to Sydney, and
+then set out for the Louisiade Archipelago, which stretches through
+the coral sea south-eastward from New Guinea; then again to the
+Australian shores of the Torres Straits, and finally arrived in Sydney
+in March, 1850, where the Captain suddenly died, and the ship was
+ordered to return to England.
+
+Throughout the voyage MacGillivray and Huxley busied themselves with
+collecting animals on sea and on shore. MacGillivray seems to have
+taken for his share of the spoil chiefly such animals as provided
+shells or skins or skeletons suitable for handing over to museums.
+Huxley occupied himself incessantly with dissecting tools and with the
+microscope, with results to be described in a later chapter. The
+better equipped expeditions of modern times were provided with
+elaborate appliances for bringing up samples of living creatures from
+all depths of the floor of the ocean, and with complicated towing nets
+for securing the floating creatures of the surface of the seas. The
+_Rattlesnake_ naturalists had to content themselves with simple
+apparatus devised by themselves. At an early period of the voyage
+attempts were made to take deep soundings, but no bottom was reached
+at a depth of two thousand four hundred fathoms, and their later work
+was confined to surface animals or to inshore dredging in shallow
+waters. They began near Rio.
+
+     "None of the ship's boats could be spared, so I [MacGillivray]
+     hired one pulled by four negro slaves who, although strong,
+     active fellows, had great objections to straining their backs at
+     the oar, when the dredge was down. No sieve having been
+     supplied, we were obliged to sift the contents of the dredge
+     through our hands--a tedious and superficial mode of examination.
+     Two days after, Mr. Huxley and I set to work in Botafogo Bay,
+     provided with a wire-gauze meat-cover and a curious machine for
+     cleaning rice; these answered capitally as substitutes for
+     sieves, and enabled us, by a thorough examination of the contents
+     of the dredge, to detect some forty-five species of Mollusca and
+     Radiata, some of which were new to science."
+
+By "new to science" MacGillivray meant no more than that the
+particular genera and species had not been captured before. Huxley, by
+his anatomical work, showed many of the most familiar creatures in a
+light "new to science," by revealing their true structure and
+relationships.
+
+     "Among the acquisitions," MacGillivray goes on, "I may mention a
+     new species of Amphioxus, a genus of small fishes exhibiting more
+     anomalies than any other known to Ichthyologists, and the lowest
+     organisation found in the class. It somewhat resembles the
+     sand-eels of Britain in habits, like them moving with
+     extraordinary rapidity through the sand. By dint of bribery and
+     ridicule we had at length managed to get our boatmen to work
+     tolerably well, and when we were alike well-roasted by the sun
+     and repeatedly drenched, besides being tired out and hungry, they
+     had become quite submissive, and exchanged their grumbling for
+     merriment."
+
+The towing net repeatedly produced a rich harvest. It was constructed
+by themselves, and consisted of a bag of the bunting used for flags,
+two feet deep, the mouth being sewn round a wooden hoop fourteen
+inches in diameter; three pieces of cord, a foot and a half long, were
+secured to the hoop at equal intervals and had their ends tied
+together. This net was towed behind the ship by a stout cord. The
+water passed through the meshes of the cloth and left behind in the
+pocket any small floating animals.
+
+Excursions ashore to the little savage islands or to the mainland were
+a source of constant interest, and it cannot be doubted that the
+acquaintance Huxley thus gained with many of the very low savages of
+Australia and New Guinea prepared his mind for the revolutionary
+doctrine of descent which he embraced a few years later. At the
+present time, there are probably very few parts of earth where there
+are yet to be found savages unaltered by civilisation. Some of the low
+races with which Huxley came in contact are now extinct. All the
+survivors have come in contact with white races, and their habits and
+customs have been altered. Before long the total extinction of these
+lower races is to be expected, and there will then be left an enormous
+gap between the lower animals and the dominant, aggressive, yellow and
+white races which are spreading over the earth and making the lower
+races perish before them, as the smaller but more cunning European rat
+has exterminated the native brown rat of Australia. In their various
+excursions upon the Australian mainland they had no trouble of any
+kind with the natives. These were at first suspicious of the doings of
+the white men, and their total ignorance of the use of firearms
+tempted them to rashness; but a few friendly gifts, and the exercise
+of tact in negotiating exchanges with them, made all the encounters
+pass off pleasantly. On the other hand, in the Louisiade Archipelago
+where the savages were of a higher type, difficulties constantly
+occurred. On one occasion, in a bay on the south side of Joannet
+Island the party was attacked.
+
+     "In the grey of the morning the look-outs reported the approach
+     of three canoes with about ten men in each. On two or three
+     persons shewing themselves in the bow of the pinnace, in front of
+     the rain awning, the natives ceased paddling, as if baulked in
+     their design of surprising the large boat; but, after a short
+     consultation, they came alongside in their usual noisy manner.
+     After a stay of about five minutes only they pushed off to the
+     galley, and some more sham bartering was attempted, but they had
+     nothing to give in exchange for the wares they so much coveted.
+     In a short time the rudeness and overbearing insolence of the
+     natives had risen to a pitch which left no doubt of their hostile
+     intentions. The anchor was got up, when some of the blacks seized
+     the painter, and others, in trying to capsize the boat, brought
+     the gunwale down to the water's edge, at the same time grappling
+     with the men to pull them out, and dragging the galley inshore
+     towards the shoal-water. The bowman, with the anchor in his hand,
+     was struck on the head with a stone-headed axe. The blow was
+     repeated, but fortunately took effect only on the wash-streak.
+     Another of the crew was struck at with a similar weapon, but
+     warded off the blow, although held fast by one arm, when, just as
+     the savage was making another stroke, Lieutenant Dayman, who up
+     till now had exercised the utmost forbearance, fired at him with
+     a musket. The man did not drop, although wounded in the thigh.
+     But even this, unquestionably their first experience of firearms,
+     did not intimidate the natives, one of whom, standing on a block
+     of coral, threw a spear which passed across the breast of one of
+     the boat's crew and lodged in the bend of one arm, opening a
+     vein. They raised a loud shout when the spear was seen to take
+     effect, and threw several others which missed. Lieutenant
+     Simpson, who had been watching what was going on, then fired from
+     the pinnace with buckshot and struck them, when, finding that the
+     large boat, though at anchor, could assist the smaller one, the
+     canoes were paddled inshore in great haste and confusion. Some
+     more musket shots were fired, and the galley went in chase
+     endeavouring to turn the canoes, so as to bring them under fire
+     of the pinnace's twelve-pounder howitzer, which was speedily
+     mounted and fired. The shot either struck one of the canoes or
+     went within a few inches of the mark, on which the natives
+     instantly jumped overboard into the shallow water, making for the
+     mangroves, which they succeeded in reaching, dragging their
+     canoes with them. Two rounds of grape-shot crashing through the
+     branches dispersed the party, but afterwards they moved two of
+     the canoes out of sight. The remaining one was brought out after
+     breakfast by the galley under cover of the pinnace, and was towed
+     off to some distance. The paddles having been taken out and the
+     spears broken and left in her, she was let go to drift down
+     toward a village whence the attacking party were supposed to have
+     come. Some blood in this canoe, although not the one most aimed
+     at, showed that the firing had not been ineffective. This act of
+     deliberate treachery was perpetrated by persons who had always
+     been well treated by us, for several of the natives present were
+     recognised as having been alongside the ship in Coral Haven.
+     This, their first act of positive hostility, affords, I think,
+     conclusive evidence of the savage disposition of the natives of
+     this part of the Louisiade Archipelago when incited by the hope
+     of plunder, and shews that no confidence should ever be reposed
+     in them, unless, perhaps in the presence of a numerically
+     superior force, or in the close vicinity of a ship. At the same
+     time, the boldness of these savages in attacking, with thirty men
+     in three canoes, two boats known to contain at least twenty
+     persons--even in the hopes of taking them by surprise--and in not
+     being at once driven off upon feeling the novel and deadly
+     effects of firearms, shews no little amount of bravery."
+
+On their last visit to Cape York, in the extreme north of Australia,
+the party had the remarkable experience of rescuing a white woman from
+captivity among the natives.
+
+     "In the afternoon some of our people on shore were surprised to
+     see a young white woman come up to claim their protection from a
+     party of natives from whom she had recently made her escape, and
+     who she thought would otherwise bring her back. Of course she
+     received every attention, and was taken on board the ship by the
+     first boat, when she told her story which is briefly as follows:
+     Her name is Barbara Thomson. She was born at Aberdeen in
+     Scotland, and, along with her parents, emigrated to New South
+     Wales. About four years and a half ago she left Moreton Bay with
+     her husband in a small cutter, called the _America_, of which he
+     was the owner, for the purpose of picking up some of the oil from
+     the wreck of a whaler, lost on the Bampton shoal, to which place
+     one of her late crew undertook to guide them; their ultimate
+     intention was to go on to Port Essington. The man who acted as
+     pilot was unable to find the wreck, and after much quarreling on
+     board in consequence, and the loss of two men by drowning and of
+     another who was left on a small uninhabited island, they made
+     their way up to the Torres Straits, where, during a gale of wind
+     their vessel struck upon a reef on the eastern Prince of Wales
+     Island. The two remaining men were lost in attempting to swim on
+     shore through the surf, but the woman was afterwards rescued by a
+     party of natives on a turtling excursion, who, when the gale
+     subsided, swam on board and supported her on shore between two of
+     their number. One of these blacks, Boroto by name, took
+     possession of the woman as his share of the plunder; she was
+     compelled to live with him, but was well treated by all the men,
+     although many of the women, jealous of the attention shewn her,
+     for a long time evinced anything but kindness. A curious
+     circumstance secured for her the protection of one of the
+     principal men of the tribe. This person, acting upon the belief,
+     universal throughout Australia and the islands of the Torres
+     Strait, so far as hitherto known, that white people are the
+     ghosts of the aborigines, fancied that in the stranger he
+     recognised a long-lost daughter, and at once admitted her into
+     the relationship which he thought had formerly subsisted between
+     them. She was immediately acknowledged by the whole tribe as one
+     of themselves, thus securing an extensive connection in relatives
+     of all denominations. The headquarters of the tribe being on an
+     island which all vessels passing through the Torres Strait from
+     the eastward must approach within two or three miles, she had the
+     mortification of seeing from twenty to thirty or more ships go
+     through every summer without anchoring in the neighbourhood, so
+     as to afford the slightest opportunity of making her escape. Last
+     year she heard of our two vessels being at Cape York, only twenty
+     miles distant from some of the tribe who had communicated with us
+     and had been well treated, but they would not take her over and
+     watched her even more narrowly than before. On our second and
+     present visit, however, which the Cape York people immediately
+     announced by smoke signals to their friends, she was successful
+     in persuading some of her more immediate friends to bring her
+     across to the mainland within a short distance of where the
+     vessels lay. The blacks were credulous enough to believe that as
+     she had been so long with them and had been so well treated, she
+     did not intend to leave them,--only 'she felt a strong desire to
+     see the white people once more and shake hands with them': adding
+     that she would be certain to purchase some axes, knives, tobacco,
+     and other much-prized articles."
+
+Although the external adventures of the _Rattlesnake_ party were less
+varied and exciting than might have been expected in a voyage of four
+years in the tropic seas and among barbarian tribes, the mental
+adventures through which Huxley passed in the time must have been of
+the most surprising kind. It was a four-years' course in the great
+university of nature, and when he had finished it he was no longer a
+mere student, capricious and unsettled in his mental tastes and
+inclinations, but had set his face steadily towards his future
+life-work. It is interesting to compare the importance in Huxley's
+life of the _Rattlesnake_ voyage with the importance in Darwin's life
+of the voyage on the _Beagle_ undertaken some fifteen years earlier.
+Huxley, when he started, was a young surgeon with a taste of a vague
+kind for dissecting and for drawing the peculiarities of structure of
+different animals revealed by the knife and the microscope. Day after
+day, month after month, year after year, in the abundant leisure his
+slight professional duties left him, he dissected and drew, dissected
+and drew, animal after animal, as he got them from the dredge or
+tow-net, or from the surface of the coral reefs. He was not in any
+sense of the word a collecting naturalist. The identification and
+naming of species interested him little. What he cared for was, he
+tells us, "the architectural and engineering part of the business: the
+working out of the wonderful unity of plan in the thousands and
+thousands of divers living constructions, and the modifications of
+similar apparatuses to serve different ends." And so, on the
+_Rattlesnake_, and in his work in continuation of the _Rattlesnake_
+investigations,--which occupied most of his time for a few years after
+his return to London,--there was gradually growing up in his mind a
+dim conception of the animal kingdom as a group of creatures, not
+built on half a dozen or more separate plans or types, each
+unconnected with the other, but as a varied set of modifications of a
+single type.
+
+When Darwin set out on the _Beagle_, unlike Huxley, he was an
+enthusiastic collecting naturalist. He had wandered from county to
+county in England adding new specimens to his collections of
+butterflies and beetles. As the _Beagle_ went round the world visiting
+remote islands, far from land in the centre of the waters,
+archipelagoes of islands crowding together, islands hugging the shore
+of continents, and the great continents of the old and new worlds, he
+continued to collect and to classify. Gradually the resemblances and
+differences between the creatures inhabiting different parts of the
+earth began to strike him as exhibiting an orderly plan. He saw that
+under apparently the same conditions of food and temperature and
+moisture, in different parts of the world the genera and species were
+different, and that they were most alike in regions between which
+there was the most recent chance of migrations having taken place. In
+the quietness of England, while Huxley was on the _Rattlesnake_,
+Darwin was slowly working towards the explanation of all he had seen:
+towards the conception that animals and plants had spread slowly from
+common centres, becoming more and more different from each other as
+they spread. He realised on his voyage that species had come into
+existence by descent with modification, and before long he was to
+publish to the world in the _Origin of Species_ a vast and convincing
+bulk of evidence as to the actual fact of a common descent for all the
+different existing organisms, and, in his theory of natural selection,
+a reasonable explanation of how the fact of evolution had come about.
+Darwin's greatest ally in bringing the new idea before the world was
+Huxley, and Huxley was teaching himself the absolute unity of the
+living world. The two men were dissimilar in tastes and temperament,
+and they were at work on quite different sides of nature. When the
+time came, Huxley, with his commanding knowledge of the structure of
+animals, was ready to support Darwin and to illustrate and amplify his
+arguments by a thousand anatomical proofs. It is a curious and
+dramatic coincidence to realise that both men learned their very
+different lessons under very similar circumstances in the tropical
+seas of the Southern Hemisphere.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote B: _Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake_," by
+John MacGillivray, F.R.G.S. 2 vols. T.W. Boone, London, 1852.]
+
+[Footnote C: This sketch was reproduced and described in _Natural
+Science_, vol. vii., p. 381, and is now reproduced here by the
+courtesy of the proprietors.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FLOATING CREATURES OF THE SEA
+
+     The Nature of Floating Life--Memoir on Medusae Accepted by the
+     Royal Society--Old and New Ideas of the Animal Kingdom--What
+     Huxley Discovered in Medusae--His Comparison of them with
+     Vertebrate Embryos.
+
+
+As the _Rattlesnake_ sailed through the tropical seas Huxley came in
+contact with the very peculiar and interesting inhabitants of the
+surface of the sea, known now to naturalists as pelagic life or
+"plankton." Although a poet has spoken of the "unvintageable sea," all
+parts of the ocean surface teem with life. Sometimes, as in high
+latitudes, the cold is so great that only the simplest microscopic
+forms are able to maintain existence. In the tropics, animals and
+plants are abundant, and sometimes by their numbers colour great areas
+of water; or, as in the drift of the Gulf Stream, make a tangle of
+animal and plant life through which a boat travels only with
+difficulty. The basis of the food supply of this vast and hungry
+floating life is, as on land, vegetable life; for plants are the only
+creatures capable of building up food from the gases of the air and
+the simple chemical salts found dissolved in water. Occasionally, in
+shallow or warm seas, marine floating plants, large and visible like
+the sea-weeds of the coast, form the floating masses known as Sargasso
+seas; more often the plants are minute, microscopic specks visible
+only when a drop of water is placed under the microscope, but
+occurring in incredible numbers, and, like the green vegetation of the
+earth, forming the ultimate food-supply of all the living things
+around them. Innumerable animals, great and small, live on the plants
+or upon their fellows, and, however far he may be from land, the
+naturalist has always abundant material got by his daily use of the
+tow-net. This drifting population floats at the mercy of the waves.
+Most of the animals are delicate, transparent creatures, their
+transparency helping to protect them from the attacks of hungry
+fellows. Nerves, muscles, skin, and the organs generally are clear,
+pale, and hardly visible. Such structures as the liver, the
+reproductive organs, and the stomach, which cannot easily become
+transparent, are grouped together into small knots, coloured brown
+like little masses of sea-weed. Other floating creatures are vividly
+coloured, but the hues are bright blues and greens closely similar to
+the sparkling tints of sea-water in sunlight. The different members of
+this marine flotsam frequently rise and fall periodically: some of
+them sinking by day to escape the light, others rising only by day;
+others, again, appearing on the surface in spring, keeping deep down
+in winter. Perhaps the majority of them are phosphorescent, sometimes
+shining by their own light, sometimes borrowing a glory from
+innumerable phosphorescent bacteria with which they are infested.
+Nearly every class of the animal kingdom contributes members to this
+strange population. The young forms of many fish, as for instance of
+conger, flying gurnards, and some flatfish, are pelagic and have
+colourless blood, and pale, transparent, gelatinous or cartilaginous
+skeletons. The tadpole-like stages of the sea-squirts, which in adult
+life are to be found attached to rocks like weeds, drift about in the
+surface waters until their time comes for settling down in life. Many
+other Ascidians pass their whole life as pelagic creatures. A few
+molluscs, many kinds of worms, echinoderms, and their allies, crab and
+lobster-like creatures in innumerable different stages of development,
+are to be found there, while unnumbered polyps and jelly-fish are
+always present. It would be difficult to imagine a better training for
+the naturalist than to spend years, as Huxley did, working at this
+varied assortment of living creatures. Huxley declared that the
+difficulties of examining such flimsy creatures had been exaggerated.
+
+     "At least, with a good light and a good microscope, with the ship
+     tolerably steady, I never failed in procuring all the information
+     I required. The great matter is to obtain a good successive
+     supply of specimens, as the more delicate oceanic species are
+     usually unfit for examination within a few hours after they are
+     taken."
+
+Day after day, as the _Rattlesnake_ crept from island to island,
+Huxley examined the animals brought up by his tow-net. He made endless
+dissections, and gradually accumulated a large portfolio of drawings.
+Much of the time he passed at Sydney was spent in libraries and
+museums, comparing his own observations with the recorded observations
+of earlier workers, and receiving from the combination of his own work
+and the work of others new ideas for his future investigations. It was
+all entirely a labour of love; it lay outside the professional duties
+by which he made his living, and for a long time it seemed as if he
+was not even to gain reputation by the discoveries he knew himself to
+be making. He writes in his autobiography:
+
+     "During the four years of our absence, I sent home communication
+     after communication to the 'Linnaean' Society, with the same
+     result as that obtained by Noah when he sent the raven out of his
+     ark. Tired at last of hearing nothing about them, I determined to
+     do or die, and in 1849 I drew up a more elaborate paper and
+     forwarded it to the Royal Society. This was my dove, if I had
+     only known it; but owing to the movements of the ship I heard
+     nothing of that either until my return to England in the latter
+     end of the year 1850, when I found that it was printed and
+     published, and that a huge packet of separate copies awaited me.
+     When I hear some of my young friends complain of want of sympathy
+     and encouragement, I am inclined to think that my naval life was
+     not the least valuable part of my education."
+
+This first successful paper was a memoir _On the Anatomy and the
+Affinities of the Family of Medusae_, and was sent at Captain Stanley's
+suggestion to that officer's father, the Bishop of Norwich, who
+communicated it to the Royal Society. It is a curious circumstance
+that Huxley, who afterwards met with so virulent opposition from
+bishops, owed his first public success to one of them. Professor Sir
+Michael Foster writes of this period in Huxley's life:
+
+     "The career of many a successful man has shewn that obstacles
+     often prove the mother of endeavour, and never was this lesson
+     clearer than in the case of Huxley. Working amidst a host of
+     difficulties, in want of room, in want of light, seeking to
+     unravel the intricacies of minute structure with a microscope
+     lashed to secure steadiness, cramped within a tiny cabin, jostled
+     by the tumult of a crowded ship's life, with the scantiest supply
+     of books of reference, with no one at hand of whom he could take
+     counsel on the problems opening up before him, he gathered for
+     himself during these four years a large mass of accurate,
+     important, and in most cases novel, observations and illustrated
+     them with skilful, pertinent drawings. Even his intellectual
+     solitude had its good effects: it drove him to ponder over the
+     new facts which came before him, and all his observations were
+     made alive with scientific thought."
+
+Afterwards, in England, he received the Royal Medal of the Royal
+Society for this memoir on Medusae, sharing this supreme distinction of
+scientific England with men so illustrious as Joule, the discoverer of
+the relation between force and heat, Stokes, the great investigator of
+optical physics, and Humboldt, the traveller, all of whom received
+medals in the same year. In making the presentation to Huxley, the
+Earl of Rosse, then President of the Royal Society, declared:
+
+     "In those papers you have for the first time fully developed
+     their structure (that of the Medusae), and laid the foundation of
+     a rational theory for their classification. In your second paper,
+     on the anatomy of Salpa and Pyrosoma, the phenomena have received
+     the most ingenious and elaborate elucidations, and have given
+     rise to a process of reasoning, the results of which can scarcely
+     yet be anticipated, but must bear in a very important degree upon
+     some of the most abstruse points of what may be called
+     transcendental physiology."
+
+Many reasons make it difficult for us to realise, now, the singular
+novelty and importance of Huxley's memoir on the Medusae. The first is
+a reason which often prevents great discoveries in almost every
+subject from receiving in after years their due respect. The years
+that have passed since 1850 have seen not only the most amazing
+progress in our knowledge of comparative anatomy, but almost a
+revolution in the methods of studying it. Huxley's work has been
+incorporated in the very body of science. A large number of later
+investigators have advanced upon the lines he laid down; and just as
+the superstructures of a great building conceal the foundations, so
+later anatomical work, although it has only amplified and extended
+Huxley's discoveries, has made them seem less striking to the modern
+reader. The present writer, for instance, learned all that he knows of
+anatomy in the last ten years, and until he turned to it for the
+purpose of this volume he had never referred to Huxley's original
+paper. When he did so, he found from beginning to end nothing that was
+new to him, nothing that was strange: all the ideas in the memoir had
+passed into the currency of knowledge and he had been taught them as
+fundamental facts. It was only when he turned to the text-books of
+anatomy and natural history current in Huxley's time that he was able
+to realise how the conclusions of the young ship-surgeon struck the
+Fellows and President of the Royal Society as luminous and
+revolutionary ideas.
+
+In the first half of the century, a conception of the animal kingdom
+prevailed which was entirely different from our modern ideas. We know
+now that all animals are bound together by the bond of a common
+descent, and we seek in anatomy a clue to the degrees of relationship
+existing among the different animals we know. We regard the animal
+kingdom as a thicket of branches all springing from a common root.
+Some of these spring straight up from the common root unconnected with
+their fellows. Others branch repeatedly, and all the branches of the
+same stem have features in common. What we see in the living world is
+only the surface of the thicket, the tops of the twigs; and it is by
+examination of the structure of this surface that we reconstruct in
+imagination the whole system of branches, and know that certain twigs,
+from their likeness, meet each other a little way down; that others
+are connected only very deep down, and that others, again, spring
+free almost from the beginning. The fossils of beds of rock of
+different geological ages give us incomplete views of the surface of
+the thicket of life, as it was in earlier times. These views we have
+of the past aspects of the animal kingdom are always much more
+incomplete than our knowledge of the existing aspect; partly because
+many animals, from the softness of their bodies, have left either no
+fossil remains at all, or only very imperfect casts of the external
+surfaces of their bodies; and partly because the turning of any animal
+into a fossil, and its subsequent discovery by a geologist, are
+occasional accidents; but, although the evidence is much less perfect
+than we could wish, there is enough of it to convince anatomists that
+existing animals are all in definite blood-relationship to each other,
+and to make them, in the investigation of any new animal, study its
+anatomy with the definite view of finding out its place in the family
+tree of the living world.
+
+When Huxley made his first discoveries, entirely different ideas
+prevailed. The animal kingdom was supposed to offer a series of types,
+of moulds, into which the Creator at the beginning of the world had
+cast the substance of life. These types were independent of each
+other, and had been so since the beginning of things. Anatomists were
+concerned chiefly with systematic work, with detecting and recording
+the slight differences that existed among the numbers of animals
+grouped around each type. No attempt was made to see connection
+between type and type, for where these had been separately created
+there was nothing to connect them except possibly some idea in the
+mind of the Creator. This apparently barren attitude to nature was
+stronger in men's minds because it had inspired the colossal
+achievements of Cuvier, a genius who, under whatever misconceptions he
+had worked, would have added greatly to knowledge. As we have seen in
+the first chapter, Huxley, through Wharton Jones, and through his own
+reading, had been brought under the more modern German thought of
+Johannes Mueller and Von Baer. He had learned to study the problems of
+living nature in the spirit of a physicist making investigations into
+dead nature. In the anatomy of animals, as in the structure of rocks
+and crystals, there were to be sought out "laws of growth" and shaping
+and moulding influences which accounted for the form of the
+structures. To use the technical term, he was a morphologist: one who
+studied the architecture of animals not merely in a spirit of admiring
+wonder, but with the definite idea of finding out the guiding
+principles which had determined these shapes.
+
+Not only was the prevailing method of investigation faulty, but actual
+knowledge of a large part of the animal kingdom was extremely limited.
+In the minds of most zooelogists the animal kingdom was divided into
+two great groups: the vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrate,
+or back-boned, animals were well known; comparatively speaking they
+are all built upon the type of man; and human anatomists, who indeed
+made up the greater number of all anatomists, using their exact
+knowledge of the human body, had studied many other vertebrates with
+minute care, and, from man to fishes, had arranged living vertebrates
+very much in the modern order. But the invertebrates were a vague and
+ill-assorted heap of animals. It was not recognised that among them
+there were many series of different grades of ascending complexity,
+and there was no well-known form to serve as a standard of comparison
+for all the others in the fashion that the body of man served as a
+standard of comparison for all vertebrates. Here and there, a few
+salient types such as insects and snails had been picked out, but
+knowledge of them helped but little with a great many of the
+invertebrates. The great Linnaeus had divided the animal kingdom into
+four groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, but
+for the invertebrates he had done no more than to pick out the insects
+as one group and to call everything else "Vermes" or worms. The
+insects included all creatures possessed of an external skeleton or
+hard skin divided into jointed segments, and included forms so
+different as insects, spiders, crabs, and lobsters. But Vermes
+included all the members of the animal kingdom that were neither
+vertebrates nor insects. Cuvier advanced a little. He got rid of the
+comprehensive title Vermes--the label of the rubbish-heap of
+zooelogists. He divided animals into four great subkingdoms:
+Vertebrates, Mollusca, Articulata, Radiata. These names, however, only
+covered very superficial resemblances among the animals designated by
+them. The word _Mollusca_ only meant that the creatures grouped
+together had soft bodies, unsupported by internal or external
+articulated skeletons; and this character, or, rather, absence of
+character, was applied alike to many totally dissimilar creatures. The
+term _Articulata_ included not only Linnaeus's insects but a number of
+soft-skinned, apparently jointed, worm-like animals such as the leech
+and earthworm. Lastly, the name _Radiata_ meant no more than that the
+organs of the creatures so designated were more or less disposed
+around a centre, as the sepals and petals of a flower are grouped
+around the central pistil; and it included animals so different as
+the starfish and sea-anemones and Medusae. The names used in the
+classification were not only loosely applied but were based on the
+most superficial observation, and took no account of the intimate
+structures of the tissues and organs of the animals. With slight
+modifications, due to individual taste or special knowledge of small
+groups, later writers had followed Linnaeus and Cuvier.
+
+It was with a view of the animal kingdom not much clearer than this
+that Huxley began his work on the Medusae of the tropic seas. He began
+to study them no doubt simply because they were among the most
+abundant of the animals that could be obtained from the ship. He made
+endless dissections and drawings, and, above all, studied their minute
+anatomy with the microscope. They were all placed among Cuvier's
+_Radiata_, but, as Huxley said in the first line of his memoir:
+
+     "Perhaps no class of animals has been investigated with so little
+     satisfactory and comprehensive result, and this not for the want
+     of patience and ability on the part of the observers, but rather
+     because they have contented themselves with stating matters of
+     detail concerning particular genera and species, instead of
+     giving broad and general views of the whole class, considered as
+     organised upon a given type, and inquiring into its relations
+     with other families."
+
+He found that fully developed Medusae consisted each of a disc with
+tentacles and vesicular bodies at the margins, a stomach, and canals
+proceeding from it, and generative organs. He traced this simple
+common structure through the complications and modifications in which
+it appeared in the different groups of Medusae, in all this work
+bringing out the prevailing features of the anatomy in contrast to
+the individual peculiarities. He shewed that microscopically all the
+complicated systems of canals and organs were composed of two
+"foundation-membranes," two thin webs of cells, one of which formed
+the outermost layer of the body, while the inner formed the lining of
+the stomach and canals in the thinner parts of the body, such as the
+edges of the umbrella-like disc, and towards the ends of the
+tentacles. These thin webs formed practically all the body. In the
+thicker parts there was interposed between them an almost
+structureless layer of jelly, placed like padding between the lining
+and the cloth of a coat. He shewed that blood-vessels and blood were
+absent, in which he has been confirmed by all other observers. He
+declared more doubtfully against the existence of a special nervous
+system, and it was not until long after, when the methods of
+microscopic investigation were much more perfect, that the delicate
+nerve-cells and nerve-fibres, which we now know to exist, were
+discovered.
+
+Having thus shewn the peculiar organisation of the group he turned to
+seek out its allies among other families. The Medusae consisted
+essentially of two membranes inclosing a variously shaped cavity
+inasmuch as all its organs were so composed. The generative organs
+were external, being variously developed processes of the two
+membranes. The peculiar organs called thread-cells--poisoned darts by
+the discharge of which prey could be paralysed--were universally
+present. What other families presented these peculiarities?
+
+There are to be found abundantly in sea-water, and less frequently in
+fresh water, innumerable forms of animal life called Zooephytes or
+animal plants because they occur as encrusting masses like lichens, or
+branched forests like moss, on the surface of stones and shells. A
+common habit gave this set of creatures their common name; but,
+although they were grouped together, there was no greater affinity
+among them than there is racial affinity among people who clothe
+themselves for an evening party in the same conventional dress. Huxley
+examined a large number of these, and picked out from them two great
+families of polyps, the Hydroid and Sertularian polyps, which each
+consist of colonies of creatures very much like the little fresh-water
+hydra. He shewed that the tubular body of these and the ring of
+tentacles surrounding the mouth were composed of the same two
+foundation-membranes of which all the organs of Medusae are composed.
+He found in them the poisoned arrows or thread-cells of the Medusae,
+and the same external position of the reproductive organs. And,
+lastly, he separated from all other creatures, and associated with his
+new group, some of the strangest and most beautiful animals of the
+tropic seas, known to science as the Physophoridae and the Diphyidae.
+The best-known of these is the "Portuguese man-of-war," the body of
+which consists of a large pear-shaped vesicle which floats on the
+water like a bladder. From the lower part of this depend into the
+water large and small nutritive branches, each ending in a mouth
+surrounded by a circle of waving tentacles armed with batteries of
+thread-cells, while another set of hanging protrusions bear the
+grape-like reproductive organs. On the upper surface of the bladder is
+fixed a purple sail of the most brilliant colour, by which the
+floating creature is blown through the water. When the weather is
+rough, the bladder empties, and the creature sinks down into the quiet
+water below the waves, to rise again when the storm is over. This,
+and its equally wonderful allies, Huxley showed to be a complicated
+colony of hydra-like creatures, each part being composed of two
+membranes, and therefore essentially similar to Medusae. Thus, by a
+great piece of constructive work, an assemblage of animals was
+gathered into a new group and shewn to be organised upon one simple
+and uniform plan, and, even in the most complex and aberrant forms,
+reducible to the same type. The group, and Huxley's conception of its
+structure, are now absolutely accepted by anatomists, and have made
+one of the corner-stones of our modern idea of the arrangement of the
+animal kingdom. With the exception of sponges, concerning the exact
+relations of which there is still dispute, and of a few sets of
+parasitic and possibly degenerate creatures, all animals, the bodies
+of which are multicellular, from the simple fresh-water hydra up to
+man, are divided into two great groups. The structure of the simpler
+of these groups is exactly what Huxley found to be of importance in
+the Medusae. The body wall, from which all the organs protrude,
+consists merely of a web of cells arranged in two sheets or membranes,
+and the single cavity consists of a central stomach, surrounded by
+these membranes, the cavity remaining simple or giving rise to a
+number of branching canals. The members of this great division of the
+animal kingdom are the creatures which Huxley selected and placed
+together, with the addition of the sea-anemones and the medusa-like
+Ctenophora, which, indeed, he mentioned in his memoir as being related
+to the others, but reserved fuller consideration for a future
+occasion. This group is now called the Coelenterata, the name
+implying that the creatures are simply hollow stomachs, and it is
+contrasted in the strongest way with the group Coelomata, in which
+are placed all the higher animals, from the simplest worm up to man;
+animals in which, in addition to the two foundation-membranes of the
+Coelenterata, there is a third foundation-membrane, and in which, in
+addition to the simple stomach cavity with its offshoots, there is a
+true body-cavity or coelome, and usually a set of spaces and
+channels containing a blood-fluid. The older method of naming groups
+of animals after some obvious superficial character lingered on for
+some years in text-books and treatises, but in this memoir the young
+ship-surgeon had replaced it by the modern scientific method of
+grouping animals together only because of real identity of structure.
+
+There is yet left to be noticed perhaps the most wonderful of all the
+ideas in this first memoir by Huxley. In the course of describing the
+two foundation membranes of the Medusae he remarks:
+
+     "It is curious to remark, that throughout, the outer and inner
+     membranes appear to bear the same physiological relation to one
+     another as do the serous and mucous layers of the germ: the outer
+     becoming developed into the muscular system, and giving rise to
+     the organs of offence and defence: the inner on the other hand
+     appearing to be more closely subservient to the purposes of
+     nutrition and generation."
+
+In the whole range of science it would be difficult to select an
+utterance more prophetic of future knowledge than these few words.
+Huxley had been reading the investigations of Von Baer into the early
+development of back-boned animals. He had learned from them the great
+generalisation, that the younger stages of these animals resemble one
+another more closely than the adult stages, and that in an early stage
+in the development of all these animals the beginning of the embryo
+consists of two layers of cells, in fact of two foundation-membranes,
+one forming specially the wall of the future digestive canal, the
+other forming the most external portion of the future animal. In these
+days nothing could have seemed a remoter or more unlikely comparison
+than one instituted between Medusae and the embryonic stages of
+back-boned animals. But Huxley made it, not allowing the evidence
+brought before his reason to be swamped by preconceived ideas. At the
+time he did no more than to make the comparison. It was much later
+that the full importance of it became known, when more extended work
+on the embryology of vertebrates and of the different groups of the
+invertebrates had made it plain that the two foundation-membranes of
+Huxley occur in all animals from the Medusae up to man. In the group of
+Coelenterata the organisation remains throughout life as nothing
+more than a folding in and folding out of these membranes. The early
+stages of all the higher animals similarly consist of complications of
+the two membranes; but later on there is added to them a third
+membrane. Thus the group that Huxley gathered together comprises those
+animals that as adults remain in a condition of development which is
+passed through in the embryonic life of all higher animals. The
+immense importance of this conclusion becomes plain, and the
+conclusion itself seems obvious, when seen in the light of the
+doctrine of descent. The group of Coelenterata represents a
+surviving, older condition in the evolution of animals. Huxley
+himself, when on the _Rattlesnake_, regarded evolution only as a vague
+metaphysical dream, and he made the comparison which has been
+described without any afterthought of what it implied. In this we have
+the earliest authentic instance of the peculiar integrity of mind
+which was so characteristic of him in his dealings with philosophy and
+tradition. He never allowed any weight of authority or any apparent
+disturbance of existing ideas to alter the conclusions to which his
+reason led him. This intellectual courage made him fitted to be the
+leader in the battle for evolution and against traditional thought,
+and we shall find again and again in consideration of his work that it
+was the keynote of his life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY DAYS IN LONDON
+
+     Scientific Work as Unattached Ship-Surgeon--Introduction to
+     London Scientific Society--Translating, Reviewing, and
+     Lecturing--Ascidians--Molluscs and the Archetype--Criticism of
+     Pre-Darwinian Evolution--Appointment to Geological Survey.
+
+
+The _Rattlesnake_ was paid off at Chatham on November 9, 1850. In the
+natural course of events Huxley would have been appointed before long
+to active service upon another ship. But he had no intention of
+relapsing into the position of a mere navy doctor; he had accumulated
+sufficient scientific material to keep him employed on scientific
+investigation for years, and so he applied to the Admiralty to "be
+borne on the books" of H.M.S. _Fisgard_ at Woolwich,--that is to say,
+to be appointed assistant-surgeon to the ship "for particular
+service," so that he should not be compelled to live on board, but
+might remain in town, and, with free access to libraries and museums,
+work up the observations he had made on the _Rattlesnake_ into serious
+and substantial contributions to science. His request was granted,
+largely by the aid of his old chief, Sir W. Burnett, who continued to
+take the most useful interest in the young man he had originally
+nominated to the service. In a letter to him Huxley described the
+investigations which he desired to continue as being chiefly those on
+"the anatomy of certain Gasteropod and Pteropod Mollusca, of Firola
+and Atlantis, of Salpa and Pyrosoma, of two new Ascidians, namely,
+Appendicularia and Doliolum, of Sagitta and certain Annelids, of the
+auditory and circulatory organs of certain transparent Crustacea, and
+of the Medusae and Polyps." His request was granted, and for the next
+three years Huxley lived in London with his brother, on the exiguous
+income of an assistant-surgeon, and devoted himself to research. He
+became almost at once of the first rank among English anatomists. The
+result of the paper on Medusae in the _Transactions of the Royal
+Society_ was that he was elected a Fellow of the Society on June 5,
+1851, and a year later received a Royal Medal of the Society. He made
+many warm friendships both among the older and the younger generations
+of scientific men. In his obituary notice of Huxley, Sir Michael
+Foster wrote:
+
+     "By Edward Forbes, in whose nature there was much that was akin
+     to his own, and with whom he had some acquaintance before his
+     voyage, he was at once greeted as a comrade, and with Joseph
+     Dalton Hooker, to whom he was drawn at the very first by their
+     common experience as navy surgeons, he began an attachment which,
+     strengthened by like biological aspirations, grew closer as their
+     lives went on. In the first year after his return, in the autumn
+     of 1851, he made the acquaintance of John Tyndall at the meeting
+     of the British Association at Ipswich, and the three, Hooker,
+     Huxley, and Tyndall, finding how much in common were all their
+     scientific views and desires, formed then and there a triple
+     scientific alliance."
+
+Repeated efforts were made by these three, and by more influential
+friends, to induce the Admiralty to contribute to the expense of
+publishing Huxley's scientific results, as they had given a pledge to
+encourage officers who had done scientific work. These efforts lasted
+unavailingly for nearly three years, and then, as Huxley says: "The
+Admiralty, getting tired, I suppose, cut short the discussion by
+ordering me to join a ship, which thing I declined to do, and, as
+Rastignac, in the _Pere Goriot_, says to Paris, I said to London, _a
+nous deux_." This light phrase conceals a courageous and momentous
+decision. He was absolutely without private resources, and having
+abandoned his professional work he had no salary of any kind. For a
+year or so he supported himself by writing reviews and popular
+scientific articles, striving all the time not only to gain his bread
+but to continue his scientific work and make it known to the public.
+He desired to get a professorship of physiology or of comparative
+anatomy, and as vacancies occurred he applied, but unsuccessfully. At
+the same time, he tells us, he and his friend, John Tyndall, were
+
+     "candidates, he for the Chair of Physics, and I for that of
+     Natural History in the University of Toronto, which, fortunately,
+     as it turned out, would not look at either of us. I say
+     fortunately, not from any lack of respect for the University of
+     Toronto; but because I soon made up my mind that London was the
+     place for me, and hence I have steadily declined the inducements
+     to leave it which have at various times been offered."
+
+In these early years in London Huxley's work was most varied. A large
+number of anonymous articles by him appeared in the _Literary
+Gazette_, and in other periodicals. He assisted to remove the insular
+narrowness from English scientific work by translating many foreign
+memoirs. With the collaboration of Mr. Henfrey, he edited a series of
+scientific memoirs, all of which were translated from foreign
+languages, and many by his own pen. With the assistance of Mr. George
+Busk he made a translation of Koelliker's _Histology_, a great treatise
+on microscopic anatomy which played a large part in the development of
+the modern English schools of anatomy and physiology. He made some
+valuable contributions to Todd and Bowman's _Cyclopaedia of Anatomy_,
+an elaborate publication now nearly forgotten and practically
+superseded, but which was the standard anatomical work of the middle
+of this century. He was unable to progress rapidly with his work upon
+oceanic Medusae, as he was uncertain how to have it published; the
+Admiralty refused to assist, and it was too lengthy for publication in
+the volumes of the learned Societies. As a matter of fact, he did not
+publish it until 1858, when it appeared as a separate memoir. To the
+_Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_ and to the _Transactions
+of the Royal and Linnaean Societies_ he contributed a large number of
+memoirs dealing with the microscopic anatomy and relationships of
+invertebrates, and, lastly, he gave a series of addresses at the Royal
+Institution, which had been founded as a means by which leading men of
+science might give accounts of their work to London society. Abstracts
+of these lectures are published in the early volumes of the
+_Proceedings of the Royal Institution_ and are interesting as shewing
+the kinds of zooelogical subjects which were attracting the attention
+of Huxley and which he considered of sufficient interest and
+importance to bring to the notice of the general public. The first of
+these lectures, and probably the first given in public by Huxley,
+occurred on April 30, 1852, and was entitled "Animal Individuality."
+The problem as to what is meant by an individual had been raised in
+his mind by consideration of many of the forms of marine life,
+notably compound structures like the Portuguese man-of-war, and
+creatures like the salps, which form floating chains often many yards
+in length. He explained that the word _individual_ covers at least
+three quite different kinds of conceptions. There is, first, what he
+described as arbitrary individuality, an individuality which is given
+by the mind of the observer and does not actually exist in the thing
+considered. Thus a landscape is in a sense an individual thing, but
+only so far as it is a particular part of the surface of the earth,
+isolated for the time in the mind of the person looking at it. If the
+observer shift his position, the range of the landscape alters and
+becomes something else. Next there are material, or practically
+accidental individual things, such as crystals or pieces of stone;
+and, lastly, there are living individuals which, as he pointed out,
+were cycles. All living things are born into the world, grow up, and
+die, and it was to the cycle of life, from the egg to the adult which
+produces eggs, that he gave the name individual. In a simple animal
+like Hydra there is no difficulty in accepting this plain definition
+of individuality; but Huxley went on to compare with Hydra a compound
+creature like the Portuguese man-of-war, which really is composed of a
+colony of Hydra-like creatures, the different members of the colony
+being more or less altered to serve different functions. All these
+have come from the branching of a single simple creature produced from
+an egg, and to the whole colony Huxley gave the name of zooelogical
+individual. The salps give a still wider interpretation to this view
+of individuality. The original salp produced from the egg gives rise
+to many salps, which may either remain attached in a chain, or,
+breaking away from one another, may live separately. Huxley extended
+the use of the word _individual_ so as to include as a single
+zooelogical individual the whole set of creatures cohering in chains or
+breaking apart, which had been produced by budding from the product of
+a single egg-cell. This subtle analysis of ideas delighted and
+interested his contemporaries, and the train of logical examination of
+what is meant by individuality has persisted to the present time. Like
+all other zooelogical ideas, this has been considerably altered by the
+conception of evolution. Zooelogists no longer attempt to stretch
+logical conceptions until they fit enormous and different parts of the
+living world. They recognise that the living world, because it is
+alive, is constantly changing, and that living things pass through
+different stages or kinds of individuality in the course of their
+lives. A single egg-cell is one kind, perhaps the simplest kind, of
+zooelogical individual; when it has grown up into a simple polyp it has
+passed into a second grade of individuality; when, by budding, the
+polyp has become branched, a third grade is reached, and when the
+branches have become different, in obedience to the different purposes
+which they are to serve in the whole compound creature, a still
+further grade is reached. Huxley's attempt to find a meaning for
+individuality that would apply equally to a single simple creature, to
+a compound creature, and to the large number of separate creatures,
+all developed by budding from one creature, is a striking instance of
+his singular capacity for bringing apparently dissimilar facts into
+harmony, by finding out the common underlying principle, and, although
+we no longer accept this particular conclusion, we cannot fail to
+notice in it the peculiar powers of his mind.
+
+A second and even more interesting Royal Institution lecture dealt
+with the "Identity of Structure in Animals and Plants." At the present
+time every educated person knows that the life of animals and plants
+alike depends on the fact that their bodies are composed of a living
+material called protoplasm, a material which is identical in every
+important respect in both kingdoms of the living world. In the early
+fifties, scientific opinion was by no means clear on this matter, and
+certainly public opinion was most vague. Huxley discussed what was
+meant by organisation, and shewed that in every essential respect
+plants and animals alike were organised beings. Then he went on to
+explain the cellular theory of Schwann, which was then a novelty to a
+general audience. Schwann, in studying the microscopic structure of
+plants, noticed that their bodies were made up of little cases with
+firm walls; these he called _cells_, and declared that the whole body
+of the plant was composed of cells. As the walls of these cells were
+the most obvious and visible feature, it was supposed that they were
+the most essential part of the structure, and there was some
+difficulty in applying the cellular theory to the bodies of animals,
+as in most cases there are no easily visible cell-walls in animal
+tissues. As the result of his own observation, and from his reading of
+the work of others, Huxley laid down in the clearest way what is now
+accepted by everyone--that the presence of walls is of minor
+importance, and that it is the slimy contents of the cells, what is
+called "protoplasm," that is the important element. He declared that
+the protoplasm of animals was identical with the protoplasm of plants,
+and that plants were "animals confined in wooden cases." He agreed
+with Schwann that the cell, using the term to imply the contents
+rather than the wall, was of fundamental importance, and was the unit
+of structure of the whole world of life. On the other hand, he
+declared that it could not be looked at as the unit of function: he
+denied that the powers and properties of a living body were simply the
+sum of the powers and properties of the single cells. In this opinion
+he was not followed by physiologists until quite recently. For many
+years physiologists held that cells were units of function just as
+much as they are units of structure; but in the last ten years there
+has been a strong return to the opinion of Huxley.
+
+In 1851 two very important memoirs were published in the _Transactions
+of the Royal Society_, which contained the results of Huxley's
+observations of the interesting animals known as "tunicates." The
+first of these papers begins as follows:
+
+     "The Salpae, those strange gelatinous animals, through masses of
+     which the voyager in the great ocean sometimes sails day after
+     day, have been the subject of a great controversy since the time
+     of the publication of the celebrated work of Chamisso, _De
+     Animalibus Quibusdam e Classe Vermium Linnaeana_. In this work
+     there were set forth, for the first time, the singular phenomena
+     presented by the reproductive processes of these
+     animals,--phenomena so strange, and so utterly unlike anything
+     then known to occur in the whole province of zooelogy, that
+     Chamisso's admirably clear and truthful account was received with
+     almost as much distrust as if he had announced the existence of a
+     veritable Peter Schlemihl."
+
+According to Chamisso, salps appeared in two forms: solitary forms,
+and forms in which a number of salps are united into a long chain.
+Each salp of the aggregate form contains within it an embryo receiving
+nutrition from the mother by a connection similar to the placenta by
+which the embryo of a mammal receives nourishment from the blood of
+the mother. These embryos grow up into the solitary form, and the
+solitary form gives rise to a long chain of the aggregate form which
+developes in the interior of the body. Chamisso compared this progress
+to the development of insects. "Supposing," he said, "caterpillars did
+not bodily change into butterflies, but by a process of sexual
+breeding produced young which grew into the ordinary adults, and that
+these adults, as indeed they do, gave rise to caterpillars by sexual
+reproduction, then there would be a true alternation of generations."
+The first generation would give rise to a second generation totally
+unlike itself, and this second generation would reproduce, not its
+kind, but the first generation; such an alternation of generations he
+stated to occur among the salps. Huxley had an excellent opportunity
+to study this question at Cape York in November, 1849. "For a time the
+sea was absolutely crowded with Salpae, in all stages of growth, and of
+size very convenient for examination." He was able to verify the
+general truth of Chamisso's statement. The aggregate form of Salpa
+always gives rise to the solitary salps, and the solitary salps always
+give rise to chains of the aggregate salps. But the process of
+reproduction he shewed to be quite different in the two cases. The
+solitary salp produces in its interior a little stolon or diverticulum
+which contains an outgrowth from the circulatory system, and this
+stolon gradually becomes pinched off into the members of the chain of
+the aggregate form. The salps of the aggregate form are therefore
+merely buds from the solitary form, and are not produced in the
+ordinary way, by sexual generation. On the other hand, each salp of
+the chain has within it a true egg-cell. This is fertilised by a male
+cell, and within the body of the parent, nourished by the blood of the
+parent, grows up into the solitary form. There is then an alternation
+of generations, but there are not two sexual generations. The sexual
+generation of chain salps gives rise to forms which reproduce by buds.
+From this conclusion, with which all later observers have agreed,
+Huxley went on to his theory of individuality. Different names had
+been given to the two forms, but Huxley declared that neither form was
+a true zooelogical individual; they were only parts of individuals or
+organs, and the true individual was the complete cycle involving both
+forms.
+
+In addition to determining the interesting method of reproduction,
+Huxley made an elaborate investigation of the structure of Salpa. On
+one occasion only the _Rattlesnake_ came across a quantity of an
+allied Ascidian, Pyrosoma, which had received its name from its
+phosphorescence.
+
+     "The sky was clear but moonless, and the sea calm; and a more
+     beautiful sight can hardly be imagined than that presented from
+     the deck of the ship as she drifted, hour after hour, through
+     this shoal of miniature pillars of fire gleaming out of the dark
+     sea, with an ever-waning, ever brightening, soft bluish light, as
+     far as the eye could reach on every side. The Pyrosomata floated
+     deep, and it was only with difficulty that some were procured for
+     examination and placed in a bucketful of sea-water. The
+     phosphorescence was intermittent, periods of darkness alternating
+     with periods of brilliancy. The light commenced in one spot,
+     apparently on the surface of one of the zooeids, and gradually
+     spread from this as a centre in all directions; then the whole
+     was lighted up: it remained brilliant for a few seconds, and then
+     gradually faded and died away, until the whole mass was dark
+     again. Friction at any point induces the light at that point, and
+     from thence the phosphorescence spreads over the whole, while the
+     creature is quite freshly taken; afterwards, the illumination
+     arising from friction is only local."
+
+Dealing with these creatures in the broad anatomical spirit with which
+he had studied the Medusae, Huxley shewed the typical structure
+manifested in the different forms, and that was common to them and the
+Ascidians or sea-squirts of the seashore. In a second paper on
+"Appendicularia and Doliolum" he made further contributions to our
+knowledge of these interesting creatures. Appendicularia is a curious
+little Ascidian, differing from all the others in its possession of a
+tail. Earlier observers had obtained it on various parts of the ocean
+surface, but had failed entirely to detect its relationship to the
+ordinary Ascidians. Chamisso got it near Behring's Straits and thought
+that it was more nearly allied to "Venus's Girdle," a Coelenterate.
+Mertens, another distinguished zooelogist, had declared that "the
+relation of this animal with the Pteropods (a peculiar group of
+molluscs) is unmistakable"; while Mueller, a prince among German
+anatomists, confessed that "he did not know in what division of the
+animal kingdom to place this creature." Huxley shewed that it
+possessed all the characteristic features of the Ascidians, the same
+arrangement of organs, the same kind of nervous system, a respiratory
+chamber formed from the fore part of the alimentary canal, and a
+peculiar organ running along the pharynx which Huxley called the
+endostyle and which is one of the most striking peculiarities of the
+whole group. The real nature of the tail was Huxley's most striking
+discovery. He pointed out that ordinary Ascidians begin life as tiny
+tadpole-like creatures which swim freely by the aid of a long caudal
+appendage; and that while these better-known Ascidians lose their
+tails when they settle down into adult life, the Appendiculariae are
+Ascidians which retain this larval structure throughout life. Von Baer
+had shown that in the great natural groups of higher animals some
+forms occur which typify, in their adult condition, the larval state
+of the higher forms of the group. Thus, among the amphibia, frogs have
+tails in the larval or tadpole condition; but newts throughout life
+remain in the larval or tailed condition. Appendicularia he considered
+to be the lowest form of the Ascidians, and to typify in its adult
+condition the larval stages of the higher Ascidians.
+
+By this remarkable investigation of the structure of the group of
+Ascidians, and display of the various grades of organisation, Huxley
+paved the way for one of the great modern advances in knowledge. When,
+later on, the idea of evolution was accepted, and zooelogists began
+hunting out the pedigree of the back-boned animals, it was discovered
+that Ascidians were modern representatives of an important stage in
+the ancestry of vertebrate animals, and, therefore, of man himself.
+There are few more interesting chapters in genealogical zooelogy than
+those which reveal the relationship between Amphioxus and fish on the
+one hand, and Ascidians on the other; for fish are vertebrates, and
+Ascidians, on the old view, are lowly invertebrates. The details of
+these relationships have been made known to us by the brilliant
+investigations of several Germans, by Kowalevsky, a Russian, by the
+Englishmen Ray Lankester and Willey, and by several Americans and
+Frenchmen. But behind the work of all these lies the pioneer work of
+Huxley, who first gathered the group of Ascidians together, and in a
+series of masterly investigations described its typical structure.
+
+Huxley's next great piece of work was embodied in a memoir published
+in the _Transactions of the Royal Society_ in 1853, and which remains
+to the present day a model of luminous description and far-reaching
+ideas. It was a treatise on the structure of the great group of
+molluscs, and displays in a striking fashion his method of handling
+anatomical facts, and deducing from them the great underlying
+principles of construction. The shell-fish with which he dealt
+specially were those distinguished as cephalous, because, unlike
+creatures such as the oyster and mussel, they had something readily
+comparable with the head of vertebrates. He began by pointing out what
+problems he hoped to solve. The anatomy of many of the cephalous
+molluscs was known, but the relation of structures present in one to
+structures present in another group had not been settled.
+
+     "It is not settled whether the back of a cuttle-fish answers to
+     the dorsal or ventral surface of a gasteropod. It is not decided
+     whether the arms and funnels of the one have or have not their
+     homologues in the other. The dorsal integument of a Doris and the
+     cloak of a whelk are both called 'mantle,' without any evidence
+     to show that they are really homologous. Nor do very much more
+     definite notions seem to have prevailed with regard to the
+     archetypal molluscous form, and the mode in which (if such an
+     archetype exist) it becomes modified in the different secondary
+     types."
+
+He had taken from the surface of the sea a number of transparent
+shell-fish, and had been able to study the structure and arrangement
+of their organs "by simple inspection, without so much as disturbing a
+single beat of their hearts." From knowledge gained in this fashion,
+and from ordinary dissection of a number of common snails,
+cephalopods, and pteropods, he was able to describe in a very complete
+way the anatomical structure of cephalous molluscs. The next natural
+step, he stated, would have been to describe the embryonic development
+of the organs of these different creatures in order that a true
+knowledge might be gained of what were the homologous or really
+corresponding parts in each. Having had no opportunity to make such
+embryological studies for himself, he fell back on numerous accounts
+of development by Koelliker, Van Beneden, Gegenbauer, and others, and
+so gradually arrived at a conception of what he called the "archetype"
+of the cephalous molluscs. As the word _archetype_ was borrowed from
+old metaphysical ideas dating back to the time of Plato, he took care
+to state that what he meant by it was no more than a form embodying
+all that could be affirmed equally respecting every single kind of
+cephalous mollusc, and by no means an "idea" upon which it could be
+supposed that animal forms had been modelled. He described this
+archetype, and showed the condition of the different systems of organs
+which it could be supposed to possess, and how these organs were
+modified in the different existing groups. This archetypal mollusc of
+Huxley's was a creature with a bilaterally symmetrical head and body.
+On the ventral side of the body it possessed a peculiar locomotor
+appendage, the so-called foot, and the dorsal surface of the body
+secreted a shell. Its nervous system consisted of three pairs of
+ganglia or brains, one pair in the head, one in the foot, and a third
+in the viscera. He shewed how the widely different groups of cephalous
+molluscs could be conceived as modifications of this structure, and
+extended the conception so as to cover all other molluscs.
+
+Quite apart from the anatomical value of this paper, and although all
+technical details have been omitted here, it is necessary to say that
+merely as a series of intricate anatomical descriptions and
+comparisons, this memoir was one of the most valuable of any that
+Huxley wrote. The working out of the theory of the archetype is
+peculiarly interesting to compare with modern conceptions. To those of
+us who began biological work after the idea of evolution had been
+impressed upon anatomical work, it is very difficult to follow
+Huxley's papers without reading into them evolutionary ideas. In the
+article upon Mollusca, written for the ninth edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, by Professor Ray Lankester, the same device
+of an archetypal or, as Lankester calls it, a schematic mollusc, is
+employed in order to explain the relations of the different structures
+found in different groups of molluscs to one another. Lankester's
+schematic mollusc differs from Huxley's archetypal mollusc only as a
+finished modern piece of mechanism, the final result of years of
+experiment, differs from the original invention. The method of
+comparing the schematic mollusc with the different divergent forms in
+different groups is identical, and yet, while the ideas of Darwin are
+accepted in every line of Lankester's work, Huxley was writing six
+years before the publication of _The Origin of Species_. There was
+growing up in Huxley's mind, partly from his own attempts to arrange
+the anatomical facts he discovered in an intelligible series, the idea
+that within a group the divergencies of structure to be found had come
+about by the modification of an original type. Not only did he
+conceive of such an evolution as the only possible explanation of the
+facts, but he definitely used the word _evolution_ to convey his
+ideas. On the other hand, he was firmly convinced that such evolution
+was confined within the great groups. For each group there was a
+typical structure, and modifications by defect or excess of the parts
+of the definite archetype gave rise to the different members of the
+group. Moreover, he confined this evolution in the strictest possible
+way to each group; he did not believe that what was called
+anamorphosis--the transition of a lower type into a higher type--ever
+occurred. To use his own words:
+
+     "If, however, all Cephalous Mollusca, _i.e._, all Cephalopoda,
+     Gasteropoda, and Lamellibranchiata, be only modifications by
+     excess or defect of the parts of a definite archetype, then, I
+     think, it follows as a necessary consequence, that no
+     anamorphosis takes place in this group. There is no progression
+     from a lower to a higher type, but merely a more or less complete
+     evolution of one type. It may indeed be a matter of very grave
+     consideration whether true anamorphosis ever occurs in the whole
+     animal kingdom. If it do, then the doctrine that every natural
+     group is organised after a definite archetype, a doctrine which
+     seems to me as important for zooelogy as the theory of definite
+     proportions for chemistry, must be given up."
+
+It is of great historical interest to notice how closely actual
+consideration of the facts of the animal kingdom took zooelogists to an
+idea of evolution, and yet how far they were from it as we hold it
+now. It is fashionable at the present time to attempt to depreciate
+the immense change introduced by Darwin into zooelogical speculation,
+and the method employed is largely partial quotation, or reference to
+the kind of ideas found in papers such as this memoir by Huxley. The
+comparison between the types of the great groups and the combining
+proportions of the chemical elements shows clearly that Huxley
+regarded the structural plans of the great groups as properties
+necessary and inherent in these groups, just as the property of a
+chemical element to combine with another chemical substance only in a
+fixed proportion is necessary and inherent in the existing conception
+of it. There was no glimmer of the idea that these types were not
+inherent, but merely historical results of a long and slow series of
+changes produced by the interaction of the varied conditions of life
+and the intrinsic qualities of living material.
+
+In two lectures delivered at the Royal Institution in 1854 and 1855,
+the one on "The Common Plan of Animal Forms," the other on "The
+Zooelogical Arguments Adduced in Favour of the Progressive Development
+of Animal Life in Time," show, so far as the published abstracts go,
+the same condition of mind. The idea of progressive development of all
+life from common forms was not unknown to Huxley and his
+contemporaries, but was rejected by them. In the first of these two
+lectures he took four great groups of animals, the Vertebrates, the
+Articulata, the Mollusca, and the Radiata, and explained what was the
+archetype of each. He shewed the distinctiveness of each plan of
+structure, and then discussed the relations of the ideas suggested by
+Von Baer to these archetypes. He stated explicitly that while the
+adult forms were quite unlike one another, there were traces of a
+common plan to be derived from a study of their embryonic development.
+Such a trace of a common plan he had himself suggested when he
+compared the foundation-membranes of the Medusae with the first
+foundation-membranes of vertebrate embryos. This was going a long way
+towards modern ideas; but he stopped short, and gave no hint that he
+believed in the possibility of the development of one plan from a
+lower or simpler plan. The second lecture dealt with the kind of ideas
+which were crystallised in the popular but striking work of Chambers,
+entitled _Vestiges of Creation_. Chambers attacked the theological
+view that all animals and plants had been created at the beginning of
+the world, and maintained that geological evidence showed the
+occurrence of a progressive development of animal life. Huxley, like
+all zooelogists and geologists who knew anything of the occurrence of
+fossils in the rocks of past ages, agreed with the general truth of
+the conception that a progressive development had occurred which
+showed that the species now existing were represented in the oldest
+rocks by species now extinct. But the examples he brought forward were
+all limited to evolution within the great groups, and did not affect
+his idea that archetypes were fixed and did not pass into each other.
+Moreover, he summed up strongly against the suggestion that there was
+any parallel between the succession of life in the past and the forms
+assumed by modern animals in their embryological development. So far
+as the present writer is able to judge from study of the literature of
+this period, the possibility of evolution was present in an active
+form in the minds of Huxley and of his contemporaries, and in an
+extraordinary way they brought together evidence which afterwards
+became of firstrate importance; but the idea in its modern sense was
+rejected by them.
+
+In 1854 Huxley's uncomfortable period of probation came to an end.
+Edward Forbes, who held the posts of Palaeontologist to the Geological
+Survey, and Lecturer on General Natural History at the Metropolitan
+School of Science Applied to Mining and the Arts, vacated these on his
+appointment to the Chair of Natural History in the University of
+Edinburgh, and Sir H. De La Beche, the then Director-General of the
+Geological Survey, offered both the posts to Huxley--who in June and
+July of that year had given lectures at the school in place of Forbes.
+Huxley says himself:
+
+     "I refused the former point-blank, and accepted the latter only
+     provisionally, telling Sir Henry that I did not care for fossils,
+     and that I should give up natural history as soon as I could get
+     a physiological post. But I held the office for thirty-one years,
+     and a large part of my work has been palaeontological."
+
+The salary of the post of Lecturer on Natural History was scanty, but
+De La Beche, who evidently recognised Huxley's genius, and was anxious
+to have him attached even against his will to palaeontological work,
+created a place for him as Naturalist to the Geological Survey, by
+which a more suitable income was found for him. His official duties
+were at first in the Geological Museum of the Survey, but were
+distinguished from those of the special Palaeontologist, Mr. Harvey.
+His income was now assured, and for the rest of his life, until
+towards its close, when he retired to Eastbourne, he lived the
+ordinary life of a professional man of science in London. He was now
+able to marry, and on July 21, 1855, he was married to a lady whom he
+had met in Sydney in 1847, and whom he had not seen since the
+_Rattlesnake_ left Sydney finally in the beginning of May, 1850.
+
+During the years 1856, 1857, and 1858, he held the post of Fullerian
+Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution, choosing as the
+title of his first two courses of lectures Physiology and Comparative
+Anatomy, as he still cherished the idea of being in the first place a
+physiologist.
+
+[Illustration: THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, 1857 Reproduced by permission from
+_Natural Science_, vol. vii., No. 42]
+
+     "Moreover," writes Professor Michael Foster, "like most other
+     young professional men of science, he had to eke out his not too
+     ample income by labours undertaken chiefly for their pecuniary
+     reward. He acted as examiner, conducting for instance, during the
+     years 1856 to 1863, and again 1865 to 1870, the examinations in
+     physiology and comparative anatomy at the University of London,
+     making even an examination paper feel the influence of the new
+     spirit in biology; and among his examinees at that time there was
+     at least one who, knowing Huxley's writings, but his writings
+     only, looked forward to the _viva voce_ test, not as a trial but
+     as an occasion of delight. He wrote almost incessantly for all
+     editors who were prepared to give adequate pay to a pen able to
+     deal with scientific themes in a manner at once exact and
+     popular, incisive and correct. During this period he was
+     gradually passing from his first anatomical love, the structure
+     of the Invertebrates, to Vertebrate work, and although he
+     continued to take a deep interest in the course of the progress
+     of research in that group of animals, the publication of his
+     great work on oceanic hydrozoa by the Ray Society was the last
+     piece of important work he wrote upon any anatomical subject
+     apart from vertebrates. His work in connection with the
+     Geological Survey naturally attracted his attention most closely
+     to vertebrates, and, towards the close of the fifties, he was led
+     to make a special study of vertebrate embryology, a subject which
+     the investigations of Koelliker and others in Germany were
+     bringing into prominence. The first result of this new direction
+     of his enquiries was embodied in a Croonian Lecture delivered in
+     1858 'On the Theory of the Vertebrate Skull.' Sir Richard Owen,
+     who was at that time the leading vertebrate anatomist in England,
+     had given his support to an extremely complicated view of the
+     skull as being formed of a series of expanded vertebrae moulded
+     together. The theory was really a legacy from an old German
+     school of which the chief members were Goethe, the poet, and
+     Oken, a naturalist, who was more of a metaphysical philosopher
+     than of a morphologist. Huxley pointed out the futility of
+     attempting to regard the skull as a series of segments, and of
+     supporting this view by trusting to superficial resemblances and
+     abstract reasoning, when there was a definite method by which the
+     actual building up of the skull might be followed. Following the
+     lines laid down by Rathke, another of the great Germans from
+     whose investigations he was always so willing to find
+     corroboration and assistance in his own labours, he traced the
+     actual development of the skull in the individual. He shewed
+     that the foundations of the skull and of the backbone were laid
+     down in a fashion quite different, and that it was impossible to
+     regard both skull and backbone as modifications of a common type
+     laid down right along the axis of the body. The spinal column and
+     the skull start from the same primitive condition, whence they
+     immediately begin to diverge. It may be true to say that there is
+     a primitive identity of structure between the spinal or vertebral
+     column and the skull; but it is no more true that the adult skull
+     is a modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that
+     the vertebral column is a modified skull."
+
+Since this famous lecture, a number of distinguished anatomists have
+studied the development of the skull more fully; but they have not
+departed from the methods of investigation laid down by Huxley, and
+their conclusions have differed only in greater elaboration of detail
+from the broad lines laid down by him. Apart from its direct
+scientific value, this lecture was of importance as marking the place
+to which Huxley had attained in the scientific world. Two years later,
+it is true, the London _Times_, referring to a famous debate at a
+meeting of the British Association at Oxford, spoke of him as "a Mr.
+Huxley"; but in the scientific world he was accepted as the leader of
+the younger anatomists, and as one at least capable of rivalling Owen,
+who was then at the height of his fame. The Croonian Lecture was in a
+sense a deliberate challenge to Owen, and in these days before Darwin,
+to challenge Owen was to claim equality with the greatest name in
+anatomical science.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CREATURES OF THE PAST
+
+     Beginning Palaeontological Work--Fossil Amphibia and
+     Reptilia--Ancestry of Birds--Ancestry of the Horse--Imperfect
+     European Series Completed by Marsh's American Fossils--Meaning of
+     Geological Contemporaneity--Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
+     Compared with Evolution in Geology--Age of the
+     Earth--Intermediate and Linear Types.
+
+
+Although Huxley took a post connected with Geology only because it was
+the most convenient opening for him, it was not long before he became
+deeply interested not only in the fossils, which at first he despised,
+but in the general problems of geology. He began by co-operation with
+Mr. Salter in the determination of fossils for the Geological Survey.
+The mere work of defining genera and species and naming and describing
+new species appealed very little to him. He had none of the
+collector's passion for new species; his interest in a creature being
+not whether or no it was new to science, but what general problems of
+biology its structure helped to elucidate. While he assisted in the
+routine work of determining the zooelogical position of the fossils
+sent in to the museum by the Survey, he carried investigations much
+farther than the duties of the post required when interesting
+zooelogical problems arose. His earliest notes were written in
+association with his colleague, and consisted of technical
+descriptions of some small fossils from the Downton Sandstones which
+were supposed to be fish-shields. The peculiarities of structure
+presented by these aroused his interest, and he began an elaborate
+series of investigations upon palaeozoic fishes in general. Earlier
+zooelogists, such as the great Agassiz, had devoted most of their
+attention to careful and exact description of the different fossil
+fishes with which they became acquainted. Huxley at once began to
+investigate the relations that existed among the different kinds of
+structure exhibited in the different fish. He laid down the lines upon
+which future work has been conducted, and, precisely as he did in the
+case of molluscs, he started future investigators upon lines of
+research the ends of which have not yet been reached. His work upon
+_Devonian Fishes_, published in 1861, threw an entirely new light upon
+the affinities of these creatures, and still remains a standard work.
+
+He made a similar, although less important, series of investigations
+upon some of the great extinct Crustacea; but, perhaps, his most
+important palaeontological work was done later, after he had been
+convinced by Darwin of the fact of evolution. In 1855 he had expressed
+the opinion that the study of fossils was hopeless if one sought in it
+confirmation of the doctrine of evolution; but five-and-twenty years'
+continuous work completely reversed his opinion, and in 1881,
+addressing the British Association at York he declared that "if
+zooelogists and embryologists had not put forward the theory, it would
+have been necessary for palaeontologists to invent it." In three
+special groups of animals his study of fossils enabled him to assist
+in bridging over the gaps between surviving groups of creatures by
+study of creatures long extinct. He began to study the structure of
+the Labyrinthodonts, a group of extinct monsters which received their
+name from the peculiar structure of their teeth. He published
+elaborate descriptions of Anthracosaurus from the coal-measures of
+Northumberland, of Loxomma from the lower carboniferous of Scotland,
+and of several small forms from the coal-measures of Kilkenny, in
+Ireland, as well as describing skulls from Africa and a number of
+fragmentary bones from different localities. But in all this work it
+was the morphology of the creatures that interested him, and the light
+which their structure threw upon the structure of each other and of
+their nearest allies. He shewed that these monsters stood on the
+borderland between fishes, amphibia, and reptiles, and he added much
+to our knowledge of the true structure of these great groups. Next, he
+turned to the extinct reptiles of the Mesozoic age. It was generally
+believed that the Pterodactyls, or flying reptiles, were the nearest
+allies of birds, but Huxley insisted that the resemblances between the
+wings were simply such superficial resemblances as necessarily exist
+in organs adapted to the same purpose. About the same time, Cope in
+America, and Phillips and Huxley, in England, from study of the bones
+of the Dinosaurs, another great group of extinct reptiles, declared
+that these were the nearest in structure to birds. In association with
+the upright posture, the ilium or great haunch-bone of birds extends
+far forwards in front of the articulation of the thigh-bone, so that
+the pelvis in this region has a T-shape, the ilium forming the
+cross-bar of the T, and the femur or thigh-bone the downward limb.
+Huxley shewed that a large number of the Dinosaurs had this and other
+peculiarities of the bird's pelvis, and separated these into a group
+which he called the "Ornithoscelida," seeing in them the closest
+representatives of the probable reptilian ancestors of birds. While
+further work and the discovery of a still greater number of extinct
+reptiles has made it less probable that these were the actual
+ancestors of birds, Huxley's work in this, as in the many other cases
+we have shown, proved not only of great value in itself, but led to a
+continually increasing series of investigations by others. It is not
+always the pioneer that makes the greatest discoveries in a new
+country, but the work of the pioneer makes possible and easier the
+more assured discoveries of his followers.
+
+A third great piece of palaeontological investigation with which the
+name of Huxley will always be associated, is the most familiar of all
+the instances taken from fossils in support of the evolution of
+animals. This famous case is the pedigree of the horse. In 1870, in an
+address delivered to the Geological Society of London, Huxley had
+shewn that there was a series of animals leading backwards from the
+modern horse to a more generalised creature called Anchitherium, and
+found in the rocks of the Miocene period. He suggested that there
+were, no doubt, similar fossils leading still further backwards
+towards the common mammalian type of animal, with five fingers and
+five toes, and went the length of suggesting one or two fossils which
+might stand in the direct line of ancestry. But in 1876 he visited
+America, and had the opportunity of consulting the marvellous series
+of fossils which Professor Marsh had collected from American Tertiary
+beds. Professor Marsh allowed him the freest use of his materials and
+of his conclusions, and the credit of the final result is to be
+shared at least equally between Marsh and Huxley. The final result was
+a demonstrative proof of the possible course of evolution of the
+horse, given in a lecture delivered by Huxley in New York on Sept. 22,
+1876, and illustrated by drawings from specimens in Marsh's
+collection. The matter of the lecture has become so important a part
+of all descriptive writing on evolution, and the treatment is so
+characteristic of Huxley's brilliant exposition, that it is worth
+while to make some rather long quotations from it. The lecture was
+published in the New York papers, and afterwards with other matter
+formed a volume of _American Addresses_, published by Macmillan, in
+London.
+
+     "In most quadrupeds, as in ourselves, the forearm contains
+     distinct bones called the radius and the ulna. The corresponding
+     region in the horse seems at first to possess but one bone.
+     Careful observation, however, enables us to distinguish in this
+     bone a part which clearly answers to the upper end of the ulna.
+     This is closely united with the chief mass of the bone which
+     represents the radius, and runs out into a slender shaft which
+     may be traced for some distance downwards on the back of the
+     radius, and then in most cases thins out and vanishes. It takes
+     still more trouble to make sure of what is nevertheless the fact,
+     that a small part of the lower end of the bone of the horse's
+     forearm, which is only distinct in a very young foal, is really
+     the lower extremity of the ulna.
+
+      "What is commonly called the knee of a horse is its wrist. The
+     'cannon bone' answers to the middle bone of the five metacarpal
+     bones which support the palm of the hand in ourselves. The
+     'pastern,' 'coronary,' and 'coffin' bones of veterinarians answer
+     to the joints of our middle fingers, while the hoof is simply a
+     greatly enlarged and thickened nail. But, if what lies below the
+     horse's 'knee' thus corresponds to the middle finger in
+     ourselves, what has become of the four other fingers or digits?
+     We find in the places of the second and fourth digits only two
+     slender splint-like bones, about two-thirds as long as the cannon
+     bone, which gradually taper to their lower ends and bear no
+     finger joints, or, as they are termed, phalanges. Sometimes small
+     bony or gristly nodules are to be found at the bases of these two
+     metacarpal splints, and it is probable that these represent
+     rudiments of the first and fifth digits. Thus the part of the
+     horse's skeleton which corresponds with that of the human hand
+     contains one overgrown middle digit, and at least two imperfect
+     lateral digits; and these answer, respectively, to the third, the
+     second, and the fourth digits in man.
+
+      "Corresponding modifications are found in the hind limb. In
+     ourselves, and in most quadrupeds, the leg contains two distinct
+     bones, a large bone, the tibia, and a smaller and more slender
+     bone, the fibula. But, in the horse, the fibula seems, at first,
+     to be reduced to its upper end; a short slender bone united with
+     the tibia and ending in a point below occupying its place.
+     Examination of the lower end of a young foal's shin-bone,
+     however, shews a distinct portion of osseous matter, which is the
+     lower end of the fibula; so that the apparently single lower end
+     of the shin-bone is really made up of the coalesced ends of the
+     tibia and fibula, just as the apparently single lower end of the
+     fore-arm bone is composed of the coalesced radius and ulna.
+
+      "The heel of the horse is the part commonly known as the hock;
+     the hinder cannon bone answers to the middle metatarsal bone of
+     the human foot, the pastern, coronary, and coffin bones, to the
+     middle-toe bones; the hind hoof to the nail, as in the fore foot.
+     And, as in the fore foot, there are merely two splints to
+     represent the second and fourth toes. Sometimes a rudiment of a
+     fifth toe appears to be traceable."
+
+Having in the same fashion described the highly complicated and
+peculiar structure of the teeth of modern horses, Huxley proceeded:
+
+     "To anyone who is acquainted with the morphology of vertebrated
+     animals, these characteristic structures of the horse show that
+     it deviates widely from the general structure of mammals; and
+     that the horse type is, in many respects, an extreme modification
+     of the general mammalian plan. The least modified mammals, in
+     fact, have the radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, distinct
+     and separate. They have five distinct and complete digits on each
+     foot, and no one of these digits is very much larger than the
+     rest. Moreover, in the least modified mammals, the total number
+     of the teeth is very generally forty-four, while in the horse the
+     usual number is forty, and, in the absence of the canines, it may
+     be reduced to thirty-six; the incisor teeth are devoid of the
+     fold seen in those of the horse; the grinders regularly diminish
+     in size from the middle of the series to its front end; while
+     their crowns are short, early attain their full length, and
+     exhibit simple ridges or tubercles, in place of the complex
+     foldings of the horse's grinders.
+
+      "Hence the general principles of the hypothesis of evolution
+     lead to the conclusion that the horse must have been derived from
+     some quadruped which possessed five complete digits on each foot;
+     which had the bones of the forearm and of the leg complete and
+     separate; and which possessed forty-four teeth, among which the
+     crown of the incisors and grinders had a simple structure; while
+     the latter gradually increased in size from before backwards, at
+     any rate in the anterior part of the series, and had short
+     crowns.
+
+      "And if the horse had been thus evolved, and the remains of the
+     different stages of its evolution have been preserved, they ought
+     to present us with a series of forms in which the number of the
+     digits becomes reduced; the bones of the forearm and leg
+     gradually take on the equine condition; and the form and
+     arrangement of the teeth successively approximate to those which
+     obtain in existing horses.
+
+      "Let us turn to the facts and see how far they fulfill these
+     requirements of the doctrine of evolution.
+
+      "In Europe abundant remains of horses are found in the
+     Quaternary and later Tertiary strata as far as the Pliocene
+     formation. But these horses, which are so common in the
+     cave-deposits and in the gravel of Europe, are in all essential
+     respects like existing horses, and that is true of all the horses
+     of the later part of the Pliocene epoch. But, in the deposits
+     which belong to the earlier Pliocene, and later Miocene epochs,
+     and which occur in Britain, in France, in Germany, in Greece, in
+     India, we find animals which are extremely like horses--which in
+     fact are so similar to horses, that you may follow descriptions
+     given in works upon the anatomy of the horse, upon the skeletons
+     of these animals--but which differ in some important particulars.
+     For example, the structure of their fore and hind limbs is
+     somewhat different. The bones, which, in the horse are
+     represented by two long splints, imperfect below, are as long as
+     the middle metacarpal and metatarsal bones; and, attached to the
+     extremity of each, is a digit with three joints of the same
+     general character as those of the middle digit, only very much
+     smaller. These small digits are so disposed that they could have
+     had but very little functional importance, and they must have
+     been rather of the nature of the dew-claws, such as are to be
+     found in many ruminant animals. The _Hipparion_, as the extinct
+     European three-toed horse is called, in fact presents a foot
+     similar to that of the American _Protohippus_ except that in
+     _Hipparion_ the smaller digits are situated further back, and are
+     of smaller proportional size than in the _Protohippus_.
+
+      "The ulna is slightly more distinct than in the horse; and the
+     whole length of it, as a very slender shaft, intimately united
+     with the radius, is completely traceable. The fibula appears to
+     be in the same condition as in the horse. The teeth of the
+     _Hipparion_ are essentially similar to those of the horse, but
+     the pattern of the grinders is in some respects a little more
+     complex, and there is a depression on the face of the skull in
+     front of the orbit, which is not seen in existing horses.
+
+      "In the earlier Miocene and perhaps in the Eocene deposits of
+     some parts of Europe, another distinct animal has been
+     discovered, which Cuvier, who first described some fragments of
+     it, considered to be a _Palaeotherium_, but as further discoveries
+     threw new light on its structure, it was recognised as a distinct
+     genus, under the name of _Anchitherium_.
+
+      "In its general characters the skeleton of _Anchitherium_ is
+     very similar to that of the horse, in fact Lartet and De
+     Blainville called it _Palaeotherium equinum_ or _Hippoides_; and
+     De Cristol, in 1847, said that it differed from _Hipparion_ in
+     little more than the characters of the teeth, and gave it the
+     name of _Hipparitherium_. Each foot possesses three complete
+     toes: while the lateral toes are much larger in proportion to the
+     middle toe than in _Hipparion_, and doubtless rested on the
+     ground in ordinary locomotion. The ulna is complete and quite
+     distinct from the radius, although firmly united with the latter.
+     The fibula seems also to have been complete; its lower end,
+     though intimately united with that of the tibia, is clearly
+     united with that of the latter bone. There are forty-four teeth;
+     the incisors have no strong pit. The canines seem to have been
+     well developed in both sexes. The first of the seven grinders,
+     which, as I have said, is frequently absent, and, when it does
+     exist, is small in the horse, is a good-sized and permanent
+     tooth, while the grinder which follows it is but little larger
+     than the hinder ones. The crowns of the grinders are short, and,
+     although the fundamental pattern of the horse-tooth is
+     discernible, the front and back ridges are less curved, the
+     accessory pillars are wanting, and the valleys, much shallower,
+     are not filled up with cement."
+
+Then, after describing his early efforts to trace the descent of the
+horse from European fossils, Huxley goes on to relate the new light
+thrown on the matter from the American discoveries of Professor Marsh:
+
+     "You are all aware that, when your country was first discovered
+     by Europeans, there were no traces of the existence of the horse
+     in any part of the American continent. The accounts of the
+     conquest of Mexico dwell on the astonishment of the natives of
+     that country when they first became acquainted with that
+     astounding phenomenon, a man seated upon a horse. Nevertheless,
+     the investigations of American geologists have proved that the
+     remains of horses occur in the most superficial deposits of both
+     North and South America, just as they do in Europe. Therefore,
+     for some reason or other,--no feasible suggestion on that
+     subject, so far as I know, has been made,--the horse must have
+     died out on this continent at some period preceding the discovery
+     of America. Of late years there has been discovered in your
+     Western territories that marvellous accumulation of deposits,
+     admirably adapted for the preservation of organic remains, to
+     which I referred the other evening, and which furnishes us with a
+     consecutive series of records of the fauna of the older half of
+     the Tertiary epoch, for which we have no parallel in Europe. The
+     researches of Leidy and others have shewn that forms allied to
+     the _Hipparion_ and the _Anchitherium_ are to be found among
+     these remains. Rut it is only recently that the admirably
+     conceived and most thoroughly and patiently worked-out
+     investigations of Professor Marsh have given us a just idea of
+     the vast fossil wealth and of the scientific importance of these
+     deposits. I have had the advantage of glancing over the
+     collections in Yale Museum; and I can truly say that, so far as
+     my knowledge extends, there is no collection from any one region
+     and series of strata comparable, for extent, or for care with
+     which the remains have been got together, or for their scientific
+     importance, to the series of fossils which he has deposited
+     there. This vast collection has yielded evidence bearing on the
+     question of the pedigree of the horse of the most striking
+     character. It tends to show that we must look to America rather
+     than to Europe for the original seat of the equine series; and
+     that the archaic forms and successive modifications of the
+     horse's ancestry are far better preserved here than in Europe.
+
+      "Professor Marsh's kindness has enabled me to put before you a
+     diagram, every figure of which is an actual representation of
+     some specimen which is to be seen at Yale at this present time.
+
+      "The succession of forms which he has brought together carries
+     us from the top to the bottom of the Tertiaries. Firstly, there
+     is the true horse. Next we have the American Pliocene form of the
+     horse (_Pliohippus_): in the conformation of its limbs it
+     presents some very slight deviations from the ordinary horse, and
+     the crowns of the grinding teeth are shorter. Then comes the
+     _Protohippus_, which represents the European _Hipparion_, having
+     one large digit and two small ones on each foot, and the general
+     characters of the forearm and leg to which I have referred. But
+     it is more valuable than the European _Hipparion_ for the reason
+     that it is devoid of some of the peculiarities of that
+     form--peculiarities which tend to show that the European
+     _Hipparion_ is rather a member of a collateral branch than a form
+     in the direct line of succession. Next, in the backward order in
+     time, is the _Miohippus_, which corresponds pretty nearly with
+     the _Anchitherium_ of Europe. It presents three complete
+     toes--one large median and two smaller lateral ones: and there
+     is a rudiment of that digit which answers to the little finger of
+     the human race.
+
+      "The European pedigree of the horse stops here; in the America
+     Tertiaries, on the contrary, the series of ancestral equine forms
+     is continued into the Eocene formations. An older Miocene form,
+     called _Mesohippus_, has three toes in front, with a large
+     splint-like rudiment representing the little finger; and three
+     toes behind. The radius and ulna, the tibia and fibula, are
+     distinct, and the short crowned molar teeth are _Anchitherioid_
+     in pattern.
+
+      "But the most important discovery of all is the _Orohippus_
+     which comes from the Eocene formation, and is the oldest member
+     of the equine series yet known. Here we find four complete toes
+     on the front limb, three toes on the hind limb, a well-developed
+     ulna, a well-developed fibula, and short-crowned grinders of a
+     simple pattern.
+
+      "Thus, thanks to these important researches, it has become
+     evident that, so far as our present knowledge extends, the
+     history of the horse type is exactly and precisely that which
+     could have been predicted from a knowledge of the principles of
+     evolution; and the knowledge we now possess justifies us
+     completely in the anticipation that, when the still lower Eocene
+     deposits, and those which belong to the Cretaceous period have
+     yielded up their remains of ancestral equine animals, we shall
+     find, first, a form with four complete toes and a rudiment of the
+     innermost or first digit in front, with probably a rudiment of
+     the fifth digit in the hind foot; while, in the older forms, the
+     series of digits will be more and more complete until we come to
+     the five-toed animals, in which, if the doctrine of evolution is
+     well founded, the whole series must have taken its origin."
+
+Just as Huxley was successful, when only the ancestry to Miocene times
+was known, in predicting the discovery of older forms in the older
+Miocene and upper Eocene, so his prediction of older Eocene forms
+carrying the chain back to five-toed creatures proved correct. One of
+the new links was indeed discovered before his lecture had passed
+through the press, and he was able to add in a footnote some details
+of the structure of the four-toed Eohippus from the lower Eocene
+beds. Further discoveries have connected these with the five-toed
+ancestors of the Tapirs, and there is the strongest reason to suppose
+that we now know as nearly as possible the line of ancestry of the
+horse back to the primitive forms common to all the higher mammals. It
+would, of course, be beyond possibility of proof that the exact
+fossils described were the actual ancestors of the horse; but that
+they are exceedingly close allies of these, and that among them some
+actual ancestors exist cannot reasonably be doubted.
+
+Although he had embarked upon geological work with some distaste,
+Huxley became very closely associated with it as years went on, and
+indeed, about the seventies, had abandoned his intention to devote
+himself specially to physiology, and declared himself to be in the
+first place a palaeontologist. In 1876 he had accomplished so much that
+the Geological Society gave him its chief distinction, awarding him
+the Wollaston Medal in recognition of his services to geological
+science. He acted as Secretary to the Geological Society from 1859 to
+1862, and he was President from 1868 to 1870. In 1862, the President
+being incapacitated, Huxley delivered as Deputy-President the
+Presidential Address. This address is famous in the history of
+geology, because for the first time it stated clearly and in permanent
+form a doctrine now taken as a first principle in all geological
+text-books. A large part of geology is the attempt to read the past
+history of the earth from the evidence given by the successive strata
+of rocks that form its crust.
+
+     "It is mathematically certain that, in any given vertical linear
+     section of an undisturbed series of sedimentary deposits, the bed
+     which lies lowest is the oldest. In many other vertical linear
+     sections of the same series, of course corresponding beds will
+     occur in a similar order."
+
+It is of the utmost importance to determine whether or no the same
+series occurring vertically in the same order in different parts of
+the earth were deposited at the same time. To explain the problem,
+Huxley took the following concrete example:
+
+     "The Lias of England and the Lias of Germany, the Cretaceous
+     rocks of Britain and the Cretaceous rocks of Southern India, are
+     termed by geologists 'Contemporaneous' formations; but whenever
+     any thoughtful geologist is asked whether he means to say that
+     they were deposited at the same time, he says, 'No, only within
+     the same great epoch.' And if, in pursuing the enquiry, he is
+     asked what may be the approximate value in time of a 'great
+     epoch'--whether it means a hundred years, or a thousand, or a
+     million, or ten million years--his reply is, 'I cannot tell.'"
+
+Most of the standard writers on palaeontology had assumed that the
+presence in two beds at different parts of the world of the same
+fossils implied that the beds were contemporaneous, that they had been
+formed at the same time. Huxley pointed out that the fact of identical
+fossils being present was, on the whole, evidence against the beds
+having been formed at the same time. Even some of the older writers
+who believed in species having been created at definite places at
+definite times had seen that time must have been required for sets of
+animals to wander from the places in which they had come into
+existence. The newer theory of evolution was equally opposed to the
+notion of the appearance of similar animals at the same time on
+far-distant parts of the earth. For such reasons he proposed to reject
+the use of the word _Contemporaneous_ as applied to rockbeds in
+different localities which contained the same fossils, and to replace
+it by the word _Homotaxial_, which meant no more than that the beds
+occupied corresponding places in the geological history of the earth.
+Huxley did not pretend that these arguments were entirely original:
+they represented the drift of the best geological opinion, and he
+seized hold of them and set them down as permanent geological truths.
+
+In 1869, in a Presidential Address to the Geological Society, Huxley
+took up one of the burning questions of the day. In the early part of
+the century, the discoveries of geologists had been the occasion of
+great distress to those good people who clung to a literal
+interpretation of everything in the Bible. Long before the doctrine of
+evolution and the descent of man from lower animals had taken practical
+shape, there had been a battle royal between geologists who declared
+that the earth was many million years old, and had been inhabited at
+least by animals and plants for enormous periods, and those who clung to
+the traditional chronology which placed the date of creation only a few
+thousand years from now. The continued progress of geology, and the
+sturdy championship of it by men like Sedgwick, Chalmers, and Buckland,
+who were at the same time reputable theologians and distinguished men of
+science, had decided the battle in favour of the conclusions of science,
+and it was accepted generally that the earth was almost indefinitely
+old. At the same time, another and more strictly scientific dispute had
+been in progress. The older school of geologists, looking on the face of
+the world, and seeing it scarred by mighty fissures, displaying huge
+distortions of the beds in the crust, had argued that geological change
+had taken place by a series of mighty catastrophes. The tremendous
+results which they saw seemed to them only possible on the theory that
+unusual and gigantic displays of force had caused them. On the other
+hand, Hutton and Lyell attempted to find adequate explanation of the
+greatest changes in the slow forces which may be seen in operation at
+the present time. Slow movements of upheaval and depression, amounting
+at most to an inch or two in a century, may be shown to be actually in
+existence now, and such slow changes acting for very many centuries
+would account for the raising of continents above the sea, so that old
+sea-bottoms became the surface of the land, and for the depression of
+land areas so that new sedimentary rocks might be deposited upon them.
+They shewed how air and water slowly crumbled away the hardest rocks,
+and how rivers deepened their beds steadily but excessively slowly; and
+they held that while great catastrophic changes might occasionally have
+occurred, there was ample evidence of the present operation of forces
+which, granted sufficient time for their operation, would have made the
+crust of the earth such as it is. This doctrine of _Uniformitarianism_,
+of the action of similar forces in the past and present history of the
+earth, had almost completely triumphed over the older catastrophic
+views. As Huxley put it, the school of catastrophe put no limit to the
+violence of forces which had operated; the uniformitarians put no limit
+to the length of time during which forces had operated.
+
+     "Catastrophism has insisted upon the existence of a practically
+     unlimited bank of force, on which the theorist might draw; and it
+     has cherished the idea of development of the earth from a state
+     in which its form, and the forces which it exerted, were very
+     different from those which we now know.
+
+      "Uniformitarianism, on the other hand, has with equal justice
+     insisted upon a practically unlimited bank of time, ready to
+     discount any quantity of hypothetical paper. It has kept before
+     our eyes the power of the infinitely little, time being granted,
+     and has compelled us to exhaust known causes before flying to the
+     unknown."
+
+But there was a third influence at work in geology, an influence which
+may best be described in Huxley's own words:
+
+     "I shall not make what I have to say on this head clear unless I
+     diverge, or seem to diverge, for a while, from the direct path of
+     my discourse so far as to explain what I take to be the scope of
+     geology itself. I conceive geology to be the history of the
+     earth, in precisely the same sense as biology is the history of
+     living beings; and I trust you will not think that I am
+     overpowered by the influence of a dominant pursuit if I say that
+     I trace a close analogy between these two histories.
+
+      "If I study a living being, under what heads does the knowledge
+     I obtain fall? I can learn its structure, or what we call its
+     Anatomy; and its development, or the series of changes it passes
+     through to acquire its complete structure. Then I find that the
+     living being has certain powers resulting from its own
+     activities, and the interaction of these with the activities of
+     other things--the knowledge of which is Physiology. Beyond this,
+     the living being has a position in space and time, which is its
+     Distribution. All these form the body of ascertainable facts
+     which constitute the _status quo_ of the living creature. But
+     these facts have their causes; and the ascertainment of these
+     causes is the doctrine of AEtiology.
+
+      "If we consider what is knowable about the earth, we shall find
+     that such earth-knowledge--if I may so translate the word
+     geology--falls into the same categories.
+
+      "What is termed stratigraphical geology is neither more nor less
+     than the anatomy of the earth; and the history of the succession
+     of the formations is a history of the succession of such
+     anatomies, or corresponds with development, as distinct from
+     generation.
+
+      "The internal heat of the earth, the elevation and depression of
+     its crust, its belching forth of vapours, ashes, and lava, are
+     its activities, in as strict a sense as are warmth and the
+     movements and products of respiration the activities of an
+     animal. The phenomena of the seasons, of the trade-winds, of the
+     Gulf Stream, are as much the results of the reaction between
+     these inner activities and outward forces, as are the budding of
+     the leaves in spring, and their falling in autumn the effects of
+     the interaction between the organisation of a plant and the solar
+     light and heat. And, as the study of the activities of the living
+     being is called its physiology, so are these phenomena the
+     subject matter of an analogous telluric physiology, to which we
+     sometimes give the name of meteorology; sometimes of physical
+     geography, sometimes that of geology. Again, the earth has a
+     place in space and time, and relations to other bodies in both
+     these respects, which constitute its distribution. This subject
+     is usually left to the astronomer; but a knowledge of its broad
+     outlines seems to me to be an essential constituent of the stock
+     of geological ideas.
+
+      "All that can be ascertained concerning the structure,
+     succession of conditions, actions, and position in space of the
+     earth, is the matter of its natural history. But, as in Biology,
+     there remains the matter of reasoning from these facts to their
+     causes, which is just as much science as the other, and indeed
+     more; and this constitutes geological aetiology.
+
+      "Having regard to this general scheme of geological knowledge
+     and thought, it is obvious that geological speculation may be, so
+     to speak, anatomical and developmental speculation, so far as it
+     relates to points of stratigraphical arrangement which are out of
+     reach of direct observation; or, it may be physiological
+     speculation so far as it relates to undetermined problems
+     relative to the activities of the earth; or, it may be
+     distributional speculation, if it deals with modifications of the
+     earth's place in space; or, finally, it will be aetiological
+     speculation if it attempts to deduce the history of the world, as
+     a whole, from the known properties of the matter of the earth, in
+     the conditions in which the earth has been placed."
+
+Huxley then proceeded to shew that uniformitarianism and catastrophism
+had neglected this last and most important branch of geology, the
+attempt to trace the interaction of causes which had brought the world
+into its present condition. He gave a striking display of the wide
+knowledge of his reading by going back to the foundation of this branch
+of modern science, and giving a masterly account of the then
+little-known treatise of Immanuel Kant, who in 1775 had written _An
+Attempt to Account for the Constitutional and Mechanical Origin of the
+Universe upon Newtonian Principles_. Next he declared that evolution
+embraced all that was sound in both catastrophism and uniformitarianism
+while rejecting the arbitrary limits and assumptions of both.
+
+Finally he came to the great question to which these observations upon
+the existing schools of geology had led. The most distinguished
+physicist of the age, then Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, and
+Huxley's immediate successor in the Presidential Chair of the Royal
+Society, had stated that the English school of geology had assumed an
+impossible age for the earth. By physical reasonings, Thomson stated
+that he was able to prove "That the existing state of things on the
+earth--all geological history showing continuity of life--must be
+limited within some such period of time as one hundred million years."
+This pronouncement had been received with acclamation by those who
+feared the geological and biological sciences, as a sign of internal
+dissensions within the house of science. Huxley, then, as all through
+the latter part of his life, at once constituted himself the champion
+of science, and, taking Thomson's arguments one by one, shewed by a
+series of masterly deductions from known facts that there was a great
+deal to be said for the other side, and that physicists were as little
+certain as geologists could be of the exact duration of time that had
+elapsed since the dawn of life. His plea for more time since the
+cooling of the globe than physicists were willing to allow remains one
+of the classics of geological literature. But he carried the question
+much farther. The inference which was widely drawn by the enemies of
+evolution from the arguments of Sir William Thomson was that if
+geologists had overestimated the age of the cooled earth there was not
+time for the evolution of animals and plants to have taken place.
+Huxley pointed out a fact which should be quite obvious, but which
+even yet is frequently neglected. The evidence for the gradual
+appearance of life in the past history of the earth depends simply on
+the fact that the successive forms of life appear in successive
+strata, and the length of time taken for these changes simply depends
+upon the length of time which was taken up by the formation of the
+strata. Our only reason for supposing the evolution of life, made
+plain by fossil records, to have taken place very slowly is that
+geologists have stated that the deposition of the strata took place
+very slowly. Whether these strata were deposited slowly or less
+slowly, we know that the forms of life changed at the same rate.
+
+     "Biology takes her time from geology. The only reason we have for
+     believing in the slow rate of change in living forms is the fact
+     that they persist through a series of deposits which, geology
+     informs us, have taken a long while to make. If the geological
+     clock is wrong, all the naturalist will have to do is to modify
+     his notion of the rapidity of change accordingly; and I venture
+     to point out that, when we are told that the limitation of the
+     period during which living beings have inhabited this planet to
+     one, two, or three hundred million years requires a complete
+     revolution in geological speculation, the _onus probandi_ rests
+     on the maker of the assertion, who brings forward not a shadow of
+     evidence in its support."
+
+Perhaps, although this is now an old controversy, it is worth while
+to recall that the keenness of Huxley's language was not directed
+against Sir William Thomson, between whom and Huxley there was no more
+than the desire to argue out an interesting scientific question upon
+which their conclusions differed, but between Huxley and those
+outsiders who were always ready to turn any dubious question in
+science into an argument discrediting the general conclusions of
+science.
+
+The last time that Huxley occupied the Presidential Chair of the
+Geological Society was in 1870, and he occupied his Presidential
+address by a review of the "old judgments" which he had given in the
+course of his first address in 1862. The address was entitled
+"Palaeontology and Evolution," and the most important part of it was a
+complete withdrawal of the fears he had expressed that geology would
+not supply definite evidence of the transformation of species.
+Important discoveries had come thick and fast; and, at least in the
+case of the higher vertebrates, he declared that, however one might
+"sift and criticise them," they left a clear balance in favour of the
+doctrine of the evolution of living forms one from another. But, with
+his usual critical spirit, examining arguments that bore against a
+conclusion for which he hoped almost more stringently than arguments
+apparently favourable to what he expected to be true, Huxley made an
+important distinction, the value of which becomes more and more
+apparent as time goes on. In the first flush of enthusiasm for
+Darwinism, zooelogists and palaeontologists allowed their zeal to outrun
+discretion in the formation of family trees. They examined large
+series of living or extinct creatures, and so soon as they found
+gradations of structure present, they arranged their specimens in a
+linear series, from the simplest to the most complex, and declared
+that the arrangement was a representation of the family tree. The fact
+that the line of descent apparently could have followed along the
+direction they suggested they were inclined to take as evidence that
+it had so followed. Huxley made the most careful distinction between
+what he called intermediate types and types with a right to be placed
+in linear order,
+
+     Every fossil which takes an intermediate place between forms of
+     life already known may be said, so far as it is intermediate, to
+     be evidence in favour of evolution, inasmuch as it shews a
+     possible road by which evolution may have taken place. But the
+     mere discovery of such a form does not, in itself, prove that
+     evolution took place by and through it, nor does it constitute
+     more than a presumptive evidence in favour of evolution in
+     general. The fact that _Anoplotheridae_ are intermediate between
+     pigs and ruminants does not tell us whether the ruminants have
+     come from the pigs or the pigs from the ruminants, or both from
+     _Anoplotheridae_, or whether pigs, ruminants, and _Anoplotheridae_;
+     alike may not have diverged from some common stock.
+
+A familiar instance will make the point at issue plain. Everyone knows
+that in many respects, in the structure of the skeleton, and the curve
+of the backbone, and in the development of the brain, the man-like
+monkeys, the gorilla and its allies, are intermediate between man and
+the lower monkeys. In the early days of evolution it was assumed
+frequently that the gorilla, etc., were therefore to be regarded as
+ancestors of man, and they appear as such in more than one well-known
+treatise on evolutionary biology. We now know that it is exceedingly
+probable that the gorilla and its allies, although truly intermediate
+types, and truly shewing a possible path of evolution from the brute
+to man, are not the actual ancestors of man, but cousins, descendants
+like man from some more or less remote common ancestor. And the
+tendency of recent advances in knowledge is more and more to throw
+stress on the value of Huxley's distinction, and to minimise confusion
+between "intermediate" and truly ancestral types.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HUXLEY AND DARWIN
+
+     Early Ideas on Evolution--Erasmus Darwin--Lamarck--Herbert
+     Spencer--Difference between Evolution and Natural
+     Selection--Huxley's Preparation for Evolution--The Novelty of
+     Natural Selection--The Advantage of Natural Selection as a
+     Working Hypothesis--Huxley's Unchanged Position with regard to
+     Evolution and Natural Selection from 1860 to 1894.
+
+
+From our attempt to place together as much as possible of Huxley's
+geological work in the last chapter, it followed that we anticipated
+much that falls properly within this chapter. The year 1859, the date
+of publication of _The Origin of Species_, is a momentous date in the
+history of this century, as it was the year in which there was given
+to the world a theory that not only revolutionised scientific opinion,
+but altered the trend of almost every branch of thought. To understand
+this great change, and the part played in it by Huxley, it is
+necessary to be quite clear as to what Darwin did. In the first place,
+he did not invent evolution. The idea that all the varied structures
+in the world, the divergent forms of rocks and minerals and crystals,
+the innumerable trees and herbs that cover the face of the earth like
+a mantle, and all the animal host of creatures great and small that
+dwell on the land or dart through the air or people the waters,--that
+all these had arisen by natural laws from a primitive unformed
+material was known to the Greeks, was developed by the Romans, and
+even received the approval of early Christian Fathers, who wrote long
+before the idea had been invented that the naive legends of the Old
+Testament were an authoritative and literal account of the origin of
+the world. After a long interval, in which scientific thought was
+stifled by theological dogmatism, the theory of evolution,
+particularly in its application to animals, began to reappear, long
+before Darwin published _The Origin of Species_. Buffon, the great
+French naturalist, and Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, had
+expressed in the clearest way the possibility that species had not
+been created independently, but had arisen from other species. Lamarck
+had worked out a theory of descent in the fullest detail, and regarded
+it as the foundation of the whole science of biology. He taught that
+the beginning of life consisted only of the simplest and lowest plants
+and animals; that the more complex animals and plants arose from
+these, and that even man himself had come from ape-like mammals. He
+held that the course of development of the earth and of all the
+creatures upon it was a slow and continuous change, uninterrupted by
+violent revolutions. He summed up the causes of organic evolution in
+the following propositions[D]:
+
+      "1. Life tends by its inherent forces to increase the volume of
+     each living body and of all its parts up to a limit determined by
+     its own needs.
+
+      "2. New wants in animals give rise to new movements which
+     produce organs.
+
+      "3. The development of these organs is in proportion to their
+     employment.
+
+      "4. New developments are transmitted to offspring."
+
+He supported especially the last two propositions by a series of
+examples as to the effects of use and disuse; and the most famous of
+these, the theory that giraffes had produced their long necks by
+continually stretching up towards the trees on which they fed, is well
+known to everyone. However, the ingenious speculations of Lamarck were
+unsupported by a sufficient range of actual knowledge of anatomy, and
+lacked experimental proof. He entirely failed to convince his
+contemporaries; and Darwin himself, in a letter to Lyell, declared
+that he had gained nothing from two readings of Lamarck's book. There
+can be little doubt but that several Continental writers, in
+particular Haeckel, have exaggerated Lamarck's services to the
+development of the idea of evolution. On the other hand, Lyell,
+although he strongly opposed the ideas of Lamarck and some curious
+notions of progressional creation due to the great Agassiz, had
+prepared the way for Darwin by his advocacy of natural causes and slow
+changes in opposition to the catastrophic and miraculous views in
+vogue. Above all, Herbert Spencer had argued most strenuously in
+favour of evolution. Thus, in an important passage quoted by Mr. Clodd
+from the _Leader_ of March 20, 1852, Spencer had written as follows:
+
+     "Those who cavalierly reject the theory of evolution, as not
+     adequately supported by facts, seem quite to forget that their
+     own theory is not supported by facts at all. Like the majority of
+     men who are born to a given belief, they demand the most rigorous
+     proof of any adverse belief, but assume that their own needs
+     none. Here we find, scattered over the globe, vegetable and
+     animal organisms numbering, of the one kind (according to
+     Humboldt) some 320,000 species, and of the other, some 2,000,000
+     species (see Carpenter); and if to these we add the numbers of
+     animal and vegetable species that have become extinct, we may
+     safely estimate the number of species that have existed, and are
+     existing, on the earth, at no less than ten millions. Well, which
+     is the most rational theory about these ten millions of species?
+     Is it most likely that there have been ten millions of special
+     creations; or is it most likely that by continual modifications,
+     due to change of circumstances, ten millions of varieties have
+     been produced, as varieties are being produced still?... Even
+     could the supporters of the development hypothesis merely shew
+     that the origination of species by the process of modification is
+     conceivable, they would be in a better position than their
+     opponents. But they can do much more than this. They can shew
+     that the process of modification has effected, and is effecting,
+     decided changes in all organisms subject to modifying
+     influences.... They can shew that in successive generations these
+     changes continue, until ultimately the new conditions become the
+     natural ones. They can shew that in cultivated plants,
+     domesticated animals, and in the several races of men, such
+     alterations have taken place. They can show that the degrees of
+     difference so produced are often, as in dogs, greater than those
+     on which distinctions of species have been founded. They can
+     shew, too, that the changes daily taking place in ourselves--the
+     facility that attends long practice, and the loss of aptitude
+     that begins when practice ceases,--the strengthening of the
+     passions habitually gratified, and the weakening of those
+     habitually curbed,--the development of every faculty, bodily,
+     moral, intellectual, according to the use made of it--are all
+     explicable on this principle. And thus they can shew that
+     throughout all organic nature there is at work a modifying
+     influence of the kind they assign as the cause of these specific
+     differences; an influence which, though slow in its action, does,
+     in time, if the circumstances demand it, produce marked
+     changes--an influence which, to all appearance, would produce in
+     the millions of years, and under the great varieties of condition
+     which geological records imply, any amount of change."
+
+These and many other instances which might be brought together from
+the published writings of the half-century before the publication of
+the _Origin_, show conclusively that the idea of evolution was far
+from new, and that all through the first part of this century
+dissatisfaction with the doctrine of the fixity of species and of
+their miraculous creation was growing. The great contribution of
+Darwin was this: First, by his theory of natural selection, he brought
+together the known facts of variation, of struggle for existence, and
+of adaptation to varying conditions, in such a way that they provided
+men with a rational and known cause, a cause the operation of which
+could be seen, for the origin of species by means of preservation of
+favoured races. Next, as to the origin of species, he brought together
+not only proofs of the actual operation of natural selection, but a
+body of evidence in favour of the fact of evolution that was, beyond
+all comparison, more striking than had been adduced by any earlier
+philosophical or biological writer. He convinced naturalists that
+evolution was by far the most probable way in which the living world
+had come to be what it is, and he made them turn to examination of the
+animal and vegetable kingdoms with a lively hope that the past history
+of the living world was not an insoluble problem. Darwin's doctrine
+brought a new life into biological study, and the result of the
+incomparably greater bulk of investigation that followed the year 1859
+was a continual increase of evidence in favour of the probability of
+evolution, until now the whole scientific world, and the majority of
+those who are unscientific, are content to accept evolution as the
+only reasonable explanation of the living world. It is well to
+remember that while Darwin, by bringing forward the theory of struggle
+for existence and resulting survival of the fittest, was the actual
+cause of the present assured position of evolution as a first
+principle of science, it by no means follows that the survival of the
+fittest has become similarly a first principle of science. At cross
+roads a traveller may choose the right path from a quite
+unsatisfactory reason. Darwin himself, in the act of bringing forward
+his own theory of natural selection, admitted the possibility of the
+co-operation of many other agencies in evolution, and at various times
+during the course of his life he was inclined to attach, now more now
+less, importance to these additional agencies. Huxley, as we shall
+soon come to see, never wavered in his adhesion to the facts of
+evolution after 1859; but, from first to last, regarded natural
+selection as only the most probable cause of the occurrence of
+evolution. Other naturalists, of whom the best-known are Weismann in
+Germany, Ray Lankester in England, and W.K. Brooks in America, have
+come to attach a continually increasing importance to the purely
+Darwinian factor of natural selection; while others again, such as
+Herbert Spencer in England, and the late Professor Cope and a large
+American school, have advocated more and more strongly the importance
+of what may be called the Lamarckian factors of evolution,--the
+inherited effects of increased or diminished use of organs, the direct
+influence of the environment, and so forth. From the fact that Darwin
+has persuaded the world of the truth of evolution, evolution is often
+called Darwinism; and in this historically just though scientifically
+inaccurate sense of the term, Huxley was a strict Darwinian, a
+Darwinian of the Darwinians. From the facts that, although natural
+selection had been formulated by several writers before Darwin, and
+had been simultaneously elaborated by Wallace and Darwin, the _Origin
+of Species_ was the foundation of the modern acceptation of evolution,
+and natural selection was the key-note of the origin of species,
+natural selection may be called Darwinism with both historical and
+scientific accuracy; and in this sense of the term Huxley was a
+Darwinian; a convinced but free-thinking and broad-minded Darwinian,
+who was far from persuaded that his tenet had a monopoly of truth, and
+who delighted in shewing the distinctions between what seemed to him
+probable and what was proved, and in absorbing from other doctrines
+whatever he thought worthy to be absorbed. The present writer has
+thought it so important to distinguish between these two sides of the
+word _Darwinism_, that for the sake of clearness he has stated what he
+believes to be the truth of Huxley's relation to Darwin before
+beginning detailed exposition of it.
+
+In consideration of Huxley's position before 1859, the most
+interesting feature of his zooelogical work is the gradual preparation
+that it was making in his mind for the doctrine of the _Origin_. He
+was like an engineer boring a tunnel through a mountain, but ignorant
+of how near he was to the pleasant valley on the other side; and,
+above all, ignorant how rapidly he was being met by a much more mighty
+excavation from the other side. To use what is perhaps a more exact
+simile: he was like a child with half the pieces of a puzzle-map,
+slowly linking them together as far as they would fit, and quite
+ignorant that presently the remaining half would suddenly be given
+him, and with almost no trouble would at once fit into the gaps he had
+necessarily left, and transform a meaningless pattern into a perfect
+and intelligible whole. Let us consider some of these map pieces. The
+ultimate picture was the conception of the whole world of life, past
+and present, as a single family tree growing up from the simplest
+possible roots, and gradually spreading out first into the two main
+branches of animals and plants, and then into the endless series of
+complicated ramifications that make up living and extinct animals and
+plants. Huxley was piecing together the scattered fragments, and
+gradually learning to see here and there whole branches, as yet
+separate at their lower ends, but in themselves shapely, and showing a
+general resemblance to one another in the gradual progression from
+simple to complex. The greatest of these branches that he had pieced
+together was the group of Medusae and their allies, now known as
+Coelenterates. He had formed similar branches for the Molluscs and
+minor branches for the Salps and Ascidians, and, in his general
+lectures on the whole animal kingdom, he had shadowed out the broad
+arrangement of the main divisions, or, as he called them, _types_. He
+had seen in each particular branch the clearest evidence of the laws
+of growth which had directed its development, and had realised that
+these laws of growth, consisting of gradual modifications of common
+typical structures, were identical in the different branches. He had
+taken clear hold of Von Baer's conception that the younger stages of
+different types were more alike than the adult stages, and here and
+there he had made comparisons between the younger stages or simplest
+forms of his different branches, and had shown that, without
+completely realising it, he was ready for the idea that just as the
+separate pieces could be arranged to form orderly branches, so the
+separate branches might come to be arranged as a single tree. And
+finally, in his lectures on "Protoplasm and Cells," and on the
+"Common Structure of the Animal and Plant Kingdoms," he had reached
+the conclusion that the two main divisions of the living world were
+formed of the same stuff, displayed in identical fashion the
+elementary functions of life, and were creatures of the same order.
+But, notwithstanding this close approach to modern conceptions, he was
+not an evolutionist. When, in public, he expressed deliberate
+convictions, these convictions were against the general idea of
+evolution, until very shortly before 1859. In this opposition he was
+supported partly by the critical scepticism of his mind, which in all
+things made him singularly unwilling to accept any theories of any
+kind, but chiefly from the fact that the books of the two chief
+supporters of evolutionary conceptions impressed him very
+unfavourably. Huxley writes:
+
+     "I had studied Lamarck attentively, and I had read the _Vestiges_
+     with due care; but neither of them afforded me any good ground
+     for changing my negative and critical attitude. As for the
+     _Vestiges_, I confess that the book simply irritated me by the
+     prodigious ignorance and thoroughly unscientific habit of mind
+     manifested by the writer. If it had any influence on me at all,
+     it set me against evolution; and the only review I ever have
+     qualms of conscience about, on the ground of needless savagery is
+     one I wrote on the _Vestiges_ while under that influence. With
+     respect to the _Philosophie Zoologique_, it is no reproach to
+     Lamarck to say that the discussion of the species question in
+     that work, whatever might be said for it in 1809, was miserably
+     below the level of the knowledge of half a century later. In that
+     interval of time, the elucidation of the structure of the lower
+     animals and plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of
+     their relations; histology and embryology, in the modern sense,
+     had been created; physiology had been reconstituted; the facts of
+     distribution, geological and geographical, had been prodigiously
+     multiplied and reduced to order. To any biologist whose studies
+     had carried him beyond mere species-mongering, in 1850 one-half
+     of Lamarck's arguments were obsolete, and the other half
+     erroneous or defective, in virtue of omitting to deal with the
+     various classes of evidence which had been brought to light since
+     his time. Moreover his one suggestion as to the cause of the
+     gradual modification of species--effort excited by change of
+     conditions--was, on the face of it, inapplicable to the whole
+     vegetable world. I do not think that any impartial judge who
+     reads the _Philosophie Zoologique_ now, and who afterwards takes
+     up Lyell's trenchant and effective criticism (published as far
+     back as 1830) will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much higher
+     place in the establishment of biological evolution than that
+     which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to physical science
+     generally--_buccinator tantum_".
+
+On the other hand, Huxley's friendship with Darwin and with Lyell
+began to make him less certain about the fixity of species. He tells
+us that during his first interview with Darwin, which occurred soon
+after his return from the _Rattlesnake_, he
+
+     "expressed his belief in the sharpness of the lines of
+     demarcation between natural groups and in the absence of
+     transitional forms, with all the confidence of youth and
+     imperfect knowledge. I was not aware at that time that he had
+     been many years brooding over the species question; and the
+     humorous smile which accompanied his gentle answer, that such was
+     not altogether his view, long haunted and puzzled me."
+
+An elaborate study of Lyell's works helped largely in destroying this
+youthful confidence, and a letter written by Lyell and quoted by
+Huxley in the chapter he communicated to Darwin's _Life and Letters_,
+states that in April, 1856, "when Huxley, Hooker, and Wollaston were
+at Darwin's last week they (all four of them) ran a tilt against
+species; further I believe, than they are prepared to go." Another
+quotation from Huxley's essay on _The Reception of the Origin of
+Species_ will make it plain beyond all doubt that he was not a
+Darwinian before Darwin.
+
+[Illustration: SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER]
+
+     "Thus, looking hack into the past, it seems to me that my own
+     position of critical expectancy was just and reasonable, and must
+     have been taken up, on the same grounds, by many other persons.
+     If Agassiz had told me that the forms of life which had
+     successively tenanted the globe were the incarnations of
+     successive thoughts of the Deity; and that He had wiped out one
+     set of these embodiments by an appalling geological catastrophe
+     as soon as His ideas took a more advanced shape, I found myself
+     not only unable to admit the accuracy of the deductions from the
+     facts of palaeontology, upon which this astounding hypothesis was
+     founded, but I had to confess my want of means of testing the
+     correctness of his explanation of them. And besides that, I could
+     by no means see what the explanation explained. Neither did it
+     help me to be told by an eminent anatomist that species had
+     succeeded one another in time, in virtue of a 'continuously
+     operative creational law'. That seemed to me to be no more than
+     saying that species had succeeded one another in the form of a
+     vote-catching resolution, with 'law' to please the man of science
+     and 'creational' to draw the orthodox. So I took refuge in that
+     _thaetige Skepsis_ which Goethe has so well defined; and,
+     reversing the apostolic precept to be all things to all men, I
+     usually defended the tenability of the received doctrines when I
+     had to do with the transmutationists, and stood up for the
+     possibility of transmutation among the orthodox--thereby, no
+     doubt, increasing an already current, but quite undeserved,
+     reputation for needless combativeness."
+
+What transformed Huxley's views and the views of his contemporaries
+who accepted Darwinism was not so much the evidence in favour of
+evolution contained in the _Origin_, as the illuminating doctrine of
+natural selection which for the first time supplied naturalists with a
+reasonable explanation of how evolution might have come about, both in
+the animal and vegetable kingdoms. As soon as this reason was
+provided them, they turned to the store of facts within their own
+knowledge, and rapidly arranged the evidence which had been lurking
+only partly visible in favour of the fact of evolution. It cannot be
+disputed that here and there earlier writers than Darwin and Wallace
+had suggested the possibility of natural selection acting upon
+existing variations so as to cause survival of the fittest.
+MacGillivray, the Scots naturalist, and the father of Huxley's
+companion on the _Rattlesnake_, had published suggestions which came
+exceedingly near to Darwin's theory. In 1831 Mr. Patrick Matthew had
+published a work on _Naval Architecture and Timber_, and in it had
+stated the essential principle of the Darwinian doctrine of struggle
+and survival. Still earlier, in 1813, a Dr. W.C. Wells, in a paper to
+the Royal Society on "A White Female, Part of whose Skin Resembles
+that of a Negro," had, as Darwin himself freely admitted, distinctly
+recognised the principle of natural selection--but applied it only to
+the races of man, and to certain characters alone. Finally, long
+before either of these, Aristotle himself had written, in _Physics_,
+ii., 8: "Why are not the things which seem the result of design,
+merely spontaneous variations, which, being useful, have been
+preserved, while others are continually eliminated as unsuitable?"
+None of these foreshadowings were supported by lengthy evidence, nor
+worked out into an elaborate theory; and it was not until Darwin had
+done this that we can say the birth of natural selection really took
+place. Huxley writes:
+
+     "The suggestion that new species may result from the selective
+     action of external conditions upon the variations from their
+     specific type which individuals present,--and which we call
+     'spontaneous,' because we are ignorant of their causation,--is
+     as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was
+     to biological specialists before 1858."
+
+But that suggestion is the central idea of the origin of species, and
+contains the quintessence of Darwinism.
+
+Some weeks before the _Origin_ was published, Darwin wrote to Huxley,
+sending him a copy of the work, and asking him for the names of
+eminent foreigners to whom it should be sent. In the course of his
+letter he wrote: "I shall be intensely curious to hear what effect the
+book produces on you," and it was clear that he had no very confident
+expectation of a favourable opinion. Huxley replied the day before the
+_Origin_ was published, saying that he had finished the volume, and
+stating that it had completely convinced him of the fact of evolution,
+and that he fully accepted natural selection as a "true cause for the
+production of species." Darwin, in a letter to Wallace, telling of his
+doubts and fears concerning the reception of his book, had added the
+postscript: "I think I told you before that Hooker is a complete
+convert. If I can convert Huxley, I shall be content." When he
+received Huxley's letter he replied at once:
+
+     "Like a good Catholic who has received extreme unction, I can now
+     sing _Nunc Dimittis_. I should have been more than contented with
+     one quarter of what you have said. Exactly fifteen months ago,
+     when I first put pen to paper for this volume, I had awful
+     misgivings, and thought perhaps I had deluded myself, like so
+     many have done; and I then fixed in my mind three judges, on
+     whose decision I determined mentally to abide. The judges were
+     Lyell, Hooker, and yourself. It was this which made me so
+     excessively anxious for your verdict. I am now contented, and can
+     sing my _Nunc Dimittis_."
+
+The effect of the new theory on Huxley's mind has been expressed most
+fully and clearly by himself:
+
+     "I imagine that most of my contemporaries who thought seriously
+     about the matter were very much in my own state of mind--inclined
+     to say to Mosaists and Evolutionists, 'a plague on both your
+     houses!' and disposed to turn aside from an interminable and
+     apparently fruitless discussion to labour in the fertile fields
+     of ascertainable fact. And I may, therefore, further suppose that
+     the publication of the Darwin and Wallace papers in 1858, and
+     still more that of the _Origin_ in 1859, had the effect upon them
+     of that of a flash of light which, to a man who has lost himself
+     in a dark night, suddenly reveals a road which, whether it takes
+     him straight home or not, certainly goes his way. That which we
+     were looking for and could not find, was a hypothesis respecting
+     the origin of known organic forms, which assumed the operation of
+     no causes but such as could be proved to be actually at work. We
+     wanted, not to pin our faith to that or any other speculation,
+     but to get hold of clear and definite conceptions which could be
+     brought face to face with facts and have their validity tested.
+     The _Origin_ provided us with the working hypothesis we sought.
+     Moreover, it did us the immense service of freeing us for ever
+     from the dilemma--refuse to accept the creation hypothesis, and
+     what have you to propose that can be accepted by any cautious
+     reasoner? In 1857 I had no answer ready, and I do not think that
+     anyone else had. A year later, we reproached ourselves with
+     dulness for being perplexed by such an enquiry. My reflection,
+     when I first made myself master of the central idea of the
+     _Origin_ was, 'how exceedingly stupid not to have thought of
+     that.' I suppose that Columbus's companions said much the same
+     when he made the egg to stand on end. The facts of variability,
+     of the struggle for existence, of adaptation to conditions, were
+     notorious enough; but none of us had suspected that the road to
+     the heart of the species problem lay through them, until Darwin
+     and Wallace dispelled the darkness, and the beacon-fire of the
+     _Origin_ guided the benighted.
+
+      "Whether the particular shape which the doctrine of evolution,
+     as applied to the organic world, took in Darwin's hands, would
+     prove to be final or not, was, to me, a matter of indifference.
+     In my earliest criticisms of the _Origin_ I ventured to point out
+     that its logical foundation was insecure so long as experiments
+     in selective breeding had not produced varieties which were more
+     or less infertile; and that insecurity remains up to the present
+     time. But, with any and every critical doubt which my sceptical
+     ingenuity could suggest, the Darwinian hypothesis remained
+     incomparably more probable than the creation hypothesis. And if
+     we had none of us been able to discern the paramount significance
+     of some of the most patent and notorious of natural facts, until
+     they were, so to speak, thrust under our noses, what force
+     remained in the dilemma--creation or nothing? It was obvious
+     that, hereafter, the probability would be immensely greater that
+     the links of natural causation were hidden from our purblind
+     eyes, than that natural causation should be unable to produce all
+     the phenomena of nature. The only rational course for those who
+     had no other object than the attainment of truth, was to accept
+     'Darwinism' as a working hypothesis, and see what could be made
+     of it. Either it would prove its capacity to elucidate the fact
+     of organic life, or it would break down under the strain. This
+     was surely the dictate of common sense, and for once common-sense
+     carried the day. The result has been that complete _volte-face_
+     of the whole scientific world which must seem so surprising to
+     the present generation. I do not mean to say that all the leaders
+     of biological science have avowed themselves Darwinians; but I do
+     not think that there is a single zooelogist, or botanist, or
+     palaeontologist, among the multitude of active workers of this
+     generation, who is other than an evolutionist profoundly
+     influenced by Darwin's views. Whatever may be the ultimate fate
+     of the particular theory put forth by Darwin, I venture to affirm
+     that, so far as my knowledge goes, all the ingenuity and all the
+     learning of hostile critics has not enabled them to adduce a
+     solitary fact of which it can be said that it is irreconcilable
+     with the Darwinian theory. In the prodigious variety and
+     complexity of organic nature, there are multitudes of phenomena
+     which are not deducible from any generalisation we have yet
+     reached. But the same may be said of every other class of natural
+     objects. I believe that astronomers cannot yet get the moon's
+     motions into perfect accordance with the theory of gravitation."
+
+These quotations make plain the historical fact that Huxley was
+convinced of evolution because Darwin, by his theory of natural
+selection, brought forward an actual cause that could be seen in
+operation, and that was competent to produce new species. As soon as the
+"flash of light" came, it revealed to Huxley the vast store of evidence
+that he had unconsciously accumulated, and it set him at once to work
+collecting more evidence. If we bear in mind the distinction between
+evolution and natural selection, the well-known subsequent history of
+the relations between Huxley and what was known popularly as Darwinism
+becomes clear and intelligible. From first to last he accepted
+evolution; from first to last he accepted natural selection as by far
+the most reasonable hypothesis that had been brought forward, and as
+infinitely more in accordance with the observed facts of nature than any
+theory of the immediate action of supernatural creative power. As time
+went on, and the influence of Darwin's theory made evolution acceptable
+to a wider and wider range of people, until it passed into the common
+knowledge of the world, that confusion of which we have spoken arose
+between evolution and Darwin's particular theory. And as knowledge grew,
+and the number of biologists increased in the striking fashion of this
+last half-century, while the evidence for evolution continued to
+increase with an unexpected rapidity, every detail of the purely
+Darwinian theory became more and more subjected to rigid scrutiny. Most
+educated people, unless their education has been largely in an
+experimental science, find difficulty in understanding the relation in
+the minds of naturalists between "authority" and "knowledge." We do not
+_know_, for instance, that the structure of the Medusae consists
+essentially of two foundation-membranes, because Huxley, one of the
+greatest authorities in anatomy that the world has seen, told us that it
+was so. We know it because, Huxley having told us that it was so, we are
+able at any time with a microscope and dissecting needles to observe the
+fact for ourselves. It is true, that unless we are making a special
+study of the Medusae we do not repeat the observation in the case of so
+many different forms of Medusae as Huxley studied; but it is part of our
+training to observe for ourselves in a sufficient number of cases to
+test the correspondence between statement and fact before we accept the
+generalisation of any authority. And we learn, or at least have the
+opportunity of learning, in the whole habit of our lives as naturalists,
+to distinguish carefully between knowledge of which personal observation
+is an essential part, and opinion or belief which may or may not be
+based upon authority, but which in any case is devoid of the
+corroboration of personal observation. When a piece of new anatomical or
+physiological work is published in a technical journal, it is read by a
+large number of anatomists and physiologists, and if the work is
+apparently of an important kind, bearing on the general problems that
+even specialists have to follow, they all at once set to work in their
+laboratories to make corroborative dissections or experiments, and it is
+part of every modern account of a biological discovery to tell exactly
+the methods by which results were got, in order that this process of
+corroboration may be set about easily. The question as to whether or no
+natural selection were the sole or chief cause, or indeed a cause at
+all, of evolution is not yet, and perhaps never will be, a matter of
+knowledge in the scientific sense. At the most, we can see for ourselves
+only that selection does bring about changes at least as great as the
+differences between natural species. The evidence for this we have
+before our eyes, if we choose to see, on a stock farm; in the breeding
+yards of any keeper of "fancy" animals; or in the nursery gardens of any
+florist. So far, Huxley accepted the Darwinian principle as a definite
+contribution to knowledge; and so far the whole body of biologists has
+followed him. Beyond this the truth of the Darwinian principle is a
+matter of inference or judgment; of balancing probabilities and
+improbabilities. In multitude of counsellors there is said to be wisdom,
+and what we learn from the counsellors of biology all over the world is
+that some maintain that natural selection is the only probable agency in
+effecting evolution, and that it is competent to account for all the
+changes which we know to have taken place; others hold that its probable
+influence has been over-rated; and others, again, think that it has been
+one of the many causes that have brought about the kaleidoscopic variety
+of organic nature. Huxley remained to the last among those who
+distinguished in the clearest way between natural selection as an
+exceedingly ingenious and probable hypothesis, and a proved cause; and
+he was always careful, especially when he was writing for or speaking in
+the presence of those who like himself accepted the fact of evolution as
+proven, to distinguish between this provisional hypothesis as to how
+evolution had come about, and definite knowledge that it had come about
+in this way. Two passages from Huxley's writings, one written in 1860 in
+the _Westminster Review_, and the second written in 1893, in the preface
+to the volume of his collected essays which contained a reprint of the
+_Westminster_ article, will make plain the continuity of Huxley's
+attitude:
+
+     "There is no fault to be found with Mr. Darwin's method, then;
+     but it is another question whether he has fulfilled all the
+     conditions imposed by that method. Is it satisfactorily proved,
+     in fact, that species may be originated by selection? That there
+     is such a thing as natural selection? That none of the phenomena
+     exhibited by species are inconsistent with the origin of species
+     in this way? If these questions can be answered in the
+     affirmative, Mr. Darwin's view steps out of the rank of
+     hypotheses into those of proved theories; but, so long as the
+     evidence at present adduced falls short of enforcing that
+     affirmation, so long, to our minds, must the new doctrine be
+     content to remain among the former--an extremely valuable, and in
+     the highest degree probable, doctrine; indeed, the only extant
+     hypothesis which is worth anything in a scientific point of view;
+     but still a hypothesis, and not yet the theory of species.
+
+      "After much consideration, and assuredly with no bias against
+     Mr. Darwin's views, it is our clear conviction that, as the
+     evidence stands, it is not absolutely proven that a group of
+     animals having all the characters exhibited by species in nature,
+     has ever been originated by selection, whether natural or
+     artificial. Groups having the morphological character of species,
+     distinct and permanent races, in fact, have been so produced over
+     and over again; but there is no positive evidence at present that
+     any group of animals has, by variation and selective breeding,
+     given rise to another group which was in the least degree
+     infertile with the first. Mr. Darwin is perfectly aware of this
+     weak point, and brings forward a multitude of ingenious and
+     important arguments to diminish the force of the objection. We
+     admit the value of these arguments to the fullest extent; nay, we
+     will go so far as to express our belief that experiments,
+     conducted by a skilful physiologist, would very probably obtain
+     the desired production of mutually more or less infertile breeds
+     from a common stock in a comparatively few years; but still, as
+     the case stands at present, this little 'rift within the lute' is
+     not to be disguised or overlooked."--(_Westminster Review_,
+     1860.)
+
+      "We should leave a very wrong impression on the reader's mind if
+     we permitted him to suppose that the value of Darwin's work
+     depends wholly on the ultimate justification of the theoretical
+     views which it contains. On the contrary, if they were disproved
+     to-morrow, the book would still be the best of its kind--the most
+     compendious statement of well-sifted facts bearing on the
+     doctrine of species that has ever appeared. The chapters on
+     variation, on the struggle for existence, on instinct, on
+     hybridism, on the imperfection of the geological record, on
+     geographical distribution, have not only no equals, but, so far
+     as our knowledge goes, no competitors, within the range of
+     biological literature. And viewed as a whole, we do not believe
+     that, since the publication of Von Baer's _Researches on
+     Development_, thirty years ago, any work has appeared calculated
+     to exert so large an influence, not only on the future of
+     biology, but in extending the domination of science over regions
+     of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly
+     penetrated."--(_Ibid._)
+
+      "Those who take the trouble to read the essays published in 1859
+     and 1860, will, I think, do me the justice to admit that my zeal
+     to secure fair play for Mr. Darwin did not drive me into the
+     position of a mere advocate; and that, while doing justice to the
+     greatness of the argument, I did not fail to indicate its weak
+     points. I have never seen any reason for departing from the
+     position which I took up in these two essays; and the assertion
+     which I sometimes meet with nowadays that I have 'recanted' or
+     changed my opinions about Mr. Darwin's views is quite
+     unintelligible to me.
+
+      "As I have said in the seventh essay, the fact of evolution is
+     to my mind sufficiently evidenced by palaeontology; and I remain
+     of the opinion expressed in the second, that until selective
+     breeding is definitely proved to give rise to varieties infertile
+     with one another, the logical foundation of the theory of natural
+     selection is quite incomplete. We still remain very much in the
+     dark about the causes of variation; the apparent inheritance of
+     acquired characters in some cases; and the struggle for existence
+     within the organism, which probably lies at the bottom of both
+     these phenomena."--(1893, _Preface_.)
+
+Finally, when he was awarded the Darwin Medal of the Royal Society, on
+November 30, 1894, in the course of an address at the anniversary
+dinner of the Society, he said, as reported in the _Times_ next day:
+
+     "I am as much convinced now as I was thirty-four years ago that
+     the theory propounded by Mr. Darwin, I mean that which he
+     propounded--not that which has been reported to be his by too
+     many ill-instructed, both friends and foes--has never yet been
+     shewn to be inconsistent with any positive observations, and if I
+     may use a phrase which I know has been objected to, and which I
+     use in a totally different sense from that in which it was first
+     proposed by its first propounder, I do believe that on all
+     grounds of pure science it 'holds the field' as the only
+     hypothesis at present before us which has a sound scientific
+     foundation.... I am sincerely of opinion that the views which
+     were propounded by Mr. Darwin thirty-four years ago may be
+     understood hereafter as constituting an epoch in the intellectual
+     history of the human race. They will modify the whole system of
+     our thought and opinion, our most intimate convictions. But I do
+     not know, I do not think anybody knows, whether the particular
+     views he held will be hereafter fortified by the experience of
+     the ages which come after us.... Whether the particular form in
+     which he has put before us the Darwinian doctrines may be such as
+     to be destined to survive or not, is more, I venture to think,
+     than anybody is capable at this present moment of saying."
+
+Further details of Huxley's relation to natural selection may be
+gained from an interesting chapter in Professor Poulton's volume on
+_Charles Darwin_ (Cassell and Co., London, 1896).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote D: See E. Clodd's _Pioneers of Evolution_, London, 1897, and
+Osborn's _From the Greeks to Darwin_, New York, 1896.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE BATTLE FOR EVOLUTION
+
+     Huxley's Prevision of the Battle--The Causes of the Battle--The
+     _Times_ Review--Sir Richard Owen attacks Darwinism in the
+     _Edinburgh Review_--Bishop Wilberforce attacks in the _Quarterly
+     Review_--Huxley's Scathing Replies--The British Association
+     Debates at Oxford--Huxley and Wilberforce--Resume of Huxley's
+     Exact Position with Regard to Evolution and to Natural Selection.
+
+
+When Huxley wrote thanking Darwin for the first copy of the _Origin_,
+he warned him of the annoyance and abuse he might expect from those
+whose opinions were too suddenly disturbed by the new exposition of
+evolution, and assured him of the strongest personal support:
+
+     "I trust you will not allow yourself to be in any way disgusted
+     or annoyed by the considerable abuse and misrepresentation which,
+     unless I greatly mistake, is in store for you. Depend upon it,
+     you have earned the lasting gratitude of all thoughtful men; and
+     as to the curs which will bark and yelp, you must recollect that
+     some of your friends, at any rate, are endowed with an amount of
+     combativeness which (though you have often and justly rebuked it)
+     may stand you in good stead.
+
+      "I am sharpening my claws and beak in readiness."
+
+Huxley was absolutely right in his prediction as to the magnitude of
+the prejudices to be overcome before evolution became accepted, and
+for the next thirty years of his life he was the leader in the battle
+for Darwinism. It was natural that the new views, especially in their
+extension to man himself, should arouse the keenest opposition. To
+those of the present generation, who have grown up in an atmosphere
+impregnated by the doctrine of descent, the position of the world in
+1860 seems "older than a tale written in any book." As we have tried
+to shew in the preceding chapter, biological science was partially
+prepared; the mutability of species and the orderly succession of
+organic life were in the air. But the application of the doctrine to
+man came as a greater shock to civilised sentiment than would have
+occurred a century earlier. It came as a disaster even to the clearest
+and calmest intellects, for it seemed to drag down to the dirt the
+nobility of man. Out of the fierce flame of the French Revolution,
+there had come purged and clean the conception of man as an individual
+and soul. As this century advanced, the conception of the dignity and
+worth of each individual man, rich or poor, bond or free, had spread
+more and more widely, bearing as its fruit the emancipation of slaves,
+the spread of political freedom, the amelioration of the conditions of
+the dregs of humanity, the right of all to education, the possibility
+of universal peace based on the brotherhood of man; and all that was
+best in philosophy and in political practice seemed bound up with a
+lofty view of the unit of mankind. Carlyle himself, to whom many of
+the freest and noblest spirits in Europe were beginning to look as to
+an inspired prophet, could see in it nothing but a "monkey
+damnification of mankind." The dogmatic world saw in it nothing but a
+deliberate and malicious assault upon religion. The Church of England
+in particular was beginning to recover from a long period of almost
+incredible supineness, and there was arising a large body of clergy
+full of faith and zeal and good works, but quite unacquainted with
+science, who frankly regarded Darwin as Antichrist, and Huxley and
+Tyndall as emissaries of the devil. Against evolutionists there was
+left unused no weapon that ignorant prejudice could find, whether that
+prejudice was inspired by a lofty zeal for what it conceived to be the
+highest interests of humanity, or by a crafty policy which saw in the
+new doctrine a blow to the coming renewed supremacy of the Church. To
+us, now, it may seem that Huxley had "sharpened his beak and claws"
+with the spirit of a gladiator rather than with that of the mere
+defender of a scientific doctrine; but a very short study of
+contemporary literature will convince anyone that for a time the
+defenders of evolution had to defend not only what they knew to be
+scientific truth, but their personal and private reputation. The new
+doctrine, like perhaps all the great doctrines that have come into the
+world, brought not peace but a sword, and had to be defended by the
+sword. Darwin had not the kind of disposition nor the particular
+faculties necessary for a deadly contest of this kind; he was
+interested indeed above all things in convincing a few leading
+naturalists of the truth of his opinions; but, that done, he would
+have been contented to continue his own work quietly, in absolute
+carelessness as to what the world in general thought of him. Huxley,
+on the other hand, was incapable of restraining himself from
+propagating what he knew to be the truth; his reforming missionary
+spirit was not content simply with self-defence; it drove him to be a
+bishop _in partibus infidelium_.
+
+By a curious and interesting accident, Huxley had the opportunity of
+beginning his propagandism by writing the first great review of _The
+Origin of Species_ in the _Times_, at that period without question the
+leading journal in the world. Huxley's own account of this happy
+chance is given in _Darwin's Life and Letters_, vol. ii.
+
+     "The _Origin_ was sent to Mr. Lucas, one of the staff of the
+     _Times_ writers at that day, in what I suppose was the ordinary
+     course of business. Mr. Lucas, though an excellent journalist,
+     and at a later period editor of _Once a Week_, was as innocent of
+     any knowledge of science as a babe, and bewailed himself to an
+     acquaintance on having to deal with such a book, whereupon he was
+     recommended to ask me to get him out of his difficulty, and he
+     applied to me accordingly, explaining, however, that it would be
+     necessary for him formally to adopt anything I might be disposed
+     to write, by prefacing it with two or three paragraphs of his
+     own.
+
+      "I was too anxious to seize on the opportunity thus offered of
+     giving the book a fair chance with the multitudinous readers of
+     the _Times_ to make any difficulty about conditions; and being
+     then very full of the subject, I wrote the article faster, I
+     think, than I ever wrote anything in my life, and sent it to Mr.
+     Lucas, who duly prefixed his opening sentences. When the article
+     appeared, there was much speculation as to its authorship. The
+     secret leaked out in time, as all secrets will, but not by my
+     aid; and then I used to derive a good deal of innocent amusement
+     from the vehement assertions of some of my more acute friends,
+     that they knew it was mine from the first paragraph." "As the
+     _Times_ some years since referred to my connection with the
+     review, I suppose there will be no breach of confidence in the
+     publication of this little history."
+
+This review was one of the few favourable notices, and naturally it
+delighted Darwin greatly. He wrote to Hooker about it: "Have you seen
+the splendid essay and notice of my book in the _Times_? I cannot
+avoid a strong suspicion that it is by Huxley; but I have never heard
+that he wrote in the _Times_. It will do grand service." On the same
+day, writing to Huxley himself, he said of the review:
+
+     "It included an eulogium of me which quite touched me, although I
+     am not vain enough to think it all deserved. The author is a
+     literary man and a German scholar. He has read my book
+     attentively; but, what is very remarkable, it seems that he is a
+     profound naturalist. He knows my barnacle book and appreciates it
+     too highly. Lastly, he writes and thinks with quite uncommon
+     force and clearness; and, what is even still rarer, his writing
+     is seasoned with most pleasant wit. We all laughed heartily over
+     some of the sentences.... Who can it be? Certainly I should have
+     said that there was only one man in England who could have
+     written this essay, and that you were the man; but I suppose that
+     I am wrong, and that there is some hidden genius of great
+     calibre; for how could you influence Jupiter Olympus and make him
+     give you three and a half columns to pure science? The old fogies
+     will think the world will come to an end. Well, whoever the man
+     is, he has done great service to the cause."
+
+The essay in the _Times_ was followed shortly afterwards by a "Friday
+Evening Discourse" in 1860 on "Species, Races, and their Origin," in
+which Huxley, addressing a cultivated audience, laid the whole weight
+of his brilliant scientific reputation on the side of evolution. Next,
+in April, 1860, he published a long article in the _Westminster
+Review_, then a leading organ of advanced opinion, on _The Origin of
+Species_, some quotations from which article were made in the last
+chapter. Apart from its strong support of the doctrine of evolution,
+its whole-hearted praise of Darwin's achievements, and the clear way
+in which, while it showed the value of natural selection as the only
+satisfactory hypothesis in the field, it gave reasons for regarding it
+strictly as an hypothesis, the review is specially interesting as a
+contrast to reviews which appeared about the same time in the
+_Edinburgh Review_ and in the _Quarterly_. Both these were not only
+exceedingly unfavourable, but were written in a spirit of personal
+abuse singularly unworthy of their authors and still more of their
+subject. The review in the _Edinburgh_ had come as a particularly
+great shock to Darwin, Huxley, and their friends. Sir Richard Owen, in
+many ways, was at that time the most distinguished anatomist in
+England. He had been an ardent follower of Cuvier, and in England had
+carried on the palaeontological work of the great Frenchman. He was a
+personal friend of the court, a well-known man in the best society,
+and in many ways a worthy upholder of the best traditions of science.
+In the particular matter of species, he was known to be by no means a
+firm supporter of the orthodox views. When Darwin's paper was read at
+the Linnaean Society, and afterwards when the _Origin_ was published,
+the verdict of Owen was looked to with the greatest interest by the
+general public. For a time he wavered, and even expressed himself of
+the opinion that he had already in his published works included a
+considerable portion of Darwin's views. But two things seemed to have
+influenced him: First, Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, and Sedgwick
+and Whewell, the two best-known men at Cambridge, urged him to stamp
+once for all, as he only could do, upon this "new and pernicious
+doctrine." Secondly, combined with his great abilities, he had the
+keenest personal interest in his own position as the leader of English
+science, and had no particular friendship for men or for views that
+seemed likely to threaten his own supreme position. In a very short
+time he changed from being neutral, with a tendency in favour of the
+new views, to being a bitter opponent of them. In scientific societies
+and in London generally, naturally enough he constantly came across
+the younger scientific men, such as Huxley and Hooker, who had
+declared for Darwin, and he made the irretrievable mistake of for a
+time attempting to disguise his opposition while he was writing the
+most bitter of all the articles against Darwinism. That appeared in
+the _Edinburgh Review_ in April, 1860, and the range of knowledge it
+displayed, and the form of arguments employed, naturally enough
+betrayed the secret of its authorship, although Owen for very long
+attempted to conceal his connection with it. Darwin, who had the most
+unusual generosity towards his opponents, found this review too much
+for him. Writing to Lyell soon after its publication, he said:
+
+     "I have just read the _Edinburgh_, which, without doubt is by
+     ----. It is extremely malignant, clever, and, I fear, will be
+     very damaging. He is atrociously severe on Huxley's lecture, and
+     very bitter against Hooker. So we three _enjoyed_ it together.
+     Not that I really enjoyed it, for it made me uncomfortable for
+     one night; but I have quite got over it to-day. It requires much
+     study to appreciate all the bitter spite of many of the remarks
+     against me; indeed I did not discover all myself. It scandalously
+     misrepresents many parts. He misquotes some passages, altering
+     words within inverted commas.... It is painful to be hated in the
+     intense degree with which ---- hates me."
+
+As Owen was still alive when this letter was published in _Darwin's
+Life_, the authorship of the review was not actually mentioned; but it
+is necessary to mention it, as it justifies the sternness with which
+Huxley exposed Owen on an occasion shortly to be described. The review
+in the _Quarterly_ was written by Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford,
+in July, 1860, and almost at once the authorship of it became known
+to Darwin's friends. In connection with this, Huxley wrote in 1887, in
+_Darwin's Life and Letters_:
+
+     "I doubt if there was any man then living who had a better right
+     (than Darwin) to expect that anything he might choose to say on
+     such a question as the Origin of Species would be listened to
+     with profound attention, and discussed with respect. And there
+     was certainly no man whose personal character should have
+     afforded a better safeguard against attacks, instinct with
+     malignity and spiced with shameless impertinences. Yet such was
+     the portion of one of the kindest and truest men that it was ever
+     my good fortune to know; and years had to pass away before
+     misrepresentation, ridicule, and denunciation ceased to be the
+     most notable constituents of the majority of the multitudinous
+     criticisms of his work which poured from the press. I am loth to
+     rake up any of these ancient scandals from their well-deserved
+     oblivion; but I must make good a statement which may seem
+     overcharged to the present generation, and there is no _piece
+     justificative_ more apt for the purpose or more worthy of such
+     dishonour than the article in the _Quarterly Review_ for July,
+     1860. Since Lord Brougham assailed Dr. Young, the world has seen
+     no such specimen of the insolence of a shallow pretender to a
+     Master in Science as this remarkable production, in which one of
+     the most exact of observers, most cautious of reasoners, and most
+     candid of expositors, of this or any other age, is held up to
+     scorn as a 'flighty' person who endeavours to 'prop up his
+     utterly rotten fabric of guess and speculation,' and whose 'mode
+     of dealing with nature' is reprobated as 'utterly dishonourable
+     to natural science.' And all this high and mighty talk, which
+     would have been indecent in one of Mr. Darwin's equals, proceeds
+     from a writer whose want of intelligence, or of conscience, or of
+     both, is so great, that, by way of an objection to Mr. Darwin's
+     views, he can ask, 'Is it credible that all favourable varieties
+     of turnips are tending to become men'; who is so ignorant of
+     palaeontology that he can talk of the 'flowers and fruits' of the
+     plants of the carboniferous epoch; of comparative anatomy, that
+     he can gravely affirm the poison apparatus of venomous snakes to
+     be 'entirely separate from the ordinary laws of animal life, and
+     peculiar to themselves'; of the rudiments of physiology, that he
+     can ask, 'what advantage of life could alter the shape of the
+     corpuscles into which the blood can be evaporated?' Nor does the
+     reviewer fail to flavour this outpouring of incapacity with a
+     little stimulation of the _odium theologicum_. Some inkling of
+     the history of the conflicts between astronomy, geology, and
+     theology leads him to keep a retreat open by the proviso that he
+     cannot 'consent to test the truth of Natural Science by the Word
+     of Revelation,' but for all that he devotes pages to the
+     exposition of his conviction that Mr. Darwin's theory
+     'contradicts the revealed relation of the creation to its
+     Creator,' and is 'inconsistent with the fulness of His glory.'"
+
+In a footnote to this passage, Huxley wrote that he was not aware when
+writing these lines that the authorship of the article had been avowed
+publicly. He adds, however:
+
+     "Confession unaccompanied by penitence, however, affords no
+     ground for mitigation of judgment; and the kindliness with which
+     Mr. Darwin speaks of his assailant, Bishop Wilberforce, is so
+     striking an exemplification of his singular gentleness and
+     modesty, that it rather increases one's indignation against the
+     presumption of his critic."
+
+As a matter of fact Wilberforce was a man of no particular information
+in letters or in philosophy, and his knowledge of science was of the
+vaguest: a little natural history picked up from Gosse, the naturalist
+of the seashore, in the course of a few days' casual acquaintance at
+the seaside, and some pieces of anatomical facts with which he was
+provided, it is supposed, by Owen, for the purposes of the review. But
+he bore a great name, and misused a great position; he was a man of
+facile intelligence, smooth, crafty, and popular, and in this case he
+was convinced that he was doing the best possible for the great
+interests of religion by authoritatively denouncing a man whose
+character he was incapable of realising, and on whose work he was
+incompetent to pronounce an opinion. Against an enemy of this kind,
+Huxley was implacable and relentless. He was constitutionally
+incapable of tolerating pretentious ignorance, and he had realised
+from the first that there could be no question of giving and taking
+quarter from persons who were more concerned to suppress doctrines
+they conceived to be dangerous than to examine into their truth. On
+the other hand, much as Huxley disliked Owen's devious ways, and
+although in after life there occurred many and severe differences of
+opinion between Huxley and Owen, Huxley had a sincere respect for much
+of Owen's anatomical and palaeontological work, and when, in 1894,
+Owen's _Life_ was published, one of the most interesting parts of it
+was a long, fair, and appreciative review by Huxley of Owen's
+contributions to knowledge.
+
+The middle of 1860, however, was not a time for Huxley, in his
+capacity as Darwin's chief defender, to make truce with the enemy. In
+England a certain number of well-known scientific men had given a
+general support to Darwinism. From France, Germany, and America there
+had come some support and a good deal of cold criticism, but most
+people were simmering with disturbed emotions. The newspapers and the
+reviews were full of the new subject; political speeches and sermons
+were filled with allusions to it. Wherever educated people talked the
+conversation came round to the question of evolution. Were animals and
+plants the results of special creations, or were they, including man,
+the result of the gradual transformations of a few simple primitive
+types evolving under the stress of some such force as Darwin's natural
+selection? To many people it seemed to be a choice between a world
+with God and a world without God; and the accredited defenders of
+religion gathered every force of argument, of misrepresentation,
+conscious and unconscious, of respectability, and of prejudice to
+crush once for all the obnoxious doctrine and its obnoxious
+supporters. In the autumn of that year it fell that the meeting of the
+British Association, then coming into prominence as the annual
+parliament of the sciences, was to be held at Oxford. It was
+inevitable that evolution should be debated formally and informally in
+the sessions of the Association, and it must have seemed to the
+orthodox that there, in that beautiful city, its air vibrant with
+tinkling calls to faith, its halls and libraries crowded with the
+devout and the learned, its history and traditions alike calling on
+all to defend the old fair piety, in such an uncongenial air, the
+supporters of evolution must be overwhelmed. Almost the whole weight
+of the attack had to be resisted by Huxley. In the various sectional
+meetings he had combat after combat with professors and clerics. Of
+these dialectic fights the most notable were one with Owen on the
+anatomical structure of the brain, and another with Wilberforce upon
+the general question of evolution. Owen contended that there were
+anatomical differences not merely of degree but of kind between the
+brain of man and the brain of the highest ape, and his remarks were
+accepted by the audience as a complete and authoritative blow to the
+theory of descent. Huxley at once met Owen with a direct and flat
+contradiction, and pledged his reputation to justify his contradiction
+with all due detail on a further occasion. As a matter of fact, he did
+justify the contradiction, and no anatomist would now dream of
+attempting the support of the proposition rashly made by Owen; but,
+at the time, the position of Owen and the sympathies of the audience
+took away much of their effect from Huxley's words. Two days later,
+Wilberforce, in a scene of considerable excitement, made a long,
+eloquent, and declamatory speech against evolution and against Huxley.
+From the incomplete reports of the debate that were published, it is
+difficult to gain a very clear idea of the Bishop's speech; but it is
+certain that it was eloquent and facile, and that it appealed strongly
+to the religious prejudices of the majority of the audience. He ended
+by a gibe which, under ordinary circumstances, might have passed
+simply as the rude humour of a popular orator, but which in that
+electric atmosphere stung Huxley into a retort that has become
+historical. He asked Huxley whether he was related by his
+grandfather's or grandmother's side to an ape. Huxley replied:
+
+     I asserted, and I repeat, that a man has no reason to be ashamed
+     of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an ancestor
+     whom I should feel shame in recalling, it would be a _man_, a man
+     of restless and versatile intellect, who, not content with an
+     equivocal success in his own sphere of activity, plunges into
+     scientific questions with which he has no real acquaintance, only
+     to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, and distract the
+     attention of his hearers from the real point at issue by eloquent
+     digressions, and skilled appeals to religious prejudice.
+
+An eye-witness has told the present writer that Huxley's speech
+produced little effect at the time. In the minds of those of the
+audience best qualified to weigh biological arguments, there was
+little doubt but that he had refuted Owen, and simply dispelled the
+vaporous effusions of the Bishop; but the majority of the audience
+retained the old convictions. The combat was removed to a wider
+tribunal. From that time forwards Huxley, by a series of essays,
+addresses, and investigations, continued almost to the end of his
+life, tried to convince, and succeeded in convincing, the intellectual
+world. At the risk of wearying by repetition we shall again insist
+upon the side of Darwinism that Huxley fought for and triumphed for.
+
+Long before the time of Darwin and Huxley, almost at the beginning of
+recorded thought, philosophers busied themselves with the wonderful
+diversity of the living world and with speculations as to how it had
+assumed its present form. From the earliest times to this century,
+theories as to the living world fell into one or other of two main
+groups. The key-note of one group was the fixity of species: the
+belief that from their first appearance species were separate,
+independent entities, one never springing from another, new species
+never arising by the modification in different directions of
+descendants of already existing species. The key-note of the other
+group of theories was the idea of progressive change: that animals and
+plants as they passed along the stream of time were continually being
+moulded by the forces surrounding them, and that the farther back the
+mind could go in imagination the fewer and simpler species would be;
+until, in the first beginning, all the existing diverse kinds of
+living creatures would converge to a single point. It may be that, on
+the whole, the idea of fixity prevailed more among thinkers with a
+religious bias; but for the most part the theories were debated
+independently of the tenets of any faith, Christian or other. There
+were sceptical defenders of fixity and religious upholders of
+evolution. However, in Christian countries, from the time of the
+Reformation onwards, a change in this neutrality of religion to
+theories of the living world took place. As Pascal prophesied,
+Protestantism rejected the idea of an infallible Church in favour of
+the idea of an infallible book, and, because it happened that this
+book included an early legend of the origin of the world in a form
+apparently incompatible with evolution, Protestantism and, to a lesser
+and secondary extent, Catholicism, assumed the position that there was
+no place for evolution in a Christian philosophy. At the end of last
+century, and up to the middle of this century, the problem was not
+raised in any acute form. The chief anatomists and botanists were
+occupied with the investigation and discovery of facts, and, in an
+ordinary way, without taking any particular trouble about it, accepted
+more or less loosely the idea that species were fixed. Now and then an
+evolutionist propounded his views; but, as a rule, he supported them
+with a knowledge of facts very much inferior to that possessed by the
+more orthodox school. Then came Herbert Spencer, reasserting evolution
+in the old broad spirit, not merely in its application to species, but
+as the guiding principle of the whole universe from the integrations
+of nebulae into systems of suns and planets to the transformations of
+chemical bodies. Before his marvellous generalisations had time to
+grip biologists, there came Darwin; and Darwin brought two things:
+first, a re-statement of the fact of evolution as applied to the
+living world, supported by an enormous body of evidence, new and old,
+presented with incomparably greater force, clearness, patience, and
+knowledge than had ever been seen before; and, second, the exposition
+of the principle of natural selection as a mechanism which might have
+caused, and probably did cause, evolution.
+
+Huxley, as has been shewn, like many other anatomists, was ready for
+the general principle of evolution. In fact, so far as it concerned
+the great independent types which he believed to exist among animals,
+he was more than prepared for it. Let us take a single definite
+example of his position. In his work on the Medusae, he had shewn how a
+large number of creatures, at first sight diverse, were really
+modifications of a single great type, and he used language which, now
+that all zooelogists accept evolution in the fullest way, requires no
+change to be understood:
+
+     "What has now been advanced will, perhaps, be deemed evidence
+     sufficient to demonstrate,--first, that the organs of these
+     various families are traceable back to the same point in the way
+     of development; or, secondly, when this cannot be done, that they
+     are connected by natural gradations with organs which are so
+     traceable; in which case, according to the principles advanced in
+     57, the various organs are homologous, and the families have a
+     real affinity to one another and should form one group.... It
+     appears, then, that these five families are by no means so
+     distinct as has hitherto been supposed, but that they are members
+     of one great group, organised upon one simple and uniform plan,
+     and, even in their most complex and aberrant forms, reducible to
+     the same type. And I may add, finally, that on this theory it is
+     by no means difficult to account for the remarkable forms
+     presented by the Medusae in their young state. The Medusae are the
+     most perfect, the most individualised animals of the series, and
+     it is only in accordance with what very generally obtains in the
+     animal kingdom, if, in their early condition, they approximate
+     towards the simplest forms of the group to which they belong."
+
+Such words, written before 1849, only differ from those that would
+have been written by a convinced evolutionist by a hair's breadth. But
+Huxley was not an evolutionist then: it was Darwin's work, containing
+a new exposition of evolution and the new principle of natural
+selection, that convinced him, not of natural selection but of
+evolution. At Oxford, in 1860, it was for evolution, and not for
+natural selection, that he spoke; and throughout his life afterwards,
+as he expressed it, it was this "ancient doctrine of evolution,
+rehabilitated and placed upon a sound scientific foundation, since,
+and in consequence of, the publication of _The Origin of Species_,"
+that furnished him with the chief inspiration of his work. The clear
+accuracy of his original judgment upon Darwin's work has been
+abundantly justified by subsequent history. Since 1859 the case for
+evolution has become stronger and stronger until it can no longer be
+regarded as one of two possible hypotheses in the field, but as the
+only view credible to those who have even a moderate acquaintance with
+the facts. In 1894, thirty years after the famous meeting at Oxford,
+the British Association again met in that historic town. The
+President, Lord Salisbury, a devout Churchman and with a notably
+critical intellect, declared of Darwin:
+
+     "He has, as a matter of fact, disposed of the doctrine of the
+     immutability of species.... Few now are found to doubt that
+     animals separated by differences far exceeding those that
+     distinguish what we know as species have yet descended from
+     common ancestors."
+
+Huxley, in replying to the address, used the following words:
+
+     "As he noted in the Presidential Address to which they had just
+     listened with such well deserved interest, he found it stated, on
+     what was then and at this time the highest authority for them,
+     that as a matter of fact the doctrine of the immutability of
+     species was disposed of and gone. He found that few were now
+     found to doubt that animals separated by differences far
+     exceeding those which they knew as species were yet descended
+     from a common ancestry. Those were their propositions; those were
+     the fundamental principles of the doctrine of evolution."
+
+On the other hand, Huxley all through his life, while holding that
+natural selection was by far the most probable hypothesis as to the
+mode in which evolution had come about, maintained that it was only a
+hypothesis, and, unlike evolution, not a proved fact. In 1863, in a
+course of lectures to workingmen, he declared:
+
+     "I really believe that the alternative is either Darwinism or
+     nothing, for I do not know of any rational conception or theory
+     of the organic universe which has any scientific position at all
+     beside Mr. Darwin's.... But you must recollect that when I say I
+     think it is either Mr. Darwin's hypothesis or nothing; that
+     either we must take his view, or look upon the whole of organic
+     nature as an enigma, the meaning of which is wholly hidden from
+     us; you must understand that I mean that I accept it
+     provisionally, in exactly the same way as I accept any other
+     hypothesis."
+
+In 1878 he wrote:
+
+     "How far natural selection suffices for the production of species
+     remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the whole cause,
+     it is a very important factor in that operation; and that it must
+     play a great part in the sorting out of varieties into those
+     which are transitory and those which are permanent."
+
+The difficulty in accepting natural selection as more than a
+hypothesis is simply that we have no experimental knowledge of its
+being able to produce the mutual infertility which is so striking a
+character of species. This difficulty is, in the first place, the
+difficulty of proving a negative. It might be possible to prove that
+its operation actually does produce species; it will always be
+impossible to prove that, in the past, natural selection, and no other
+known or unknown agency or combination of agencies, had a share in
+the process. All naturalists are now agreed that, as a matter of
+historical fact, it was the propounding of natural selection by Darwin
+that led to the acceptance of evolution, to the fact that evolution
+"takes its place alongside of those accepted truths which must be
+reckoned with by philosophers of all schools." The difficulty as to
+natural selection still exists, and there is no better way to express
+it than in Huxley's words, written in the early sixties:
+
+     "But, for all this, our acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis
+     must be provisional so long as one link in the chain of evidence
+     is wanting; and, so long as all the animals and plants certainly
+     produced by selective breeding from a common stock are fertile
+     with one another, that link will be wanting; for, so long,
+     selective breeding will not be proved to be competent to do all
+     that is required of it to produce natural species.... I adopt Mr.
+     Darwin's hypothesis, therefore, subject to the production of
+     proof that physiological species may be produced by selective
+     breeding; just as a physical philosopher may accept the
+     undulatory theory of light, subject to the proof of the existence
+     of the hypothetical ether; or as the chemist adopts the atomic
+     theory, subject to the proof of the existence of atoms; and for
+     exactly the same reasons, namely, that it has an immense amount
+     of _prima facie_ probability; that it is the only means at
+     present within reach of reducing the chaos of observed facts to
+     order; and, lastly, that it is the most powerful instrument of
+     investigation which has been presented to the naturalists since
+     the invention of the natural system of classification, and the
+     commencement of the systematic study of embryology."--_Man's
+     Place in Nature_, p. 149.[E]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote E: Further details on the subject of this chapter may be
+obtained in Clodd's excellent volume, _Pioneers of Evolution_, where
+an account of the history of the idea of evolution from the earliest
+times is given; and in Poulton's _Charles Darwin and the Theory of
+Natural Selection_, where there is a particularly valuable chapter
+upon Huxley's relation to Darwinism.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VERTEBRATE ANATOMY
+
+     The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull--Goethe, Oken, Cuvier, and
+     Owen--Huxley Defends Goethe--His Own Contributions to the
+     Theory--The Classification of Birds--Huxley Treats them as
+     "Extinct Animals"--Geographical Distribution--Sclater's
+     Regions--Huxley's Suggestions.
+
+
+We have seen that some of the most important of the contributions made
+by Huxley to zooelogical knowledge were in the field of the lower
+animals, especially of those marine forms for the study of which he
+had so great opportunities on the _Rattlesnake_. A great bulk of his
+zooelogical work, however, related to the group of back-boned animals.
+These, by their natural affinities and anatomical structure, are more
+closely related to man, and, as Huxley began his scientific work as a
+medical student, the groundwork of all his knowledge was study of the
+anatomy and physiology of man. Moreover, throughout the greater part
+of his working life, he had more to do with the extinct forms of life.
+The vertebrate animals, from the great facility for preservation which
+their hard skeleton presents, as well as from the extremely important
+anatomical characters of the skeleton, bulk more largely in the study
+of palaeontology than does any other group. In each of the great
+groups of vertebrate animals, in fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds,
+and mammals, Huxley did important work. Much of this is embodied in
+his treatise on _Vertebrate Anatomy_, but to some particular parts of
+it special attention may now be directed, as much because these serve
+as excellent examples of his method of work as because of their
+intrinsic importance.
+
+The skull is the most striking feature in the skeleton of vertebrate
+animals, and to the theory and structure of the vertebrate skull
+Huxley paid special attention, and his views and summary of the views
+of others form the basis of our modern knowledge. This work was put
+before the public in the course of a series of lectures on Comparative
+Anatomy given in 1863, while Huxley was Hunterian Professor at the
+Royal College of Surgeons, and the beginnings of it were contained in
+a Croonian lecture to the Royal Society in 1858.
+
+The theory of the skull which held the field was known as the
+vertebral theory. The great bulk of the nervous system of vertebrate
+animals consists of a mass of tissue lying along the dorsal line of
+the body and enclosed in a cartilaginous or bony sheath. The nerve
+tissue is the brain and spinal cord; the sheath is the skull in front
+and the vertebral column along the greater part of the length of the
+animal. The brain may be taken simply as an anterior portion of the
+nerve mass, corresponding in a general way to an expansion of the
+spinal cord in the region of the anterior limbs and an expansion in
+the region of the hind limbs, the latter indeed having recently been
+shown in some extinct creatures to surpass the brain in size. In a
+similar simple fashion the skull may be taken as an expanded anterior
+part of the vertebral column, serving as an expanded box for the
+brain, just as in the regions of the pectoral and pelvic expansions
+of the cord there are similar expansions of the surrounding bony case.
+We know now, from greater knowledge of its embryological development,
+that the brain contains structures quite peculiar to itself, and
+differs from the spinal cord in kind as well as in size; but, at the
+same time, when the vertebral theory of the skull was inaugurated,
+embryological knowledge and the importance of its relation to
+anatomical structure were less considered. What Huxley did was to show
+that the skull, in its mode of origin and real nature, was not merely
+an expanded portion of the vertebral column, but that it differed from
+it in kind.
+
+The hypothesis of the vertebral structure of the skull was due both to
+Goethe, the great German poet, and Oken, a most able but somewhat
+mystic German anatomist. An attempt had been made by a well-known
+English anatomist to cast on Goethe the stigma of having tried to rob
+Oken of the credit for this theory. Huxley set that matter finally at
+rest, disproving and repelling with indignation the unworthy
+suggestion. Oken gave out his theory in 1807, and described how it had
+been first suggested to his mind by the accident of picking up a dried
+and battered sheep's skull, in which the apparent vertebral structure
+was very obvious, as, indeed, anyone may see at a glance. It was in
+1820, long after the theory had been made current, that the poet first
+publicly narrated that in a similar way he had long before come to the
+same conclusion; but Huxley was able to show that, although announcing
+it later, Goethe had in reality anticipated the anatomist. A passage
+occurs in a letter to a friend, of a date in 1790, which admits of no
+doubt. "By the oddest happy chance, my servant picked up a bit of an
+animal's skull in the Jews' cemetery at Venice, and, by way of a
+joke, held it out to me as if he were offering me a Jew's skull. I
+have made a great step in the formation of animals." It is an
+interesting trait in Huxley's character, to find him zealous in
+defence of the reputation of a great man, even although that man had
+been dead more than half a century; but it may be added that his just
+zeal was at least stimulated by the fact that the maligner of Goethe
+was Owen, the conduct of whom, with regard to Darwin and Huxley,
+Huxley had had just reason for resenting.
+
+The theory, then, which had dropped stillborn from Goethe, but which
+Oken developed, was simply that the skull consisted of a series of
+expanded vertebrae. Each vertebra consists of a basal piece or centrum,
+the anterior and posterior faces of which are closely applied to the
+face of an adjoining vertebra, and of a bony arch or ring which
+encloses and protects the nervous cord. Oken supposed that there were
+four such vertebrae in the skull, the centra being firmly fused and the
+arches expanded to form the dome of the skull. Quite correctly, he
+divided the skull into four regions, corresponding to what he called
+an ear vertebra, at the back, through which the auditory nerves
+passed; a jaw vertebra, in the sphenoidal region, through which the
+nerves to the jaws passed; an eye vertebra in front, pierced by the
+optic nerves, and again in front a nose vertebra, the existence of
+which he doubted at first. Quite rightly, he discriminated between the
+ordinary bones of the skull and the special structures surrounding the
+inner ear which he declared to be additions derived from another
+source. So far it cannot be doubted that the vertebral theory made a
+distinct advance in our knowledge of the skull. It was to a certain
+extent, however, thrown into disrepute by various fantastic theories
+with which Oken surrounded it. Later on, Cuvier removed from it these
+wilder excrescences, and amplified the basis of observation upon which
+the underlying theory of the unity of type of the skull throughout the
+vertebrates was based. Cuvier, however, came to reject the theory,
+except so far as it applied to the posterior or occipital segment of
+the skull. Later on, Owen resuscitated the theory, first throwing
+doubt on the merit of Goethe, and then suggesting that Oken, instead
+of relying on the observed facts, had deduced the whole theory from
+his own imagination. Owen, although he made no new contribution to
+fact or theory in this matter, practically claimed the whole credit of
+it as a scientific hypothesis.
+
+When Huxley took up the subject, the position was that the vertebral
+theory was in full possession of the field, under the auspices of
+Owen. Huxley began afresh from observed facts. The first object of his
+investigation was to settle once for all the question as to whether
+the skulls of all vertebrates were essentially modifications of the
+same type. He took in succession the skulls of man, sheep, bird,
+turtle, and carp, and showed that in all these there were to be
+distinguished the same four basi-cranial regions: the basi-occipital,
+basi-sphenoid, pre-sphenoid, and ethmoid. These were essentially
+identical with the centra of the four vertebrae of Oken. Similarly, he
+showed the composition of the lateral and dorsal walls, proving the
+essential identity of the structures involved and of their relations
+to the nerve exits in the great types he had chosen. In the series of
+lectures delivered before the College of Surgeons, he extended his
+observations to a much larger series of vertebrates, and substantially
+laid down the main lines of our knowledge of the skull. In two
+important respects his statements were not merely a codification of
+existing knowledge, but an important extension of it. He distinguished
+the different modes in which the jaws may be suspended to the skull,
+and established for these different kinds of suspensoria the names
+which have ever since been employed. He proved clearly what had been
+suggested by Oken, that the region of the ear is a lateral addition to
+the skull, and he distinguished in it three bones, his names for which
+have since become the common property of anatomists. Finally, he made
+it plain beyond any possible doubt that the skulls of all vertebrates
+were built upon a common plan.
+
+Having established the facts, he proceeded to enquire into the theory.
+There was now a new method for investigating such problems, the method
+of embryology, which, practically, had not been available to Oken, and
+of which neither Cuvier nor Owen had made proper use. By putting
+together the investigations of a number of embryologists, by adding to
+these himself, and, lastly, by interpreting the facts which his
+investigations into comparative anatomy had brought to light, he
+shewed that the vertebral theory could not be maintained. He shewed,
+by these methods, that, though both skull and vertebral column are
+segmented, the one and the other, after an early stage, are fashioned
+on lines so different as to exclude the possibility of regarding the
+details of each as mere modifications of a common type. "The spinal
+column and the skull start from the same primitive condition, whence
+they immediately begin to diverge." "It may be true to say that there
+is a primitive identity of structure between the spinal or vertebral
+column and the skull; but it is no more true that the adult skull is
+a modified vertebral column than it would be to affirm that the
+vertebral column is a modified skull." Taking the embryological facts,
+he shewed that the skull arose out of elements quite different from
+those of the vertebral column. The notochord alone is common to both.
+The skull is built up of longitudinal cartilaginous pieces, now known
+as the "parachordals" and "trabeculae," of sense capsules enclosing the
+nose and ear, and of various roofing bones. In the historical
+development of the skull three grades become apparent; a primitive
+stage, as seen in Amphioxus, where there is nothing but a fibrous
+investment of the nervous structures; a cartilaginous grade, as seen
+in the skate or shark, where the skull is formed of cartilage, very
+imperfectly hardened by earthy deposits; a bony stage, seen in most of
+the higher animals. He shewed that in actual development of the higher
+animals these historical grades are repeated, the skull being at first
+a mere membranous or fibrous investment of the developing nervous
+masses, then becoming cartilaginous, and, lastly, bony. He made some
+important prophetic remarks as to the probable importance that future
+embryological work would give to the distinction between cartilage and
+membrane bones--a prophecy that has been more than fully realised by
+the investigations of Hertwig and of others. Our present knowledge of
+the skull differs from Huxley's conception practically only in a
+fuller knowledge of details. We know now that throughout the series
+there is a primitive set of structures common to all animals higher in
+the scale than Amphioxus, and forming the base and lateral walls of
+the skull. This is termed the Chondrocraninm, because it is laid down
+in cartilage; it is composed of the separate elements which Huxley
+indicated, and, in different animals, as Huxley suggested, the exact
+limits of the ossification of the primitive cartilages differ in
+extent, but occur in homologous situations. This primitive skull is
+roofed over by a series of membrane bones which have no connection in
+origin with the other portions of the skull, and which have no
+representative in the vertebral column, but which are the direct
+descendants of the bony scales clothing the external skin in
+cartilaginous fishes. In one respect only was Huxley erroneous. Partly
+by inadvertence, and partly because the minute details of vertebrate
+embryology became really familiar to zooelogists only after the
+elaborate work of Balfour of Cambridge, Huxley, in his account of the
+formation of the first beginnings of the skeleton in the embryo, made
+confusion between the walls of the primitive groove, which, in
+reality, give rise to the nervous structures, and those embryonic
+tissues which form the skeletal system.
+
+The next great piece of work which we may take as typical of Huxley's
+contributions to vertebrate anatomy, is his classical study on the
+classification of birds. The great group of birds contains a larger
+number of species than is known in any other group of vertebrates,
+and, in this vast assemblage of forms there is strikingly little
+anatomical difference. The ostrich and the humming-bird might perhaps
+be taken as types of the extremest differences to be found, and yet,
+although these differ in size, plumage, adaptations, habits, mode of
+life, and almost everything that can separate living things, the two
+conform so closely to the common type of bird structure that knowledge
+of the anatomy of one would be a sufficient guide, down to minute
+details, for dissection of the other. None the less, there are
+hundreds of thousands of species of birds between these two types. It
+is not surprising that to reduce this vast assemblage of similar
+creatures to an ordered system of classification has proved one of the
+most difficult tasks attempted by zooelogists. Before Huxley, it had
+been attempted by a number of distinguished zooelogists; but, for the
+most part, these had relied too much on merely external characters and
+on superficial modifications in obvious relation to habits. When
+Huxley, in the course of a set of lectures on Comparative Anatomy, was
+about to approach the subject of birds he was asked by a zooelogist how
+he proposed to treat them. "I intend," he replied, "to treat them as
+extinct animals." By that he meant that it was his purpose to make a
+prolonged study of their skeletal structures the basis of his
+grouping, following the lines which Cuvier, Owen, and he himself had
+pursued so successfully in the case of the fossil remains of
+vertebrates. The result was that this first systematic study of even
+one set of the anatomical characters of the group completely reformed
+the method by which all subsequent workers have tried to grapple with
+the problem; ornithology was raised from a process akin to
+stamp-collecting to a reasoned scientific study. The immediate
+practical results were equally important. He was able to shew that
+among the innumerable known forms there were three grades of
+structure. The lowest had already been recognised and named by
+Haeckel; it consisted of the Saururae, or reptile-like, birds, and
+contained a single fossil form, Archaeopteryx, distinguished from all
+living birds by the presence of a hand-like wing in which the
+metacarpal bones were well developed and freely movable, and by the
+possession of a long lizard-like tail actually exceeding in length
+the remainder of the spinal column. The next group of Ratites,
+although it contained only the Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, and
+Apteryx, he shewed to be equivalent in anatomical coherence to the
+third great group of Carinates, which includes the vast majority of
+living birds. In his arrangement of the latter group, he laid most
+stress on the characters of the bony structures which form the palate,
+and by this simple means was able to lay down clearly at least the
+main lines of a natural classification of the group.
+
+Huxley's work upon birds, like his work in many other branches of
+anatomy, has been so overlaid by the investigations of subsequent
+zooelogists that it is easy to overlook its importance. His employment
+of the skeleton as the basis of classification was succeeded by the
+work of others who made a similar use of the muscular anatomy, of the
+intestinal canal, of the windpipe, of the tendons of the feet, and
+many other structures which display anatomical modifications in
+different birds. The modern student finds that all these new sets of
+facts are much greater in bulk than the work of Huxley, and it is easy
+for him to remain in ignorance that they were all suggested and
+inspired by the method which Huxley employed. He finds that further
+research has supplanted some of Huxley's conclusions, and it is easy
+for him to remain in ignorance that the conclusions themselves
+suggested the investigations which have modified them. Huxley's
+anatomical work was essentially living and stimulating, and too often
+it has become lost to sight simply because of the vast superstructures
+of new facts to which it gave rise.
+
+Closely associated with vertebrate anatomy is the subject of
+geographical distribution. In 1857 the study of this important
+department of zooelogy was placed on a scientific basis, practically
+for the first time, by a memoir on the geographical distribution of
+birds published in the _Journal_ of the Linnaean Society of London. It
+was known in a general way that different kinds of creatures were
+found in different parts of the world, but little attempt had been
+made to map out the world into regions characterised by their animal
+and vegetable inhabitants, as the political divisions of the world are
+characterised by their different governments and policies. Mr.
+Sclater, who two years later became secretary of the Zooelogical
+Society of London, in his memoir introduced the subject in the
+following words:
+
+     "It is a well-known and universally acknowledged fact that we can
+     choose two portions of the globe of which the respective fauna
+     and flora shall be so different that we should not be far wrong
+     in supposing them to have been the result of distinct creations.
+     Assuming, then, that there are, or may be, more areas of creation
+     than one, the question naturally arises how many of them are
+     there, and what are their respective extents and boundaries; or,
+     in other words, what are the most natural primary ontological
+     divisions of the earth's surface?"
+
+Mr. Sclater's answer was that there are six great regions;
+Neotropical, Nearctic, Palaearctic, Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian,
+and his answer, with minor alterations and the addition of a great
+wealth of detail, has been accepted by zooelogy.
+
+Two years later, however, Darwin gave a new meaning and a new
+importance to Sclater's work, by the new interpretation he caused to
+be placed on the words "centres of creation." Sclater's facts and
+areas remained the same; Darwin rejected the idea of separate
+creations in the older sense of the words, and laid stress on the
+impossibility of accounting for the resemblances within a region and
+for the differences between regions by climatic differences and so
+forth. He raised the questions of modes of dispersal and of barriers
+to dispersal, of similarities due to common descent, and of the
+modifying results produced by isolation. He gave, in fact, a theory of
+the "creations" which Mr. Sclater had shewn to be a probable
+assumption. It was in the nature of things that Huxley should make a
+contribution to a set of problems so novel and of so much importance
+to zooelogy. In 1868, in the course of a memoir on the anatomy of the
+gallinaceous birds and their allies, he made a useful attempt, nearly
+the first of its kind, to correlate anatomical facts with geographical
+distribution. Having shewn the diverging lines of anatomical structure
+that existed in the group of creatures he had been considering, he
+went on to shew that there was a definite relation between the
+varieties of structure and the different positions on the surface of
+the globe occupied at the present time by the creatures in question.
+He made, in fact, the geographical position a necessary part of the
+whole idea of a species or of a group, and so introduced a conception
+which has become a permanent part of zooelogical science.
+
+With regard to the number and limits of the zooelogical regions into
+which the world may be divided, Huxley raised a number of problems
+which have not yet reached a full solution. Mr. Sclater had divided
+the world into six great regions: the Nearctic, including the
+continent of North America, with an overlap into what is called South
+America by geographers; the Palaearctic, comprising Europe and the
+greater part of Asia; the Oriental, containing certain southern
+portions of Asia, such as India south of the Himalayas and many of the
+adjacent islands; the Ethiopian, including Africa, except north of
+the Sahara, and Madagascar; the Australian, containing Australia and
+New Zealand and some of the more southeastern of the islands of Malay;
+the Neotropical, including South America. Huxley first called
+attention to certain noteworthy resemblances between the Neotropical
+and the Australian regions of Sclater, and held that a primary
+division of the world was into _Arctogaea_, comprising the great land
+masses of the Northern Hemisphere with a part of their extension
+across the equator, and _Notogaea_, which contained Australia but not
+New Zealand and South America. Although this acute suggestion has not
+been generally accepted as a modification of Mr. Sclater's scheme, it
+called attention in a striking fashion to some very remarkable
+features in the distribution of animals. Subsequent writers have
+considerably extended Huxley's conception of the similarities to be
+found among the more southern land areas. They have pointed out that
+the most striking idea of the distribution of land and water on the
+surface of the globe is to be got by considering the globe alternately
+from one pole and from the other. In the south, a clump of ice-bound
+land, well within the Antarctic Circle, surrounds the pole. All else
+is a wide domain of ocean broken only where tapering and isolated
+tongues of land, South America, the Cape, Australia, lean down from
+the great land masses of the north. On the other hand, all the great
+land masses expand in the Northern Hemisphere, and shoulder one
+another round the North Pole. America is separated from Asia only by
+the shallowest and narrowest of straits; an elevation of a few fathoms
+would unite Greenland with Europe. Science points definitely to some
+part of the great northern land area as the centre of life for at
+least the larger terrestrial forms of life. We know that these arose
+successively, primitive birds like the ostriches being older than
+higher forms like the parrots and singing birds; the pouched
+marsupials preceding the antelopes and the lion; the lemurs coming
+before the man-like apes. Each wave of life spread over the whole area
+producing after its kind; then, pressing round the northern land area,
+it met a thousand different conditions of environment, different
+foods, enemies, and climates, and broke up into different genera and
+species. But there was never a wave of life that was not followed by
+another wave. In the struggle for existence between the newer and the
+older forms, the older forms were gradually driven southwards towards
+the diverging fringes of the land masses. The vanquished left behind
+them on the field of battle only their bones, to become fossils.
+Sometimes succeeding waves swept along to the extreme limits of the
+land, and many early types were utterly destroyed. But others found
+sanctuary in the ends of the South, and such survivors of older and
+earlier types of life cause a similarity between the southern lands
+that Huxley called Notogaea, although the extent of his region must be
+increased.
+
+Recently, however, there has been a recurrence to Huxley's suggested
+union of South America and Australia, based on new evidence of a
+direct kind, quite different from that which had just been given.
+Various groups of naturalists have stated that there are similarities
+between the invertebrate inhabitants of Australia and of South America
+of a kind which makes the existence of a direct land connection in the
+Southern Hemisphere extremely probable. Moreover, Ameghino has
+recently described some marsupial fossils from South America which, he
+states, belong to the Australian group of Dasyuridae, and Oldfield
+Thomas has described a new mammal from South America which is unlike
+the opossums of America and like the diprotodonts of Australia. So
+that, while the general opinion has been against Huxley's division,
+Notogaea, in the strict meaning which he gave to it, there has recently
+been an opinion growing in its favour.
+
+Huxley also made minor alterations in Mr. Sclater's scheme by forming
+an additional circumpolar region for the Northern Hemisphere, and by
+elevating New Zealand into a separate region, distinct from Australia.
+On these points there is a balance of opinion against his views.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Huxley's contributions to vertebrate
+anatomy, the actual details of which would occupy far too much space,
+it is necessary to mention the great importance to zooelogy of the new
+terms and new ideas he introduced into classification. His mind was,
+above all things, orderly and comprehensive, and while, in innumerable
+minute points, from the structure of the palate of birds to the
+structure of the roots of human hair (actually the subject of Huxley's
+first published contribution to scientific knowledge), he added to the
+number of known facts, he did even more important work in
+co-ordinating and grouping together the known body of facts. To him
+are due not only the names, but the idea, that the mammalian animals
+fall into three grades of ascending complexity of organisation: the
+reptile-like Prototheria, which lay large eggs, and which have many
+other reptilian characters; the Metatheria, or marsupial animals; the
+Eutheria, or higher animals, which include all the common animals from
+the mole or rabbit up to man. In a similar fashion, he grouped the
+vertebrates into three divisions, and named them: Ichthyopsida, which
+include the fish and Amphibia, creatures in which the aquatic habit
+dominates the life history and the anatomical structure; Sauropsida,
+including birds and reptiles, on the close connection between which he
+threw so much light; Mammalia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAN AND THE APES
+
+     Objections to Zooelogical Discussion of Man's Place--Owen's
+     Prudence--Huxley's Determination to Speak out--Account of his
+     Treatment of _Man's Place in Nature_--Additions Made by More
+     Recent Work.
+
+
+Even before the publication of _The Origin of Species_ there was a
+considerable nervousness in the minds of the more orthodox as to
+discussions on the position of the human species in zooelogical
+classification. Men of the broadest minds, such as Lyell, who himself
+had suffered considerably from outside interference with the
+scientific right to publish scientific conclusions, was strongly
+opposed to anything that seemed to tend towards breaking down the
+barrier between man and the lower creatures. Sir William Lawrence, a
+very distinguished and able man, had been criticised with the greatest
+severity, and had been nearly ostracised, for a very mild little book
+_On Man_; and Huxley tells us that the electors to the Chair of a
+Scotch University had refused to invite a distinguished man, to whom
+the post would have been acceptable, because he had advocated the view
+that there were several species of man. The court political leaders,
+and society generally, resented strongly anything that seemed at all
+likely to disturb the somewhat narrow orthodoxy prevalent in those
+times; and, as there were comparatively few posts open to scientific
+men, and comparatively greater chances of posts being made for men of
+talent and ability who adhered to the respectable traditions, those
+who tampered with so serious a question as the place of man were
+likely to burn their fingers severely. However, the difficulties of
+discussing these problems were much greater immediately after 1859.
+One of the most surprising things in the history of this century is
+the sudden intensity of the opposition of the public, particularly the
+respectable and religious public, to zooelogical writing upon man,
+immediately after the publication of the _Origin_. Before that time
+anatomists did not necessarily hesitate to point out the close
+resemblance between the anatomy of man and that of the higher apes,
+and the difficulties anatomists had in making anatomical distinction
+of value between them. Thus Professor Owen, who, as a writer, was
+rather unusually nervous about expressing facts to which any objection
+might be raised by those outside the strictly scientific world, had
+written the following paragraph in the course of an essay on the
+characters of the class Mammalia, published, in 1857, in the _Journal
+of the Proceedings of the Linnaean Society_:
+
+     "Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the distinction
+     between the psychical phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a
+     Boschisman or of an Aztec, with arrested brain-growth, as being
+     of a nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between
+     them, or as being other than a difference of degree, I cannot
+     shut my eyes to the significance of that all-pervading similitude
+     of structure--every tooth, every bone, strictly homologous--which
+     makes the determination of the difference between _Homo_ and
+     _Pithecus_ the anatomist's difficulty."
+
+It is true, he went on to explain his belief in the existence of
+certain characters in the brain which seemed to him to justify the
+separation of man in a different group from that in which the apes
+were placed; but it is certain that he regretted having said anything
+which seemed to support the Darwinian view; and, two years later, when
+the opposition to Darwin was in its acutest stage, Owen withdrew his
+words. His "Reade Lecture," delivered in the University of Cambridge,
+was in all respects a reprint of the essay from which we have just
+quoted, but the apparently dangerous words were omitted. More than
+that, the points insisted on in the essay as being sufficient for the
+purpose of separating man in zooelogical classification were elevated
+into a reason against descent. Although Huxley, in several addresses
+and publications, disproved the existence of the alleged differences,
+and although Sir William Flower gave an actual demonstration shewing
+the essential identity of the brain of man and of the apes in the
+matter in question, Owen never admitted his error.
+
+[Illustration: CHARLES DARWIN
+From the painting by Hon. John Collier in the National Portrait
+Gallery]
+
+It is not surprising that, if an anatomist so distinguished and acute
+as was Owen allowed his judgment to be completely overborne by the
+storm of prejudice against Darwinism, those who were not anatomists
+should have held up to ridicule all idea of comparison between man and
+the apes. In _The Origin of Species_ itself, no elaborate attempt had
+been made to set forth the anatomical arguments in favour of or
+against a community of descent for man and the apes. But it was made
+sufficiently plain, and the public laid hold of the point eagerly,
+that the doctrine of descent was not meant to exclude man from the
+field of its operation. Huxley, in the course of his ordinary work as
+Professor of Biology, had, among many other subjects, naturally
+turned his attention to the anatomy and classification of the
+higher animals. When Owen's essay appeared, he found that he was
+unable to agree with many of the conclusions contained in it, and had
+set about a renewed investigation of the matter. Thus it happened
+that, when the question became prominent, in 1860, Huxley was ready
+with material contributions to it. He believed, moreover, that, as
+Darwin was not specially acquainted with the anatomy and development
+of vertebrates, there was an opportunity for doing a real service to
+the cause of evolution. Accordingly, in 1860, he took for the subject
+of a series of lectures to workingmen the "Relation of Man to the
+Lower Animals," and, in 1862, expanded the lectures into a volume
+called _Man's Place in Nature_. When it was ready, he was prepared to
+say with a good conscience that his conclusions "had not been formed
+hastily or enunciated crudely."
+
+     "I thought," he wrote in the preface to the 1894 edition, "I had
+     earned the right to publish them, and even fancied I might be
+     thanked, rather than reproved, for so doing. However, in my
+     anxiety to promulgate nothing erroneous, I asked a highly
+     competent anatomist and very good friend of mine to look through
+     my proofs, and, if he could, point out any errors of fact. I was
+     well pleased when he returned them without any criticism on that
+     score; but my satisfaction was speedily dashed by the very
+     earnest warning, as to the consequences of publication, which my
+     friend's interest in my welfare led him to give; but, as I have
+     confessed elsewhere, when I was a young man there was just a
+     little--a mere _soupcon_--in my composition of that tenacity of
+     purpose which has another name, and I felt sure that all the evil
+     things prophesied would not be so painful to me as the giving up
+     of that which I had resolved to do, upon grounds which I
+     conceived to be right. So the book came out, and I must do my
+     friend the justice to say that his forecast was completely
+     justified. The Boreas of criticism blew his hardest blasts of
+     misrepresentation and ridicule for some years; and I was even as
+     one of the wicked. Indeed, it surprises me, at times, to think
+     how anyone who had sunk so low could have emerged into, at any
+     rate, relative respectability."
+
+Further, in the same preface, Huxley strongly advises others to
+imitate his action in this matter. There are now, and no doubt there
+always will be, truths "plainly obvious and generally denied." Whoever
+attacks the current ideas is certain, unless human nature changes
+greatly, to encounter a bitter opposition, and there will always be
+those among his friends who recommend him to temper truth by prudence.
+Huxley's advice is different:
+
+     "If there is a young man of the present generation who has taken
+     as much trouble as I did to assure himself that they are truths,
+     let him come out with them, without troubling his head about the
+     barking of the dogs of St. Ernulphus. _Veritas praevalebit_--some
+     day; and, even if she does not prevail in his time, he himself
+     will be all the better and wiser for having tried to help her.
+     And let him recollect that such great reward is full payment for
+     all his labour and pains."
+
+Although they were written so long ago, the lectures on "Man's Place
+in Nature" are still the best existing treatise on the subject, and we
+shall give an outline of them, mentioning the chief points in which
+further work has been done. Information concerning the man-like apes
+was scattered in very different places, in the grave records of
+scientific societies, in the letters of travellers and missionaries,
+in the reports of the zooelogical societies which had been in
+possession of living specimens. The facts had to be sifted out from a
+great mass of verbiage and unfounded statement. With a characteristic
+desire for historical accuracy, more usual in a man of letters than in
+an anatomist, Huxley began with a study of classical and mediaeval
+legends of the existence of pigmies and man-like creatures; but, while
+recognising that legends of satyrs and fauns were presages of the
+discovery of man-like apes, he was unable to find any actual record
+earlier than that contained in Pigafetta's _Description of the Kingdom
+of Congo_, drawn up from the notes of a Portuguese sailor and
+published in 1598. The descriptions and figures in this work
+apparently referred to chimpanzees. From this date onwards he traces
+the literature of the animals in question, and then proceeds to give
+an account of them.
+
+There are four distinct kinds of man-like apes: in Eastern Asia the
+Orangs and the Gibbons (although some later writers differ from Huxley
+in removing the Gibbons from the group of anthropoids); in Western
+Africa, the Chimpanzees and the Gorillas. All these have certain
+characters in common. They are inhabitants of the old world; they all
+have the same number of teeth as man, possessing four incisors, two
+canines, four premolars, and six true molars in each jaw, in the adult
+condition, while the milk dentition, as in man, consists of twenty
+teeth,--four incisors, two canines, and four molars in each jaw. Since
+Huxley wrote, a large bulk of additional work upon teeth has been
+published, and we now know that man and the anthropoid apes display
+the same kind of degenerative specialisation in their jaws. Simpler
+and older forms of mammals had a much larger number of teeth, and
+these differed among themselves more than the teeth of the higher
+forms. In the Anthropoids and Man, the jaws are proportionately
+shorter and less heavy than in simpler forms, and, in correspondence
+with this, the number of the teeth has become reduced, while the teeth
+themselves tend to form a more even row. The canine or eye-teeth are
+relatively smaller in the gorilla than in primitive mammals; they are
+still smaller in the lower races of man; while in ordinary civilised
+man they do not project above the others. The shortening of the jaw is
+still proceeding, and, although in lower races of man the last molar
+or wisdom tooth is almost as large as the molars in front of it, in
+the higher races the wisdom tooth is much smaller and frequently does
+not develop at all, or begins to decay very soon after its appearance.
+If the process of extinction of lower races were to proceed much
+further, so that civilised white races became the only human
+inhabitants of the earth, then the gap between the Anthropoids and Man
+would be wider than it now is; man would be characterised by the
+presence of one tooth less than the anthropoids, just as the
+anthropoids and some lower monkeys are characterised by having one
+tooth less than monkeys still lower.
+
+In all, the nostrils have a narrow partition and look downwards as in
+man. The arms are always longer than the legs, the difference being
+greatest in the orang and least in the chimpanzee. We know now that in
+the lower races of man, the arms are proportionately longer than in
+higher races, and it has recently been shewn that, although there is a
+general proportion between the length of the long bones and the height
+of the whole body in man, so that the height may be calculated with an
+average error from these bones, yet the probable error is greater when
+the calculation is made from the arms than when it is made from the
+legs. In fact, the length of arm as compared to the length of leg and
+to whole height is a more variable feature in man than the length of
+leg.
+
+In all the anthropoids, the forelimbs end in hands with longer or
+shorter thumbs, and the great toe, always smaller than in man, is far
+more movable and can be opposed like a thumb to the other toes. Since
+Huxley wrote, a considerable amount of evidence has been collected
+shewing that partial opposability of the toe in man is not uncommon,
+and that there is evidence as to a tendency to increase of length of
+the great toe within historical times. None of the great apes have
+tails, and none of them have the cheek pouches common among lower
+monkeys.
+
+Huxley then gives an account of the natural history of these animals,
+an account which still remains the best in literature. He sums up the
+habits of the Asiatic forms as follows:
+
+1. They may readily move along the ground in the erect, or semi-erect
+position, and without direct support from the arms.
+
+2. They may possess an extremely loud voice, so loud as to be readily
+heard one or two miles.
+
+3. They may be capable of great viciousness and violence when
+irritated; and this is especially true of adult males.
+
+4. They may build a nest to sleep in.
+
+He finds the same general characters in the case of the gorilla and
+chimpanzee, but in their case there was not quite so reliable evidence
+upon which to go.
+
+Although, since Huxley wrote, there has been much greater opportunity
+of studying anthropoid apes, both in confinement and in their native
+haunts, there is not much to add to his account. Some little time ago,
+the world was interested by the assertion of a clever American that he
+had discovered a kind of language used by the higher apes, and that he
+was able to communicate with them. Mr. Garnier, the person in
+question, declared his intention of going out to tropical Africa and
+establishing himself in a strong cage in the forests inhabited by
+gorillas and chimpanzees, in the hope that, impelled by curiosity,
+they would look upon him as we look on monkeys in a zooelogical garden,
+and that he would thus be able to make his knowledge and records of
+monkey language more perfect. As a matter of fact he went to Africa,
+and on his return published a volume which aroused the indignation of
+naturalists. There was internal evidence that he had gone no further
+than the garden of a coast station, and his pretended account of the
+habits of monkeys as they lived in their native haunts contained
+nothing that was not already known. There is no doubt but that the
+anthropoid apes, like many other animals, use modulations of their
+voice to express emotional states; that, in fact, they have love-cries
+and cries of warning, of alarm, and of pleasure; but there is not the
+smallest evidence to suppose that in the case of the anthropoids these
+cries approach more nearly to speech than the cries of any other of
+the higher mammals.
+
+Since Huxley's volume was published, a large amount of information has
+been published by Darwin, Romanes, and others upon the mental
+capacities of anthropoids kept in confinement, and the result of this
+has been to prove that the anthropoids, in especial the chimpanzees,
+possess mental powers more akin to those of man than are to be found
+in the most intelligent of the quadrupeds. We may cite some instances
+of these higher powers. Vosmaern had a tame female orang-outang that
+was able to untie the most intricate knot with fingers or teeth, and
+took such pleasure in doing it that she regularly untied the shoes of
+those who came near her. The female chimpanzee called Sally, that
+lived for many years in the Zooelogical Society's Gardens in London,
+was taught by its keeper and by Romanes an interesting variety of
+"tricks" involving at least the rudiments of what may be called human
+intelligence. Among other feats, it would pick up from the floor and
+present to the keeper or to a visitor, a stated number of straws up to
+five. Many monkeys seem nearly purely destructive in their dealings
+with objects within their reach; but Leutemann tells of an
+orang-outang which "tried to put to its proper use whatever was given
+to him. To my great surprise he attempted to put on a pair of gloves.
+He supported himself on a light walking cane and, when it bent under
+him, made ridiculous motions to right it again." Brehm tells of a
+chimpanzee:
+
+     "After eating, he at once begins to clean up. He holds a stick of
+     wood in front of him, or puts his hands in his master's slippers,
+     and slides about the room, then takes a cloth and scrubs the
+     floor. Scouring, sweeping, and dusting are his favourite
+     occupations; and, when he once gets hold of the cloth, he never
+     wants to give it up."
+
+Falkenstein has given a detailed description of a gorilla which was
+remarkable for his delicacy in eating.
+
+     "He would take a cup or glass with the greatest care, using both
+     hands to carry it to his mouth, and setting it down so carefully
+     that I do not remember having lost a single piece of crockery
+     through him, though we had never tried to teach him the use of
+     such vessels, wishing to bring him to Europe as nearly in his
+     natural condition as possible."
+
+These and a multitude of similar observations which have been made
+since Huxley wrote are typical of the increase of our knowledge on the
+habits and capacities of the anthropoid apes. They all serve to show
+that in them the instinct for experimental investigation of
+everything with which they are surrounded, and their imitative
+faculties are peculiarly great. The importance of this, from the point
+of view of Huxley's argument, is great. The difference between the
+instincts of the lower animals and the intelligence of man is that
+instincts are to a large extent fixed and mechanical. The proper
+performance of an instinct demands the presence of exactly the right
+external conditions for its accomplishment. In the absence of these
+conditions, the call to perform the instinctive action is equally
+great, and results in useless performances. In many of the higher
+animals these elaborate instincts are more general in their character,
+and are supplemented by a considerable but varying aptitude for
+modification of instinctive action to suit varieties of surrounding
+circumstances. As this intelligence becomes more and more developed,
+the blind, mechanical instinct becomes weaker. A large number of
+instances might be given of such instincts modified by dawning
+intelligence. The chief factors in producing the change are, as has
+been shewn by Professor Groos, the possession of a general instinct to
+imitate and to experiment, and the existence of a period of youth in
+which the young creature may practise these instincts, and so prepare
+itself for the more serious purposes of adult life. The anthropoid
+apes seem to possess these experimental instincts to an extent much
+greater than that observed in any other class of animals, and, as they
+have a long period of youth, they have the opportunity of putting them
+into practice to the fullest possible extent.
+
+From the natural history of the anthropoid apes, Huxley passed to
+consideration of their relation to man, prefacing his observations
+with a passage defending the utility of the enquiry, a passage
+necessary enough in these days of prejudice, but now chiefly with
+historical interest:
+
+     "It will be admitted that some knowledge of man's position in the
+     animate world is an indispensable preliminary to the proper
+     understanding of his relations to the universe; and this again
+     resolves itself in the long run into an enquiry into the nature
+     and the closeness of the ties which connect him with those
+     singular creatures whose history has been sketched in the
+     preceding pages.
+
+      "The importance of such an enquiry is, indeed, intuitively
+     manifest. Brought face to face with these blurred copies of
+     himself, the least thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain
+     shock; due perhaps not so much to disgust at the aspect of what
+     looks like an insulting caricature, as to the awakening of a
+     sudden and profound mistrust of time-honoured theories and
+     strongly rooted prejudices regarding his own position in nature,
+     and his relations to the underworld of life; while that which
+     remains a dim suspicion for the unthinking, becomes a vast
+     argument, fraught with the deepest consequences, for all who are
+     acquainted with the recent progress of the anatomical and
+     physiological sciences."
+
+Huxley then proceeded to elaborate the argument from development for
+the essential identity of man and the apes. This argument has now
+become more or less familiar to us all, as it has gained additional
+support from recent extension of embryological knowledge, and as it
+has been used in every work on evolution since Huxley first laid
+stress on it. The adult forms of animals are much more complex than
+their embryonic stages, and the series of changes passed through in
+attaining the adult condition make up the embryological history of the
+animal. Huxley took the embryology of the dog as an example of the
+process in the higher animals generally, and as it had been worked out
+in detail by a set of investigators. The dog, like all vertebrate
+animals, begins its existence as an egg; and this body is just as much
+an egg as that of a fowl, although, in the case of the dog, there is
+not the accumulation of nutritive material which bloats the egg of the
+hen into its enormous size. Since Huxley wrote, it has been shewn
+clearly that among the mammalian animals there has been a gradual
+reduction in the size of the egg. The ancestors of the mammals laid
+large eggs, like those of birds or reptiles; and there still exist two
+strange mammalian creatures, the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna of
+Australia, which lay large, reptilian-like eggs. The ancestors of most
+living mammalia acquired the habit of retaining the eggs within the
+body until they were hatched; and, as a result of this, certain
+structures which grow out from the embryo while it is still within the
+egg and become applied to the inner wall of the porous shell for the
+purpose of obtaining air, got their supply of oxygen, not from the
+outer air, but from the blood-vessels of the maternal tissues. When
+this connection (called the placenta) between embryo and mother
+through the egg-shell became more perfect, not only oxygen but
+food-material was obtained from the blood-vessels of the mother; and,
+in consequence, it became unnecessary for the eggs to be provided with
+a large supply of food-yolk. Among existing marsupial animals, which,
+on the whole, represent a lower type of mammalian structure than
+ordinary mammals, there is more food-yolk than in ordinary mammals,
+and less food-yolk than in the two egg-laying mammals. In the ordinary
+mammals, such as the rabbit, dog, monkey, and man, there is
+practically no yolk whatever deposited in the egg; the egg is of
+minute size, and the embryo obtains most of its food from the maternal
+blood.
+
+The small egg of the mammal divides into a number of cells, which form
+a hollow sphere; on the upper surface of this the development of
+organs begins with the formation of a depression which indicates the
+future middle line of the animal, and is, in fact, the beginning of
+the nervous system. Under this is formed a straight rod of gelatinous
+material, the foundation of the vertebral column, and the body of the
+embryo is gradually pinched off from the surface of the hollow sphere.
+After tracing the details of this process, Huxley proceeded as
+follows:
+
+     "The history of the development of any other vertebrate animal,
+     lizard, snake, frog or fish, tells the same story. There is
+     always, to begin with, an egg, having the same essential
+     structure as that of the dog; the yolk of that egg always
+     undergoes division, or segmentation, as it is often called; the
+     ultimate products of that segmentation constitute the building
+     materials for the body of the young animal; and this is built up
+     round a primitive groove, in the floor of which a notochord is
+     developed. Furthermore, there is a period in which the young of
+     all these animals resemble one another, not merely in outward
+     form, but in all essentials of structure, so closely, that the
+     differences between them are inconsiderable, while in their
+     subsequent course they diverge more and more widely from one
+     another. And it is a general law, that, the more closely any
+     animals resemble one another in adult structure, the longer and
+     the more intimately do their embryos resemble one another; so
+     that, for example, the embryos of a snake and of a lizard remain
+     like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a bird;
+     and the embryos of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for
+     a far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird; or of a
+     dog and an opossum; or even than those of a dog and a monkey."
+
+This general rule, that the longer the paths of embryonic development
+of two animals keep identical the more nearly the two animals are
+related, when Huxley wrote, was founded on a much smaller number of
+facts than now are known. Since 1860 an enormous bulk of embryological
+investigation has been published, and the total result has been to
+confirm Huxley's position in the fullest possible way. A certain
+number of exceptions have been found, but these exceptions are so
+obviously special adaptations to special circumstances that their
+existence only makes the general truth of the proposition more clear.
+The most common kind of exception occurs when two closely related
+animals live under very different conditions. For instance, many
+marine animals have close allies that in comparatively recent times
+have taken to live in fresh water. The conditions of life in fresh
+water are very different, especially for delicate creatures
+susceptible to rapid changes of temperature, or unable to withstand
+strong currents. Thus most of the allies of the fresh-water crayfish,
+which live in the sea, lay eggs from which there are soon hatched
+minute, almost transparent larvae, exceedingly unlike the adult. In the
+comparatively equable temperature of sea-water, and in the usual
+absence of strong currents, these small larvae, as Huxley shewed later
+in his volume on the _Crayfish_, live a free life, obtaining their own
+food, and by a series of slow transformations gradually acquire the
+adult form. In fresh water, however, the delicate larvae would be
+unable to live, and the mode of development is different. The series
+of slow transformations is condensed, and takes place almost entirely
+inside the egg-shell; so that, when hatching occurs, the young
+crayfish is exceedingly like the adult. Apart from such special cases,
+it is true that the study of development affords a clear test of
+closeness of structural affinity.
+
+Huxley then proceeds to discuss the development of man.
+
+     "Is he something apart? Does he originate in a totally different
+     way from dog, bird, frog, and fish, thus justifying those who
+     assert him to have no place in nature, and no real affinity with
+     the lower world of animal life? Or does he originate in a similar
+     germ, pass through the same slow and gradually progressive
+     modifications, depend on the same contrivances for protection and
+     nutrition, and finally enter the world by the help of the same
+     mechanism? The reply is not doubtful for a moment, and has not
+     been doubtful any time these thirty years. Without question, the
+     mode of origin, and the early stages of the development of man
+     are identical with those of animals immediately below him in the
+     scale; without doubt, in these respects, he is far nearer the
+     apes than the apes are to the dog."
+
+Then, on lines with which, by continuous repetition and expansion by
+authors subsequent to him, we have now become familiar, Huxley
+compared, stage by stage, the development of man with that of other
+animals, and shewed, first, its essential similarity, and then that in
+every case where it departed from the development of the dog it
+resembled more closely the development of the ape. He went on to
+review the anatomy of man:
+
+     "Thus, identical in the physical processes by which he
+     originates,--identical, in the early stages of his
+     formation--identical in the mode of his nutrition before and
+     after birth, with the animals which lie immediately below him in
+     the scale,--Man, if his adult and perfect structure be compared
+     with theirs exhibits, as might be expected, a marvellous likeness
+     of organisation. He resembles them as they resemble one
+     another--he differs from, them as they differ from one another.
+     And, though these differences cannot be weighed and measured,
+     their value may be readily estimated; the scale or standard of
+     judgment, touching that value, being afforded and expressed by
+     the system of classification of animals now current among
+     zooelogists."
+
+Having explained the general system of zooelogical classification, he
+tried to dispel preliminary prejudice by inducing his readers or
+bearers to take an outside view of themselves.
+
+     "Let us endeavour for a moment to disconnect our thinking selves
+     from the mask of humanity; let us imagine ourselves scientific
+     Saturnians, if you will, fairly acquainted with such animals as
+     now inhabit the earth, and employed in discussing the relations
+     they bear to a new and singular 'erect and featherless biped,'
+     which some enterprising traveller, overcoming the difficulties of
+     space and gravitation, has brought from that distant planet for
+     our inspection, well preserved, may be, in a cask of rum. We
+     should all, at once, agree upon placing him among the mammalian
+     vertebrates; and his lower jaw, his molars, and his brain, would
+     leave no room for doubting the systematic position of the new
+     genus among those mammals whose young are nourished during
+     gestation by means of a placenta, or what are called the
+     placental mammals.
+
+      "Further, the most superficial study would at once convince us
+     that, among the orders of placental mammals, neither the whales,
+     nor the hoofed creatures, nor the sloths and ant-eaters, nor the
+     carnivorous cats, dogs, and bears, still less the rodent rats and
+     rabbits, or the insectivorous moles and hedgehogs, or the bats,
+     could claim our _Homo_ as one of themselves.
+
+      "There would remain, then, but one order for comparison, that of
+     the apes (using that word in its broadest sense), and the
+     question for discussion would narrow itself to this--Is Man so
+     different from any of these apes that he must form an order by
+     himself? Or does he differ less from them than they differ from
+     one another,--and hence must take his place in the same order
+     with them?
+
+      "Being happily free from all real or imaginary personal interest
+     in the results of the enquiry thus set afoot, we should proceed
+     to weigh the arguments on one side and on the other, with as much
+     judicial calmness as if the question related to a new opossum.
+     We should endeavour to ascertain, without seeking either to
+     magnify or diminish them, all the characters by which our new
+     mammal differed from the apes; and if we found that these were of
+     less structural value than those which distinguish certain
+     members of the ape order from others universally admitted to be
+     of the same order, we should undoubtedly place the newly
+     discovered tellurian genus with them."
+
+In pursuit of this method, and taking the gorilla as the type for
+immediate comparison with man, he passed in review the various
+anatomical structures, shewing that in every case man did not differ
+more from the gorilla than that differed from other anthropoids. We
+shall take a few examples of his method and results, reminding our
+readers, however, that Huxley carried his comparisons into every
+important part of the anatomical structure.
+
+There is no part of the skeleton so characteristically human as the
+bones which form the pelvis, or bony girdle of the hips. The expanded
+haunch-bones form a basin-like structure which affords support to the
+soft internal viscera during the habitually upright position, and
+gives space for the attachment of the very large muscles which help
+man to assume and support that attitude. In the gorilla this region
+differs considerably from that in man. The haunch-bones are narrower
+and much shallower, so that they do not form so convenient a
+supporting basin; they have much less surface for the attachment of
+muscles. The gibbon, however, differs more vastly from the gorilla
+than that differs from man. The haunch-bones are flat and narrow, and
+totally devoid of any basin-like formation; the passage through the
+pelvis is long and narrow, and the ischia have outwardly curved
+prominences, which, in life, are coated by callosities on which the
+animal habitually rests, and which are coarse, corn-like patches of
+skin wholly absent in the gorilla, in the chimpanzee, in the orang,
+and in man.
+
+In the characters of the hands, the feet, and the brain, certain real
+or supposed structural distinctions between man and the apes had been
+relied upon.
+
+     "Man has been defined as the only animal possessed of two hands
+     terminating his fore-limbs, and of two feet terminating his
+     hind-limbs, while it has been said that all the apes possess four
+     hands; and he has been affirmed to differ fundamentally from all
+     the apes in the characters of his brain, which alone, it has been
+     strangely asserted and reasserted, exhibits the structures known
+     to anatomists as the posterior lobe, the posterior cornu of the
+     lateral ventricle, and the hippocampus minor.
+
+      "That the former proposition should have gained general
+     acceptance is not surprising--indeed, at first sight, appearances
+     are much in its favour; but, as for the second, one can only
+     admire the surpassing courage of its enunciator, seeing that it
+     is an innovation which is not only opposed to generally and
+     justly accepted doctrines, but which is directly negatived by the
+     testimony of all original enquirers who have specially
+     investigated the matter; and that it has neither been, nor can
+     be, supported by a single anatomical preparation. It would, in
+     fact, be unworthy of serious refutation except for the general
+     and natural belief that deliberate and reiterated assertions must
+     have some foundation."
+
+The last remarks referred, of course, to the statements of Owen, which
+had made a great impression at the time and the result of which still
+lingers in some of the worse-informed treatises attacking evolution.
+Huxley gave a lucid account of the general structure and arrangement
+of the brain in the vertebrate series, explaining the well-known fact
+that from fish up to man the general ground-plan of the brain is
+identical, but that there is a progressive increase in the complexity
+and in the size of some parts compared with others. Next, he showed
+that, so far from its being possible to erect any barrier in the
+structure of the brain between man and the apes, there exists among
+the mammals an almost complete series of gradations from brains a
+little higher than that of the rabbit to brains a little lower than
+that of man. He laid great stress on
+
+     "the remarkable circumstance that though, so far as our present
+     knowledge extends, there _is_ one structural break in the series
+     of forms of simian brains, this hiatus does not lie between man
+     and the man-like apes, but between the lower and the lowest
+     simians; or, in other words, between the old-and new-world apes
+     and monkeys, and the lemurs. Every lemur which has yet been
+     examined, in fact, has its cerebellum partially visible from
+     above, and its posterior lobe, with the contained posterior cornu
+     and hippocampus minor, more or less rudimentary. Every marmoset,
+     American monkey, old-world monkey, baboon, or man-like ape, on
+     the contrary, has its cerebellum entirely hidden, posteriorly, by
+     the cerebral lobes, and possesses a large posterior cornu, with a
+     well-developed hippocampus minor." ... "So far from the posterior
+     lobe, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor being
+     structures peculiar to, and characteristic of man, as they have
+     over and over again been asserted to be, even after the
+     publication of the clearest demonstration of the reverse, it is
+     precisely these structures which are the most marked cerebral
+     characters common to man with the apes. They are among the most
+     distinctly simian peculiarities which the human organism
+     exhibits." ... "Man differs from the chimpanzee or the orang, so
+     far as cerebral structure goes, less than these do from the
+     monkeys, and the difference between the brains of the chimpanzee
+     and of man is almost insignificant, when compared with that
+     between the chimpanzee brain and that of a lemur."
+
+Although Huxley found no structural differences between the brains of
+man and of anthropoid apes, he was careful to lay great stress on the
+important difference in size and weight. A full-grown gorilla is
+nearly twice as heavy as a European woman, and yet the heaviest known
+gorilla brain probably does not exceed twenty ounces in weight, while
+healthy adult human brains probably never weigh less than thirty-one
+or thirty-two ounces. This difference is not of systematic importance;
+for cranial capacities shew that relatively and absolutely there is a
+greater difference in brain-weight between the lowest and highest
+human beings than there is between the highest ape and the lowest
+human being.
+
+In dealing with the suggestion that man differs from the apes in being
+bimanous, while the apes are quadrumanous, Huxley first explained and
+discussed what the exact differences between hands and feet are. He
+shewed that in man the foot is absolutely distinguished from the hand
+by three structural points, although the two organs are similar in
+general ground-plan. These structural points are:
+
+1. The arrangement of the tarsal bones.
+
+2. The possession of a short flexor and short extensor muscle of the
+digits.
+
+3. The possession of a muscle named _peronaeus longus_.
+
+Then he described the foot of the gorilla, and shewed that although it
+was superficially hand-like, it possessed all the structural
+characters that distinguish a foot from a hand. Tracing the structure
+of the foot downwards through the series of anthropoids and monkeys,
+he established clearly that, while important differences existed in
+nearly every single creature, the differences between the gorilla and
+man were not greater than those between the gorilla and other
+anthropoids, and less than between the gorilla and lower monkeys.
+
+This wonderful series of lectures ranks very high among the important
+works of Huxley. It is true that a considerable proportion of the work
+was not absolutely original, but it had all been specially verified by
+him. It was a task undertaken with the greatest courage, and with a
+care equal to the courage; and it settled conclusively for all time
+the impossibility of making between man and the anthropoids any
+anatomical barriers greater than those which exist between the
+different although closely related members of any of the other family
+groups in the animal kingdom. The advance of knowledge has only added
+to the details of Huxley's argument; it has not made any
+reconstruction of it necessary. A writer on the same subject to-day
+would to all certainty make use of the same general methods. The chief
+differences, perhaps, that would be made are two: First, greater
+stress would be laid on the distinction, first made by Huxley himself,
+between intermediate and linear types. (See p. 87). To use the popular
+phrase, a great deal of water has passed under the bridges since the
+separation of man from the ape-like progenitors common to him and to
+the existing anthropoids. It has already been pointed out that the
+gradual extinction of lower races of man is widening the apparent gap
+between existing man and existing apes; and evidence accumulates that
+many still more primitive and more ape-like races of man than the
+lowest existing savages have disappeared from the surface of the
+earth. Moreover, we know that existing anthropoids are the degenerate
+and scattered remnants of what was once a much more widely spread and
+more important group. We have some reason for believing the contrary,
+and no reason for believing that the surviving anthropoids represent
+the most man-like apes that have lived.
+
+The second great point in which a modern writer would amend Huxley's
+statement of the case is more purely anatomical. One result of
+Darwin's work has been that anatomists attend much more closely to the
+slight variations of anatomical structure to be found among
+individuals of the same species. A comparison between an individual
+human body and the body of an individual gorilla is not now considered
+sufficient. The comparison must be made between the results of
+dissection of a very large number of men and of a very large number of
+gorillas. The anatomy of a type is not the anatomy of an individual;
+it is a kind of central point around which there oscillate the
+variations presented by the individuals belonging to the type. So far
+as this newer method has been applied, it has been found that the
+variations of the gorilla type frequently, in the case of individual
+organs, overlap the variations of the human type, and that the
+structure of man differs from the structure of any anthropoid type
+only in that the abstract central point of its variations is slightly
+different from the abstract central point of the variations presented
+by individual orangs, gorillas, and chimpanzees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SCIENCE AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION
+
+     Science-Teaching Fifty Years Ago--Huxley's Insistence on
+     Reform--Science Primers--Physiography--Elementary
+     Physiology--_The Crayfish_--Manuals of Anatomy--Modern
+     Microscopical Methods--Practical Work in Biological
+     Teaching--Invention of the Type System--Science in Medical
+     Education--Science and Culture.
+
+
+Less than half a century ago, there was practically no generally
+diffused knowledge of even the elements of science and practically no
+provision for teaching it. Medical students, in the course of their
+professional education, received some small instruction in botany,
+chemistry, and physiology; in the greater universities of England and
+the Continent there were not in all a dozen professorships of science
+apart from special branches of medicine; in the Scottish universities
+there were one or two dreamy chairs of "Natural and Civil History,"
+the occupiers of which were supposed to dispense instruction in half a
+dozen sciences. There was no scientific teaching at the public
+schools; there were practically no books available for beginners in
+science, and even the idea of guides to laboratory work had not been
+invented. Huxley, addressing in 1854 a particularly select audience in
+St. Martin's Hall, London, spoke to them of the
+
+     "utter ignorance as to the simplest laws of their own animal
+     life, which prevails among even the most highly educated persons
+     in this country." "I am addressing," he said, "I imagine, an
+     audience of cultivated persons; and yet I dare venture to assert
+     that, with the exception of those of my hearers who may chance to
+     have received a medical education, there is not one who could
+     tell me what is the meaning and use of an act which he performs a
+     score of times every minute, and whose suspension would involve
+     his immediate death:--I mean the act of breathing--or who could
+     state in precise terms why it is that a confined atmosphere is
+     injurious to health."
+
+The power to express the precise meaning of even a common
+physiological act is probably not yet possessed by all educated
+people: but no one can doubt that there is now a very generally
+diffused knowledge of and interest in the ordinary processes of living
+bodies. It is almost impossible for any of us to escape some amount of
+scientific education at school, at college, from lectures, or from
+books. Certainly those of us who have a natural inclination towards
+knowledge of that kind can hardly fail to have the opportunity of
+acquiring it. Every library abounds in elementary and advanced
+scientific books; every university and many schools have their
+lectures and laboratories for science, and there is scientific
+teaching involved in every educational curriculum. To attempt a
+complete account of how this radical change in the attitude of the
+world to science has come about would be to attempt to write the
+history of European civilisation in the last half-century. A thousand
+causes have been contributory; but among these causes two have been of
+extraordinary importance--an idea and a man. The idea is the
+conception of organic evolution, and the man was Huxley. The idea of
+evolution clothed the dead bones of anatomy with a fair and living
+flesh, and the new body left the dusty corners of museums to pervade
+the world, arousing the attention and interest of all. A large part of
+the prodigious mental activities of Huxley was devoted to compelling
+the world to take an interest in biological science. Had his life-work
+been no more than this side of it, it would have been of commanding
+importance. A mere enumeration of the modes in which he assisted in
+arousing attention to science among all classes would fill many pages.
+Almost before he was settled in London, in the lecture from which we
+quoted at the beginning of this chapter he urged the "educational
+value of the natural history sciences." In 1869 in a speech in
+Liverpool; in 1870 at University College, London; in 1874 as his
+Rectorial address in the University of Aberdeen; in 1876 at the
+opening ceremonial of the Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore; in
+the same year at South Kensington; in 1877 in a separate essay; in
+1881 in an address to the International Medical Congress: at these
+different times and addressing different and important audiences he
+continued to urge the absolute necessity of a knowledge of nature. A
+well-known and eloquent passage from an address on "a liberal
+education" delivered to working men in 1868 contains the gist of his
+reiterated argument:
+
+     "Suppose it were perfectly certain that the life and fortune of
+     every one of us would, one day or other, depend on his winning or
+     losing a game of chess, don't you think that we should all
+     consider it to be a primary duty to learn at least the names and
+     the moves of the pieces; to have a notion of a gambit, and a keen
+     eye for all the means of giving and getting out of check? Do you
+     not think that we should look with a disapprobation amounting to
+     scorn upon the father who allowed his son, or the state which
+     allowed its members, to grow up without knowing a pawn from a
+     knight?
+
+     Yet it is a very plain and elementary truth, that the life, the
+     fortune, and the happiness of every one of us, and more or less
+     of those who are connected with us, do depend upon our knowing
+     something of the rules of a game infinitely more difficult and
+     complicated than chess. It is a game which has been played for
+     untold ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two
+     players in a game of his or her own. The chess-board is the
+     world, the pieces are the phenomena of the universe, the rules of
+     the game are what we call the laws of nature. The player on the
+     other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always
+     fair, just, and patient. But also we know, to our cost, that he
+     never overlooks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for
+     ignorance. To the man who plays well, the highest stakes are
+     paid, with that sort of overflowing generosity with which the
+     strong shows delight in strength, and one who plays ill is
+     checkmated--without haste, but without remorse."
+
+Huxley wished that this scientific education should begin at an early
+period of every child's training. In 1869 he wrote:
+
+     "Let every child be instructed in those general views of the
+     phaenomena of nature for which we have no exact English name. The
+     nearest approximation to a name for what I mean which we possess
+     is physical geography; the Germans have a better, 'Erdkunde'
+     (earth knowledge or geology in its etymological sense), that is
+     to say, a general knowledge of the earth, and what is on it and
+     in it and about it. If anyone who has experience of the ways of
+     young children will call to mind their questions, he will find
+     that so far as they can be put in any scientific category, they
+     will come under this head of 'Erdkunde.' The child asks, 'What is
+     the moon, and why does it shine?' 'What is this water, and where
+     does it run?' 'What is the wind?' 'What makes these waves in the
+     sea?' 'Where does this animal live, and what is the use of that
+     plant?' And if not snubbed and stunted by being told not to ask
+     foolish questions, there is no limit to the intellectual craving
+     of a young child; nor any bounds to the slow but solid accretion
+     of knowledge and development of the thinking faculty in this way.
+     To all such questions, answers which are necessarily incomplete,
+     though true as far as they go, may be given by any teacher whose
+     ideas represent real knowledge and not mere book learning: and a
+     panoramic view of nature, accompanied by a strong infusion of the
+     scientific habit of mind, may thus be placed within the reach of
+     every child of nine or ten."
+
+In 1880 Huxley, in association with Professor Roscoe, the chemist, and
+Professor Balfour Stewart, the physicist, took a great practical step
+toward securing the widest possible extension of elementary knowledge
+in science. They became general editors, for the English publishing
+house of Macmillan, of a series of "Science Primers." These were
+written in simple language, suitable for those with no preliminary
+knowledge of science, but were the work of the chief authorities in
+the leading branches of science. They were published at what was then
+the phenomenally cheap price of a shilling, and they sold in almost
+incredible numbers. Huxley himself wrote the introductory volume to
+this great series of tracts, taking for his subject the simplest and
+most natural phenomena of the world and the simplest chains of cause
+and effect that can be observed around us. The keynote of the little
+book was that knowledge of nature could be gained only by observation
+and experiment, and that for these the ordinary things in the world
+around us provided ample material. A few years later he wrote a more
+advanced volume on the same subject. He had now found an English name
+for the German _Erdkunde_, and his book on _Physiography_ was simply
+an account of the leading things and forces of nature. A traveller
+set down in a foreign land will at once get into difficulties unless
+he has provided himself with a guide to the geography, the manners and
+customs, and the regulations of the country in which he finds himself.
+Huxley's aim was to provide a similar guide to nature; an outline of
+elementary knowledge of the world into which we all come as strangers.
+He wrote of force and energy, of the forms of water, of heat and cold,
+of the atmosphere, of winds and tides and weather, and of the main
+features of the lives of plants and animals. There was nothing new in
+what he wrote; he simply took from the chief sciences their leading
+principles and elementary facts, and set them forth in plain and
+simple language so that all could read and understand. The novelty was
+that an attempt should be made to bring these facts within the reach
+of all. The idea proved extremely infectious; in Europe and America,
+in many languages and by many authors, Huxley's main lines were
+followed, with the result that a new branch of education, and almost
+of science, was created.
+
+The body of man and the processes of life, in the earlier part of the
+century, were almost as unknown to most people as were the structure of
+the earth and the great processes of nature. What was known of human
+anatomy and physiology was contained in ponderous treatises, written in
+difficult and technical language suitable only for students of medicine
+and doctors. It was thought to be not only unnecessary but slightly
+coarse for those not in the profession to know anything of the viscera
+of digestion, circulation, and so forth. Huxley laid low this great
+superstition by his _Elementary Lessons in Physiology_, a little volume
+first published in 1866, which ran through many editions. In it he wrote
+primarily for teachers and learners in boys' and girls' schools, and
+selected from the great bulk of knowledge and opinion called human
+physiology only the important and well-established truths. So successful
+was he in his selection that, notwithstanding the immense increase in
+knowledge since he wrote, the book still remains an adequate and useful
+elementary treatise, and by this time must have given their main
+knowledge of the human body to hundreds and thousands of readers who
+otherwise would have remained ignorant.
+
+The books of which we have been writing were addressed to the general
+public, but, in addition, Huxley wrote several, of which three are
+specially important, for those students who devote themselves
+specially to anatomy. _The Crayfish_, his famous volume in the
+International Scientific Series, has been called by Professor Howes,
+the assistant and successor of Huxley at the Royal College of Science,
+"probably the best biological treatise ever written." Many naturalists
+have written elaborate monographs on single animals: Lyonet worked for
+years on the willow caterpillar, Strauss Durckheim devoted an even
+minuter attention to the common cockchafer, and the great Bojanus
+investigated almost every fibre in the structure of the tortoise. The
+volumes produced by these anatomists were valuable and memorable, and
+occupy an honoured place in the library of science, but Huxley's aim
+was wider and greater. He showed how careful study of one of the
+commonest and most insignificant of animals leads, step by step, from
+every-day knowledge to the widest generalisations and the most
+difficult problems of zooelogy. He made study of a single creature an
+introduction to a whole science, and taught students to regard any
+form of life not merely as a highly complicated and deeply interesting
+anatomical study, but as a creature that is only one out of an
+innumerable host of living things, every fibre in its body, every
+rhythm in its functions proclaiming the degree and nature of its
+relationship to other animals. R. Louis Stevenson, writing of his
+native town, tried to give "a vision of Edinburgh, not as you see her,
+in the midst of a little neighbourhood, but as a boss upon the round
+world, with all Europe and the deep sea for her surroundings. For
+every place is a centre to the earth, whence highways radiate, or
+ships set sail for foreign ports; the limit of a parish is not more
+imaginary than the frontier of an empire." It is this wider sweep,
+this attempt to see and to teach not merely the facts about things but
+the relations of these facts to the similar facts in other things,
+that makes the difference between the new knowledge and the old. The
+questions to be asked and answered are not merely, What are the
+structures in this animal? but, How and why do they come to be what
+they are? Huxley was a ruthless enemy of the books and teachers which
+or who made the mere acquisition of details of knowledge their chief
+object.
+
+     "I remember," he wrote, "in my youth there were detestable books
+     which ought to have been burned by the hands of the common
+     hangman, for they contained questions and answers to be learned
+     by heart, of this sort, 'What is a horse? The horse is termed
+     _Equus caballus_; belongs to the class Mammalia; order,
+     Pachydermata; family, Solidungula.' Was any human being the wiser
+     for learning that magic formula? Was he not more foolish inasmuch
+     as he was deluded into taking words for knowledge?"
+
+Huxley himself admitted his difficulty in remembering apparently
+meaningless facts, and occasionally aided his memory by inventing for
+them a humorous significance. Professor Howes relates a story of this
+kind. While examining the papers of candidates for some examination,
+Huxley came across one in which the mitral or bicuspid valve of the
+heart was erroneously described as being placed in the right cavity.
+"Poor little beggar," said Huxley; "I never could get them myself
+until I reflected that a bishop could never be in the right." This
+insistence on the uselessness of formal knowledge applied only to
+those who were being taught or who were learning from books or
+lectures. Of the value and discipline of knowledge of facts gained at
+first hand from objects themselves either in original investigation or
+with the aid of books, Huxley had the highest possible opinion. By
+such a method of work alone he believed it possible to distinguish
+what we believe on authority from what we have convinced ourselves to
+be true, and, as we shall see later, he regarded it as the most
+important duty of a man to have acquired the habit of classifying the
+mass of ideas in his brain into those which he knew and those which he
+thought to be true from having read or heard or imagined them.
+
+The two other of the three great treatises for anatomical students are
+the _Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, published in 1871,
+and the _Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_, published in
+1877. Of these two volumes it is sufficient to say that they formed
+the chief introduction to the study of animal zooelogy for many years,
+and that a large number of the best-known zooelogists of the end of
+this century received from them their first instruction in the
+science. As text-books they have been superseded lately by larger
+volumes in which there is found more space for some of the recent
+advances in knowledge, especially comparative embryology, and the more
+intricate knowledge of the structure of the soft parts of marine
+invertebrates made possible by the newer and more successful methods
+of preserving delicate tissues. Just before Huxley ceased his regular
+work as a teacher at the Royal College of Science, there arrived a
+series of marine embryos, beautifully preserved and prepared for
+microscopic work by the zooelogists at the International Zooelogical
+Station at Naples. Huxley is reported to have exclaimed at their
+beauty, and to have said: "You young men cannot realise your
+advantages; you have brought to you for study at your leisure in
+London, creatures that I had to lash my microscope to the mast to get
+a glimpse of." Huxley's books were written for students with fewer
+advantages, and, naturally, laid more stress on the harder skeletal
+parts and such structures as could be more easily preserved; but with
+this inevitable limitation they still serve as luminous and
+comprehensive guides to the subjects of which they treat. There is no
+doubt but that if he had been a younger man when the new technical
+methods made their appearance, he would have adopted them and their
+results in his volumes. One of the first great pieces of work which
+utilised methods more like those now used in all laboratories than
+those employed during the greater part of Huxley's life as a teacher
+was the classical investigation by Van Beneden into the changes in the
+egg of Ascaris which accompany the process of fertilisation. When
+Huxley read the memoir he exclaimed, "All this by the use of glacial
+acetic acid--is it possible!" At once, Professor Howes relates, he
+repeated the whole investigation himself, and, when satisfied,
+declared that the "history of the histological investigation of the
+future would be the history of its methods." Not only have the
+chemical substances used in preparing tissues for examination greatly
+increased since Huxley's time as an active worker, but a very
+important method of investigation has come into general use. In
+Huxley's time tissues or animals too large or too opaque to be
+examined microscopically as whole structures were either teased by
+needles or were cut with a razor by hand into comparatively thick
+slices. The process of cutting, however practised the operator, was
+tedious and uncertain, and it was almost impossible to cut a piece of
+tissue into a series of thin slices without losing or destroying
+considerable portions. Microtomes, with various accessory mechanical
+appliances, have now been invented, and by means of these not only are
+slices of great tenuity made with ease, but there is little difficulty
+in cutting the most delicate organism into a ribbon of consecutive
+slices. Such new methods have made almost a revolution in the study of
+zooelogy, particularly of the lower forms of life and of the embryonic
+stages of higher animals, and books written before these methods
+became common have naturally been superseded.
+
+Huxley did far more for the teaching of science than the preparation
+of books, however useful these were. He was the practical inventor of
+the laboratory system of teaching zooelogical science, and all over the
+world the methods invented by him have been adopted in university
+laboratories and technical schools. He had always declared that since
+zooelogy was a physical science, the method of studying it must needs
+be analogous to that which is followed in other physical sciences. If
+a man wishes to be a chemist, it is necessary not only that he should
+read chemical books and attend chemical lectures, but that he should
+actually perform the fundamental experiments in the laboratory for
+himself, and thus learn exactly what the words which he reads in his
+books and hears from his teachers, mean. "If you want a man to be a
+tea-merchant, you don't tell him to read books about China or about
+tea, but you put him into a tea-merchant's office where he has the
+handling, the smelling, and the tasting of tea. Without the sort of
+knowledge which can be gained only in this practical way, his exploits
+as a tea-merchant will soon come to a bankrupt termination." The great
+and obvious difficulty in the practical teaching of biology appeared
+to be the immense number of different kinds of animals and plants in
+existence. A human life would not suffice for the examination of a
+hundredth part of these. Huxley met the difficulty by the "type"
+system.
+
+     "There are certainly more than 100,000 species of insects, and
+     yet anyone who knows one insect, if a properly chosen one, will
+     be able to have a fair conception of the structure of the whole.
+     I do not mean to say he will know that structure thoroughly, or
+     as well as is desirable that he should know it; but he will have
+     enough real knowledge to enable him to understand what he reads,
+     to have genuine images in his mind of these structures which
+     become so variously modified in all the forms of insects he has
+     not seen. In fact, there are such things as types of form among
+     animals and vegetables, and for the purpose of getting a definite
+     knowledge of what constitutes the leading modifications of animal
+     and plant life, it is not needful to examine more than a
+     comparatively small number of animals and plants."
+
+The type system in itself was not absolutely new. Rolleston, the
+Linacre professor at Oxford, in his _Forms of Animal Life_ had
+devised the method of teaching comparative anatomy by the study of a
+graded series of animals. But his method depended on the existence of
+a series of dissections and preparations made by a skilled craftsman;
+the tradition of teaching by authority instead of by investigation was
+maintained, although the authority of books and lectures was aided by
+museum specimens in glass bottles, the actual basis of the book being
+a series of dissections prepared by Mr. Charles Robertson, Rolleston's
+laboratory assistant, for the great International Exhibition of 1861.
+The authorities of Huxley's students were to be found in nature
+itself. The green scum from the nearest gutter, a handful of weed from
+a pond, a bean-plant, some fresh-water mud, a frog, and a pigeon were
+the ultimate authorities of his course. His students were taught how
+to observe them, and how to draw and record their observations.
+However familiar the objects, each student had to verify every fact
+afresh for himself. The business of the teacher was explanation of the
+methods of verification, insistence on the accomplishment of
+verification. It was a training in the immemorial attitude of the
+scientific mind, codified by Huxley and made an integral part in
+national education.
+
+As a matter of fact it was comparatively late in his life as a teacher
+that Huxley had complete opportunity for putting into practice his
+scheme for the laboratory teaching of biology. In 1854 there was no
+laboratory attached to the Natural History Department of the School of
+Mines. Lectures alone were given, and the only opportunity the student
+had of any practical acquaintance with the facts was in a short
+interview with the professor at the lecture table after the lecture.
+This condition continued practically to 1872. But a few years before
+that Huxley and his colleagues got up a kind of pronunciamento
+deploring the existing state of affairs. In his evidence before the
+Royal Commission of 1870 Huxley said: "There is a complete want in the
+School of Mines, as it now exists, of any means of teaching several of
+the subjects practically. For example, I am set there to teach natural
+history without a biological laboratory and without the means of
+shewing a single dissection." Against strong internal opposition and
+at considerable pecuniary loss Huxley and some of his colleagues
+succeeded, in 1872, in getting the School of Mines transferred to
+South Kensington, where it became the Royal College of Science. For
+the first course of instruction given in the new buildings, Huxley
+obtained the aid of Prof. M. Foster, Prof. Rutherford, and Prof. Ray
+Lankester. The laboratory course originated by Huxley and shaped by
+him with these three distinguished assistants became the model of the
+regular courses given subsequently, and, with various slight
+modifications, has since been adopted almost universally. Later on,
+Huxley described it as follows:
+
+     "I lecture to a class of students daily for about four months and
+     a half, and my class have, of course, their text-books; but the
+     essential part of the whole teaching, and that which I regard as
+     really the most important part of it, is a laboratory for
+     practical work, which is simply a room with all the appliances
+     needed for ordinary dissection. We have tables properly arranged
+     in regard to light, microscopes and dissecting instruments, and
+     we work through the structure of a certain number of plants and
+     animals. As, for example, among the plants we take the
+     yeast-plant, a Protococcus, a common mould, a Chara, a fern, and
+     some flowering plant; among animals we examine such things as an
+     Amoeba, a Vorticella, and a fresh-water polyp. We dissect a
+     starfish, an earthworm, a snail, a squid, and a fresh-water
+     mussel. We examine a lobster and a crayfish, and a black beetle.
+     We go on to a common skate, a codfish, a frog, a tortoise, a
+     pigeon, and a rabbit, and that takes us about all the time we
+     have to give. The purpose of this course is not to make skilled
+     dissectors, but to give every student a clear and definite
+     conception, by means of sense images, of the characteristic
+     structure of each of the leading modifications of the animal
+     kingdom; and that is perfectly possible by going no further than
+     the length of that list of forms which I have enumerated. If a
+     man knows the structure of the animals I have mentioned, he has a
+     clear and exact, however limited apprehension of the essential
+     features of the organization of all those great divisions of the
+     animal and vegetable kingdoms to which the forms I have mentioned
+     severally belong. And it then becomes possible to him to read
+     with profit; because every time he meets with the name of a
+     structure, he has a definite image in his mind of what the name
+     means in the particular creature he is reading about, and
+     therefore the reading is not mere reading. It is not mere
+     repetition of words; but every term employed in the description,
+     we will say of a horse, or of an elephant, will call up the image
+     of the things he had seen in the rabbit, and he is able to form a
+     distinct conception of that which he has not seen, as a
+     modification of that which he has seen."
+
+Huxley himself was originally a medical man; all through his life he
+was chiefly interested in the biological sciences which underlie a
+scientific practice of medicine, and as teacher and examiner he had
+much to do with the shaping of medical education in London. Acting in
+various public capacities, as a member of commissions dealing with
+medical education, or as a witness before them, in magazine articles
+and in public speeches he made many contributions to the problems to
+be faced in medical education. Some of these related to the conditions
+peculiar to medical training in London. In the greatest city of the
+world there was during Huxley's life and there is still nothing
+comparable with the great universities of Europe and America, of
+Scotland and Ireland. Some dozen hospitals, supported partly by
+endowments, partly by charities, attempt each to maintain a complete,
+independent medical school. As the requirements of medical education
+in staff, laboratories, and general equipment has advanced, these
+hospitals have made heroic efforts to advance with them.
+Notwithstanding the zeal and public spirit of the staff and managers
+of the hospitals, this want of system has naturally resulted in a
+multiplication of inefficient institutions and a number of makeshift
+arrangements. Huxley repeatedly urged the concentration of all this
+diffuse effort into a few centres, but this inevitable reform has not
+yet become possible.
+
+A second important consideration, and one that has a much wider
+application, relates to the kind of person by whom the scientific
+sides of medical teaching should be given. Primitively, all the
+instruction to medical students was given by those actually engaged in
+the practice of medicine. Huxley was strongly of the opinion that the
+teachers of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and so forth, should be
+specialists devoted to these subjects for life, and not merely
+surgeons and physicians who engaged in teaching until their practice
+grew sufficiently to monopolise their attention.
+
+     "I get every year," he said, "the elaborate reports of Henle and
+     Meissner--volumes of I suppose 400 pages altogether--and they
+     consist merely of abstracts of the memoirs and works which have
+     been written on Anatomy and Physiology--only abstracts of them.
+     How is a man to keep up his acquaintance with all that is doing
+     in the physiological world--in a world advancing with enormous
+     strides every day and every hour--if he has to be distracted with
+     the cares of practice?"
+
+There would always be found men, he declared, who would make the
+choice between the wealth which may come by successful practice and a
+modest competency, when that modest competency was to be combined with
+a scientific career and the means of advancing knowledge. It was to
+those who made the latter choice that he would entrust the teaching of
+the sciences underlying medicine; partly because from the mere
+mechanical reason of time these men would be better able to keep pace
+with the most recent advances in knowledge, and partly because their
+teaching would be stimulated by their own work in advancing knowledge.
+In this great matter the world is rapidly advancing towards the
+standard of Huxley; as each new appointment is made it becomes more
+and more probable that the man chosen will be a teacher and
+investigator rather than a practitioner.
+
+In another general question of the politics of medical education
+Huxley took a strong line, and the tendency of change is toward his
+view. One of the first results of the awakening of medical education
+in the middle of this century was a tendency to throw an almost
+intolerable burden of new subjects upon the medical student. In the
+revolt from the old apprenticeship system, in which the student, from
+the very first, gave his chief attention to practice, and was left
+almost to himself to pick up a scanty knowledge of the principles and
+theories underlying his profession, the pendulum swung too far the
+other way, and there was almost no branch of the biological and
+physical sciences in which he was not expected to go through a severe
+training. On the old system the greater part of his time was spent in
+the wards of the hospital; on the new system it was only at an
+advanced stage of his career that he entered the wards at all, a
+great part of his time and energy being spent in the purely scientific
+teaching of the medical college. Huxley, although he had largely aided
+in the overthrow of the happy-go-lucky older system, of which Mr. Bob
+Sawyer was no exaggerated type, was equally severe on the reckless
+extensions of the new system. "If I were a despot," he said, "I would
+cut down the theoretical branches to a very considerable extent." He
+would discard comparative anatomy and botany, materia medica, and
+chemistry and physics, except as applied to physiology, from the
+medical student's course. At first sight, this seems a hard saying,
+but it is to be remembered that at that time the normal curriculum of
+a medical student lasted only four years, a space of time barely
+sufficient for the necessary minimum of purely medical and surgical
+work. Huxley's view was that chemistry and physics, botany and
+zooelogy, should be part of the general education, not of the special
+medical education; he wished students to spend one or two years after
+their ordinary career at school in work on these elementary scientific
+subjects, and then to begin their medical course free from the burden
+of extra-professional subjects. With certain limits due to the
+different local conditions in different teaching centres Huxley's
+system is being adopted. In most cases the authorities in medical
+education are unable to leave the whole responsibility of the
+elementary education in science to the schools from which medical
+students come, as the conditions under which scientific subjects are
+still taught in schools leave much to be desired. The average length
+of the medical curriculum has been extended and the elementary
+scientific subjects are taken first, sometimes at the medical
+colleges, sometimes in the scientific departments of universities.
+The interesting general point of view is that Huxley, although himself
+a biologist and teacher of biology, took too broad an outlook on the
+general policy of education to insist upon his own subject to the
+detriment of the precise practical objects of the training of medical
+students.
+
+In the days of Huxley's greatest activity, while by the natural force
+of events and by his special efforts science was becoming more and
+more recognised as a necessary and important branch of general
+education, the cry was raised against it that scientific education was
+not capable of giving what is called culture. A scientific man was
+regarded as a mere scientific specialist, and science was considered
+to have no place in, and in fact to be an enemy of, "liberal
+education." In 1880, at Birmingham, Huxley attacked this view in a
+speech delivered at the opening of the Mason College. Sir Josiah
+Mason, the benevolent founder of that great institution, had made it
+one of the conditions of the foundation that the College should make
+no provision for "mere literary instruction and education." This gave
+Huxley a text for raising the whole question of the relation of
+science to culture. He declared that he held very strongly by two
+convictions.
+
+     "The first is, that neither the discipline nor the subject matter
+     of classical education is of such direct value to the student of
+     physical science as to justify the expenditure of valuable time
+     on either; and the second is, that for the purpose of attaining
+     real culture, an exclusively scientific education is at least as
+     effectual as an exclusively literary education."
+
+He quoted from Matthew Arnold, then in the zenith of his fame as a
+chief apostle of culture, and shewed that there were two propositions
+involved in the "literary" view of culture. The first was that a
+"criticism of life" was the essence of culture; the second, that
+literature contained the materials which sufficed for the construction
+of such a criticism. With the first proposition he had no dispute,
+taking the view that culture was something quite different from
+learning or technical skill. "It implies the possession of an ideal,
+and the habit of critically estimating the value of things by
+comparison with a theoretic standard. Perfect culture should supply a
+complete theory of life, based upon a clear knowledge alike of its
+possibilities and its limitations." Against the second proposition he
+urged in the first place that it was self-evident that after having
+learned all that Greek, Roman, and Eastern antiquity have thought and
+said, and all that modern literature has to tell us, it was still
+necessary to have a deeper foundation for criticism of life. An
+acquaintance with what physical science had done, particularly in
+later years, was as necessary to criticism of life as any of the
+literary materials. Next, following the biological habit of examining
+anything by studying its development, he shewed how the connection
+between "culture" and study of classical literature had come into
+existence. For many centuries Latin grammar, with logic and rhetoric,
+studied through Latin, were the fundamentals of education. A liberal
+education was possible only through study of the language in which all
+or nearly all the materials for it were written. With the changes
+produced by the Renascence there came a battle between Latin and
+Greek, and Greek came to be part of a liberal education. Later on,
+there came a similar battle between the classical and modern
+languages, and now the modern languages have included and absorbed
+all the necessary material for knowledge and criticism. Those who
+cling to classics as the basis of culture and education are clinging
+to old weapons long after these have ceased to be effective, simply
+because at one time in history only these weapons were available in
+the struggle for knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GENERAL PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
+
+     Establishment of Compulsory Education in England--The Religious
+     Controversy--Huxley Advocates the Bible without Theology--His
+     Compromise on the "Cowper-Temple" Clause--Influence of the New
+     Criticism--Science and Art Instruction--Training of
+     Teachers--University Education--The Baltimore Address--Technical
+     Education--So-called "Applied Science"--National Systems of
+     Education as "Capacity-Catchers."
+
+
+In the last chapter, the special relation of Huxley to scientific
+education was described, and, naturally enough, it is in special
+connection with scientific education that his influence is best known.
+But he was keenly interested in all the larger problems of general,
+university, and technical education, and he played a great part in
+shaping the lines upon which these problems have been solved in
+England.
+
+In the years immediately before 1870, all England was wrestling with
+the great problem of elementary education, in the arrangements for
+which it was far behind not only the leading European countries but
+even its sister-kingdom, Scotland. In 1870 there came into operation
+an Act of Parliament for the regulation of elementary education under
+the supervision of locally elected school boards. Hitherto elementary
+education had been controlled by the Established Church, and by other
+denominational religious bodies, and the quality and quantity of the
+instruction provided, for financial and various other reasons, had
+been extremely unsatisfactory. But a long and furious battle had raged
+around the religious question; elementary education was now to be
+national, compulsory, and universal; where religious bodies maintained
+schools that complied with certain fixed standards of efficiency,
+attendance of children at these was to be regarded as satisfactory,
+and in addition to the ordinary subjects, such theological and
+religious teaching as the supporting bodies chose might be added. But
+in the schools for all and sundry, under the control of boards
+representing the whole population, and deriving that part of their
+income represented by the subscriptions of the religious bodies in the
+denominational schools from public rates, levied on the whole
+population, was any definite creed to be inculcated? The extreme
+Church party, perhaps naturally, held that the creed established by
+law in the land should be taught in these new schools; extreme
+supporters of other creeds, and a majority of ordinary people of all
+creeds or of no creeds, objected to a new establishment of a sectarian
+doctrine, even though that sectarian doctrine were the doctrine of the
+national religion. The final result of the dispute as codified in the
+Act of Parliament was what was known as the Cowper-Temple Clause: "No
+religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any
+particular denomination shall be taught in the school." The actual
+value of any clause, however it may appear to be a fair compromise,
+depends on the spirit in which it is practically interpreted, and no
+sooner had the Act been passed than the battle was renewed again over
+the interpretation of the clause. Many of the Church controversialists
+held that the liberal or more advanced party intended to exclude all
+reference to the Bible or to religion, on the plea that some sect
+could be found to which the most attenuated expression of religion
+would appear to be against the plain meaning of the clause, and
+Huxley, who had been in the forefront of the controversy, and who was
+a candidate for the first London School Board, was decried as an enemy
+of the Bible and of all religion and morality because he had expressed
+what he called a secular interpretation of the clause. In an article
+published in the _Contemporary Review_ immediately after the election,
+Huxley explained precisely what he took the clause to mean, and,
+afterwards, at all events during the existence of the Board to which
+he was elected, succeeded in carrying out his intentions in the main.
+
+His first general point was to deprecate the action of those
+extremists of both sides who tried to make the education of children a
+mere battle-ground of religious dogmas. He then laid down what he
+conceived to be the lines of most general utility upon which, under
+the provisions of the Act, the education of children should be
+conducted. In the foreground he placed physical training and drill, as
+of supreme importance to young children, especially in the case of the
+poor children of large towns.
+
+     "All the conditions of the lives of such are unfavourable to
+     their physical well-being. They are badly lodged, badly housed,
+     badly fed, and live from one year's end to another in bad air,
+     without a chance of a change. They have no play-grounds; they
+     amuse themselves with marbles and chuck-farthing, instead of
+     cricket and hare-and-hounds; and if it were not for the
+     wonderful instinct which leads all poor children of tender years
+     to throw themselves under the feet of cab-horses whenever they
+     can, I know not how they would learn to use their limbs with
+     agility."
+
+This, humanitarianism as it was, was not the mere emotional sentiment
+of the typical humanitarian; he went on to give the soundest practical
+reasons for physical development.
+
+     "Whatever doubts people may entertain about the efficacy of
+     natural selection, there can be none about artificial selection;
+     and the breeder who should attempt to make, or keep up, a fine
+     stock of pigs, or sheep, under the conditions to which the
+     children of the poor are exposed, would be the laughing stock
+     even of the bucolic mind. Parliament has already done something
+     in this direction by declining to be an accomplice in the
+     asphyxiation of school children. It refuses to make any grant to
+     a school in which the cubical contents of the school-room are
+     inadequate to allow of proper respiration."
+
+He wished to see physical training put on the same system.
+
+The second great point upon which he laid stress was the necessity of
+providing training in domestic economy, cookery, and other household
+accomplishments, for poor girls. These demands of Huxley seem simple
+and obvious, now that by his efforts and the efforts of others they
+have been accomplished, but in England, even thirty years ago, it
+required more than an ordinary prevision and boldness to insist upon
+them.
+
+Huxley passed next to the burning question of the time. He treated it
+in the broadest and least sectarian spirit.
+
+     "The boys and girls for whose education the School Boards have to
+     provide, have not merely to discharge domestic duties, but each
+     of them is a member of a social and political organisation of
+     great complexity, and has, in future life, to fit himself into
+     that organisation, or be crushed by it. To this end it is surely
+     needful, not only that they should be made acquainted with the
+     elementary laws of conduct, but that their affections should be
+     trained, so as to love with all their hearts that conduct which
+     tends to the attainment of the highest good for themselves and
+     their fellow-men, and to hate with all their hearts that opposite
+     course of action which is fraught with evil."
+
+He then proceeded to point out the distinction between the affection
+which is called religion, and the science which is called theology,
+and, without entering into the question as to whether the latter were
+or were not a true science, he insisted on the danger of a confusion
+between the two.
+
+     "We are divided into two parties--the advocates of so-called
+     'religious' teaching on the one hand, and those of so-called
+     'secular' teaching on the other. And both parties seem to me to
+     be not only hopelessly wrong, but in such a position that if
+     either succeeded completely, it would discover, before many years
+     were over, that it had made a great mistake and done serious evil
+     to the cause of education. For, leaving aside the more far-seeing
+     minority on either side, what the religious party is crying for
+     is mere theology, under the name of religion; while the
+     secularists have unwisely and wrongfully admitted the assumption
+     of their opponents, and demand the abolition of all religious
+     teaching, when they only want to be free of theology--burning
+     your ship to get rid of the cockroaches." ... "If I were
+     compelled to choose for one of my own children, between a school
+     in which real religious instruction is given, and one without it,
+     I should prefer the former, even though the child might have to
+     take a good deal of theology with it. Nine-tenths of a dose of
+     bark is mere half-rotten wood; but one swallows it for the sake
+     of the particles of quinine, the beneficial effect of which may
+     be weakened, but is not destroyed, by the wooden dilution, unless
+     in the case of a few exceptionally tender stomachs. Hence, when
+     the great mass of the English people declare that they want to
+     have the children in the elementary schools taught the Bible, and
+     when it is plain from the terms of the Act, the debates in and
+     out of Parliament, and especially the emphatic declarations of
+     the Vice-President of the Council that it was intended that such
+     Bible-teaching should be permitted, unless good cause for
+     prohibiting it could be shewn, I do not see what reason there is
+     for opposing that wish."
+
+He went on to explain that, although he had always been strongly in
+favour of secular education, by that term he meant only education
+without theology, and he praised the English Bible in language as
+noble as has ever been applied to it by the most ardent of
+theologians.
+
+     "The Pagan moralists lack life and colour, and even the noble
+     Stoic, Marcus Antoninus, is too high and refined for an ordinary
+     child. Take the Bible as a whole; make the severest deductions
+     which fair criticism can dictate for shortcomings and positive
+     errors; eliminate, as a sensible lay-teacher would do, if left to
+     himself, all that is not desirable for children to occupy
+     themselves with; and there still remains in this old literature a
+     vast residuum of moral beauty and grandeur. And then consider the
+     great historical fact that, for three centuries, this book has
+     been woven into the life of all that is best and noblest in
+     English history; that it has become the national epic of Britain,
+     and is as familiar to noble and simple, from Land's End to
+     John-o'-Groat's House, as Dante and Tasso once were to the
+     Italians; that it is written in the noblest and purest English,
+     and abounds in exquisite beauties of mere literary form; and,
+     finally, that it forbids the veriest hind who never left his
+     village to be ignorant of the existence of other countries and
+     other civilisations, and of a great past, stretching back to the
+     furthest limits of the oldest nations in the world. By the study
+     of what other book could children be so much humanised and made
+     to feel that each figure in that vast historical procession
+     fills, like themselves, but a momentary space in the interval
+     between two eternities; and earns the blessings and the curses of
+     all time, according to its effort to do good and hate evil, even
+     as they also are earning their payment for their work."
+
+Lastly, he laid down the lines of the general education to be given.
+He pointed out that already in the existing schools a very
+considerable burden of work was imposed on the children in the form of
+catechism, lists of the kings of Israel, geography of Palestine, and
+that when these fantastic modes of education had been eliminated there
+was plenty of time and energy to be employed. The instruction in
+physical training was more than half play; that in the domestic
+subjects had an engrossing interest of its own. He proposed, first,
+the necessary discipline in the means for acquiring knowledge, the
+tools for employing it, that is to say, reading, writing, and
+arithmetic. After that, he believed that a certain amount of
+knowledge, of intellectual discipline, and of artistic training should
+be conveyed in the elementary schools, and for these purposes he
+proposed to teach some rudiments of physical science, drawing, and
+singing.
+
+In most respects the progress of primary education in England has been
+a continuous progress along these lines suggested by Huxley, and he
+may be regarded as in this fashion one of the great shapers of the
+destinies of his race, for nothing can have a bearing more important
+on the character and fate of a race than the manner of training
+provided for the masses of individuals composing it. It is only in the
+matter of the religious instruction that the course of events has been
+widely different from the neutral exposition of the Bible as suggested
+by him. In 1870 a great majority of the people of England who
+reflected upon the matter at all, and all those who accepted current
+ideas without reflection, accepted the Bible as an inspired, direct,
+and simple authority on all great matters of faith and morality.
+Therefore, when Huxley, as by far the most important man among those
+who advocated a secular education, was an advocate and not in the
+least an opponent of Bible teaching, they were well content to let the
+matter rest. There were, it is true, a certain number of zealots who
+entered the boards with the avowed purpose, on the one hand, of
+getting as much dogmatic teaching and interpretation added as it might
+be possible to smuggle in, and, on the other, to reduce the simplest
+Bible teaching to a minimum. But the vast majority of persons were out
+of sympathy with these fanaticisms. Since 1870, however, a gradual
+change has occurred in the attitude of the majority to the Bible in
+England. The growth of the new criticism and of knowledge of it has
+produced the result that now only a small minority of reflecting
+people in England accept the Bible in the old simple way; the majority
+thinks that it requires interpretation and explanation by the
+authority of the Church. And so a new battle over dogma has begun;
+moderate Church people no longer accept the compromise of Huxley, but
+strive for an interpretation which must be dogmatic, and there is a
+new dispute as to what may be regarded as undenominational religion.
+When a majority of reasonable persons accepted Huxley's suggestions of
+simple Bible teaching they did so not because they believed, as he
+did, that the Bible was simply great literature, great tradition, and
+great morality, but because they believed it to be direct, inspired
+authority. It is a curious coincidence that Huxley himself did so much
+to spread knowledge of the new criticism, and that a first result of
+this diffusion was to overthrow the compromise arranged largely by his
+influence, and which for many years provided a middle way in which
+sensible persons avoided the extremes of theological and
+anti-theological zealots.
+
+Early in the course of his career as a member of the London School
+Board, Huxley crystallised his views as to the general policy of
+education in a phrase which perhaps has done more than any other
+phrase ever invented to bring home to men's minds the ideal of a
+national system of education. "I conceive it to be our duty," he said,
+"to make a ladder from the gutter to the university along which any
+child may climb." We have seen the nature of his views as to the
+lowest rungs of this ladder; we may now turn to his work and views as
+to the higher stages. He expressed these views in occasional speeches
+and articles, and he had many important opportunities in aiding to
+carry them into actual practice. He was a member of a number of
+important Royal Commissions: Commission on the Royal College of
+Science for Ireland, 1866; Commission on Science and Art Instruction
+in Ireland, 1868; Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the
+Advancement of Science, 1870-75; Royal Commission to enquire into the
+Universities of Scotland, 1876-78; Royal Commission on the Medical
+Acts, 1881-82. From the beginning, he was closely associated with the
+Science and Art Department, the operations of which threw a web of
+education, intermediate between primary and university education, all
+over Britain. A number of the teachers under that department were
+trained by him, and as examiner to the department he took the greatest
+care to reduce to a minimum the evils necessarily attendant on the
+mode of payment by results. A certain number of teachers made it
+their chief effort to secure the largest possible number of grants.
+Huxley regarded these as poachers of the worst kind, and did all he
+could to foil them. He did all he could to promote systematic
+practical instruction in the classes, and to aid teachers who desired
+to learn their business more thoroughly. He insisted again and again
+upon the popular nature of the classes; their great advantage was that
+they were accessible to all who chose to avail themselves of them
+after working hours, and that they brought the means of instruction to
+the doors of the factories and workshops. The subjects which he
+considered of most importance were foreign languages, drawing, and
+elementary sciences, and he wished them to be used first of all by
+those who were handicraftsmen and who therefore left the elementary
+schools at the age of thirteen or fourteen.
+
+In a lecture given at the formal opening of the Johns Hopkins
+University at Baltimore in 1876, and in a Rectorial address to the
+University of Aberdeen two years earlier, Huxley laid down the general
+lines of university education as he conceived it. He began by
+supposing that a good primary education had already been received.
+
+     "Such an education should enable an average boy of fifteen or
+     sixteen to read and write his own language with ease and
+     accuracy, and with a sense of literary excellence derived from
+     the study of our classic writers; to have a general acquaintance
+     with the history of his own country and with the great laws of
+     social existence; to have acquired the rudiments of the physical
+     and psychological sciences, and a fair knowledge of elementary
+     arithmetic and geometry. He should have obtained an acquaintance
+     with logic rather by example than by precept; while the
+     acquirement of the elements of music and drawing should have been
+     a pleasure rather than work."
+
+He had not much to say for secondary or intermediate education, partly
+because at that time, in England at least, the secondary schools were
+in a hopeless state of incapacity, and differed from primary schools
+not only in their greater expense, their adaptation to the
+class-spirit which demanded the separation of the boys of the upper
+and middle classes from those in the lower ranks of society, but
+chiefly in the futility of the education given at the majority of
+them. But where intermediate schools did exist, he demanded that they
+should keep on the same wide track of general knowledge, not
+sacrificing one branch of knowledge for another. He held that the
+elementary instruction to which he had referred embraced all the real
+kinds of knowledge and mental activity possible to man. The university
+could add no new fields of mental activity, no new departments of
+knowledge. What it could do was to intensify and specialise the
+instruction in each department.
+
+     "Thus literature and philology, represented in the elementary
+     school by English alone, in the university will extend over the
+     ancient and modern languages. History, which like charity, best
+     begins at home, but, like charity, should not end there, will
+     ramify into anthropology, archaeology, political history, and
+     geography, with the history of the growth of the human mind and
+     of its products, in the shape of philosophy, science, and art,
+     and the university will present to the student libraries, museums
+     of antiquities, collections of coins, and the like, which will
+     efficiently subserve these studies. Instruction in the elements
+     of political economy, a most essential but hitherto sadly
+     neglected part of elementary education, will develop in the
+     university into political economy, sociology, and law. Physical
+     science will have its great divisions, of physical geography,
+     with geology and astronomy; physics; chemistry and biology;
+     represented not merely by professors and their lectures, but by
+     laboratories in which the students, under guidance of
+     demonstrators, will work out facts for themselves and come into
+     that direct contact with reality which constitutes the
+     fundamental distinction of scientific education. Mathematics will
+     soar into its highest regions; while the high peaks of philosophy
+     may be scaled by those whose aptitude for abstract thought has
+     been awakened by elementary logic. Finally, schools of pictorial
+     and plastic art, of architecture, and of music will offer a
+     thorough discipline in the principles and practice of art to
+     those in whom lies nascent the rare faculty of aesthetic
+     representation, or the still rarer powers of creative genius."
+
+Early in the seventies the problems connected with what is called
+technical education became prominent in the minds of the most
+far-seeing of this nation. It became plain that England was not
+advancing with the same strides as some other nations in arts and
+manufactures, and the most obvious difference between England and the
+rivals whose advance was causing anxiety lay in her deficiency in
+education. Science or knowledge of nature lies at the root of all the
+arts and manufactures, and it was our relation to scientific teaching
+and research that required investigation. Naturally enough, Huxley
+took the keenest interest in this question and made large
+contributions to its solution, contributions which have not yet been
+put completely into operation. He insisted most strongly upon a point
+that we as a nation have not yet completely grasped. There is no
+difference between applied science and any other kind of science. The
+chemistry of manufactures, the physics of industrial machinery, the
+biology of agriculture and of fisheries, are not different from other
+chemistries and physics and biologies. They are merely special cases
+of the application of the same general fund of knowledge, and the same
+general principles of investigation. Huxley wished that the term
+"applied science" had never been invented, or that it could be
+destroyed. A man cannot study the chemistry of dyeing or make advances
+in it unless he be a thoroughly trained chemist in the full sense of
+the word. More than that, many of the greatest discoveries, using the
+word "great" as applied to commercial advantage rather than to
+abstract progress in knowledge, have been made by those who were
+pursuing research for its own sake rather than for any immediate
+commercial advantage to be derived from it. Hence he regarded it of
+vital importance, from the mere point of view of the prosperity of the
+country, that there should be a sufficiently large number of
+scientific men provided with the means for research in the shape of
+income and appliances. The most immediately utilitarian fashion for
+the nation to encourage science, was to encourage science in its
+highest and most advanced aspects. This meant the endowment of
+research and the support of universities and other institutions in
+which research might be conducted, and Huxley strove unceasingly for
+the benefit of all such great organisations. One of the last public
+occasions of his life was his appearance as leader of a deputation to
+urge upon the government the formation of a real university in London
+which should unite the scattered institutions of that great city and
+promote the highest spheres of the pursuit of knowledge. He held the
+view, strongly, that a useful combination was to be made by uniting
+the functions of teaching and investigation. A teacher taught better
+when his mind was kept fresh by the advances he himself was making,
+and an investigator, by having a moderate amount of teaching to do,
+gained from the need of forcing his mind from time to time to take
+broad surveys of the whole field a part of which he was engaged in
+tilling. The first great object, then, in promoting science so as to
+reap the most direct national advantage from it, was to encourage
+science in its highest and widest forms. It cannot be said that
+England has yet learned this lesson. The number of institutions in
+Germany where advanced investigation is continuously pursued is
+absolutely and relatively greater than the number in England.
+
+The second part of technical education is that to which general
+attention is more commonly given. It consists of the kind of training
+to be given to the great army of workers in the country. In regard to
+this, as in regard to research work, Huxley insisted on the absence of
+distinction between technical or applied science and science without
+such a limiting prefix. So far as technical instruction meant definite
+teaching of a handicraft, he believed that it could be learned
+satisfactorily only in the workshop itself.
+
+     "The workshop is the only real school for a handicraft. The
+     education which precedes that of the workshop should be entirely
+     devoted to the strengthening of the body, the elevation of the
+     moral faculties, and the cultivation of the intelligence; and,
+     especially, to the imbuing of the mind with a broad and clear
+     view of the laws of that natural world with the components of
+     which the handicraftsman will have to deal. And, the earlier the
+     period of life at which the handicraftsman has to enter into the
+     actual practice of his craft, the more important is it that he
+     should devote the precious hours of preliminary education to
+     things of the mind, which have no direct and immediate bearing on
+     his branch of industry, though they lie at the foundation of all
+     the realities."
+
+He compared his own handicraft as an anatomist with the handicrafts of
+artisans, and declared that the kind of preliminary training he would
+choose for himself or for his pupils was precisely the training he
+would provide for them. He did not wish that one who proposed to be a
+biologist should learn dissection during his school-days; that would
+come later, and, in the meantime, broader and deeper foundations had
+to be laid. These were the ordinary subjects of a liberal education:
+physical training, drawing, and a little music, French and German, the
+ordinary English subjects, and the elements of physical science.
+Against such costly schemes of education for the whole population of a
+nation, many objections have been urged. Of these, perhaps the chief
+is that the majority of human beings even in the most civilised
+country are not capable of profiting by or taking an interest in, or
+certainly of advancing far in, most subjects. Huxley met such
+objections in a spirit of the widest statesmanship. There were two
+reasons for making the general education of all what he called a
+liberal education. The first was that, even in a liberal education
+such as he advocated, no subject was pursued beyond the broad
+elementary stages, and that during the early years of life, while the
+framework and the character were forming, it was of first-rate
+importance not to stunt either by lack of material. The second great
+principle was that until any individual had had the opportunity, it
+was impossible to say whether or no he would profit much or little,
+and the gain to the whole nation by not missing any of those who were
+born with unusual natural capacity was more than worth the cost of
+affording opportunities to all.
+
+     "The great mass of mankind have neither the liking, nor the
+     aptitude, for either literary or scientific or artistic pursuits;
+     nor, indeed, for excellence of any sort. Their ambition is to go
+     through life with moderate exertion and a fair share of ease,
+     doing common things in a common way. And a great blessing and
+     comfort it is that the majority of men are of this mind; for the
+     majority of things to be done are common things, and are quite
+     well enough done when commonly done. The great end of life is not
+     knowledge but action. What men need is as much knowledge as they
+     can assimilate and organise into a basis for action; give them
+     more and it may become injurious. One knows people who are as
+     heavy and stupid from undigested learning as others are from
+     over-fulness of meat and drink. But a small percentage of the
+     population is born with that most excellent quality, a desire for
+     excellence, or with special aptitude of some sort or another....
+     Now, the most important object of all educational schemes is to
+     catch these exceptional people, and turn them to account for the
+     good of society. No man can say where they will crop up; like
+     their opposites, the fools and the knaves, they appear sometimes
+     in the palace, and sometimes in the hovel; but the great thing to
+     be aimed at, I was almost going to say, the most important end of
+     all social arrangements, is to keep these glorious sports of
+     Nature from being either corrupted by luxury or starved by
+     poverty, and to put them into the position in which they can do
+     the work for which they are specially fitted.... I weigh my words
+     when I say that if the nation could purchase a potential Watt or
+     Davy or Faraday, at the cost of a hundred thousand pounds down,
+     he would be dirt cheap at the money."
+
+The beginning and end of the whole matter was that a national system
+of education was above all things a "capacity-catcher," designed to
+secure against the loss of the incalculable advantages to be gained by
+cultivating the best genius born in the land.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CITIZEN, ORATOR, AND ESSAYIST
+
+     Huxley's Activity in Public Affairs--Official in Scientific
+     Societies--Royal Commissions--Vivisection--Characteristics of his
+     Public Speaking--His Method of Exposition--His
+     Essays--Vocabulary--Phrase-Making--His Style Essentially one of
+     Ideas.
+
+
+A great body of fine work in science and literature has been produced
+by persons who may be described as typically academic. Such persons
+confine their interest in life within the boundaries of their own
+immediate pursuits; they are absorbed so completely by their
+avocations that the hurly-burly of the world seems needlessly
+distracting and a little vulgar. No doubt the thoughts of those who
+cry out most loudly against disturbance by the intruding claims of the
+world are, for the most part, hardly worth disturbing; the attitude to
+extrinsic things of those who are absorbed by their work is aped not
+infrequently by those who are absorbed only in themselves. None the
+less it is important to recognise that a genuine aversion from affairs
+is characteristic of many fine original investigators, and it is on
+such persons that the idea of the simple and childlike nature of
+philosophers, a simplicity often reaching real incapacity for the
+affairs of life, is based. There was no trace of this natural
+isolation in the character of Huxley. He was not only a serious
+student of science but a keen and zealous citizen, eagerly conscious
+of the great social and political movements around him, with the full
+sense that he was a man living in society with other men and that
+there was a business of life as well as a business of the laboratory.
+We have seen with what zeal he brought his trained intelligence to
+bear not only on his own province of scientific education, but on the
+wider problems of general education, and yet the time he gave to these
+was only a small part of that which he spared from abstract science
+for affairs. In scientific institutions as in others, there is always
+a considerable amount of business, involving the management of men and
+the management of money, and Huxley's readiness and aptitude led to
+his being largely occupied with these. For many years he was Dean of
+the Royal College of Science at South Kensington, and for a
+considerable time he served the Geological Society and the Royal
+Society as secretary. In all these posts, Huxley displayed great
+capacity as a leader of men and as a manager of affairs, and
+contributed largely to the successful working of the institutions
+which he served.
+
+In England, when troublesome questions press and seem to call for new
+legislation, it frequently happens that the collection and sifting of
+evidence preliminary to legislation is a task for which the methods
+and routine of Parliament are unsuitable. The Queen, acting through
+her responsible advisers, appoints a Royal Commission, consisting of a
+small body of men, to which is entrusted the preliminary task of
+collecting and weighing evidence, or of making recommendations on
+evidence already collected. To such honourable posts Huxley was
+repeatedly called. He served on the following Commissions: 1. Royal
+Commission on the Operation of Acts relating to Trawling for Herrings
+on the Coast of Scotland, 1862. 2. Royal Commission to Enquire into
+the Sea Fisheries of the United Kingdom, 1864-65. 3. Commission on the
+Royal College of Science for Ireland, 1866. 4. Commission on Science
+and Art Instruction in Ireland, 1868. 5. Royal Commission on the
+Administration and Operation of the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1870-71.
+6. Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of
+Science, 1870-75. 7. Royal Commission on the Practice of Subjecting
+Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific Purposes, 1876. 8. Royal
+Commission to Enquire into the Universities of Scotland, 1876-78. 9.
+Royal Commission on the Medical Acts, 1881-82. 10. Royal Commission on
+Trawl, Net, and Beam-Trawl Fishing, 1884. This is a great record for
+any man, especially for one in whose life work of this kind was
+outside his habitual occupation. It was no doubt in special
+recognition of the important services given his country by such work,
+as well as in general recognition of his distinction in science, that
+he was sworn a member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, so attaining a
+distinction more coveted than the peerage.
+
+The voluminous reports of the Commissions shew that Huxley, very far
+from being a silent member of them, took a large part in framing the
+questions which served to direct witnesses into useful lines, and that
+his clear and orderly habit of thought proved as useful in the
+elucidation of these subjects as they were in matters of scientific
+research. For the most part, the problems brought before the
+Commissions have lost their interest for readers of later years, but
+there are matters still unsettled on which the opinions of Huxley as
+expressed then remain useful. The Commission of 1876, for instance,
+dealt with vivisection, a matter on which the conscience of the
+ordinary man is not yet at rest. Although Huxley was intensely
+interested in the problems of physiology, and although at one time he
+hoped to devote his life to them, fortune directed otherwise, and the
+investigations for which he is famed did not in any way involve the
+kind of experiments known as vivisection. The greater part of his work
+was upon the remains of creatures dead for thousands of years or upon
+the lifeless skeletons of modern forms. On the other hand, he was
+keenly interested in the progress of physiological science, he had
+personal acquaintance with most of the distinguished workers in
+physiology of his time at home and abroad, and from this knowledge of
+their character and aspirations he was well able to judge of the
+wholesale and reckless accusations brought against them. He was a man
+full of the finest humanity, with an unusual devotion to animals as
+pets, and with knowledge of the degrees of pain involved in
+experimenting on living creatures. He insisted strongly on the
+necessity of limiting or abolishing pain, wherever it was possible; he
+agreed that any experiments which involved pain should not be
+permitted for the purpose of demonstrating known elementary facts.
+But, from his knowledge of the incalculable benefits which had been
+gained from experimental research, and from his confidence in those
+who conducted it, he declined to give support to the misguided
+fanatics who desired to make such experimental research a penal
+offence, even when conducted by the most skilled experts for the
+highest purposes.
+
+Huxley contributed his share to the great questions which agitated
+the public not only by service on Commissions, but by delivering a
+large number of public addresses and writing a large number of essays
+on topics of special interest. Much of his work on scientific,
+educational, and general subjects took its first shape in the form of
+addresses given to some public audience. University audiences in
+England, Scotland, and America were familiar to him, and from time to
+time he addressed large gatherings of a mixed character. But probably
+his favourite audience was composed of working men, and he had the
+greatest respect for the intelligence and sympathy of hearers who like
+himself passed the greater portion of their time in hard work.
+Professor Howes, his pupil, friend, and successor, writes of him:
+
+     "He gave workmen of his best. The substance of _Man's Place in
+     Nature_, one of the most successful and popular of his writings,
+     and of his _Crayfish_, perhaps the most perfect zooelogical
+     treatise ever published, was first communicated to them. In one
+     of the last communications I had with him, I asked his views as
+     to the desirability of discontinuing the workmen's lectures at
+     Jermyn Street, since the development of workmen's colleges and
+     institutes was regarded by some as rendering their continuance
+     unnecessary. He replied, almost with indignation, 'With our
+     central situation and resources we ought to be in a position to
+     give the workmen that which they cannot get elsewhere,' adding
+     that he would deeply deplore any such discontinuance."
+
+Huxley had no natural facility for speech. He tells us that at first
+he disliked it, and that he had a firm conviction that he would break
+down every time he opened his mouth. The only two possible faults of a
+public speaker which he believed himself to be without, were "talking
+at random and indulging in rhetoric." With practice, he lost this
+earlier hesitancy, and before long became known as one of the finest
+speakers of his time. Certain natural gifts aided him; his well-set
+figure and strong features, of which the piercing eyes and firm,
+trap-like mouth were the most striking, riveted attention, while his
+voice had a wide range and was beautifully modulated. But it was above
+all things the matter and not the manner of his speech that commanded
+success. He cared little or nothing for the impression he might
+make--everything for the ideas which he wished to convey. He was
+concerned only to set forth these ideas in their clear and logical
+order, convinced in his own mind that, were the facts as he knew them
+placed before the minds of his hearers, only one possible result could
+follow. The facts had convinced him: they must equally convince any
+honest and intelligent person placed in possession of them. He had not
+the smallest intention of overbearing by authority or of swaying by
+skilfully aroused emotion. Such weapons of the orator seemed to him
+dishonest in the speaker and most perilous to the audience. For him,
+speaking on any subject was merely a branch of scientific exposition;
+when emotion was to be roused or enthusiasm to be kindled the
+inspiration was to come from the facts and not from the orator. The
+arts he allowed himself were those common to all forms of exposition;
+he would explain a novel set of ideas by comparison with simpler ideas
+obvious to all his listeners; and he sought to arrest attention or to
+drive home a conclusion by some brilliant phrase that bit into the
+memory. These two arts, the art of the phrase-maker and the art of
+explaining by vivacious and simple comparison, he brought to a high
+perfection. The fundamental method of his exposition was simply the
+method of comparative anatomy, the result of a habit of thinking which
+makes it impossible to have any set of ideas brought into the mind
+without an immediate, almost unconscious, overhauling of the memory
+for any other ideas at all congruous. In a strict scientific
+exposition Huxley would choose from the multitude of possible
+comparisons that most simple and most intelligible to his audience;
+when in a lighter vein, he gave play to a natural humour in his
+choice. Instances of his method of exposition by comparison abound in
+his published addresses. Let us take one or two. In the course of an
+address to a large mixed audience so early in his public career as
+1854, in making plain to them the proposition, somewhat novel for
+those days, that the natural history sciences had an educational
+value, he explained that the faculties employed in that subject were
+simply those of the common sense of every-day life.
+
+     "The vast results obtained by Science are won by no mystical
+     faculties, by no mental processes other than those which are
+     practised by every one of us, in the humblest and meanest affairs
+     of life. A detective policeman discovers a burglar from the marks
+     made by his shoe, by a mental process identical with that by
+     which Cuvier restored the extinct animals of Montmartre from
+     fragments of their bones. Nor does that process of induction and
+     deduction by which a lady, finding a stain of a peculiar kind on
+     her dress, concludes that somebody has upset the inkstand
+     thereon, differ in any way, in kind, from that by which Adams and
+     Leverrier discovered a new planet."
+
+In one of his addresses to working men on _Man's Place in Nature_ he
+shewed that from time to time in the history of the world average
+persons of the human race have accepted some kind of answer to the
+insoluble riddles of existence, but that from time to time the race
+has outgrown the current answers, ceasing to take comfort from them.
+
+     "In a well-worn metaphor a parallel is drawn between the life of
+     man and the metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly; but
+     the comparison may be more just as well as more novel, if for its
+     former term we take the mental progress of the race. History
+     shews that the human mind, fed by constant accessions of
+     knowledge, periodically grows too large for its theoretical
+     coverings, and bursts them asunder to appear in new habiliments,
+     as the feeding and growing grub, at intervals, casts its too
+     narrow skin and assumes another, itself but temporary. Truly, the
+     imago state of man seems to be terribly distant, but every moult
+     is a step gained, and of such there have been many."
+
+As another instance, the following from his address on a "Liberal
+Education" may be taken. He had been discussing the intellectual
+advantage to be derived from classical studies, and had been
+comparing, to the disadvantage of the latter, the intellectual
+discipline which might be got from a study of fossils with the
+discipline claimed by the ordinary experts upon education to be the
+results of classical training. He wished to anticipate the obvious
+objection to his argument: that the subject-matter of palaeontology had
+no direct bearing on human interests and emotions, while the classical
+authors were rich in the finest humanity.
+
+     "But it will be said that I forget the beauty and the human
+     interest, which appertain to classical studies. To this I reply
+     that it is only a very strong man who can appreciate the charms
+     of landscape as he is toiling up a steep hill, along a bad road.
+     What with short-windedness, stones, nits, and a pervading sense
+     of the wisdom of rest and be thankful, most of us have little
+     enough sense of the beautiful under these circumstances. The
+     ordinary schoolboy is precisely in this case. He finds Parnassus
+     uncommonly steep, and there is no chance of his having much time
+     or inclination to look about him till he gets to the top. And
+     nine times out of ten he does not get to the top."
+
+The last example we shall take comes from a speech made after dinner
+at a much later period of his life. The occasion was a complimentary
+dinner to the editor of the English scientific periodical _Nature_,
+which had been for long the leading semi-popular journal of English
+science. Huxley, in proposing the health of the editor, declared that
+he did not quite know how to say what he wanted to say, but that he
+would explain by a story.
+
+     "A poor woman," he said, "was brought into one of our hospitals
+     in a shockingly battered condition. When her wounds had been
+     cleaned and sewn, and when the care of the surgeons had restored
+     her to comparative comfort, someone said to her, 'I am afraid
+     your husband has been knocking you about.' 'What!' she said, 'my
+     Jim bash me? no it worn't by him; he's always been more like a
+     friend to me than a husband.' That," went on Huxley, "is what I
+     wish to say about our guest of to-night. In all our intercourse
+     with him he has been more like a friend to us than an editor."
+
+It is impossible to make a real distinction between the essays and the
+addresses of Huxley. Many of the most important of his addresses, as
+for instance his Romanes lecture on "Evolution and Ethics," were
+written and printed before he delivered them; most of them were
+carefully prepared, and revised and printed after delivery. It is
+therefore not remarkable to find a close resemblance in matter and
+manner between what was originally spoken and what was published
+without a _viva voce_ delivery. Everything that may be said of the one
+set applies with an equal fitness to the other set. There are many
+who assert with confidence that Huxley is one of the great masters of
+English, and although an examination of this opinion involves
+discussion of the elusive quality termed "style," it is necessary to
+attempt it.
+
+In that totality which consists of an essay or of a printed address,
+and of which we are, most of us, ready to discuss the style, there are
+at least three separable elements, each contributing after its kind to
+the effect on our minds. When the general effect is to throw us into a
+state of pleasure, it is our habit to qualify the style with an
+adjective of praise, selecting the adjective according to the degree
+of restraint or of enthusiasm with which we are accustomed to express
+our emotions; when the general effect is to throw us into a condition
+of boredom or of distaste, we make a corresponding choice of
+appropriate adjectives. When we wish to be specially critical we pass
+a little way beyond an empirical judgment by pleasure or annoyance and
+take into account the degree of harmony between matter and manner. In
+such a frame of mind we discount the pleasure obtained from verbal
+quips, if these occur in a grave exposition, or that received from
+solemn and stately harmonies of language if these be employed on
+insignificant trifles. In a condition of unusual critical exaltation
+we may even admit an excellence of language and phrasing though these
+have as their contents ideas which we dislike, or press towards
+conclusions from which we dissent. But if we desire to make an exact
+appreciation of literary style, it is requisite to examine separately
+the three elements which contribute to the effect produced on us by
+any written work. These three elements are the words or raw materials
+employed, the building of words into sentences and of sentences into
+paragraphs, which may be designated as the architectural work, and,
+finally, the ideas conveyed, that is to say, the actual object of the
+writing.
+
+Huxley was a wide and omnivorous reader, and so had an unusually large
+fund of words at his disposal. His writings abound with quotations and
+allusions taken from the best English authors, and he had a profound
+and practical belief in the advantage to be gained from the reading of
+English. "If a man," he wrote, "cannot get literary culture out of his
+Bible, and Chaucer, and Shakespeare, and Milton, and Hobbes, and
+Bishop Berkeley, to mention only a few of our illustrious writers--I
+say, if he cannot get it out of these writers, he cannot get it out of
+anything." He had at least a fair knowledge of Greek in the original,
+and a very wide acquaintance with Greek phrasing and Greek ideas
+derived from a study of Greek authors in English versions. He had an
+unusual knowledge of Latin, both of the classical writers and of the
+early Church fathers and mediaeval writers on science and metaphysics.
+French and German, the two foreign languages which are a necessary
+part of the mental equipment of an English-speaking man of science,
+were familiar to him. Finally, he had of necessity the wide and varied
+vocabulary of the natural and technical sciences at his disposal. From
+these varied sources, Huxley had a fund of words, a store of the raw
+material for expressing ideas, very much greater and more varied than
+that in the possession of most writers. You will find in his writings
+abundant and omnipresent evidence of the enormous wealth of verbal
+material ready for the ideas he wished to set forth: a Greek phrase, a
+German phrase, a Latin or French phrase, or a group of words borrowed
+from one of our own great writers always seemed to await his wish.
+General Booth's scheme for elevating the masses by cymbals and dogma
+was "corybantic Christianity"; to explain what he thought was the
+Catholic attitude to the doctrine of evolution, he said it would have
+been called _damnabilis_ by Father Suarez, and that he would have
+meant "not that it was to be damned, but that it was an active
+principle capable of damning." Huxley was like a builder who did not
+limit himself while he was constructing a house to the ordinary
+materials from the most convenient local quarry, but who collected
+endlessly from all the quarries and brickfields of the world, and
+brought to his heaps curiously wrought stones taken from a thousand
+old buildings. The swift choice from such a varied material gave an
+ease and appearance of natural growth to his work; it produced many
+surprising and delightful combinations, and it never sacrificed
+convenience of expression to exigencies of the materials for
+expression. On the other hand, Huxley lacked the sedulous concern for
+words themselves as things valuable and delightful; the delight of the
+craftsman in his tools; the dainty and respectful tribute paid to the
+words themselves; in fine, he took little pleasure in words themselves
+and used them as counters rather than as coins. Careful reflection and
+examination will make it plain that the pleasure to be got from
+Huxley's style is not due in any large measure to his choice and
+handling of words. There is no evidence that he deliberately and
+fastidiously preferred one word to another, that he took delight in
+the savour of individual words, in the placing of plain words in a
+context to make them sparkle, in the avoidance of some, in the
+deliberate preference of other words,--in fact, in all the conscious
+tricks and graces that distinguish the lover of words from their mere
+user.
+
+A close examination discovers a similar absence from Huxley's work of
+the second contributory to the total effect produced by written words.
+Anything that may be said about absence of artistry in the use of
+words, may be said as to absence of artistry in building of the words
+into sentences, of the sentences into paragraphs and pages. In the
+first place, actual infelicities of sentence-building are frequent.
+Clause is piled on clause, qualifying phrases are interpolated, the
+easy devices of dashes and repetitions are employed wherever
+convenience suggests them. It is striking to find how infrequent is
+the occurrence of passages marked in any way by sonorous rhythm or by
+the charm of a measured proportion. The purple passages themselves,
+those which linger in the memory and to which the reader turns back,
+linger by their sense and not by their sound. For indeed the truth of
+the matter is that Huxley's style was a style of ideas and not of
+words and sentences. The more closely you analyse his pages the more
+certainly you find that the secret of the effect produced on you lies
+in the gradual development of the precise and logical ideas he wished
+to convey, in the brilliant accumulation of argument upon argument, in
+the logical subordination of details to the whole, in fact, in the
+arts of the convinced, positive, and logical thinker, who knew exactly
+what he meant you to know and who set about telling you it with the
+least possible concern for the words he used or for the sentences into
+which he formed his words. The ideas and their ordering are the root
+and the branches, the beginning and the end of his style. To put it
+in another way: it would be extremely easy to translate any of
+Huxley's writings into French or German, and they would lose extremely
+little of the personal flavour of their author. The present writer has
+just been reading French translations of Huxley's _Physiography_ and
+_Crayfish_, made at different times by different translators. At first
+reading it seems almost miraculous how identically the effect produced
+by the original is reproduced by the French rendering, but the secret
+is really no secret at all. Huxley produced his effects by the
+ordering of his ideas and not by the ordering of his words. From the
+technical point of view of literary craftsmanship, he cannot be
+assigned a high place; he is one of our great English writers, but he
+is not a great writer of English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE OPPONENT OF MATERIALISM
+
+     Science and Metaphysics--Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes--Existence of
+     Matter and Mind--Descartes's Contribution--Materialism and
+     Idealism--Criticism of Materialism--Berkeley's
+     Idealism--Criticism of Idealism--Empirical Idealism--Materialism
+     as opposed to Supernaturalism--Mind and Brain--Origin of
+     Life--Teleology, Chance, and the Argument from Design.
+
+
+The prosecution of independent thinking in any branch of knowledge
+leads to the ultimate problems of philosophy. The mathematician cannot
+ponder over the meaning of his figures, the chemist that of his
+reactions, the biologist that of his tissues and cells, the
+psychologist that of sensations and conceptions, without being tempted
+from the comparatively secure ground of observations and the
+arrangement of observations into the perilous regions of metaphysics.
+Most scientific men return quickly, repelled and perhaps a little
+scared by the baffling confusion of that windy region of thought where
+no rules of logic seem incontrovertible, no conclusions tenable, and
+no discussions profitable. Huxley, however, not only entered into
+metaphysical questions with enthusiasm, but gave a great deal of time
+to the study of some of the great metaphysical writers. His views are
+to be found scattered through very many of his ordinary scientific
+writings, but are specially set forth in a volume on _Hume_, which he
+wrote for Mr. John Morley's series, _English Men of Letters_, and in
+essays on Berkeley and on Descartes, all of which are republished in
+the _Collected Essays_. He contrived to preserve, in the most
+abstrusely philosophical of these writings, a simplicity and clarity
+which, although they have not commended him to professional
+metaphysicians, make his attitude to the problems of metaphysics
+extremely intelligible. The greatest barrier and cause of confusion to
+the novice in metaphysics is that the writings of most of the great
+authorities are overburdened by their great knowledge of the history
+of philosophy. Huxley, in a characteristic piece of "parting advice"
+in the preface to his work on Hume attacked this confusion between the
+history of a subject and the subject itself.
+
+     "If it is your desire," he wrote, "to discourse fluently and
+     learnedly about philosophical questions, begin with the Ionians
+     and work steadily through to the latest new speculative treatise.
+     If you have a good memory and a fair knowledge of Greek, Latin,
+     French, and German, three or four years spent in this way should
+     enable you to attain your object. If, on the contrary, you are
+     animated by the much rarer desire for real knowledge; if you want
+     to get a clear conception of the deepest problems set before the
+     intellect of man, there is no need, so far as I can see, for you
+     to go beyond the limits of the English tongue. Indeed, if you are
+     pressed for time, three English authors will suffice, namely,
+     Berkeley, Hume, and Hobbes."
+
+The first and perhaps the greatest problem in metaphysics can be put
+very shortly. What is the reality behind the apparent universe of
+matter and mind we see around us? Or, rather, what do we know of that
+reality? To the uninitiated in philosophical thinking it seems
+sufficiently plain that there are two entities, body and soul in man,
+matter and mind in the whole universe; and various types of
+intelligent dogmatists, ranging from the sturdy if somewhat stupid
+shrewdness of Dr. Johnson to the agile casuistry of Catholic
+metaphysicians, have supported this simple verdict of "common sense."
+Trouble begins, however, with any attempt to analyse the relations
+between what we call "matter" and what we call "mind." It appears, for
+instance, that what we call matter we only know in terms of mind. In
+an essay on Descartes's _Discourse on Method_, Huxley explains this by
+simple examples.
+
+     "I take up a marble and I find it to be a red, round, hard,
+     single body. We call the redness, the roundness, the hardness and
+     the singleness, 'qualities' of the marble; and it sounds, at
+     first, the height of absurdity to say that all these qualities
+     are modes of our own consciousness, which cannot even be
+     conceived to exist in the marble. But consider the redness, to
+     begin with. How does the sensation of redness arise? The waves of
+     a certain very attenuated matter, the particles of which are
+     vibrating with vast rapidity, but with very different velocities,
+     strike upon the marble, and those which vibrate with one
+     particular velocity are thrown off from its surface in all
+     directions. The optical apparatus of the eye gathers some of
+     these together, and gives them such a course that they impinge
+     upon the surface of the retina, which is a singularly delicate
+     apparatus connected with the terminations of the fibres of the
+     optic nerve. The impulses of the attenuated matter, or ether,
+     affect this apparatus and the fibres of the optic nerve in a
+     certain way; and the change in the fibres of the optic nerve
+     produces yet other changes in the brain; and these, in some
+     fashion unknown to us, give rise to the feeling, or
+     consciousness, of redness. If the marble could remain unchanged,
+     and either the vibrations of the ether, or the nature of the
+     retina, could be altered, the marble would seem not red, but some
+     other colour. There are many people who are what are called
+     colour-blind, being unable to distinguish one colour from
+     another. Such an one might declare our marble to be green; and
+     he would be quite as right in saying that it is green as we are
+     in declaring it to be red. But then, as the marble itself cannot
+     be both green and red, at the same time, this shews that the
+     quality redness must be in our consciousness and not in the
+     marble."
+
+In similar fashion he shewed that the hardness, roundness, and even
+the singleness of the marble were, so far as we know, states of our
+consciousness and not in the marble. The argument is capable of
+application to all that we call matter, and it thus appears, on
+analysis, that what we know of matter is simply a series of states of
+our consciousness, or mind. In similar fashion, it turns out that what
+we call mind is, so far as practical experience goes, always
+associated with and dependent on what we call matter. We have no
+direct knowledge of thinking without a brain, or of consciousness
+without a body. Alterations and changes in matter, as for instance in
+the tissues and nutrition of the body, are, so far as our experience
+goes, inseparably associated with mental operations. In the animal
+kingdom we see the development of the mind creeping slowly after the
+development of the material nervous system, until, in man, the most
+complex mind and most complex consciousness of which we have knowledge
+accompany the most complex body and brain.
+
+Two great rival solutions to this fundamental problem are Materialism
+and Idealism. Materialism supposes that what we call matter is the
+real substance of the universe, and that mind is merely one of the
+forms of its activity. The advance of physical science has done much
+to make the materialistic hypothesis more plausible. When matter was
+believed to be inert, the mere vehicle or theatre of forces,
+materialism remained a singularly crude and unsatisfying position. But
+now that science has shewn all that we call matter--the most solid
+metals and the most attenuated vapours, the most stable and resisting
+inorganic bodies, and the unstable tissues of living bodies--to be
+alike in restless, orderly motion, to be, in fact, motion itself and
+not the thing moved, to be changeable but indestructible, passing
+through phases but eternal, there seems less difficulty in assuming it
+to be the ultimate reality, and mind and consciousness to be its most
+highly specialised qualities. Huxley, while stating this view plainly
+enough, refused to accept it as a legitimate conclusion from the
+facts.
+
+     "For anything that may be proved to the contrary, there may be a
+     real something which is the cause of all our impressions; that
+     sensations, though not likenesses, are symbols of that something;
+     and that the part of that something, which we call the nervous
+     system, is an apparatus for supplying us with a sort of algebra
+     of fact, based on these symbols. A brain may be the machinery by
+     which the material universe becomes conscious of itself. But it
+     is important to notice that, even if this conception of the
+     uuiverse and of the relation of consciousness to its other
+     components should be true, we should, nevertheless, be still
+     bound by the limits of thought, still unable to refute the
+     arguments of pure idealism. The more completely the materialistic
+     position is admitted, the easier it is to show that the
+     idealistic position is unassailable, if the idealist confines
+     himself within the limits of positive knowledge."
+
+However we attempt to form what philosophers call "ejects," to imagine
+that what is really in our consciousness is really the world outside
+ourselves, these ejects remain mere phenomena of our minds. Matter
+itself and its changes may, in the long run, be but modes of motion,
+but "our knowledge of motion is nothing but that of a change in the
+place and order of our sensations; just as our knowledge of matter is
+restricted to those feelings of which we assume it to be the cause."
+Huxley's exact position in regard to materialism is most plain in his
+expositions of the writings of Berkeley, with whom began in England
+the greatest movement towards an idealistic philosophy.
+
+     "Berkeley faced the problem boldly. He said to the materialists:
+     'You tell me that all the phenomena of nature are resolvable into
+     matter and its affections. I assent to your statement, and now I
+     put to you the further question, What is matter? In answering
+     this question you shall be bound by your own conditions; and I
+     demand, in the terms of the Cartesian axiom, that you in turn
+     give your assent only to such conclusions as are perfectly clear
+     and obvious.'"
+
+Huxley then goes on to state the general lines of the arguments by
+which Berkeley arrived at the apparently paradoxical conclusion "that
+all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth--in a word, all
+those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world," have an
+existence only so far as they are in a perceiving mind. And he
+proceeds at length to explain the immense importance of the truths
+underlying Berkeley's position.
+
+     "The key to all philosophy lies in the clear apprehension of
+     Berkeley's problem--which is neither more nor less than one of
+     the shapes of the greatest of all questions, 'What are the limits
+     of our faculties?' And it is worth any amount of trouble to
+     comprehend the exact nature of the argument by which Berkeley
+     arrived at his results, and to know by one's own knowledge the
+     great truth which he discovered--that the honest and rigorous
+     following up of the argument which leads us to materialism
+     inevitably carries us beyond it."
+
+Huxley, however, while he opposed a materialistic explanation of the
+universe with the strength of exposition and acute reasoning at his
+disposal, did not pass directly into the other camp and become a pure
+idealist.
+
+     "Granting the premisses," he wrote, "I do not see any escape from
+     Berkeley's conclusion, that the substance of matter is a
+     metaphysical unknown quantity, of the existence of which there is
+     no proof. What Berkeley does not seem to have so clearly
+     perceived is that the non-existence of a substance of mind is
+     equally arguable; and that the result of the impartial
+     application of his reasonings is the reduction of the all to
+     co-existences and sequences of phenomena, beneath and beyond
+     which there is nothing cognoscible."
+
+Hume had written: "What we call a mind is nothing but a heap or
+collection of different perceptions, united together by certain
+relations, and supposed, though falsely, to be endowed with a perfect
+simplicity and identity." Here was mind rejected for the same negative
+reasons as matter, and Huxley was as ready to point out that while we
+can know nothing of the
+
+     "substance of the thinking thing, we go beyond legitimate
+     reasoning if we therefore deny its existence." ... "Hume may be
+     right or wrong, but the most he or anyone else can prove in
+     favour of his conclusions is, that we know nothing more of the
+     mind than that it is a series of perceptions. Whether there is
+     something in the mind that lies beyond the reach of observation,
+     or whether perceptions themselves are the products of something
+     which can be observed and which is not mind, are questions which
+     can in no wise be settled by direct observation."
+
+In another passage he writes:
+
+     "To sum up. If the materialist affirms that the universe and all
+     its phenomena are resolvable into matter and motion, Berkeley
+     replies, True; but what you call matter and motion are known to
+     us only as forms of consciousness; their being is to be conceived
+     or known; and the existence of a state of consciousness, apart
+     from a thinking mind, is a contradiction in terms. I conceive
+     that this reasoning is irrefragable. And therefore, if I were
+     obliged to choose between absolute materialism and absolute
+     idealism, I should feel compelled to accept the latter
+     alternative. Indeed, upon this point Locke does, practically, go
+     as far in the direction of idealism as Berkeley, when he admits
+     that the 'simple ideas which we receive from sensation and
+     reflection are the boundaries of our thoughts, beyond which the
+     mind, whatever efforts it would make, is not able to advance one
+     jot.'"
+
+Locke went further, and Huxley agreed with him. He declared that the
+mind cannot "make any discoveries when it would pry into the nature
+and hidden cause of these ideas." We must, in fact, definitely reject
+what we know as matter as the absolute reality of the universe, for it
+becomes very plain that what we call matter we know merely as
+affections of our own consciousness. In a sense, then, so far as it is
+opposed to materialism, idealism, according to Huxley, must be the
+philosophical position of a scientific man. But the idealism is not
+the absolute idealism of Berkeley, as we have no logical right to deny
+or to affirm the existence of absolute matter or of absolute mind. The
+real truth of the philosophy of science lies in a separation between
+metaphysical theory and actual pursuits. In ultimate philosophical
+theory it is impossible to rest content with a plain natural
+conception of the universe. When any conception of matter, or of its
+affections, is pushed as far as analysis can take us, what we know
+resolves itself into affections of mind, into what without
+metaphysical finesse may be called ideas. But this empirical idealism
+must be taken positively as being merely the limits of our knowledge,
+and it must carry with it neither an undue exaltation of mind nor an
+undue depreciation of matter.
+
+     "The Platonic philosophy is probably the grandest example of the
+     unscientific use of the imagination extant; and it would be hard
+     to estimate the amount of detriment to clear thinking effected,
+     directly and indirectly, by the theory of ideas, on the one hand,
+     and by the unfortunate doctrine of the baseness of matter, on the
+     other."
+
+Materialism was dismissed by Huxley as being an inadequate
+philosophical explanation of the universe, and as being based on a
+logical delusion. There remains, however, a practical application of
+the word in which the conceptions it involves are almost an inevitable
+part of science, and which was strenuously urged by Huxley. In the
+earlier days of the world and of science almost all the phenomena of
+nature were regarded as random or wilful displays of living
+intelligence. The earth itself and the sun, the moon, and the stars
+were endowed with life; legions of unseen intelligences ruled the
+operations of nature, and although these might be bribed or
+threatened, pleased or made angry, their actions were regarded as
+beyond prediction or control. The procession of the seasons, the
+routine of day and night, the placid appeasement of the rains, the
+devastating roar of storms, the shining of the rainbow, the bubbling
+of springs, the terrors of famine and pestilence; all these--the
+varying environment which makes or mars human life--were regarded as
+inevitable and capricious. The whole progress of physical science has
+been attended with a gradual elimination of these supernatural
+agencies and with a continual replacement of them by conceptions of
+physical sequence.
+
+     "In singular contrast with natural knowledge, the acquaintance of
+     mankind with the supernatural appears the more exact, and the
+     influence of supernatural doctrine on conduct the greater, the
+     further we go back in time and the lower the stage of
+     civilisation submitted to investigation. Historically, indeed,
+     there would seem to be an inverse relation between supernatural
+     and natural knowledge. As the latter has widened, gained in
+     precision and trustworthiness, so has the former shrunk, grown
+     vague and questionable; as the one has more and more filled the
+     sphere of action, so has the other retreated into the region of
+     meditation, or vanished behind the screen of mere verbal
+     recognition. Whether this difference of the fortunes of
+     Naturalism and Supernaturalism is an indication of the progress,
+     or of the regress of humanity, of a fall from or an advance
+     towards the higher life, is a matter of opinion. The point to
+     which I wish to direct attention is that the difference exists
+     and is making itself felt. Men are growing seriously alive to the
+     fact that the historical evolution of humanity, which is
+     generally, and I venture to think, not unreasonably, regarded as
+     progress, has been and is being accompanied by a co-ordinate
+     elimination of the supernatural from its originally large
+     occupation of men's thought."
+
+Every stage in this long process, every new attempt to place physical
+phenomena in a chain of direct causation has been denounced as
+dangerous and degrading materialism, and in this sense Huxley was not
+only an adherent but one of the foremost champions of materialism. As
+everyone knows, some of the greatest advances in this process of
+co-ordinating physical phenomena were made during Huxley's life; and
+his vigorous onslaughts on those who tried to thwart all attempts at
+material explanations in favour of unknown agencies made him specially
+open to abusive criticism. The battle was almost invariably between
+those who had not special knowledge and those in possession of it, and
+it occurred in practically the whole field of science, but
+particularly in the biological sciences. A single example will serve
+to shew what is meant by materialism in this sense and the attitude of
+Huxley to it. The study of the human mind naturally has attracted the
+attention of thinkers almost since the beginning of philosophy, but
+until this century, with a few crude exceptions, it has been conducted
+entirely apart from anatomy and physiology. Advances in these physical
+sciences, however, have changed that, and the modern psychologist has
+to begin by being a physiologist and anatomist.
+
+     "Surely no one who is cognisant of the facts of the case,
+     nowadays, doubts that the roots of psychology lie in the
+     physiology of the nervous system. What we call the operations of
+     the mind are the functions of the brain, and the materials of
+     consciousness are products of cerebral activity. Cabanis may have
+     made use of crude and misleading phraseology when he said that
+     the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile; but the
+     conception which that much-abused phrase embodies is,
+     nevertheless, far more consistent with fact than the popular
+     notion that the mind is a metaphysical entity seated in the head,
+     but as independent of the brain as a telegraph operator is of his
+     instrument. It is hardly necessary to point out that the doctrine
+     just laid down is what is commonly called materialism. I am not
+     sure that the adjective 'crass,' which appears to have a special
+     charm for rhetorical sciolists, would not be applied to it. But
+     it is, nevertheless, true that the doctrine contains nothing
+     inconsistent with the purest idealism."
+
+The whole doctrine of evolution is similarly a materialistic account
+of natural phenomena, in the popular and not the philosophical meaning
+of the term. But even within this popular meaning, it is extremely
+necessary to have an exact conception of the limits within which
+Huxley was materialistic. Take for instance the question of the origin
+of life. It would be one of the greatest achievements of physical
+science could it shew that life was not inco-ordinate with non-living
+physical phenomena, but was a special case of them. Huxley knew that
+this advance had not yet been made.
+
+     "It may be that, by-and-by, philosophers will discover some
+     higher laws of which the facts of life are particular cases--very
+     possibly they will find out some bond between physico-chemical
+     phenomena on the one hand, and vital phenomena on the other. At
+     present, however, we assuredly know of none; and I think we shall
+     exercise a wise humility in confessing that, for us at least,
+     this successive assumption of different states (external
+     conditions remaining the same)--this spontaneity of action--if I
+     may use a term which implies more than I would be answerable
+     for--which constitutes so vast and plain a practical distinction
+     between living bodies and those which do not live, is an ultimate
+     fact; indicating as such, the existence of a broad line of
+     demarcation between the subject matter of biological and of all
+     other science."
+
+In another passage he wrote:
+
+     "Looking back through the prodigious vista of the past I find no
+     record of the commencement of life, and therefore I am devoid of
+     any means of forming a definite conclusion as to the conditions
+     of its appearance. Belief, in the scientific sense of the word,
+     is a serious matter, and needs strong foundations. To say,
+     therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence, that I have any
+     belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have
+     originated, would be using words in a wrong sense. But
+     expectation is permissible where belief is not; and if it were
+     given me to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time
+     to the still more remote period when the earth was passing
+     through physical and chemical conditions which it can no more see
+     again than a man can recall his infancy, I should expect to be a
+     witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from non-living
+     matter. I should expect to see it appear under forms of great
+     simplicity, endowed, like existing fungi, with the power of
+     determining the formation of new protoplasm from such matters as
+     ammonium carbonates, oxalates, and tartrates, alkaline and earthy
+     phosphates, and water, without the aid of light. That is the
+     expectation to which analogical reasoning leads me, but I beg you
+     once more to recollect that I have no right to call my opinion
+     anything but an act of philosophical faith."
+
+Since these words were written the reasons for Huxley's "philosophic
+faith" have been strengthened by later discoveries, and perhaps a
+majority of biologists would take the view that except for practical
+purposes there is no sound reason for placing living and inorganic
+aggregations of matter in totally different categories. But even if
+the main outline of the theory of evolution were proved beyond the
+possibility of doubt, if we could trace existing plants and animals
+backwards with the accuracy of a genealogist and find that they had
+been developed, under purely physical "laws" from a few simple forms,
+and if we could understand exactly how these few simple forms of
+living matter took origin from non-living matter, we would not, if we
+followed Huxley, be able to rest in a purely materialistic position.
+As he, in different words, repeatedly said:
+
+     "It is very desirable to remember that evolution is not an
+     explanation of the cosmos, but merely a generalised statement of
+     the method and results of that process. And, further, that, if
+     there is any proof that the cosmic process was set going by any
+     agent, then that agent will be the creator of it and of all its
+     products, although supernatural intervention may remain strictly
+     excluded from its further course."
+
+The doctrine of evolution was, for him, no attempt to reinstate the
+"old pagan goddess, Chance." Darwin had again and again explained, and
+Huxley again and again had called attention to the explanation, that
+when words like "chance" and "spontaneous" were used, no more was
+intended to be implied than an ignorance of the causes. In the true
+sense of the word "chance" did not exist for Huxley and Darwin. So far
+as all scientific and common experience goes, every event is connected
+with foregoing events in an orderly and inevitable chain of
+sequences,--a chain that could have been predicted or predetermined
+by any sufficient intelligence. Moreover, Huxley did not believe that
+Darwin's views, rightly interpreted, "abolished teleology and
+eviscerated the argument from design." They only abolished that crude
+expression of teleology which supposed all structures among animals
+and plants to have been created in their present forms for their
+present purposes. Under the stimulus given to biology by the doctrine
+of evolution that science has progressed far beyond conceptions so
+rudely mechanical. We know that behind each existing structure there
+is a long history of change; of change not only in form and
+appearance, but also in function. In the development of living
+organisms to-day, as they grow up into tree or animal from seed or
+egg, we can trace the record of these changes of form; in some cases
+we can follow the actual change of function. But in a wider sense
+there is no incongruity between evolution and teleology.
+
+     "There is a wider teleology," Huxley wrote, "which is not touched
+     by the doctrine of evolution, but is actually based on the
+     fundamental proposition of evolution. This proposition is that
+     the whole world, living and not living, is the result of the
+     mutual interaction, according to definite laws, of the forces
+     possessed by the molecules of which the primitive nebulosity of
+     the universe was composed. That acute champion of teleology,
+     Paley, saw no difficulty in admitting that the 'production of
+     things' may be the result of mechanical dispositions fixed
+     beforehand by intelligent appointment and kept in action by a
+     power at the centre."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+FREEDOM OF THOUGHT
+
+     Authority and Knowledge in Science--The Duty of Doubt--Authority
+     and Individual Judgment in Religion--The Protestant Position--Sir
+     Charles Lyell and the Deluge--Infallibility--The Church and
+     Science--Morality and Dogma--Civil and Religious
+     Liberty--Agnosticism and Clericalism--Meaning of
+     Agnosticism--Knowledge and Evidence--The Method of Agnosticism.
+
+
+In the practice of modern law-courts, a witness rarely is allowed to
+offer as evidence any statement for which he himself is not the direct
+authority. What he himself saw or heard or did with regard to the
+matter at issue--these, and not what others told him they had seen or
+heard or done, are the limits within which he is allowed to be a
+competent witness. As a matter of fact, in the business of life we
+have to act differently. A large proportion of our opinions, beliefs,
+and reasons for conduct must come to us on the authority of others. We
+have no direct experience of the past; of the present we can see
+little and only the little immediately surrounding us. In a multitude
+of affairs we have to act on authority, to accept from books or from
+persons what we have not ourselves the opportunity of knowing. It
+would seem, then, to be a primary duty to learn to distinguish in our
+minds those matters which we know directly from those matters which we
+have accepted on trust; and, secondly, to learn and to apply the best
+modes of choosing the good and of rejecting the bad authorities. The
+work of the scientific man is a lifelong exercise of these primary
+duties. From the first moment he begins to observe living things or to
+dissect their dead frameworks, to mix chemical substances, to make
+experiments with magnets and wires, he begins to build, and as long as
+he continues to work he continues to build for himself a body of
+first-hand knowledge. But, however he work arduously or through long
+years, he can visit only the smallest portion of the field of nature
+in which he is working. It is necessary for him to employ the work of
+others, submitting, from time to time such accepted work to the tests
+suggested by his own observations. He learns to regard in a different
+light all knowledge taken on the authority of others; to distrust it a
+little until he has learned to weigh its general credibility by his
+own standards, and its particular credibility by subjecting portions
+of it to his own tests; to distrust it still more when even small
+portions fail to answer his tests, and to reject it altogether when
+the percentage of detected error is large. He learns, in fact, what
+Huxley called the duty of doubt.
+
+This duty has not been universally accepted. In the history of
+Christian civilisation (and a parallel series of events might be
+portrayed from the history of other civilisations), many great
+institutions and very many great and good men have condemned and
+feared the habit and attitude of doubt in all its forms. Certain
+doctrines believed to be of supreme importance to mankind were held to
+rest on authority independent of, and perhaps not susceptible to, the
+kind of testing employed in science. Around these doctrines there
+grew, in time, a body of traditions, customs, new dogmas, and
+fantasies; and the duty of belief in the first was extended to cover
+the whole system, the central jewel as well as the accretions and
+encrustations of time. The domain of religious authority was extended
+to the whole field of human thought and of human action, and the more
+unreasonable the dominion became, the more strenuously was the duty of
+belief urged. The Protestant Reformation was one of the great stages
+in the conflict for freedom against the universal tyranny that had
+arisen, but the reformers very naturally retained a considerable
+portion of the bias against which they had fought. In Protestant
+countries, in the first half of this century, the duty of belief in
+the Protestant doctrines, traditions, philosophy, history, and
+attitude to science reigned supreme, and all weapons, from legitimate
+argument to abusive invective and social ostracism, were employed
+against those who acted in accordance with the duty of doubt.
+Allegations of "unsoundness" or of "free thinking" became barriers to
+success in life, and those against whom they were made became lowered
+in the esteem of their fellows.
+
+At the present time, when the advance of science and of civilisation
+has almost won the battle for freedom of thought, it is difficult to
+realise the strength of the forces against which Huxley and many
+others had to fight. Huxley himself said with perfect justice: "I
+hardly know of a great physical truth whose universal reception has
+not been preceded by an epoch in which most estimable persons have
+maintained that the phenomena investigated were directly dependent on
+the Divine Will, and that the attempt to investigate them was not
+only futile but blasphemous." As a particular instance of this he
+cited some episodes in the history of geological science.
+
+     "At the present time, it is difficult to persuade serious
+     scientific enquirers to occupy themselves, in any way, with the
+     Noachian Deluge. They look at you with a smile and a shrug, and
+     say they have more important matters to attend to than mere
+     antiquarianism. But it was not so in my youth. At that time
+     geologists and biologists could hardly follow to the end any path
+     of enquiry without finding the way blocked by Noah and his ark,
+     or by the first chapter of Genesis; and it was a serious matter,
+     in this country at any rate, for a man to be suspected of
+     doubting the literal truth of the Diluvial or any other
+     Pentateuchal history. The fiftieth anniversary of the foundation
+     of the Geological Club (in 1824) was, if I remember rightly, the
+     last occasion on which the late Sir Charles Lyell spoke to even
+     so small a public as the members of that body. Our veteran leader
+     lighted up once more; and, referring to the difficulties which
+     beset his early efforts to create a rational science of geology,
+     spoke, with his wonted clearness and vigour, of the social
+     ostracism which pursued him after the publication of the
+     _Principles of Geology_, in 1830, on account of the obvious
+     tendency of that noble work to discredit the Pentateuchal
+     accounts of the Creation and the Deluge. If my younger
+     contemporaries find this hard to believe, I may refer them to a
+     grave book _On the Doctrine of the Deluge_, published eight years
+     later, and dedicated by the author to his father, the then
+     Archbishop of York. The first chapter refers to the treatment of
+     the 'Mosaic Deluge,' by Dr. Buckland and Mr. Lyell, in the
+     following terms: 'Their respect for revealed religion has
+     prevented them from arraying themselves openly against the
+     Scriptural account of it--much less do they deny its truth--but
+     they are in a great hurry to escape from the consideration of it,
+     and evidently concur in the opinion of Linnaeus, that no proofs
+     whatever of the Deluge are to be discovered in the structure of
+     the earth.' And after an attempt to reply to some of Lyell's
+     arguments, which it would be cruel to reproduce, the writer
+     continues:--'When, therefore, upon such slender grounds, it is
+     determined, in answer to those who insist on its universality,
+     that the Mosaic Deluge must be considered a preternatural event,
+     far beyond the reach of philosophical enquiry; not only as to the
+     causes employed to produce it, but as to the effects most likely
+     to result from it; that determination wears an aspect of
+     scepticism, which, however much soever it may be unintentional in
+     the mind of the writer, yet cannot but produce an evil impression
+     on those who are already predisposed to carp and cavil at the
+     evidence of Revelation.'"
+
+The great evil of authority was its tendency to erect itself into some
+form of infallibility of universal application. When, for a time, the
+geological victory was won, and the supporters of authority had
+comforted themselves with reconciliations, there arose the much
+greater and more serious opposition between authority and the
+conceptions involved in evolution. Huxley, as we have seen in an
+earlier chapter, found that all the old weapons of authority were
+resumed with a renewed assurance, and his advocacy of the duty of
+doubt became not merely the defence of a great principle but a means
+of self-defence. The conception of infallible authority had been
+transferred by Protestants from the Church to the Bible, and against
+this Huxley strove with all his might. It is convenient to reserve a
+full treatment of Huxley's attitude to the Bible for a separate
+chapter, but at this point a quotation will shew his general view.
+
+[Illustration: SIR CHARLES LYELL]
+
+     "The truth is that the pretension to infallibility, by whomsoever
+     made, has done endless mischief; with impartial malignity it has
+     proved a curse, alike to those who have made it and those who
+     have accepted it; and its most baneful shape is book
+     infallibility. For sacerdotal corporations and schools of
+     philosophy are able, under due compulsion of opinion, to retreat
+     from positions that have become untenable; while the dead hand of
+     a book sets and stiffens, amidst texts and formulae, until it
+     becomes a mere petrifaction, fit only for that function of
+     stumbling-block, which it so admirably performs. Wherever
+     bibliolatry has prevailed, bigotry and cruelty have accompanied
+     it. It lies at the root of the deep-seated, sometimes disguised,
+     but never absent, antagonism of all varieties of ecclesiasticism
+     to the freedom of thought and to the spirit of scientific
+     investigation."
+
+Moreover, Presbyter is but Priest writ large, and the Protestant
+clergy were the leaders in denunciation of every person and every
+branch of investigation or of thought in any way connected with
+evolution. Huxley was no respecter of persons, and, following the
+example of Darwin, he was ready to study carefully any arguments for
+or against any scientific doctrines by whomsoever or howsoever brought
+forward. The right of criticism and duty of doubt, which he insisted
+on for himself, he was extremely willing to extend to others, and, as
+a matter of fact he was on terms of intimate friendship with some of
+his most distinguished clerical opponents. But to an extent which it
+is almost impossible now to realise, the clergy generally abused their
+legitimate position and authority, and demanded or assumed a right to
+give authoritative opinions on questions which did not come within
+their domain. It was the old attempt of the Church to make its
+authority felt in all departments of thought and of action, and the
+attempt was made in the traditional fashion. Questions of fact were
+associated with questions of morality, and those who held one view as
+to the meaning and implication of certain facts were denounced as
+wicked. Huxley at once carried the war into the enemy's own country:
+
+     "And, seeing how large a share of this clamour is raised by the
+     clergy of one denomination or another, may I say, in conclusion,
+     that it really would be well if ecclesiastical persons would
+     reflect that ordination, whatever deep-seated graces it may
+     confer, has never been observed to be followed by any visible
+     increase in the learning or the logic of its subject. Making a
+     man a Bishop, or entrusting him with the office of ministering to
+     even the largest of Presbyterian congregations, or setting him up
+     to lecture to a church congress, really does not in the smallest
+     degree augment such title to respect as his opinions may
+     intrinsically possess. And when such a man presumes on an
+     authority, which was conferred on him for other purposes, to sit
+     in judgment on matters his incompetence to deal with which is
+     patent, it is permissible to ignore his sacerdotal pretensions,
+     and to tell him, as one would tell a mere, common, unconsecrated
+     layman: that it is not necessary for any man to occupy himself
+     with problems of this kind unless he so choose; life is filled
+     full enough with the performance of its ordinary and obvious
+     duties. But that, if a man elect to become a judge of these grave
+     questions; still more if he assume the responsibility of
+     attaching praise or blame to his fellow-men for the conclusions
+     at which they arrive touching them, he will commit a sin more
+     grievous than most breaches of the decalogue, unless he avoid a
+     lazy reliance upon the information that is gathered by prejudice
+     and filtered through passion, unless he go back to the prime
+     sources of knowledge--the facts of Nature, and the thoughts of
+     those wise men who for generations past have been her best
+     interpreters."
+
+In the campaign for absolute freedom of thought, for the duty of not
+believing anything except on sufficient evidence, Huxley was
+frequently met by an argument of superficial strength, and which no
+doubt was in the minds of many of his clerical opponents. In the minds
+of a majority of people, it was said, and particularly of slightly
+educated people, the reasons for right conduct and the distinctions
+between right and wrong are firmly associated with the Bible and with
+religion. If you allow doubts as to the absolute veracity of the
+Bible, or as to the supernatural origin of religion to reach such
+persons, you run a grave risk that they will reflect the uncertainty
+on the canons of morality. In taking from them what you believe to be
+false, inevitably you will unsettle their ideas on moral questions
+although you might be in full agreement as to these moral questions.
+Huxley refused to accept the asserted association between morality and
+particular metaphysical or religious doctrines.
+
+     "Many ingenious persons now appear to consider that the
+     incompatibility of pantheism, of materialism, and of any doubt
+     about the immortality of the soul, with religion and morality is
+     to be held as an axiomatic truth. I confess that I have a certain
+     difficulty in accepting this dogma. For the Stoics were
+     notoriously materialists and pantheists of the most extreme
+     character; and while no strict Stoic believed in the eternal
+     duration of the individual soul, some even denied its persistence
+     after death. Yet it is equally certain, that, of all gentile
+     philosophies, Stoicism exhibits the highest ethical development,
+     is animated by the most religious spirit, and has exerted the
+     profoundest influence upon the moral and religious development
+     not merely of the best men among the Romans, but among the
+     moderns down to our own day."
+
+He held the view now generally taken by students of the history of
+man, that standards of conduct and religious beliefs arose in separate
+ways and developed independently, and that it was only comparatively
+recently that "religion took morality under its protection." But he
+met the argument in a still more direct fashion by rejecting entirely
+the possibility or advisability of founding any system of ethics upon
+a false basis.
+
+     "It is very clear to me," he wrote, "that, as Beelzebub is not
+     to be cast out by Beelzebub, so morality is not to be established
+     by immorality. It is, we are told, the special peculiarity of the
+     devil that he was a liar from the beginning. If we set out in
+     life with pretending to know that which we do not know; with
+     professing to accept for proof evidence which we are well aware
+     is inadequate; with wilfully shutting our eyes and our ears to
+     facts which militate against this or that comfortable hypothesis;
+     we are assuredly doing our best to deserve the same character."
+
+Freedom of thought meant for Huxley all that is best in liberalism
+applied to life. In an essay on Joseph Priestley, he described the
+condition of affairs in England last century, when scientific
+investigation and all forms of independent thinking laboured under the
+most heavy restrictions that could be imposed by dominant
+ecclesiastical and civil prejudice. He pointed out the astounding
+changes between these times and the times of to-day.
+
+     "If we ask," he wrote, "what is the deeper meaning of all these
+     vast changes, there can be but one reply. They mean that reason
+     has asserted and exercised her primacy over all the provinces of
+     human activity; that ecclesiastical authority has been relegated
+     to its proper place; that the good of the governed has been
+     finally recognised as the end of government, and the complete
+     responsibility of governors to the people as its means; and that
+     the dependence of natural phenomena in general on the laws of
+     action of what we call matter has become an axiom."
+
+The common ground of those who advocate the duty of belief and those
+who insist on the duty of doubt is clear. Both are agreed as to the
+necessity of accepting whatever has sufficient evidence to support it;
+both agree that there is room for doubt though not necessarily for
+rejection in cases where the evidence is contaminated or insufficient.
+It is in the application that the difference lies. The scientific
+theologian admits the agnostic principle, however widely his results
+may differ from those reached by the majority of agnostics. "But, as
+between agnosticism and ecclesiasticism, or, as our neighbours across
+the Channel call it, clericalism, there can be neither peace nor
+truce. The cleric asserts that it is morally wrong not to believe
+certain propositions, whatever the results of a strict scientific
+investigation of the evidence of these propositions. He tells us that
+"religious error is, in itself, of an immoral nature" (Newman). It
+necessarily follows that, for him, the attainment of faith, not the
+ascertainment of truth, is the highest aim of mental life."
+
+Huxley helped largely in the modern movement which has made it
+impossible to blame people for doubt, and this was what he strove for
+most strenuously. Freedom of thought, like freedom of the Press, by no
+means implies that what is free must necessarily be good. In both
+cases there may be a rank growth of weeds, nurtured in vicious
+imagination, and finding a ready market with the credulous mob. For
+the detection and rejection of these, the critical method of science
+serves as well as it does against the loftier errors supported by
+authority.
+
+It was on Descartes and on Hume that Huxley founded the precise form
+in which he urged the duty of doubt, and his exact words are worth
+quoting.
+
+     "It was in 1619, while meditating in solitary winter quarters,
+     that Descartes (being about the same age as Hume when he wrote
+     the _Treatise on Human Nature_) made that famous resolution, to
+     "take nothing for truth without clear knowledge that it is such,"
+     the great practical effect of which is the sanctification of
+     doubt; the recognition that the profession of belief in
+     propositions, of the truth of which there is no sufficient
+     evidence, is immoral; the discrowning of authority as such; the
+     repudiation of the confusion, beloved of sophists of all sorts,
+     between free assent and merely piously gagged dissent, and the
+     admission of the obligation to reconsider even one's own axioms
+     on due demand."
+
+This was the healthy and active scepticism which took no direct
+pleasure in doubting, but used doubt only as a means of making
+knowledge doubly secure, and which prevented false ideas being
+bolstered up by privilege or by tyranny.
+
+     "The development of exact natural knowledge in all its vast
+     range, from physics to history and criticism, is the consequence
+     of the working out, in this province, of the resolution to take
+     nothing for truth without clear knowledge that it is such; to
+     consider all beliefs open to criticism; to regard the value of
+     authority as neither greater nor less than as much as it can
+     prove itself to be worth. The modern spirit is not the spirit
+     'which always denies,' delighting only in destruction; still less
+     is it that which builds castles in the air rather than not
+     construct; it is the spirit which works and will work 'without
+     haste and without rest,' gathering harvest after harvest of truth
+     into its barns and devouring error with unquenchable fire."
+
+It is a special weakness of the modern human race to love inventing
+descriptive names by which particular modes of thought may be
+classified and labelled. In order to meet this demand, Huxley invented
+the word _agnosticism_, to serve as a label for his own attitude. The
+word rapidly became popular, and attempts were made to read into it
+far more than its inventor implied. For him it was no definite body of
+doctrine, no creed in any positive sense. It merely expressed the
+attitude he assumed towards all problems on which he regarded the
+evidence as insufficient. It was a habit of mind rather than a series
+of opinions or beliefs; an intellectual weapon and not materials on
+which to exercise the intellect.
+
+Hume had written that "the justest and most plausible objection
+against a considerable part of metaphysics was that they are not
+properly a science, but arise either from the fruitless efforts of
+human vanity, which would penetrate into subjects utterly inaccessible
+to the human understanding, or from the craft of popular
+superstitions, which, being unable to defend themselves on fair
+ground, raise these entangling brambles to cover and protect them." In
+these considerations he found reason not for leaving superstition in
+possession of its ground, but for making a bold and arduous attack
+upon it in its haunts. The great difficulty in the way of carrying the
+war into the enemy's own camp was that in those days so-called science
+was itself cumbered with many illogical and metaphysical ideas, and
+for the first time in the present century the great advances of
+physical science, and, in particular, the renewed life poured by
+Darwin into the doctrine of evolution, made it possible to bring a new
+series of exact arguments against hazy metaphysical dogmas. The
+militant side of agnosticism was directed against the camp of
+superstition and armed with the new weapons of exact science. Its
+stern refusal of belief without adequate evidence was a challenge to
+all the supporters of the sanguine philosophy which replaces proof by
+assured and emphatic statement and restatement. It is possible,
+although rare, for those who hold a positive belief upon evidence,
+howsoever insufficient, to leave their doubting neighbours in peace,
+and these neighbours, assured in their own beliefs, equally positive
+and perhaps equally unfounded, may return the lazy tolerance. But the
+agnostic position is at once a reproof and a challenge to all who do
+not hold it. Perhaps no one has ever put the agnostic attitude more
+clearly than Kant when he wrote that "the greatest and perhaps sole
+use of all philosophy of pure reason, is, after all, merely negative,
+since it serves, not as an organ on (for the enlargement of
+knowledge), but as a discipline for its delimitation: and instead of
+discovering truth has only the modest merit of preventing error." It
+is precisely because it is addressed against error that agnosticism
+brings not peace but a sword; precisely because, instead of adding to
+the beliefs of the world, it seeks to examine them and perhaps by the
+examination to diminish them, that it aroused passionate resentment.
+In this respect it stands entirely separate and apart from any other
+similar term, as all these implied a definite acceptance or rejection
+of some definite propositions. Agnosticism means none of these things.
+Huxley said of it:
+
+     "Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed but a method, the essence
+     of which lies in a rigorous application of a single principle.
+     That principle is of great antiquity; it is as old as Socrates;
+     as old as the writer who said, 'Try all things, hold fast by that
+     which is good'; it is the foundation of the Reformation, which
+     simply illustrated the axiom that every man should be able to
+     give reason for the faith that is in him; it is the great
+     principle of Descartes; it is the fundamental axiom of modern
+     science. Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of
+     the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you,
+     without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In
+     matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are
+     certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable. That I take
+     to be the agnostic faith, which, if a man keep whole and
+     undefiled, he shall not be ashamed to look the universe in the
+     face, whatever the future may have in store for him."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE BIBLE AND MIRACLES
+
+     Why Huxley Came to Write about the Bible--A _Magna Charta_ of the
+     Poor--The Theological Use of the Bible--The Doctrine of Biblical
+     Infallibility--The Bible and Science--The Three Hypotheses of the
+     Earth's History--Changes in the Past Proved--The Creation
+     Hypothesis--Gladstone on Genesis--Genesis not a Record of
+     Fact--The Hypothesis of Evolution--The New Testament--Theory of
+     Inspiration--Reliance on the Miraculous--The Continuity of Nature
+     no _a priori_ Argument against Miracles--Possibilities and
+     Impossibilities--Miracles a Question of Evidence--Praise of the
+     Bible.
+
+
+Huxley was by training and habit of mind a naturalist, busy with
+dissections and drawings, pursuing his branch of science for itself
+and with no concern as to its possible relation to philosophical
+speculation or religious dogma. It is possible that, had his life been
+passed under different conditions, his intellectual activities might
+have been spent entirely on his scientific work. As it was, he became
+almost more widely known as a hostile critic of accepted religious
+doctrine than as a man of science. Many causes contributed to this
+effect, but the chief reason was the contemporary attitude of the
+churches to Darwinism. He tells us as a matter of fact that in 1850,
+nine years before the appearance of _The Origin of Species_, he had
+"long done with the Pentateuchal cosmogony which had been impressed on
+his childish understanding as divine truth." In the chapter he
+contributed to the _Life of Darwin_ he wrote that in his opinion "the
+doctrine of evolution does not even come into contact with theism,
+considered as a philosophical doctrine." The reason of his general
+attitude to the Bible was simply that his application to it of the
+agnostic method led him to the view that there was not sufficient
+evidence for the pretensions assigned to it; the reason of his coming
+forward as a public and active champion of his views in this matter
+was partly to make a counter attack on the enemies of science, and
+partly his innate respect for the propagation of truth. He had the
+inevitable respect of an Englishman for the English Bible as one of
+the greatest books in our language, and we have seen how he had
+advocated its adoption in schools. He had the veneration for its
+ethical contents common to the best thinkers of all ages since it came
+into existence, and few writers have ever employed loftier or more
+direct language to express their respect and admiration. As a
+venerator of freedom and of liberty he regarded the Bible as the
+greatest text-book of freedom.
+
+     "Throughout the history of the Western world," he wrote, "the
+     Scriptures, Jewish and Christian, have been the great instigators
+     of revolt against the worse forms of clerical and political
+     despotism. The Bible has been the _Magna Charta_ of the poor and
+     of the oppressed; down to modern times no State has had a
+     constitution in which the interests of the people are so largely
+     taken into account, in which the duties, so much more than the
+     privileges, of rulers are insisted upon, as that drawn up for
+     Israel in Deuteronomy and in Leviticus; nowhere is the
+     fundamental truth that the welfare of the State, in the long
+     run, depends on the uprightness of the citizen so strongly laid
+     down. Assuredly the Bible talks no trash about the rights of man;
+     but it insists on the equality of duties, on the liberty to bring
+     about that righteousness which is somewhat different from
+     struggling for 'rights'; on the fraternity of taking thought for
+     one's neighbour as for oneself."
+
+It was not against the Bible but against the applications made of it
+and implications read into it that he strove.
+
+     "In this nineteenth century, as at the dawn of modern physical
+     science, the cosmogony of the semi-barbarous Hebrew is the
+     incubus of the philosopher and the opprobrium of the orthodox.
+     Who shall number the patient and earnest seekers after truth,
+     from the days of Galileo until now, whose lives have been
+     embittered and their good name blasted by the mistaken zeal of
+     Bibliolaters? Who shall count the host of weaker men whose sense
+     of truth has been destroyed in the effort to harmonise
+     impossibilities--whose life has been wasted in the attempt to
+     force the generous new wine of science into the old bottles of
+     Judaism, compelled by the outcry of the same strong party? It is
+     true that if philosophers have suffered, their cause has been
+     amply avenged. Extinguished theologians lie about the cradle of
+     every science as the strangled snakes beside that of Hercules;
+     and history records that whenever science and orthodoxy have been
+     fairly opposed, the latter has been forced to retire from the
+     lists, bleeding and crushed, if not annihilated; scotched, if not
+     slain. But orthodoxy is the Bourbon of the world of thought. It
+     learns not, neither can it forget; and though, at present,
+     bewildered and afraid to move, it is as willing as ever to insist
+     that the first chapter of Genesis contains the beginning and the
+     end of sound science; and to visit, with such petty thunderbolts
+     as its half-paralysed hands can hurl, those who refuse to degrade
+     Nature to the level of primitive Judaism."
+
+These words were written in 1860 and events have moved rapidly since
+Huxley wrote them. There is now practically no religious body
+containing a proportion of educated persons which does not allow
+within it a very wide range of opinion as to the inspiration of the
+Scriptures, the Biblical account of the Creation, the miraculous
+events of the Old Testament and the recorded miracles of the New.
+Within the last few months, Dr. St. George Mivart, a distinguished
+Catholic zooelogist and long an opponent of Huxley, has declared that
+within the Catholic Church itself a number of educated persons are
+prepared to accept most of Huxley's positions, as well as views more
+extremely iconoclastic than any advanced by Huxley. Although Dr.
+Mivart's outspoken words have called down on him the official thunders
+of Rome, it is an open secret that many good Catholics think this
+attempted exclusion of modern knowledge to be fraught with grave
+danger to the Church. In these matters the Protestant churches have
+advanced much farther.
+
+It was very different when Huxley wrote. The first and gravest
+difficulty placed in the way of science was the asserted infallibility
+of the Scriptures. In Catholic theology, at least until late in this
+century, the general tendency has been to regard the Bible rather as a
+quarry for doctrine than as a direct means of grace. The theory of
+religion rested on two pillars: the inspired Scriptures containing the
+necessary information and the inspired Church to interpret the
+Scriptures. Protestant theology had rejected the infallible
+inspiration of the Church, and, in consequence, had thrown a greater
+burden on the Scriptures. The Scriptures became the Word of God,
+verbally and literally true; in its extreme form this doctrine
+reverted almost to the ancient Rabbinical maxim that even the vowel
+points and accents were of divine origin. In practice, if not in
+theory, the halo was extended to cover even the marginal chronology,
+then a familiar feature in the editions of the English Bible. The
+present writer, even so lately as in 1888 was reproved with violence
+by a clergyman of considerable education and position for expressing a
+doubt as to the accuracy of these dates. Obviously there was no common
+measure between a church holding such views and advancing science. War
+was inevitable, until one side or the other should give way.
+
+Huxley conducted the attack in a series of controversies extending
+over many years, and in which his opponents were well-known laymen
+such as Mr. Gladstone, Dr. St. George Mivart, the Duke of Argyll, and
+many clerical dignitaries of different denominations. The most
+important of his contributions to these controversies, as well as
+several isolated essays and addresses, have been collected in two
+volumes, _Science and the Hebrew Tradition_, and _Science and the
+Christian Tradition_.
+
+The first stage in the controversy, and the stage most immediately
+pressing, was to shew that the Bible was misleading and inaccurate as
+a record of scientific fact, and that therefore it could not be
+brought forward as evidence against scientific doctrines supported by
+scientific evidence. The vital matter in this was the account given in
+Genesis of the origin of the world. If that disappeared then the whole
+ground was gained; science would be left free in its own sphere.
+
+In a lecture on Evolution, delivered in 1876, Huxley began by
+discussing the possibilities as to the past history of nature. He
+believed that there were only three hypotheses which had been
+entertained or which well could be entertained respecting this
+history. The first was to assume that phenomena of nature similar to
+those exhibited by the world at present had always existed; in fact
+that the universe had existed from all eternity in what might be
+termed, broadly, its present condition. The second hypothesis was that
+the present condition of things had had only a limited duration, and
+that, at some period of the past, what we now know came into existence
+without any relation of natural causation to an antecedent state. The
+third hypothesis also assumed that the present condition of things had
+had a limited duration, but it supposed that that condition had been
+derived by natural processes from an antecedent condition, the
+hypothesis attempting to set no limits to the series of changes.
+
+In a certain sense, the first hypothesis recalls the doctrine of
+uniformitarianism, which Hutton and Lyell had shaped from a rational
+interpretation of the present conditions of nature. But, although it
+is no longer necessary to imagine the past history of the earth as a
+series of gigantic catastrophes, yet the whole record of science is
+against the supposition that anything like the existing state of
+nature has had an eternal duration. The record of fossils shews that
+the living population of the earth has been entirely different at
+different epochs. Geological history shews that, whether these changes
+have come about by swift catastrophes, or by slow, enduring movements,
+the surface of the globe, its distribution into land and water, the
+character of these areas and the conditions of climate to which they
+have been subjected have passed through changes on a colossal scale.
+Moreover, if we look from this earth to the universe of stars and suns
+and planets, we see everywhere evidence of unceasing change. If we use
+scientific observation and reason, if we employ on the problem the
+only means we possess for attempting its solution, we cannot accept
+the hypothesis that the present condition of nature has been eternal.
+
+     "So far as that limited revelation of the nature of things, which
+     we call scientific knowledge, has yet gone, it tends, with
+     constantly increasing emphasis, to the belief that, not merely
+     the world of plants, but that of animals; not merely living
+     things but the whole fabric of the earth; not merely our planet
+     but the whole solar system, not merely our star and its
+     satellites, but the millions of similar bodies which bear witness
+     to the order which pervades boundless space and has endured
+     through boundless time, are all working out their predestined
+     courses of evolution."
+
+The second hypothesis is familiar to us in the sacred records of many
+religious and in the Hebrew Scriptures. Most of these have a
+fundamental similarity, inasmuch as they offer pictures in which the
+mode and order of creation are given in the minutest detail and with
+the simplest kind of anthropomorphism; in which the Creator is
+represented with familiar human characteristics. But these general
+considerations, so obvious now that we have learned to read the Bible
+narrative without passion or prejudice, were not plain to the early
+opponents of evolution, and it was necessary, step by step, to shew
+not only that the narrative in Genesis could not be reconciled with
+known facts if it were accepted in its literal meaning, but that the
+most strained interpretation of the language failed to bring it into
+accordance with scientific truth. Mr. Gladstone was the latest and
+most vigorous of those who attempted to reconcile Genesis with modern
+knowledge, and in his controversy with Huxley he brought to bear all
+the resources of an acute intellect trained by long practice in the
+devices of argument and inspired by a lofty if mistaken enthusiasm. In
+the course of his argument he wrote:
+
+
+      "But the question is not here of a lofty poem, or a skilfully
+     constructed narrative; it is whether natural science, in the
+     patient exercise of its high calling to examine facts, finds that
+     the works of God cry out against what we have fondly believed to
+     be His word and tell another tale; or whether, in this nineteenth
+     century of Christian progress, it substantially echoes back the
+     majestic sound, which, before it existed as a pursuit, went forth
+     into all lands.
+
+      First, looking largely at the latter portion of the narrative,
+     which describes the creation of living organisms, and waiving
+     details, on some of which (as in v. 24) the Septuagint seems to
+     vary from the Hebrew, there is a grand fourfold division, set
+     forth in an orderly succession of times as follows: on the fifth
+     day
+         1. The water-population.
+         2. The air-population,
+      and, on the sixth day,
+         3. The land-population of animals.
+         4. The land-population consummated in man.
+
+      Now this same fourfold order is understood to have been so
+     affirmed in our time by natural science, that it may be taken as
+     a demonstrated conclusion and established fact."
+
+The defence itself shewed that already a large part of the original
+position had been abandoned. The literal meaning and belief in
+detailed accuracy were given up and Mr. Gladstone sought to establish
+only a general correspondence between the Biblical narrative and the
+results of science. But even in that form Huxley shewed the defence to
+be untenable.
+
+     "I can meet the statement in the last paragraph of the above
+     citation," he replied, "with nothing but a direct negative. If I
+     know anything at all about the results attained by the natural
+     science of our time, it is a 'demonstrated conclusion and
+     established fact' that the fourfold order given by Mr. Gladstone
+     is not that in which the evidence at our disposal tends to shew
+     that the water, air, and land populations of our globe made their
+     appearance."
+
+With the most voluminous detail, he proceeds to shew that there is no
+possible relation between the order implied by the narrative and the
+order as revealed by science. Let us sum up, by two quotations, the
+result of the whole controversy. First, the literal meaning is
+untenable.
+
+     "The question whether the earth and the immediate progenitors of
+     its present living population were made in six natural days or
+     not is no longer one on which two opinions can be held. The fact
+     that it did not come so into being stands upon as sound a basis
+     as any fact of history whatever. It is not true that existing
+     plants and animals came into being within three days of the
+     creation of the earth out of nothing, for it is certain that
+     innumerable generations of other plants and animals lived upon
+     the earth before its present population. And when, Sunday after
+     Sunday, men who profess to be our instructors in righteousness
+     read out the statement, 'In six days the Lord made heaven and
+     earth, the sea, and all that in them is,' in innumerable
+     churches, they are either propagating what they may easily know,
+     and, therefore, are bound to know, to be falsities; or, if they
+     use the words in some non-natural sense, they fall below the
+     moral standard of the much abused Jesuit."
+
+The attenuated meaning equally must be given up.
+
+     "Even if they (the reconcilers) now allow that the words 'the
+     evening and the morning' have not the least reference to a
+     natural day, but mean a period of any number of millions of years
+     that may be necessary; even if they are driven to admit that the
+     word 'creation,' which so many millions of pious Jews and
+     Christians have held, and still hold, to mean a sudden act of the
+     Deity, signifies a process of gradual evolution of one species
+     from another, extending through immeasurable time; even if they
+     are willing to grant that the asserted coincidence of the order
+     of nature with the 'fourfold order' ascribed to Genesis is an
+     obvious error instead of an established truth, they are surely
+     prepared to make a last stand upon the conception which underlies
+     the whole, and which constitutes the essence of Mr. Gladstone's
+     'fourfold division, set forth in an orderly succession of times.'
+     It is that the animal species which compose the water-population,
+     the air-population, and the land-population, respectively,
+     originated during three distinct and successive periods of time,
+     and only during these periods of time.... But even this
+     sublimated essence of the Pentateuchal doctrine remains as
+     discordant with natural science as ever."
+
+There remains the third, or evolutionary hypothesis regarding the
+origin of the existing order of nature. As Huxley held it, it was
+rigidly limited within the possibilities afforded by the agnostic
+attitude. With regard to the real nature, the origin and destiny of
+the whole universe, there was not sufficient evidence before the human
+mind, if indeed the human mind were capable of receiving such
+evidence, to come to any conclusion. For the rest, for the actual
+condition of the earth itself, science was gradually accumulating
+overwhelming evidence in favour of a continuous evolution, under
+natural agencies, from the beginning of life to the existing forms of
+animals and plants, and the actual origin of life from inorganic
+matter under similarly natural agencies was becoming more and more a
+legitimate inference.
+
+Huxley's relation to the New Testament may be summed up in few words.
+It was simply that there was not sufficient evidence for ascribing to
+it the supernatural sanction demanded for it by dogmatic theology.
+
+     "From the dawn of scientific Biblical criticism until the present
+     day, the evidence against the long-cherished notion that the
+     three synoptic gospels are the work of three independent authors,
+     each prompted by Divine inspiration, has steadily accumulated,
+     until, at the present time, there is no visible escape from the
+     conclusion that each of the three is a compilation consisting of
+     a groundwork common to all three--the three-fold tradition; and
+     of a superstructure consisting, firstly, of matter common to it
+     with one of the others, and, secondly, of matter common to each."
+
+Again:--"There is no proof, nothing more than a fair presumption, that
+any one of the gospels existed, in the state in which we find it in
+the authorised version of the Bible, before the second century, or, in
+other words, sixty or seventy years after the events recorded." These
+considerations with slight differences in details are now practically
+admitted among the abler apologists, with the result that, as Huxley
+claimed, the New Testament, like the Old, must be treated as
+literature rather than as Dogma. As Literature everyone has the right
+to examine the contents critically, and, considering the importance
+attributed to the contents, the right becomes a duty. No doubt, had
+Huxley not lived there would have been others equally ready and
+equally able to gain the battle for freedom of thought in its special
+application to the claim of the Bible to stand in the way of the
+advance of scientific knowledge; but as it is, it cannot be denied
+that the existing prevalence of liberal views, inside and outside the
+churches, on the nature and interpretation of the Scriptures is
+largely due to him.
+
+After the question of inspiration, the most striking feature of the
+Bible is its appeal to miracles and the miraculous element. It is now
+necessary to examine the position assumed by Huxley towards these. Two
+great _a priori_ difficulties have been brought against accepting any
+record of miracles as true. The first of these is very simple,
+depending on the history of all times and peoples. It is that the
+human race has shewn itself universally credulous in this matter. It
+has cried "Wolf!" so readily, so honestly, and on so many occasions
+that the cry has ceased to carry conviction with it. Every religion
+has its series of miraculous events; every savage tribe and every
+uneducated race has its miracle-workers implicitly accepted. In
+mediaeval and modern Europe up to our own times, miracles have been so
+constantly recorded on testimony of such undoubted integrity that we
+must either believe that miracles can be performed by numberless
+persons with no other claim to special regard, or that it is
+singularly easy to get false but honest evidence regarding them.
+Huxley supported the latter alternative strongly, and held the view
+that to believe in any particular miracles would require evidence very
+much more direct and very much stronger than would be necessary in the
+case of inherently probable events.
+
+The second _a priori_ objection to the credibility of miracles has
+been urged more strongly, but was not accepted by Huxley. It is that
+miracles are inherently incredible inasmuch as they are "violations of
+the order of nature." Hume, attacking miracles, had made this
+objection the chief ground of his argument. Huxley paid a logical
+respect, at least as great, to the continuity of nature.
+
+     "When the experience of generation after generation is recorded,
+     and a single book tells us more than Methuselah could have
+     learned, had he spent every waking hour of his thousand years in
+     learning; when apparent disorders are found to be only the
+     recurrent pulses of a slow-working order, and the wonder of a
+     year becomes the commonplace of a century; when repeated and
+     minute examination never reveals a break in the chain of causes
+     and effects; and the whole edifice of practical life is built
+     upon our faith in its continuity; the belief that that chain has
+     never been broken and will never be broken, becomes one of the
+     strongest and most justifiable of human convictions. And it must
+     be admitted to be a reasonable request, if we ask those who would
+     have us put faith in the actual occurrence of interruptions of
+     that order, to produce evidence in favour of their view, not only
+     equal, but superior, in weight, to that which leads us to adopt
+     ours."
+
+But out of the mouth of Hume himself he declared against making the
+recorded experience of man, however lengthy and impressive, a
+necessary ground for rejecting the possibility of the miraculous. Hume
+had said, "Whatever is intelligible and can be distinctly conceived
+implies no contradiction, and can never be proved false by any
+demonstration, argument, or reasoning, _a priori_." This or the like
+applies to most of the recorded miracles. Huxley was extremely careful
+not to assert that they were incredible merely because they might
+involve conditions outside our existing experience. It is a vulgar
+mistake, for which science certainly gives no warrant, to assert that
+things are impossible because they contradict our experience. In such
+a sense many of the most common modern conveniences of life would have
+seemed impossible a century ago. To travel with safety sixty miles an
+hour, to talk through the telephone with a friend an hundred miles
+away, to receive intelligible messages across the Atlantic by a cable,
+and, still more, to communicate by wireless telegraphy would have
+seemed impossible until recently. At the present time, the conversion
+of a baser metal into gold would be called impossible by everyone with
+a little knowledge of elementary chemistry. This last example leads
+admirably to a right understanding of the scientific view of
+impossibility. The older alchemists, partly from ignorance and partly
+from credulity, believed absolutely in the possibility of transmuting
+the metals. The advance of chemical science led to definite
+conceptions of the differences between compounds and elementary
+bodies, and of the independence of these elements. The methods and
+reasoning of the alchemists became absurd, and no one would attempt
+seriously to transmute the metals on their lines. These advances,
+however, do not give us the right to assume that the elements are
+absolutely independent, and that transmutation is therefore
+impossible. Some of the most recent progress in chemistry has opened
+up the suggestion that the elements themselves are different
+combinations of a common substance. Huxley applied this particular
+argument to the miracle at the marriage of Cana.
+
+     "You are quite mistaken in supposing that anybody who is
+     acquainted with the possibilities of physical science will
+     undertake categorically to deny that water may be turned into
+     wine. Many very competent judges are inclined to think that the
+     bodies which we have hitherto regarded as elementary are really
+     composite arrangements of the particles of a uniform primitive
+     matter. Supposing that view to be correct, there would be no more
+     theoretical difficulty about turning water into alcohol, ethereal
+     and colouring matters, than there is, at this present moment, any
+     practical difficulty in working other such miracles; as when we
+     turn sugar into alcohol, carbonic acid, glycerine, and succinic
+     acid; or transmute gas-refuse into perfumes rarer than musk and
+     dyes richer than Tyrian purple."
+
+Unless we make the unscientific and preposterous assumption that our
+present knowledge of nature and of natural forces is absolute and
+complete, it is unscientific and illogical to declare at once that any
+supposed events could not have happened merely because they seem to
+have contradicted so-called natural laws.
+
+     "Strictly speaking," Huxley wrote, "I am unaware of anything that
+     has a right to the title of an 'impossibility' except a
+     contradiction in terms. There are impossibilities logical, but
+     none natural. A 'round square,' a 'present past,' 'two parallel
+     lines that intersect,' are impossibilities, because the ideas
+     denoted by the predicates, round, present, intersect, are
+     contradictory of the ideas denoted by the subjects, square, past,
+     parallel. But walking on water, or turning water into wine, or
+     procreation without male intervention, or raising the dead, are
+     plainly not impossibilities in this sense."
+
+The whole matter turns on the question of sufficient evidence.
+
+     "Hume's arguments resolve themselves into a simple statement of
+     the dictates of common sense which may be expressed in this
+     canon: the more a statement of fact conflicts with previous
+     experience, the more complete must be the evidence which is to
+     justify us in believing it."
+
+Again, expressing the same idea in different words, he wrote:
+
+     "Nobody can presume to say what the order of nature must be; all
+     that the widest experience (even if it extended over all past
+     time and through all space) that events had happened in a certain
+     way could justify, would be a proportionately strong expectation
+     that events will go on so happening, and the demand for a
+     proportional strength of evidence in favour of any assertion that
+     they had happened otherwise. It is this weighty consideration,
+     the truth of which everyone who is capable of logical thought
+     must surely admit, which knocks the bottom out of all _a priori_
+     objections either to ordinary 'miracles' or to the efficacy of
+     prayer, in so far as the latter implies the miraculous
+     intervention of a higher power. No one is entitled to say, _a
+     priori_, that prayer for some change in the ordinary course of
+     nature cannot possibly avail."
+
+It was a question of evidence, and not only did the evidence not
+convince Huxley, but the thaumaturgic nature of the Biblical miracles
+provided him with additional reason for refusing to attach any
+extrinsic value to the contents of the book.
+
+On the other hand, although he declined to accept the Bible as a
+miraculous and authentic revelation, again and again he expressed
+himself in the strongest terms as to its value to mankind, and as to
+the impossibility of any scientific advance diminishing in any way
+whatsoever that value.
+
+     "The antagonism between religion and science, about which we hear
+     so much, appears to me to be purely factitious--fabricated, on
+     the one hand, by shortsighted religious people who confound a
+     certain branch of science, theology, with religion; and, on the
+     other, by equally shortsighted scientific people who forget that
+     science takes for its province only that which is susceptible of
+     clear intellectual comprehension; and that, outside the
+     boundaries of that province, they must be content with
+     imagination, with hope, and with ignorance."
+
+And again;
+
+     "In the eighth century B.C., in the heart of a world of
+     idolatrous polytheists, the Hebrew prophets put forth a
+     conception of religion which appears to me to be as wonderful an
+     inspiration of genius as the art of Pheidias or the science of
+     Aristotle. 'And what doth the Lord require of thee, but to do
+     justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?' If
+     any so-called religion takes away from this great saying of
+     Micah, I think it wantonly mutilates, while if it adds thereto, I
+     think it obscures, the perfect ideal of religion."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+ETHICS OF THE COSMOS
+
+     Conduct and Metaphysics--Conventional and Critical Minds--Good
+     and Evil--Huxley's Last Appearance at Oxford--The Ethical Process
+     and the Cosmic Process--Man's Intervention--The Cosmic Process
+     Evil--Ancient Reconciliations--Modern Acceptance of the
+     Difficulties--Criticism of Huxley's Pessimism--Man and his
+     Ethical Aspirations Part of the Cosmos.
+
+
+We have seen that Huxley refused to acquiesce in the current orthodox
+doctrine that our systems of morality rested on a special revelation,
+miraculous in its origin, and vouched for by the recorded miracles of
+its Founder, or by those entrusted by the Founder with miraculous
+power. He supported the view that, historically and actually, there is
+no necessary connection between religion and morality. The one is an
+attempt, in his opinion always unsuccessful, to lift the veil from the
+unseen, to know the unknowable; the other is simply the code that
+social man, through the ages, has elaborated for his own guidance, and
+proved by his own experience. So far as the conduct of life goes, the
+morality of one who accepts the agnostic position with regard to
+revelation and the unseen universe differs in no respect from the code
+taken under the protection of the modern forms of religion. As John
+Morley, in his _Essay on Voltaire_ wrote of such a person:
+
+     "There are new solutions for him, if the old have fallen dumb. If
+     he no longer believe death to be a stroke from the sword of God's
+     justice, but the leaden footfall of an inflexible law of matter,
+     the humility of his awe is deepened, and the tenderness of his
+     pity made holier, that creatures who can love so much should have
+     their days so shut round with a wall of darkness. The purifying
+     anguish of remorse will be stronger, not weaker, when he has
+     trained himself to look upon every wrong in thought, every duty
+     omitted from act, each infringement of the inner spiritual law
+     which humanity is constantly perfecting for its own guidance and
+     advantage, less as a breach of the decrees of an unseen tribunal
+     than as an ungrateful infection weakening and corrupting the
+     future of his brothers."
+
+But there are wider questions than the immediate problems of conduct. A
+certain type of mind finds it almost impossible not to attempt ethical
+judgments on the whole universe, not to speculate whether the Cosmos, as
+we can imagine it from the part of it within the cognisance of man,
+offers a spectacle of moral or immoral or of non-moral significance. In
+the old times of Greece and in the modern world many have been devoid of
+the taste for argument on such subjects. Those who are uninterested in
+these abstract discussions are rarely in opposition to the mode of faith
+surrounding them, as to reject the doctrines held by the majority of
+one's friends and associates implies either a disagreeable disposition
+or an unusual interest in ultimate problems; they are usually orthodox
+according to their environment--Stoics, Epicureans, Jews, Episcopalians,
+Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Mormons, Mohammedans, Buddhists, or
+whatever may be the prevailing dogma around them. The attitude of
+indifference to moral philosophy has practically no relation to what may
+be considered good or bad moral conduct; those characterised by it live
+above or below or round about their own moral standards in a fashion as
+variable as that of moral philosophers. Many of the saints, ancient and
+modern, have been notorious instances; question them as to their faith
+or as to the logical foundation of their renunciations and they will
+tell you in simple honesty or make it plain by their answers that they
+have no head for logic, that they cannot argue, but only know and feel
+their position to be true. In addition to the saints, many of the best
+and most of the pleasant people in the world are of this type.
+
+The type strongly in contrast with the foregoing is found in persons
+of a more strenuous, perhaps more admirable but less agreeable
+character. The savour of acerbity may be a natural attribute of the
+critical character, and it is certainly not lessened where moral
+philosophy is the subject-matter of the criticism. The continual
+search after solutions of problems that may be insoluble at least
+makes the seekers excellent judges of wrong solutions. Like Luther and
+Loyola and Kant, they may be able to satisfy themselves, or, like
+Huxley, they may remain in doubt, but in either case they are
+excellent critics of the solutions of others. They are the firebrands
+of faith or of negation; they are possessed by an intellectual fury
+that will not let them cease from propagandising. They must go through
+the world as missionaries; and the missionary spirit is dual, one side
+zealous to proclaim the new, the other equally zealous to denounce the
+old. But theirs is the great work, "to burn old falsehood bare," to
+tear away the incrustations of time which people have come to accept
+as the thing itself, and in their track new and lively truth springs
+up, as fresh green follows the devastations of fire.
+
+To most of us it seems of sufficient importance and of sufficient
+difficulty to make our decisions in the little eddies of good and evil
+that form as the world-stream breaks round our individual lives.
+Huxley strove to interpret the world-stream itself, to translate its
+movements into the ethical language of man. As knowledge of the forces
+and movements of the Cosmos has increased so has our general
+conception been intensified, our conception of it as a wondrous
+display of power and grandeur and superhuman fixity of order. But are
+the forces of the Cosmos good or evil? Are we, and the Cosmos of which
+we are a part, the sport of changeable and capricious deities, the
+pawns in a game of the gods, as some of the Greeks held; or of a power
+drunkenly malicious, as Heine once cynically suggested; or a
+battle-ground for a force of good and a force of evil as in so many
+Eastern religions? Are we dominated by pure evil, as some dark creeds
+have held, or by pure good, as the religion of the Western world
+teaches? And if we are dominated by pure evil, whence come good and
+the idea of good, or, if by pure good, whence evil and the idea of
+evil?
+
+Huxley's interest in these great problems appears and reappears
+throughout his published writings, but his views are most clearly and
+systematically exposed in his "Romanes" lecture on "Evolution and
+Ethics" delivered and published at Oxford in 1894, and afterwards
+republished with a prefatory essay in the last volume of his
+_Collected Essays_. Not long before his death, Professor Romanes, who
+had come to live in Oxford, founded a University lectureship, the
+purpose of which was that once a year a distinguished man should
+address the University on a subject neither religious nor political.
+Mr. Gladstone was the first lecturer, and, at the suggestion of the
+founder, Huxley was chosen as the second. For years he had been taking
+a special interest in both religion and politics, and he was not a
+little embarrassed by the restrictions imposed by the terms of the
+foundation, for he determined to make ethical science the subject of
+his address, and
+
+     "ethical science is, on all sides, so entangled with religion and
+     politics, that the lecturer who essays to touch the former
+     without coming in contact with either of the latter, needs all
+     the dexterity of an egg-dancer, and may even discover that his
+     sense of clearness and his sense of propriety come into conflict,
+     by no means to the advantage of the former."
+
+As Huxley, on that great occasion, ascended the rostrum in the
+Sheldonian theatre, very white and frail in his scarlet doctor's
+robes, there must have been present in his mind memories of the
+occasion, four-and-thirty years before, when he first addressed an
+audience in the University of Oxford. Then he was a young man, almost
+unknown, rising to lead what seemed a forlorn hope for an idea utterly
+repugnant to most of his hearers. Now, and largely by his own efforts,
+the idea had become an inseparable part of human thought, and Huxley
+himself was the guest to whom the whole University was doing honour.
+Graduates from all parts of England had come to hear what, it was
+feared, might be his last public speech, and practically every member
+of the University who could gain admission was present. The press of
+the world attended to report his words as if they were those of a
+great political leader, about to decide the fate of nations. Although
+his voice had lost much of its old sonorous reach, and although the
+old clear rhythms were occasionally broken by hesitancies, the magic
+of his personality oriented to him every face.
+
+It is a curious and striking circumstance, a circumstance fully
+recognised by Huxley himself, that in this exposition of his ethical
+conception of the Cosmos he reconstructed, on the lines of his
+evolutionary philosophy one of the oldest and most widespread
+theories, a theory again and again reached by men of different
+civilisations and epochs. Manes, the Persian, from whose name the word
+"Manicheism" has been coined to denote his doctrine, taught in perhaps
+the most explicit fashion that the Cosmos was the battle-ground of two
+contending powers,--Ahriman, the principle of evil, and Ormuzd, the
+principle of good. This doctrine in some form or other is implicit in
+most of the greater religions, some of which have assumed an ultimate
+triumph for the principle of good, while others have left the issue
+doubtful. The Ahriman of Huxley, the principle of evil, is what he
+termed the cosmic process, that great play of forces, by which, in a
+ruthless struggle for existence, the fittest (by which is meant the
+most suited to the surrounding conditions and not necessarily the
+ethically best) have survived at the expense of the less fit. The
+Ormuzd, the principle of good, is what Huxley called the Ethical
+process, the process by which sentient, intelligent, and moral man has
+striven to replace the "old ape and tiger methods" of the cosmic
+process, by methods in which justice and mercy, sacrifice and
+consideration for others have a part.
+
+To explain clearly the distinction he made between the ethical and
+cosmic processes. Huxley, in the prefatory essay ("Prolegomena")
+published in the volume with his Romanes lecture, developed the
+analogy of a cultivated garden reclaimed from surrounding wild nature.
+He described how the countryside, visible from his windows at
+Eastbourne, had certainly been in a "state of nature" about two
+thousand years ago when Caesar had set foot in Britain and had made the
+Roman camps, the remains of which still mark the chalk downs of
+England.
+
+     "Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as
+     those which still, here and there, break the flowing contours of
+     the Downs, man's hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin
+     veil of vegetation which overspread the broad-backed heights and
+     the shelving sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry.
+     The native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse,
+     contended with one another for possession of the scanty surface
+     soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of
+     winter, and the furious gales, which swept with unbroken force,
+     now from the Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times
+     of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps made in
+     their ranks by all sorts of overground and underground ravagers.
+     One year with another, an average population, the floating
+     balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the
+     indigenous plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be
+     doubted that an essentially similar state of nature prevailed in
+     this region for many thousand years before the coming of Caesar;
+     and there is no assignable reason for denying that it might
+     continue to exist through an equally prolonged futurity except
+     for the intervention of man."
+
+This present state of nature, he explained, is only a fleeting phase
+of a process that has gone on for millions of years. Under the thin
+layer of soil are the chalk cliffs, hundreds of feet thick and
+witnesses of the entirely different phases of the struggle that went
+on while the cliffs were being formed at the bottom of the chalk sea,
+when the vegetation of the nearest land was as different from the
+existing vegetation as that is different from the trees and flowers of
+an African forest.
+
+     "Before the deposition of the chalk, a vastly longer period
+     elapsed, throughout which it is easy to follow the traces of the
+     same process of ceaseless modification and of the same
+     internecine struggle for existence of living things; and when we
+     can go no further back, it is not because there is any reason to
+     think we have reached the beginning, but because the trail of the
+     most ancient life remains hidden or has become obliterated."
+
+The state of nature, then, is a fleeting and impermanent process.
+
+     "That which endures is not one or other association of living
+     forms, but the process of which the Cosmos is the product and of
+     which these are among the transitory expressions. And in the
+     living world, one of the most characteristic features of this
+     cosmic process is the struggle for existence, the competition of
+     each with all, the result of which is the selection, that is to
+     say, the survival of those forms which, on the whole, are best
+     adapted to the conditions which at any period obtain; and which
+     are, therefore, in that respect, and only in that respect, the
+     fittest. The acme reached by the cosmic process in the vegetation
+     of the Downs is seen in the turf with its weeds and gorse. Under
+     the conditions, they have come out of the struggle victorious;
+     and, by surviving, have proved that they are the fittest to
+     survive."
+
+For three or four years, the state of nature in a small portion of the
+Downs surrounding Huxley's house had been put an end to by the
+intervention of man.
+
+     "The patch was cut off from the rest by a wall; within the area
+     thus protected the native vegetation was, as far as possible,
+     extirpated, while a colony of strange plants was imported and set
+     down in its place. In short, it was made into a garden. This
+     artificially treated area presents an aspect extraordinarily
+     different from that of so much of the land as still remains in
+     the state of nature outside the wall. Trees, shrubs and herbs,
+     many of them appertaining to the state of nature in remote parts
+     of the globe, abound and flourish. Moreover, considerable
+     quantities of vegetables, fruit, and flowers are produced, of
+     kinds which neither now exist nor have ever existed except under
+     conditions such as obtain in the garden and which therefore are
+     as much works of the art of man as the frames and glass-houses in
+     which some of them are raised. That the 'state of art' thus
+     created in the state of nature by man, is sustained by and
+     dependent on him, would at once become apparent if the watchful
+     supervision of the gardener were withdrawn, and the antagonistic
+     influences of the general cosmic process were no longer
+     sedulously warded off, or counteracted."
+
+He proceeds to describe how, under such circumstances, the artificial
+barriers would decay, and the delicate inhabitants of the garden would
+perish under the assaults of animal and vegetable foes. External
+forces would reassert themselves and wild nature would resume its
+sway. While, in a sense, he had strenuously advocated the unity of all
+nature, he found in it two rivals: the artificial products of sentient
+man and the forces and products of wild nature. These two he believed
+to be in inevitable opposition and to represent the good and the evil
+forces of the world.
+
+In the dim ages of the past, the forces that have gone to the making
+of man have been part of the cosmic process. In the endless and
+wonderful series of kaleidoscopic changes by which, under the
+operation of natural laws, the body, habits, and the character of man
+have been elaborated slowly from the natal dust, there is the widest
+field for the operation of the most acute intelligence to study and
+trace the stages in the process. But if intellectual delight in
+studying the process be left out of account, a serious question at
+once appears. In the higher stages of evolution the cosmic forces,
+ceasing to act merely on insentient matter, have operated on sentient
+beings, and in so doing have given rise to the mystery of pain and
+suffering. When the less fit of chemical combinations or even of the
+lower forms of life perished in the struggle, we may regard the
+process with the unemotional eye of pure intelligence. But "pain, the
+baleful product of evolution, increases in quantity and in intensity
+with advancing stages of animal organisation, until it attains its
+highest level in man." And so it comes about that the cosmic process
+produces evil, sorrow, and suffering. Consideration of the cosmic
+process leads up against the mystery of evil.
+
+Huxley argued that the various philosophies and civilisations of the
+past had led by different paths to a similar conclusion. The primitive
+ethical codes of man were not unlike the compacts of a wolf-pack, the
+understanding to refrain from mutual attack during the chase of a
+common prey. Conceptions of this kind became arranged in codes and
+invested with supernatural sanction. But in Hindustan and Ionia alike,
+material prosperity, no doubt partly the result of the accepted codes,
+produced culture of the intellect and culture of the pleasures. With
+these came the "beneficent demon, doubt, whose name is legion and who
+dwells amongst the tombs of old faiths." The doubting intellect,
+acting on the codes, produced the conception of justice-in-itself, of
+merit as divorced from the effect of action on others, the abstract
+idea of goodness.
+
+The old philosopher, turning from this new conception to the Cosmos,
+found that incompatible with goodness. Suffering and sorrow, sunshine
+and rain, were distributed independently of merit. With Greek and
+Semite and Indian the conscience of man revolted against the moral
+indifference of nature. Instead of bringing in a verdict of guilty,
+they attempted reconciliation in various ways. Indian speculation
+invented or elaborated the theory of transmigration, in which the
+Karma or soul-character passed from individual to individual, the
+algebraic sums of happiness in the whole chain being proportional to
+merit. The Stoics were metaphysicians and imagined an immanent,
+omnipotent, and infinitely beneficent First Cause. Evil was
+incompatible with this, and so they held, against experience, that
+either it did not exist, or that it was inflicted for our benefit or
+due to our fault. In one fashion or another, all the great systems of
+thought had recognised the antagonism and had attempted some
+explanation of it. Huxley's view was that the modern world with its
+new philosophy was only retreading the toil-worn paths of the old.
+Scientific optimism was being replaced by a frank pessimism. Cosmic
+evolution might be accountable for both good and evil, but knowledge
+of it provided no better reason for choice of the good than did
+earlier speculation. The cosmic process was not only non-moral but
+immoral; goodness did not lead to success in it, and laws and moral
+precepts could only be addressed to the curbing of it.
+
+In a sense these conclusions of Huxley seemed to lead to absolute
+pessimism, but he offered some mitigating considerations. Society
+remains subject to the cosmic process, but the less as civilisation
+advances and ethical man is the more ready to combat it. The history
+of civilisation shows that we have some hope of this, for "when
+physiology, psychology, ethics, and political science, now befogged by
+crude anticipations and futile analogies, have emerged from their
+childhood, they may work as much change on human affairs as the
+earlier-ripened physical sciences wrought on material progress." And
+so, remembering that the evil cosmic nature in us has the foothold of
+millions of years, and never hoping to abandon sorrow and pain, we may
+yet, in the manhood of our race, accept our destiny, and, with clear
+and steady eyes, address ourselves to the task of living, that we and
+others may live better.
+
+These gloomy views come from Huxley with such weight and authority
+that even in a sketch of his life and opinions it may be noticed that
+they do not seem necessary deductions from the evolutionary conception
+of the world. The first count adduced against the cosmic process is
+its connection with suffering. It may be doubted, so far as the animal
+world is concerned, if Huxley has not exaggerated the gravity of this.
+The two greatest contributors to the modern conception of evolution
+are not in agreement with him. Alfred Russel Wallace wrote:
+
+     "On the whole, then, we conclude that the popular idea of the
+     struggle for existence entailing misery and pain on the animal
+     world is the very reverse of the truth. What it really brings
+     about is the maximum of life and of the enjoyment of life with
+     the minimum of suffering and pain. Given the necessity of death
+     and reproduction--and without those there could have been no
+     progressive development of the animal world--and it is difficult
+     even to imagine a system by which a greater balance of happiness
+     could have been secured."
+
+This view was evidently that also of Darwin himself, who thus
+concluded his chapter on the struggle for existence: "When we reflect
+on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief that
+the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death
+is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy
+survive and multiply." As for man himself, though it be true that in
+him the consummation of pain is reached, still this is no isolated
+fact of far-reaching ethical importance. It is in direct dependence on
+the increased physical and mental development of man, and these are
+equally necessary for and equally susceptible to increased pleasure
+and increased happiness. It is not necessary to regard the cosmic
+process as evil. Even when man, in various ages, had elaborated the
+conception of abstract goodness, and had endeavoured to make his
+justice a doling out of reward and punishment according to merit, it
+was not inevitable to bring in a verdict of guilty against the Cosmos.
+It is quite true that, in all the ages, man has seen the sun shine on
+the unjust as on the just. But it is an easy reflection that the world
+could not turn round on individual merit, and if few are so guilty as
+to deserve the agonies of grief that may come to all, still fewer
+deserve some of the simpler and more common joys of life. The
+conception that was implicit in the disciplines of the older
+philosophies is still open to the philosophy of evolution. Behind it,
+as behind the "self-hypnotised catalepsy of the devotee of Brahma,"
+the Buddhist aspirations to Nirvana, the _apatheia_ of the Stoics,
+there may lie a recognition of the worthlessness of the individual: an
+equable acceptation of one's self as part of a process: a triumph of
+intelligence over selfishness. Finally, behind the sharp division made
+between man and the Cosmos, there still lurks one of the oldest and
+most enduring fallacies of the world, a fallacy that Huxley himself
+spent a great part of his intellectual life in discovering and
+routing. The fallacy is the conception of the Cosmos as something
+separate and apart from man, as something through which he, however
+briefly, passes. Thus Omar sang:
+
+    "Myself, when young, did eagerly frequent
+    Doctor and saint, and heard great argument
+      About it and about: but evermore
+    Came out by the same door where in I went.
+
+    "With them the seed of wisdom did I sow,
+    And with mine own hand wrought to make it grow;
+      And this was all the Harvest that I reaped--
+    'I came like Water, and like Wind I go.'
+
+    "Into this Universe, and _Why_ not knowing
+    Nor _Whence_, like water willy-nilly flowing;
+      And out of it, like Wind along the Waste
+    I know not _Whither_, willy-nilly blowing."
+
+But, the more profoundly does the conception of evolution lay hold of
+human thought, the more inevitable it becomes to recognise that man
+and all that is best in man--his aspirations, ideas, virtues, and
+practical and abstract justice and goodness--are just as much the
+product of the cosmic process and part of the Cosmos as the most
+sinister results of the struggle for existence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+CLOSING DAYS AND SUMMARY
+
+     Huxley's Life in London--Decennial
+     Periods--Ill-health--Retirement to Eastbourne--Death--Personal
+     Appearance--Methods of Work--Personal Characteristics--An
+     Inspirer of Others--His Influence in Science--A Naturalist by
+     Vocation--His Aspirations.
+
+
+Huxley's life followed the quiet and even tenor of that of a
+professional man of science and letters. The great adventure in it was
+his youthful voyage on the _Rattlesnake_. That over, and his choice
+made in favour of science as against medicine, he settled down in
+London. He married happily and shared in the common joys and sorrows
+of domestic life. Advancement came to him steadily, and, although he
+was never rich, after the first few years of life in London, his
+income was always adequate to his moderate needs. For the greater part
+of his working life, he lived actually in London, in the ordinary
+style and with the ordinary social enjoyments of a professional man.
+His duties in connection with the Royal College of Science and with
+the Geological Survey were not arduous but constant; his time was
+fully occupied with these, with his scientific and literary work, with
+the business of scientific societies, with the occasional obligations
+of royal commissions, public boards, and lecturing engagements. The
+quiet routine of his life was diversified by many visits to provincial
+towns to deliver lectures or addresses, by meetings of the British
+Association, by holidays in Switzerland, during which, with Tyndall,
+he made special studies of the phenomena of glaciation, and in the
+usual Continental resorts, and by several trips to America.
+
+In a rough-and-ready fashion, Huxley's active life may be broken into
+a set of decennial periods, each with tolerably distinctive
+characters. The first period, roughly from 1850 to 1860, was almost
+purely scientific. It was occupied by his voyage, by his transition to
+science as a career, his researches into the invertebrate forms of
+life, the beginning of his palaeontological investigations, and a
+comparatively small amount of lecturing and literary work. The second
+decennium still found him employed chiefly in research, vertebrate and
+extinct forms absorbing most of his attention. He was occupied
+actively with teaching, but the dominant feature of the decennium was
+his assumption of the Darwinian doctrines. In connection with these
+latter, his literary and lecturing work increased greatly, and the
+side issues of what was, in itself, purely a scientific controversy
+began to lead him into metaphysical and religious studies. The third
+period, from 1870 to 1880, was considerably different in character. He
+had become the most prominent man in biological science in England, at
+a time when biological science was attracting a quite unusual amount
+of scientific and public attention. Public honours and public duties,
+some of them scientific, others general, began to crowd upon him, and
+the time at his disposal for the quiet labours of investigation
+became rapidly more limited within this period. He was secretary of
+the Royal Society, a member of the London School Board, president of
+the British Association, Lord Rector at several universities, member
+of many royal commissions, government inspector of fisheries,
+president of the Geological Society. In this multitude of duties it
+was natural that the bulk of strictly scientific output was limited,
+but, on the other hand, his literary output was much larger. Between
+1880 and 1890 he had reached the full maturity of a splendid
+reputation, and honours and duties pressed thick upon him. For part of
+the time he was president of the Royal Society, the most distinguished
+position to which a scientific man in England can attain, and he was
+held by the general public at least in as high esteem as by his
+scientific contemporaries. A small amount of original scientific work
+still appeared from his pen, but he was occupied chiefly with more
+general contributions to thought.
+
+[Illustration: CARICATURE OF HUXLEY DRAWN BY HIMSELF
+Reproduced by permission from _Natural Science_, vol. vii., No. 46]
+
+Throughout his life, Huxley had never been robust. From his youth
+upwards he had been troubled by dyspepsia with its usual accompaniment
+of occasional fits of severe mental and physical depression. In 1872
+he was compelled to take a long holiday in Egypt, and, although he
+returned to resume full labour, it is doubtful if from that time
+onwards he recovered even the strength normal to him. In 1885, his
+ill-health became grave; in the following years he had two attacks of
+pleurisy, and symptoms of cardiac mischief became pressing. He
+gradually withdrew from his official posts, and, in 1890, retired to
+Eastbourne, where he had built himself a house on the Downs. The more
+healthy conditions and the comparative leisure he permitted himself
+had a good effect, and he was able to write some of his most
+brilliant essays and to make a few public appearances: at Oxford in
+1893, when he delivered the Romanes lecture; at the meeting of the
+British Association in 1894, when he spoke on the vote of thanks to
+the President, the Marquis of Salisbury; at the Royal Society in the
+same year when he received the recently established "Darwin Medal."
+Early in the spring of 1895, he had a prostrating attack of influenza,
+and from that time until his death on June 29, 1895, he was an
+invalid. He was buried in the Marylebone cemetery at Finchley, to the
+north of London.
+
+Huxley was of middle stature and rather slender build. His face, as
+Professor Ray Lankester described it, was "grave, black-browed, and
+fiercely earnest." His hair, plentiful and worn rather long, was black
+until in old age it became silvery white. He wore short side whiskers,
+but shaved the rest of his face, leaving fully exposed an obstinate
+chin, and mobile lips, grim and resolute in repose, but capable of
+relaxation into a smile of almost feminine charm.
+
+He was a very hard worker and took little exercise. Professor Howes
+describes a typical day as occupied by lecture and laboratory work at
+the College of Science until his hurried luncheon; then a cab-drive to
+the Home Office for his work as Inspector of Fisheries; then a cab
+home for an hour's work before dinner, and the evening after dinner
+spent in literary work or scientific reading. While at work, his whole
+attention was engrossed, and he disliked being disturbed. This
+abstraction of his attention is illustrated humorously by a story told
+by one of his demonstrators. Huxley was engaged in the investigations
+required for his book on the Crayfish, and his demonstrator came in to
+ask a question about a codfish. "Codfish?" said Huxley; "that's a
+vertebrate, isn't it? Ask me in a fortnight and I'll consider it."
+While at work he smoked almost continuously, and from time to time he
+took a little relaxation, for the strains of a fiddle were
+occasionally heard from his room. Indeed he was devoted to music,
+regarding it as one of the highest of the aesthetic pleasures. He tells
+us himself:
+
+     "When I was a boy, I was very fond of music, and I am so now; and
+     it so happened that I had the opportunity of hearing much good
+     music. Among other things, I had abundant opportunities of
+     hearing that great old master, Sebastian Bach. I remember
+     perfectly well--although I knew nothing about music then, and, I
+     may add, know nothing whatever about it now--the intense
+     satisfaction and delight which I had in listening, by the hour
+     together, to Bach's fugues. It is a pleasure which remains with
+     me, I am glad to think; but, of late years, I have tried to find
+     out the why and wherefore, and it has often occurred to me that
+     the pleasure derived from musical compositions of this kind is
+     essentially of the same nature as that which is derived from
+     pursuits which are commonly regarded as purely intellectual. I
+     mean, that the source of pleasure is exactly the same as in most
+     of my problems in morphology--that you have the theme in one of
+     the old masters' works followed out in all its endless
+     variations, always appearing and always reminding you of unity in
+     variety."
+
+He had a hot temper, and did not readily brook opposition, especially
+when that seemed to him to be the result of stupidity or of prejudice
+rather than of reason, and his own reason was of a very clear,
+decided, and exact order. He had little sympathy with vacillation of
+any kind, whether it arose from mere infirmity of purpose or from the
+temperament which delights in balancing opposing considerations. He
+said on one occasion:
+
+     "A great lawyer-statesman and philosopher of a former age--I mean
+     Francis Bacon--said that truth came out of error much more
+     rapidly than out of confusion. There is a wonderful truth in that
+     saying. Next to being right in this world, the best of all things
+     is to be clearly and definitely wrong, because you will come out
+     somewhere. If you go buzzing about between right and wrong,
+     vibrating and fluctuating, you come out nowhere; but if you are
+     absolutely and thoroughly and persistently wrong, you must, some
+     of these days, have the extreme good fortune of knocking your
+     head against a fact, and that sets you all straight again. So I
+     will not trouble myself as to whether I may be right or wrong in
+     what I am about to say, but at any rate I hope to be clear and
+     definite; and then you will be able to judge for yourselves
+     whether, in following out the train of thought I have to
+     introduce, you knock your heads against facts or not."
+
+The particular suggestions to which these remarks were the
+characteristic introduction related to definite problems of education,
+that is to say, to questions upon which some action was urgent. It was
+in all cases of life, in science or affairs, that Huxley was resolute
+for clear ideas and definite courses of conduct. As a matter of fact,
+no one ever took greater care to satisfy himself as best he could as
+to what was right and what was wrong; but where action rather than
+reflection was needed, then his principle was to act, and to know
+definitely and clearly why you acted and for what you acted. In
+matters of opinion, on the other hand, he was all for not coming to a
+definite opinion when the facts obtainable did not justify such an
+opinion. In thought, agnosticism, the refusal to accept any ideas or
+principles except on sufficient evidence; in action, positivism, to
+act promptly in definite and known directions for definite and known
+objects: these were his principles.
+
+Another aspect of the same trait of character, he shewed in an address
+to medical students at a distribution of prizes. After congratulating
+the victors he confessed to "an undercurrent of sympathy for those who
+have not been successful, for those valiant knights who have been
+overthrown in their tourney, and have not made their appearance in
+public." After recounting an early failure of his own, he proceeded:
+
+     "I said to myself, 'Never mind; what's the next thing to be
+     done?' And I found that policy of 'never minding' and going on to
+     the next thing to be done, to be the most important of all
+     policies in the conduct of practical life. It does not matter how
+     many tumbles you have in this life, so long as you do not get
+     dirty when you tumble; it is only the people who have to stop to
+     be washed and made clean, who must necessarily lose the race. You
+     learn that which is of inestimable importance--that there are a
+     great many people in the world who are just as clever as you are.
+     You learn to put your trust, by and by, in an economy and
+     frugality of the exercise of your powers both moral and
+     intellectual; and you very soon find out, if you have not found
+     it out before, that patience and tenacity of purpose are worth
+     more than twice their weight of cleverness."
+
+All Huxley's work was marked by a quality which may be called
+conscientiousness or thoroughness. Looking through his memoirs,
+written many years ago, the subjects of which have since been handled
+and rehandled by other writers with new knowledge and with new methods
+at their disposal, one is struck that all the observations he made
+have stood their ground. With new facts new generalisations have often
+been reached, and some of the positions occupied by Huxley have been
+turned. But what he saw and described had not to be redescribed; the
+citations he made from the older authorities were always so chosen as
+to contain the exact gist of the writers. These qualities, admirable
+in scientific work, became at once admirable and terrible in his
+controversial writings. His own exactness made him ruthless in
+exposing any inexactness in his adversaries, and there were few
+disputants who left an argument with Huxley in an undamaged condition.
+The consciousness which he had of his own careful methods, added to a
+natural pugnacity, gave him an intellectual courage of a very high
+order. As he knew himself to have made sure of his premisses, he did
+not care whither his conclusions might lead him, against whatsoever
+established doctrine or accepted axiom.
+
+There was, however, a strong spice of natural combativeness in his
+nature, the direct result of his native and highly trained critical
+faculty. He tells us that in the pre-Darwinian days he was accustomed
+to defend the fixity of species in the company of evolutionists and in
+the presence of the orthodox to attack the same doctrine. Later in
+life, when evolution had become fashionable, and the principles of
+Darwinism were being elevated into a new dogmatism, he was as ready to
+criticise the loose adherents of his own views as he had been to
+expose the weakness of the conventional dogmatists.
+
+Perhaps the most striking feature of Huxley's work as a whole was its
+infectious nature. His vigorous and decided personality was reflected
+on all the subjects to which he gave attention, and in the same
+fashion as his presence infected persons with a personal enthusiasm so
+his writings stimulated readers to efforts along the same lines. His
+great influence is clear in the number and distinction of the
+biologists who came under his personal care, and in the great army of
+writers and thinkers who have been inspired by his views and methods
+on general questions. His position as an actual contributor to science
+has to a certain extent been lost sight of for two reasons. In the
+first place, his effect on the world as an expositor of the scientific
+method in its general application to life has overshadowed his exact
+work; in the second place, his exact work itself has been partly lost
+sight of in the new discoveries and advances to which it gave rise. It
+is therefore necessary to reiterate that, apart from all his other
+successes, he had made for himself an extremely distinguished position
+in the annals of exact science. Sir Michael Foster and Prof. Ray
+Lankester, in their preface to the collected edition of his scientific
+memoirs, make a just claim for him. These memoirs, they wrote, show
+that, "apart from the influence exerted by his popular writings, the
+progress of biology during the present century was largely due to
+labours of his of which the general public knew nothing, and that he
+was in some respects the most original and most fertile in discovery
+of all his fellow workers in the same branch of science."
+
+There can be little question that it was no accident that determined
+the direction of Huxley's career. He was a naturalist by inborn
+vocation. The contrast between a natural bent and an acquired habit of
+life was well seen in the case of Huxley and Macgillivray, his
+companion on the _Rattlesnake_. The former was appointed as a surgeon,
+and it was no part of his duties to busy himself with the creatures of
+the sea; and yet his observations on them made a series of real
+contributions to biological science and laid the sure foundation of a
+world-wide and enduring reputation. The latter was the son of a
+naturalist, a naturalist by profession, and appointed to the
+expedition as its official naturalist; and yet he made only a few
+observations and a limited collection of curiosities, and even his
+exiguous place in the annals of zooelogy is the accidental result of
+his companionship with Huxley. The special natural endowments which
+Huxley brought to the study of zooelogy were, in the first place, a
+faculty for the patient and assiduous observation of facts; in the
+second, a swift power of discriminating between the essential and the
+accessory among facts; in the third, the constructive ability to
+arrange these essentials in wide generalisations which we call laws or
+principles and which, within the limits necessarily set by inductive
+principles, are the starting-point for new deductions. These were the
+faculties which he brought to his science, but there were added to
+them two personal characteristics without which they would not have
+taken him far. They were impelled by a driving force which
+distinguishes the successful man from the muddler and without which
+the finest mental powers are as useless as a complicated machine
+disconnected from its driving-wheel. They were directed by a lofty and
+disinterested enthusiasm, without which the most talented man is a
+mere self-seeker, useless or dangerous to society. The faculties and
+qualities which made Huxley great as a zooelogist were practically
+those which he applied to the general questions of biological theory,
+to the problems of education and of society, and to philosophy and
+metaphysics. A comparison between his sane and forcible handling of
+questions that lay outside the special province to which the greater
+part of his life was devoted, with the dubious and involved treatment
+given such questions by the professional politicians to whom the
+English races tend to entrust their destinies, is a useful comment on
+that value of science as discipline to which Huxley so strenuously
+called attention.
+
+There can be no better way of ending this sketch of Huxley's life and
+work than by quoting his own account of the objects to which he had
+devoted himself consciously. These were:
+
+     "To promote the increase of natural knowledge and to forward the
+     application of scientific methods of investigation to all the
+     problems of life to the best of my ability, in the conviction
+     which has grown with my growth and strengthened with my strength,
+     that there is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except
+     veracity of thought and of action, and the resolute facing of the
+     world as it is when the garment of make-believe by which pious
+     hands have hidden its uglier features is stripped off.
+
+      "It is with this intent that I have subordinated any reasonable
+     or unreasonable ambition for scientific fame which I may have
+     permitted myself to entertain to other ends; to the
+     popularisation of science; to the development and organisation of
+     scientific education; to the endless series of battles and
+     skirmishes over evolution; and to untiring opposition to that
+     ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as
+     everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is
+     the deadly enemy of science.
+
+      "In striving for the attainment of these objects, I have been
+     but one among many, and I shall be well content to be remembered,
+     or even not remembered, as such. Circumstances, among which I am
+     proud to reckon the devoted kindness of many friends, have led to
+     my occupation of various prominent positions, among which the
+     presidency of the Royal Society is the highest. It would be mock
+     modesty on my part, with these and other scientific honours which
+     have been bestowed upon me, to pretend that I have not succeeded
+     in the career which I have followed, rather because I was driven
+     into it than of my own free will; but I am afraid I should not
+     count even these things as marks of success if I could not hope
+     that I had not somewhat helped that movement of opinion which has
+     been called the New Reformation."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+A
+
+Adams, 209
+
+Admiralty, 14, 48, 49
+
+Agassiz, 68, 91, 99
+
+Age of the earth, 84, 85
+
+Agnosticism, 239, 241-243, 279
+
+Ahriman, 265
+
+Alchemists, 256, 257
+
+Alternation of generations, 53, 54
+
+Ameghino, 141
+
+America, 70
+
+American addresses, 71
+
+American fossils, 75
+
+American monkeys, 163
+
+Amphibia, 143
+
+Amphioxus, 22, 134
+
+Anatomy of man and ape, 161
+
+Anchitherium, 70, 74, 76
+
+Animal kingdom, old views of, 35
+
+Animals and plants, 97
+
+Anthracosaurus, 69
+
+Anthropomorphism, 250
+
+Anthropoid apes, 149-153
+
+"Ape and Tiger" methods, 265
+
+Appendicularia, 56, 57
+
+Apprenticeship in medicine, 183
+
+Archaeopteryx, 136
+
+Archetype of molluscs, 58, 59, 61
+
+Archetype of Vertebrata, Articulata, and Radiata, 62
+
+Arctogoea, 140
+
+Argyll, Duke of, 248
+
+Aristotle, 100, 259
+
+Arnold, Matthew, 185
+
+Articulata of Cuvier, 38
+
+Ascaris, egg of, 176
+
+Ascidians, 55-57, 96
+
+Australia and South America, land connection, 141
+
+Authority, 175, 231, 232, 241
+
+Authority and investigation, 179
+
+Authority and knowledge, 104, 105
+
+Axioms, 240
+
+
+B
+
+Bach, Sebastian, 278
+
+Balfour, F.M., 135
+
+Barrier Reef of Australia, 20
+
+Basi-cranium of vertebrates, 132
+
+_Beagle_, voyage of, 28
+
+Beelzebub, 238
+
+Belief, duty of, 238, 239
+
+Belief, nature of scientific, 228
+
+Beneden, van, 59, 176
+
+Berkeley, Bishop, 218, 221, 224
+
+Berkeley, quotation from, 221
+
+Bible, 189, 192, 194, 213, 235, 237, 244, 245, 247, 248, 250, 253, 254, 259
+
+Bible and geology, 80
+
+Bibliolatry, 235, 246
+
+Bimana, 164
+
+Biology and medical education, 184
+
+Birds, ancestry of, 69
+
+Birds, classification of, 135
+
+Birmingham, 185
+
+Bishop, 175
+
+Bishop Berkeley, 218, 221, 224
+
+Bishop of Norwich, 33
+
+Bishop of Oxford, _see_ Wilberforce
+
+Boards for elementary education, 188
+
+Bojanus, 173
+
+Bones of horse, 71, 72
+
+Bones, cartilage, and membrane, 134
+
+Books, value of, 175
+
+Booth, "General," 213
+
+Bourbon, 246
+
+Brahma, 272
+
+Brain of man and apes, 120, 145, 146, 162, 163
+
+Brain and mind, 220, 221
+
+Brain-weights, 164
+
+Breathing, 168
+
+Breeding, selective, 127
+
+Brehm, 153
+
+British Association, 68, 120, 125, 274
+
+Brooks, Professor W.K., 94
+
+Buckland, Professor, 80, 234
+
+Buddhists, 1, 272
+
+Buffon, 15, 90
+
+Burnett, Sir William, 11, 46
+
+Busk, George, 49
+
+
+C
+
+Cabanis, 228
+
+Caesar, 265
+
+Cana, miracle at, 257
+
+Cape York, 25
+
+Carinates, 137
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, 111
+
+Cartesian axiom, 222
+
+Cartilage bones, 134
+
+Cartilaginous skulls, 134
+
+Catastrophism in geology, 80, 249
+
+Catholicism, 123, 214, 247
+
+Cells, 52, 53
+
+Cephalous molluscs, 58, 59
+
+Chalk, 266
+
+_Challenger_ expedition, 15
+
+Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, 80
+
+Chambers, R., 62
+
+Chamisso, 53, 56
+
+Chance, 229
+
+Change in universe, 249
+
+Charing Cross Hospital, 8, 9
+
+Chaucer, 213
+
+Chemistry and alchemy, 257
+
+Chess, life compared with, 169
+
+Children, education of, 189
+
+Chimpanzees, 149, 163
+
+Chondrocranium, 134
+
+Christianity and evolution, 122
+
+Christian civilisation and authority, 232
+
+Chronology of the Bible, 247
+
+Church of England, 111, 112
+
+Church, the, and science, 236
+
+Classical education, 185, 210
+
+Classification of birds, 135
+
+Classification by Cuvier, 38
+
+Classification by Linnaeus, 38
+
+Classification of mammals, 142
+
+Classification of man, 146
+
+Classification by old authors, 37
+
+Classification of vertebrates, 143
+
+Clergy as critics of science, 236
+
+Clericalism, 239, 284
+
+Clodd, E., 90, 127
+
+Coelenterata, 42, 96
+
+Coelomata, 43, 44
+
+Commissions, royal, 195, 204
+
+Common sense and metaphysics, 218
+
+Common sense and science, 209
+
+Conduct and religion, 261
+
+Congo, 149
+
+Conscience, 269
+
+Conscientiousness, 280
+
+Consciousness, 220, 224
+
+Contemporaneity, geological, 79
+
+Continuity of nature, 255
+
+Cookery in schools, 190
+
+Cope, Professor, 69, 94
+
+Corals of Barrier Reef, 20
+
+"Corybantic Christianity," 215
+
+Cosmic process, 268, 270, 271
+
+Cosmogony of the Hebrews, 244, 246
+
+Cosmos, 229, 263, 265, 267, 272
+
+Cowper-Temple Clause, 188
+
+Crayfish, 158, 173, 277
+
+Creation, 139, 246, 252
+
+Creator, the, 250
+
+Credibility of authority, 232
+
+Criticism, Biblical, 194
+
+Criticism of life, 185
+
+Croonian lectures, 65, 129
+
+Ctenophora, 42
+
+Culture and science, 185, 186
+
+Curriculum of medical education, 184
+
+Cuttle-fish, 58
+
+Cuvier, 6, 38, 115, 132, 133, 136, 209, 211
+
+
+D
+
+Darwin, Charles, 27-29, 60, 61, 68, chapters viii. and ix., 138, 147,
+166, 229, 242
+
+Darwin medal, 108
+
+Darwin, voyage of, 27, 28
+
+Darwin, Erasmus, 90
+
+Darwinism, 103, 104, 106, 123
+
+Darwinism, Huxley's late and early opinions on, 106-109
+
+Darwinism and Lamarckism, 94
+
+"Days" of creation, 251, 252
+
+De la Beche, Sir Henry, 63, 64
+
+Deluge, the, 235
+
+Descartes, 219, 240, 243
+
+Design, argument from, 230
+
+Despotism and the Bible, 245
+
+Devonian fishes, 68
+
+Deuteronomy, 245
+
+Dinosaurs and the ancestry of birds, 69
+
+Diprotodonts, 142
+
+Dissection in laboratories, 181
+
+Divine will and science, 233
+
+_Doctrine of the Deluge_, 235
+
+Dogma and literature in the Bible, 254
+
+Doliolum, 56
+
+Domestic economy, 190
+
+Doubt, duty of, 232, 239, 269
+
+Drawing for children, 193
+
+Dredging, 22
+
+Drill for children, 189
+
+Durckheim, Strauss, 173
+
+
+E
+
+Earth, age of, 84, 85
+
+Eastbourne, 277
+
+Ecclesiasticism, 235, 239
+
+Echidna, 156
+
+Economy, domestic, 190
+
+Edinburgh, 174
+
+_Edinburgh Review_, 115, 116
+
+Education, classical, 185, 210
+
+Education of children, 170
+
+Education, elementary, 187, 188
+
+Education, general, 184
+
+Education, liberal, 169, 186, 210
+
+Education, medical, 181
+
+Education and religion, 188
+
+Education, scientific, 168
+
+Education of teachers, 195
+
+Education, university, 195
+
+Eggs of Mammalia, 156
+
+Egypt, 276
+
+Ejects, 221
+
+Elementary education, 188
+
+Elementary lessons in physiology, 172
+
+Embryology and zooelogy, 177
+
+Embryology of brain and skull, 130-133
+Embryology of Mammals, 156, 157
+
+Embryology of man, 159
+
+Embryos, marine, 176
+
+Embryos of vertebrates, 157
+
+Endostyle of Ascidians, 56
+
+England in eighteenth century, 239
+
+English Bible, 245
+
+English men of letters, 218
+
+English philosophers, 218
+
+Eohippus, 78
+
+_Erdkunde_, 170, 171
+
+Error, 243
+
+Established church and Education, 189
+
+Ether, 219
+
+Ethics and evolution, 263
+
+Ethical process, 265
+
+Eutheria, 142
+
+Evidence, limitations of, 231
+
+Evidence for miraculous, 258
+
+Evil, 268, 269, 271
+
+Evolution, 60, 62, 63, 108, 110, 122, 168, 248
+
+Evolution and Christianity, 122
+
+Evolution of Cosmos, 250-253
+
+Evolution not an explanation of Cosmos, 229
+
+Evolution and Darwinism, 94
+
+Evolution before Darwin, 91, 93, 100
+
+Evolution, Darwin's contribution to, 93, 104
+
+Evolution and ethics, 263
+
+Evolution of horse, 73
+
+Evolution and natural selection, 124-127
+
+Evolution and pain, 268
+
+Evolution, philosophy of, 272
+
+Evolution and palaeontology, 86, 87
+
+Evolution and Theism, 244
+
+Evolutionist, 281
+
+Exposition, Huxley's method of, 208
+
+
+F
+
+Faith, agnostic, 243
+
+Falkenstein, 153
+
+Fayrer, Sir Joseph, 10, 11
+
+Feet of anthropoids, 164
+
+Fertility of artificial breeds, 127
+
+Fiddle, 278
+
+_Fisgard_, H.M.S., 46
+
+Fish, fossil, 68
+
+Fisheries, Inspector of, 277
+
+Flower, Sir William, 146
+
+Forbes, Edward, 47, 63
+
+Foreign languages, 196, 213
+
+_Forms of Animal Life_, 178
+
+Fossils, 67, 68
+
+Fossils, chronological arrangement of, 87
+
+Fossils and evolution, 87
+
+Foundation membranes of Medusae, 40-43
+
+Foster, Sir Michael, 47, 64, 180, 283
+
+Freedom of the Press, 240
+
+Freedom of thought, 231, 233
+
+French, 213
+
+French Revolution, 111
+
+French translations, 216
+
+Fullerian Professor, 64
+
+Function, changes in, 230
+
+
+G
+
+Galileo, 247
+
+Gallinaceous birds, 139
+
+Gambit, 169
+
+Game of life, 170
+
+Garden, as an instance of interference with cosmic process, 267
+
+Garnier, 151
+
+Gasteropoda, 58
+
+Gegenbauer, 59
+
+Genesis, 234, 248, 250, 251, 252
+
+Geographical distribution, 137-141
+
+Geological addresses, 79, 80
+
+Geological club, 234
+Geological contemporaneity, 79
+
+Geological history, 249
+
+Geological Society of London, 70, 78, 80, 86
+
+Geological time, 84, 85
+
+Geology and the Bible, 80
+
+Geology and catastrophism, 80, 81
+
+Geology compared with biology, 82
+
+Geology, history of, 234
+
+German, 213
+
+Gibbons, 149
+
+Girls, education of, 190
+
+Glacial acetic acid, 176
+
+Gladstone, W.E., 248, 250, 251, 263
+
+Goethe, 99, 130, 132
+
+Goethe, quotations from, 130
+
+Gold, transmutation of, 256
+
+Goodness, 269, 273
+
+Gorilla, 87, 149, 161
+
+Gospels, 254
+
+Gosse, P.H., 118
+
+Government, 239
+
+Greek, 213;
+  in education, 186
+
+Greek ethics, 269
+
+Groos, Prof., 154
+
+
+H
+
+Haeckel, Prof. E., 91, 136
+
+Hands of Anthropoids, 164
+
+Haslar Hospital, 11, 12
+
+Heathorn, Miss H.A., 19
+
+Hebrew Cosmogony, 246
+
+Hebrew Morality, 259
+
+Hebrew Scriptures, 250
+
+Heine, 261
+
+Henle and Meissner, reports of, 182
+
+Hercules, 246
+
+Hertwig, 134
+
+Hindustan, 269
+
+Hipparion, 74-76
+
+Hippocampus minor, 162, 163
+
+Histological methods, 177
+
+Hobbes, 218
+
+Home office, 277
+
+Homo, classification of, 160
+
+Homology in organs of Medusae, 123
+
+Homotaxis in geology, 80
+
+Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, 47, 98, 101
+
+Horse, 68-78, 174
+
+Hospitals in London, 181
+
+Howes, Professor G.B., 173, 174, 207, 277
+
+Humboldt, 92
+
+Hume, David, 217, 218, 223, 240, 255, 256
+
+Hume, David, quotations from, 223, 241, 256
+
+Humour, 209
+
+Hunterian Professor, 129
+
+Hutton, James, 81, 249
+
+Huxley, birth, 2;
+  parents, 2, 3;
+  school, 4;
+  apprenticed to medicine, 5;
+  enters Charing Cross Hospital, 8;
+  first original paper, 9;
+  graduates at London University, 10;
+  becomes M.R.C.S., 11;
+  appointed to Haslar Hospital, 11;
+  appointed to _Rattlesnake_, 12;
+  meets his future wife at Sydney, 19;
+  first paper to Royal Society, 33;
+  Royal medals, 34;
+  becomes F.R.S., 47;
+  leaves naval service, 48;
+  appointed to Geological Survey and School of Mines, 63;
+  becomes Fullerian Professor, 64;
+  marriage, 64;
+  examiner, 65;
+  Croonian lecturer, 66;
+  visits America, 70;
+  becomes Secretary and President of Geological Society, 78;
+  accepts Darwinism, 101;
+  receives Darwin medal, 108;
+  becomes Hunterian Professor,129;
+  starts laboratory courses at South Kensington, 180;
+  becomes candidate for London School Board, 189;
+  serves on Royal Commissions,196, 204;
+  becomes member of Her Majesty's Privy Council, 205;
+  marriage, 274;
+  ill-health and retirement, 276;
+  death, 277;
+  personal appearance, 277
+
+Huxley's layer in root-sheath of hairs, 10
+
+Hydra, 50
+
+Hypothesis as to History of Nature, 248, 249
+
+
+I
+
+Ichthyopsida, 143
+
+Idealism, 220, 224
+
+Ideals and culture, 186
+
+Indian speculation, 269
+
+Individuality of animals, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55
+
+Infallibility, 123, 236
+
+Inspiration, 246, 247, 253, 254
+
+Instincts, 154
+
+Intellect, 243
+
+Intermediate and linear types, 87
+
+_International Scientific Series_, 173
+
+_Invertebrata, Manual of_, 175
+
+Ionia, 169
+
+Israel, 245
+
+
+J
+
+Jermyn Street lectures to working men, 207
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 219
+
+Judaism and science, 246
+
+Justice, 265, 269, 271, 273
+
+
+K
+
+Kant, 84, 242, 262
+
+Karma, 269
+
+Kelvin, Lord, 84
+
+Knowledge and authority, 104, 105
+
+Koelliker, 49, 59
+
+Kowalevsky, 57
+
+
+L
+
+Laboratory work, 177, 179, 180
+
+Labyrinthodonts, 69
+
+Lamarck, 90, 91, 97
+
+Lamarckism and Darwinism, 94, 97
+
+Languages, modern, 6, 7
+
+Lankester, Professor E. Ray, 57, 60, 94, 180, 277, 282
+
+Larvae, 158
+
+Latin, 186, 213
+
+Law-courts and evidence, 231
+
+Lawrence, Sir W., 144
+
+Lectures at the School of Mines, 180
+
+Lemurs, 163
+
+Leutemann, 153
+
+Leverrier, 209
+
+Leviticus, 245
+
+Liberal education, 228
+
+Life, origin of, 227, 228
+
+Limbs of Man and Gorilla, 162
+
+Linear and intermediate types, 87
+
+Linnaean Society of London, 33, 49, 115, 138, 145
+
+Linnaeus, 38, 234
+
+Literary culture, 186
+
+_Literary Gazette_, 48
+
+Literary style, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215
+
+Literature, the Bible as, 254
+
+Liverpool, 169
+
+Living bodies, nature of, 228
+
+Locke, 224
+
+Lockyer, Sir Norman, 211
+
+London, medical education in, 181
+
+London, school board of, 189
+
+Loyola, 262
+
+Loxomma, 69
+
+Lucas, Mr., 113
+
+Luther, 262
+
+Lyell, Sir Charles, 81, 91, 98, 144, 234, 249
+
+Lyonet, 173
+
+
+M
+
+MacGillivray, John, 16, 17, 282
+
+MacGillivray, William, 16, 100
+
+Macmillan and Co., 171
+
+Magna Charta, the Bible as, 245
+
+Mammalia, classification of, 142
+
+Man and the Apes, 155
+
+Man, classification of, 146
+
+Man and Gorilla, 161
+
+Man, origin of, 144
+
+_Man and the Apes_, 165
+
+_Man's Place in Nature_, 147, 148
+
+Manes and Manicheism, 265
+
+Mantle of molluscs, 58
+
+_Manual of the Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_, 175
+
+_Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals_, 175
+
+Marine embryos, 176
+
+Marmosets, 163
+
+Marriage, 19, 274
+
+Marsh, Professor, 70-78
+
+Marsupials, 141
+
+Mason, Sir Josiah, 185
+
+Materialism, 217, 220, 222, 225, 227
+
+Matter and ideas, 224
+
+Matter, nature of, 219-221
+
+Matthew, Patrick, 100
+
+Mauritius, 18
+
+Medical education, 167, 181, 184
+
+Medical students, 181, 279
+
+Medusae, 33, 39, 40, 41, 42, 96, 123
+
+Membrane bones, 134
+
+Mental capacity of apes, 152
+
+Mercy, 265
+
+Mertens, 56
+
+Mesohippus, 77
+
+Metals, transmutation of, 257
+
+Metaphysics, 241
+
+Metaphysics and science, 217
+
+Metatheria, 142
+
+Methods in histology, 177
+
+Microscope, 32, 176
+
+Microtomes, 177
+
+Milton, 213
+
+Mind and body, 220
+
+Mind, growth of, 210
+
+Miohippus, 76
+
+Miracles, 246, 254-259
+
+Missionary spirit, 262
+
+Mitral valve, 175
+
+Mivart, Dr. St. George, 246-248
+
+Modern spirit, 241
+
+Modification of species, 92
+
+Mollusca, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 96
+
+Morality and religion, 237, 238
+
+Morality of Stoics, 238
+
+Morley, John, 217, 260
+
+Mosaic Deluge, 235
+
+Moseley, Professor H.N., 15
+
+Mucous layer of germ, 43
+
+Mueller, Johannes, 6, 37, 56
+
+Music, 278
+
+
+N
+
+Naples, International Zooelogical Station at, 176
+
+Naturalism, 226
+
+Natural selection, 94, 99, 100, 103, 105, 124-127
+
+Nature, continuity of, 255
+
+Nature, history of, 248
+
+Nature, state of, 266
+
+_Nature_, 211
+
+_Naval Architecture and Timber_, 100
+
+Nebular hypothesis, 230
+
+Newman, Cardinal, 240
+
+New Testament, 253, 254
+
+Nirvana, 272
+
+Noah's Deluge, 235
+
+Notochord, 134
+
+Notogoea, 140
+
+
+O
+
+Oken, 130, 132, 133
+
+Old Testament, 90
+
+Omar, 272
+
+Optimism, 270
+
+Orangs, 149
+
+Order of nature, 255, 258
+
+Organic _versus_ Inorganic, 229
+
+Organon, 242
+
+Origin of species, 89, 95, 101, 102, 110
+
+_Origin of Species_, reviews of, 113, 114, 115, 146
+
+Ormuzd, 265
+
+Ornithology, 136
+
+Ornithorhynchus, 156
+
+Ornithoscelida, 69
+
+Orohippus, 77
+
+Orthodoxy, 246
+
+Owen, Sir Richard, 65, 66, 115, 118-121, 131, 133, 136, 145, 146, 162
+
+Oxford, 120, 125, 263, 264
+
+Oxford, Bishop of, _see_ Wilberforce
+
+
+P
+
+Pain, 268, 270, 271
+
+Palaeontology and evolution, 68, 86
+
+Palaeotherium, 74
+
+Paley, 230
+
+Pascal, 122
+
+Payment of teachers by results, 195
+
+Pelagic life, 30, 31
+
+Pelvis of man and gorilla, 161
+
+Pentateuch, 234, 244
+
+Pessimism, 270
+
+Phillips, Professor, 69
+
+_Philosophic Zooelogique_, 97, 98
+
+Philosophy, Huxley's advice on, 218
+
+Phosphorescence, 55
+
+Physical education, 189
+
+Physical geography, 170
+
+_Physics_ of Aristotle, 100
+
+_Physiography_, 171
+
+Physiology, 172
+
+Pigafetta, 149
+
+Pigmies, 149
+
+_Pioneers of Evolution_, 127
+
+Plankton, 30, 31
+
+Plato's Archetypes, 59
+
+Plato's philosophy, 224
+
+Pliohippus, 76
+
+"Portuguese man-of-war," 41, 50
+
+Possibilities in logic, 258
+
+Poulton, Professor E.B., 109, 127
+
+Prayer, efficacy of, 258
+
+Priestley, Joseph, 239
+
+Primers of science, 171
+
+Primitive groove, 135
+
+_Principles of Geology_, 234
+
+Professional education, 183
+
+Protestantism, 123, 233, 235, 236
+
+Protestant churches and knowledge, 247
+
+Protestants and the Bible, 247
+
+Protohippus, 74
+
+Protoplasm, 52, 228
+
+Prototheria, 142
+
+Psychology, 227
+
+Pterodactyls, 69
+
+Pteropods, 56
+
+Pyrosoma, 55
+
+
+Q
+
+_Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science_, 49
+
+_Quarterly Review_, 115, 116, 117
+
+
+R
+
+Rabbinical maxim of inspiration, 247
+
+Radiata of Cuvier, 38
+
+Rathke, 65
+
+Ratites, 137
+
+_Rattlesnake_, H.M.S., 13, 20, 21, 46, 282
+
+Reade lecture, 146
+
+Reason, age of, 239
+
+Reformation, New, 284
+
+Reformation, Protestant, 122, 233
+
+Religion in education, 188, 191
+
+Religion and morality, 237, 238
+
+Religion and science, 120, 259
+
+Religion, teaching, 191
+
+Results, payment by, 195
+
+Retina and light, 219
+
+Revelation, 260
+
+Revolution, French, 111
+
+Richardson, Sir John, 12
+
+Rights of man, 245
+
+Robertson, Charles, 179
+
+Rolleston, Professor, 152, 153, 266
+
+Romanes, Professor, 152, 153, 263
+
+Romanes lecture, 263
+
+Rome, 247
+
+Roscoe, Professor, 171
+
+Rosse, Earl of, 34
+
+Royal College of Science, 176, 180, 204, 274, 277
+
+Royal College of Surgeons, 11, 129, 132
+
+Royal Commissions, 204, 274
+
+Royal Institution, 49, 52, 62, 64
+
+Royal Society, 33, 34, 47, 49, 53, 58, 108, 129, 276
+
+Rutherford, Professor, 180
+
+
+S
+
+Salisbury, Marquis of, 125
+
+"Sally," the chimpanzee, 153
+
+Salps, 50, 53, 54, 55, 96
+
+Salt, Dr., 5
+
+Sauropsida, 143
+
+Saururae, 136
+
+Savages, 23, 24, 165
+
+Sawyer, Bob, 184
+
+Scepticism, 240
+
+Schematic mollusc, 60
+
+School boards, 188, 189
+
+School of Mines, 180
+
+Schwann, 52
+
+Science and Art Department, 195
+
+Science and culture, 185
+
+Science and Judaism, 246
+
+Science and medical education, 184
+
+Science and metaphysics, 217
+
+Science and religion, 259
+
+_Science and the Christian Tradition_, 248
+
+_Science and the Hebrew Tradition_, 248
+
+Science primers, 171
+
+Scientific education, 168
+
+Sclater, P.L., 138, 139, 142
+
+Scottish universities, 167
+
+Scriptures, 246
+
+Section-cutting, 177
+
+Secular education, 191, 194
+
+Sedgwick, Professor Adam, 80, 115
+
+Segmentation of eggs, 157
+
+Segmentation of skull, 133
+
+Selection and education, 190
+
+Selective breeding, 103
+
+Semite, ethics of, 269
+
+Septuagint, 251
+
+Serous layer of germ, 43
+
+Sheldonian theatre, 264
+
+Singing for children, 193
+
+_Skepsis, thaetige_, of Goethe, 99
+
+Skull of vertebrates, 65, 129, 130, 131, 132
+
+Socrates, 243
+
+Southern hemisphere, former land in, 141
+
+Speaking, public, 208
+
+Species, 92, 98, 106, 107, 108, 125, 126, 127
+
+Specialists as teachers, 182
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 91, 94, 123
+
+Sponges, 42
+
+Spontaneity of living matter, 228
+
+Stanley, Captain Owen, 12, 13
+
+State of nature, 266
+
+Stevenson, R.L., quotation from, 174
+
+Stewart, Professor Balfour, 171
+
+Stoic morality, 192, 238
+
+Stoics, 238, 269, 272
+
+Struggle for existence, 93, 94, 95, 104, 266, 267, 271
+
+Style, analysis of, 211, 212
+
+Suarez, Father, 214
+
+Substance of mind and matter, 223
+
+Supernaturalism, 226
+
+Superstition, 242
+
+Survival of the fittest, 93, 94, 104
+
+Suspensoria of jaws, 133
+
+Switzerland, 275
+
+Sydney, 19, 32
+
+Synoptic Gospels, 254
+
+
+T
+
+Tapirs, 78
+
+Teachers, education of, 195
+
+Teeth of anthropoids, 149
+
+Teeth of the horse, 73
+
+Teleology, 230
+
+Temper, 278
+
+Theism and evolution, 244
+
+Theology, 259
+
+Theology in education, 191
+
+Theoretical work in medical education, 184
+
+Thomas, Oldfield, 142
+
+Thomson, Sir W., now Lord Kelvin, _q.v._
+
+Thread-cells of Medusae, 41
+
+Time required for evolution, 84, 85
+
+_Times_, the London, 66, 108, 113
+
+Todd and Bowman's _Cyclopaedia of Anatomy_, 49
+
+Toronto, University of, 48
+
+Tow-net material, 31
+
+Transmigration, 269
+
+Transmutation of species, 99
+
+_Treatise on Human Nature_, 240
+
+Tree of evolution, 35
+
+Tyndall, Professor John, 47, 48, 275
+
+Types, 36, 96, 166
+
+Types for laboratory dissection, 178, 180, 181
+
+Types, intermediate and linear, 165
+
+
+U
+
+Uniformitarianism in geology, 81, 240
+
+University education, 195
+
+University of London, 65
+
+University of Toronto, 48
+
+
+V
+
+Variation in anatomy, 166
+
+Verification, method of, 179
+
+Vertebrae, structure of, 131
+
+Vertebral theory of the skull, 129-132
+
+Vertebrata, 128
+
+Vertebrata, ancestors of, 57
+
+Vertebrata, classification of, 43
+
+Vertebrata, embryos of, 157
+
+_Vestiges of Creation_, 63, 97
+
+Vivisection, 205
+
+Voltaire, 260
+
+Von Baer, 37, 43, 62, 96
+
+Voyage of _Beagle_, 28
+
+Voyage of _Challenger_, 15
+
+Voyage of _Rattlesnake_, 20, 21
+
+
+W
+
+Wallace, Alfred Russel, 95, 101, 271
+
+Weight of brains, 164
+
+Weismann, Professor A., 94
+
+Wells, W.C., 100
+
+_Westminster Review_, 107, 114
+
+Wharton Jones, Dr., 9, 37
+
+Whewell, 115
+
+Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121
+
+Willey, Arthur, 57
+
+Wine miracle at Cana, 257
+
+Wollaston, 98
+
+Words, use of, 213, 214
+
+Workmen, lectures to, 207
+
+
+Y
+
+York, Archbishop of, 234
+
+
+Z
+
+Zooelogical Society, 138
+
+Zooelogical science and laboratories, 177
+
+Zooelogist, Huxley as a, 283
+
+Zooelogy, 173
+
+Zooephytes, 40
+
+
+
+
+The Story of the Nations.
+
+
+Messrs. G.P. Putnam's Sons take pleasure in announcing that they have
+in course of publication, in co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of
+London, a series of historical studies, intended to present in a
+graphic manner the stories of the different nations that have attained
+prominence in history.
+
+In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly
+indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are
+presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+as well as to universal history.
+
+It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into
+the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as
+they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and
+wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the
+myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be
+overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the
+actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical
+authorities have resulted in definite conclusions.
+
+The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover
+connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so
+that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it
+is, of course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in
+their chronological order.
+
+
+
+
+THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.
+
+The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in handsome 12mo
+form. They are adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and
+indexes. Price per vol., cloth, $1.50; half morocco, gilt top, $1.75.
+
+The following are now ready:
+
+GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.
+ROME. Arthur Gilman.
+THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.
+CHALDEA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.
+NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
+SPAIN. Rev. E.E. and Susan Hale.
+HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vambery.
+CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.
+THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.
+PERSIA. S.G.W. Benjamin.
+ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.
+ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J.P. Mahaffy.
+ASSYRIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.
+IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.
+TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+MEDIAEVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.
+HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.
+MEXICO. Susan Hale.
+PHOENICIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.
+EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Pool.
+RUSSIA. W.R. Morfill.
+THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W.D. Morrison.
+SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.
+SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.
+PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.
+THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C.W.C. Oman.
+SICILY. E.A. Freeman.
+THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.
+POLAND. W.R. Morfill.
+PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+JAPAN. David Murray.
+THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H.E. Watts.
+AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.
+SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.
+VENICE. Alethea Wiel.
+THE CRUSADES. T.S. Archer and C.L. Kingsford.
+VEDIC INDIA. Z.A. Ragozin.
+BOHEMIA. C.E. Maurice.
+CANADA. J.G. Bourinot.
+THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.
+BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R.W. Frazer.
+MODERN FRANCE. Andre Le Bon.
+THE BUILDING OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.
+THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.
+THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.
+THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND IN THE 19TH CENTURY. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.
+AUSTRIA, THE HOME OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY, FROM 1282 TO THE PRESENT DAY.
+  Sidney Whitman.
+CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.
+MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A.S. Hume.
+MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.
+THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
+
+Other volumes in preparation are:
+
+THE UNITED STATES, 1775-1897. Prof. A.C. McLaughlin. Two vols.
+BUDDHIST INDIA. Prof. T.W. Rhys-Davids.
+MOHAMMEDAN INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards
+
+
+
+
+Heroes of the Nations.
+
+EDITED BY
+
+EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD.
+
+
+A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of
+representative historical characters about whom have gathered the
+great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a
+picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
+
+The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities
+on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as
+history, will present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men
+and of the events connected with them.
+
+To the Life of each "Hero" will be given one duodecimo volume,
+handsomely printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately
+illustrated according to the special requirements of the several
+subjects. The volumes will be sold separately as follows:
+
+Large 12^o, cloth extra              $1 50
+Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top   1 75
+
+
+
+
+HEROES OF THE NATIONS.
+
+
+A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of certain
+representative historical characters, about whom have gathered the
+great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+ideals.
+
+The volumes will be sold separately as follows: cloth extra, $1.50;
+half leather, uncut edges, gilt top, $1.75.
+
+The following are now ready:
+
+NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.
+GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C.R.L. Fletcher.
+PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.
+THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.
+SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By. H.R. Fox-Bourne.
+JULIUS CAESAR. By W. Warde Fowler.
+WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant.
+NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P.F. Willert.
+CICERO. By J.L. Strachan-Davidson.
+ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.
+PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C.R. Beazley.
+JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.
+LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.
+CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.
+LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.
+JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.
+CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.
+ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.
+HANNIBAL. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.
+ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.
+THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.
+SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.
+BISMARCK. By J.W. Headlam.
+ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.
+CHARLEMAGNE. By H.W.C. Davis.
+OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.
+RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.
+DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop.
+SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX., of France). By Frederick Perry.
+LORD CHATHAM. By Walford Davis Green.
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+Other volumes in preparation are:
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+MOLTKE. By Spencer Wilkinson.
+JUDAS MACCABAEUS. By Israel Abrahams.
+HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford.
+SOBIESKI. By F.A. Pollard.
+ALFRED THE TRUTHTELLER. By Frederick Perry.
+FREDERICK II. By A.L. Smith.
+MARLBOROUGH. By C.W.C. Oman.
+RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. By T.A. Archer.
+WILLIAM THE SILENT. By Ruth Putnam.
+JUSTINIAN. By Edward Jenks.
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+G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK AND LONDON.
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